{ "_name_or_path": "Vikhr-Nemo-12B-Instruct-R-21-09-24-4Bit-GPTQ", "architectures": [ "MistralForCausalLM" ], "attention_dropout": 0.0, "bos_token_id": 1, "eos_token_id": 2, "head_dim": 128, "hidden_act": "silu", "hidden_size": 5120, "initializer_range": 0.02, "intermediate_size": 14336, "max_position_embeddings": 1024000, "model_type": "mistral", "num_attention_heads": 32, "num_hidden_layers": 40, "num_key_value_heads": 8, "quantization_config": { "batch_size": 1, "bits": 4, "block_name_to_quantize": null, "cache_block_outputs": true, "damp_percent": 0.1, "dataset": [ " \u043d\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0451\u043d \u043c\u0438\u0440 \u0441 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0424\u0435\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043d\u0430 \u0443\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u044f\u0445 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u044b \u0435\u0436\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438. \u0412 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\u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0439\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u041c\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 14 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f 1946, \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434), \u0434\u0436\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442, \u0431\u044b\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0438\u0440\u0438\u0436\u0451\u0440 \u043e\u0440\u043a\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u00ab\u0421\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u00bb (1980\u20141987). \u0414\u043e \u0431\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0430 \u0441 \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0435\u0439 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u041b\u044e\u0434\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0435, \u0432 1978 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0443 \u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0443\u043c\u0435\u0440 \u043e\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u043a\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0413\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0439, \u0432 2017 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0438\u043d\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0434\u043e\u043c, \u0441 \u0434\u043e\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438 \u0432\u043d\u0443\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u041b\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0414\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0435\u043c\u0443 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f. \u0414\u043e\u0447\u044c\u00a0\u0410\u043d\u0433\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0414\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 (\u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u041c\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f) (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 19 \u043c\u0430\u044f 1983), \u0434\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u043a\u0430, \u043f\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e \u044e\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0431\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043e\u043c, \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u0434\u0432\u0443\u043c\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438, \u043c\u0435\u0447\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u043e\u043c, \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0434\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0439\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c. \u0412\u043d\u0443\u0447\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0430 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 28 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 2011).\n\n\u0412\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0443\u0436\u00a0(1987\u20141998)\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u041c\u0438\u0442\u044f\u0437\u043e\u0432 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 30 \u043c\u0430\u044f 1961), \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n\n\u0422\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0443\u0436 (1998\u20142016)\u00a0\u2014 \u0418\u043b\u044c\u044f \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0421\u043f\u0438\u0446\u044b\u043d (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 28 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430 1968), \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044e\u0441\u0435\u0440.\n\n\u0422\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\n\n\u0420\u0435\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0430\u0440\n\n\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0443 \u041c\u0443\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0430 \u041a\u0430\u0436\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \n \u00ab\u0411\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb (\u0411. \u0414\u0443\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d)\n \u0412\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0441 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0432\u0430\u0441 (\u0411. \u0414\u0443\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d)\n \u00ab\u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u00bb (\u0411. \u0414\u0443\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d)\n \u00ab\u0412\u0441\u0435 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u043b\u044e\u0431\u0432\u0438\u00bb (\u041f. \u0421\u0438\u043d\u044f\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439)\n \u00ab\u0417\u0430\u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0451\u0442 \u043a\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043b \u0432\u0435\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439\u00bb (\u0410. \u0410\u0431\u0443-\u0411\u0430\u043a\u0430\u0440) \u0434\u0443\u044d\u0442 \u0441 \u041b. \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\n \u00ab\u041c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0438 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0445\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0430\u00bb: \u00ab\u041c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0438\u044f \u041c\u043e\u0440\u044f\u00bb / \u00ab\u0422\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0439 \u0412\u0435\u0441\u0451\u043b\u044b\u0439 \u201e\u041b\u044d\u043c-\u0431\u044d\u043a-\u0443\u043e\u043a\u201c\u00bb (\u041c. \u041f\u043e\u0434\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0451\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439) \u043d\u0430 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435\n \u00ab\u041d\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0432\u0448\u0435\u0435\u0441\u044f \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u00bb (\u0411. \u0414\u0443\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d) \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435, (\u041c. \u041f\u043e\u0434\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0451\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439) \u043d\u0430 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435, \u0434\u0443\u044d\u0442 \u0441 \u041b. \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\n \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438 \u0432 \u043c\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0430\u0434\u00bb (\u0410. \u0410\u0431\u0443-\u0411\u0430\u043a\u0430\u0440)\n \u00ab\u0420\u0430\u0434\u0443\u0433\u0430-\u0434\u0443\u0433\u0430\u00bb (\u0410. \u0410\u0431\u0443-\u0411\u0430\u043a\u0430\u0440)\n \u00ab\u0421\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0441\u00bb (\u0418. \u0420\u0435\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a) \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435, (\u041c. \u041f\u043e\u0434\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0451\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439) \u043d\u0430 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435\n \u00ab\u0421\u043e\u043b\u043d\u044b\u0448\u043a\u043e\u00bb (\u0420. \u0420\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439) \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u00ab\u0413\u0430\u044f\u00bb\n \u00ab\u0422\u0430\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0443\u0434\u044c\u0431\u0430\u00bb (\u0411. \u0414\u0443\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d)\n \u00ab\u0422\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0442\u044b\u00bb (\u0411. \u0414\u0443\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d) \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435, (\u041c. \u041f\u043e\u0434\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0451\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439) \u043d\u0430 \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435\n \u00ab\u0427\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u00bb (\u0411. \u0414\u0443\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d)\n \u00ab\u042f \u0432\u0430\u0441 \u043b\u044e\u0431\u043b\u044e\u00bb (\u0418. \u0420\u0435\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a) \u0434\u0443\u044d\u0442 \u0441 \u041b. \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\n \u00ab\u042f \u0436\u0434\u0443 \u0442\u0435\u0431\u044f\u00bb (\u0412. \u041f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0432)\n\n\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0443 \u042e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0421\u0430\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \n \u00ab\u0414\u0432\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0447\u0442\u044b\u00bb (\u0418. \u0428\u0430\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043d)\n \u00ab\u0417\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0430\u043b\u043e\u00bb (\u041d. \u0414\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0441\u043e\u0432)\n \u00ab\u041d\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0431\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0439\u00bb (\u041b. \u0417\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044e\u043a)\n \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a \u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0443\u00bb (\u041d. \u0414\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0441\u043e\u0432)\n \u00ab\u0421\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044f \u0442\u0435\u0431\u0435, \u0417\u0435\u043c\u043b\u044f\u00bb (\u041b. \u0417\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044e\u043a)\n \u00ab\u042f \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0442\u0435\u0431\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0435 \u044f\u00bb (\u041b. \u0417\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044e\u043a)\n\n\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0420\u0435\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 \n \u00ab\u0414\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u043f\u043b\u0430\u043d\u00bb (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0410. \u0420\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0446\u0430\u043d\u0430)\n \u00ab\u041b\u044c\u0434\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0430\u00bb\n \u00ab\u041d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00bb\n \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0430\u00bb (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u0441 \u0410. \u0420\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0446\u0430\u043d\u043e\u043c)\n \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u041a\u0430\u0442\u044f\u00bb (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u0441 \u0410. \u0420\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0446\u0430\u043d\u043e\u043c)\n \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb\n \u00ab\u0422\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0444\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0436\u043a\u0430\u00bb\n \u00ab\u042f \u043d\u0435 \u0443\u043c\u0435\u044e \u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c\u00bb (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u0441 \u042e. \u0411\u043e\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c)\n\n\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0422\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0430 \n 1983\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0412\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f\u00bb (\u0414. \u041b\u044c\u0432\u043e\u0432-\u041a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0435\u0446)\n \u00ab\u0412\u0438\u0448\u043d\u044f\u00bb (\u0415. \u0414\u043e\u0433\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0413\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u00bb (\u0420. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0446)\n \u00ab\u0413\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0430 \u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u00bb (\u0420. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0446)\n \u00ab\u0414\u0438\u0435\u0442\u0430\u00bb (\u0420. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0446)\n 1990\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u00bb (\u0410. \u0423\u043a\u0443\u043f\u043d\u0438\u043a)\n 1995\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0414\u043e \u0441\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00bb (\u0420. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0446)\n \u00ab\u041b\u044e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u00bb (\u0415. \u0414\u043e\u0433\u0430)\n \u00ab\u041c\u043e\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u044b\u00bb \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u00ab\u041d\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u00bb (\u0410. \u0423\u043a\u0443\u043f\u043d\u0438\u043a)\n \u00ab\u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0438\u0447\u043a\u0430\u00bb (\u0420. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0446)\n \u00ab\u041d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u043c \u0441\u0435\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u00bb (\u0415. \u0414\u043e\u0433\u0430)\n \u00ab\u041d\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0443\u0441\u043e\u0432\u00bb (\u0420. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0446)\n 1996\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u0434\u043e\u043c\u0435\u00bb (\u0420. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0446)\n 1996\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0420\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u043d\u00bb (\u0420. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0446)\n 1996\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0422\u044b \u0441\u043d\u0438\u0448\u044c\u0441\u044f \u043c\u043d\u0435\u00bb (\u0420. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0446)\n 1997\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041e\u0431\u0438\u0436\u0430\u044e\u0441\u044c\u00bb (\u0420. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0446)\n \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u041d\u0435\u043f\u0442\u0443\u043d\u0430\u00bb (\u0415. \u0414\u043e\u0433\u0430)\n \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043b\u0438\u00bb (\u0420. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0446)\n \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e \u0442\u0430\u043d\u0433\u043e\u00bb (\u0420. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0446)\n \u00ab\u0420\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0443\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u00bb (\u0420. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0446)\n 1999\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0430\u00bb (\u0410. \u0423\u043a\u0443\u043f\u043d\u0438\u043a)\n \u00ab\u0422\u0430\u043d\u0446\u043f\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0434\u043a\u0430\u00bb (\u0415. \u0414\u043e\u0433\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0422\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0439 \u0437\u0432\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043a\u00bb (\u0420. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0446)\n \u00ab\u0425\u043e\u0447\u0443 \u0431\u044b\u0442\u044c \u043b\u044e\u0431\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0439\u00bb (\u0420. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0446)\n \u00ab\u041f\u0438\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0430\u00bb (\u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u00a0\u2014 \u0412.\u00a0\u042e.\u00a0\u0411\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u044f\u043a\u043e\u0432. \u041a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043a\u0442-\u0434\u0438\u0441\u043a\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0417\u0432\u0435\u0437\u0434\u044b \u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u0411\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u044f\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00bb)\n\n\u0414\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f\n\n\u0421\u0442\u0443\u0434\u0438\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u043c\u044b \n 1983\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0414\u0432\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0447\u0442\u044b\u00bb (\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u042e. \u0421\u0430\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043c\u0438\u043d\u044c\u043e\u043d: \u00ab\u041c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u042162 19059\u00a0009, \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0438 1982\u00a0\u0433.)\n 1986\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430 \u043a \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0443 \u00ab\u0422\u0430\u043d\u0446\u043f\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0434\u043a\u0430\u00bb (\u00ab\u041c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u042160 24433\u00a0000, \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0438 1985\u00a0\u0433.)\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u041d\u0435\u043f\u0442\u0443\u043d\u0430\u00bb (\u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u0438\u0437 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u00ab\u0422\u0430\u043d\u0446\u043f\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0434\u043a\u0430\u00bb, \u043c\u0438\u043d\u044c\u043e\u043d: \u00ab\u041c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb 45\u042162 24097\u00a0000)\n 1986\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0417\u0430\u0442\u044f\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u044b\u0436\u043e\u043a\u00bb (\u041d\u0430 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0435 \u0443\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u044b 1984\u20141985\u00a0\u0433\u0433. \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0438, \u043d\u043e \u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0444\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u044b \u043f\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d \u00ab\u041b\u0435\u0442\u043e \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0442\u0435\u0431\u044f, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0437\u0438\u043c\u0430\u00bb \u0438 \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb \u0443\u0436\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0432 1982\u00a0\u0433., \u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u00ab\u042f \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0442\u0435\u0431\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0435 \u044f\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 1983\u00a0\u0433. \u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u00ab\u0417\u0430\u0442\u044f\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u044b\u0436\u043e\u043a\u00bb \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0436\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435)\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043a\u00bb. \u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u0412. \u0420\u0435\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c\u00bb (\u00ab\u0411\u0430\u043b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d\u00bb, BTA 12515)\n 1990\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0416\u0451\u043b\u0442\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u044c\u044f\u0432\u043e\u043b\u00bb. \u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u0418. \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447\u0430 (\u043c\u0438\u043d\u044c\u043e\u043d: \u00ab\u041c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u042162 30413\u00a0008, \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0438 1988\u20141989\u00a0\u0433\u0433.)\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041b\u044c\u0434\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0430\u00bb\n 1993\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u044b\u043a\u0430\u0439 \u043a \u041b\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0435 \u0414\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0414\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0439\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0439\u00bb\u2026 \u043d\u0435\u0442 \u00ab\u0414\u043e \u0441\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u0434\u043e\u043c\u0435\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0421\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0434\u043e\u043b\u044f\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u0438 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u042d\u043f\u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u00bb\n 2000\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041f\u043e-\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0436\u0438\u0442\u044c\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00abCarnival of Jazz\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u043b\u044e\u0431\u0432\u0438\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041e\u0442\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0435\u043b\u044c\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0436\u0451\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0434\u0443\u0448\u0430\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00abHollywood Mood\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00abCarnival of Jazz-2: No comments\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00abRoute 55\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00abLARISA\u00bb\n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0421\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043c \u043c\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0438, \u0433\u043e\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb\n\n\u0412\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f \n 1996 \u2014 \n 1996 \u2014 \n 1997 \u2014 \n 1999 \u2014 \n 1999 \u2014 \n 2004 \u2014 \n 2006 \u2014 \n 2020 \u2014\n\n\u0420\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0432 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e \u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438\n\n\u0412\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \n 1978\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u0431\u044b\u043a\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0447\u0443\u0434\u043e\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \u042d\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0435 \u00ab\u0410\u0445, \u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u044b\u043d\u044f, \u0432\u044b, \u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e, \u0441\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0441\u044c\u00bb\n 1978\u00a0\u2014 31 \u0438\u044e\u043d\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \u043b\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u041d\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0442\n 1981\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043c\u0435\u0445\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \u043c\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0445\u0438\n \n 1982\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0430 \u0446\u0438\u0440\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0438\n 1984\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0414\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c (\u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b\n 1985\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0442\u044b \u0441\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \u041a\u044d\u0442 \u0424\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0438\u0441 \u0432 \u0431\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0435 \u00abThe land of Vietnamese\u00bb\n 1985\u00a0\u2014 \u0417\u0438\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0440 \u0432 \u0413\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0445\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u044b \u0418\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044b \u041c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439\n 1985\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u0430\u043d\u0446\u043f\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0434\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \u0416\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b (\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u041b\u044e\u0434\u043c\u0438\u043b\u044b \u0428\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043b\u044c)\n 1985\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0430\u043c\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0430\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u044b \u043f\u043e \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0440\u0443 \u0443 \u0444\u0430\u0440\u0446\u043e\u0432\u0449\u0438\u043a\u0430\n 1987\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0431\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0432 \u0431\u0430\u0440\u0435\u00bb\n 1987\u00a0\u2014 \u0427\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a \u0441 \u0431\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0430 \u041a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0446\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \u0414\u0438\u0430\u043d\u044b \u041b\u0438\u0442\u0442\u043b, \u0441\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u043a\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0440\u0435 \u0441\u0430\u043b\u0443\u043d\u0430 \u00ab\u0423 \u0413\u0430\u0440\u0440\u0438\u00bb\n 1988\u00a0\u2014 \u0423\u0431\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0434\u0440\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \u042d\u043b\u044c\u0437\u044b, \u0434\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0440\u0438 \u0430\u0440\u0445\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0443\u0441\u0430\n 1990\u00a0\u2014 \u0420\u043e\u043a-\u043d-\u0440\u043e\u043b\u043b \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u044b (\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0421\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043b\u0430\u043d\u044b \u041d\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0439)\n 1991\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u0435\u043d\u044c, \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u041c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0431\u044b\u0442\u044c, \u0432\u0441\u0451 \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0439\u0434\u0451\u0442\u0441\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \u042e\u043b\u0438\u0438 \u0414\u0436\u0443\u043b\u0438 (\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044b \u041d\u0435\u0451\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439)\n 1993\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u00ab\u041c\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0435\u043d\u044c\u043a\u0430 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u043e\u0436\u043a\u0438\u00bb\n 2000\u00a0\u2014 \u0411\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442\u044b & Co\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \u0410\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0448\u0438\n 2007\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u044e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044c-\u043c\u043e\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044c\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \u0437\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u0434\u0440\u043e\u043c \u00abPerhaps\u00bb\n\n\u0420\u043e\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e \n 1978\u00a0\u2014 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0445\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430\n 1983\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u044b \u0438\u0437 \u0434\u0436\u0430\u0437\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0424\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0435\u0441, \u043a\u0443\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430\n 1989\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0443\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0440 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0440\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u041b\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430\n 1997\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0411\u0443\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043e\u00a0\u2014 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043f\u0430\u0445\u0430 \u0422\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0430\n 2002\u00a0\u2014 \u0417\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0424\u0435\u044f-\u043a\u0440\u0451\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f\n 2003\u00a0\u2014 \u0421 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u0433\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043c! \u0421 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u0441\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c\u0435\u043c!\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u044d\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0430 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0430 / \u041b\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0414\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430\n 2017\u00a0\u2014 \u0416\u0433\u0438!\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0414\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 (\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043e)\n\n\u041e\u0437\u0432\u0443\u0447\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u043e\u0432 \n 1977\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 (\u043c\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c)\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043f\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\n 1979\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0441\u0438\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 (\u043c\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c)\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0430 / \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\n 1988\u00a0\u2014 \u042d\u0442\u043e \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0435\u0449\u0451 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0435? (\u043c\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c)\u00a0\u2014 (\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0432 \u0443\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u043e\u044f\u0437\u044b\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0429\u043e \u0442\u0443\u0442 \u043a\u043e\u0457\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u0456\u0449\u0435?\u00bb)\n 2010\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0430 \u0438 \u043b\u044f\u0433\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0430 (\u043c\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043b\u0448\u0435\u0431\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u041c\u0430\u043c\u0430 \u041e\u0434\u0438\n\n\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0435 \n 1995\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u043e \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c 1 (\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c)\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043f\u043e\n 1996\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u043e \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c 2 (\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c)\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0439\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0430, \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u043e\u043c\n 1997\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u043e \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c 3 (\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c)\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0410\u043d\u043d\u0430 \u0410\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f / \u043a\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043e\n 2000\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u043e \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c. \u041f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0442\u0443\u043c (\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c)\u00a0\u2014 \u0423\u0438\u0442\u043d\u0438 \u0425\u044c\u044e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043d\n 2005\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043a\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0436\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430\n 2006\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u043c\u0430\n 2008\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0443\u0435\u0442\u2026\n 2020\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0448\u043e\u0443 \u00ab\u041c\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0430\u00bb \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0435 \u00ab\u041d\u0422\u0412\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041e\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044c\u00bb\n\n\u041a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b \u0438 \u043c\u044e\u0437\u0438\u043a\u043b\u044b \n \u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0427\u0442\u043e \u0445\u043e\u0447\u0443, \u0442\u043e \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u044e\u00bb\n \u2014\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u0438 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442\u00bb\n \u2014\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041a\u0430\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0434\u0436\u0430\u0437\u0430\u00bb\n \u2014\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041e\u0442\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0435\u043b\u044c\u00bb\n \u2014\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041a\u0430\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0434\u0436\u0430\u0437\u0430 2\u00bb\n 2010\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0411\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0444\u0438\u0441 \u043d\u0430 \u0431\u0438\u0441\u00bb\n 2010\u2014\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041b\u044e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044c \u0438 \u0448\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0436\u00bb (\u043c\u044e\u0437\u0438\u043a\u043b)\n 2010\u20142013\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0421\u043d\u044b \u044d\u043a\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0430\u00bb\n 2013\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0427\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0433\u043e\u00bb (\u043c\u044e\u0437\u0438\u043a\u043b) \u2014 \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u00ab\u041c\u0430\u043c\u0430\u00bb \u041c\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043e\u043d\n 2020\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0421\u0443\u0438\u043d\u0438 \u0422\u043e\u0434\u0434\u00bb (\u043c\u044e\u0437\u0438\u043a\u043b; \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u043d\u0430 \u0422\u0430\u0433\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0435)\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0441 \u041b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0442\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u044b \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \n\n\u0413", " a cable from General Isoda advising him to urgently evacuate to Saigon in Japanese-controlled French Indochina (now Vietnam). On 10August, Bose learnt that the Soviet Union had entered the war and invaded Manchuria. At the same time he heard about the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Finally, on 16August, after being informed of the unconditional surrender of Japan, Bose decided to leave for Saigon along with a handful of his aides.\n\nLast days and journeys\n\nReliable strands of historical narrative about Bose's last days are united up to this point. However, they separate briefly for the period between 16 August, when Bose received news of Japan's surrender in Singapore, and shortly after noon on 17 August, when Bose and his party arrived at Saigon airport from Saigon city to board a plane. (See map 2.)\n\nIn one version, Bose flew out from Singapore to Saigon, stopping briefly in Bangkok, on the 16th. Soon after arriving in Saigon, he visited Field Marshal Hisaichi Terauchi, head of the Japanese forces in Southeast Asia, and requested him to arrange a flight to the Soviet Union. Although until the day before, the Soviet Union had been a belligerent of Japan, it was also seen, at least by Bose, as increasingly anti-British, and, consequently, a possible base of his future operations against the British Raj. Terauchi, in turn, cabled Japan's Imperial General Headquarters (IGHQ) in Tokyo for permission, which was quickly denied. In the words of historian Joyce Chapman Lebra, the IGHQ felt that it \"would be unfair of Bose to write off Japan and go over to Soviet Union after receiving so much help from Japan. Terauchi added in talking with Bose that it would be unreasonable for him to take a step which was opposed by the Japanese.\" Privately, however, Terauchi still felt sympathy for Bose\u2014one that had been formed during their two-year-long association. He somehow managed to arrange room for Bose on a flight leaving Saigon on the morning of 17 August 1945 bound for Tokyo, but stopping en route in Dairen, Manchuria\u2014which was still Japanese-occupied, but toward which the Soviet army was fast approaching\u2014where Bose was to have disembarked and to have awaited his fate at the hand of the Soviets.\n\nIn another version, Bose left Singapore with his party on the 16th and stopped en route in Bangkok, surprising INA officer in-charge there, J. R. Bhonsle, who quickly made arrangements for Bose's overnight stay. Word of Bose's arrival, however, got out, and soon local members of the Indian Independence League (IIL), the INA, and the Thai Indian business community turned up at the hotel. According to historian Peter Ward Fay, Bose \"sat up half the night holding court\u2014and in the morning flew on to Saigon, this time accompanied by General Isoda ...\" Arriving in Saigon, late in the morning, there was little time to visit Field Marshal Terauchi, who was in Dalat in the Central Highlands of French Indo-China, an hour away by plane. Consequently, Isoda himself, without consulting with higher ups, arranged room for Bose on a flight leaving around noon.\n\nIn the third sketchier version, Bose left Singapore on the 17th. According to historian Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper, \"On 17 August he issued a final order of the day, dissolving the INA with the words, 'The roads to Delhi are many and Delhi still remains our goal.' He then flew out to China via French Indo-China. If all else failed he wanted to become a prisoner of the Soviets: 'They are the only ones who will resist the British. My fate is with them'.\"\n\nAround noon on 17 August, the strands again reunite. At Saigon airport, a Mitsubishi Ki-21 heavy bomber, of the type code named Sally by the Allies, was waiting for Bose and his party. In addition to Bose, the INA group comprised Colonel Habibur Rahman, his secretary; S. A. Ayer, a member of his cabinet; Major Abid Hasan, his old associate who had made the hazardous submarine journey from Germany to Sumatra in 1943; and three others. To their dismay, they learned upon arrival that there was room for only one INA passenger. Bose complained, and the beleaguered General Isoda gave in and hurriedly arranged for a second seat. Bose chose Habibur Rahman to accompany him. It was understood that the others in the INA party would follow him on later flights. There was further delay at Saigon airport. According to historian Joyce Chapman Lebra, \"a gift of treasure contributed by local Indians was presented to Bose as he was about to board the plane. The two heavy strong-boxes added overweight to the plane's full load.\" Sometime between noon and 2 PM, the twin-engine plane took off with 12 or 13 people aboard: a crew of three or four, a group of Japanese army and air force officers, including Lieutenant-General Tsunamasa Shidei, the Vice Chief of Staff of the Japanese Kwantung Army, which although fast retreating in Manchuria still held the Manchurian peninsula, and Bose and Rahman. Bose was sitting a little to the rear of the portside wing; the bomber, under normal circumstances, carried a crew of five.\n\nThat these flights were possible a few days after Japan's surrender was the result of a lack of clarity about what had occurred. Although Japan had unconditionally surrendered, when Emperor Hirohito had made his announcement over the radio, he had used formal Japanese, not entirely intelligible to ordinary people and, instead of using the word \"surrender\" (in Japanese), had mentioned only \"abiding by the terms of the Potsdam Declaration.\" Consequently, many people, especially in Japanese-occupied territories, were unsure if anything had significantly changed, allowing a window of a few days for the Japanese air force to continue flying. Although the Japanese and Bose were tight lipped about the destination of the bomber, it was widely assumed by Bose's staff left behind in Saigon that the plane was bound for Dairen on the Manchurian peninsula, which, as stated above, was still under Japanese control. Bose had been talking for over a year about the importance of making contact with the communists, both Russian and Chinese. In 1944, he had asked a minister in his cabinet, Anand Mohan Sahay to travel to Tokyo for the purposes of making contact with the Soviet ambassador, Jacob Malik. However, after consulting the Japanese foreign minister Mamoru Shigemitsu, Sahay decided against it. In May 1945, Sahay had again written to Shigemitsu requesting him to contact Soviet authorities on behalf of Bose; again the reply had been in the negative. Bose had been continually querying General Isoda for over a year about the Japanese army's readiness in Manchuria. After the war, the Japanese confirmed to the British investigators and later Indian commissions of inquiry, that plane was indeed bound for Dairen, and that fellow passenger General Shidea of the Kwantung Army, was to have disembarked with Bose in Dairen and to have served as the main liaison and negotiator for Bose's transfer into Soviet controlled territory in Manchuria.\n\nThe plane had flown north. By the time it was near the northern coast of French Indo-China, darkness had begun to close in, and the pilot decided to make an unscheduled stop in Tourane (now Da Nang, Vietnam). The passengers stayed overnight at a hotel, and the crew, worried that the plane was overloaded, shed some 500 pounds of equipment and luggage, and also refueled the plane. Before dawn the next morning, the group flew out again, this time east to Taihoku, Formosa (now Taipei, Taiwan), which was a scheduled stop, arriving there around noon on 18 August 1945. During the two-hour stop in Taihoku, the plane was again refueled, while the passengers ate lunch. The chief pilot and the ground engineer, and Major Kono, seemed concerned about the portside engine, and, once all the passengers were on board, the engine was tested by repeatedly throttling up and down. The concerns allayed, the plane finally took off, in different accounts, as early as 2 PM, and as late as 2:30 PM, watched by ground engineers.\n\nDeath in plane crash\n\nJust as the bomber was leaving the standard path taken by aircraft during take-off, the passengers inside heard a loud sound, similar to an engine backfiring. Airport mechanics saw something fall out of the plane. It was the portside engine, or a part of it, and the propeller. The plane swung wildly to the right and plummeted, crashing, breaking into two, and exploding into flames. Inside, the chief pilot, copilot and General Shidea were instantly killed. Rahman was stunned, passing out briefly, and Bose, although conscious and not fatally hurt, was soaked in gasoline. When Rahman came to, he and Bose attempted to leave by the rear door but found it blocked by the luggage. They then decided to run through the flames and exit from the front. The ground staff, now approaching the plane, saw two people staggering towards them, one of whom had become a human torch. The human torch turned out to be Bose, whose gasoline-soaked clothes had instantly ignited. Rahman and a few others managed to smother the flames, but also noticed that Bose's face and head appeared badly burned. According to Joyce Chapman Lebra, \"A truck which served as ambulance rushed Bose and the other passengers to the Nanmon Military Hospital south of Taihoku.\" The airport personnel called Dr. Taneyoshi Yoshimi, the surgeon-in-charge at the hospital at around 3 PM. Bose was conscious and mostly coherent when they reached the hospital, and for some time thereafter. Bose was naked, except for a blanket wrapped around him, and Dr. Yoshimi immediately saw evidence of third-degree burns on many parts of the body, especially on his chest, doubting very much that he would live. Dr. Yoshimi promptly began to treat Bose and was assisted by Dr. Tsuruta. According to historian Leonard A. Gordon, who interviewed all the hospital personnel later: Soon, in spite of the treatment, Bose went into a coma. He died a few hours later, between 9 and 10 PM.\n\nBose's body was cremated in the main Taihoku crematorium two days later, 20 August 1945. On 23 August 1945, the Japanese news agency Domei announced the death of Bose and Shidea. On 7 September a Japanese officer, Lieutenant Tatsuo Hayashida, carried Bose's ashes to Tokyo, and the following morning they were handed to the president of the Tokyo Indian Independence League, Rama Murti. On 14 September a memorial service was held for Bose in Tokyo and a few days later the ashes were turned over to the priest of the Renk\u014dji Temple of Nichiren Buddhism in Tokyo. There they have remained ever since.\n\nAmong the INA personnel, there was widespread disbelief, shock, and trauma. Most affected were the young Tamil Indians from Malaya and Singapore, men and women, who comprised the bulk of the civilians who had enlisted in the INA. The professional soldiers in the INA, most of whom were Punjabis, faced an uncertain future, with many fatalistically expecting reprisals from the British. In India the Indian National Congress's official line was succinctly expressed in a letter Mahatma Gandhi wrote to Rajkumari Amrit Kaur. Said Gandhi, \"Subhas Bose has died well. He was undoubtedly a patriot, though misguided.\" Many congressmen had not forgiven Bose for quarreling with Gandhi and for collaborating with what they considered was Japanese fascism. The Indian soldiers in the British Indian army, some two and a half million of whom had fought during the Second World War, were conflicted about the INA. Some saw the INA as traitors and wanted them punished; others felt more sympathetic. The British Raj, though never seriously threatened by the INA, was to try 300 INA officers for treason in the INA trials, but was to eventually backtrack in the face of its own end.\n\nLegends of Bose's survival\n\nImmediate post-war legends\nSubhas Chandra Bose's exploits had become legendary long before his physical death in August 1945. From the time he had escaped house arrest in Calcutta in 1940, rumours had been rife in India about whether or not he was alive, and if the latter, where he was and what he was doing. His appearance in faraway Germany in 1941 created a sense of mystery about his activities. With Congress leaders in jail in the wake of the Quit India Resolution in August 1942 and the Indian public starved for political news, Bose's radio broadcasts from Berlin charting radical plans for India's liberation during a time when the star of Germany was still rising and that of Britain was at its lowest, made him an object of adulation among many in India and southeast Asia. During his two years in Germany, according to historian Romain Hayes, \"If Bose gradually obtained respect in Berlin, in Tokyo he earned fervent admiration and was seen very much as an 'Indian samurai'.\" Thus it was that when Bose appeared in Southeast Asia in July 1943, brought mysteriously on German and Japanese submarines, he was already a figure of mythical size and reach.\n\nAfter Bose's death, Bose's other lieutenants, who were to have accompanied him to Manchuria, but were left behind in Saigon, never saw a body. There were no photographs taken of the injured or deceased Bose, neither was a death certificate issued. According to historian Leonard A. Gordon, \n\nFor these two reasons, when news of Bose's death was reported, many in the INA refused to believe it and were able to transmit their disbelief to a wider public. The source of the widespread skepticism in the INA might have been Bose's senior officer J. R. Bhonsle. When a Japanese delegation, which included General Isoda, visited Bhonsle on 19 August 1945 to break the news and offer condolences, he responded by telling Isoda that Bose had not died, rather his disappearance has been covered up. Even Mohandas Gandhi swiftly said that he was skeptical about the air crash, but changed his mind after meeting the Indian survivor Habibur Rahman. As in 1940, before long, in 1945, rumours were rife about what had happened to Bose, whether he was in Soviet-held Manchuria, a prisoner of the Soviet army, or whether he had gone into hiding with the cooperation of the Soviet army. Lakshmi Swaminathan, of the all-female Rani of Jhansi regiment of the INA, later Lakshmi Sahgal, said in spring 1946 that she thought Bose was in China. Many rumours spoke of Bose preparing for his final march on Delhi. This was the time when Bose began to be sighted by people, one sighter claiming \"he had met Bose in a third-class compartment of the Bombay express on a Thursday.\"\n\nEnduring legends\nIn the 1950s, stories appeared in which Bose had become a sadhu, or Hindu renunciant. The best-known and most intricate of the renunciant tales of Subhas Bose, and one which, according to historian Leonard A. Gordon, may \"properly be called a myth,\" was told in the early 1960s. Some associates of Bose, from two decades before, had formed an organization, the \"Subhasbadi Janata\", to promote this story in which Bose was now the chief sadhu of an ashram (or hermitage) in Shaulmari (also Shoulmari) in North Bengal. The Janata brought out published material, including several newspapers and magazines. Of these, some were long lived and some short, but all, by their number, attempted to create the illusion of the story's newsworthiness. The chief sadhu himself vigorously denied being Bose. Several intimates of Bose, including some politicians, who met with the sadhu, supported the denials. Even so, the Subhasbadi Janata was able to create an elaborate chronology of Bose's post-war activities.\n\nAccording to this chronology, after his return to India, Bose returned to the vocation of his youth: he became a Hindu renunciant. He attended unseen Gandhi's cremation in Delhi in early February 1948; walked across and around India several times; became a yogi at a Shiva temple in Bareilly in north central India from 1956 to 1959; became a practitioner of herbal medicine and effected several cures, including one of tuberculosis; and established the Shaulmari Ashram in 1959, taking the religious name Srimat Saradanandaji. Bose, moreover, was engaged in tapasya, or meditation, to free the world, his goals having been broadened, after his first goal\u2014freeing India\u2014was achieved. His attempt to do so, however, and to assume his true identity, was being thwarted jointly by political parties, newspapers, the Indian government, even foreign governments.\n\nOthers stories appeared, spun by the Janata and by others. Bose was still in the Soviet Union or the People's Republic of China; attended the Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru's cremation in 1964, but, this time, neglecting to disallow a Janata-published newspaper to photograph him; and gave notice to the Janata of his return to Calcutta, for which several much publicized rallies were organized. Bose did not appear. The Janata eventually broke up, its reputation marred by successive non-appearances of its protagonist. The real sadhu of Shaulmari, who continued to deny he was Bose, died in 1977. It was also claimed that Nikita Khrushchev had reportedly told an interpreter during his New Delhi visit that Bose could be produced within 45 days if Nehru wished.\n\nStill other stories or hoaxes\u2014elucidated with conspiracies and accompanied with fake photographs\u2014of the now-aging Bose being in the Soviet Union or China had traction well into the early 80s. Bose was seen in a photograph taken in Beijing, inexplicably parading with the Chinese Red Army. Bose was said to be in a Soviet Gulag. The Soviet leadership was said to be blackmailing Nehru, and later, Indira Gandhi, with the threat of releasing Bose. An Indian member of parliament, Samar Guha, released in 1979 what he claimed was a contemporaneous photograph of Bose. This turned out to have been doctored", " first-world and second-world nations was both preferable and possible. India's Jawaharlal Nehru saw neutralism as a means of forging a \"third force\" among non-aligned nations, much as France's Charles de Gaulle attempted to do in Europe in the 1960s. The Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser manoeuvres between the blocs in pursuit of his goals was one example of this.\n\nThe first such effort, the Asian Relations Conference, held in New Delhi in 1947, pledged support for all national movements against colonial rule and explored the basic problems of Asian peoples. Perhaps the most famous Third World conclave was the Bandung Conference of African and Asian nations in 1955 to discuss mutual interests and strategy, which ultimately led to the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. The conference was attended by twenty-nine countries representing more than half the population of the world. As at New Delhi, anti-imperialism, economic development, and cultural cooperation were the principal topics. There was a strong push in the Third World to secure a voice in the councils of nations, especially the United Nations, and to receive recognition of their new sovereign status. Representatives of these new states were also extremely sensitive to slights and discriminations, particularly if they were based on race. In all the nations of the Third World, living standards were wretchedly low. Some, such as India, Nigeria, and Indonesia, were becoming regional powers, most were too small and poor to aspire to this status.\n\nInitially having a roster of 51 members, the UN General Assembly had increased to 126 by 1970. The dominance of Western members dropped to 40% of the membership, with Afro-Asian states holding the balance of power. The ranks of the General Assembly swelled rapidly as former colonies won independence, thus forming a substantial voting bloc with members from Latin America. Anti-imperialist sentiment, reinforced by the communists, often translated into anti-Western positions, but the primary agenda among non-aligned countries was to secure passage of social and economic assistance measures. Superpower refusal to fund such programs has often undermined the effectiveness of the non-aligned coalition, however. The Bandung Conference symbolized continuing efforts to establish regional organizations designed to forge unity of policy and economic cooperation among Third World nations. The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was created in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in 1963 because African leaders believed that disunity played into the hands of the superpowers. The OAU was designed\n\nto promote the unity and solidarity of the African states; to coordinate and intensify the cooperation and efforts to achieve a better life for the peoples of Africa; to defend their sovereignty; to eradicate all forms of colonialism in Africa and to promote international cooperation...\n\nThe OAU required a policy of non-alignment from each of its 30 member states and spawned several subregional economic groups similar in concept to the European Common Market. The OAU has also pursued a policy of political cooperation with other Third World regional coalitions, especially with Arab countries.\n\nMuch of the frustration expressed by non-aligned nations stemmed from the vastly unequal relationship between rich and poor states. The resentment, strongest where key resources and local economies have been exploited by multinational Western corporations, has had a major impact on world events. The formation of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 1960 reflected these concerns. OPEC devised a strategy of counter-penetration, whereby it hoped to make industrial economies that relied heavily on oil imports vulnerable to Third World pressures. Initially, the strategy had resounding success. Dwindling foreign aid from the United States and its allies, coupled with the West's pro-Israel policies, angered the Arab nations in OPEC. In 1973, the group quadrupled the price of crude oil. The sudden rise in the energy costs intensified inflation and recession in the West and underscored the interdependence of world societies. The next year the non-aligned bloc in the United Nations passed a resolution demanding the creation of a new international economic order in which resources, trade, and markets would be distributed fairly.\n\nNon-aligned states forged still other forms of economic cooperation as leverage against the superpowers. OPEC, the OAU, and the Arab League had overlapping members, and in the 1970s the Arabs began extending huge financial assistance to African nations in an effort to reduce African economic dependence on the United States and the Soviet Union. However, the Arab League has been torn by dissension between authoritarian pro-Soviet states, such as Nasser's Egypt and Assad's Syria, and the aristocratic-monarchial (and generally pro-Western) regimes, such as Saudi Arabia and Oman. And while the OAU has witnessed some gains in African cooperation, its members were generally primarily interested in pursuing their own national interests rather than those of continental dimensions. At a 1977 Afro-Arab summit conference in Cairo, oil producers pledged $1.5 billion in aid to Africa. Recent divisions within OPEC have made concerted action more difficult. Nevertheless, the 1973 world oil shock provided dramatic evidence of the potential power of resource suppliers in dealing with the more developed world.\n\nCuban Revolution and Cuban Missile Crisis\nThe years between the Cuban Revolution in 1959 and the arms control treaties of the 1970s marked growing efforts for both the Soviet Union and the United States to keep control over their spheres of influence. U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson landed 22,000 troops in the Dominican Republic in 1965, claiming to prevent the emergence of another Cuban Revolution. While the period from 1962 until D\u00e9tente had no incidents as dangerous as the Cuban Missile Crisis, there was an increasing loss of legitimacy and good will worldwide for both the major Cold War participants.\n\n30 September Movement\nThe 30 September Movement was a self-proclaimed organization of Indonesian National Armed Forces members who, in the early hours of 1 October 1965, assassinated six Indonesian Army generals in an abortive coup d'\u00e9tat. Among those killed was Minister/Commander of the Army Lieutenant General Ahmad Yani. Future president Suharto, who was not targeted by the kidnappers, took command of the army, persuaded the soldiers occupying Jakarta's central square to surrender and oversaw the end of the coup. A smaller rebellion in central Java also collapsed. The army publicly blamed the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) for the coup attempt, and in October, mass killings of suspected communists began. In March 1966, Suharto, now in receipt of a document from Sukarno giving him authority to restore order, banned the PKI. A year later he replaced Sukarno as president, establishing the strongly anti-communist 'New Order regime.\n\n1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia\n\nA period of political liberalization took place in 1968 in Eastern Bloc country Czechoslovakia called the Prague Spring. The event was spurred by several events, including economic reforms that addressed an early 1960s economic downturn. In April, Czechoslovakian leader Alexander Dub\u010dek launched an \"Action Program\" of liberalizations, which included increasing freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of movement, along with an economic emphasis on consumer goods, the possibility of a multiparty government and limiting the power of the secret police. Initial reaction within the Eastern Bloc was mixed, with Hungary's J\u00e1nos K\u00e1d\u00e1r expressing support, while Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev and others grew concerned about Dub\u010dek's reforms, which they feared might weaken the Eastern Bloc's position during the Cold War. On August 3, representatives from the Soviet Union, East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia met in Bratislava and signed the Bratislava Declaration, which declaration affirmed unshakable fidelity to Marxism-Leninism and proletarian internationalism and declared an implacable struggle against \"bourgeois\" ideology and all \"anti-socialist\" forces.\n\nOn the night of August 20\u201321, 1968, Eastern Bloc armies from four Warsaw Pact countries \u2013 the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Poland and Hungary \u2013 invaded Czechoslovakia. The invasion comported with the Brezhnev Doctrine, a policy of compelling Eastern Bloc states to subordinate national interests to those of the Bloc as a whole and the exercise of a Soviet right to intervene if an Eastern Bloc country appeared to shift towards capitalism. The invasion was followed by a wave of emigration, including an estimated 70,000 Czechs initially fleeing, with the total eventually reaching 300,000. In April 1969, Dub\u010dek was replaced as first secretary by Gust\u00e1v Hus\u00e1k, and a period of \"normalization\" began. Hus\u00e1k reversed Dub\u010dek's reforms, purged the party of liberal members, dismissed opponents from public office, reinstated the power of the police authorities, sought to re-centralize the economy and re-instated the disallowance of political commentary in mainstream media and by persons not considered to have \"full political trust\". The international image of the Soviet Union suffered considerably, especially among Western student movements inspired by the \"New Left\" and non-Aligned Movement states. Mao Zedong's People's Republic of China, for example, condemned both the Soviets and the Americans as imperialists.\n\nVietnam War\n\nU.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson landed 42,000 troops in the Dominican Republic in 1965 to prevent the emergence of \"another Fidel Castro\". More notable in 1965, however, was U.S. intervention in Southeast Asia. In 1965 Johnson stationed 22,000 troops in South Vietnam to prop up the faltering anticommunist regime. The South Vietnamese government had long been allied with the United States. The North Vietnamese under Ho Chi Minh were backed by the Soviet Union and China. North Vietnam, in turn, supported the National Liberation Front, which drew its ranks from the South Vietnamese working class and peasantry. Seeking to contain Communist expansion, Johnson increased the number of troops to 575,000 in 1968.\n\nNorth Vietnam received Soviet approval for its war effort in 1959; the Soviet Union sent 15,000 military advisors and annual arms shipments worth $450 million to North Vietnam during the war, while China sent 320,000 troops and annual arms shipments worth $180 million.\n\nWhile the early years of the war had significant U.S. casualties, the administration assured the public that the war was winnable and would in the near future result in a U.S. victory. The U.S. public's faith in \"the light at the end of the tunnel\" was shattered on January 30, 1968, when the NLF mounted the Tet Offensive in South Vietnam. Although neither of these offensives accomplished any military objectives, the surprising capacity of an enemy to even launch such an offensive convinced many in the U.S. that victory was impossible.\n\nA vocal and growing peace movement centered on college campuses became a prominent feature as the counter culture of the 1960s adopted a vocal anti-war position. Especially unpopular was the draft that threatened to send young men to fight in the jungles of Southeast Asia.\n\nElected in 1968, U.S. President Richard M. Nixon began a policy of slow disengagement from the war. The goal was to gradually build up the South Vietnamese Army so that it could fight the war on its own. This policy became the cornerstone of the so-called \"Nixon Doctrine\". As applied to Vietnam, the doctrine was called \"Vietnamization\". The goal of Vietnamization was to enable the South Vietnamese army to increasingly hold its own against the NLF and the North Vietnamese Army.\n\nOn October 10, 1969, Nixon ordered a squadron of 18 B-52s loaded with nuclear weapons to race to the border of Soviet airspace in order to convince the Soviet Union that he was capable of anything to end the Vietnam War.\n\nThe morality of U.S. conduct of the war continued to be an issue under the Nixon presidency. In 1969, it came to light that Lt. William Calley, a platoon leader in Vietnam, had led a massacre of Vietnamese civilians a year earlier. In 1970, Nixon ordered secret military incursions into Cambodia in order to destroy NLF sanctuaries bordering on South Vietnam.\n\nThe U.S. pulled its troops out of Vietnam in 1973, and the conflict finally ended in 1975 when the North Vietnamese took Saigon, now Ho Chi Minh City. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities (see Vietnam War casualties). 195,000\u2013430,000 South Vietnamese civilians died in the war. 50,000\u201365,000 North Vietnamese civilians died in the war. The Army of the Republic of Vietnam lost between 171,331 and 220,357 men during the war. The official US Department of Defense figure was 950,765 communist forces killed in Vietnam from 1965 to 1974. Defense Department officials concluded that these body-count figures need to be deflated by 30 percent. In addition, Guenter Lewy assumes that one-third of the reported \"enemy\" killed may have been civilians, concluding that the actual number of deaths of communist military forces was probably closer to 444,000. Between 200,000 and 300,000 Cambodians, about 35,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U.S. service members also died in the conflict.\n\nNixon Doctrine\n\nBy the last years of the Nixon administration, it had become clear that it was the Third World that remained the most volatile and dangerous source of world instability. Central to the Nixon-Kissinger policy toward the Third World was the effort to maintain a stable status quo without involving the United States too deeply in local disputes. In 1969 and 1970, in response to the height of the Vietnam War, the President laid out the elements of what became known as the Nixon Doctrine, by which the United States would \"participate in the defense and development of allies and friends\" but would leave the \"basic responsibility\" for the future of those \"friends\" to the nations themselves. The Nixon Doctrine signified a growing contempt by the U.S. government for the United Nations, where underdeveloped nations were gaining influence through their sheer numbers, and increasing support to authoritarian regimes attempting to withstand popular challenges from within.\n\nIn the 1970s, for example, the CIA poured substantial funds into Chile to help support the established government against a Marxist challenge. When the Marxist candidate for president, Salvador Allende, came to power through free elections, the United States began funneling more money to opposition forces to help \"destabilize\" the new government. In 1973, a U.S.-backed military junta seized power from Allende. The new, repressive regime of General Augusto Pinochet received warm approval and increased military and economic assistance from the United States as an anti-Communist ally. Democracy was finally re-established in Chile in 1989.\n\nSino\u2013Soviet split\n\nThe People's Republic of China's Great Leap Forward and other policies based on agriculture instead of heavy industry challenged the Soviet-style socialism and the signs of the USSR's influence over the socialist countries. As \"de-Stalinization\" went forward in the Soviet Union, China's revolutionary founder, Mao Zedong, condemned the Soviets for \"revisionism\". The Chinese also were growing increasingly annoyed at being constantly in the number two role in the communist world. In the 1960s, an open split began to develop between the two powers; the tension lead to a series of border skirmishes along the Chinese-Soviet border.\n\nThe Sino-Soviet split had important ramifications in Southeast Asia. Despite having received substantial aid from China during their long wars, the Vietnamese communists aligned themselves with the Soviet Union against China. The Khmer Rouge had taken control of Cambodia in 1975 and became one of the most brutal regimes in world history. The newly unified Vietnam and the Khmer regime had poor relations from the outset as the Khmer Rouge began massacring ethnic Vietnamese in Cambodia, and then launched raiding parties into Vietnam. The Khmer Rouge allied itself with China, but this was not enough to prevent the Vietnamese from invading them and destroying the regime in 1979. While unable to save their Cambodian allies, the Chinese did respond to the Vietnamese by invading the north of Vietnam on a punitive expedition later in that year. After a few months of heavy fighting and casualties on both sides, the Chinese announced the operation was complete and withdrew, ending the fighting.\n\nThe United States played only a minor role in these events, unwilling to get involved in the region after its debacle in Vietnam. The extremely visible disintegration of the communist bloc played an important role in the easing of Sino-American tensions and in the progress towards East-West D\u00e9tente.\n\nD\u00e9tente and changing alliance\n\nIn the course of the 1960s and 1970s, Cold War participants struggled to adjust to a new, more complicated pattern of international relations in which the world was no longer divided into two clearly opposed blocs.\nThe Soviet Union achieved rough nuclear parity with the United States. From the beginning of the post-war period, Western Europe and Japan rapidly recovered from the destruction of World War II and sustained strong economic growth through the 1950s and 1960s, with per capita GDPs approaching those of the United States, while Eastern Bloc economies stagnated. China, Japan, and Western Europe; the increasing nationalism of the Third World, and the growing disunity within the communist alliance all augured a new multipolar international structure. Moreover, the 1973 world oil shock created a dramatic shift in the economic fortunes of the superpowers. The rapid increase in the price of oil devastated the U.S. economy leading to \"stagflation\" and slow growth.\n\nD\u00e9tente had both strategic and economic benefits for both sides of the Cold War, buoyed by their common interest in trying to check the further spread and proliferation of nuclear weapons. President Richard Nixon and Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev signed the SALT I treaty to limit the development of strategic weapons. Arms control enabled both superpowers to slow the spiraling increases in their bloated defense budgets. At the same time, divided Europe began to pursue closer relations. The Ostpolitik of German chancellor Willy Brandt lead to the recognition of East Germany.\n\nCooperation on the Helsinki Accords led to several agreements on politics, economics and human rights. A series of arms control agreements such as SALT I and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty were created to limit the development of strategic weapons and slow the arms race. There was also a rapprochement between China and the United States. 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\u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043e\u043d \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u043d\u0438\u043e\u043d. \u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440: , .\n\u041e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u0443\u044e \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0443 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442 \u0441\u043e\u043b\u0438 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442, \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u043e\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043e\u0442 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439. \u041d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u043e\u0442\u043d\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043a \u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0443 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439, \u0442\u0430\u043a \u043d\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0436\u0438\u0434\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u043e-\u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u00ab\u0436\u0438\u0434\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439\u00bb, \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0441 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0438\u0436\u0435 100\u202f\u00b0C.\n\n\u041e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \n\n\u041e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0301\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439:\n \u041e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f (\u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0301\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0433\u0438\u0434\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0441\u0438\u0301\u0434\u044b)\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0442 \u0438\u0437 \u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0430\u043c\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0433\u0438\u0434\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0441\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b (-OH). \u0412 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0435 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0441 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0430\u043d\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u041e\u041d\u2212. \u041d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0431\u044b\u0447\u043d\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u0442 \u0438\u0437 \u0434\u0432\u0443\u0445 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432: \u00ab\u0433\u0438\u0434\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0441\u0438\u0434 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430/\u0430\u043c\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00bb. \u0425\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043c\u044b\u0435 \u0432 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0449\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0447\u0430\u043c\u0438.\n \u0421\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e, \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0438\u0437 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439, \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430, \u043c\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0443\u043b\u044b \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0446\u0435\u043f\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u041a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u044b \n\n\u041a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0301\u0442\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430, \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u044b\u0447\u043d\u043e \u0432\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0442 \u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c\u044b \u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0449\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c\u044b \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u043e\u0432, \u0438 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043a. \u0412\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u044b \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u044e\u0442 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441, \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c \u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435\u043c, \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043d\u044b \u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u0442\u044c \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0443 \u0438\u043d\u0434\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432, \u043e\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0440\u044f\u0434\u043e\u043c \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432.\n\n\u041a\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u044b \u041b\u044c\u044e\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0438 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u044b \u0411\u0440\u0451\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0434\u0430, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u0442\u043e \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043f\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a\u0430\u043c:\n \u041f\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430: \u0431\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0435 (HCl, H2S, HCN); \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0435 (HNO3, H2SO4).\n \u041f\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u044b\u0445 \u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430: \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 (HNO3); \u0434\u0432\u0443\u0445\u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 (H2SeO4); \u0442\u0440\u0451\u0445\u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 (H3PO4, H3BO3); \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435.\n \u041f\u043e \u0441\u0438\u043b\u0435: \u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e, \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u044b \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435 1 (HNO3); \u0441\u043b\u0430\u0431\u044b\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u044c\u0448\u0435 1 (\u0443\u043a\u0441\u0443\u0441\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 K\u0434= 1,7).\n \u041f\u043e \u0443\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439\u0447\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438: \u0443\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439\u0447\u0438\u0432\u044b\u0435 (H2SO4); \u043d\u0435\u0443\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439\u0447\u0438\u0432\u044b\u0435 (H2CO3).\n \u041f\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0434\u043b\u0435\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043a \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0430\u043c \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439: \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 (HBr); \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 (HCOOH, CH3COOH);\n \u041f\u043e \u043b\u0435\u0442\u0443\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438: \u043b\u0435\u0442\u0443\u0447\u0438\u0435 (HNO3, H2S); \u043d\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0443\u0447\u0438\u0435 (H2SO4) ;\n \u041f\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u0435: \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043c\u044b\u0435 (H2SO4); \u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043c\u044b\u0435 (H2SiO3);\n \u041f\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u043e\u0432: \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0435 (HMnO4, H2TiO3); \u043d\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0435 (HNO3, HCN).\n\n\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0435 \n\u0422\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432: \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0434\u044b, \u043d\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0434\u044b, \u0433\u0438\u0434\u0440\u0438\u0434\u044b, \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0434\u044b \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0435 \u0443\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0451\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044e (\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e \u0441\u043c. \u041d\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e).\n\n\u041a\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0434\u044b \n\n\u041a\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0301\u0434\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0441 \u0443\u0433\u043b\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043c. \u0422\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e \u043a \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0434\u0430\u043c \u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u044f\u0442 \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u0443\u0433\u043b\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u0435\u0442 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0443\u044e \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c, \u0447\u0435\u043c \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 (\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u043c \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u043c \u0438\u0437 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0443\u0433\u043b\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043e\u043a\u0441\u0438\u0434\u044b, \u0433\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0434\u044b \u0438 \u0442\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0431\u043d\u044b\u0435). \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0434\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u0442\u0443\u0433\u043e\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0432\u0451\u0440\u0434\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430: \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0434\u044b \u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u043a\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043d\u0438\u044f (\u04124\u0421 \u0438 SiC), \u0442\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430, \u0432\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0444\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0430, \u0446\u0438\u0440\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f (TiC, WC \u0438 ZrC \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e) \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0432\u0451\u0440\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e, \u0436\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e, \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e.\n\n\u041a\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0434\u044b \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u044b: \u0441\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0435 (CaC2, Al4C3); \u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 (\u043a\u0430\u0440\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0434 SiC); \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0431\u043d\u044b\u0435 (\u0438\u043c\u0435\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0445\u0438\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432, \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440, \u0446\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0442 (Fe3C)).\n\n\u041d\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0434\u044b \n\n\u041d\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0301\u0434\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0430\u0437\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0441 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440, \u0441 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0438 (AlN;TiNx;Na3N;Ca3N2;Zn3N2; \u0438\u00a0\u0442.\u00a0\u0434.) \u0438 \u0441 \u0440\u044f\u0434\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u043e\u0432 (NH3, BN, Si3N4). \u0421\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0430\u0437\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0441 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0447\u0430\u0449\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0442\u0443\u0433\u043e\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0438 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439\u0447\u0438\u0432\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440, \u044d\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u0440. \u041d\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u044f\u043c \u0442\u0432\u0451\u0440\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c, \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c; \u043d\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0435, \u043a\u043e\u0441\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435.\n\n\u0413\u0438\u0434\u0440\u0438\u0434\u044b \n\n\u0413\u0438\u0434\u0440\u0438\u0301\u0434\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0441 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0438 \u0441 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u044c\u0448\u0443\u044e \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c, \u0447\u0435\u043c \u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434, \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0438. . \u041d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 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\u043d\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438 (\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043e-\u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442). \u0410\u043b\u043c\u0430-\u0410\u0442\u0430, 1981.- 187 \u0441.\n \u041d\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420. \u041f\u043e\u0434 \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0418.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0422\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0438\u0435\u0432: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0434\u0443\u043c\u043a\u0430, 1983.\u00a0\u2014 720 \u0441.\n \u041f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0438\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0430 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432. \u0422. 1,2. / \u041f\u043e\u0434 \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0418.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430-\u0421\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430, 1983.\u00a0\u2014 575 \u0441.,\u00a0\u2014 572 \u0441.\n \u0420\u0435\u043c\u0438 \u0413. \u041a\u0443\u0440\u0441 \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438. \u0422. 1. \u041c.: \u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0438\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b, 1963.\u00a0\u2014 920 \u0441.\n \u0420\u0435\u043c\u0438 \u0413. \u041a\u0443\u0440\u0441 \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438. \u0422. 2. \u041c.: \u041c\u0438\u0440, 1974.\u00a0\u2014 775 \u0441.\n \u0428\u0440\u0430\u0439\u0432\u0435\u0440 \u042d. \u041d\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u044f. \u0422. 1,2. / \u042d. \u0428\u0440\u0430\u0439\u0432\u0435\u0440, \u041f. \u042d\u0442\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0441\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u041c\u0438\u0440, 2004.\u00a0\u2014 679 \u0441.,\u00a0\u2014 486 \u0441.\n \u042d\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432 / \u041f\u043e\u0434 \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0418.\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u0424\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0435\u043d-\u043a\u043e. \u0412 2-\u0445 \u0442.\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0438\u0435\u0432: \u0423\u043a\u0440. \u0441\u043e\u0432. \u044d\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f, 197", " Privilegio de Mandar.\n\nThe show followed closely the world of the Mexican and even foreign politics, from the 2004 videoscandals and the Desafuero judges to the last 2006 Mexican general elections. During its broadcast, the show had several guest artists, like Consuelo Duval (from La Hora Pico and La Familia P.Luche). It won the 2005 TVyNovelas Award for Best Comic Program.\n\nThe show made history as the first political parody ever aired in Mexico, where every single political person was parodied. On Saturday July 8, Televisa broadcast a special programme hosted by Mexican entertainer and actor Ernesto Laguardia, in which scenes were presented from the first episodes of the show, interviews with the actors and the people parodied, as well as \"behind the scenes\" specials.\n\nTelevisa broadcast the last episode of what is considered the first season on July 9, 2006, just after the federal elections in Mexico.\n\nFrom 2004, there have appeared around 50 different characters. The January 7, 2011 edition of NuestroDetroit.com, however, reported that a second season may soon be in production with Reynaldo Lopez taking over executive producing duties. The report went on to say that at least four actors\u2014de la Torre, the Ortega brothers, and Vale\u2014will return to the series.\n\nSynopsis\nAs a parody, it is kind of predictable knowing what will happen the next episode. The only thing the viewer has to do is follow the political news. For example, in 2004, Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador had problems with the law, confronting a desafuero judge, so in the show all the trouble was parodied for months.\n\nNot all the shows are directly related to real politics, although there is usually some political context. In February 2006, Bailando Por Un Sue\u00f1o (Dancing for a Dream) was highest rating show on Televisa, El Privilegio de Mandar parodied the show as Bailando Por Un Hueso (Dancing for a Bone) a double meaning because Hueso in this context is an expression for an influence, the participants were the politicians dancing, with the idea that the winner would get some political position or influence as a result.\n\nOn El Privilegio de Mandar, Mexico is parodied as \"Colonia el Relaxo con x\" (\"Relaxo\" means \"mess\" in Spanish. The real word is \"relajo\", but the \"j\" is changed to \"x\" like the one in \"Mexico\"), representing the bad organization of the political world in that country. The states are represented as \"Manzanas\" (blocks), and the president as the president of the neighbors' association. Many of the parodied names and places are word-plays in Spanish, so they wouldn't be understood by many English or other languages speakers.\n\nMain actors\nThese actors were the ones who played all the roles in El Privilegio de Mandar (the number next to them indicate the number of characters each one played)\nAlfonso Villalpando\nAng\u00e9lica Vale\nArath de la Torre\nCarlos Espejel\nEduardo Espa\u00f1a\nFreddy Ortega\nGerm\u00e1n Ortega\nHerson Andrade\nPierre Angelo\nRaquel Pankowsky\nSamia\nYekaterina Kiev\n\nGuest artists\nConsuelo Duval\nJorge Arvizu, \"El Tata\"\nRen\u00e9 Franco\nRicardo Hill\n\nCharacters\n\nMain characters\nAndr\u00e9s Manuel (Germ\u00e1n Ortega) \u2014 also known as El Peje \u2014 he is the parody of Party of the Democratic Revolution\u2019s former candidate to the presidency , Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador. The logo of the party is parodied as El Sol Azteca referring to the sun in the yellow background and the prehispanic Aztec culture\nCampa (Freddy Ortega) Ref. to Roberto Campa. He is the candidate to the presidency for the Partido Nueva Alianza\nCanti (Carlos Espejel). Sometimes referred to as \"Carlinflas\", he is an inhabitant of Colonia el Relaxo. He represents the people from Mexico, formerly known as El Pueblo. His character is also the parody of a world-famous Mexican comedian: Mario Moreno Cantinflas. Espejel played this character from 1982 to 1992, stopping because of the death of Cantinflas. He was offered to play it again in 2004, and after a while he accepted.\nChente (Alfonso Villalpando) Chente is a short form for \"Vicente\" in Mexico (Vicente Fox Quesada, former President of Mexico). He is the president of the Colonia el Relaxo.\nCuauht\u00e9moc (Arath de la Torre) Is the first name of C. Cardenas, former candidate of the PRD for the presidency of Mexico (1988, 1994, 2000) and son of L\u00e1zaro C\u00e1rdenas del R\u00edo, president of Mexico from 1934 to 1940. At first he resists the idea of Peje taking his place as candidate for the presidency but he gives him the chance.\nFelipe Calder\u00f3n (Eduardo Espa\u00f1a) \u2014 also known simply as Felipe \u2014 he was the parody of the National Action Party\u2019s (PAN) candidate to the presidency of Mexico, Felipe Calder\u00f3n Hinojosa, who is now President of Mexico. PAN party is referred to as los azules , parodying the blue color of the party\u2019s logo. Sometimes is also represented as a piece of bread, because \"pan\" in Spanish means \"bread\".\nJackson Ref. to Enrique Jackson, a congresist from PRI, as his last name is Jackson his recurrent gag was often dancing a choreography of Michael Jackson while the bass of Billie Jean is heard.\nLa Jirafa (Yekaterina Kiev) A tall servant girl referred to as The Giraffe because of her height, she is the foil for Canti. She represents also the Mexican people when talking with Canti. She is a parody of Sara Garcia's character in Ahi esta el detalle, she always tries to keep Canti away from home as long as he only goes there to take dinner.\nMartita (Raquel Pankowsky) \u2014 also known as Martita Seg\u00fan \u2014 represents Former Mexican President Fox's wife, Martha Sahag\u00fan de Fox. She was a mandatory spouse that always tries to keep Chente on track and also sometimes she does her husband job.\nRoberto (Arath De La Torre) \u2014 also known as Madrazo \u2014 he is the parody of Roberto Madrazo, who was the Institutional Revolutionary Party\u2019s candidate to the presidency of Mexico, and that political party's former leader. The party is referred to as tricolor, because the colours of the Mexican flag (green, white and red).\nSodi (Freddy Ortega). It's the parody of Demetrio Sodi de la Tijera, PAN's former candidate for the head of government in the Federal District.\nVocero (Jorge Arvizu, El Tata). He represents the spokesman of the former president, Vicente Fox. He currently tries to fix any error of his boss by appearing suddenly and saying \"Lo que Chente quiso decir\" (...actually Chente is telling...) and said a thing different than the original thing Fox said.\n\nOther characters\nSome of these characters are also presented in \"La Parodia\" show\nCamacho Sol\u00eds. Parody of Manuel Camacho Sol\u00eds, former chief of government of the DF\nCarlos Abascal (Carlos Espejel), former Mexican Secretary of Labor, and Secretary of Government.\nCarlos Lohar\u00e9 de Mole (Arath de la Torre). Translated \"Carlos I'lldoit of Mole), parody to journalist Carlos Loret de Mola (word play with Mola-Mole; popular Mexican dish)\nD\u00e1mela Micha (Consuelo Duval). Parody to journalist and newscaster Adela Micha, she is an original character from \"La Parodia\". Her name is a pun of \"Give me the half\".\nElba Esther (Ang\u00e9lica Vale). Parody of Elba Esther Gordillo, leader of the National Union of Teachers.\nJes\u00fas Ortega He lost PRD's candidadacy for Mexico City chief of government to Marcelo Ebrard. He later became consultant of Andr\u00e9s Manuel\nJoaqu\u00edn Loque-N\u00f3sdiga (Ricardo Hill). Translated \"Joaqu\u00edn Whatever-Hetellus\", parody to newscaster Joaqu\u00edn L\u00f3pez-D\u00f3riga)\nManuel Espino Barrientos. He is consultant of Felipe Calder\u00f3n, and is a parody of the PAN's leader Manuel Espino Barrientos\nMarcelo Ref. to Marcelo Ebrard. He is PRD's candidate to chief of government in the Federal District. Is also known as Supermar-celo (parody of Superman) by Andr\u00e9s Manuel.\nMarcos (Carlos Espejel). A parody of the Zapatista guerilla leader, Subcomandante Marcos.\nMariano Palacios (Pierre Angelo). He is Roberto's consultant, and a parody of Leader of the PRI, Mariano Palacios Alcocer\nPatricia Mercado (Samia). She was the candidate to the presidency of the Social Democratic and Farmer Alternativeparty.\nPe\u00f1a Nieto Ref. to Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto. He is PRI's actual chief of government in La Manzana Estado de M\u00e9xico, and parody of the then elected Governor of the State of Mexico and currently winner of 2012 presidential elections.\nSalinas (Germ\u00e1n Ortega) Ref. to Carlos Salinas de Gortari. He was president of Mexico in (1988\u20131994). He is also known as \"El Innombrable\" (The one that must not be named) by Andr\u00e9s Manuel.\nV\u00edctor Trujillo (Ren\u00e9 Franco), parody to comic and political journalist V\u00edctor Trujillo\n\nPrevious characters\nSome of these characters appeared on the last episode.\nDolores Latierna \u2013 Parody of Dolores Padierna, wife of Ren\u00e9 Bejarano (see: videoscandals)\nDon Diego (Freddy Ortega) Ref. to Diego Fernandez de Cevallos, a Mexican Senator and former PAN Presidential candidate. During his sketches he tends to smoke severely and also in a scene involving the kid versions he was smoking hiding from his parents. The most of the sketches involving him were related to the build of the Carretera del Amor (Love's Highway, an extension he did to a road between two Jalisco towns).\nDr Simi. Parody to V\u00edctor Gonz\u00e1lez Torres, aliased Dr. Simi. Dr. Simi was originally only a character for a famous chain of generic drugstores in Mexico, called Farmacias Similares (Similar Pharmacies), but V\u00edctor G. Torres (the owner of the chain) took the name of the character and tried to register as an alternative candidate to the presidency of Mexico. He is not member of any party. (Late 2005-early 2006)\nEdith Gonz\u00e1lez \u2013 Parody of actress Edith Gonz\u00e1lez. She has been also presented on \"La Parodia\"\nEma Pulido. Parody to \"Bailando por un sue\u00f1o\" critic.\nF\u00e9lix Greco. Parody to \"Bailando por un Sue\u00f1o\" critic (Only presented two episodes)\nGober Precioso (Herson Andrade). Also known as Mario de Tin-Mar\u00edn (referring to the word play to random choices (de tin marin de do ping\u00fce), he is a parody to Mario Mar\u00edn, Governor of Puebla. He is the chief of government of La Manzana Puebla. The surname \"Gober Precisoso\" came out as a result of a scandal in which a leaked cell phone conversation revealed a conversation with Kamel Nacif (a suspected child molester and owner of a textile empire) who referred to Mario Marin as his \"Gober Precioso\" (that is Precious Governor, since 'gober' is a contraction for Governor) and offered him two bottles of cognac, presumably as a bribe to abuse a journalist. The writers in the show used this fact for the basis of the character. (Early 2006)\nIrma (Ang\u00e9lica Vale) \u2013 Parody of actress Irma Serrano (Late 2004-Early 2005)\nKamel Nacif (Pierre Angelo) \u2013 He is the owner of a textile empire, and friend of Mario Mar\u00edn. (Early 2006)\nMary (Ang\u00e9lica Vale). She was Canti's girlfriend and another inhabitant of Colonia el Relaxo (Late 2004-Mid-2005)\nMontiel (Freddy Ortega). He was PRI's candidate to chief of government for the State of Mexico. In real life, he is the former governor of that state. (Late 2004-Late 2005)\nNico (Herson Andrade). Parody of Andr\u00e9s Manuel's chauffeur, controversial in real life for his salary that contrasts with the fact that he drives a cheap car (Nissan Tsuru) for his boss. (Late 2004)\nLa Novia de Don Diego (Samia). Parody of Don Diego's girlfriend (Late 2004-Early 2005)\nPonce (Herson Andrade). Parody to PRD member Gustavo Ponce, (see: videoscandals)\nRen\u00e9 Bejarano (Arath de la Torre). He was the parody of Ren\u00e9 Bejarano, Mexican PRD politician. (see: videoscandals) (Late 2004 - early 2005)\nRoberto Mitsuko. Parody to \"Bailando por un sue\u00f1o\" critic.\nRosario Robles (Ang\u00e9lica Vale). She was chief of government of Mexico City from 1997 to 2000\nSantiago (Pierre Angelo). Represents Santiago Creel, former Secretary of Government who lost the Presidential candidadacy to Felipe Calder\u00f3n in 2005. (Late 2004-Mid-2005)\nYeidckol Ref. to Yeidckol Polensky. She was PRD's candidate for the chief of government in La Manzana Estado de M\u00e9xico. She lost in 2005 to Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto (Mid-2005 \u2013late 2005)\n\nCharacters also include non-Mexican politicians such as George Bush and Arnold Schwarzenegger.\n\nFinal episode\nEpisode 79: \"The elections\". The last episode of what's considered the first season was aired at 10pm on Sunday July 9, 2006.\nA special TV programme was wired presenting early scenes from \"El privilegio de mandar\" in 2004, interviews with some parodied politics and with the actors, their feelings and \"behind the scene\" specials.\n\nReal facts\nAMLO arrived early at 8am to vote on Sunday July 2\nA special cover was hosted by Televisa journalist on the day of the elections\nAt night, Calder\u00f3n and L\u00f3pez Obrador celebrated their triumphs over the other, with people supporting them, without even knowing who had won\nOn July 6, the official counting was finished and declared Felipe Calder\u00f3n President-elect.\nAndr\u00e9s Manuel battled against the results and call to a meeting at Mexico City's Z\u00f3calo\nRoberto Madrazo lost over 10 points under the nearest candidate\nParody\nThe show takes off with Andr\u00e9s Manuel waiting for the IFE to open the polls at 7am on Sunday July 2, when the polls were actually opened at 8am (as a parody of the early arrive to the polls of the real Andr\u00e9s Manuel). Then, are shown the Televisa studios where four journalists are waiting for the candidates to vote (they are also rarely presented characters):\nCarlos Lohar\u00e9 de MoleD\u00e1mela Micha'''Joaqu\u00edn Loque-N\u00f3sdigaV\u00edctor TrujilloShortly after almost all characters arrive to the polls to present their votes (including characters that weren't presented anymore, like \"Bejarano\"). After the elections, \"Ugalde\" (parody to IFE's president) made an announcement on TV, saying that he couldn't give an official winner because two candidates (Felipe and Andr\u00e9s Manuel) were head to head so it wasn't time to celebrate yet. The scene changes and shows Felipe celebrating with balloons and all the people supporting him:\n- (Crowd, cheering) Felipe!, Felipe!, Felipe!\n- (Felipe, happy) Friends, that disobedient boy (Disobedient boy is a mariachi song sung by Vicente Fox in a TV show during his campaign) said it!, I'm the next president!. And I'm sorry for Andr\u00e9s Manuel that must be very sad\nThe scene changes again, now to Andr\u00e9s Manuel:\n- (Crowd, cheering) Andr\u00e9s Manuel!, Andr\u00e9s Manuel!, Andr\u00e9s Manuel!\n- (Andr\u00e9s Manuel, happy) I am president!. I won for over five hundred thousand votes!\nHowever, the scene changes once more, now to Roberto, in his house sat down and paralysed in front of the TV. Soon the door rings:\n- (Roberto, sitting next to Mariano Palacios) The doorbell rings Mariano. Open the door; it could be a vote.\n\nThe day now changes to Thursday July 6, when the official counting was finished and declared Felipe winner of the election.\nHowever, Andr\u00e9s Manuel is very angry, and calls to a demonstration:\n- (Andr\u00e9s Manuel, angry) We have to do a meeting at Saturday 8 at the Z\u00f3calo for battling against the polls! (Talking to Jes\u00fas Ortega)\n- (Jes\u00fas Ortega) Why not Sunday 9 morning?\n- (Andr\u00e9s Manuel) No Jes\u00fas, is the final match of the World Cup!\n- (Jes\u00fas Ortega) And why not Sunday 9 night?\n- (Andr\u00e9s Manuel) No, it's the final episode of \"El Privilegio de Mandar\"\n\nFinally, the scene of the meeting of Andr\u00e9s Manuel is presented. When he finishes talking, Canti goes up the platform and starts talking about Andres Manuel's decision and the respect of the democracy. The show ends with all the crowd cheering \"M\u00e9xico!, M\u00e9xico!, M\u00e9xico!\", a screen showing \"\u00bfFin?\" (The End?) and all the actors thanking the viewers for their support.\n\nJokes on this episode\nJoaqu\u00edn Loque-N\u00f3sidga, talking about the great coverage of Televisa of the elections by their reporters:\n-(Joaqu\u00edn) We've got a reporter and a camera on every state, on every district, on every poll, on every crayon.\nRoberto has voted and now goes up to Mariano Palacios (his consultant):\n- (Mariano, proud) Hey Roberto! You know what?, I voted against Felipe! (Roberto's rival)\n- (Roberto, curious) And how did you vote against Felipe, Mariano?\n- (Mariano, proud) I marked him with a cross! (Note: mark the candidate space with a cross means a vote)\nMario de Tin Mar\u00edn hadn't respected the line and he was voting. The crowd protests about that selfish act:\n- (Mario de Tin Mar\u00edn, smiling) Calm down, as if you were gods!\n\nTroubles with politicians\nAndr\u00e9s M. L\u00f3pez Obrador criticised the show as making fun of him personally and as a strategy of the media to attack him", "In August 2008, the first facelift for the Toyota Fortuner was made available in Malaysia with four grade models: 2.5 G, 2.5 G TRD Sportivo, 2.7 V and 2.7 V TRD Sportivo.\n\nIn October 2011, the second facelift for the Toyota Fortuner was made available in Malaysia again with four grade models: 2.5 G, 2.5 G TRD Sportivo, 2.7 V and 2.7 V TRD Sportivo.\n\nIn October 2013, the Fortuner underwent a minor update. Changes included different colour for the wheels and black upholstery. Grade levels remained the same as the previous model. ISOFIX became standard across the range.\n\nIn February 2015, another minor update occurred. Changes included smoked head and tail lamps, bumper-mounted LED DRLs, different TRD Sportivo decals.\n\nThe 2.7 V and 2.7 V TRD Sportivo carried a 2.7-litre petrol engine. It was available only in 4-speed automatic transmission with ECT. The 2.5 G and 2.5 G TRD Sportivo had a 2.5-litre diesel engine. At the outset, available with a 5-speed manual transmission only, but for the 2009 model year facelift it was replaced by a 4-speed automatic. In August 2012, together with the Hilux, the engine received a variable nozzle intercooled turbocharger.\n\nPakistan \nThe Fortuner was launched in Pakistan in February 2013. Initially offered in two variants, Fortuner 2.7 VVT-i and TRD Sportivo, all with the 2.7-litre 2TR-FE engine.\n\nPhilippines \nThe Fortuner was introduced in 2005. It fills in the gap between the smaller RAV4, and the more premium Land Cruiser Prado. It was sold in two grade levels: the entry-level G, and the top-spec V.\n\nThe G models had three drivetrain options available; the 2.7-litre\u00a02TR-FE petrol engine with VVT-i, or the 2.5-litre\u00a02KD-FTV engine with common rail diesel (D-4D) that either came with a 4-speed automatic transmission, or a 5-speed manual. As for the V models, engine options were limited to diesel engines with automatic transmissions only with a choice of the 2.5-litre 2KD-FTV or the 3.0-litre 1KD-FTV. The top-of-the-line 4x4 model was equipped with the 1KD-FTV engine with D-4D technology and came with a 4-speed automatic transmission and a low range transfer case. \n\nIn October 2011, the Fortuner received a new front fascia, headlights and tail lights alongside the facelifted Innova and Hilux. The drivetrains remain the same.\n\nIn September 2012, the 2.5-litre 2KD-FTV diesel engine was upgraded with Variable Nozzle Turbocharger (VNT) with intercooler. According to Toyota Motor Philippines, the engine would have improved fuel efficiency and produce additional power by 40% and increase torque by 30%. A new feature for the Fortuner 4\u00d74 V diesel and 4\u00d72 G diesel automatic variants was an audio system with GPS.\n\nGCC \n\nIn Saudi Arabia and the UAE, the Fortuner was launched in 2005. There are two grades sold in Saudi Arabia, called the \"GX\" and the \"VX\" grades. The GX came with the 2.7-litre engine and 5-speed manual as standard (4-speed automatic is an option) and optional 4\u00d74 whereas the VX came with the 4.0-litre V6 1GR-FE with standard 4\u00d74 and all wheel drive with either a 5-speed automatic or 5-speed manual transmission. There is no diesel variant available. In the UAE, when the facelifted version was released the Fortuner was available in two variants, the 2.7-litre petrol engine and 4.0-litre petrol engine. In 2015 the Fortuner in the UAE came available with TRD body kits. As of 2015, the Fortuner is available in four variants: 2.7 EXR, 2.7 TRD Sportivo, 4.0 GXR, 4.0 VXR and 4.0 TRD Sportivo.\n\nSingapore \nThe Fortuner was introduced in 2005 in Singapore by Borneo Motors (Toyota's authorised dealer in Singapore), with the 2.7 V grade being the only available model. It received two facelifts, with changes to the headlight and tail light clusters in its first facelift in 2006, and new bumpers and grill design, new headlamp and clear tail lamp clusters, and blackwood grain trim in its interior for the second facelift in 2011. Later models included a touchscreen telematics navigation system. Due to the car's height (1.85\u00a0m), the car cannot clear the height limit in some Singaporean car parks.\n\nSouth Africa \nThe Fortuner was unveiled in South Africa in 2005 and launched in 2006 becoming the best-selling SUV since its launch. Toyota released an updated model in 2009. In 2011, the Fortuner benefited from another facelift, together with its sibling the Hilux. A 2.5-litre diesel engine was added to the newly facelifted range. Again in 2013, the Fortuner received some minor interior upgrades notably for the first time; the introduction of a black leather interior. The sound system was also upgraded together with the navigation system.\n\nVenezuela \nTwo grades are available for 2011 \u2013 4\u00d74 and 4\u00d72 \u2013 both with the 4.0-litre V6 engine. The assembly plant is located in Cuman\u00e1.\n\nVietnam \nIn February 2009, Toyota Motor Vietnam (TMV) started to produce Fortuner \u2013 SUV of IMV series. And the Fortuner has soon occupied the first position in medium high SUV segment in Vietnam with the accumulated sales of nearly 25,000 units with a steady SUV market share at 64% with 6,129 units sold in 2012.\n\nFacelifts\n\n2008 \nA minor redesign of the Fortuner was launched in July 2008. It was first unveiled in Thailand, and then at the 16th Indonesia International Motor Show. It features new projector headlamps and grille, new rear lights, Bluetooth connectivity, new light sand interior, electronic adjustable driver's seat in 4\u00d74 V model, rear air conditioning from ceiling for second, and third row which was originally located on the sides. Electronic Brake Force Distribution, with Brake Assist replacing LSPV in some models only. Its newly redesigned front grille and front lamps are in the style of the Land Cruiser 200 Series.\n\n2011 \nThe second facelift Fortuner was introduced in July 2011. It was first unveiled in Bangkok, Thailand. The front fascia was completely revised with a new fender, hood, grille, headlamps, tail lamps, bumper and fog light housing, similar to the J200 Land Cruiser. The tail lamps were redesigned with clear housing similar to the first generation Lexus RX. The rear bumper, rear garnish plate were also revised. Changes in the sides includes a new sharper fender flares, LED integrated side view mirrors and the wheels was also redesigned similar to the 2012 Hilux. Minor changes were also made to the interior including the centre console, steering wheel and audio/video system were also upgraded. The Fortuner later also received a new VNT (Variable Nozzle Turbo) intercooled turbo engine.\n\nSecond generation (AN150/AN160; 2015) \n\nThe second generation Fortuner was unveiled simultaneously on 16 July 2015 in Australia and Thailand. Along with the Hilux, the Fortuner features the \"Keen Look\" design language. Both the Hilux and Fortuner share the chassis, transmission and engine lineup, with two new diesel engines from the GD series. The 2.7-litre and 4.0-litre petrol engines were updated with Dual VVT-i. The second-generation Fortuner features a part-time 4\u00d74 system instead of the full-time 4\u00d74 system used in the previous generation.\n\nThe development of the vehicle was led by executive chief engineer Hiroki Nakajima. Despite sharing the hood panels, front pillar area, windscreen glass and front doors as the Hilux, the exterior of the Fortuner has been described as more slim-looking, featuring slim headlights with bi-beam LED projector as an option and blacked-out D-pillars for a \"floating roof\" look. Toyota designers drew inspiration from their own Land Cruiser and Land Cruiser Prado heritage, as a means of differentiating the Fortuner from competing body-on-frame SUV rivals.\n\nSince this generation, the Fortuner no longer shares the interior design with the Hilux to give a 'distinct character' between the two. As the result, the interior took an upwards step in perceived quality with an upright dashboard design with synthetic leather trims with stitching, a three-spoke steering wheel shared with the Hilux and a modern instrument cluster with a large colour TFT LCD multi-info display.\n\nThe Fortuner also features larger cross sections for its ladder frame, and sits on double wishbone front suspension and five-link rear suspension with coil springs. The rear differential lock also has its componentry placed within the differential housing for improved off-road protection.\n\nAll variants are equipped with ABS, EBD, dual airbags plus knee airbag, \"follow me home\" light function, all around sensor, glove box with chiller function, digital automatic climate control, all auto power windows along with tilt and telescopic steering wheel as standard. All variants also have Eco Mode and Power Mode features to adjust throttle responses. The front braking system consists of 17\" disc brakes, whilst the rear braking system uses drum brakes, except in Australia and India where disc brakes are used all around. In 2017, the Fortuner was upgraded to disc brakes all around in all markets. In the third row, the 50:50 split seats continue to flips up onto the body side while being folded instead of folding flat into the floor like on most of its competitors.\n\nPowertrain \nThe Fortuner is powered by a range of petrol and diesel engines. The two GD series engines are newly developed for this generation, which feature common-rail direct-injection and variable nozzle turbocharging; the 2.8-litre also gets auto start-stop in some markets. The 2.7-litre petrol engine is lighter and equipped with Dual VVT-i, improved combustion and less friction.\n\nMarkets\n\nAustralia \nThe Fortuner was unveiled in Australia in July 2015 and went on sale in October 2015. It is sold only with 4\u00d74, 2.8-litre turbo-diesel with only a six-speed automatic transmission. Three model grades are available: GX, GXL and Crusade.\n\nStarting from 2022, some grade levels of the Australian market Fortuner are imported from Indonesia.\n\nIndia \nThe second generation Fortuner was launched in November 2016 with two engine options, 2.8-litre diesel and 2.7-litre petrol with either manual or automatic transmission, 4\u00d72 or 4\u00d74.\n\nIn early 2020, the Indian market Fortuner was upgraded to meet the Bharat Stage 6 emissions standards, which necessitate the addition of diesel particulate filter (DPF).\n\nThe facelifted Fortuner was launched in India in January 2021, which is offered in both standard and Legender grades. In May 2022, the GR Sport variant was released as the highest grade.\n\nIndonesia \nThe second generation Fortuner was launched in January 2016. Initial grade models were G (diesel, available in 4\u00d72 with manual and automatic transmission, and 4\u00d74 with automatic unit), VRZ (diesel, available in either 4\u00d72 or 4\u00d74, only with automatic transmission), and SRZ (petrol 4\u00d72 automatic). Initial engine options were the 2.7-litre petrol engine or the 2.4-litre diesel engine.\n\nThe TRD Sportivo body kits were also available for the SRZ and VRZ variants (4\u00d72 only) from August 2017 up to August 2021. In August 2018, the Fortuner was updated to comply with the Euro 4 emission standards. The TRD Sportivo model received a minor update in July 2019.\n\nThe facelifted Fortuner was launched in Indonesia in October 2020. In August 2021, the TRD Sportivo variant was renamed to GR Sport while the standard SRZ grade was removed from the lineup, leaving only its GR Sport variant.\n\nIn January 2022, the 2.4-litre diesel engine option for VRZ grade and its GR Sport variant was replaced with the 2.8-litre diesel engine. The standard 4\u00d74 VRZ grade was also replaced by its GR Sport variant with the 2.8-litre diesel engine, alongside the discontinuation of 4\u00d74 G grade.\n\nLaos \nThe second generation Fortuner was launched in March 2016 with one model grade, V 4\u00d74 with 3.0-litre diesel engine and 5-speed automatic transmission. In August 2017, the Fortuner was updated with an introduction of the new 2.8-litre diesel engine that replaced the old 3.0-litre diesel engine used in the outgoing model along with other upgrades.\n\nMalaysia \nThe second generation Fortuner was launched in May 2016 and was offered in 2.4 VRZ 4\u00d74 turbodiesel and 2.7 SRZ 4\u00d74 petrol variants with automatic transmissions. In January 2017, both variants obtained \"Energy Efficient Vehicle\" (EEV) status from the government, which reduced its price. In September 2017, the 2.4 VRZ was renamed as the 2.4 4\u00d74 and two additional grade models were introduced: 2.4 VRZ 4\u00d72 and 2.4 VRZ 4\u00d74.\n\nThe facelifted Fortuner was launched in Malaysia in February 2021 alongside the facelifted Innova. It is offered in three variants: 2.4 4\u00d74, 2.7 SRZ 4\u00d74 and 2.8 VRZ 4\u00d74. In November 2021, the Fortuner SRZ and VRZ models was updated with dual-zone automatic climate control as standard along with other upgrades.\n\nPakistan \nThe second-generation Fortuner was launched on 27 September 2016 with a petrol variant. \n\nIn late 2017, Toyota Indus introduced the Sigma 4 variant of the Fortuner, powered by the 2.8 litre diesel engine. \n\nIn January 2020, Toyota Indus introduced the G grade as the base petrol model of the Fortuner.\n\nIn early 2022, the Legender variant was added to the lineup.\n\nPhilippines \nThe second generation Fortuner was launched in the Philippines on 14 January 2016 with two new diesel engines (2.8-litre and 2.4-litre), and an updated 2.7-litre petrol engine. Initial grade levels were the entry-level G and top-spec V.\n\nIn August 2017, the Fortuner was refreshed for the 2018 model year. Rear disc brakes became standard on all grades along with other upgrades. The Fortuner became the best-selling car in the Philippines in 2017.\n\nThe facelifted Fortuner was launched in the Philippines on 17 October 2020. It is offered in 2.4 G, 2.4 V, 2.8 Q and 2.8 LTD grade levels with the 2.7 G petrol variant being discontinued. In September 2021, the Fortuner received another feature list upgrade.\n\nRussia \nThe Fortuner went on sale in Russia in October 2017. The Fortuner sold in Russia is only available in 4\u00d74 with 2.8-litre turbo-diesel and 2.7-litre petrol engines, with either five-speed manual or six-speed automatic gearbox. Four grade choices are offered: Standard, Comfort, Elegance and Prestige. Fortuners sold in the Russian market are imported from Thailand.\n\nThailand \nIn Thailand, initial grade levels were the G and V. In March 2016, the TRD Sportivo variant was added to the lineup.\n\nIn 2021, the Fortuner gained a new body kit by Modellista. The GR Sport variant also became available. \n\nIn February 2022, a special variant called the Commander was released. Only 1,000 units were produced.\n\nIn August 2022, the regular Fortuner was replaced with Leader G and Leader V grade levels, which share the styling with the upmarket Legender model.\n\nMiddle East \nThe Fortuner was launched in the GCC countries in March 2016. In the UAE market, it is available with 2.7-litre and 4.0-litre petrol engines, with either 6-speed automatic transmission. It is offered in four grades EXR, GXR, VXR, and the TRD Sportivo. In the Saudi Arabian market, it is available with 2.8-litre and 2.4-litre diesel engines, and 2.7-litre and 4.0-litre petrol engines, with either 6-speed automatic transmission. It is offered in five grades GX2, VX1, VX2, VX3 and the TRD Sportivo.\n\nThe facelifted Fortuner was launched in Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and UAE in August 2021, the TRD Sportivo grade will not be offered in the GCC countries.\n\nFacelift \nThe facelifted Fortuner debuted on 4 June 2020 for the Thai market alongside the facelifted Hilux. The Legender flagship sub-model (known as VRZ in Malaysia, LTD in the Philippines, Diamond", "1874\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0435\u0441\u044b \u0432\u044b\u043d\u0443\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430 \u041a\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0430 \u0443\u0439\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u043e\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0443.\n 1899\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0438\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u0435\u043b \u0424\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043f\u043f\u0438\u043d \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0410\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0438\u043e \u041c\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0438.\n\nXX \u0432\u0435\u043a \n 1905\n \u041e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u041f\u043e\u0440\u0442-\u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0432 \u0445\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u042f\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b, \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0441\u0434\u0430\u043d \u042f\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0410.\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u0421\u0442\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c.\n \u041d\u0430 \u0432\u043d\u0435\u0448\u043d\u0435\u043c \u0440\u0435\u0439\u0434\u0435 \u041f\u043e\u0440\u0442-\u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d \u0431\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0446 \u00ab\u0421\u0435\u0432\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u00bb.\n\n 1910\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0435 \u0432\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0441\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043b\u0435\u0442\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439.\n 1915\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u0445\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u0421\u0430\u0440\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043c\u044b\u0448\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0437\u0430\u043d\u044f\u043b\u0438 \u0442\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0443\u044e \u043a\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0443\u0441\u0438.\n 1916\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.\n 1919\n \u041f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043b\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0440\u044b \u0437\u0430\u0445\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u0412\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044e\u0441\u0435.\n \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0447\u0438\u0445 \u0432 \u0420\u0438\u0433\u0435.\n \u041f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0436\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f\u043d\u044b \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u044b\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u0432\u0443 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044b \u043c\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430 \u0432\u043e \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u0441 \u0411\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043e\u043c \u0412\u0435\u0441\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c.\n 1920\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u044b\u0448\u043b\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0439 \u0438 \u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u044b \u0443\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0433\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u0443\u0435\u0437\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u044b.\n 1921\n \u041e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u041a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u041b\u044e\u043a\u0441\u0435\u043c\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0430.\n \u041e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u044b \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u043b\u044b \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0438 \u042d\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0436\u0430 (\u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434).\n 1922\n \u0412 \u0410\u043d\u043a\u0430\u0440\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d \u0434\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440 \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u0422\u0443\u0440\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u0438 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u0421\u0420.\n \u041e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u041a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0427\u0438\u043b\u0438.\n 1923\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u0411\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0430\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0445\u043e-\u0441\u0438\u043d\u0434\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432.\n 1925\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e-\u0411\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0445\u0448\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u0422\u0430\u0434\u0436\u0438\u043a\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0410\u0421\u0421\u0420.\n 1942\n \u0412 \u0445\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u041e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u041a\u0435\u0440\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u0424\u0435\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0434\u0435\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f; \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u0440\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b \u041d.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u0411\u0430\u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b\u0439.\n \u0412 \u0445\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u0431\u0438\u0442\u0432\u044b \u0437\u0430 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0443 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u041c\u0430\u043b\u043e\u044f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0446.\n \u042f\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u043d\u044f\u043b\u0438 \u041c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0443 (\u0424\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043f\u043f\u0438\u043d\u044b).\n 1943\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u043e\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a \u043d\u0430 \u041a\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0435.\n 1947\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0421\u0430\u0445\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c (\u0432\u044b\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0438\u0437 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u0425\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0440\u0430\u044f).\n 1949\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0418\u043d\u0430\u0436\u0430, \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432 \u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0431\u0443\u043a\u0443.\n 1956\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u0424\u0420\u0413 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u044b \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0442\u0440\u044f\u0434\u044b \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0443\u043d\u0434\u0435\u0441\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0430.\n 1959\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0436\u043f\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f \u00ab\u041b\u0443\u043d\u0430-1\u00bb.\n 1967\n \u0420\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0434 \u0420\u0435\u0439\u0433\u0430\u043d \u0438\u0437\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d \u0433\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u041a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0438.\n \u041e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0412\u0412\u0421 \u0421\u0428\u0410 \u00ab\u0411\u043e\u043b\u043e\u00bb, \u0432 \u0445\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0451\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a\u0438 F-4 \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0442\u043e\u0436\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0443 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0451\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u041c\u0438\u0413-21 \u0412\u0412\u0421 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0412\u044c\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0430\n 1992\n \u041b\u0438\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0446\u0435\u043d, \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0435\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c \u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438.\n \u041e\u043f\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0433\u043b\u0430 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430 \u0417\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0434\u0430 \u0413\u0430\u043c\u0441\u0430\u0445\u0443\u0440\u0434\u0438\u044f.\n\nXXI \u0432\u0435\u043a \n 2020\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u044b \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u043e\u0442 \u0443\u043f\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0413\u043e\u043b\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0438\u044f.\n 2022\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u041a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0438\u0437-\u0437\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0446\u0435\u043d \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0436\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u0430\u0437.\n\n\u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \n\u0421\u043c. \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435: :\u041a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f:\u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0435\u0441\u044f 2 \u044f\u043d\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044f\n\n\u0414\u043e XIX \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 \n 869\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0401\u0434\u0437\u044d\u0439 (\u0443\u043c. 949), \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u042f\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0438 (876\u2014884).\n 1462\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u044c\u0435\u0440\u043e \u0434\u0438 \u041a\u043e\u0437\u0438\u043c\u043e (\u0443\u043c. 1522), \u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0436\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0446.\n 1642\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0435\u0445\u043c\u0435\u0434 IV (\u0443\u043c. 1693), \u0441\u0443\u043b\u0442\u0430\u043d \u041e\u0441\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0438 (1648\u20141687).\n 1647\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044d\u043b \u0411\u044d\u043a\u043e\u043d (\u0443\u043c. 1676), \u0440\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0432 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0410\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0435.\n 1656\u00a0\u2014 \u0424\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446 \u041b\u0435\u0444\u043e\u0440\u0442 (\u0443\u043c. 1699), \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u0430\u0434\u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430\u043b, \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0430 I.\n 1699\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u0441\u043c\u0430\u043d III (\u0443\u043c. 1757), \u0441\u0443\u043b\u0442\u0430\u043d \u041e\u0441\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0438 (1754\u20141757).\n 1727\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u0436\u0435\u0439\u043c\u0441 \u0412\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0444 (\u043f\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0431 1759), \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0421\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b.\n 1798\u00a0\u2014 \u0424\u0451\u0434\u043e\u0440 \u0413\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 (\u0443\u043c. 1854), \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0446\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n\nXIX \u0432\u0435\u043a \n 1834\n \u0424\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0440\u0438\u0445 \u041b\u0443\u0438\u0441 \u0414\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d (\u0443\u043c. 1894), \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0430\u0447\u044c\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u0434\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d-\u043f\u0438\u043d\u0447\u0435\u0440.\n \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 (\u0443\u043c. 1882), \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0436\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0446, \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a.\n 1837\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0411\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0440\u0435\u0432 (\u0443\u043c. 1910), \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0438 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442, \u0440\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043a\u0430 \u00ab\u041c\u043e\u0433\u0443\u0447\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0443\u0447\u043a\u0430\u00bb.\n 1865\u00a0\u2014 \u0425\u0435\u0439\u043a\u043a\u0438 \u041f\u0430\u0430\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d (\u0443\u043c. 1919), \u0444\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434, \u0444\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0438 \u044d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433.\n 1870\u00a0\u2014 \u042d\u0440\u043d\u0441\u0442 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u043b\u0430\u0445 (\u0443\u043c. 1938), \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u043f\u0442\u043e\u0440, \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0438 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n 1871\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0439 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432 (\u0443\u043c. 1930), \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e, \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440 \u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0433.\n 1873\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d \u041f\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0435\u043a\u0443\u043a (\u0443\u043c. 1960), \u043d\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043a \u043c\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0441\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0430.\n 1880\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0414\u0435\u0433\u0442\u044f\u0440\u0451\u0432 (\u0443\u043c. 1949), \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0438\u044f.\n 1894\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u043b \u041a\u0435\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432 (\u0443\u043c. 1972), \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440 \u0438 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e, \u043f\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0433, \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420.\n 1896\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u0437\u0438\u0433\u0430 \u0412\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0432 (\u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434. \u0414\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0434 \u041a\u0430\u0443\u0444\u043c\u0430\u043d) (\u0443\u043c. 1954), \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440-\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0438 \u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n\nXX \u0432\u0435\u043a \n 1903\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0430\u043d\u044d \u0422\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043a\u0430 (\u0443\u043c. 2022), \u044f\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0443\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0434\u043e\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430, \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0436\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0417\u0435\u043c\u043b\u0438 \u0441 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f 2018 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430.\n 1905\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0427\u0445\u0430\u0438\u0434\u0437\u0435 (\u0443\u043c. 1986), \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e, \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0413\u0440\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u0421\u0420.\n 1905\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0443\u0438\u0434\u0436\u0438 \u0414\u0437\u0430\u043c\u043f\u0430 (\u0443\u043c. 1991), \u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440, \u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044e\u0441\u0435\u0440.\n 1912\u00a0\u2014 \u0420\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e \u0413\u0443\u0442\u0442\u0443\u0437\u043e (\u0443\u043c. 1987), \u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0436\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0446 \u0438 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u043a.\n 1917\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0417\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430 (\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442. \u0438\u043c\u044f \u042d\u0432\u0430 \u0411\u0440\u0438\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0442\u0430 \u0425\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0433, \u0443\u043c. 2003), \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u043e-\u043d\u043e\u0440\u0432\u0435\u0436\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u043e\u0432\u0449\u0438\u0446\u0430.\n 1918\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0435\u0439 \u0413\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432 (\u0443\u043c. 2001), \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440, \u043f\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0433, \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420.\n 1920\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u0439\u0437\u0435\u043a \u0410\u0437\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0432 (\u0443\u043c. 1992), \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c-\u0444\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0441\u0442, \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0438.\n 1921\u00a0\u2014 \u0415\u0432\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0425\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 (\u0443\u043c. 1987), \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e, \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420.\n 1925\u00a0\u2014 \u0418\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0410\u0440\u0445\u0438\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0430 (\u0443\u043c. 2010), \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430, \u043f\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0433, \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420.\n 1927\u00a0\u2014 \u042e\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0413\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447, \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0431\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0430, \u0431\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440, \u0445\u043e\u0440\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444, \u043f\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0433, \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420.\n 1928\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0440 \u0420\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043d (\u0443\u043c. 2018), \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a.\n 1937\n \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0418\u043b\u044c\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e (\u0443\u043c. 1992), \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u044d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u044b, \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e, \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0420\u0421\u0424\u0421\u0420 (1990).\n \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u044d\u0442\u0442\u0430 \u0427\u0443\u0434\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 (\u0443\u043c. 2021), \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434, \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043a \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b, \u0442\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433.\n 1938\u00a0\u2014 \u0425\u0430\u043d\u0441 \u0425\u0435\u0440\u0431\u044c\u0451\u0440\u043d\u0441\u0440\u044e\u0434, \u043d\u043e\u0440\u0432\u0435\u0436\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n 1947\n \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0422\u0438\u0445\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0438\u0430\u0442\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442, 4-\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d, 11-\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430.\n \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u042f\u043a\u0443\u0448\u0435\u0432, \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0445\u043e\u043a\u043a\u0435\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0434\u0432\u0443\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d, 7-\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430, \u0432 1998\u20142000\u00a0\u0433\u0433. \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440 \u0445\u043e\u043a\u043a\u0435\u0439\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438.\n 1949\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u043b\u0435\u0433 \u0428\u0435\u0439\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0441 (\u0443\u043c. 2006), \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444, \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0420\u0424.\n 1953\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0422\u0440\u0435\u0442\u044c\u044f\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433, \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0438\u0439.\n 1961\u00a0\u2014 \u0425\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0441\u0438 \u0421\u0430\u0439\u0442\u043e (\u0443\u043c. 2015), \u044f\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0437\u044e\u0434\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0434\u0432\u0443\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d (1984, 1988)\n 1963\n \u041e\u043b\u0435\u0433 \u0414\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0430, \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u043c\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0435\u0440.\n \u041e\u043b\u0435\u0433 \u0417\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u043a, \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u043b\u0430\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0445\u043e\u043a\u043a\u0435\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440.\n \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0439 \u0416\u0438\u0433\u0443\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044e\u0441\u0435\u0440, \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0420\u0424.\n 1964\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u043b\u043b \u0423\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0440 (\u0443\u043c. 2019), \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u043e\u043a\u0441\u0451\u0440.\n 1966\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u043b\u0435\u0433 \u0412\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0430\u043d, \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0446, \u0441\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430, \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438.\n 1967\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u0438\u0430 \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0440\u0435\u0440\u0435 (\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442. \u0438\u043c\u044f \u0410\u043b\u0442\u0435\u044f \u0416\u0430\u043d\u044d\u0440\u043e), \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430, \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430.\n 1968\n \u0410\u043d\u043a\u0438 \u0432\u0430\u043d \u0413\u0440\u044e\u043d\u0441\u0432\u0435\u043d, \u043d\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0441\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0430-\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a, \u0442\u0440\u0451\u0445\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430.\n \u041a\u044c\u044e\u0431\u0430 \u0413\u0443\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0433-\u043c\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0448\u0438\u0439, \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440, \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041e\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0440\u00bb.\n 1969\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0422\u0430\u0440\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0442\u043e\u043d, \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0443\u043f\u0435\u0440\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n 1970\u00a0\u2014 \u0418\u043d\u043d\u0430 \u0413\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0441, \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430, \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0430\u044f, \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n 1975\u00a0\u2014 \u042f\u043d\u0430 \u0420\u0443\u0434\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f, \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0430\u044f, \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044e\u0441\u0435\u0440.\n 1981\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0434\u0440\u0438\u0433\u0435\u0441, \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u044f\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0451\u0440 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 (2014).\n 1983\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0435\u0439\u0442 \u0411\u043e\u0441\u0443\u043e\u0440\u0442, \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0438 \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n 1986\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0420\u0430\u0439\u043d\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0442, \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0447\u0438\u0445\u0430-\u0431\u0430\u0439\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430, \u043e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430.\n 1993\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u0433\u043b\u0430\u044f \u0428\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f, \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\u00a0\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430\u00a0\u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e, \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430.\n 1997\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0435\u043d \u0422\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d, \u043d\u043e\u0440\u0432\u0435\u0436\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0446 \u0433\u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e-\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0438\u043b\u044f, \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b (2020).\n\nXXI \u0432\u0435\u043a \n 2003 \u2014 \u042d\u043b\u044c\u0435 \u0412\u0430\u0438, \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n\n\u0421\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \n\u0421\u043c. \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435: :\u041a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f:\u0423\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0438\u0435 2 \u044f\u043d\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044f\n\n\u0414\u043e XIX \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 \n 1547\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u0436\u0430\u043d \u041b\u0443\u0438\u0434\u0436\u0438 \u0424\u0438\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 (\u0440. 1522), \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0437\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0424\u0438\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0432 \u0413\u0435\u043d\u0443\u0435.\n 1554\u00a0\u2014 \u0416\u0443\u0430\u043d \u041c\u0430\u043d\u0443\u044d\u043b (\u0440. 1537), \u0438\u043d\u0444\u0430\u043d\u0442 \u041f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0433\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438, \u043e\u0442\u0435\u0446 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0421\u0435\u0431\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0430 I.\n 1557\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u043e\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043c\u043e (\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442. \u0438\u043c\u044f \u042f\u043a\u043e\u043f\u043e \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0447\u0447\u0438; \u0440. 1494), \u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0436\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0446, \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0438\u0437 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u044c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0430.\n\nXIX \u0432\u0435\u043a \n 1801\u00a0\u2014 \u0418\u043e\u0433\u0430\u043d\u043d \u041a\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0430\u0440 \u041b\u0430\u0444\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440 (\u0440. 1741), \u0448\u0432\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u0431\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442.\n 1831\u00a0\u2014 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0434 \u0413\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433 \u041d\u0438\u0431\u0443\u0440 (\u0440. 1776), \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043a \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u0438\u0437\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438.\n 1835\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0411\u0435\u0440\u0445 (\u0440. 1780), \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043a, \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438 (1803\u20141806).\n 1857\u00a0\u2014 \u042d\u043d\u0434\u0440\u044e \u042e\u0440 (\u0440. 1778), \u0448\u043e\u0442\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0438 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u043a.\n 1861\u00a0\u2014 \u0424\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0440\u0438\u0445 \u0412\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0433\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043c IV (\u0440. 1795), \u043f\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c (\u0441 1840) \u0438\u0437 \u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0413\u043e\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u043e\u043b\u043b\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0432.\n 1879\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0431 \u041a\u0443\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0433 (\u0440. 1800), \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n 1892\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u0436\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0436 \u0411\u0438\u0434\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c \u042d\u0439\u0440\u0438 (\u0440. 1801), \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043a \u0438 \u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c.\n\nXX \u0432\u0435\u043a \n\n 1904\n \u0414\u0436\u0435\u0439\u043c\u0441 \u041b\u043e\u043d\u0433\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0442 (\u0440. 1821), \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b \u0430\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0413\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b \u0432 \u0410\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0435.\n \u041f\u0451\u0442\u0440 \u042e\u0440\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043e\u043d (\u0440. 1836), \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n 1909\u00a0\u2014 \u0418\u043e\u0430\u043d\u043d \u041a\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0448\u0442\u0430\u0434\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 (\u0440. 1829), \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0432\u0438.\n 1913\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d \u0424\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043f\u043f \u0422\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d \u0434\u0435 \u0411\u043e\u0440 (\u0440. 1855), \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433, \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u044b.\n 1916\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0441\u0442 \u0427\u0430\u0439\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 (\u0440. 1850), \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0433, \u043b\u0438\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, \u043c\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442 \u041f.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u0427\u0430\u0439\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e.\n 1917\u00a0\n \u042d\u0434\u0443\u0430\u0440\u0434 \u0411\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0442 \u0422\u044d\u0439\u043b\u043e\u0440 (\u0440. 1832), \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433 \u0438 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433.\n \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d \u0424\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0430\u043d (\u0440. 1877), \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043d\u0449\u0438\u043a \u0438 \u043b\u0451\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a, \u043e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d (1896).\n 1921\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0432 (\u0440. 1839), \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0443\u0440\u0433 \u0438 \u0438\u0437\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n 1939\u00a0\u2014 \u0420\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d \u0414\u043c\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 (\u0440. 1864), \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0438 \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n 1950\u00a0\u2014 \u042d\u043c\u0438\u043b\u044c \u042f\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0441 (\u0440. 1884), \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440, \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u00ab\u041e\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0440\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0443\u044e \u043c\u0443\u0436\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c.\n 1954\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u041b\u0435\u0432\u043a\u043e\u0432 (\u0440. 1895), \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440, \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0432 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0435 \u0441\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0443\u0448\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0435.\n 1973\u00a0\u2014 \u0424\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0413\u0430\u0430\u043b\u044c (\u0440. 1904), \u0432\u0435\u043d\u0433\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430, \u0437\u0432\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0430 \u0434\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0430.\n 1983\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0413\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0432 (\u0440. 1918), \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0422\u0440\u0443\u0434\u0430.\n 1984\n \u0415\u0432\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u041a\u0440\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432 (\u0440. 1906), \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u0433\u0435\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433.\n \u0413\u0430\u0432\u0440\u0438\u0438\u043b \u0428\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0446 (\u0440. 1903), \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u043f\u0442\u043e\u0440, \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434, \u043f\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0433.\n 1985\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0441 \u0414\u0436\u043e\u043d \u041b\u0430\u0444\u043b\u0438\u043d (\u0440. 1905), \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a-\u0441\u044e\u0440\u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n 1989\u00a0\u2014 \u0418\u043b\u044c\u044f \u041c\u0430\u0437\u0443\u0440\u0443\u043a (\u0440. 1906), \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043b\u0451\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a, \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430, \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b-\u043c\u0430\u0439\u043e\u0440 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438.\n 1993\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442 \u0412\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 (\u0440. 1915), \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a-\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u043a, \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420.\n 1994\u00a0\u2014 \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441 \u0412\u044f\u0442\u043a\u0438\u043d (\u0440. 1913), \u0446\u0438\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u043a\u043b\u043e\u0443\u043d, \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0420\u0421\u0424\u0421\u0420.\n 2000\u00a0\u2014 \u042d\u043b\u043c\u043e \u0420\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0435\u043b \u0417\u0443\u043c\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0442 (\u0440. 1920), \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u0434\u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430\u043b.\n\nXXI \u0432\u0435\u043a \n 2007\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c \u0417\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e (\u0440. 1929), \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440, \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438.\n 2009\n \u0410\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0413\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u0440. 1913), \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0447\u0438\u043a-\u043d\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0433\u0430\u043b, \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0438\u0437 \u0440\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u00ab\u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0435\u043b\u043b\u044b\u00bb.\n \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0414\u0436\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u044c\u0438\u043d\u0438 (\u0440. 1980), \u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430.\n 2011\n \u041f\u0438\u0442 \u041f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0443\u044d\u0439\u0442 (\u0440. 1945), \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440.\n \u042d\u043d\u043d \u0424\u0440\u044d\u043d\u0441\u0438\u0441 (\u0440. 1930), \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n 2013\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0430\u043e \u041c\u0430\u0437\u0443\u0440\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u0440. 1945), \u0443\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0432\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0432\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044c, \u0432\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432 \u0441\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043e\u043a \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432 XX \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u041c\u0424\u0424\u0418\u0418\u0421.\n 2017\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0426\u0430\u0440\u0451\u0432 (\u0440. 1931), \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b (1960), \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440.\n 2021\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u041a\u043e\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0432 (\u0440. 1940), \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440, \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442", " \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u044b \u043d\u0430\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u044b \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0431\u0443\u043a\u0432\u0430\u043c.\n\n\u041d\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u043f\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u043c \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430 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\u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f PLAY, \u0430 \u0441 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0449\u044c\u044e \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 SPECTRUM \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u043c \u00abSpectrum 48K\u00bb. \u041d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u043d\u044f\u043b\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e \u0434\u0432\u0443\u0445 \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0438\u043c\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432, \u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e 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\u0433\u0434\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u043c BASIC 48K \u0438 BASIC 128K \u0441 \u043d\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0431\u0443\u043a\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e.\n\nZX Spectrum +3 \u0432\u044b\u0433\u043b\u044f\u0434\u0435\u043b \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u00ab+2\u00bb, \u043d\u043e \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e \u043c\u0430\u0433\u043d\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0444\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043b \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0434 3-\u0434\u044e\u0439\u043c\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0433\u0438\u0431\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432 (\u043a\u0430\u043a \u0432 \u00abAmstrad CPC 6128\u00bb); 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\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f.\n\n\u0412 \u00ab+3\u00bb \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u0435\u0449\u0451 2\u00a0\u00d7\u00a016 \u041a\u0411 \u041f\u0417\u0423, \u0432 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0447\u0438\u043f\u0430 \u043d\u0430 32 \u041a\u0411. \u041f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0443 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0451\u043c\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u043d\u044f\u043b\u0430 \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0440\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e 128 ROM, \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0443\u044e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0443\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430 +3DOS, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f 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\u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u044e \u00abSpectrum\u00bb, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u044e; \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u0434\u043e \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f 1990 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430. \u0425\u043e\u0442\u044f \u0432 \u0442\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0436\u0438 \u00abSpectrum\u00bb \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u043b\u0438 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442\u044c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0436 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u0434\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0448\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432, \u00abAmstrad\u00bb 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\u0434\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0430, \u043d\u043e \u044d\u0442\u043e \u0442\u0430\u043a \u0438 \u043d\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u0441\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043d\u043e. \u041a\u0430\u043a \u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435 \u0441 \u00abZX Spectrum +3\u00bb, \u043d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u044b \u0434\u043b\u044f 48K \u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0438\u0433\u0440 \u0434\u043b\u044f 128K \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043c\u044b \u0441 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u044e.\n\n\u041f\u043e\u0437\u0436\u0435, \u0432 1987 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443, \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 ZX Spectrum +2B \u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0438\u0437 \u0413\u043e\u043d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0433\u0430 \u0432 \u0422\u0430\u0439\u0432\u0430\u043d\u044c.\n\n\u041c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438, \u043d\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u0434\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u044b\u043d\u043e\u043a \n\u0412 1983 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0411\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u043d (Martin Brennan) \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0432 Sinclair Research \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0443\u044e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0443 LC3 (Low Cost Colour Computer), \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0432\u0443\u0445 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0445\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0445, \u0441 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0436\u0430\u0445. \u0421\u0442\u0438\u0432 \u0411\u0435\u0440\u0440\u0438 (Steve Berry) \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0434\u043b\u044f LC3 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0437\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0447\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u0441 \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0444\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043e\u043c. \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d \u0432 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u0435 1983 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0443\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044f \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044b \u043d\u0430 Sinclair QL.\n\n\u0412 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435 1980-\u0445 \u0432 Sinclair Research \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442 Loki, \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u0448\u0451\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e (\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e \u00a3200) \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430 Amiga. \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c, \u0447\u0442\u043e Loki \u0431\u0443\u0434\u0435\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430 Z80H \u043d\u0430 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0435 7 \u041c\u0413\u0446, \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0435 128 \u041a\u0411 \u041e\u0417\u0423. \u0414\u043b\u044f \u0437\u0432\u0443\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043e \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0434\u0432\u0435 \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0445\u0435\u043c\u044b. \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0437\u0430\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442 \u0432 1986 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0441\u0434\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0438 \u0441 Amstrad.\n\n\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0438\u044f \n\n\u00abSinclair\u00bb \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u043b\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u00abZX Spectrum\u00bb \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043b\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f:\n ZX Printer\u00a0\u2014 \u0443\u0436\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0435\u043d \u043a 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\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0444\u0435\u0439\u0441 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u043e \u0432\u043e\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0438 ZX\u00a0Microdrive.\n ZX Interface 2\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043b\u044c \u0441 \u0434\u0432\u0443\u043c\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0434\u0436\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043c \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0436\u0430 \u041f\u0417\u0423.\n ZX Microdrive\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0435 \u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0434\u0451\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0435, \u043d\u043e \u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0435 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0436\u0430\u0445 \u0441 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0446\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0439, \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043e \u0432 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u0435 1983 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430.\n Keypad\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0446\u0438\u0444\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438 128K.\n\n\u041f\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043c\u043e \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0440\u044f\u0434 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u0442 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439, \u0432 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438:\n Kempston joystick\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0444\u0435\u0439\u0441 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u0436\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430.\n Morex Peripherals Centronics/RS-232\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442.\n Currah Microspeech\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043b\u044c \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0437\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u0447\u0438.\n Videoface Digitiser\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0439\u0437\u0435\u0440.\n RAM pack\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043b\u044c \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u0438.\n Cheetah Marketing SpecDrum\u00a0\u2014 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430.\n Multiface\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0442\u043b\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u043e\u0442 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 Romantic Robot.\n\u0422\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439.\n\n\u0421\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0444\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u0432 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438:\n SPDOS (Abbeydale Designers/Watford Electronics, 1985)\n KDOS (Abbeydale Designers/Kempston, 1985)\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u044f SPDOS \u0441\u043e \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0439 \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0439 KDOS\n Opus Discovery (Opus Supplies Ltd, 1985)\n DISCiPLE (Miles Gordon Technology, 1987)\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u043b\u0435\u0440 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0430 \u0434\u0436\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430, \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442, \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0444\u0435\u0439\u0441 \u043b\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u0442\u0438 \u0438 \u00ab\u0432\u043e\u043b\u0448\u0435\u0431\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043a\u043d\u043e\u043f\u043a\u0443\u00bb.\n Beta Disk Interface (Technology Research Ltd, 1984) \u0438 Beta 128 Disk Interface (1987)\n\u041d\u0430 \u0417\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0444\u0435\u0439\u0441 DISCiPLE, \u0432 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b \u0438 \u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438\u00a0\u2014 Beta Disk Interface.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0438 \u043a\u043b\u043e\u043d\u044b \n\n\u00abSinclair\u00bb \u043b\u0438\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0437\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u00abSpectrum\u00bb \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u00abTimex\u00bb. \u0415\u0451 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438, \u043f\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0442 \u00abSpectrum\u00bb:\n Timex Sinclair 2068 (TS2068)\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0430, \u0447\u0435\u043c \u043e\u0440\u0438\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u00abSpectrum\u00bb; \u0434\u043e\u0431\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0436\u0430, \u0437\u0432\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0447\u0438\u043f AY-3-8912, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0443\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f ULA \u0441 \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043c\u0438. \u041c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0432 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0432 \u0421\u0428\u0410, \u0445\u043e\u0442\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0442\u0438 \u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044f\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0432 \u041f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0433\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u041f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u00abTimex Computer 2068\u00bb (TC2068) \u0438 \u00abUnipolbrit Komputer 2086\u00bb (UK2086).\n Timex Computer 2048\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0430, \u043e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u043f\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0436\u0430\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u00abSpectrum\u00bb, \u043d\u043e \u0441 \u0443\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 ULA, \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u043c\u044b; \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0432 \u041f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0433\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438.\n Timex Sinclair 2048\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u044f TS2068 \u0441 16 \u041a\u0411 \u041e\u0417\u0423; \u043d\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u044b\u043d\u043e\u043a.\n\n\u0412 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435 1989 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u00abMiles Gordon Technology\u00bb (\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0438) \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u00abSAM Coup\u00e9\u00bb \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u00abSpectrum\u00bb, \u0441\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0441 \u043d\u0438\u043c. \u041e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e, \u0432 \u0442\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u00abCommodore Amiga\u00bb \u0438 \u00abAtari ST\u00bb \u0443\u0436\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u044b\u043d\u043e\u043a.\n\n\u0412 \u0418\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0438 \u0432 1986 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u00abDecibells Electronics\u00bb \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u043b\u0438\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0437\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u044e \u00abSpectrum+\u00bb \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043c \u00abdb Spectrum+\u00bb. \u0414\u043e \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0432 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0435 1990-\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0436\u0438, \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0442\u044b\u0441\u044f\u0447 \u043c\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d.\n\n\u0411\u043b\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0440\u044f \u0434\u0435\u0448\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0448\u0438\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u00ab\u043d\u0435\u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435\u00bb \u043a\u043b\u043e\u043d\u044b \u00abSpectrum\u00bb \u0432 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420. \u041e\u043d\u0438 \u0438\u0437\u0433\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f\u043c\u0438, \u0442\u0430\u043a \u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0438/\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u041c\u041f \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 / \u0421\u041d\u0413. \u041d\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0437\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u043e\u043d\u044b \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0432 \u041f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435, \u0420\u0443\u043c\u044b\u043d\u0438\u0438, \u0427\u0435\u0445\u043e\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0438, \u0410\u0440\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435, \u0411\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0440\u044f\u0434\u0435 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d.\n\n\u0412 2014\u20142015 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u00abRetro Computers\u00bb \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043e\u043b\u0438 \u00abZX\u00a0Vega\u00bb \u0438 ZX Vega+, \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e 1000 \u043b\u0438\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0437\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0439\u043d \u00abZX\u00a0Spectrum\u00bb, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e-\u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0430 \n\n\u0412 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0410\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0435 \u0438 \u0417\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435 ZX Spectrum \u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e \u0441\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u0441\u0435\u0431\u044f \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439, \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044b: Sinclair User (\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044c 1982 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044c 1993 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430), Your Sinclair (\u0441 \u044f\u043d\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044f 1984 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u043a Your Spectrum, \u0441 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0430 1986 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044c 1993 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u043a Your Sinclair) \u0438 Crash (\u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c 1984 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435", "\u043c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00bb? \u00ab\u041d\u043e\u0432\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00bb? \u00ab\u0425\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0434\u0435\u0441\u0445\u0430\u0439\u043c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00bb?: \u041a \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0432\u0438\u0438 // \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u043a: \u0416\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b \u041f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0426\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041f\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0430\u0440\u0445\u0430\u0442\u0430. \u041c., 2003.\u00a0\u2014 \u2116\u00a06.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 54-58.\n \u0415\u0449\u0451 \u0440\u0430\u0437 \u043e \u00ab\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0435\u00bb (Ruzaramarcha) \u0438\u0437 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0442\u044b \u041b\u044e\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u041d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e 862/863\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 // \u041e\u0442 \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438 \u043a \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438: \u0421\u0431. \u0441\u0442. / [\u0421\u043e\u0441\u0442. \u0410.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u042e\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043e\u0432; \u043e\u0442\u0432. \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0412.\u00a0\u041b.\u00a0\u042f\u043d\u0438\u043d]. \u041c.: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430, 2003.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 51-56.\n \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0417\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434 \u0432 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0438\u0445 \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0438\u0437 \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439 christianitas // \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0446\u0438\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u044b \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0437\u0430\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u044f: [\u0421\u0431. \u0441\u0442.] / \u041e\u0442\u0432. \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u041c.\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u0413\u0440\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0432. \u041c.: \u0420\u0410\u041d. \u0418\u043d-\u0442 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0438\u0438, 2004.\n 1054 \u0438 1204\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u044b \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0432\u0435\u0445\u0438 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 // \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0412\u0438\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043b\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0417\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434 (\u043a 950-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0426\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0432\u0435\u0439 \u0438 800-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0437\u0430\u0445\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044f \u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0446\u0430\u043c\u0438) / \u041c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0446\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e-\u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f, 26-27 \u043c\u0430\u044f 2004\u00a0\u0433.: \u0421\u0431. \u043c\u0430\u0442-\u043b\u043e\u0432 / \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0430\u0440\u0445\u0430\u0442; \u0418\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e, \u041d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442 \u0420\u0410\u041d \u00ab\u0420\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438\u0439 \u0432 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438\u00bb, \u0418.\u00a0\u0421.\u00a0\u0427\u0438\u0447\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432. \u041c.: \u041f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041f\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0430\u0440\u0445\u0430\u0442\u0430, 2005.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 86-94.\n \u00ab\u0417\u0435\u043b\u043e \u043d\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u043c\u00bb (\u041c\u0435\u0436\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0431\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438 \u0432 XI\u2014XII\u00a0\u0432\u0432.) // \u0412\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438, \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b, \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430: \u0430\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0445 / \u0420\u043e\u0441. \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434. \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a, \u041e\u0442\u0434-\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u0442.-\u0444\u0438\u043b\u043e\u043b. \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a / [\u0413\u043b. \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434. \u0413.\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u0411\u043e\u043d\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0434-\u041b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u043d, \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0412.\u00a0\u041f.\u00a0\u041f\u043e\u043b\u044b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f]. \u041c.: \u0421\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430, 2005. \u0422. 1.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 269\u2014279.\n \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a\u044a // \u041e\u0442 \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438 \u043a \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438: \u042e\u0431\u0438\u043b\u0435\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0432\u044f\u0449\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0447\u043b.-\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0440. \u0420\u0410\u041d \u042f.\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u0429\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0443 / \u0420\u0410\u041d. \u0418\u043d-\u0442 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438; \u043e\u0442\u0432. \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0410.\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u0421\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432. \u041c.: \u041f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041f\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0430\u0440\u0445\u0430\u0442\u0430, 2005.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 139\u2014149.\n \u0423 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 (\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435, \u0431\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435, \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0446\u0438\u043f\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0430\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u044b) // \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e: \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c / \u0421\u0431. \u043c\u0430\u0442-\u043b\u043e\u0432 I \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0446\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438 27 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 2004\u00a0\u0433. \u041c.: \u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041f\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0430\u0440\u0445\u0430\u0442\u0430, 2005.\n \u041e\u0442 \u0414\u0430\u043c\u0438\u0435\u0442\u0442\u044b \u0434\u043e \u041a\u0430\u043b\u043a\u0438: (\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u0445\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0417\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430 \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 II \u0438 VI \u041a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0430\u043c\u0438) // \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a. \u0412\u044b\u043f. 102. \u041c.: \u041f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041f\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0430\u0440\u0445\u0430\u0442\u0430, 2005.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 112\u2014121.\n \u041f\u043b\u0435\u043c\u044f\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0432\u0435\u043d\u0433\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0418\u0448\u0442\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 I \u043d\u0430 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438 // Ad fontem / \u0423 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430: \u0421\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0439 \u0432 \u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0421.\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u041a\u0430\u0448\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 / \u0420\u0410\u041d. \u0418\u043d-\u0442 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438; \u043e\u0442\u0432. \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0421.\u00a0\u041e.\u00a0\u0428\u043c\u0438\u0434\u0442. \u041c.: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430, 2005.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 167\u2014175.\n \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u041c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0445 \u0438 \u041a\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0435: \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u044b // \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b, 2004\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434: \u041f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u044b \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438 / \u0420\u0410\u041d. \u0418\u043d-\u0442 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438. \u041c.: \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430, 2006.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 279\u2014290.\n \u041a \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 // \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u043a: \u0416\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b \u041f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0426\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041f\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0430\u0440\u0445\u0430\u0442\u0430. \u2116. 4 (29). \u041c., 2006.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 16-19.\n \u041c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0438 \u042f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0439 \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435 XI\u00a0\u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 // \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c: \u0412\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u044b \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438. 2007. \u2116. 1 (27). \u041c.: \u0420\u0424\u041a \u00ab\u0418\u043c\u0438\u0434\u0436-\u041b\u0430\u0431\u00bb, 2007.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 85-103.\n \u041a\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442 \u0418\u043e\u0430\u043d\u043d I // \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c: \u0412\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u044b \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438. 2007.\u00a0\u2014 \u2116. 3 (29). \u041c.: \u0420\u0424\u041a \u00ab\u0418\u043c\u0438\u0434\u0436-\u041b\u0430\u0431\u00bb, 2007.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 76-77.\n \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u041c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0445 \u0438 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0444\u044b \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435 XI\u00a0\u0432. // \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c: [\u0421\u0431. \u0441\u0442.] / \u0420\u0435\u0434\u043a\u043e\u043b.: \u0410.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u0413\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 (\u043e\u0442\u0432. \u0440\u0435\u0434.) [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.]. \u041c.: \u0418\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0438\u043a, 2007. [\u0412\u044b\u043f.] 7.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 71-119.\n \u00ab\u0421\u043b\u044b \u0438 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0435\u00bb: \u043e \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u044d\u043b\u0438\u0442\u044b \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438 \u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u0425 \u0432. // \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0430 \u0432 \u0434\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044c\u0435. \u041f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u044b \u0438 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c / XIX \u0427\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u0438 \u0447\u043b.-\u043a\u043e\u0440. \u0410\u041d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u0412.\u00a0\u0422.\u00a0\u041f\u0430\u0448\u0443\u0442\u043e, \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, 16-18 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f 2007\u00a0\u0433.: \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438 / \u0420\u0410\u041d. \u0418\u043d-\u0442 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438. \u041c.: \u0418\u0437\u0434-\u0432\u043e \u0418\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u0410\u041d (\u0418\u0412\u0418), 2007.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 169\u2014174.\n \u0411\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u043e\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0430, \u0441\u0435\u043d\u044c\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0442: \u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0420\u044e\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0439 X\u2014XII\u00a0\u0432\u0432. \u0432 \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e-\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0430\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0435 // \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b, 2005\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434: \u0420\u044e\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u0438 \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c / \u0420\u0410\u041d. \u0418\u043d-\u0442 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438. \u041c.: \u0418\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0438\u043a, 2008.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 132\u2014179.\n \u0412\u0438\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0440\u0445\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043a\u0430\u0444\u0435\u0434\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u0432 \u0434\u043e\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0433\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f // \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435, \u0446\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0438 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0438 \u0432 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438: \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u0443\u043c \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432.\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u0444\u0438\u043d\u044b; \u041c., 2008.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 66-72.\n \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u041c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0445 \u0438 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0444\u044b \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435 XI\u00a0\u0432. // \u0421\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044f\u043d\u043e-\u0433\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u0418\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0438\u043a, 2008.\u00a0\u2014 \u0422. 3: \u041e\u0442 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u043a \u0444\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0430\u043c.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 15\u201267.\n \u0413\u0440\u0435\u0447. \u03a1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0440.-\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a. \u0433\u0440\u044c\u0446\u0438/\u0445\u0440\u044c\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0438 (\u043f\u0441\u0435\u0432\u0434\u043e\u044d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043c \u043d\u0430 \u00ab\u043f\u0443\u0442\u0438 \u0438\u0437 \u0432\u0430\u0440\u044f\u0433 \u0432 \u0433\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0438\u00bb) // \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0430 \u0432 \u0434\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044c\u0435. \u0422\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0438 \u043b\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0438 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0444\u0435\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d: XX \u0427\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u0438 \u0447\u043b.-\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0440. \u0410\u041d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u0412.\u00a0\u0422.\u00a0\u041f\u0430\u0448\u0443\u0442\u043e / \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, 16-18 \u0430\u043f\u0440. 2008\u00a0\u0433.: \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438: [\u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a]. 2008. [\u0412\u044b\u043f.] \u0425\u0425: \u0422\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0438 \u043b\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0438 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0444\u0435\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 164\u2014166.\n \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043f\u043e \u00ab\u0440\u044f\u0434\u0443\u00bb \u042f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u041c\u0443\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0438\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0435\u043b\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0438 \u043c\u043d\u0438\u043c\u044b\u0435 // \u042f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432 \u041c\u0443\u0434\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u0438 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u044d\u043f\u043e\u0445\u0430: [\u0421\u0431. \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u043e \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043c \u0434\u043e\u043a\u043b., \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0447\u0438\u0442. \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444. \u0432 \u0418\u043d-\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0449. \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 20 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044f 2004\u00a0\u0433.] / \u0420\u0410\u041d. \u0418\u043d-\u0442 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0449. \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438; \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0418.\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u0414\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0415.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u041c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439. \u041c.: \u0418\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0438\u043a, 2008.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 30\u201254.\n \u00ab\u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f\u00bb, \u00ab\u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u0438 \u00ab\u0432\u0441\u044f \u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c\u00bb \u0432 XII\u00a0\u0432\u0435\u043a\u0435 // \u0412\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438, \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b, \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 / \u041e\u0442\u0432. \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0413.\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u0411\u043e\u043d\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434-\u041b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u043d. 2008.\u00a0\u2014 \u0422. 5.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 83\u201296.\n \u0427\u0438\u0447\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0418\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (1946\u20142008) // \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u041f\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a. 2008.\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u044b\u043f. 106.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 376\u2014378 (\u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u0441 \u041d.\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u041b\u0438\u0441\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c).\n \u041a \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 // \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e: \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c. II-\u044f \u041e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0446\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444. (\u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, 28-29 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 2005\u00a0\u0433.). \u041c., 2009. \u0421. 32\u201237.\n \u041a \u044e\u0431\u0438\u043b\u0435\u044e \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0439 // \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u043a. 2009.\u00a0\u2014 \u2116\u00a08 (51).\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 10.\n \u041d\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0432\u0448\u0435\u0435\u0441\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043f\u0430\u043f\u044b \u0415\u0432\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f III (1145\u20141153\u00a0\u0433\u0433.) \u043d\u0430 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c // \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c. \u0412\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u044b \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438. 2009.\u00a0\u2014 \u2116. 3 (37).\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u0420\u0424\u041a \u00ab\u0418\u043c\u0438\u0434\u0436-\u041b\u0430\u0431\u00bb, 2009.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 81\u201282.\n \u041e\u0431 \u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u0445 \u0443\u0447\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0421\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0435\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0438 // \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0438 \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c: \u0421\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0439. \u041a 80-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0412.\u00a0\u041b.\u00a0\u042f\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 / \u0420\u0410\u041d. \u0418\u043d-\u0442 \u0430\u0440\u0445\u0435\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438; \u043e\u0442\u0432. \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u041d.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u041c\u0430\u043a\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u041f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u044b\u0441\u043b\u0438, 2009.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 468\u2014481.\n \u041f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u0438 \u041b\u044e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0444\u0430 \u041c\u044e\u043b\u043b\u0435\u0440\u0430 (1917\u20142009) // \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c: \u0412\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u044b \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438. 2009.\u00a0\u2014 \u2116\u00a03 (37).\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 137\u2014138.\n \u00ab\u0421\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043e \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0414\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0432\u0438\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u00ab\u0421\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00bb? // \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0430 \u0432 \u0434\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044c\u0435. \u0410\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0438 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a: \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0435, \u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f: XXI \u0427\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u0438 \u0447\u043b.-\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0440. \u0410\u041d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u0412.\u00a0\u0422.\u00a0\u041f\u0430\u0448\u0443\u0442\u043e / \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, 14-17 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f 2009\u00a0\u0433.: \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438: [\u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a] / \u0420\u0410\u041d. \u0418\u043d-\u0442 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u0418\u0437\u0434-\u0432\u043e \u0418\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u0410\u041d (\u0418\u0412\u0418), 2009.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 231\u2014236.\n \u041a \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0430\u043c \u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u041a\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0430, \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043e \u0432\u0430\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u043b\u044f \u044d\u0442\u0438\u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 // Forma formans: Studi in onore di Boris Uspenskij / Ed. S. Bertolissi, R. Salvatore. Napoli, 2010.\u00a0\u2014 Vol. 2.\u00a0\u2014 P. 85\u201299.\n \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0435 // \u041f\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0431\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0418\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0444 \u0412\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439 / \u041e\u0442\u0432. \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0410.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u041d\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c., 2010.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 11\u201212.\n \u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c \u0438 \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0417\u0435\u043c\u043b\u044f \u0432 \u0434\u043e\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0433\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f (XI\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442\u044c XIII\u00a0\u0432.) // \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u041f\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430: \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0417\u0435\u043c\u043b\u0435 / \u041f\u043e\u0434 \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0415.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u0417\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u041f\u0431., 2010.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 220\u2012227.\n \u00ab\u0420\u044f\u0434\u00bb \u042f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u041c\u0443\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0435\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0438\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 // \u0421\u043e\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u044f, \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u044b \u0438 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f: \u0421\u0431. \u0441\u0442. \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u0438 \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u041b.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0427\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430, 2010.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 268\u2012283.\n \u0422\u0435\u0440\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e-\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438 \u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u0425 \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430: \u041a\u0438\u0435\u0432 \u0438 \u00ab\u0412\u043d\u0435\u0448\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0411\u0430\u0433\u0440\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e // \u0421\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430 (\u0422\u0440\u0443\u0434\u044b \u0413\u043e\u0441. \u042d\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0436\u0430; 49).\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u041f\u0431., 2010.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 411\u2012425.\n \u0397 \u0395\u03a7\u03a9 \u03a1\u03a9\u03a3\u0399\u0391: \u041a \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0438 \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u044b \u0425 \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 // Gaudeamus igitur: \u0421\u0431. \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0439 \u043a 60-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0410.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u041f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 / \u041f\u043e\u0434 \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0422.\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u0414\u0436\u0430\u043a\u0441\u043e\u043d, \u0418.\u00a0\u0413.\u00a0\u041a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439, \u0413.\u00a0\u0420.\u00a0\u0426\u0435\u0446\u0445\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0437\u0435.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0424\u043e\u043d\u0434 \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0435, 2010.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 294\u2012301.\n \u0412\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u044f // \u041f\u0430\u0448\u0443\u0442\u043e \u0412.\u00a0\u0422.\u00a0\u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c, \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u0430\u043b\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430, \u043f\u0430\u043f\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e. \u0418\u0437\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438. \u041a 90-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0412.\u00a0\u0422.\u00a0\u041f\u0430\u0448\u0443\u0442\u043e / \u041e\u0442\u0432. \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0415.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u041c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 (\u0414\u0413, 2008\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434).\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0424\u043e\u043d\u0434 \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0435, 2011.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 5-8.\n \u041a\u043d\u0443\u0442 \u041b\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434, \u041b\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044c III \u0438 \u041c\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0438\u0439 // \u0412\u0438\u0441\u044b \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0431\u044b: \u0421\u0431. \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0439 \u0432 \u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0422.\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u0414\u0436\u0430\u043a\u0441\u043e\u043d / \u041f\u043e\u0434 \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u041d.\u00a0\u042e.\u00a0\u0413\u0432\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0435\u0446\u043a\u043e\u0439, \u0418.\u00a0\u0413.\u00a0\u041a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439, \u0415.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u041c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439, \u0410.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u041f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c., 2011.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 284\u2012303.\n \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043b\u044e\u0434\u0438 \u0432 \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u043b\u0435 // \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f. 2011.\u00a0\u2014 \u2116\u00a03 (17).\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 20\u201223.\n \u041b\u044e\u0431\u0435\u0447\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434 1097\u00a0\u0433. // \u0411\u0420\u042d. \u0422. 18.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c., 2011.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 218\u2012219.\n [\u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u043b\u0430\u0442., \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447.:] \u0414\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u044b \u041d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0441 \u043a\u0443\u0440\u0448\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0433\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u0430\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0441\u0446\u0430\u043c\u0438 1230\u20121284\u00a0\u0433\u0433.; \u0425\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 (\u041a\u0438\u0448\u043f\u043e\u0440\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439) \u0434\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440 1284\u00a0\u0433.; \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0413\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430; \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0445\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0410\u0431\u0430\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u0430\u043f\u0435 \u041a\u043b\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0443 IV // \u041f\u0430\u0448\u0443\u0442\u043e \u0412.\u00a0\u0422.\u00a0\u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c, \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u0430\u043b\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430, \u043f\u0430\u043f\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e. \u0418\u0437\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438. \u041a 90-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0412.\u00a0\u0422.\u00a0\u041f\u0430\u0448\u0443\u0442\u043e / \u041e\u0442\u0432. \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0415.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u041c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 (\u0414\u0413, 2008\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434).\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0424\u043e\u043d\u0434 \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0435, 2011.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 375\u2012398, 453\u2012472, 496\u2012570, 587\u2012590.\n \u00ab\u0410 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0411\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043c \u0434\u0430\u043d\u0430\u2026\u00bb // \u0414\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c., 2012.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 9-14.\n \u041a \u0432\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0443 \u043e\u0431 \u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u0445 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0434\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438 \u0441 \u0433\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a // Ruthenica. \u041a\u0438\u0435\u0432, 2012.\u00a0\u2014 \u0422. 11.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 146\u2012152.\n \u041a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438 // \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430\u0445 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438. \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0443\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c., 2012.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 51\u2012166 (\u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u0441 \u0412.\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u0420\u044b\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0439).\n \u041a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0414\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044c\u043e\u00ef \u0420\u0443\u0441i. // \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u00ef\u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u0441i\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0445\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044f\u0445 i\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440i\u00ef. \u041f\u043e\u0441i\u0431\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0432\u0447i\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f. \u041c\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043b\u044c 1.\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0438\u00ef\u0432, 2012.\n \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043d\u044f\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438 \u0432 \u0418\u0435\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043c\u0435 XI\u2014XII\u00a0\u0432\u0432. // \u0418\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u041f\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e: \u041a 130-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0441\u043e \u0434\u043d\u044f \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u041c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440.", " \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043b\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0438 \u0438 \u0441 \u043d\u0435\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044f\u043c\u0438 (\u043f\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0434\u043a\u0430 25 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0447\u0430\u0441), \u0430\u043f\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0442 \u041c\u043e\u0440\u0437\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043b \u0432 10 \u0440\u0430\u0437 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0441\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0441\u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0438, \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438 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1904 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0438\u0437 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0436\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0441\u044b\u043b\u0430\u043b \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0433\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0442\u044b \u00ab\u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c\u00bb \u0438 \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u00ab\u0412\u0435\u0441\u044b\u00bb, \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043b \u043e \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u044b. 23 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430 1905 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0436\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u043c\u0430\u0441\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0432\u044f\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 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\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0438.\n\n\u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 1909 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \n\u0421 1910 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b \u00ab\u041a\u0438\u043c\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0438\u00bb. \u0421 1910 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u043d\u0430\u0434 \u043c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u043e \u041a.\u00a0\u0424.\u00a0\u0411\u043e\u0433\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c, \u0410.\u00a0\u0421.\u00a0\u0413\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439, \u041c.\u00a0\u0421.\u00a0\u0421\u0430\u0440\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0435, \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430\u043b \u0432 \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u0443 \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f \u00ab\u0411\u0443\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0442\u00bb \u0438 \u00ab\u041e\u0441\u043b\u0438\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0445\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u00bb, \u0445\u043e\u0442\u044f \u0441\u0430\u043c \u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043b \u0432\u043d\u0435 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0438 \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f.\n\n\u0412 1910 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u043b \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. 1900\u20141910\u00bb. \u0412 \u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0435\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0438\u0433\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0432 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0435: \u0432\u043b\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u043c\u0441\u044f \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0441 \u0440\u0435\u043f\u0443\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u00ab\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0430\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0446\u0430\u00bb.\n\n13 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044f 1913 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u041f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0435 \u0412\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0448\u0438\u043d \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043b\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044e \u00ab\u041e \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u044b \u0420\u0435\u043f\u0438\u043d\u0430\u00bb, \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043c \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u043c\u044b\u0441\u043b\u044c, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0432 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u00ab\u0442\u0430\u044f\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u044b\u00bb, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u0435\u0451 \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0430\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432 \u043d\u0435\u0451. \u0412 1914 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0430 \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u0430 \u0438\u0437\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0439 \u043e \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0435\u00a0\u00ab\u041b\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u00bb.\n\n\u041b\u0435\u0442\u043e\u043c 1914 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u0443\u0432\u043b\u0435\u0447\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u0434\u0435\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0438\u0438, \u0412\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0448\u0438\u043d \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043b \u0432 \u0414\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0445 (\u0428\u0432\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0430\u0440\u0438\u044f), \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0447\u0435\u043c \u0438\u0437 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d (\u0432 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0435\u0435\u043c \u0411\u0435\u043b\u044b\u043c, \u0410\u0441\u0435\u0439 \u0422\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0439, \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0448\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438 \u0434\u0440.) \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0438\u043b \u043a \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u043a\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0413\u0451\u0442\u0435\u0430\u043d\u0443\u043c\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430, \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0420. \u0428\u0442\u0435\u0439\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c (\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0413\u0451\u0442\u0435\u0430\u043d\u0443\u043c \u0441\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0435\u043b \u0432 \u043d\u043e\u0447\u044c \u0441 31 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f 1922 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0430 1 \u044f\u043d\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044f 1923 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430).\n\n\u0412 1914 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0412\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0448\u0438\u043d \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043b \u043f\u0438\u0441\u044c\u043c\u043e \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0421\u0443\u0445\u043e\u043c\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0443 \u0441 \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430\u0437\u043e\u043c \u043e\u0442 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0431\u044b \u0438 \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u044f \u00ab\u0432 \u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u043e\u0439\u043d\u0435\u00bb \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b. \u0412 1915\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0430\u00a0\u043a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u0430 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u00abAnno mundi ardentis 1915\u00bb (\u00ab\u0412 \u0433\u043e\u0434 \u043f\u044b\u043b\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 1915\u00bb):\n\n\u0412 \u044d\u0442\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u043e\u043d \u0432\u0441\u0451 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435 \u0432\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0443\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u043b \u0437\u0430\u043d\u044f\u0442\u0438\u044f\u043c \u0436\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u044c\u044e, \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043b \u0430\u043a\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0439\u0437\u0430\u0436\u0438 \u041a\u0440\u044b\u043c\u0430, \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u043b \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0430\u0445 \u00ab\u041c\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u00bb. \u0412 \u044f\u043d\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0435 1915 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0443\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043b \u0432 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0436, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u043b \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u00abAnno mundi ardentis 1915\u00bb, 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\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u0435\u044f\u043b\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0439 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439, \u0437\u0432\u0443\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043b\u044f\u0442\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438. \u041e\u0442 \u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0437\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0446\u0438\u044f, \u0438 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u043a\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043b\u0451\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043d\u044b, \u0447\u0451\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0442\u043e\u043b\u043f\u0430 \u0434\u0430 \u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043a\u0443\u043c\u0430\u0447\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u044f\u0442\u043d\u0430, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044c\u044e, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0437-\u043f\u043e\u0434 \u044d\u0442\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u043a\u0430\u043c\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0434\u0438, \u043e\u0431\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044c\u044e \u0412\u0441\u0435\u044f \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438. \u0418 \u0442\u0443\u0442 \u0432\u043d\u0435", ", and his belief was that it would be of most substantial assistance to the Allies to have the earnestness and enthusiasm of these people enlisted on our side. To do nothing was to risk a direct breach with them, and it was necessary to face this situation.\"\n 4 October 1917: \"... [Balfour] stated that the German Government were making great efforts to capture the sympathy of the Zionist Movement. This Movement, though opposed by a number of wealthy Jews in this country, had behind it the support of a majority of Jews, at all events in Russia and America, and possibly in other countries ... Mr. Balfour then read a very sympathetic declaration by the French Government which had been conveyed to the Zionists, and he stated that he knew that President Wilson was extremely favourable to the Movement.\"\n 25 October 1917: \"... the Secretary mentioned that he was being pressed by the Foreign Office to bring forward the question of Zionism, an early settlement of which was regarded as of great importance.\"\n 31 October 1917: \"[Balfour] stated that he gathered that everyone was now agreed that, from a purely diplomatic and political point of view, it was desirable that some declaration favourable to the aspirations of the Jewish nationalists should now be made. The vast majority of Jews in Russia and America, as, indeed, all over the world, now appeared to be favourable to Zionism. If we could make a declaration favourable to such an ideal, we should be able to carry on extremely useful propaganda both in Russia and America.\"\n\nDrafting \n\nDeclassification of British government archives has allowed scholars to piece together the choreography of the drafting of the declaration; in his widely cited 1961 book, Leonard Stein published four previous drafts of the declaration.\n\nThe drafting began with Weizmann's guidance to the Zionist drafting team on its objectives in a letter dated 20 June 1917, one day following his meeting with Rothschild and Balfour. He proposed that the declaration from the British government should state: \"its conviction, its desire or its intention to support Zionist aims for the creation of a Jewish national home in Palestine; no reference must be made I think to the question of the Suzerain Power because that would land the British into difficulties with the French; it must be a Zionist declaration.\"\n\nA month after the receipt of the much-reduced 12 July draft from Rothschild, Balfour proposed a number of mainly technical amendments. The two subsequent drafts included much more substantial amendments: the first in a late August draft by Lord Milner \u2013 one of the original five members of Lloyd George's War Cabinet as a minister without portfolio \u2013 which reduced the geographic scope from all of Palestine to \"in Palestine\", and the second from Milner and Amery in early October, which added the two \"safeguard clauses\".\n\nSubsequent authors have debated who the \"primary author\" really was. In his posthumously published 1981 book The Anglo-American Establishment, Georgetown University history professor Carroll Quigley explained his view that Lord Milner was the primary author of the declaration, and more recently, William D. Rubinstein, Professor of Modern History at Aberystwyth University, Wales, proposed Amery instead. Huneidi wrote that Ormsby-Gore, in a report he prepared for Shuckburgh, claimed authorship, together with Amery, of the final draft form.\n\nKey issues \n\nThe agreed version of the declaration, a single sentence of just 67 words, was sent on 2November 1917 in a short letter from Balfour to Walter Rothschild, for transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland. The declaration contained four clauses, of which the first two promised to support \"the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people\", followed by two \"safeguard clauses\" with respect to \"the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine\", and \"the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country\".\n\nThe \"national home for the Jewish people\" vs. Jewish state \n\nThe term \"national home\" was intentionally ambiguous, having no legal value or precedent in international law, such that its meaning was unclear when compared to other terms such as \"state\". The term was intentionally used instead of \"state\" because of opposition to the Zionist program within the British Cabinet. According to historian Norman Rose, the chief architects of the declaration contemplated that a Jewish State would emerge in time while the Palestine Royal Commission concluded that the wording was \"the outcome of a compromise between those Ministers who contemplated the ultimate establishment of a Jewish State and those who did not.\"\n\nInterpretation of the wording has been sought in the correspondence leading to the final version of the declaration. An official report to the War Cabinet sent by Sykes on 22 September said that the Zionists did not want \"to set up a Jewish Republic or any other form of state in Palestine or in any part of Palestine\" but rather preferred some form of protectorate as provided in the Palestine Mandate. A month later, Curzon produced a memorandum circulated on 26 October 1917 where he addressed two questions, the first concerning the meaning of the phrase \"a National Home for the Jewish race in Palestine\"; he noted that there were different opinions ranging from a fully fledged state to a merely spiritual centre for the Jews.\n\nSections of the British press assumed that a Jewish state was intended even before the Declaration was finalized. In the United States the press began using the terms \"Jewish National Home\", \"Jewish State\", \"Jewish republic\" and \"Jewish Commonwealth\" interchangeably.\n\nTreaty expert David Hunter Miller, who was at the conference and subsequently compiled a 22 volume compendium of documents, provides a report of the Intelligence Section of the American Delegation to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 which recommended that \"there be established a separate state in Palestine,\" and that \"it will be the policy of the League of Nations to recognize Palestine as a Jewish state, as soon as it is a Jewish state in fact.\" The report further advised that an independent Palestinian state under a British League of Nations mandate be created. Jewish settlement would be allowed and encouraged in this state and this state's holy sites would be under the control of the League of Nations. Indeed, the Inquiry spoke positively about the possibility of a Jewish state eventually being created in Palestine if the necessary demographics for this were to exist.\n\nHistorian Matthew Jacobs later wrote that the US approach was hampered by the \"general absence of specialist knowledge about the region\" and that \"like much of the Inquiry's work on the Middle East, the reports on Palestine were deeply flawed\" and \"presupposed a particular outcome of the conflict\". He quotes Miller, writing about one report on the history and impact of Zionism, \"absolutely inadequate from any standpoint and must be regarded as nothing more than material for a future report\".\n \nLord Robert Cecil on 2 December 1917, assured an audience that the government fully intended that \"Judea [was] for the Jews.\" Yair Auron opines that Cecil, then a deputy Foreign Secretary representing the British Government at a celebratory gathering of the English Zionist Federation, \"possibly went beyond his official brief\" in saying (he cites Stein) \"Our wish is that Arabian countries shall be for the Arabs, Armenia for the Armenians and Judaea for the Jews\".\n\nThe following October Neville Chamberlain, while chairing a Zionist meeting, discussed a \"new Jewish State.\" At the time, Chamberlain was a Member of Parliament for Ladywood, Birmingham; recalling the event in 1939, just after Chamberlain had approved the 1939 White Paper, the Jewish Telegraph Agency noted that the Prime Minister had \"experienced a pronounced change of mind in the 21 years intervening\" A year later, on the Declaration's second anniversary, General Jan Smuts said that Britain \"would redeem her pledge ... and a great Jewish state would ultimately rise.\" In similar vein, Churchill a few months later stated:\n\nAt the 22 June 1921 meeting of the Imperial Cabinet, Churchill was asked by Arthur Meighen, the Canadian Prime Minister, about the meaning of the national home. Churchill said \"If in the course of many years they become a majority in the country, they naturally would take it over\u00a0... pro rata with the Arab. We made an equal pledge that we would not turn the Arab off his land or invade his political and social rights\".\n\nResponding to Curzon in January 1919, Balfour wrote \"Weizmann has never put forward a claim for the Jewish Government of Palestine. Such a claim in my opinion is clearly inadmissible and personally I do not think we should go further than the original declaration which I made to Lord Rothschild\".\n\nIn February 1919, France issued a statement that it would not oppose putting Palestine under British trusteeship and the formation of a Jewish State. Friedman further notes that France's attitude went on to change; Yehuda Blum, while discussing France's \"unfriendly attitude towards the Jewish national movement\", notes the content of a report made by Robert Vansittart (a leading member of the British delegation to the Paris Peace Conference) to Curzon in November 1920 which said:\n\nGreece's Foreign Minister told the editor of the Salonica Jewish organ Pro-Israel that \"the establishment of a Jewish State meets in Greece with full and sincere sympathy ... A Jewish Palestine would become an ally of Greece.\" In Switzerland, a number of noted historians including professors Tobler, Forel-Yvorne, and Rogaz, supported the idea of establishing a Jewish state, with one referring to it as \"a sacred right of the Jews.\" While in Germany, officials and most of the press took the Declaration to mean a British sponsored state for the Jews.\n\nThe British government, including Churchill, made it clear that the Declaration did not intend for the whole of Palestine to be converted into a Jewish National Home, \"but that such a Home should be founded in Palestine.\" Emir Faisal, King of Syria and Iraq, made a formal written agreement with Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann, which was drafted by T.E. Lawrence, whereby they would try to establish a peaceful relationship between Arabs and Jews in Palestine. The 3 January 1919 Faisal\u2013Weizmann Agreement was a short-lived agreement for Arab\u2013Jewish cooperation on the development of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Faisal did treat Palestine differently in his presentation to the Peace Conference on 6 February 1919 saying \"Palestine, for its universal character, [should be] left on one side for the mutual consideration of all parties concerned\". The agreement was never implemented. In a subsequent letter written in English by Lawrence for Faisal's signature, he explained:\nWhen the letter was tabled at the Shaw Commission in 1929, Rustam Haidar spoke to Faisal in Baghdad and cabled that Faisal had \"no recollection that he wrote anything of the sort\". In January 1930, Haidar wrote to a newspaper in Baghdad that Faisal: \"finds it exceedingly strange that such a matter is attributed to him as he at no time would consider allowing any foreign nation to share in an Arab country\". Awni Abd al-Hadi, Faisal's secretary, wrote in his memoirs that he was not aware that a meeting between Frankfurter and Faisal took place and that: \"I believe that this letter, assuming that it is authentic, was written by Lawrence, and that Lawrence signed it in English on behalf of Faisal. I believe this letter is part of the false claims made by Chaim Weizmann and Lawrence to lead astray public opinion.\" According to Allawi, the most likely explanation for the Frankfurter letter is that a meeting took place, a letter was drafted in English by Lawrence, but that its \"contents were not entirely made clear to Faisal. He then may or may not have been induced to sign it\", since it ran counter to Faisal's other public and private statements at the time. A 1 March interview by Le Matin quoted Faisal as saying:\nThis feeling of respect for other religions dictates my opinion about Palestine, our neighbor. That the unhappy Jews come to reside there and behave as good citizens of this country, our humanity rejoices given that they are placed under a Muslim or Christian government mandated by The League of Nations. If they want to constitute a state and claim sovereign rights in this region, I foresee very serious dangers. It is to be feared that there will be a conflict between them and the other races.\n\nReferring to his 1922 White Paper, Churchill later wrote that \"there is nothing in it to prohibit the ultimate establishment of a Jewish State.\" And in private, many British officials agreed with the Zionists' interpretation that a state would be established when a Jewish majority was achieved.\n\nWhen Chaim Weizmann met with Churchill, Lloyd George and Balfour at Balfour's home in London on 21 July 1921, Lloyd George and Balfour assured Weizmann \"that by the Declaration they had always meant an eventual Jewish State,\" according to Weizmann minutes of that meeting. Lloyd George stated in 1937 that it was intended that Palestine would become a Jewish Commonwealth if and when Jews \"had become a definite majority of the inhabitants\", and Leo Amery echoed the same position in 1946. In the UNSCOP report of 1947, the issue of home versus state was subjected to scrutiny arriving at a similar conclusion to that of Lloyd George.\n\nScope of the national home \"in Palestine\" \n\nThe statement that such a homeland would be found \"in Palestine\" rather than \"of Palestine\" was also deliberate. The proposed draft of the declaration contained in Rothschild's 12 July letter to Balfour referred to the principle \"that Palestine should be reconstituted as the National Home of the Jewish people.\" In the final text, following Lord Milner's amendment, the word \"reconstituted\" was removed and the word \"that\" was replaced with \"in\".\n\nThis text thereby avoided committing the entirety of Palestine as the National Home of the Jewish people, resulting in controversy in future years over the intended scope, especially the Revisionist Zionism sector, which claimed entirety of Mandatory Palestine and Emirate of Transjordan as Jewish Homeland This was clarified by the 1922 Churchill White Paper, which wrote that \"the terms of the declaration referred to do not contemplate that Palestine as a whole should be converted into a Jewish National Home, but that such a Home should be founded 'in Palestine.\n\nThe declaration did not include any geographical boundaries for Palestine. Following the end of the war, three documents \u2013 the declaration, the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence and the Sykes-Picot Agreement \u2013 became the basis for the negotiations to set the boundaries of Palestine.\n\nCivil and religious rights of non-Jewish communities in Palestine \n\nThe declaration's first safeguard clause referred to protecting the civil and religious rights of non-Jews in Palestine. The clause had been drafted together with the second safeguard by Leo Amery in consultation with Lord Milner, with the intention to \"go a reasonable distance to meeting the objectors, both Jewish and pro-Arab, without impairing the substance of the proposed declaration\".\n\nThe \"non-Jews\" constituted 90% of the population of Palestine; in the words of Ronald Storrs, Britain's Military Governor of Jerusalem between 1917 and 1920, the community observed that they had been \"not so much as named, either as Arabs, Moslems or Christians, but were lumped together under the negative and humiliating definition of 'Non-Jewish Communities' and relegated to subordinate provisos\". The community also noted that there was no reference to protecting their \"political status\" or political rights, as there was in the subsequent safeguard relating to Jews in other countries. This protection was frequently contrasted against the commitment to the Jewish community, and over the years a variety of terms were used to refer to these two obligations as a pair; a particularly heated question was whether these two obligations had \"equal weight\", and in 1930 this equal status was confirmed by the Permanent Mandates Commission and by the British government in the Passfield white paper.\n\nBalfour stated in February 1919 that Palestine was considered an exceptional case in which, referring to the local population, \"we deliberately and rightly decline to accept the principle of self-determination,\" although he considered that the policy provided self-determination to Jews. Avi Shlaim considers this the declaration's \"greatest contradiction\". This principle of self-determination had been declared on numerous occasions subsequent to the declarationPresident Wilson's January 1918 Fourteen Points, McMahon's Declaration to the Seven in June 1918, the November 1918 Anglo-French Declaration, and the June 1919 Covenant of the League of Nations that had established the mandate system. In an August 1919 memo Balfour acknowledged the inconsistency among these statements, and further explained that the British had no intention of consulting the existing population of Palestine. The results of the ongoing American King\u2013Crane Commission of Enquiry consultation of the local population \u2013 from which the British had withdrawn \u2013 were suppressed for three years until the report was leaked in 1922. Subsequent British governments have acknowledged this deficiency, in particular the 1939 committee led by the Lord Chancellor, Frederic Maugham, which concluded that the government had not been \"free to dispose of Palestine without regard for the wishes and interests of the inhabitants of Palestine\", and the April 2017 statement by British Foreign Office minister of state Baroness Anelay that the government acknowledged that \"the Declaration should have called for the protection of political rights of the non-Jewish communities in Palestine, particularly their right to self-determination.\"\n\nRights and political status of Jews in other countries \n\nThe second safeguard clause was a commitment that nothing should be done which might prejudice the rights of the Jewish communities in other countries outside of Palestine. The original drafts of Rothschild, Balfour, and Milner did not include this safeguard, which was drafted together with the preceding safeguard in early October, in order to reflect opposition from influential members of the Anglo-Jewish community. Lord Rothschild took exception to the proviso on the basis that it presupposed the possibility of a danger to non-Zionists, which he denied.\n\nThe Conjoint Foreign Committee of the Board of Deputies of British Jews and the Anglo-Jewish Association had published a letter in The Times on 24 May 1917 entitled Views of Anglo-Jewry, signed by the two organisations' presidents, David Lindo Alexander and Claude Montefiore, stating their view that: \"the establishment of a Jewish nationality in Palestine, founded on this theory of homelessness, must have the effect throughout the world of stamping the Jews as strangers in their native lands, and of undermining their hard-won position as citizens and nationals of these lands.\" This was followed in late August by Edwin Montagu, an influential anti-Zionist Jew and Secretary of State for India, and the only Jewish member of the British Cabinet, who wrote in a Cabinet memorandum that: \"The policy of His Majesty's Government is anti-Semitic in result and will prove a rallying ground for anti-Semites in every country of the world.\"\n\nReaction \n\nThe text of the declaration was published in the press one week after it was signed, on 9November 1917. Other related events took place within a short time", " entry for \"Hemmings, Madison\": \"This man is the son of Thomas Jefferson.\"\n\nIn 1873, the issue received renewed, widespread attention after the publication of an interview with Madison Hemings, who asserted that Jefferson was his father. He was interviewed about his life as a slave at Monticello, and his account was published in an Ohio newspaper. Then age 68, Hemings claimed Jefferson as his and his siblings' father. He said that when Jefferson and Sally Hemings were still in Paris, she became pregnant with his child. Slaves could petition for their freedom in France, and Hemings initially showed reluctance when Jefferson asked her to return with him to Virginia. Based on Jefferson's promise to free her children when they came of age, she returned with him to the United States from France. Israel Jefferson, also a former slave of Monticello, confirmed the account of Jefferson's paternity of Hemings' children in his own interview published that year by the same Ohio newspaper. Critics attacked the newspaper account as politically motivated and the former slaves as mistaken, or worse.\n\nIn 1874, James Parton published his biography of Jefferson, in which he attributed the content of Madison Hemings' memoir to the political motives of a journalist who interviewed him. He and other critics essentially discounted Madison's memoir, while attributing to him a range of negative motives for telling his story. In his work, Parton repeated the Jefferson family's oral history about a Carr paternity and the claim that Jefferson was absent during the conception period of one of Hemings' children.\n\nModern historians\nSucceeding 20th-century historians, such as Merrill Peterson and Douglass Adair, relied on Parton's book as it related to the controversy. In turn, Dumas Malone adopted their position. In the 1970s, as part of his six-volume biography of Jefferson, Malone was the first to publish a letter by Ellen Randolph Coolidge, Randolph's sister that added to the Carr paternity story. But she claimed that the late Samuel Carr, brother to Peter and also a nephew of Jefferson's through his sister, had fathered Hemings' children. Like Peter, Samuel was married when Hemings' children were born. Neither of the Randolphs named Jefferson's nephews as putative fathers of Hemings' children until after the men had died.\n\nThe above 20th-century historians and other major biographers of the late 20th century, such as Joseph Ellis and Andrew Burstein, \"defended\" Jefferson based on the Jefferson/Randolph family testimony: saying that he was absent at the conception of one Hemings child, and the family identified Peter or Samuel Carr as the father(s) of Hemings' children. Also, the historians concluded from their interpretations of Jefferson's personality and views that he would not have had such a relationship. They noted he had expressed antipathy to blacks and miscegenation in his writings, and he was thought to have a \"high\" moral character.\n\nThe manuscripts for Thomas Jefferson's Farm Books were rediscovered and published for the first time in 1953, edited by Edwin M. Betts. They provided extensive data about slaves and slave births, including all of Sally Hemings' children, and have been used extensively by researchers.\n\nBlack oral history preserved the account of the Jefferson-Hemings relationship and the place of African Americans at the center of United States history. Black historians began to publish material related to the mixed-race Hemings descendants. Lerone Bennett, in his article, \"Thomas Jefferson's Negro Grandchildren,\" published in Ebony in November 1954, examined the current lives of individuals claiming descent from this union.\n\nIn 1961, historian Pearl M. Graham published an article in the Journal of Negro History on Jefferson and Hemings. It was based on material from the Farm Books, as well as a detailed timeline of Jefferson's activities developed by historian Dumas Malone in his extensive biography. This was published in several volumes beginning in the 1940s. Graham noted that Hemings conceived her children only when Jefferson was in residence at Monticello, during a time when he traveled frequently and was away for lengthy periods. Graham also provided biographical information on Sally's children; she supported accounts that Hemings and Jefferson had several children together.\n\nIn 1972, Fawn M. Brodie published \"The Great Jefferson Taboo\" in American Heritage magazine. She addressed the rumors of Jefferson's relationship with Sally Hemings, his quadroon slave, conducted extensive research, and concluded that they had a long relationship. Anticipating \"inevitable controversy\", the magazine broke with its usual practice and published Brodie's extensive footnotes for her article.\n\nEvidence \nIn 1953, Thomas Jefferson's Farm Book was published in an edited version, after having been rediscovered. Its records of slave births, deaths, purchases, and sales, and other information has provided researchers with considerable data about the lives of slaves at Monticello, including the births of all of Sally Hemings' known children.\n\nDumas Malone documented Jefferson's activities and residencies through the years. His documentation in his multi-volume biography (published 1948\u20131981) provided the details that Pearl Graham analyzed to show Jefferson was at Monticello for the conception of each of Hemings' children. She never conceived when he was not there. Martha Randolph, Jefferson's daughter with Martha Wayles Jefferson, had made a deathbed claim that Jefferson was away for a 15-month period during which one of the Hemings children was conceived. Gordon-Reed shows this claim is not supported by Malone's documentation; Jefferson was at Monticello at the time of conception of each child.\n\nIn 1968 the historian Winthrop Jordan said that Jefferson was at Monticello \"nine months prior to each birth\" of Hemings' children, during a 13-year period when he was often away for months at a time. He acknowledged that the relationship was possible. Fawn Brodie also used this information in her biography of Jefferson, which contributed to her conclusion that he had fathered Hemings' children. The source for the birth dates of the children is Jefferson's Farm Book.\n\nIn 2000, a statistical analysis of the conception data and Jefferson's residencies concluded it was 99 percent likely that he was the father of her children, and that there was only a 1 percent chance that he was not the father of all her children. This analysis, commonly referred to as a Monte Carlo simulation, was done by Fraser D. Neiman, head of archaeology at Monticello. In 2001, the Scholars Commission Report of the Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society criticized the study, as they said Neiman had not accounted for the possibility of multiple fathers.\n\nThe Hemings children were named for people in the Randolph-Jefferson family or who were important to Jefferson, rather than for people in the Hemings family. When mixed-race children were sired by the master, they were frequently named after people from his family. Jefferson gave the Hemings family special treatment: the three boys while young had very light household duties. At working age, they were each apprenticed to the master carpenter of the estate, the most skilled artisan, who was also their uncle. This would provide them with skills to make a good living as free adults.\n\nAccording to Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson's treatment of Sally Hemings' children is a good indication that he could have fathered the children. Harriet Hemings did not begin working as a weaver until she was fourteen years old. Many of Jefferson's slaves would have started at ten. Another example is that unlike other slaves, Madison Hemings stated that until they were put to work, they would run errands with Sally. This was very uncommon.\n\nMost importantly, Gordon-Reed notes that Jefferson freed all the Hemings children. Theirs was the only slave family to all go free from Monticello; they were the only slaves freed in their youth and as they came of age, and Harriet Hemings was the only female slave he ever freed. He allowed Beverley (male) and Harriet to \"escape\" in 1822 at ages 23 and 21, although Jefferson was already struggling financially and would be $100,000 (US$ in dollars) in debt at his death. He gave his overseer money to give to Harriet for her journey. Jefferson avoided publicity this way, but the gentry at the time noted the Hemingses' absences.\n\nMonticello's overseer Edmund Bacon (1785\u20131866) noted in his memoir (published after Jefferson's death) that people were talking about Harriet's departure. In the memoir, Bacon stated that in all the years he had worked there, he never saw Jefferson and Sally Hemings together in any capacity that would suggest a sexual liaison, and on several occasions witnessed another man leaving Sally's room early in the morning. In an interview Bacon maintains:\n\nIn his 1826 will, Jefferson freed the younger brothers Madison and Eston Hemings, who were approaching the age of 21. To enable them to stay in Virginia, Jefferson's will petitioned the legislature for permission for them to stay in the state with their families. (Such legislative approval was required by laws related to manumission and free blacks.) Jefferson also freed three older males from the extended Elizabeth Hemings family; they had each served him for decades. His will also requested that they be allowed to stay in the state. Jefferson's daughter Martha Randolph gave Sally Hemings \"her time\" after Jefferson's death, an informal freedom, and the former slave lived with her two younger sons, Madison and Eston, in nearby Charlottesville for nearly a decade before her death.\n\n1998 DNA study\nAccording to an initial report on the findings of a 1998 DNA study which tested the Y-chromosome of direct male-line descendants of Eston Hemings, and other related tests, there is a high probability that Thomas Jefferson was the biological father of Eston Hemings, with a nearly perfect match between the DNA of Jefferson's paternal uncle and the descendants of Eston Hemings. These initial claims were later relativised by the lead researcher in the case, acknowledging that the DNA was compatible with the paternity of some of Jefferson's relatives and that it was inconsistent with paternity by one of the Carr brothers.\n\nIn his reply to questions on the study, the authors of the DNA study made clear:\n\nIn the Monticello Commission's report on the paternity question, Dr. David Page, one of the committee's scientific case reviewers, recommended that additional research needed to be done into \"the local population structure around Monticello two hundred years ago, as respects the Y chromosome,\" before entirely ruling out the possibility of the paternity of any of the other 7 potential paternity candidates.\n\nHistorical consensus\nWith the Eston Hemings descendant found consistent with the Jefferson male line, and inconsistent with the Carr male line, formerly skeptical biographers, such as Joseph Ellis and Andrew Burstein, publicly said they had changed their opinions and concluded that Jefferson had fathered Hemings' children. As Burstein said in 2005,[T]he white Jefferson descendants who established the family denial in the mid-nineteenth century cast responsibility for paternity on two Jefferson nephews (children of Jefferson's sister) whose DNA was not a match. So, as far as can be reconstructed, there are no Jeffersons other than the president who had the degree of physical access to Sally Hemings that he did.In 2000, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation, which operates Monticello, issued a report of its own investigation, which concluded by accepting Jefferson's paternity. Dr. Daniel P. Jordan, president of the foundation, committed at the time to incorporate \"the conclusions of the report into Monticello's training, interpretation, and publications.\" This included new articles and monographs on the Hemings descendants reflecting the new evidence, as well as books on the interracial communities of Monticello and Charlottesville. New exhibits at Monticello show Jefferson as the father of the Sally Hemings children. In 2010, the Monticello website noted the new consensus that has emerged on Jefferson's paternity of Hemings' children in the decade since those major studies.\n\nIn its January 2000 issue, the William and Mary Quarterly published Forum: Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings Redux, a total of seven articles noting the changed consensus and the developing new views on Jefferson. One article had the results of an analysis by Fraser D. Neiman, who studied the statistical significance of the relationship between Jefferson's documented residencies at Monticello and Hemings' conceptions. He concluded that there was a 99 percent chance that Jefferson was the father of Hemings' children.\n\nIn May 2000, PBS Frontline produced, Jefferson's Blood, a program about the issues related to the DNA test and historical controversy. It stated in its overview:\n\nMore than 20 years after CBS executives were pressured by Jefferson historians to drop plans for a mini-series on Jefferson and Hemings, the network airs Sally Hemings: An American Scandal. Though many quarreled with the portrayal of Hemings as unrealistically modern and heroic, no major historian challenged the series' premise that Hemings and Jefferson had a 38-year relationship that produced children.\n\nIn the fall of 2001, the National Genealogical Society published a special issue of its quarterly devoted to the Jefferson\u2013Hemings controversy. In several articles, its specialists concluded that, as the genealogist Helen M. Leary wrote, the \"chain of evidence\": historical, genealogical, and DNA, supported the conclusion that Thomas Jefferson was the father of all of Hemings' children.\n\nDissenting views\nThe Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society (TJHS) was formed with the purpose to dissent the shifting opinion of the newly forming consensus on the controversy, commissioned a report on the matter and asked a group of scholars to look at the evidence and make a public report detailing their conclusions. The TJHS Scholars Commission included Lance Banning, Walter E. Williams, Robert F. Turner, and Paul Rahe, among others. On May 26, 2000, John H. Works, the President of TJHS sent a letter to the Chairman of The Scholars Commission, Professor Robert Turner explaining to him that \"you have our assurance that the work of The Scholars Commission will be completely independent of efforts to influence your methodology or conclusions by The Heritage Society or its members.\" The members of this commission included a diverse group of senior scholars, most having either chaired professorships or served as departmental chairs at prominent universities. Several had written highly respected books about Jefferson. They worked independently of the TJHS, were not compensated for their work, and spent nearly a year examining the arguments and evidence regarding paternity.\n\nThe group published its report in 2001. In it they unanimously agree that the allegations were \"by no means proven\", and also state that they find it \"regrettable that public confusion about the 1998 DNA testing and other evidence has misled people.\" The scholars on the Commission concluded that there was insufficient evidence to determine that Jefferson was the father of Hemings' children.\n\nThe report states that it is a matter about which reasonable people can disagree but by a margin of 12 to 1 their final views \"ranged from 'serious skepticism' about the charge to a conviction that it is 'almost certainly false'.\" Their report suggested that his younger brother Randolph Jefferson, or one of his sons, was the father, and that Hemings may have had multiple partners. They emphasized that more than 20 Jefferson males lived in Virginia, eight within 20 miles of Monticello. Their report summary goes on to state \"The most important results from the DNA testing may well have been the determination that Thomas Woodson, long thought by many to be the Tom \nreferred to by James Callender in 1802 as having been conceived by Sally Hemings in Paris, and having a strong physical resemblance to the President could not have been the son of Thomas Jefferson. Subsequent DNA testing of descendants of a third Woodson son confirmed the earlier results. Most of us believe this goes far towards undermining any remaining credibility of the original Callender allegations.\" Paul Rahe published a minority view, saying he thought Jefferson's paternity of Eston Hemings was more likely than not.\n\nThe founder and Director Emeritus of the Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society Herbert Barger, a family historian, had assisted Eugene Foster by finding descendants of the Jefferson male line, Woodsons and Carrs for testing for the DNA study. Foster later said that Barger was \"fantastic\" and \"of immense help to me\".\n\nThe Monticello Jefferson-Hemings Report found that from its \"research it was determined that, other than Thomas Jefferson, twenty-five adult male descendants of his father Peter (1707-1757) and his uncle Field (1702-1765) lived in Virginia during the 1794-1807 period of Sally Hemings's pregnancies.\" Of this number, in examining Randolph Jefferson as a candidate, it found that he made four recorded visits to Monticello (in September 1802, September 1805, May 1808, and sometime in 1814), though none coincided with possible dates of Sally Hemings' conceptions. In August 1807, a probable conception time for Eston Hemings, Thomas Jefferson wrote to his brother about visiting, but there is no evidence that the younger man arrived. Similarly, no documentation of a Randolph visit appears at the probable conception time for Madison Hemings.\n\nJohn H. Works, Jr., a Jefferson-Wayles descendant and a past president of the Monticello Association, a Jefferson lineage society, wrote that DNA tests indicated that any one of eight Jeffersons could have been the father of Eston. The team had concluded that Jefferson's paternity was the simplest explanation and consistent with historic evidence, but the DNA study could not identify Thomas Jefferson exclusively of other Jefferson males because no sample of his DNA was available.\n\nIn the fall of 2001, articles in the National Genealogical Society Quarterly criticized the TJHS Scholars Commission Report for poor scholarship and failure to follow accepted historical practices of analysis, or to give sufficient weight to the body of evidence. In the same year, historian Alexander Boulton wrote that Randolph Jefferson had never been seriously proposed as a candidate by historians before the 1998 DNA study. He noted \"previous testimony had agreed\" that Hemings had only one father for her children, and criticized the idea that she had multiple partners for her children. Jeanette Daniels, Marietta Glauser, Diana Harvey and Carol Hubbell Ouellette conducted research and in 2003 concluded that Randolph Jefferson had been an infrequent visitor to Monticello.\n\nMonticello Association\nIn 1999, Lucian Truscott IV, a Wayles-Jefferson descendant and member of the Monticello Association, the Jefferson lineage society, invited Hemings' descendants to that year's annual meeting. The Association decided to commission its own report to determine whether it would admit Hemings' descendants to the lineage society (termed the MAC report or Membership Advisory Committee Report). The report was to determine whether the Hemings descendants could satisfy the society's requirements for documentation of lineage. The 20", "chai, who is a Jewish leader, discovers a plot to kill all of the Jews in the empire by Haman, one of the king's advisors. Mordechai urges Esther to use her position as queen to intervene and save their people. Esther reveals her Jewish identity to the king and begs for mercy for her people. She exposes Haman's plot and convinces the king to spare the Jews. The holiday of Purim is established to celebrate the victory of the Jews of the empire over their enemies, and Esther becomes a hero to the Jewish people.\n\nThe books of Esther and Song of Songs are the only books in the Hebrew Bible that do not mention God. Traditional Judaism views the absence of God's overt intervention in the story as an example of how God can work through seemingly coincidental events and the actions of individuals.\n\nThe book is at the center of the Jewish festival of Purim and is read aloud twice from a handwritten scroll, usually in the synagogue, during the holiday: once in the evening and again the following morning. The distribution of charity to the needy and the exchange of gifts of foods are also practices observed on the holiday that are mandated in the book.\n\nSetting and structure\n\nSetting \nThe biblical Book of Esther is set in the Persian capital of Susa (Shushan) in the third year of the reign of the Persian king Ahasuerus. The name Ahasuerus is equivalent to Xerxes (both deriving from the Persian Khshay\u0101rsha), and Ahasuerus is usually identified in modern sources as Xerxes I, who ruled between 486 and 465 BCE, as it is to this monarch that the events described in Esther are thought to fit the most closely.\n\nAssuming that Ahasuerus is indeed Xerxes I, the events described in Esther began around the years 483\u2013482 BCE, and concluded in March 473 BCE.\n\nClassical sources such as Josephus, the Jewish commentary Esther Rabbah and the Christian theologian Bar-Hebraeus, as well as the Greek Septuagint translation of Esther, instead identify Ahasuerus as either Artaxerxes I (reigned 465 to 424 BCE) or Artaxerxes II (reigned 404 to 358 BCE).\n\nOn his accession, however, Artaxerxes II lost Egypt to pharaoh Amyrtaeus, after which it was no longer part of the Persian empire. In his Historia Scholastica Petrus Comestor identified Ahasuerus (Esther 1:1) as Artaxerxes III (358\u2013338 BCE) who reconquered Egypt.\n\nStructure \nThe Book of Esther consists of an introduction (or exposition) in chapters 1 and 2; the main action (complication and resolution) in chapters 3 to 9:19; and a conclusion in 9:20\u201310:3.\n\nThe plot is structured around banquets (Heb. \u05de\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05ea\u05b6\u05bc\u05d4, mishteh), a word that occurs twenty times in Esther and only 24 times in the rest of the Hebrew bible. This is appropriate given that Esther describes the origin of a Jewish feast, the feast of Purim, but Purim itself is not the subject and no individual feast in the book is commemorated by Purim. The book's theme, rather, is the reversal of destiny through a sudden and unexpected turn of events: the Jews seem destined to be destroyed, but instead are saved. In literary criticism such a reversal is termed \"peripety\", and while on one level its use in Esther is simply a literary or aesthetic device, on another it is structural to the author's theme, suggesting that the power of God is at work behind human events.\n\nSummary \nKing Ahasuerus, ruler of the Persian Empire, holds a lavish 180-day banquet for his court and dignitaries from across the 127 provinces of his empire (Esther 1:1\u20134), and afterwards a seven-day banquet for all inhabitants of the capital city, Shushan (1:5\u20139). On the seventh day of the latter banquet, Ahasuerus orders the queen, Vashti, to display her beauty before the guests by coming before them wearing her crown (1:10\u201311). She refuses, infuriating Ahasuerus, who on the advice of his counselors removes her from her position as an example to other women who might be emboldened to disobey their husbands (1:12\u201319). A decree follows that \"every man should bear rule in his own house\" (1:20\u201322).\n\nAhasuerus then makes arrangements to choose a new queen from a selection of beautiful young women from throughout the empire (2:1\u20134). Among these women is a Jewish orphan named Esther, who was raised by her cousin or uncle, Mordecai (2:5\u20137). She finds favour in the King's eyes, and is crowned his new queen, but does not reveal her Jewish heritage (2:8\u201320). Shortly afterwards, Mordecai discovers a plot by two courtiers, Bigthan and Teresh, to assassinate Ahasuerus. The conspirators are apprehended and hanged, and Mordecai's service to the King is officially recorded (2:21\u201323).\n\nAhasuerus appoints Haman as his viceroy (3:1). Mordecai, who sits at the palace gates, falls into Haman's disfavour, as he refuses to bow down to him (3:2\u20135). Haman discovers that Mordecai refuses to bow on account of his being a Jew, and in revenge plots to kill not just Mordecai, but all the Jews in the empire (3:6). He obtains Ahasuerus' permission to execute this plan, against payment of ten thousand talents of silver, and casts lots (\"purim\") to choose the date on which to do this the thirteenth of the month of Adar (3:7\u201312). A royal decree is issued throughout the kingdom to slay all Jews on that date (3:13\u201315).\n\nWhen Mordecai discovers the plan, he goes into mourning and implores Esther to intercede with the King (4:1\u20135). But she is afraid to present herself to the King unsummoned, an offense punishable by death (4:6\u201312). Instead, she directs Mordecai to have all Jews fast for three days for her, and vows to fast as well (4:15\u201316.). On the third day she goes to Ahasuerus, who stretches out his sceptre to her to indicate that she is not to be punished (5:1\u20132). She invites him to a feast in the company of Haman (5:3\u20135). During the feast, she asks them to attend a further feast the next evening (5:6\u20138). Meanwhile, Haman is again offended by Mordecai and, at his wife's suggestion, has a gallows built to hang him (5:9\u201314).\n\nThat night, Ahasuerus cannot sleep, and orders the court records be read to him (6:1). He is reminded that Mordecai interceded in the previous plot against his life, and discovers that Mordecai never received any recognition (6:2\u20133). Just then, Haman appears to request the King's permission to hang Mordecai, but before he can make this request, Ahasuerus asks Haman what should be done for the man that the King wishes to honour (6:4\u20136). Assuming that the King is referring to Haman himself, Haman suggests that the man be dressed in the King's royal robes and crown and led around on the King's royal horse, while a herald calls: \"See how the King honours a man he wishes to reward!\" (6:7\u20139). To his surprise and horror, the King instructs Haman to do so to Mordecai (6:10\u201311).\n\nImmediately afterwards, Ahasuerus and Haman attend Esther's second banquet. The King promises to grant her any request, and she reveals that she is Jewish and that Haman is planning to exterminate her people, including herself (7:1\u20136). Overcome by rage, Ahasuerus leaves the room; meanwhile Haman stays behind and begs Esther for his life, falling upon her in desperation (7:7). The King returns in at this very moment and thinks Haman is assaulting the queen; this makes him angrier and he orders Haman hanged on the very gallows that Haman had prepared for Mordecai (7:8\u201310).\n\nUnable to annul a formal royal decree, the King instead adds to it, permitting the Jews to join together and destroy any and all of those seeking to kill them (8:1\u201314). On 13 Adar, Haman's ten sons and 500 other men are killed in Shushan (9:1\u201312). Upon hearing of this Esther requests it be repeated the next day, whereupon 300 more men are killed (9:13\u201315). Over 75,000 people are killed by the Jews, who are careful to take no plunder (9:16\u201317). Mordecai and Esther send letters throughout the provinces instituting an annual commemoration of the Jewish people's redemption, in a holiday called Purim (lots) (9:20\u201328). Ahasuerus remains very powerful and continues his reign, with Mordecai assuming a prominent position in his court (10:1\u20133).\n\nAuthorship and date \n\nThe Megillat Esther (Book of Esther) became the last of the 24 books of the Tanakh to be canonized by the Sages of the Great Assembly. According to the Talmud, it was a redaction by the Great Assembly of an original text by Mordecai. It is usually dated to the 4th century BCE. \n\nThe Greek book of Esther, included in the Septuagint, is a retelling of the events of the Hebrew Book of Esther rather than a translation and records additional traditions which do not appear in the traditional Hebrew version, in particular the identification of Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes and details of various letters. It is dated around the late 2nd to early 1st century BCE. The Coptic and Ethiopic versions of Esther are translations of the Greek rather than the Hebrew Esther.\n\nA Latin version of Esther was produced by Jerome for the Vulgate. It translates the Hebrew Esther but interpolates translations of the Greek Esther where the latter provides additional material. Predating the Vulgate, however, the Vetus Latina (\"Old Latin\") was apparently translated from a different Greek version not included in the Septuagint.\n\nSeveral Aramaic targums of Esther were produced in the Middle Ages, of which three survive \u2013 the Targum Rishon (\"First Targum\" or 1TgEsth) and Targum Sheni (\"Second Targum\" or 2TgEsth) dated \u20131000\u00a0CE, which include additional legends relating to Purim, and the Targum Shelishi (\"Third Targum\" or 3TgEsth), which Berliner and Goshen-Gottstein argued was the ur-Targum from which the others had been expanded, but which others consider only a late recension of the same. 3TgEsth is the most manuscript-stable of the three, and by far the most literal.\n\nHistoricity \n\nThe apparent historical difficulties, the internal inconsistencies, the pronounced symmetry of themes and events, the plenitude of quoted dialogue, and the gross exaggeration in the reporting of numbers (involving time, money, and people) all point to Esther as a work of fiction, its vivid characters (except for Xerxes) being the product of the author's creative imagination. There is no reference to known historical events in the story; a general consensus, though this consensus has been challenged, has maintained that the narrative of Esther was invented in order to provide an aetiology for Purim, and the name Ahasuerus is usually understood to refer to a fictionalized Xerxes I, who ruled the Achaemenid Empire between 486 and 465 BCE.\n\nThe book of Esther has more Akkadian and Aramaic loanwords than any other biblical work and the names of the key protagonists, Mordechai and Esther, for example, have been read as allusions to the gods Marduk and Ishtar, who, symbolizing respectively Babylonia and Assyria, were twin powers that brought about the fall of Susa, where the narrative of Esther is set and where the Elamite god Humban/Humman (compare Haman) exercised divine sovereignty. Purim practices like eating oznei Haman (Haman's ears), ear-shaped loaves of bread or pieces of pastry are similar to those in Near Eastern ritual celebrations of Ishtar's cosmic victory. Likewise other elements in Purim customs such as making a racket with a ratchet, masquerading and drunkenness have all been adduced to propose that such a kind of pagan festival akin to rites associated with Ishtar of Ninevah, which shares these same features, lay behind the development of this story.\n\nBiblical scholar Michael D. Coogan further argues that the book contains specific details regarding certain subject matter (for example, Persian rule) which are historically inaccurate. For example, Coogan discusses an inaccuracy regarding the age of Esther's cousin (or, according to others, uncle) Mordecai. In Esther 2:5\u20136, either Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish is identified as having been exiled from Jerusalem to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar II in 597\u00a0BCE: \"Mordecai son of Jair, the son of Shimei, the son of Kish, who had been carried into exile from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, among those taken captive with Jeconiah king of Judah\". If this refers to Mordecai, he would have had to live over a century to have witnessed the events described in the Book of Esther. However, the verse may be read as referring not to Mordecai's exile to Babylon, but to his great-grandfather Kish's exile.\n\nIn her article \"The Book of Esther and Ancient Storytelling\", biblical scholar Adele Berlin discusses the reasoning behind scholarly concern about the historicity of Esther. Much of this debate relates to the importance of distinguishing history and fiction within biblical texts, as Berlin argues, in order to gain a more accurate understanding of the history of the Israelite people. Berlin quotes a series of scholars who suggest that the author of Esther did not mean for the book to be considered as a historical writing, but intentionally wrote it to be a historical novella. The genre of novellas under which Esther falls was common during both the Persian and Hellenistic periods to which scholars have dated the book of Esther.\n\nHowever, there are certain elements of the book of Esther that are historically accurate. The story told in the book of Esther takes place during the rule of Ahasuerus, who amongst others has been identified as the 5th-century Persian king Xerxes I (reigned 486\u2013465 BCE). The author also displays an accurate knowledge of Persian customs and palaces. However, according to Coogan, considerable historical inaccuracies remain throughout the text, supporting the view that the book of Esther is to be read as a historical novella which tells a story describing historical events but is not necessarily historical fact.\n\nHistorical reading \n\nThose arguing in favour of a historical reading of Esther most commonly identify Ahasuerus with Xerxes I (ruled 486\u2013465\u00a0BCE), although in the past it was often assumed that he was Artaxerxes II (ruled 405\u2013359\u00a0BCE). The Hebrew Ahasuerus (\u0294a\u1e25a\u0161w\u0113r\u014d\u0161) is most likely derived from Persian X\u0161ay\u0101r\u0161a, the origin of the Greek Xerxes. The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Xerxes sought his harem after being defeated in the Greco-Persian Wars. He makes no reference to individual members of the harem except for a domineering Queen consort named Amestris, whose father, Otanes, was one of Xerxes's generals. (In contrast, the Greek historian Ctesias refers to a similar father-in-law/general figure named Onaphas.) Amestris has often been identified with Vashti, but this identification is problematic, as Amestris remained a powerful figure well into the reign of her son, Artaxerxes I, whereas Vashti is portrayed as dismissed in the early part of Xerxes's reign. Alternative attempts have been made to identify her with Esther, although Esther is an orphan whose father was a Jew named Abihail.\n\nAs for the identity of Mordecai, the similar names Marduka and Marduku have been found as the name of officials in the Persian court in over thirty texts from the period of Xerxes I and his father Darius I, and may refer to up to four individuals, one of whom might be the model for the biblical Mordecai.\n\nThe \"Old Greek\" Septuagint version of Esther translates the name Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes, a Greek name derived from the Persian Artax\u0161a\u03b8ra. Josephus too relates that this was the name by which he was known to the Greeks, and the Midrashic text Esther Rabba also makes the identification. Bar-Hebraeus identified Ahasuerus explicitly as Artaxerxes II; however, the names are not necessarily equivalent: Hebrew has a form of the name Artaxerxes distinct from Ahasuerus, and a direct Greek rendering of Ahasuerus is used by both Josephus and the Septuagint for occurrences of the name outside the Book of Esther. Instead, the Hebrew name Ahasuerus accords with an inscription of the time that notes that Artaxerxes II was named also Ar\u0161u, understood as a shortening of A\u1e2b\u0161iyar\u0161u the Babylonian rendering of the Persian X\u0161ay\u0101r\u0161a (Xerxes), through which the Hebrew \u0294a\u1e25a\u0161w\u0113r\u014d\u0161 (Ahasuerus) is derived. Ctesias related that Artaxerxes II was also called Arsicas which is understood as a similar shortening with the Persian suffix -ke that is applied to shortened names. Deinon related that Artaxerxes II was also called Oarses which is also understood to be derived from X\u0161ay\u0101r\u0161a.\n\nAnother view attempts to identify him instead with Artaxerxes I (ruled 465\u2013424\u00a0BCE), whose Babylonian concubine, Kosmartydene, was the mother of his son Darius II (ruled 424\u2013405\u00a0BCE). Jewish tradition relates that Esther was the mother of a King Darius and so some try to identify", " as well as books on the interracial communities of Monticello and Charlottesville. New exhibits at Monticello show Jefferson as the father of the Sally Hemings children. In 2010, the Monticello website noted the new consensus that has emerged on Jefferson's paternity of Hemings' children in the decade since those major studies.\n\nIn its January 2000 issue, the William and Mary Quarterly published Forum: Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings Redux, a total of seven articles noting the changed consensus and the developing new views on Jefferson. One article had the results of an analysis by Fraser D. Neiman, who studied the statistical significance of the relationship between Jefferson's documented residencies at Monticello and Hemings' conceptions. He concluded that there was a 99 percent chance that Jefferson was the father of Hemings' children.\n\nIn May 2000, PBS Frontline produced, Jefferson's Blood, a program about the issues related to the DNA test and historical controversy. It stated in its overview:\n\nMore than 20 years after CBS executives were pressured by Jefferson historians to drop plans for a mini-series on Jefferson and Hemings, the network airs Sally Hemings: An American Scandal. Though many quarreled with the portrayal of Hemings as unrealistically modern and heroic, no major historian challenged the series' premise that Hemings and Jefferson had a 38-year relationship that produced children.\n\nIn the fall of 2001, the National Genealogical Society published a special issue of its quarterly devoted to the Jefferson\u2013Hemings controversy. In several articles, its specialists concluded that, as the genealogist Helen M. Leary wrote, the \"chain of evidence\": historical, genealogical, and DNA, supported the conclusion that Thomas Jefferson was the father of all of Hemings' children.\n\nDissenting views\nThe Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society (TJHS) was formed with the purpose to dissent the shifting opinion of the newly forming consensus on the controversy, commissioned a report on the matter and asked a group of scholars to look at the evidence and make a public report detailing their conclusions. The TJHS Scholars Commission included Lance Banning, Walter E. Williams, Robert F. Turner, and Paul Rahe, among others. On May 26, 2000, John H. Works, the President of TJHS sent a letter to the Chairman of The Scholars Commission, Professor Robert Turner explaining to him that \"you have our assurance that the work of The Scholars Commission will be completely independent of efforts to influence your methodology or conclusions by The Heritage Society or its members.\" The members of this commission included a diverse group of senior scholars, most having either chaired professorships or served as departmental chairs at prominent universities. Several had written highly respected books about Jefferson. They worked independently of the TJHS, were not compensated for their work, and spent nearly a year examining the arguments and evidence regarding paternity.\n\nThe group published its report in 2001. In it they unanimously agree that the allegations were \"by no means proven\", and also state that they find it \"regrettable that public confusion about the 1998 DNA testing and other evidence has misled people.\" The scholars on the Commission concluded that there was insufficient evidence to determine that Jefferson was the father of Hemings' children.\n\nThe report states that it is a matter about which reasonable people can disagree but by a margin of 12 to 1 their final views \"ranged from 'serious skepticism' about the charge to a conviction that it is 'almost certainly false'.\" Their report suggested that his younger brother Randolph Jefferson, or one of his sons, was the father, and that Hemings may have had multiple partners. They emphasized that more than 20 Jefferson males lived in Virginia, eight within 20 miles of Monticello. Their report summary goes on to state \"The most important results from the DNA testing may well have been the determination that Thomas Woodson, long thought by many to be the Tom \nreferred to by James Callender in 1802 as having been conceived by Sally Hemings in Paris, and having a strong physical resemblance to the President could not have been the son of Thomas Jefferson. Subsequent DNA testing of descendants of a third Woodson son confirmed the earlier results. Most of us believe this goes far towards undermining any remaining credibility of the original Callender allegations.\" Paul Rahe published a minority view, saying he thought Jefferson's paternity of Eston Hemings was more likely than not.\n\nThe founder and Director Emeritus of the Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society Herbert Barger, a family historian, had assisted Eugene Foster by finding descendants of the Jefferson male line, Woodsons and Carrs for testing for the DNA study. Foster later said that Barger was \"fantastic\" and \"of immense help to me\".\n\nThe Monticello Jefferson-Hemings Report found that from its \"research it was determined that, other than Thomas Jefferson, twenty-five adult male descendants of his father Peter (1707-1757) and his uncle Field (1702-1765) lived in Virginia during the 1794-1807 period of Sally Hemings's pregnancies.\" Of this number, in examining Randolph Jefferson as a candidate, it found that he made four recorded visits to Monticello (in September 1802, September 1805, May 1808, and sometime in 1814), though none coincided with possible dates of Sally Hemings' conceptions. In August 1807, a probable conception time for Eston Hemings, Thomas Jefferson wrote to his brother about visiting, but there is no evidence that the younger man arrived. Similarly, no documentation of a Randolph visit appears at the probable conception time for Madison Hemings.\n\nJohn H. Works, Jr., a Jefferson-Wayles descendant and a past president of the Monticello Association, a Jefferson lineage society, wrote that DNA tests indicated that any one of eight Jeffersons could have been the father of Eston. The team had concluded that Jefferson's paternity was the simplest explanation and consistent with historic evidence, but the DNA study could not identify Thomas Jefferson exclusively of other Jefferson males because no sample of his DNA was available.\n\nIn the fall of 2001, articles in the National Genealogical Society Quarterly criticized the TJHS Scholars Commission Report for poor scholarship and failure to follow accepted historical practices of analysis, or to give sufficient weight to the body of evidence. In the same year, historian Alexander Boulton wrote that Randolph Jefferson had never been seriously proposed as a candidate by historians before the 1998 DNA study. He noted \"previous testimony had agreed\" that Hemings had only one father for her children, and criticized the idea that she had multiple partners for her children. Jeanette Daniels, Marietta Glauser, Diana Harvey and Carol Hubbell Ouellette conducted research and in 2003 concluded that Randolph Jefferson had been an infrequent visitor to Monticello.\n\nMonticello Association\nIn 1999, Lucian Truscott IV, a Wayles-Jefferson descendant and member of the Monticello Association, the Jefferson lineage society, invited Hemings' descendants to that year's annual meeting. The Association decided to commission its own report to determine whether it would admit Hemings' descendants to the lineage society (termed the MAC report or Membership Advisory Committee Report). The report was to determine whether the Hemings descendants could satisfy the society's requirements for documentation of lineage. The 2002 report to the Monticello Association concluded the evidence was insufficient to establish Jefferson's paternity. The majority of members voted against admitting the Hemings descendants as members of the group.\n\nTruscott noted in American Heritage magazine that the Association had not had such strict documentation standards before the DNA study results were published in 1998. He checked the previous membership rules and found the following:\n\nARTICLE III \u2014 Membership\u00a0.\u00a0.\u00a0. Any lineal descendant of Thomas Jefferson who applies for membership, and annually pays dues as stated in the By-Laws of this Association, shall be a Regular Member of the Association.\u00a0.\u00a0.\u00a0.\" Only those 33 of the 93 words in that section of the article address membership criteria; the rest of the paragraph was largely concerned with the payment of dues.\n\nMonticello Community\n\nIn 2010, Shay Banks-Young and Julia Jefferson Westerinen (descended from Sally Hemings' sons Madison and Eston, respectively; they identify as African American and white), and David Works (brother of John H. Works, Jr., and descended from Martha Wayles), were honored with the international \"Search for Common Ground\" award for \"their work to bridge the divide within their family and heal the legacy of slavery.\" The three have spoken about race and their extended family in numerous appearances across the country. After organizing a reunion at Monticello in 2003 of both sides of the Jefferson family, they organized \"The Monticello Community\", for descendants of all who lived and worked there during Jefferson's lifetime. In July 2007, the three-day Monticello Community Gathering brought together descendants of many people who had worked at the plantation, with educational sessions, tours of Monticello and Charlottesville, and other activities.\n\t \t\nShay Banks-Young, a descendant of Madison Hemings, had grown up with a family tradition of descent from Jefferson. David Works had originally resisted the new DNA evidence, but after he read the commissioned reports, he became convinced of Jefferson's paternity. Julia Jefferson Westerinen is descended from Eston Hemings. After Hemings moved his family to Madison, Wisconsin in 1852, they took the surname Jefferson and entered the white community. His descendants married and identified as white from then on.\n\nIn the 1940s, Julia's father and his brothers changed the family oral tradition and told their children they were descended from an uncle of Jefferson, as they were trying to protect them from potential racial discrimination related to their descent from Sally Hemings. In the 1970s, a cousin read Fawn McKay Brodie's biography of Jefferson and recognized Eston Hemings' name from family stories. She contacted Brodie and learned the truth about their descent. Their family was later contacted to recruit a male descendant for the 1998 DNA testing. Julia's brother, John Weeks Jefferson, was the Eston Hemings descendant whose DNA matched that of the Jefferson male line.\n\nChanging scholarship\nIn his last book before the DNA test results were published, Andrew Burstein wrote that Jefferson could not have been the father of Hemings' children. Since then he published Jefferson's Secrets: Death and Desire at Monticello (2005), in which he concluded that Jefferson did have a long-term sexual relationship with Sally Hemings.\n\nBurstein said in an interview about his 2005 book,\n\nOn Jefferson's isolated mountaintop, sex took place as part of a hierarchy that everyone involved understood. Jefferson, and those of his class, did not share our current understanding of sexual morality. Sally Hemings was his servant, and had little power. She was dependent economically, though this does not mean her feelings were irrelevant. But it does mean that he had extraordinary power, and she very little, and so, as his concubine, she had probably replicated her mother's relationship with Jefferson's father-in-law; for she was, in fact, Jefferson's late wife's half-sister, and I have described the Hemings family as a parallel, subordinate family to the all-white Jeffersons.\n\nIn 2005 Christopher Hitchens published a new biography of Jefferson, whom he had always admired and praised. While continuing that praise, he assessed the president and his views. In an interview on NPR about the book, Hitchens discussed Jefferson's pessimistic views of the possibility of the co-existence of whites and blacks in the United States. He said,\n\nThen there's the odd, of course, fact that he had a very long love affair with a woman who he owned, who he inherited from his father-in-law, who was his wife's half-sister, and produced several children by her, whose descendants have mainly been brought up on the white side of the color line. So in a strange way, his own patrimony disproves his own belief that there couldn't be coexistence between black and white Americans.\n\nIn her Pulitzer Prize-winning The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family (2008), Annette Gordon-Reed recounts the history and biography of four generations of the enslaved Hemings family, focusing on their African and Virginian origins and interrelationships with the Jefferson-Wayles families, until the death in 1826 of Thomas Jefferson. She discusses Jefferson's complex relationships as the family's master, Sally Hemings' partner, and the father of her children.\n\nGordon-Reed is frequently asked about the emotional relationship between Jefferson and Hemings when giving talks. She writes, \"In all the venues I have visited, from Houston to Stockholm, one question always arises: Did they love each other?\" The question brings up many thorny issues in the context of a master-slave relationship. \"Rape and the threat of it blighted the lives of countless enslaved women,\" she notes. \"At the same time, some black women and white men did form bonds quite different in character than from those resulting from sexual coercion.\"\n\nIn 2012, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation (which operates Monticello as a house museum and archive) and the Smithsonian Institution collaborated on a major exhibit held at the National Museum of American History, Slavery at Jefferson's Monticello: The Paradox of Liberty (January\u2013October 2012). Described as a \"groundbreaking exhibit\", it was the first on the National Mall to address Jefferson as slaveholder and the family lives of slaves at Monticello. Members and descendants of six families, including the Hemings, were documented and the strength of the enslaved families was shown. The exhibit also noted that \"evidence strongly support[s] the conclusion that Jefferson was the father of Sally Hemings' children.\" More than one million visitors saw the exhibit. Following the Washington run, the exhibit toured the US, being held at museums in Atlanta, St. Louis and other venues. Both the United States National Park Service and the University of Virginia's Miller Center of Public Affairs note in their online biographies that Jefferson's paternity of Hemings' children has been widely accepted.\n\nRepresentation in media\n\nIn 1979, Barbara Chase-Riboud published a novel on Hemings that gave her a voice, portraying her as both an independent woman and Jefferson's concubine. Jefferson historians succeeded in suppressing a planned CBS television film based on this novel. In 1995, the film Jefferson in Paris was released, which portrayed a Jefferson-Hemings liaison. CBS aired the television film Sally Hemings: An American Scandal (1999), also portraying this relationship; it was not challenged by any major historian.\n\nWhile historians have discussed the issue, numerous artists, writers and poets have grappled with the meaning of Jefferson's paternity in American history, as in these selections from a list of resources listed in a Lehigh University student project of \"History on Trial\": The Jefferson-Hemings Controversy:\nBolcom, William, composer. From the Diary of Sally Hemings. Perf: Alyson Cambridge, Lydia Brown. Audio CD. White Pine Music, 2010. Setting of text by Sandra Seaton (18 pieces)\nHartz, Jill. Siting Jefferson: Contemporary Artists Interpret Thomas Jefferson's Legacy. Charlottesville: U of Virginia P, 2003. The record of a University of Virginia Art Museum exhibit, Hindsight/Fore-sight: Art for the New Millennium (2000), in which performance works, such as Todd Murphy's \"Monument to Sally Hemings\" (on the cover), were site-specific. A chapter is devoted to \"Thomas Jefferson: Race and National Identity.\" \nHindsight/Fore-Site: Art for the New Millennium (2000), University of Virginia Art Museum, some images from installations\nMion, Tina. Half Sisters (2002 painting). Of Martha Jefferson and Sally Hemings, Mion wrote: \"I feel that the real story is being overlooked. Most people don't know that Sally was Martha's half-sister and that, by written accounts, she looked like Martha. Sally moved into the White House after Martha's death. How strange it must have been for Jefferson to be constantly reminded of his dead wife.\"\nMonteith, Sharon. \"Sally Hemings in Visual Culture: A Radical Act of the Imagination?\" Slavery and Abolition 29.2 (2008): 233\u201346. Explores the representation of the Jefferson-Hemings relationship in visual culture. \nPark, Gloria Toyun. \"Thomas Jefferson.\" (1998), Fiber Scene. In a public art installation at Columbia University, Park placed wigs she had made on historical public statues sited on the campus. She said, \"Thomas Jefferson wore a slave bonnet and a wig, alluding to his alleged relationship with his slave mistress of forty years, Sally Hemings.\" \nSaar, Lezley. Harriet Hemings: Slave Daughter of Thomas Jefferson (1999), All-Art.org\nSalter, Mary Jo. \"The Hand of Jefferson,\" in A Phone Call to the Future: New and Selected Poems, New York: Knopf, 2008. pp.\u00a0124\u201338. Excerpt: \"His time is over. / He'll take the answer to his grave / whether he fathered children with his slave, / Sally Hemings; what words he'll offer / to cover himself are buried in a drawer, / meant for his tombstone.\" \nSeaton, Sandra. \"From the Diary of Sally Hemings\", Michigan Quarterly Review 40.4 (2001). (See William Bolcom above, who set several of these texts to music.)\n Taylor, Tess. \"A Letter to Jefferson from Monticello\", Common-Place, Vol. 13 No. 4, Poetry. See also poet's note: Research Notes. Taylor is a descendant from the Jefferson-Wayles marriage.\n\"Virginia is for Lovers\" , The Hook, 19 April 2007. Article reports on the Committee for Jeffersonian Traditions, a \"new secret society\" at the University of Virginia, running a \"Tommy Heart Sally\" campaign \"to knock school founder Thomas Jefferson off his pedestal and bolster the recognition of his African American slave and mistress, Sally Hemings.\"\n\nSee also\n Clotel or The President's Daughter an 1853 novel by William Wells Brown\n Bibliography of Thomas Jefferson\n List of haplogroups of historic people\n Randolph Jefferson \u00a7 Suggested paternity of Sally Hemings' children\n Children of the plantation\n African heritage of presidents of the United States\n List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves\n Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States\n List of federal political sex scandals in the United States\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n \"The History of a Secret: A chronology of how the Jefferson-Hemings story was long dismissed by historians as legend, lie or worse", 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\u043f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c \u0432 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0435 1990-\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432 (\u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440\u0430), \u0438 \u043f\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u0438\u044e \u041a\u0443\u0431\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043c \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u044a\u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d \u0438\u0441\u043a, \u0432 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u043d\u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u044b, \u0442\u0435\u043c \u0441\u0430\u043c\u044b\u043c \u043b\u0438\u0448\u0438\u0432 \u041b\u043e\u043d\u0434\u043e\u043d \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0437 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0438\u0445 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\u0411\u0430\u0440\u0440\u0438 \u041b\u0438\u043d\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0430\u00bb (), \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0430\u043a \u00ab\u0411\u0430\u0440\u0440\u0438 \u041b\u0438\u043d\u0434\u043e\u043d\u00bb, \u043f\u043b\u0443\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u0445 \u0438 \u0437\u043b\u043e\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u0445 \u0438\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0430\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0442\u044e\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430 XVIII \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430.\n\n\u041f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d \u041a\u0435\u0439\u043b, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0432\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0435\u0431\u043d\u043e \u043e\u0442\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u044b\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0435 \u041a\u0443\u0431\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430, \u043d\u0430\u0448\u043b\u0430 \u00ab\u0411\u0430\u0440\u0440\u0438 \u041b\u0438\u043d\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0430\u00bb \u0445\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u043c, \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0438 \u0431\u0435\u0437\u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e. \u0425\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0436 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0442\u0440\u0451\u0445 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u043e\u0442\u043f\u0443\u0433\u043d\u0443\u043b \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0437\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439, \u0445\u043e\u0442\u044f \u0438 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0442\u0437\u044b\u0432\u043e\u0432 \u043e\u0442 \u0420\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430 \u0420\u0438\u0434\u0430 \u0438 \u0420\u0438\u0447\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0430 \u0428\u0438\u043a\u0435\u043b\u0430. \u0416\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b \u00ab\u00bb \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0440\u0435\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0437\u0438\u044e \u043d\u0430 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c, \u0430 \u041a\u0443\u0431\u0440\u0438\u043a \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0443\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0440\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u044b \u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438. \u0424\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c \u0432 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u043c \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d \u043d\u0430 7 \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434 \u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438", " (NY\u00a0240) is a state highway in western New York in the United States. The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY\u00a0242 in the Ellicottville community of Ashford Junction in northern Cattaraugus County. Its northern terminus is at a junction with NY\u00a0324 and Interstate\u00a0290 (I-290) in Amherst in northern Erie County. The route passes through the villages of Springville and Orchard Park, where it meets NY\u00a039 and U.S. Route\u00a020A (US\u00a020A), respectively. Much of NY\u00a0240 between Concord and Aurora follows the west branch of Cazenovia Creek. The northern part of NY\u00a0240 in Erie County, named Harlem Road, is a major north\u2013south route through the suburbs east of the city of Buffalo.\n\nFrom its southern terminus at NY\u00a0242 to the hamlet of Glenwood in the town of Colden, NY\u00a0240 is a state highway in name only as the roadway is maintained by the highway departments of Cattaraugus and Erie counties. Within Cattaraugus County, NY\u00a0242 is co-designated as County Route\u00a032 (CR\u00a032). CR\u00a032 is the only route that has a marked concurrency with a state route in the county. At the county line, it becomes County Route\u00a0198 and, later, County Route\u00a030 before becoming state-maintained in Glenwood. A section between CR\u00a0198 and CR\u00a030 is also designated as part of CR\u00a027.\n\nNY\u00a0240 was first designated in the renumbering of state highways in New York in 1930 from NY\u00a039 in Springville to NY\u00a018 near downtown Buffalo. The portion between Springville and Ashford was a section of NY\u00a062 and Harlem Road was unnumbered. The section south of CR\u00a016 in West Valley was a portion of NY\u00a0242. NY\u00a0240 instead used Abbott Road and South Park Avenue to get to Buffalo, which got extended to NY\u00a05 in the 1930s. NY\u00a0240 was realigned south to Ellicottville in the mid-1960s, after numerous bypasses and realignments had been done by the State of New York Department of Public Works. NY\u00a0240 was realigned onto Harlem Road c. 1962. The former alignment to Buffalo is now designated as NY\u00a0950M, a reference route.\n\nRoute description\n\nCattaraugus County \nNY\u00a0240 begins at an intersection with NY\u00a0242 in the town of Ellicottville along the western leg of a railroad wye near Beaver Meadows Creek. NY\u00a0240 proceeds northward alongside Beaver Meadows Creek co-designated as County Route\u00a032 (CR\u00a032; West Valley Road). The routes proceed northward through Ellicottville as a two-lane roadway through dense forestry, bending northward along the creek and a nearby railroad track. The dense forestry remains for several miles, before bending northeast into an intersection with Fancy Tract Road. NY\u00a0240 and CR\u00a032 continue northeast as the dense woods retreat for residences before bending northwest away from Beaver Meadows Creek. After bending northward once more, the routes cross through large fields and past several houses along West Valley Road.\n\nContinuing north, NY\u00a0240 and CR\u00a032 intersect with the eastern terminus of CR\u00a075 (Beaver Meadows Road). The routes continue winding northward, crossing the town line into the town of Ashford at Town Line Road. At that junction, the routes bend northwest again, passing a stretch of residences before intersecting with the western terminus of CR\u00a016 (Roszyk Hill Road). At CR\u00a016, NY\u00a0240 and CR\u00a032 bend north, becoming a residential street as it enters the hamlet of West Valley. In West Valley, the routes intersect with the terminus of CR\u00a053 (Ashford Hill Road).\n\nThrough West Valley, the route remains residential, quickly leaving the hamlet. North of West Valley, NY\u00a0240 and CR\u00a032 intersect with the eastern terminus of CR\u00a086 (Thornwood Drive). Crossing through another long stretch of residences, the routes cross a railroad track at-grade, where they turn to the northwest, paralleling the tracks until turning north and away once again. NY\u00a0240 and CR\u00a032 bend northwest at Fox Valley Road, intersecting with the eastern terminus of CR\u00a086-2 (Buttermilk Road) and the eastern terminus of CR\u00a055 (Gooseneck Road) in Ashford. After CR\u00a055, the routes bend northwest once again, crossing as a two-lane road through wide fields.\n\nAt Twichell Road, NY\u00a0240 and CR\u00a032 make a large bend to the west, crossing through Ashford before turning northeast and northwest. On the northwestern stretch, the route remains rural, crossing an intersection with Bond Road, where the route turns north along West Valley Road. NY\u00a0240 and CR\u00a032 continue north through Ashford, intersecting with Beech Tree Road, where they cross Cattaraugus Creek just west of the Bigelow Bridge. After crossing the bridge, NY\u00a0240 enters Erie County and the town of Concord.\n\nErie County\n\nConcord to Glenwood \nUpon crossing into Erie County and the town of Concord, NY\u00a0240 remains county-maintained, now co-designated as unsigned CR\u00a0198. Now known as South Vaughn Street, the route proceeds northwest, intersecting with the eastern terminus of CR\u00a062 (Cattaraugus Road). After this junction, NY\u00a0240 and CR\u00a0198 wind northeast through Concord as a two-lane rural road. The route bends northward, entering the village of Springville, where it intersects with NY\u00a039 (East Main Street / Creek Road). After Springville, NY\u00a0240 and CR\u00a0198 re-enter the town of Concord, returning the two-lane rural roadway it was prior to entering Springville. Intersecting with the eastern terminus of CR\u00a0412 (North Street), the routes continue north through Concord, intersecting with CR\u00a0410 (Middle Road).\n\nNY\u00a0240 and CR\u00a0198 continue northward as a two-lane rural roadway in Concord, remaining with the moniker of Vaughn Street. More residences parallel the routes as they continue northward, entering a five-way intersection with CR\u00a049, CR\u00a0490 (Genesee Road) and CR\u00a0432 (Sibley Road). This intersection serves as the northern terminus as CR\u00a0198, while NY\u00a0240 proceeds northeast as CR\u00a027, now under the moniker of Allen Road. A short distance later, NY\u00a0240 intersects forks to the northwest on CR\u00a030 as Glenwood\u2013East Concord Road while CR\u00a027 continues northeast on Allen Road. NY\u00a0240 and CR\u00a030 proceed northward through Concord, soon bending northwest through dense fields before returning to railroad tracks nearby.\n\nCrossing over the west branch of Cazenovia Creek, NY\u00a0240 and CR\u00a030 continue north through Concord, bending northwest into an intersection with CR\u00a0563 (Foote Road). The routes bend northward through the hamlet of Footes, paralleling the creek and railroad track before entering the town of Colden. In Colden, NY\u00a0240 and CR\u00a030 become a two-lane residential street surrounded by dense woods in the nearby hills. After another bend to the northwest, the routes enter the hamlet of Glenwood. In Glenwood, NY\u00a0240 intersects with the western terminus of CR\u00a0240 (Holland\u2013Glenwood Road), which doubles as the northern terminus of CR\u00a030, as NY\u00a0240 is state-maintained north of this junction.\n\nGlenwood to Orchard Park \nParalleling the railroad tracks, NY\u00a0240 winds northwest through Colden as State Road, a two-lane road through dense woods. The woods changeover to wide fields as it winds northwest, passing west of Walter Kummer Town Park before entering the hamlet of Colden. In the hamlet, NY\u00a0240 intersects with the termini of CR\u00a0222 (Boston\u2013Colden Road) and CR\u00a0562 (Heath Road). After this intersection, NY\u00a0240 darts several directions while winding northward as a two-lane residential street through the town of Colden. At the junction with CR\u00a0400 (Knapp Road), the route changes names to Davis Road before winding northeast into the hamlet of West Falls. Now in the town of Aurora, NY\u00a0240 runs along the creek as Davis Road, intersecting with the eastern terminus of CR\u00a0372 (Behm Road).\n\nContinuing north through Aurora, NY\u00a0240 runs along the creek as a two-lane road, entering the hamlet of Jewettville. In Jewettville, the western terminus of CR\u00a047 (Mill Road) intersects the residential NY\u00a0240. A short distance to the north, NY\u00a0240 turns west on Ellicott Road, remaining the two-lane residential road through the town of Aurora. After crossing the railroad tracks again, the route enters the hamlet of Loveland, within the town of Orchard Park. The route runs westward for several miles, intersecting with the northern terminus of CR\u00a0442 (Cole Road). Just west of CR\u00a0442, NY\u00a0240 enters a junction with CR\u00a0369 (South Freeman Road) and CR\u00a0371 (Scherff Road).\n\nAt this junction, NY\u00a0240 bends straight northwest, crossing through Orchard Park as a two-lane residential road. After Philson Street, the route makes a short bend to the west, intersecting with NY\u00a0277 (Chestnut Ridge Road). The right-of-way of NY\u00a0240 continues west as New Armor\u2013Duells Road, reaching US\u00a0219 (the Southern Expressway) a short distance later. NY\u00a0240 turns north on a concurrency with NY\u00a0277, proceeding northeast through Orchard Park. After changing monikers to South Buffalo Street, NY\u00a0240 and NY\u00a0277 pass west of the Orchard Park Country Club and cross over a railroad line. After the railroad tracks, the routes enter downtown Orchard Park, becoming a two-lane commercial street before intersecting with US\u00a020A (Quaker Street) in the center of the village.\n\nOrchard Park to West Seneca\nNorth of US\u00a020A, NY\u00a0240 and NY\u00a0277 continue north along North Buffalo Road, intersecting with the eastern terminus of CR\u00a0177 (New Taylor Road). Crossing through the hamlet of Websters Corners, NY\u00a0240 and NY\u00a0277 bend northwest, intersecting with CR\u00a0369 once again. After another northward stint, the two routes intersect with CR\u00a0460 (Milestrip Road), which is the eastern continuation of NY\u00a0179. Now known as Orchard Park Road, NY\u00a0240 and NY\u00a0277 proceed north past residential homes as it intersects with US\u00a020 (Southwestern Boulevard) and CR\u00a0200 (Lake Avenue).\n\nContinuing north from US\u00a020, NY\u00a0277 forks to the north along Union Road, while NY\u00a0240 proceeds northwest along Orchard Park Road. For a short distance, NY\u00a0240 serves as a two-lane commercial boulevard, switching over to a residential street at Dover Drive. Now in the town of West Seneca, NY\u00a0240 retains its Orchard Park Road moniker, passing several condominium complexes on both sides of the highway. Paralleling Cazenovia Creek once again, NY\u00a0240 enters another commercial section, intersecting with CR\u00a0137 (Ridge Road). Proceeding northwest again, NY\u00a0240 then crosses over a former railroad grade and a current railroad alignment near several industrial buildings.\n\nAt the intersection with Slade Avenue, NY\u00a0240 and Orchard Park Road turn north at Slade Road, which connects to the New York State Thruway's exit\u00a055 at CR\u00a0137. NY\u00a0240 proceeds north through West Seneca, passing several residences and businesses before crossing over Cazenovia Creek into a large residential district. In this large residential district, NY\u00a0240 intersects with NY\u00a016, which connects to NY\u00a0400 (Aurora Expressway) a short distance to the east. NY\u00a0240 proceeds north as Harlem Road, paralleling the New York State Thruway just past exit\u00a054, which serves as the northern terminus of NY\u00a0400. Crossing under NY\u00a0400, NY\u00a0240 crosses over more railroad tracks and intersects with CR\u00a0109 (Indian Church Road).\n\nWest Seneca to Amherst \nProceeding north through West Seneca, NY\u00a0240 proceeds north, crossing an intersection with CR\u00a0534 (Mineral Springs Road). At this junction, the residential street turns over to commercial as NY\u00a0240 crosses over Buffalo Creek just west of the mouth of Cayuga Creek. After crossing over Buffalo Creek, NY\u00a0240 enters the town of Cheektowaga. In Cheektowaga, NY\u00a0240 immediately intersects with NY\u00a0354 (Clinton Street) before bending northeast around exit\u00a053 of the Thruway. Just northeast of exit\u00a053, NY\u00a0240 crosses under the Thruway mainline, intersecting with the western terminus of CR\u00a0315 (Dingens Street).\n\nNorth of CR\u00a0315, NY\u00a0240 runs north through a large residential section of Cheektowaga, passing houses on both sides of the road for six blocks, including a junction with CR\u00a0207 (William Street). Passing just east of the village of Sloan, NY\u00a0240 proceeds northward along Harlem Road over a railroad yard owned by CSX Transportation. After crossing over the yard, NY\u00a0240 enters an interchange with NY\u00a0130 (Broadway) via two ramps. After crossing over NY\u00a0130, NY\u00a0240 crosses over another railroad yard, passing several large industries near an intersection with Walden Avenue. NY\u00a0240 continues north through Cheektowaga, remaining a two-lane residential boulevard, passing east of Cheektowaga Town Park. \n\nAfter crossing an intersection with Genesee Street, NY\u00a0240 continues north through Cheektowaga, passing east of Buffalo Cemetery and west of Pine Lawn Cemetery. A short distance north, the route passes east of Ridge Lawn Cemetery, crossing under NY\u00a033 (the Kensington Expressway). Near the underpass, NY\u00a0240 intersects with several ramps from the expressway. After NY\u00a033, the route passes east of Mount Calvary Cemetery before entering a large residential neighborhood. Continuing north through Cheektowaga, NY\u00a0240 becomes a two-lane residential street, intersecting with CR\u00a0141 (Cleveland Drive) at a rotary. Continuing northward, NY\u00a0240 enters the town of Amherst, where it enters two more rotaries, with CR\u00a0290 (Wehrle Drive) and CR\u00a0208 (Kensington Avenue).\n\nNY\u00a0240 continues north through Amherst as a two-lane residential boulevard with the Harlem Road moniker. The route remains residential for several blocks, intersecting with NY\u00a05 (Main Street). Passing east of the hamlet of Snyder, NY\u00a0240 passes several commercial businesses before becoming residential again north of that junction. The route remains residential for a distance to the intersection with Campus Lane, where it enters exit\u00a06 of I-290 (the Youngmann Expressway). A block to the north of I-290, NY\u00a0240 intersects with NY\u00a0324 (Sheridan Drive). This intersection serves as the northern terminus of NY\u00a0240.\n\nHistory\n\nNY\u00a0240 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to an alignment extending from NY\u00a039 east of Springville to NY\u00a018 southeast of downtown Buffalo. Instead of turning north onto Harlem Road as it does today, NY\u00a0240 continued northwest on Potter and Abbott Roads to South Park Avenue (then NY\u00a018). At the time, the portion of modern NY\u00a0240 south of Cattaraugus Street in Springville was designated as part of NY\u00a062 while the portion south of CR\u00a016 in West Valley was also part of NY\u00a0242. NY\u00a0242 was moved onto its modern routing between Ashford and Machias by the following year while NY\u00a062 was mostly renumbered to NY\u00a075 .\n\nUS\u00a0219 was extended into New York , overlapping NY\u00a075 between Ashford and Springville. The overlap with NY\u00a075 was eliminated by 1940 when NY\u00a075 was truncated northward to US\u00a062 in Hamburg. In the mid-1950s, US\u00a0219 was shifted westward onto a new highway between Ellicottville and Springville; however, NY\u00a0240 was not extended south to Ashford over its former routing until the mid-1960s. In the Buffalo area, NY\u00a0240 was extended northwestward along South Park Avenue to Main Street, which carried NY\u00a05 at the time, in the late 1930s. It was altered to follow Harlem Road across Cazenovia Creek to Seneca Street, where it ended at NY\u00a016. NY\u00a0240 was extended northward along Harlem Road to NY\u00a0324 in Amherst in the mid-1960s. The portion of NY\u00a0240's former routing on Potter Road between the Buffalo city line and Harlem Road is now NY\u00a0950M, an unsigned reference route.\n\nOn July 6, 2014, the New York State Department of Transportation announced the extension of the Western New York Southtowns Scenic Byway, a scenic byway through Erie County from Orchard Park to Springville, into Cattaraugus County. The new extension would involve US\u00a0219 from NY\u00a039 in Springville to the Great Valley town line and NY\u00a0240 down to NY\u00a039 and NY\u00a0242.\n\nMajor intersections\n\nSee also\n\nList of county routes in Cattaraugus County, New York\nList of county routes in Erie County, New York\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n240\nTransportation in Erie County, New York\nTransportation in Cattaraugus County,", "'s government.\n\nOn the orders of the King, James left England for Brussels. In 1680, he was appointed Lord High Commissioner of Scotland and took up residence at the Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh to suppress an uprising and oversee the royal government. James returned to England for a time when Charles was stricken ill and appeared to be near death. The hysteria of the accusations eventually faded, but James's relations with many in the English Parliament, including the Earl of Danby, a former ally, were forever strained and a solid segment turned against him.\n\nOn 6 May 1682, James narrowly escaped the sinking of HMS Gloucester, in which between 130 and 250 people perished. James argued with the pilot about the navigation of the ship before it ran aground on a sandbank, and then delayed abandoning ship, which may have contributed to the death toll.\n\nReturn to favour\nIn 1683, a plot was uncovered to assassinate Charles II and his brother and spark a republican revolution to re-establish a government of the Cromwellian style. The conspiracy, known as the Rye House Plot, backfired upon its conspirators and provoked a wave of sympathy for the King and James. Several notable Whigs, including the Earl of Essex and the Duke of Monmouth, were implicated. Monmouth initially confessed to complicity in the plot and implicated fellow conspirators, but later recanted. Essex committed suicide, and Monmouth, along with several others, was obliged to flee into exile in continental Europe. Charles II reacted to the plot by increasing the repression of Whigs and dissenters. Taking advantage of James's rebounding popularity, Charles invited him back onto the Privy Council in 1684. While some in the English Parliament remained wary of the possibility of a Roman Catholic king, the threat of excluding James from the throne had passed.\n\nReign\n\nAccession to the throne\n\nCharles II died on 6 February 1685 from apoplexy, after supposedly converting to Catholicism on his deathbed. Having no legitimate children, he was succeeded by his brother James, who reigned in England and Ireland as James II and in Scotland as James VII. There was little initial opposition to James's accession, and there were widespread reports of public rejoicing at the orderly succession. He wished to proceed quickly to the coronation, and he and Mary were crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1685.\n\nThe new Parliament that assembled in May 1685, which gained the name of \"Loyal Parliament\", was initially favourable to James, who had stated that most former exclusionists would be forgiven if they acquiesced to his rule. Most of Charles's officers continued in office, the exceptions being the promotion of James's brothers-in-law, the earls of Clarendon and Rochester, and the demotion of Halifax. Parliament granted James a generous life income, including all of the proceeds of tonnage and poundage and the customs duties. James worked harder as king than his brother had, but was less willing to compromise when his advisers disagreed with his policies.\n\nTwo rebellions\n\nSoon after becoming king, James faced a rebellion in southern England led by his nephew, the Duke of Monmouth, and another rebellion in Scotland led by Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll. Monmouth and Argyll both began their expeditions from Holland, where James's nephew and son-in-law, the Prince of Orange, had neglected to detain them or put a stop to their recruitment efforts.\n\nArgyll sailed to Scotland where he raised recruits, mainly from his own clan, the Campbells. The rebellion was quickly crushed, and Argyll was captured at Inchinnan on 18 June 1685. Having arrived with fewer than 300 men and unable to convince many more to flock to his standard, he never posed a credible threat to James. Argyll was taken as a prisoner to Edinburgh. A new trial was not commenced because Argyll had previously been tried and sentenced to death. The King confirmed the earlier death sentence and ordered that it be carried out within three days of receiving the confirmation.\n\nMonmouth's rebellion was coordinated with Argyll's, but was more dangerous to James. Monmouth had proclaimed himself King at Lyme Regis on 11 June. He attempted to raise recruits but was unable to gather enough rebels to defeat even James's small standing army. Monmouth's soldiers attacked the King's army at night, in an attempt at surprise, but were defeated at the Battle of Sedgemoor. The King's forces, led by Feversham and Churchill, quickly dispersed the ill-prepared rebels. Monmouth was captured and later executed at the Tower of London on 15 July. The King's judges\u2014most notably, George Jeffreys\u2014condemned many of the rebels to transportation and indentured servitude in the West Indies in a series of trials that came to be known as the Bloody Assizes. Around 250 of the rebels were executed. While both rebellions were defeated easily, they hardened James's resolve against his enemies and increased his suspicion of the Dutch.\n\nReligious liberty and dispensing power\nTo protect himself from further rebellions, James sought safety by enlarging his standing army. This alarmed his subjects, not only because of the trouble soldiers caused in the towns, but because it was against the English tradition to keep a professional army in peacetime. Even more alarming to Parliament was James's use of his dispensing power to allow Roman Catholics to command several regiments without having to take the oath mandated by the Test Act. When even the previously supportive Parliament objected to these measures, James ordered Parliament prorogued in November 1685, never to meet again in his reign. At the beginning of 1686, two papers were found in Charles II's strong box and his closet, in his own hand, stating the arguments for Catholicism over Protestantism. James published these papers with a declaration signed by his sign manual and challenged the Archbishop of Canterbury and the whole Anglican episcopal bench to refute Charles's arguments: \"Let me have a solid answer, and in a gentlemanlike style; and it may have the effect which you so much desire of bringing me over to your church.\" The Archbishop refused on the grounds of respect for the late king.\n\nJames advocated repeal of the penal laws in all three of his kingdoms, but in the early years of his reign he refused to allow those dissenters who did not petition for relief to receive it. James sent a letter to the Scottish Parliament at its opening in 1685, declaring his wish for new penal laws against refractory Presbyterians and lamented that he was not there in person to promote such a law. In response, the Parliament passed an Act that stated, \"whoever should preach in a conventicle under a roof, or should attend, either as preacher or as a hearer, a conventicle in the open air, should be punished with death and confiscation of property\". In March 1686, James sent a letter to the Scottish Privy Council advocating toleration for Roman Catholics but not for rebellious Presbyterian Covenanters. Presbyterians would later call this period \"The Killing Time\".\n\nJames allowed Roman Catholics to occupy the highest offices of his kingdoms, and received at his court the papal nuncio, Ferdinando d'Adda, the first representative from Rome to London since the reign of Mary I. Edward Petre, James's Jesuit confessor, was a particular object of Anglican ire. When the King's Secretary of State, the Earl of Sunderland, began replacing office-holders at court with \"Papist\" favourites, James began to lose the confidence of many of his Anglican supporters. Sunderland's purge of office-holders even extended to the King's brothers-in-law (the Hydes) and their supporters. Roman Catholics made up no more than one-fiftieth of the English population. In May 1686, James sought to obtain a ruling from the English common-law courts that showed he had the power to dispense with Acts of Parliament. He dismissed judges who disagreed with him on this matter, as well as the Solicitor General, Heneage Finch. The case of Godden v. Hales affirmed his dispensing power, with eleven out of the twelve judges ruling in the king's favour.\n\nIn 1687, James issued the Declaration of Indulgence, also known as the Declaration for Liberty of Conscience, in which he used his dispensing power to negate the effect of laws punishing both Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters. In the summer of 1687 he attempted to increase support for his tolerationist policy by a speaking tour of the western counties of England. As part of this tour, he gave a speech at Chester in which he said, \"suppose... there should be a law made that all black men should be imprisoned, it would be unreasonable and we had as little reason to quarrel with other men for being of different [religious] opinions as for being of different complexions.\" At the same time, James provided partial toleration in Scotland, using his dispensing power to grant relief to Roman Catholics and partial relief to Presbyterians.\n\nIn 1688, James ordered the Declaration read from the pulpits of every Anglican church, further alienating the Anglican bishops against the Supreme Governor of their church. While the Declaration elicited some thanks from its beneficiaries, it left the Established Church, the traditional ally of the monarchy, in the difficult position of being forced to erode its own privileges. James provoked further opposition by attempting to reduce the Anglican monopoly on education. At the University of Oxford, he offended Anglicans by allowing Roman Catholics to hold important positions in Christ Church and University College, two of Oxford's largest colleges. He also attempted to force the Fellows of Magdalen College to elect as their President Anthony Farmer, a man of generally ill repute who was believed to be a Roman Catholic, which was seen as a violation of the Fellows' right to elect someone of their own choosing.\n\nIn 1687, James prepared to pack Parliament with his supporters, so that it would repeal the Test Act and the Penal Laws. James was convinced by addresses from Dissenters that he had their support and so could dispense with relying on Tories and Anglicans. He instituted a wholesale purge of those in offices under the Crown opposed to his plan, appointing new lord-lieutenants of counties and remodelling the corporations governing towns and livery companies. In October, James gave orders for the lord-lieutenants to provide three standard questions to all Justices of the Peace: 1. Would they consent to the repeal of the Test Act and the Penal Laws? 2. Would they assist candidates who would do so? 3. Would they accept the Declaration of Indulgence? During the first three months of 1688, hundreds of those who gave negative replies to those questions were dismissed. Corporations were purged by agents, known as the Regulators, who were given wide discretionary powers, in an attempt to create a permanent royal electoral machine. Most of the regulators were Baptists, and the new town officials that they recommended included Quakers, Baptists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians and Roman Catholics, as well as Anglicans. Finally, on 24 August 1688, James ordered the issue of writs for a general election. However, upon realising in September that William of Orange was going to land in England, James withdrew the writs and subsequently wrote to the lord-lieutenants to inquire over allegations of abuses committed during the regulations and election preparations, as part of the concessions he made to win support.\n\nDeposition and the Glorious Revolution \n\nIn April 1688, James re-issued the Declaration of Indulgence, subsequently ordering Anglican clergy to read it in their churches. When seven bishops, including the Archbishop of Canterbury, submitted a petition requesting the reconsideration of the King's religious policies, they were arrested and tried for seditious libel. Public alarm increased when Queen Mary gave birth to a Roman Catholic son and heir, James Francis Edward, on 10 June that year. When James's only possible successors were his two Protestant daughters, Anglicans could see his pro-Catholic policies as a temporary phenomenon, but when the prince's birth opened the possibility of a permanent Roman Catholic dynasty, such men had to reconsider their position. Threatened by a Roman Catholic dynasty, several influential Protestants claimed the child was supposititious and had been smuggled into the Queen's bedchamber in a warming pan. They had already entered into negotiations with the Prince of Orange when it became known the Queen was pregnant, and the birth of a son reinforced their convictions.\n\nOn 30 June 1688, a group of seven Protestant nobles invited William, Prince of Orange, to come to England with an army. By September, it had become clear that William sought to invade. Believing that his own army would be adequate, James refused the assistance of King Louis XIV of France, fearing that the English would oppose French intervention. When William arrived on 5 November 1688, many Protestant officers, including Churchill, defected and joined William, as did James's own daughter Anne. James lost his nerve and declined to attack the invading army, despite his army's numerical superiority. On 11 December, James tried to flee to France, first throwing the Great Seal of the Realm into the River Thames. He was captured in Kent; later, he was released and placed under Dutch protective guard. Having no desire to make James a martyr, William let him escape on 23 December. James was received by his cousin and ally, Louis XIV, who offered him a palace and a pension.\n\nWilliam summoned a Convention Parliament to decide how to handle James's flight. It convened on 22 January 1689. While the Parliament refused to depose him, they declared that James, having fled to France and dropped the Great Seal into the Thames, had effectively abdicated, and that the throne had thereby become vacant. To fill this vacancy, James's daughter Mary was declared Queen; she was to rule jointly with her husband William, who would be King. On 11 April 1689, the Parliament of Scotland declared James to have forfeited the throne of Scotland as well. The Convention Parliament issued a Declaration of Right on 12 February that denounced James for abusing his power, and proclaimed many limitations on royal authority. The abuses charged to James included the suspension of the Test Acts, the prosecution of the Seven Bishops for merely petitioning the Crown, the establishment of a standing army, and the imposition of cruel punishments. The Declaration was the basis for the Bill of Rights enacted later in 1689. The Bill also declared that henceforth, no Roman Catholic was permitted to ascend the English throne, nor could any English monarch marry a Roman Catholic.\n\nAttempt to regain the throne\n\nWar in Ireland \n\nWith the assistance of French troops, James landed in Ireland in March 1689. The Irish Parliament did not follow the example of the English Parliament; it declared that James remained King and passed a massive bill of attainder against those who had rebelled against him. At James's urging, the Irish Parliament passed an Act for Liberty of Conscience that granted religious freedom to all Roman Catholics and Protestants in Ireland. James worked to build an army in Ireland, but was ultimately defeated at the Battle of the Boyne on 1 July 1690 O.S. when William arrived, personally leading an army to defeat James and reassert English control. James fled to France once more, departing from Kinsale, never to return to any of his former kingdoms. Because he deserted his Irish supporters, James became known in Ireland as S\u00e9amus an Chaca or \"James the shit\". Despite this popular perception, later historian Breand\u00e1n \u00d3 Buachalla argues that \"Irish political poetry for most of the eighteenth century is essentially Jacobite poetry\", and both \u00d3 Buachalla and fellow-historian \u00c9amonn \u00d3 Ciardha argue that James and his successors played a central role as messianic figures throughout the 18th century for all classes in Ireland.\n\nReturn to exile, death and legacy \n\nIn France, James was allowed to live in the royal ch\u00e2teau of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. James's wife and some of his supporters fled with him, including the Earl of Melfort; most, but not all, were Roman Catholic. In 1692, James's last child, Louisa Maria Teresa, was born. Some supporters in England attempted to assassinate William III to restore James to the throne in 1696, but the plot failed and the backlash made James's cause less popular. In the same year, Louis XIV offered to have James elected King of Poland. James rejected the offer, fearing that accepting the Polish crown might (in the minds of the English people) disqualify him from being King of England. After Louis concluded peace with William in 1697, he ceased to offer much assistance to James.\n\nDuring his last years, James lived as an austere penitent. He wrote a memorandum for his son advising him on how to govern England, specifying that Catholics should possess one Secretary of State, one Commissioner of the Treasury, the Secretary at War, with the majority of the officers in the army.\n\nJames died aged 67 of a brain haemorrhage on 16 September 1701 at Saint-Germain-en-Laye. James's heart was placed in a silver-gilt locket and given to the convent at Chaillot, and his brain was placed in a lead casket and given to the Scots College in Paris. His entrails were placed in two gilt urns and sent to the parish church of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the English Jesuit college at Saint-Omer, while the flesh from his right arm was given to the English Augustinian nuns of Paris.\n\nThe rest of James's body was laid to rest in a triple sarcophagus (consisting of two wooden coffins and one of lead) at the St Edmund's Chapel in the Church of the English Benedictines in the Rue Saint-Jacques, Paris, with a funeral oration by Henri-Emmanuel de Roquette. James was not buried, but put in one of the side chapels. Lights were kept burning round his coffin until the French Revolution. In 1734, the Archbishop of Paris heard evidence to support James's canonisation, but nothing came of it. During the French Revolution, James's tomb was raided.\n\nLater Hanover succession \n\nJames's younger daughter Anne succeeded when William died in 1702. The Act of Settlement provided that, if the line of succession established in the Bill of Rights were extinguished, the crown would go to a German cousin, Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and to her Protestant heirs. Sophia was a granddaughter of James VI and I through his eldest daughter, Elizabeth Stuart, the sister of Charles I. Thus, when Anne died in 1714 (less than two months after the death of Sophia), she was succeeded by George I, Sophia's son, the Elector of Hanover and Anne's second cousin.\n\nSubsequent uprisings and pretenders \nJames's son James Francis Edward was recognised as king at his father's death by Louis XIV of France and James II's remaining supporters (later known as Jacobites) as \"James III and VIII\". 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(\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u041a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0433\u0435), \u0432 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0442\u0440\u044f\u0434 \u0410\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0430\u043c\u044b \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0431\u0438\u0442, \u0430 \u0441\u0430\u043c \u0410\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0431. \u0423\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0432 \u043e \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043e\u0442\u0440\u044f\u0434\u0430, \u041c\u0443\u043d\u0443\u0437\u0430 \u043f\u044b\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0431\u0435\u0436\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0438\u0437 \u0410\u0441\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d, \u043d\u043e \u0430\u0441\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0446\u044b \u0434\u043e\u0433\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0431\u0435\u0433\u043b\u0435\u0446\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0442\u043e\u0436\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u0445.\n\n\u0421\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f \n\u0412 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043c\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0420\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438 Asturiensis, \u043e \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438:\n \u041e\u0440\u0434\u043e querimonie, \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0443\u044e \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043b \u0421\u0430\u043d-\u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e \u0438\u0437 \u0411\u044c\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0430 \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435 VII\u00a0\u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430, \u0443\u043a\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043e\u043d \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043c \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u00abAsturiensis\u00bb, \u00ab\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f, \u043d\u0435\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u0441\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044b \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u044b \u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e\u00bb.\n An\u00f3nimo de R\u00e1vena, \u0442\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0442 XVII\u00a0\u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430, \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u00abAsturia\u00bb \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0437 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0439 \u0418\u0441\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 (\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u0445 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c).\n \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b XIII \u0422\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430, \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u0437\u0430\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0441\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0438 \u0433\u0435\u0440\u0446\u043e\u0433\u0441\u0442\u0432 (provinciae Duces), \u0442\u043e \u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0430 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435, \u0447\u0435\u043c \u0432 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0430.\n \u0412 \u00ab\u0425\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435 \u0410\u043b\u044c\u0444\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043e III\u00bb, \u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u0432 \u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u043d\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0439 \u00ab\u0425\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u0434\u044b\u00bb, \u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043e \u0442\u043e\u043c, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0430\u0440\u0430\u0431\u044b \u043d\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0433\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0451\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f\u0445 (\u00abPer omnes prouincias Spanie prefectos posuerunt\u00bb), \u0438, \u0432 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u041c\u0443\u043d\u0443\u0437\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043d\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u00abAsturiensis\u00bb.\n\n\u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u0443\u0447\u0451\u043d\u044b\u0445, \u0438\u0437\u0443\u0447\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044e \u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u043c\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043e \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0433\u0435\u0440\u0446\u043e\u0433\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u0442\u044b\u043c; \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0432 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u044f, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u041f\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0439\u043e \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0431\u044b\u0442\u044c \u0441\u044b\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0424\u0430\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044b, \u0433\u0435\u0440\u0446\u043e\u0433\u0430 Asturiensis (\u0410\u0441\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0438): \u0432 \u00ab\u0425\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435 \u0410\u043b\u044c\u0431\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0434\u044b\u00bb, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u041e\u0432\u044c\u0435\u0434\u043e \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0410\u0441\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0410\u043b\u044c\u0444\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043e III \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f, \u0447\u0442\u043e Favila (\u0438\u043b\u0438 Fafila) \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043e\u0442\u0446\u043e\u043c \u041f\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0439\u043e \u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0443\u0431\u0438\u0442 \u0412\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0446\u0435\u0439 \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0433\u043e\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f \u042d\u0433\u0438\u043a\u0438.\n\n\u0415\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u0442\u044c \u044d\u0442\u0443 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u044e, \u0442\u043e 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These were recorded by the group's \"classic\" line-up, featuring Gregg Rolie, Michael Carabello, Michael Shrieve, David Brown, and Jos\u00e9 \"Chepito\" Areas. Hit songs of this period include \"Evil Ways\", \"Black Magic Woman\", \"Oye Como Va\", and the instrumental \"Samba Pa Ti\".\n\nFollowing a change in line-up and musical direction in 1972, the band experimented with elements of jazz fusion on Caravanserai (1972), Welcome (1973), and Borboletta (1974). Santana reached a new peak of commercial and critical success with Supernatural (1999) and its singles \"Smooth\", featuring singer Rob Thomas, and \"Maria Maria\" featuring The Product G&B. The album reached No. 1 in eleven countries and sold 12\u00a0million copies in the US alone. In 2014, the \"classic\" line-up reunited for Santana IV (2016) and the group continue to perform and record.\n\nSantana is one of the best-selling groups of all time with over 47\u00a0million certified albums sold in the US, and an estimated 100\u00a0million sold worldwide. Its discography includes 25 studio albums, 14 of which reached the US top 10. In 1998, the line-up of Santana, Rolie, Carabello, Shrieve, Brown, and Areas was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In 2000, the band won eight Grammy Awards in one night, a record tied with Michael Jackson, and three Latin Grammy Awards.\n\nHistory\n\n1966\u20131972: Formation and breakthrough\nIn 1966, Santana left Mexico for San Francisco, where he discovered the hippie and counterculture movement and found himself \"wanting to be part of this new wave.\" Later that year, he began to assemble his own band, the first line-up of which included Sergio \"Gus\" Rodriguez on bass, Danny Haro on drums, and Michael Carabello on percussion. In January 1967, the four were granted an audition spot for concert promoter Bill Graham at the Fillmore Auditorium on a bill with the Paul Butterfield Blues Band and the Charles Lloyd Quartet, and named themselves the Santana Blues Band. Within a month, the group expanded with the addition of Tom Fraser on guitar and vocals, who also brought in Gregg Rolie on organ and vocals. The band stalled for several weeks, however, after Carlos was hospitalised with tuberculosis. In June 1967, Graham fired the group from performing at the Fillmore after some members turned up late for a gig supporting The Who and Loading Zone. The incident drove Carlos to bring in new and committed musicians, keeping Rolie with him. By the year's end, the band adopted the shorter name of Santana. Until early 1969, the band were joined by Marcus Malone on percussion, who left the group after being convicted of manslaughter.\n\nIn late 1968, the group secured a record deal with Columbia Records, following a successful audition opening for The Grateful Dead. The band had caught the interest of Columbia and Atlantic Records, and an audition was organised for both labels, but Carlos refused to perform for Atlantic as he wanted to be on the same label as Miles Davis and Bob Dylan. In December, Santana performed a series of concerts at the Fillmore that were recorded for a proposed live album. Biographer Simon Leng said it marked Santana moving away from its blues and R&B roots towards the \"Santana sound\" with the addition of Afro-Cuban and jazz numbers into their sets. After several line-up changes, the group finally stabilised in May 1969 with Santana, Rolie, Carabello, David Brown on bass, Michael Shrieve on drums, and Jose \"Chepito\" Areas on percussion, which became known as the \"classic\" line-up.\n\nThe band recorded their debut album, Santana, in San Francisco in May 1969. It was their third go at recording an album, after previous attempts failed to produce results they wanted. The sessions featured Alberto Gianquinto on piano, who also helped with the arrangements of the tracks. He quickly noticed the group's main problem: the solo spots were too long. Graham agreed, and advised that the band needed to cut the lengthy jams and begin constructing songs. He also got the band to listen to Willie Bobo's version of \"Evil Ways\", and suggested they record their own version. With the album recorded, Graham arranged for Santana to tour the Midwest as openers for Crosby, Stills and Nash, which expanded the group's profile outside the West Coast. Around this time, Graham had been asked to help organise the upcoming Woodstock Festival, agreed to promote it on the condition that Santana would be added to the bill. Graham persisted, and the band were assigned a 45-minute set in the afternoon of August 16, the second day, for $2,500. The performance launched the group to international fame, and Santana, released on August 30, peaked at No. 4 on the US Billboard 200. The first single, \"Jingo\", was followed by \"Evil Ways\", which peaked at No. 9 on the Billboard Hot 100. In October 1969, Graham had Santana perform at the Gold Rush rock music festival and on The Ed Sullivan Show, further increasing the group's nationwide exposure.\n\nIn April 1970, Santana returned to the studio to record its second album, Abraxas. The album, highlighted by a reworking of \"Black Magic Woman\" by Fleetwood Mac that peaked at No. 4 in the US Billboard Hot 100, was released in September 1970 and rose to number 1 on the US Billboard 200.\n\nBy 1971, the group were still struggling to maintain a strong musical direction. From January to July they recorded Santana III. Released in September 1971, the album also reached number 1 on the US Billboard 200. At the peak of the band's popularity, the album was the last to feature its classic Woodstock era line-up. Santana explained that there was a lot of unnecessary internal resentment and that managerial problems contributed to the problem, leading to Graham's dismissal. That year, they performed at a concert in Accra to commemorate Ghana's 14th Independence Day. The concert was filmed and released in theaters as Soul to Soul. Matters came to a head shortly before the Santana III tour in September 1971 began, when Carlos wanted Carabello to leave the group, otherwise he would. The band started the tour without Carlos, performing amidst shouts from the audience for the guitarist. After several gigs, Carlos reunited with the band to find Carabello, Areas, and manager/promoter Stan Marcum had quit, leaving the band to perform without percussionists. James \"Mingo\" Lewis was quickly brought in as a temporary replacement after he saw the band live and offered his services. Santana's gig in Lima, Peru in December 1971 brought further trouble, as the outbreak of violence resulted in their equipment being confiscated and the band deported from the country. The incident was a wake up call for Carlos, who was determined to \"bring the madness to an end.\"\n\nIn 1972, Santana had been increasingly influenced by the music of Miles Davis, John Coltrane, and Joe Zawinul, who had explored jazz fusion by this time. The fourth album, Caravanserai (1972), marked a number of line-up changes; bassist David Brown left in 1971 before recording started and was replaced by Doug Rauch and Tom Rutley. Carabello was replaced with two percussionists, Armando Peraza and Mingo Lewis. Rolie was replaced by Tom Coster on a few songs. Caravanserai debuted at number 8 in the US.\n\n1973\u20131979: Experimentation and consolidation\n\n13 months after Caravanserai, Santana released Welcome. Welcome was the first of four consecutive albums to achieve gold certification, as opposed to the previous four, which all at least reached platinum status. The album peaked at number 25 on the Billboard 200, the lowest of the band's career so far. The next few albums contained a more experimental style than their previous work, beginning with Borboletta, which fared arguably worse than its predecessor, despite climbing five spots higher on the Billboard album charts in the US.\n\nThe group's 1976 release, Amigos, was far more successful. Reaching number 10 on the US charts, and also hitting the top 10 in France, Australia, New Zealand, Austria and the Netherlands, it was a return to the success of their early albums. Festival, did not obtain the same new-found success, but was followed by another successful album, Moonflower, released in 1977. The album was possibly the most successful since Santana III, achieving 2\u00d7 platinum in the US, and being the first album since 1974's Borboletta, to break the top 10 in the UK. It was characterized by a stylistic shift for the band, as it contained heavier influences from the more conventional sound of the group's early work, while still maintaining the experimental sound of their last few albums.\n\nTheir next two releases, Inner Secrets and Marathon, released in 1978 and '79, respectively, were a further musical shift for the band, moving away from the Latin-fused rock music that had characterized their work in the late 1960s and the majority of the '70s, to move towards a more album-oriented, conventional rock sound. These albums, however, fared poorly commercially, although both achieved gold status in the US.\n\n1980\u20131997: Commercial decline and seven-year hiatus\nThe 1980s started relatively brightly for Santana, with 1981's platinum-selling Zebop!, which also reached the top 20 in several countries, and continued the more conventional rock sound. The following year, Shang\u00f3 was released; this album marked a steep decline in the band's commercial fortunes, although it still achieved gold status.\n\nThe group waited another three years to release the follow-up, the longest break for them so far. 1985's Beyond Appearances was a commercial failure, and their first album not to achieve gold certification. Their following three releases all continued this commercial decline, with the last of these failing to break the Billboard top 100. In the midst of this commercial pitfall, the band stopped recording material for an unprecedented seven years but continued to tour.\n\n1998\u20132001: Supernatural and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame\nIn 1998, Santana was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. The following year, their album Supernatural (1999) debuted at number 19 on the Billboard 200 and reached No. 1 after eighteen weeks. Also reaching No. 1 were two singles: \"Smooth\", recorded with Rob Thomas, and \"Maria Maria\" featuring The Product G&B. The album was certified platinum 15 times by the RIAA and sold 30\u00a0million copies worldwide. Santana's previous number one album had been Santana III in 1971. According to Guinness World Records, this is the longest gap between number one albums.\n\nSupernatural won nine Grammy Awards, including the award for Album of the Year, and also won three Latin Grammy Awards, including Record of the Year.\n\n2002\u20132012: Dealing with new-found success\n\nThe follow-up to Supernatural came three years later and was highly anticipated by international media and fans alike. On October 22, 2002, Shaman was released worldwide. Although it initially sold briskly (298,973 copies in the US in its first week) and debuted at number 1 on the Billboard 200, the album's appeal quickly wore off and it soon slid down the charts. Despite this, it went on to sell 2\u00d7 platinum in the US, and achieved platinum status in several other countries including Australia. The first single released from the album, \"The Game of Love\", which featured vocals from Michelle Branch, debuted at number 5 on the Hot 100. The album's next four singles failed to chart in most countries, but the final single, \"Why Don't You & I\", featuring the vocals of Alex Band, reached number 8 on the Hot 100. Musically, the album was a return to a more conventional sound for the group, with a mainly Latin rock-based sound.\n\nWith their renewed appeal worn off, another three-year wait saw the release of 2005's All That I Am. The album debuted at number 2 on the Billboard 200 but fared worse internationally, and quickly lost appeal. The album, a continuation of the Latin-rock influenced sound of Shaman, achieved gold certification in the US. A five-year break from recording saw the release of another studio album, Guitar Heaven (2010). Musically it was a drastic change for the band, with a far heavier sound at its core and strong heavy metal influences. It debuted at number 5 on the Billboard 200 but marked another decline for the band, failing to achieve gold status.\n\nIn 2012 the group released Shape Shifter, which returned to the conventional Latin rock sound and was completely album-oriented, as no singles were released from it. It debuted at number 16 on the Billboard 200.\n\n2013\u2013present: Reunion of the classic line-up, Coraz\u00f3n, Santana IV, and Africa Speaks\nOn 2 February 2013, Carlos Santana confirmed that he would reunite his classic line-up, most of whom played Woodstock with him in 1969. Santana stated that he was reuniting the group with the intention of recording new music. Confirmed for the reunion were Neal Schon, who was in the band in the early 1970s where he traded lead guitar work with Santana before leaving with founding Santana singer-organist Gregg Rolie in 1973 to form Journey; drummer Mike Shrieve and percussionist Mike Carabello. Santana said of Rolie, who played with Ringo Starr's All-Starr Band for the last two years, \"I'm pretty sure Gregg's going to do it.\" In February 2013, Rolie told Radio.com, \"it's (the reunion) just a matter of putting it together and going and doing it. I would do it. I think it's a great idea. People would love it. It could be great!\"\n\nIn the meantime, on 6 May 2014 Santana released a new studio album entitled Coraz\u00f3n and on 9 September 2014, Coraz\u00f3n \u2013 Live from Mexico: Live It to Believe It, a new live album (on CD, DVD and Blu-ray) of their show on 14 December 2013 in Guadalajara, Mexico.\n\nOn 15 April 2016, Santana released Santana IV, the wildly anticipated studio album that reunited the early 1970s classic lineup of Carlos Santana (guitar, vocals), Gregg Rolie (keyboards, lead vocals), Neal Schon (guitar, vocals), Michael Carabello (percussion) and Michael Shrieve (drums). The album marked the first time in 45 years \u2013 since 1971's multi-platinum classic Santana III \u2013 that the quintet had recorded together.\n\nThe origins for the reunion go back several years, when Schon suggested that he and Carlos Santana record together. Santana liked the idea but went one better, proposing that they recruit Rolie, Shrieve and Carabello for what would be called \"Santana IV\". After initial writing sessions and rehearsals took place in 2013, the group recorded throughout 2014 and 2015, amassing 16 new tracks that combined all their signature elements \u2013 Afro-Latin rhythms, soaring vocals, electrifying blues-psychedelic guitar solos, and irrepressible jubilant percussion work.\n\nAbout the \"Santana IV\" team, Santana stated: \"It was magical, we didn't have to try to force the vibe \u2013 it was immense. From there, we then needed to come up with a balance of songs and jams that people would immediately identify as Santana.\"\n\nSantana IV features 16 all-new tracks written and produced by the band. Joining the core \"Santana IV\" band in the studio are current Santana members Karl Perazzo (percussion) and Benny Rietveld (bass), with vocalist Ronald Isley guesting on two cuts.\n\nThe first single from Santana IV, entitled \"Anywhere You Want to Go\", was released on 5 February 2016.\n\nOn 21 October 2016, Santana released Santana IV: Live at the House of Blues Las Vegas on Eagle Rock Entertainment, a new (151 minutes) live album (on DVD/Blu-ray/2CD) of their concert on 21 March 2016 at House of Blues in Mandalay Bay Resort and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip in Nevada.\n\nIn early January 2019, Santana signed with Concord Records and on 25 January, they released In Search of Mona Lisa, a new (5-track) EP. The day before, they also released a video for new single, \"Do You Remember Me.\" In March 2019, the band announced plans to release on June 7, 2019, Africa Speaks, their new full-length album produced by Rick Rubin.\n\n2019 marked the 20th anniversary of Carlos Santana's album, Supernatural, and the 50th anniversary of his performance at Woodstock. Santana headlined a multi-year residency at House of Blues. The band was expected to headline at both Woodstock 50 (which was cancelled) and Bethel Woods' half-centennial celebration in Bethel, NY, in August 2019. The band toured in support of the latest album, from April to November 2019.\n\n2021: Blessings and Miracles\nOn 18 and 20 August 2021, \"Move\" and \"She's Fire\", the first and second singles taken from Santana's (then) forthcoming new album Blessings and Miracles, were released, and it was announced that the album would be released on 15 October 2021 via BMG Entertainment.\n\nPersonnel\n\nBold denotes members of the classic lineup.\n\nCurrent members\n\nFormer members\n\nTimeline\n\nDiscography\n\n Santana (1969)\n Abraxas (1970)\n Santana III (1971)\n Caravanserai (1972)\n Welcome (1973)\n Borboletta (1974)\n Amigos (1976)\n Festiv\u00e1l (1977)\n Moonflower (1977)\n Inner Secrets", "\u0437\u0430, \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u043c\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432, \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 (\u043c\u0430\u0434\u0436\u043b\u0438\u0441\u043e\u0432) \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u043b\u044e\u0431\u043e\u0435 \u0443\u0434\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f. \u0417\u0438\u043a\u0440 \u0432 \u0438\u0441\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u0443\u0444\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0430.\n\u0421\u0443\u0444\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0437\u0438\u043a\u0440 \u00ab\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043f\u043e\u043c, \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0437\u0438\u0436\u0434\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432\u0435\u0441\u044c \u043c\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u041f\u0443\u0442\u044c\u00bb. \u0412\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0437\u0438\u043a\u0440\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u044b\u0435 \u0440\u0438\u0442\u043c\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043c\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0443 (\u0434\u0436\u0430\u043b\u0441\u0430). \u0417\u0438\u043a\u0440 \u043d\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043a\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442 \u0444\u0438\u043a\u0440\u0443 (\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e).\n\n\u041f\u043e \u0414\u0436. \u0421. \u0422\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0433\u044d\u043c\u0443, \u0437\u0438\u043a\u0440 \u2013 \u044d\u0442\u043e \u0434\u0443\u0445\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0443\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0436\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u044c\u044e \u043e\u0449\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0438 \u0441\u0435\u0431\u044f \u0431\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0443\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u044f \u2013 \u0440\u0438\u0442\u043c\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0435, \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0418\u043c\u0435\u043d \u0411\u043e\u0433\u0430 (\u0442\u0435\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044f) \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u0443\u0445\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 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\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0443\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434 \u0432 \u043c\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0442\u044c, \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0432\u044b, \u0447\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0448\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u041a\u043e\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0430, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0411\u043e\u0433\u0430, \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0438 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0435 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0435.\n\n\u042d\u0442\u0438\u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \n\u0421\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e , 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\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0431\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0438 \u0443\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u043a\u0430\u043a", " Lee Medium Tank M3, and Greyhound Light Armored Car M8. In addition, the M3 in its original version was mated to a number of other self-propelled carriages.\n\nThe inability of the 37mm round to penetrate the frontal armor of mid-war tanks severely restricted the anti-armor capabilities of units armed with them.\n\nDevelopment history\nIn the mid-1930s, the United States Army had yet to field a dedicated anti-tank artillery piece; anti-tank companies of infantry regiments were armed with machine guns. Although some consideration had been given to replacing the machine guns with a more powerful anti-tank gun, the situation began to change only after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War. Combat experience from Spain suggested that a light anti-tank gun, such as the German 37 mm PaK 35/36, was capable of neutralizing the growing threat posed by tanks.\n\nIn January 1937, the Ordnance Committee recommended development of such a weapon; two PaK 36 guns were acquired for study. As the projected main user of the weapon, the Infantry Branch was chosen to oversee the work. They wanted a lightweight gun that could be moved around by the crew, so any ideas of using a larger caliber than that of the German gun were discarded. The 37\u00a0mm was a popular caliber of anti-tank guns in the 1930s; other anti-tank guns of the same caliber included Swedish Bofors gun, Czechoslovakian vz. 34 and vz. 37, Japanese Type 94 and Type 1.\n\nDevelopment and testing continued until late 1938. Several variants of gun and carriage were proposed until on 15 December a combination of the T10 gun and T5 carriage was officially adopted as the 37\u00a0mm gun M3 and carriage M4. Although the weapon followed the concept of the PaK 36 and was often referred to as a copy of it, the M3 differed significantly from the German design and used different ammunition.\n\nThe gun was manufactured by Watervliet Arsenal and the carriage by Rock Island Arsenal. The first production examples of the M3 were delivered in July 1940. It took until August 1941 for production to accelerate, and some infantry antitank units were forced to use wooden mock-ups of the new gun or their original weapons (37 mm gun M1916) during the Louisiana Maneuvers and Carolina Maneuvers, and did not get their first weapons until late 1941. Production continued until October 1943.\n\nMinor changes in the gun construction were introduced during production. The carriage received a modified shoulder guard and traverse controls (carriage M4A1, standardized on 29 January 1942). Although ordnance requested an upgrade of all M4 carriages to M4A1, this process was not completed. Another change was a threaded barrel end to accept a big five-port muzzle brake (gun M3A1, adopted on 5 March 1942). According to some sources, the latter was intended to avoid kicking too much dust in front of the gun, which hindered aiming; however, the brake turned out to be a safety problem when firing canister ammunition and consequently the M3A1 went into combat without the muzzle brake. Other sources state that the muzzle brake was intended to soften the recoil, and that it was dropped simply because additional recoil control measures were not really needed.\n\nIn an attempt to increase the armor penetration of the M3, several squeeze bore adapters (including the British Littlejohn adaptor) were tested; none was adopted. Experiments with rocket launchers on the M4 carriage (e.g. rocket projector T3) did not produce anything practical either.\n\nDescription\nThe barrel was of one-piece forged construction, with uniform rifling (12 grooves, right-hand twist, one turn in 25 calibers). The breech end of the barrel was screwed into a breech ring. The breech mechanism was of standard vertical sliding-block type, but unlike the overwhelming majority of the anti-tank guns of the era, it was not semi-automatic, meaning that a crew member had to manually open and close the breech at each shot. The barrel was fitted with a hydrospring recoil system.\n\nThe carriage was of split trail type, with pneumatic tires but without any spring suspension whatsoever. Mounted on the axle next to the wheels were the \"wheel segments\"; these were segment-shaped supports that could be lowered to provide more stability in the firing position or raised so that they would not impede movement of the gun.\n\nThe telescopic sight on the M6 and both elevation and traverse controls were located on the left side, so one gunner was able to aim the gun. The traverse gear had a release mechanism which allowed free movement of the barrel in case a quick traverse was needed.\n\nOrganization\n\nUS Army\nUnder the April 1942 organization, each infantry battalion had an anti-tank platoon with four 37\u00a0mm guns (1/4 ton trucks, better known as jeeps, were authorized as prime movers) and each regiment an anti-tank company with twelve (towed by 3/4 ton trucks). Each of the four divisional artillery battalions possessed six anti-tank guns, the combat engineering battalion had nine pieces (towed by M2 halftracks); in addition, the division's headquarters company had four (towed by 3/4\u00a0ton trucks) and the divisional maintenance company two.\n\nIn 1941, provisional antitank battalions had been formed from divisional or brigade anti-tank weapons (producing companies armed with 37\u00a0mm guns and 75 mm guns), in December 1941, these battalions became permanent and were reorganized as independent tank destroyer battalions. The towed guns of many battalions were replaced with self-propelled ones as soon as the latter became available.\n\nIn 1942, the first airborne divisions were formed. According to their October 1942 organizational structure, an airborne division had 44 37\u00a0mm anti-tank guns: four in divisional artillery (AA/AT battery of parachute field artillery battalion), 24 in the AA/AT battalion, and eight in each of two glider infantry regiments; parachute infantry regiments did not have anti-tank guns. In practice, airborne divisions often had only one glider infantry regiment and therefore 36 guns.\n\n37\u00a0mm guns were also issued to the infantry regiments of the only mountain division formed in the U.S.: the 10th Mountain Division.\n\nFinally, U.S. armored divisions under the March 1942 organization possessed 68 37\u00a0mm anti-tank guns. Of these, 37 belonged to the armored infantry regiment (four in each company and one in regiment HQ); 27 to the armored engineer battalion; three to the divisional train and one to division HQ.\n\nUS Marine Corps\nUnder the D-series Tables of Organization (TO) from 1 July 1942, the role of AT weapons in Marine Corps service was officially entrusted to 20\u00a0mm automatic guns, which were in the regimental weapon company (three platoons) and the battalion weapon company (one platoon). In practice, units used the World War I-era 37 mm M1916 for training. They were equipped with the M3 (four in each platoon) before being sent to the frontline. Additionally, a divisional special weapons battalion was equipped with self-propelled 37 mm GMC M6.\n\nUnder the E-series TO from 15 April 1943, self-propelled guns in the divisional special weapons battalion were replaced with eighteen 37\u00a0mm towed guns in three batteries of six; an infantry regiment had a weapons company with 12, in three platoons of four. The battalion-level AT guns were removed. In total, a division possessed 54 pieces. The F-series TO from 5 May 1944 removed the special weapons battalion from the divisional organization, resulting in a total of 36 guns per division. The subsequent G-series TO reduced regimental weapon companies to two platoons, meaning 24 pieces per division. Although the G-series TO was only adopted on 4 September 1945, in practice in some divisions this change was introduced early in 1945.\n\nOther operators\nThe only major lend lease recipient of the M3 was the Chinese National Revolutionary Army (1,669 pieces). The gun was also supplied to Bolivia (4), Canada (3), Chile (198), Colombia (4), Cuba (1), El Salvador (9), France (130), Paraguay (12), United Kingdom (78), Soviet Union (63), Nicaragua (9), and other countries. Some nations still had it in service in the early 1970s.\n\nCombat service\n\nAs an infantry anti-tank gun\n\nThe M3 saw action for the first time during the defense of the Philippines in December 1941. It went on to become a factor in the Guadalcanal Campaign, where it was successfully employed against both Japanese armor and infantry. Throughout the war it remained effective against Japanese vehicles, which were thinly armored and were rarely committed in large groups. The light weight of the gun made it easy to move through difficult terrain; for example, when attacked by Japanese tanks on Betio during the Battle of Tarawa, Marines were able to heave the M3 over the -high seawall. While high-explosive and canister ammunition proved useful in stopping Japanese infantry attacks, against enemy fortifications the M3 was only somewhat effective because of its small high-explosive projectile. Its overall effectiveness and ease of use meant the gun remained in service with the Marine Corps and with some army units in the Pacific until the end of the war. Unhappy with the unusually low shield of the M3, some Marine Corps units extended it to provide better protection. These extensions sometimes had a scalloped top edge, intended to improve camouflage. A standard kit was tested in 1945, but was never issued.\n\nThe experience of the M3 in the North African Campaign was completely different. The gun was not powerful enough to deal with late production German Panzer III and IV tanks. After the nearly disastrous Battle of Kasserine Pass in February 1943, reports from some of the involved units mentioned 37\u00a0mm projectiles \"bouncing off like marbles\" from the turret and front armor of German medium tanks and proclaimed the gun \"useless unless you have gun crews with the guts to stand and shoot from 100\u00a0yards\". The Army was initially uncertain if these reports reflected the obsolescence of the weapon, or whether unrefined tactics and lack of experience were to blame. Yet, on 26 May 1943, a new organization had the M3 replaced by the 57\u00a0mm Gun M1 (the U.S.-produced version of the British 6-pounder gun), with Dodge 1\u00bd ton trucks as prime movers. Only by spring 1944 did the 57\u00a0mm gun reach the battlefield in large numbers.\n\nMeanwhile, the Italian campaign was launched, and M3 guns saw action from the day of the Sicily landing on 10 July 1943. That day the 37\u00a0mm guns demonstrated once again both their effectiveness against pre-war tanks\u2014when they helped to repel an attack by Italian Renault R 35s\u2014and inability to cope with modern threats in a subsequent encounter with Tiger Is from the Hermann G\u00f6ring division. The Italian theater had a lower priority for reequipment than Northwest Europe, and some M3s were still in use in Italy in late 1944.\n\nBy mid-1944, the M3 had fallen out of favor even with airborne troops, despite their strong preference for compact and lightweight weapon systems. The Airborne Command had rejected the 57\u00a0mm M1 in the summer of 1943 claiming its unfitness for airlifting and the Table of Organisation and Equipment (TO&E) of February 1944 still had airborne divisions keeping their 37\u00a0mm guns. Nevertheless, the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions were reequipped with British-manufactured 6-pounder gun (57\u00a0mm) on carriage Mk III (designed to fit into the British Horsa glider) for the Normandy airdrops. This change was officially introduced in the TO&E of December 1944.\n\nAs a tank gun\n\nThe 37mm gun was used as the primary armament for M3/M5 Stuart light tanks and M8 Greyhound armored cars. AP rounds from these guns could defeat light enemy armor, including all Japanese and Italian armor, German half-tracks and armored cars, and most surfaces of tanks and early self-propelled guns based on the German Panzer II, Panzer III, and early Panzer IV chassis, but were useless against later Panzer IV, Panzer VI (Tiger) tanks and the frontal armor of Panzer V (Panther) tanks. It was also similarly useless against later, more heavily armored self-propelled guns and Jagdpanzer tank destroyers. The HE rounds were not powerful enough for effective infantry support in most situations. The rounds were enough, however, to attack enemy light reconnaissance units, and both the M3/M5 Stuart and M8 Greyhound were restricted to reconnaissance for the majority of the war in Europe. Canister rounds were often used to good effect against Japanese infantry in many battles, such as Bloody Ridge.\n\nThere were also serious issues with the gun's ability to function effectively in the infantry support role. The 37mm HE round had 39 grams (0.085 lb) of TNT, producing an explosive power of 161 Kilojoules. By way of contrast, the HE round from a Sherman 75mm gun had 667 grams (1.47 lb) of TNT, producing 2790 Kilojoules, while the modern 40mm shell from M203 grenade launchers has 32 grams (0.07 lb) of Comp B, producing an explosive power of 134 Kilojoules.\n\nThe M3 was phased out of U.S. service soon after the end of the war.\n\nVariants\nTest variants:\nT3 \u2013 the first prototype.\nT7 \u2013 a prototype with semi-automatic horizontal sliding-block breech.\nT8 \u2013 a prototype with Nordenfelt eccentric screw breech.\nT10 \u2013 standardized as M3 (1938) \u2013 an adopted version, with manual vertical block breech.\nModel variants\nM3 towed version, manual breech.\nM3A1 (1942) \u2013 version with threaded barrel end to accept a muzzle brake, which was never issued.\nM5 (1939) \u2013 tank mounted variant with shorter barrel.\nM6 (1940) \u2013 tank mounted variant with barrel of the original length and with semi-automatic breech.\nCarriage variants:\nT1, T1E1 \u2013 prototypes.\nT5, standardized as M4 \u2013 first adopted version.\nM4A1 (1942) \u2013 carriage with improved traverse controls.\nIn 1942, the Airborne Command requested a version with removable trails. A prototype was tested, but in 1943 the project was dropped as unnecessary.\n\nAt least in one case, Fifth Army Ordnance in Italy fitted the gun experimentally with fifteen aircraft rockets, in five clusters of three, mounted above the shield.\n\nVariants of the M3 should not be confused with other 37\u00a0mm guns in the U.S. service. Those other pieces included the M1916 infantry gun of French design (these were later used extensively as subcaliber devices for heavy artillery.), M1 antiaircraft autocannon, M4/M9/M10 aircraft-mounted autocannons, M12/M13/M14/M15 subcaliber guns.\n\nSelf-propelled mounts\n\nTwo tank gun variants were developed based on the barrel of the M3. The first, initially designated M3A1 but renamed M5 on 13 October 1939, was shortened by to avoid damage to the tube in wooded areas. Later, a variant with a semi-automatic breech (with empty cartridge ejection) was developed. This variant\u2014initially designated M5E1, adopted as M6 on 14 November 1940\u2014received a full length barrel. The tubes were interchangeable, but replacing M5 with M6 and vice versa would result in an unbalanced mount and was therefore prohibited. These guns were mounted on several models of tanks and other armored vehicles:\nLight Tank M2A4: M5 in mount M20. The recoil mechanism, protruding beyond the gun mask, had to be protected by an armored casing.\nLight Tank M3: M5 in mount M22, in late production vehicles M6 in mount M23. These mounts were fitted with more compact recoil mechanism, eliminating the need for the protective casing.\nLight Tank M3A1, M5: M6 in mount M23.\nLight Tank M3A3, M5A1: M6 in mount M44.\nLight Tank (Airborne) M22: M6 in mount M53.\nM3 series medium tanks (as a secondary weapon): M5 or M6 in mount M24.\nHeavy Tank M6 (as a secondary weapon): M6 in mount T49.\nLVT(A)-1 : M6 in mount M44.\n37\u00a0mm Gun Motor Carriage T22 \u2013 eventually Light Armored Car M8: M6 in mount M23A1; the competing designs 37\u00a0mm Gun Motor Carriage T43 / Light Armored Car T21 and 37\u00a0mm Gun Motor Carriage T23 / Light Armored Car T23 mounted the same weapon.\nArmored Car T13.\nArmored Car T17: M6 in mount M24.\nArmored Car T17E1 in the \"Staghound Mk I\" configuration: M6 in mount M24A1.\nThe first pilot of the Armored Car T18: M6. The production variant T18E2 received the 57mm M1.\nArmored Car T19: M6 in mount M23A1.\nArmored Car T27: M6 in mount M23A1 modified.\nArmored Car T28 / M38: M6 in mount M23A2.\nBritish Humber Armoured Car Mk IV: M6.\n\nVersions of the gun in turret mounts were also used in the Medium Tank T5 Phase III (T3 barrel, mount T1), in the Medium Tank M2 / M2A1 (M3 barrel, M2A1: mount M19), and in the 37mm Gun Motor Carriage T42 (mount M22).\n\nIn addition, the M3 on different pedestal mounts was mated to a number of other vehicles, resulting in an assortment of 37\u00a0mm gun motor carriages. Only the M6 reached mass production.\n37\u00a0mm Gun Motor Carriage T2 (Bantam jeep).\n37\u00a0mm", " of Eternity.\n\nThe Scarab came to Earth in El Paso, Texas, where Jaime picked it up. Not long after, Booster Gold appeared at Jaime's house to retrieve it, but it had fused itself to Jaime's spine while he was sleeping. Booster recruited Jaime for Batman's assault on the Brother Eye satellite, since the Scarab was the only thing that could see the satellite. Using the Scarab's powers, Jaime was able to reveal the satellite to Batman's group, and enabled them to defeat it in their spaceship. Once Brother Eye was sent plummeting Earthward, Jaime disappeared from the ship, teleported away by the scarab, which sought to escape the Green Lanterns on board.\n\nOngoing series\nJaime was next seen in his own monthly series, fighting off Green Lantern Guy Gardner, who had been driven to rage by his ring's reaction to the scarab. A flashback expanded on Jaime's discovery of the scarab, revealing how the scarab bonded itself to Jaime and showing his first encounter with a metahuman. After that fight with Guy Gardner, Jaime found himself alone and naked in the desert and had to hitchhike home. Upon his return, Jaime discovered he had been missing for a whole year because the scarab used a dimensional mode of transport to get back to Earth. Unlike most superheroes, Jaime shared his identity with family and friends.\n\nHe began a career as a superhero, meeting Oracle, the Phantom Stranger and the current Peacemaker during his early adventures and ends up in conflict with supervillains like the ones that work for the crime boss La Dama. He often associates himself with a street gang of local superhumans known as the Posse. His support team agreed to help Jaime track crime and natural disasters in the Midwest via the Internet.\n\nContrary to Jaime's initial belief, the scarab is revealed to be extraterrestrial technology. However, magical influences involving the first contact with Earthmen left the scarab \"corrupted\" and uncontrollable by the Reach of Space Sector 2. Gardner returns and reveals how the Reach and the Green Lantern Corps had battled in the past, forcing the Reach into a truce. The Reach continued pursuing their invasion plans, offering the scarab as a \"protector\" and then forcibly turning his host into their vanguard. The scarab's fully functional A.I. acts as an agent for the Reach. As Jaime's scarab has only a partly functioning A.I., falling more and more into his control and forming an alliance with him, the Reach changed their agenda into feigning friendship with Jaime and the Earth, attacking him in a more subversive manner.\n\nThe Reach\nThe Reach are ancient enemies of the Guardians of the Universe, though their pact with the Guardians forbids them from invading new cultures, including Earth. Jaime has recently sought help from S.T.A.R. Labs to discover the scarab's full power. The Reach appear to be enemies of the Controllers; Jaime's scarab suit reacts violently to a Darkstars uniform worn by the current Manhunter Kate Spencer.\n\nIn a Countdown to Final Crisis tie-in, Jaime assists Traci Thirteen (former) in foiling Eclipso's attempt to kidnap a baby with great magical potential and use it as a new, uncorrupted host. In the aftermath, Jaime and Traci kiss, hinting at a relationship starting.\n\nJaime takes the fight to the Reach, using the time-warping qualities of the Bleed to attack three of their machines at once. When this fails, Jaime attacks the Reach's flagship, but the Reach use their weapons to attack his home. Jaime's emotional outburst at this attack allows the Reach to shut down the scarab and remove it from Jaime, who is thrown into a holding cell while the scarab is taken for examination, but the scarab transfers its knowledge into Jaime before removal, allowing the young hero to break free. Meanwhile, Jaime's family, having escaped the attack, are protected from further Reach assault by Peacemaker, the Posse, Traci Thirteen, La Dama and later Guy Gardner, Fire and Ice. Attacking several guards and taking their armor, Jaime heads for the engine, forcing the Reach to shut it down which reveals their ship. Once captured and brought to the bridge, Jaime shouts \"Khaji Da!\". He then reveals that, during the time spent with him, the scarab has gained a personality of its own and fully detached itself from the Reach hive-mind. Claiming Khaji Da (the combined utterance of Khaji, the codeword for Infiltrator and Da, its own serial number) as its name, the scarab sides with Reyes against the Reach. As the battle continues the Reach Negotiator unleashes a doomsday device on Earth in retaliation for his defeat. Jaime and the scarab agree to sacrifice themselves to stop the superweapon. At the last moment, Booster Gold appears and saves them both. The bond with the scarab stronger than ever, Jaime wonders if other scarabs will gain a personality due to Khaji Da talking to them about individuality.\n\nTeen Titans\nJaime first teams up with the Titans in Teen Titans vol. 3 #50 and Blue Beetle vol. 7 #18, fighting Lobo, along with the group to ensure the launch of a satellite armed with anti-Reach technology. The Reach themselves apparently hire Lobo to keep their facade as benevolent protectors; at the last moment, Batman and the Teen Titans believe Jaime. Although criticizing Jaime for his lack of formal training, the Titans extend an invitation to visit and perhaps join the team. The Reach later attempt to remove Jaime from the equation, combining the missing A.I. of Jaime's scarab, a new scarab and a Sinestro Corps power ring into the Peacemaker, forcing him to cut the scarab from his spine to ensure that his scarab could not be used as a weapon again.\n\nJaime comes face to face with the Spectre, along with Luis, the man who had been responsible for crippling Jaime's father. After a visit from his quasi-girlfriend Traci Thirteen (former), Jaime realizes that he cannot stop the Spectre from executing the inmates. Jaime is forced to forgive Luis and reason with the Spectre. Partially successful, the Spectre warns Jaime that if he ever lets the scarab kill, the Spectre will come for him.\n\nDuring the \"Titans of Tomorrow, Today!\" arc, Jaime takes the Titans up on their offer to visit, only to find that an alternate future version of the Titans have attacked the Tower and managed to kidnap key members of the Justice League. He later proves instrumental in the younger Titans' victory against their future selves and proves himself to be a competent hero by incapacitating the Future Flash and freeing the Justice League. He also aids the Titans in defeating Starro. During the conflict with the future Titans, Jaime is actively attacked by the adult version of Kid Devil, Red Devil, who claims that Jaime cannot be trusted. On the other hand, Lex Luthor describes Blue Beetle as an \"unremitting nuisance\" who holds on to his view of right and wrong no matter how much the world changes around him.\n\nJaime is recruited by Black Beetle (who originally identifies himself as a Blue Beetle from the future) and Garrett to go into the past with Booster Gold to prevent Kord's death. After saving Kord, Jaime and Garrett return, and the future is revealed to be a dystopia ruled by Maxwell Lord, who now was never exposed and defeated. Black Beetle is also revealed to be a future enemy of Jaime's, who tries to create this future so he will never have to deal with Jaime and so he \"would not lose her\". In Booster Gold vol. 2 #10, seeing the damage done by their actions, Ted decides to accept his death and returns to the past, seemingly to the exact moment where he was murdered by Lord, returning the timeline to equilibrium and thus preventing the dystopia. However, in the epilogue for Booster Gold vol. 2 #1.000.000, a figure with a scarab enters a Kord Industries building that contains a Bug and a picture of Kord's enemy Overthrow among other things. His trademark laugh hints that it is actually Ted, who somehow escaped death but managed to fix the timestream.\n\nThe villain Shockwave revealed during his battle with Jaime that Kord Industries is now owned by the 100. He again came into conflict with Kid Devil, who still harbored a grudge against him because of both the future Titans incident and his status with Ravager. Jaime tries to mend fences with Kid Devil, but their squabbling allows Shockwave to escape. During their second battle with him, Kid Devil managed to tap into his demonic powers and partially melts Shockwave's armor, enabling the two boys to defeat him. This seems to squelch the ill feelings between them. Kid Devil asks Jaime if he's heard from Ravager and Jaime replies that he's faced down an entire alien race, but Ravager scares him. Kid Devil finally realizes that Jaime is being sincere and they shake hands and tell each other their real names. Later at Titans Tower Robin offers Jaime full-membership, which Jaime finally feels ready to accept.\n\nIn the aftermath of the massive Final Crisis crossover event, Kid Eternity, Static and Aquagirl join the team after their rescue from the Dark Side Club. Aquagirl begins hitting on Jaime despite knowing of his relationship with Traci, often speaking to him in Spanish to hide her intentions from the team. Despite feeling attracted, he chooses to remain loyal to Traci.\n\nAfter Wonder Girl is kidnapped by the Fearsome Five, Beetle reluctantly allows Traci to assist the team in rescuing her. In the aftermath, Red Devil is killed saving the city.\n\nWhen Beast Boy arrives at Titans Tower to lead the team, Jaime distrusts him and accuses him of caring more about winning Raven's love than helping the team.\n\nSeries finale\nA group of Reach infiltrators and a negotiator invade Jaime's school's dance. Having been inspired by the scarab to rebel, the \"Kahji Dha Revolutionary Army\", sets out to make Earth safe by destroying those that could pose any threat. They see Jaime as a threat and attack. During the fight, Nadia, part of Jaime's tech support, is killed. Taking the fight into orbit, Jaime has the scarab hack into and deactivate the KDRA, but deactivating itself for 27 days in the process. The negotiator quickly recovers and Jaime is forced to take him on a kamikaze dive to the Earth's surface. The impact kills the negotiator and badly hurts Jaime, although the scarab put up a shield that protected him from the brunt of the impact. Over a period of weeks, Jaime and the scarab slowly recover. The scarab of the negotiator had, unbeknownst to Jaime, been recovered by Hector, Jaime's other tech support, who, as he left the country, used the negotiator's name \"Djo Zha\" which a flight attendant confuses with \"Joshua\", indicating that he had bonded with it.\n\nFurther adventures\nStarting in Booster Gold vol. 2 #21, Blue Beetle was featured as a 10-page ongoing co-feature. The stories focused on a smaller cast than before, focusing on Jaime, Paco and Brenda while Jaime's family occasionally appears. The rebooted scarab is shown to be more bloodthirsty than in the past, constantly urging Jaime to use more lethal weaponry. In the first serial, Jaime faces the android daughter of an old supervillain.\n\nThe Black Beetle attacks during a family hike. During the battle, Black Beetle claims to be Hector's future incarnation, wanting revenge for Nadia's death. He retracts his statement, claiming to have killed Hector and taken his scarab. When Milagro was injured by Black Beetle, Jaime loses his temper, finally giving in to the scarab's suggestions to use lethal force. Jaime eventually manages to use tachyon beams to paralyze Black Beetle, only for the villain to claim that he was Jaime from the future and that he would don the black scarab after Milagro (who would suffer brain damage from the injury she had just received in the present) destroyed the scarab. Jaime, deciding to get Milagro medical attention as quickly as possible, was forced to let Black Beetle escape. Before he departed, Black Beetle tells Jaime: \"When you see Ted Kord, tell him I said 'drop dead'\". When Jaime states that Ted was already dead, Black Beetle replies \"Yeah. I know\". A few days later, Milagro is shown recovering in the hospital and Jaime is left deeply disturbed by his encounter.\n\nBlue Beetle also teams with egotistical superhero Hardware to bring down a group of criminals using tech stolen from the late Edwin Alva by the second Gizmo. Despite finding Hardware extremely difficult to work with, the two take down the criminals and depart on friendly terms.\n\nNot much later, he is visited by Skeets, Booster Gold's robotic partner, who warned him of his disappearance. Deciding to team up with the small machine to find Booster to pay respect to him for introducing him to the superhero world, he reaches the house of Rose Levin and Daniel Carter, Booster's 21st-century ancestors. Soon after he arrives, the Black Lantern Ted Kord crashes his ship into Daniel's house and Jaime proceeds to battle Kord. Although outmatched and insulted by the Black Lantern, Jaime continues to fight until Booster enters the scene.\n\nLater, both team up to destroy the Black Lantern, succeeding by blasting him with a special light gun designed by Ted Kord and separating him from the ring. Then, they move the remains into the Time Sphere and take the lifeless corpse to Vanishing Point Fortress, in the last second of the universe. There, Jaime promises to eventually live up to the legacy of the Blue Beetle and reestablish the Blue & Gold Team.\n\nJustice League: Generation Lost\nFollowing Blackest Night, Jaime and the other Titans travel to the city of Dakota to rescue Static after he is kidnapped by a metahuman gangster named Holocaust. Jaime uses the scarab to help locate Static, but he and his teammates are easily defeated during a battle by Holocaust, who is able to block a blast from Jaime's cannon and then strike him with a fireball. The Titans are ultimately rescued when Cyborg arrives with Kid Flash and Superboy.\n\nDuring the start of the Brightest Day event, Deadman has a vision of Jaime shaking hands with Maxwell Lord, who is holding a gun behind his back. Shaken by his near-death in Dakota, Jaime informs Static that he plans to briefly leave to visit his family, fearing what would happen if he were to die without saying goodbye. Shortly after arriving home, Jaime and his family are attacked by a squad of OMACs. With help from Booster Gold, Ice and Captain Atom, Jaime is able to repel the OMACs, but is accidentally sucked into a teleportation rift they create. The heroes end up in Russia, where Jaime learns of Max Lord and his attempt to make the world forget he ever existed. He agrees to help the former Justice League members bring Lord to justice. After a battle with members of the Rocket Red Brigade, the heroes learn that Max Lord has been manipulating the team in hopes that they would reform Justice League International, with Jaime taking the role held years earlier by Ted Kord.\n\nBefore they can figure out their next move, the base is attacked by the Creature Commandos. During the battle Max reveals himself while posing as one of the Creature Commandos. Blue Beetle ends up unconscious and Max captures him, heading to the teleporter and leaving the JLI behind. When Blue Beetle is in captivity, Max injects him with an unknown substance. Tortured, he remembers Max's existence as the man who killed Ted Kord and destroyed his legacy. Jaime eventually manages to send a signal to the rest of the JLI to lead them to Max's headquarters. He breaks out of the laboratory and attacks Max, who, having discovered the weaknesses of the Blue Scarab, zaps Jaime with a special beam and, just as the JLI arrives, shoots him in the head with a blaster, apparently killing him in the same manner as his predecessor.\n\nMax escapes from the JLI using an escape pod. Failing to capture Max, the JLI carried Jaime on the land surface where paramedics Rocket Red and Skeets try to resuscitate him. Their efforts fail as Jaime had already died. As the team deals with his loss, suddenly he sits up, healed, declaring he knows Max's ultimate plans and that they can stop him. Jaime reveals to them that his healing scarab armor is what protected him from the blaster. When the battle against the OMAC Prime goes nowhere, Blue Beetle attacks and OMAC Prime appears to take his power, but Blue Beetle mentions that it cannot take control with the Scarab's power. Blue Beetle attacks and blasts OMAC Prime.\n\nThe New 52\nIn September 2011 after the conclusion of the \"Flashpoint\" storyline event, DC Comics cancelled all of its monthly books and relaunched 52 new monthly titles with a new continuity, in what was called The New 52. One of the new series as a Blue Beetle series written by Tony Bedard and drawn by Ig Guara and cancelled in February 2013.\n\nReyes and his friend Paco are driving to a party when a fight over a backpack between some men and the Brotherhood of Evil members Phobia, Plasmus and Warp erupts from a nearby building. To protect Paco, Jaime grabs the backpack. When La Dama's agents Brutale, Bone-Crusher and a new villain called Coyote join the fight, Brutale throws a knife at the backpack. The scarab inside is set off and Jaime is transformed into Blue Beetle.\n\nIn Green Lantern: New Guardians, other representatives of the Reach attack Odym, homeworld of the Blue Lantern Corps, where it is revealed that their armours have taken control of them; Jaime speculates, during a confrontation with Kyle Rayner, that his armour is damaged, explaining why he is in control of himself where other Reach soldiers are enslaved to their armour.\n\nAfter being captured by Lady Styx's henchmen in Blue Beetle vol. 8 #16, Jaimie is forced to take part in the bounty hunter game The Haunted on the planet called Tolerance. After losing control over the Scarab armor and regaining control back, he teams up with a New God named Lonar, to kill the creator of the game Adonis and escape the planet. Lonar kills Adonis, takes his pocket dimension, and disappears. In Threshold #8 the producer of the show The Hunted, reveals that the show has been cancelled and sends Jaimie back to Earth.\n\nIn Futures End #0 Blue Beetle is seen working together with the resistance against Brother Eye and all the other dead superheroes. He dies and mutates into a robot controlled by Brother Eye.\n\nDC Rebirth\nIn the 2016 relaunch of the DC Universe, DC Rebirth, Jaime", ", \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0414\u0436\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u041f\u0438\u043a\u0430 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1952).\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1975)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u0444\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043f\u043f\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0438 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440, \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u041a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u0424\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043f\u043f\u0438\u043d \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430 \u00ab\u0422\u043e\u043b\u043a-\u043d-\u0422\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0442 \u0422\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0433 \u0422\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0441\u00bb (2009, 2011\u20142013).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0410\u043b\u044c\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442 (1922\u20142015)\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0443\u043c\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0430\u0442, \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0434\u0436\u0435\u0440.\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1979)\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0432 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u043e\u0432 \u041d\u0424\u041b \u00ab\u0425\u044c\u044e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043d \u0422\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0441\u00bb \u0438 \u00ab\u041a\u043b\u0438\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0434 \u0411\u0440\u0430\u0443\u043d\u0441\u00bb.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0410\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0434 (1851\u20141924)\u00a0\u2014 \u0447\u0435\u0448\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0441\u0438\u0445\u0438\u0430\u0442\u0440.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440:\n (1865\u20141929)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0438\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0440 \u0431\u0438\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0438 \u044d\u043a\u0437\u0435\u0433\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u041c\u0430\u043d\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430 (1904\u20141929), \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u041e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0438\u0437\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0412\u0435\u0442\u0445\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0417\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430 (1924).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440 (1899\u20141970)\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0412\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0433\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u041f\u0438\u043a\u0430.\n (1859\u20141920)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0435\u0440-\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440 \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u042e\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0410\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u044f (1909\u20141910, 1912\u20141915, 1917\u20141920).\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1976)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044e \u00ab\u0410\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u044b \u0432 \u0436\u0430\u043d\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u0443\u0436\u0430\u0441\u043e\u0432 (2004, 2007) \u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438 (2020).\n (1842\u20141917)\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u043e-\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0438 \u0431\u0438\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n (1872\u20141960)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u0434\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 Deere & Company (1944\u20141956).\n (1891\u20141965)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0411\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (1938\u20141940).\n (1927\u20141992)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u043b\u043b\u044e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440, \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0413\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u041a\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0430 \u041e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0438\u043b\u043b\u044e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 (1968).\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1953)\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0432 \u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b, \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d \u0410\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0417\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0410\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u044f (1984, 1986).\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1983)\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0432 \u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b, \u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0410\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430 \u00ab\u0421\u0435\u043d\u0442-\u041a\u0438\u043b\u0434\u0430\u00bb (2010).\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1937)\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0432 \u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430 \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438 \u00ab\u0414\u0436\u0435\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0433\u00bb.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0412\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0433\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043c (1876\u20141960)\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0413\u0414\u0420.\n (1867\u20141946)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0445\u0435\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0418\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0438 (1926\u20141927).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0413\u0435\u043d\u0440\u0438:\n (1753\u20141825)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u0441\u044e\u0440\u0432\u0435\u0439\u0435\u0440 \u0444\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 (1806\u20141822).\n (1825\u20141898)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u0440\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0446 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d \u041f\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0442\u044b \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0438\u043d (1868\u20141884).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0413\u0435\u043d\u0440\u0438 \u041a\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0430\u043d (1895\u20141972)\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0445\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440, \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0413\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433 (1859\u20141942)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043a.\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1948)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, \u043c\u044d\u0440 \u0421\u0430\u043d-\u0410\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043e (1997\u20142001).\n (1934\u20142012)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u041a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u0423\u044d\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430 \u00ab\u0421\u0443\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0438 \u0422\u0430\u0443\u043d\u00bb (1957).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0414\u0436\u0435\u0439\u043c\u0441 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1944)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0440\u0430\u0447, \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440 \u043f\u043e \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043c \u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 (2007\u20142009).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0414\u0436\u043e\u043d:\n (\u043e\u043a. 1637\u20141688)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, \u043b\u043e\u0440\u0434-\u043c\u044d\u0440 \u041b\u043e\u043d\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0430 (1686), \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0423\u0438\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043c\u0430 \u041f\u0438\u043a\u0430.\t\n (?\u00a0\u2014 1716)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u041f\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0442\u044b \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u042f\u043c\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0430 (1688, 1706).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0414\u0436\u043e\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, \u043c\u044d\u0440 \u041d\u043e\u0442\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0435\u043c\u0430 (1702\u20141703, 1709\u20141710).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0414\u0436\u043e\u043d \u041b\u0438 (1839\u20141911)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0432 \u0428\u0432\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0438 (1895\u20141897).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0414\u0436\u043e\u043d (1924\u20142022)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0432 \u0445\u043e\u043a\u043a\u0435\u0439 \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0435.\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1952)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0432 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0431\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0433, \u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u042e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0423\u044d\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430 \u00ab\u0418\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d \u0421\u0430\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0441\u00bb (1974) \u0438 \u041a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430 \u00ab\u0423\u0438\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0441\u00bb (1975), \u043e\u0442\u0435\u0446 \u0410\u0434\u0430\u043c\u0430 \u041f\u0438\u043a\u0430.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0414\u0436\u043e\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u0435\u0439\u043c\u0434\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0439\u043d\u0435\u0440.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0414\u0436\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0436 \u041d\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043e\u043d (1873\u20141943)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u043f\u043e \u0441\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0414\u044d\u0432\u0438\u0434:\n (1944\u20142020)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0437\u044e\u0434\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0431\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0437\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b \u0432 \u0432\u0435\u0441\u0435 \u043e\u0442 93 \u043a\u0433 (1966).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0414\u044d\u0432\u0438\u0434 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1945)\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0437\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0436\u043e\u043a\u0435\u0439, \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u041e\u043a\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e (1967) \u0438 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e (1971, 1973, 1978) \u043a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u043e\u0432.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0414\u044d\u0432\u0438\u0434 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1987)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0451\u0440\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u0441\u043c\u0435\u0448\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0423\u044d\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0430 (2016).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0414\u044d\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0437\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0438\u0439, \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0437\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043e \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0432\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043c\u0443 (2014).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043b (1920\u20141995)\u00a0\u2014 \u0447\u0435\u0448\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044d\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d \u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u044d\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e, \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442 \u0438 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n (1932\u20142020)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043b\u0451\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a, \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0421\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0412\u0412\u0421 (1987\u20141988).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u041a\u0438\u043c (1951\u20142009)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0446 \u0441 \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0434\u0440\u043e\u043c\u043e\u043c \u0441\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0438\u043f \u0433\u0435\u0440\u043e\u044f \u0414\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0425\u043e\u0444\u0444\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435 \u00ab\u0427\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a \u0434\u043e\u0436\u0434\u044f\u00bb.\n \u00a0(\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1989)\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430\u043c\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a, \u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u041c\u0435\u0436\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u042e\u0410\u0420 \u043f\u043e \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0443 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 (2017).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u041b\u0435\u043e (1927\u20142013)\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0446.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u041b\u0443\u043f\u0443 (1886\u20141931)\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440 \u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440.\n (1890\u20141956)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440, \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0430 \u0438\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0410\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0421\u0428\u0410 (1949\u20141953).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u041c\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0438\u043d (1911\u20141968)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442, \u0434\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0433 \u0438 \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u041c\u044d\u0442\u0442\u044c\u044e\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u043b \u0432 \u0427\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0438 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0443 (1991\u20141996) \u0438 \u0414\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 (2003\u20142006).\n (1897\u20141966)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440 \u043f\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f (1951\u20141955).\n (1920\u20141997)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0432 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0431\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0433, \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u041a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430 \u00ab\u0425\u0430\u0434\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0444\u0438\u043b\u0434\u00bb (1945).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u041f\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440, \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u042d\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f (1994, 1998, 2018) \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0430 \u0437\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0439 \u0411\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 (2000).\n (1904\u20141987)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044e\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0421\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u041a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u044f (1939).\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1973)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0445\u043e\u043a\u043a\u0435\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430 \u041d\u0425\u041b \u00ab\u0412\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0442\u043e\u043d \u041a\u044d\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0437\u00bb.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0420\u0430\u0439\u0430\u043d (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1973)\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0438 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0440\u043e\u043a-\u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b Nickelback.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a-\u041c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0436\u0430\u0433\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438, \u0420\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0440\u0434\u043e (1882\u20141949)\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0433.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0420\u0438\u0447\u0430\u0440\u0434:\n (1782\u20141867)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u0440\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0446 \u0447\u0430\u0435\u043c, \u0448\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0444 \u041b\u043e\u043d\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0430 (1832), \u0430\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n (1792\u20141847)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0433.\n (1914\u20142010)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u0440\u044f\u043a, \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u0412\u041c\u0421 \u0410\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438 (1970\u20141973).\n (1943\u20142014)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430 \u0410\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u0414\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430\u0441 \u0427\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0441\u00bb.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0420\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442 (1551\u20141619)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a-\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n \u00a0\u2014 \u044e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0430\u0444\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0413\u043e\u043b\u0434\u043c\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043e\u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044b \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u044b (1998).\n (1882\u20141941)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0446, \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a \u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440 (1908).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0421\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0435\u043d (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1979)\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430\u043c\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0432 \u0431\u043e\u0443\u043b\u0437, \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0418\u0433\u0440 \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 (2006, 2010, 2014).\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1936)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, \u043c\u044d\u0440 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0446\u044b \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u041d\u044c\u044e-\u041c\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0438\u043a\u043e \u0421\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430-\u0424\u0435 (1976\u20141978, 1986\u20141994).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0422\u0438\u043c\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044e\u0441\u0435\u0440, \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0414\u0436\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0436\u0430 \u041f\u043e\u043b\u043a\u0430 \u0437\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0430\u0436 (1996).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0422\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0442\u0438 \u041d\u0430\u0439\u0434\u0436\u0435\u043b (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1972)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043b\u0451\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a \u0430\u0440\u043c\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0432\u0442 \u0415\u041a\u0410, \u043c\u0430\u0439\u043e\u0440.\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1951)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u044e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0430\u0444\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444.\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1957)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u041a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u0410\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430 \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0438 \u0421\u0438\u0442\u0438\u00bb (1987).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0423\u0438\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043c (\u043e\u043a. 1603\u20141676)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044e\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, \u043b\u043e\u0440\u0434-\u043c\u044d\u0440 \u041b\u043e\u043d\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0430 (1667), \u043e\u0442\u0435\u0446 \u0414\u0436\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u041f\u0438\u043a\u0430 (\u0443\u043c. 1688).\n (1834\u20141910)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0440 \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430 (1896\u20141906), \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u041d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0434\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 (1899), \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041b\u0435\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u00bb (\u0441 1897).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0424\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a (1886\u20141970)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0435\u0440, \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b-\u043c\u0430\u0439\u043e\u0440.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0424\u0440\u044d\u043d\u043a:\n (1878\u20141941)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0447\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043a, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0418\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0430 (1931\u20141932) \u0438 \u0410\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0434\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0439\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 (1932\u20141934), \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u041b\u043e\u043d\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0430\u0436\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0430 (1933\u20141940).\n (1881\u20141933)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a, \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0422\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0441\u0430 \u0424\u0438\u0442\u0447\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u0443\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0430 \u0410\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0438\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432-\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 (1923).\n \u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0437\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0437\u0432\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0438\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440, \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041e\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0440\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0437\u0432\u0443\u043a (2003, 2005).\n (1782\u20141838)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044e\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d \u041f\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0442\u044b \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 (1819\u20141821).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0427\u0430\u0440\u043b\u044c\u0437:\n (1888\u20141954)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a \u041c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430 \u00ab\u0427\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0433\u043e \u041a\u0430\u0431\u0441\u00bb (1918).\n (1897\u20141958)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u043b \u0432 \u042e\u0433\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0438 (1946\u20141951) \u0438 \u0413\u0440\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0438 (1951\u20141957).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0426\u0432\u0438\u043a\u0430 (\u0413\u0435\u043d\u0440\u0438\u043a) (1951\u20142022)\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043f- \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u043a-\u043f\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0446, \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0428\u0430\u0440\u043b\u044c (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1990)\u00a0\u2014 \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043d\u0449\u0438\u043a.\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1992)\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0432 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b, \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430 \u041d\u0424\u041b \u00ab\u041d\u044c\u044e-\u0419\u043e\u0440\u043a \u0414\u0436\u0435\u0442\u0441\u00bb.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u042d\u0434\u0434\u0438:\n (1899\u20141967)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u043e\u0432 \u0413\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438 \u0431\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0430 \u00ab\u0426\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043d\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0438 \u0420\u0435\u0434\u0441\u00bb \u0438 \u00ab\u0427\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0433\u043e \u041a\u0430\u0431\u0441\u00bb.\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1981)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a.\n (\u0414\u044d\u0440\u0440\u0438\u043b \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d \u041f\u0438\u043a; \u0440\u043e\u0434. 1996)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u041d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0417\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430 \u00ab\u0412\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0442\u043e\u043d \u0421\u044d\u0439\u043d\u0442\u0441\u00bb (2018).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u042d\u043d\u0434\u0440\u044e:\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1961)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u041a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430 \u00ab\u0427\u0430\u0440\u043b\u044c\u0442\u043e\u043d \u0410\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043a\u00bb (1987).\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1963)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a \u0438 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440, \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u041a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 NatWest \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u044b \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u041d\u043e\u0442\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0435\u043c\u0448\u0438\u0440 (1987), \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u041a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0434\u044b (2006\u20142007).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u042d\u043d\u0434\u0440\u044e (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1998)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0445\u043e\u043a\u043a\u0435\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u042d\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0438 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1954)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0438\u0439, \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u043d\u043e \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0441\u0438\u0445\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439.\n\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1934)\u00a0\u2014 \u044e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0430\u0444\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0441\u0438\u0445\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0411\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0441\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 (1997\u20142000).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u041a\u0430\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 (\u0443\u0440. \u041a\u0432\u0430\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430; \u0440\u043e\u0434. 1975)\u00a0\u2014 \u0447\u0435\u0448\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u044e\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440 \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u044b (2012)\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u041b\u0443\u0438\u0437\u0430 (1849\u20141929)\u00a0\u2014 \u0448\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430.\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1974)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430, \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0410\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439-\u043a\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0436\u0430\u043d\u0440\u0435 \u0442\u0440\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0435 (2010) \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 BBC \u0432 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0430\u0443\u0434\u0438\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043a \u0437\u0430 \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0430 (2013).\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1983)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0442\u043e\u043b\u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u044f\u0434\u0440\u0430, \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u044f\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u043b\u0451\u0433\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0435 \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 (2008, 2010) \u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0443\u0445\u0435 (2011).\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0421\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1984)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043b\u0435\u0433\u043a\u043e\u0430\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043a\u0430.\n \u041f\u0438\u043a, \u0421\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0430 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1991)\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0434\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430.\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1964)\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0437\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430, \u0447\u044c\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b \u0432\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0442 \u0432 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0425\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0438 \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0447\u0435\u0440\u0447\u0430.\n (1914\u20141982)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043b\u0435\u0433\u043a\u043e\u0430\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043a\u0430, \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0410\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0440\u044b\u0436\u043a\u0430\u043c \u0432 \u0434\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0443 (1935\u20141937) \u0438 \u0418\u0433\u0440 \u0411\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u044d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0444\u0435\u0442\u0435 220-110-220-110 \u044f\u0440\u0434\u043e\u0432 (1938).\n (\u0443\u0440. \u0423\u043e\u0442\u0442\u0441; 1913\u20142002)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u0434\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0416\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0412\u0412\u0421 (1946\u20141950).\n (196", "\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435, \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0441\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0438 \u0443\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0436\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0430, \u0447\u0442\u043e\u0431\u044b \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0437\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0433\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e. \u0412\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u0433\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u0434\u0432\u0443\u043c\u044f \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0438\u044f 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\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u0432 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u0435\u043b \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0424\u043e\u043a\u0430, \u0438 \u0434\u0440.\n\n\u0415\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f, \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440, \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0435, 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\u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0437\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438, \u0442\u043e \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0434\u0440\u0430\u0442 \u0435\u0451 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0432\u0435\u0440\u043e\u044f\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0442\u043e\u0442 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0441.\n\n\u041c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0438 \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0443\u043b\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0438 \n\n\u0412\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0436\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u0445 \u0431\u0443\u0434\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0432\u044b\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0436\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0442. \u041e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0441 \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0431\u0443\u0434\u0443\u0442 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u0442\u044c \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432.\n\u0412 \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0441\u0438-\u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u043d\u0435\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0440\u044b\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0443\u0442\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u0431\u043b\u044e\u0434\u0430\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0445, \u0430 \u0432 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0441\u0438-\u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0443\u0442\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u0431\u043b\u044e\u0434\u0430\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0445. \u041f\u043e\u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f (\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f) \u0438 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0443\u043b\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0438, \u043e\u0447\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0434\u043d\u043e, \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u044d\u043a\u0432\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u044b.\n\n\u041e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043c\u0435\u0448\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0439 \n\u0412\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434 \u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0447\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u044b. \u0421\u043c\u0435\u0448\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u0438\u044f (\u0432 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0435) \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0449\u0438 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u044b \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438.\n\n\u041a\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0438 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \n\u0412\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435 \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043e\u0442 \u043a\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0442 , \u043d\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438\n\n\u0412\u0441\u044f\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0431\u044b\u0442\u044c \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f\u043c \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0435\u0451 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0430:\n\n \n \n\u0412 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u043c \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435", " limited to the cities.\n\nAlessandri soon discovered that his efforts to lead would be blocked by the conservative Congress. Like Balmaceda, he infuriated the legislators by going over their heads to appeal to the voters in the congressional elections of 1924. His reform legislation was finally rammed through Congress under pressure from younger military officers, who were sick of the neglect of the armed forces, political infighting, social unrest, and galloping inflation, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress.\n\nA double military coup set off a period of great political instability that lasted until 1932. First military right-wingers opposing Alessandri seized power in September 1924, and then reformers in favor of the ousted president took charge in January 1925. The Saber noise (ruido de sables) incident of September 1924, provoked by discontent of young officers, mostly lieutenants from middle and working classes, lead to the establishment of the September Junta led by General Luis Altamirano and the exile of Alessandri.\n\nHowever, fears of a conservative restoration in progressive sectors of the army led to another coup in January, which ended with the establishment of the January Junta as interim government while waiting for Alessandri's return. The latter group was led by two colonels, Carlos Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez del Campo and Marmaduke Grove. They returned Alessandri to the presidency that March and enacted his promised reforms by decree. The latter re-assumed power in March, and a new Constitution encapsulating his proposed reforms was ratified in a plebiscite in September 1925.\n\nThe new constitution gave increased powers to the presidency. Alessandri broke with the classical liberalism's policies of laissez-faire by creating a Central Bank and imposing a revenue tax. However, social discontents were also crushed, leading to the Marusia massacre in March 1925 followed by the La Coru\u00f1a massacre.\n\nThe longest lasting of the ten governments between 1924 and 1932 was that of General Carlos Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez, who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what was a de facto dictatorship. When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years.\n\nThe Seguro Obrero Massacre took place on September 5, 1938, in the midst of a heated three-way election campaign between the ultraconservative Gustavo Ross Santa Mar\u00eda, the radical Popular Front's Pedro Aguirre Cerda, and the newly formed Popular Alliance candidate, Carlos Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez del Campo. The National Socialist Movement of Chile supported Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez's candidacy, which had been announced on September 4. In order to preempt Ross's victory, the National Socialists mounted a coup d'\u00e9tat that was intended to take down the rightwing government of Arturo Alessandri Palma and place Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez in power.\n\nDuring the period of Radical Party dominance (1932\u20131952), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez to office for another 6 years. Jorge Alessandri succeeded Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez in 1958.\n\nThe 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan \"Revolution in Liberty\", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had accomplished many noteworthy objectives, but he had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals.\n\nPopular Unity years\n\nIn the 1970 presidential election, Senator Salvador Allende Gossens won a plurality of votes in a three-way contest. He was a Marxist physician and member of Chile's Socialist Party, who headed the \"Popular Unity\" (UP or \"Unidad Popular\") coalition of the Socialist, Communist, Radical, and Social-Democratic Parties, along with dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement (MAPU), and the Independent Popular Action.\n\nAllende had two main competitors in the election \u2014 Radomiro Tomic, representing the incumbent Christian Democratic party, who ran a left-wing campaign with much the same theme as Allende's, and the right-wing former president Jorge Alessandri. In the end, Allende received a plurality of the votes cast, getting 36% of the vote against Alessandri's 35% and Tomic's 28%.\n\nDespite pressure from the government of the United States, the Chilean Congress, keeping with tradition, conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri. This procedure had previously been a near-formality, yet became quite fraught in 1970. After assurances of legality on Allende's part, the murder of the Army Commander-in-Chief, General Ren\u00e9 Schneider and Frei's refusal to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende \u2013 on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers' party and could not make common cause with the oligarchs \u2013 Allende was chosen by a vote of 153 to 35.\n\nThe Popular Unity platform included the nationalization of U.S. interests in Chile's major copper mines, the advancement of workers' rights, deepening of the Chilean land reform, reorganization of the national economy into socialized, mixed, and private sectors, a foreign policy of \"international solidarity\" and national independence and a new institutional order (the \"people's state\" or \"poder popular\"), including the institution of a unicameral congress. Immediately after the election, the United States expressed its disapproval and raised a number of economic sanctions against Chile.\n\nIn addition, the CIA's website reports that the agency aided three different Chilean opposition groups during that time period and \"sought to instigate a coup to prevent Allende from taking office\". The action plans to prevent Allende from coming to power were known as Track I and Track II.\n\nIn the first year of Allende's term, the short-term economic results of Economics Minister Pedro Vuskovic's expansive monetary policy were unambiguously favorable: 12% industrial growth and an 8.6% increase in GDP, accompanied by major declines in inflation (down from 34.9% to 22.1%) and unemployment (down to 3.8%). Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, which had the effect of increasing consumer spending and redistributing income downward. Joint public-private public works projects helped reduce unemployment. Much of the banking sector was nationalized. Many enterprises within the copper, coal, iron, nitrate, and steel industries were expropriated, nationalized, or subjected to state intervention. Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the administration's first year. However, these results were not sustainable and in 1972 the Chilean escudo had runaway inflation of 140%. An economic depression that had begun in 1967 peaked in 1972, exacerbated by capital flight, plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and unemployment rose. The combination of inflation and government-mandated price-fixing led to the rise of black markets in rice, beans, sugar, and flour, and a \"disappearance\" of such basic commodities from supermarket shelves.\n\nRecognizing that U.S. intelligence forces were trying to destabilize his presidency through a variety of methods, the KGB offered financial assistance to the first democratically elected Marxist president. However, the reason behind the U.S. covert actions against Allende concerned not the spread of Marxism but fear over losing control of its investments. \"By 1968, 20 percent of total U.S. foreign investment was tied up in Latin America...Mining companies had invested $1 billion over the previous fifty years in Chile's copper mining industry \u2013 the largest in the world \u2013 but they had sent $7.2 billion home.\" Part of the CIA's program involved a propaganda campaign that portrayed Allende as a would-be Soviet dictator. In fact, however, \"the U.S.'s own intelligence reports showed that Allende posed no threat to democracy.\" Nevertheless, the Richard Nixon administration organized and inserted secret operatives in Chile, in order to quickly destabilize Allende's government.\n\nIn addition, Nixon gave instructions to make the Chilean economy scream, and international financial pressure restricted economic credit to Chile. Simultaneously, the CIA funded opposition media, politicians, and organizations, helping to accelerate a campaign of domestic destabilization. By 1972, the economic progress of Allende's first year had been reversed, and the economy was in crisis. Political polarization increased, and large mobilizations of both pro- and anti-government groups became frequent, often leading to clashes.\n\nBy 1973, Chilean society had grown highly polarized, between strong opponents and equally strong supporters of Salvador Allende and his government. Military actions and movements, separate from the civilian authority, began to manifest in the countryside. The Tanquetazo was a failed military coup d'\u00e9tat attempted against Allende in June 1973.\n\nIn its \"Agreement\", on August 22, 1973, the Chamber of Deputies of Chile asserted that Chilean democracy had broken down and called for \"redirecting government activity\", to restore constitutional rule. Less than a month later, on September 11, 1973, the Chilean military deposed Allende, who shot himself in the head to avoid capture as the Presidential Palace was surrounded and bombed. Subsequently, rather than restore governmental authority to the civilian legislature, Augusto Pinochet exploited his role as Commander of the Army to seize total power and to establish himself at the head of a junta.\n\nCIA involvement in the coup is documented. As early as the Church Committee Report (1975), publicly available documents have indicated that the CIA attempted to prevent Allende from taking office after he was elected in 1970; the CIA itself released documents in 2000 acknowledging this and that Pinochet was one of their favored alternatives to take power.\n\nAccording to the Vasili Mitrokhin and Christopher Andrew, the KGB and the Cuban Intelligence Directorate launched a campaign known as Operation TOUCAN. For instance, in 1976, the New York Times published 66 articles on human rights abuses in Chile and only 4 on Cambodia, where the communist Khmer Rouge killed some 1.5 million people of 7.5 million people in the country.\n\nMilitary dictatorship (1973\u20131990)\n\nBy early 1973, inflation had risen 600% under Allende's presidency. The crippled economy was further battered by prolonged and sometimes simultaneous strikes by physicians, teachers, students, truck owners, copper workers, and the small business class. A military coup overthrew Allende on September 11, 1973. As the armed forces bombarded the presidential palace (Palacio de La Moneda), Allende committed suicide. A military government, led by General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, took over control of the country.\n\nThe first years of the regime were marked by human rights violations. The junta jailed, tortured, and executed thousands of Chileans. In October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by the Caravan of Death. At least a thousand people were executed during the first six months of Pinochet in office, and at least two thousand more were killed during the next sixteen years, as reported by the Rettig Report. At least 29,000 were imprisoned and tortured. According to the Latin American Institute on Mental Health and Human Rights (ILAS), \"situations of extreme trauma\" affected about 200,000 persons.; this figure includes individuals killed, tortured or exiled, and their immediate families. About 30,000 left the country.\n\nThe four-man junta headed by General Augusto Pinochet abolished civil liberties, dissolved the national congress, banned union activities, prohibited strikes and collective bargaining, and erased the Allende administration's agrarian and economic reforms.\n\nThe junta embarked on a radical program of liberalization, deregulation and privatization, slashing tariffs as well as government welfare programs and deficits. Economic reforms were drafted by a group of technocrats who became known as the Chicago Boys because many of them had been trained or influenced by University of Chicago professors. Under these new policies, the rate of inflation dropped:\n\nA new constitution was approved by plebiscite characterized by the absence of registration lists, on September 11, 1980, and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an 8-year term.\n\nIn 1982\u20131983 Chile witnessed a severe economic crisis with a surge in unemployment and a meltdown of the financial sector. 16 out of 50 financial institutions faced bankruptcy. In 1982 the two biggest banks were nationalized to prevent an even worse credit crunch. In 1983 another five banks were nationalized and two banks had to be put under government supervision. The central bank took over foreign debts. Critics ridiculed the economic policy of the Chicago Boys as \"Chicago way to socialism\u201c.\n\nAfter the economic crisis, Hern\u00e1n B\u00fcchi became Minister of Finance from 1985 to 1989, introducing a more pragmatic economic policy. He allowed the peso to float and reinstated restrictions on the movement of capital in and out of the country. He introduced Bank regulations, simplified and reduced the corporate tax. Chile went ahead with privatizations, including public utilities plus the re-privatization of companies that had returned to the government during the 1982\u20131983 crisis. From 1984 to 1990, Chile's gross domestic product grew by an annual average of 5.9%, the fastest on the continent. Chile developed a good export economy, including the export of fruits and vegetables to the northern hemisphere when they were out of season, and commanded high prices.\n\nThe military junta began to change during the late 1970s. Due to problems with Pinochet, Leigh was expelled from the junta in 1978 and replaced by General Fernando Matthei. In the late 1980s, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech, and association, to include trade union and political activity. Due to the Caso Degollados (\"slit throats case\"), in which three Communist party members were assassinated, C\u00e9sar Mendoza, member of the junta since 1973 and representants of the carabineros, resigned in 1985 and was replaced by Rodolfo Stange. The next year, Carmen Gloria Quintana was burnt alive in what became known as the Caso Quemado (\"Burnt Alive case\").\n\nChile's constitution established that in 1988 there would be another plebiscite in which the voters would accept or reject a single candidate proposed by the Military Junta. Pinochet was, as expected, the candidate proposed, but was denied a second 8-year term by 54.5% of the vote.\n\nTransition to democracy (1990\u2013)\n\nAylwin, Frei, and Lagos \nChileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a two-chamber congress on December 14, 1989. Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin, the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the Concertaci\u00f3n, received an absolute majority of votes (55%). President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period. In February 1991 Aylwin created the National Commission for Truth and Reconciliation, which released in February 1991 the Rettig Report on human rights violations committed during the military rule.\n\nThis report counted 2,279 cases of \"disappearances\" which could be proved and registered. Of course, the very nature of \"disappearances\" made such investigations very difficult. The same problem arose, several years later, with the Valech Report, released in 2004 and which counted almost 30,000 victims of torture, among testimonies from 35,000 persons.\n\nIn December 1993, Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertaci\u00f3n coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%). Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist Ricardo Lagos, who won the presidency in an unprecedented runoff election against Joaqu\u00edn Lav\u00edn of the rightist Alliance for Chile, by a very tight score of fewer than 200,000 votes (51,32%).\n\nIn 1998, Pinochet travelled to London for back surgery. But under orders of Spanish judge Baltasar Garz\u00f3n, he was arrested there, attracting worldwide attention, not only because of the history of Chile and South America, but also because this was one of the first arrests of a former president based on the universal jurisdiction principle. Pinochet tried to defend himself by referring to the State Immunity Act of 1978, an argument rejected by the British justice. However, UK Home Secretary Jack Straw took the responsibility to release him on medical grounds, and refused to extradite him to Spain. Thereafter, Pinochet returned to Chile in March 2000. Upon descending the plane on his wheelchair, he stood up and saluted the cheering crowd of supporters, including an army band playing his favorite military march tunes, which was awaiting him at the airport in Santiago. President Ricardo Lagos later commented that the retired general's televised arrival had damaged the image of Chile, while thousands demonstrated against him.\n\nBachelet and Pi\u00f1era \nThe Concertaci\u00f3n coalition has continued to dominate Chilean politics for last two decades. In January 2006 Chileans elected their first female president, Michelle Bachelet, of the Socialist Party. She was sworn in on March 11, 2006, extending the Concertaci\u00f3n coalition governance for another four years.\n\nIn 2002 Chile signed an association agreement with the European Union (comprising a free trade agreement and political and cultural agreements), in 2003, an extensive free trade agreement with the United States, and in 2004 with South Korea, expecting a boom in import and export of local produce and becoming a regional trade-hub. Continuing the coalition's free trade strategy, in August 2006 President Bachelet promulgated a free trade agreement with China (signed under the previous administration of Ricardo Lagos), the first Chinese free trade agreement with a Latin American nation; similar deals with Japan and India were promulgated in August 2007. In October 2006, Bachelet promulgated a multilateral trade deal with New Zealand, Singapore and Brunei, the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership (P4), also signed under Lagos' presidency. 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\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0431\u044b \u0432 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0410\u0444\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0435, \u043e\u0442 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0435\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0432\u0441\u0451 \u044d\u0442\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f. \u041f\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0443 \u0413\u0438\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043f\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d \u0441\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043c\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044f\u043c\u0438. 18 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 1944\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u2014 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043e\u0431\u044a\u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d \u0434\u043d\u0451\u043c \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0430.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u044b \n \u0416\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442 2-\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0430 (30 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 1914, \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u041f\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f)\n \u0416\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442 1-\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0430 (22 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430 1915, \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u041f\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f)\n \u041c\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c \u00ab\u0417\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433\u0438\u00bb \u0432 \u0437\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0435 (25 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044f 1915, \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0412\u044e\u0440\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0433)\n \u041e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d \u00ab\u0417\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433\u0438\u00bb \u0440\u044b\u0446\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442 (8 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f 1915, \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0412\u044e\u0440\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0433)\n Pour le M\u00e9rite (10 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f 1917, \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u041f\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f)\n \u041e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d \u00ab\u0417\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433\u0438\u00bb 4-\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0430 \u0441 \u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043c\u0438 (\u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0411\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u044f)\n \u041e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d \u00ab\u0417\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433\u0438\u00bb 2-\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0430 (\u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0411\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u044f)\n \u041e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d \u0424\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0440\u0438\u0445\u0430 1-\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0430 \u0441 \u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043c\u0438 (\u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0412\u044e\u0440\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0433)\n \u041d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a \u00ab\u0417\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb (1918) \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u0435\n \u041a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442 \u00ab\u0417\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433\u0438\u00bb 3-\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0430 \u0441 \u0432\u043e\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u043e\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0435\u043c (\u0410\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e-\u0412\u0435\u043d\u0433\u0440\u0438\u044f)\n \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0451\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b 1914/1918 \u0441 \u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043c\u0438 (1934)\n \u041c\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c \u00ab\u0412 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u044c 1 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 1938 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb\n \u041c\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c \u00ab\u0412 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u044c 22 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430 1939 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb\n \u041c\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c \u00ab\u0417\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433\u0443 \u043b\u0435\u0442 \u0432 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0445\u0442\u0435\u00bb \u0441 4-\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e 1-\u0439 \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\n \u041f\u0440\u044f\u0436\u043a\u0430 \u043a \u0416\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0443 2-\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0430 (17 \u043c\u0430\u044f 1940)\n \u041f\u0440\u044f\u0436\u043a\u0430 \u043a \u0416\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0443 1-\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0430 (21 \u043c\u0430\u044f 1940)\n \u0420\u044b\u0446\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442 \u0416\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430 \u0441 \u0414\u0443\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u041b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044f\u043c\u0438, \u041c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0438 \u0411\u0440\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438\n \u0420\u044b\u0446\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u041a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442 (27 \u043c\u0430\u044f 1940)\n \u0414\u0443\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u041b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044f (\u2116\u00a010) (20 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430 1941)\n \u041c\u0435\u0447\u0438 (\u2116\u00a06) (20 \u044f\u043d\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044f 1942)\n \u0411\u0440\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0442\u044b (\u2116\u00a06) (11 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430 1943)\n \u041d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a \u00ab\u0417\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb \u0432 \u0437\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0435 (7 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430 1944)\n \u041d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a \u00ab\u0417\u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0443\u044e \u0430\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0443\u00bb \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u0435\n \u0421\u043e\u0432\u043c\u0435\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a \u00ab\u041b\u0451\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a-\u043d\u0430\u0431\u043b\u044e\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u00bb \u0432 \u0437\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438\n \u041c\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c \u00ab\u0417\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u0434\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c\u00bb \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u0435 (22 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f 1941, \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0418\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u044f)\n \u041c\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c \u00ab\u0417\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u0434\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c\u00bb \u0432 \u0437\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0435 (\u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c 19", "ans (3\u20130)\nNational League: Providence Grays\nAmerican Association: New York Metropolitans\nUnion Association: St. Louis Maroons\n\nMajor league baseball final standings\n\nNational League final standings\n\nAmerican Association final standings\n\nUnion Association final standings\n\nStatistical leaders\n\nNational League statistical leaders\n\nAmerican Association statistical leaders\n\nUnion Association statistical leaders\n\nAll-Time Statistical Leaders (Strikeouts)\n\nThe 1884 season was memorable in that six of the top 10 all-time Major League Baseball single season strikeout totals were set that season:\n\nNotable seasons\nOld Hoss Radbourn won a record 59 or 60 games (depending on the sources), a record that will almost certainly never be broken. In addition to wins, Radbourn led the National League in games (75), games started (73), complete games (73), ERA (1.38), saves (2), strikeouts (441), and innings pitched (678.2).\n\nThe season record for pitching strikeouts (369, by Tim Keefe 1883) is broken by seven players, with Hugh Daily beating Keefe's record by 114. To this day (as of 2020), six of the top ten strikeout seasons were accomplished in 1884 (including five of the top seven). 1884 was the first season in which pitchers were allowed to throw overhand.\n\nEvents\n\nJanuary\u2013March\nFebruary 18 \u2013 Terry Larkin, recently released from prison after shooting his wife and a police officer in 1883, is arrested again for threatening to shoot his father. Larkin will be released and play this season for the Richmond Virginians. Larkin was later institutionalized after challenging his former employer to a duel, and committed suicide by slitting his throat with a razor in 1894.\nFebruary 20 \u2013 The Altoona Mountain City club is admitted to the new Union Association as its seventh club, leaving Lancaster as the only franchise in the Inter-State League.\nMarch 4 \u2013 The National League reduces the number of balls needed for a walk to six. Team owners also agree to provide two separate benches for the teams in order to cut down on player fraternizing during games.\nMarch 15 \u2013 Henry Chadwick writes in a newspaper column that a ground-keeper in St. Louis has started placing tarpaulins over the bases when it rains in order to keep them dry. Other clubs will follow suit and cover the pitching area and batter areas as well.\nMarch 17 \u2013 The Union Association admits the Boston Reds, run by George Wright, as a new team to the league.\nMarch 28 \u2013 Umpire William McLean throws a bat into the stands, striking a spectator, in reaction to taunts from the crowd. McLean is arrested but not charged as the fan is not injured.\n\nApril\u2013June\nApril 17 \u2013 The Union Association opens its inaugural season with 3 games.\nMay 1 \u2013 Moses Fleetwood Walker becomes the first black player to play in the major leagues. Walker will play in 42 games for the Toledo Blue Stockings, have 152 at-bats and get 40 hits in his only season in major league baseball. Facing racism constantly, even his own teammates refuse to play with him. An injury in mid-July effectively ends Walker's season and he is later released. No other African-American will play in the major leagues until Jackie Robinson in 1947.\nMay 1 \u2013 The Cincinnati Red Stockings of the American Association has a section of their stands collapse as fans are leaving the park following their opening day game. There are numerous injuries including a broken arm. Reds' ownership covered all medical expenses for those injured.\nMay 5 \u2013 After pitching in St. Louis the previous day, Tony Mullane of the Toledo Blue Stockings is barred by a court from pitching in the state of Missouri until his case involving his contract jumping is settled.\nMay 6 \u2013 Larry McKeon of the Indianapolis Hoosiers pitches a 6 inning no-hitter. The game is called due to rain with the score tied 0\u20130. McKeon will go on to lose 41 games in 1884.\nMay 16 \u2013 A foul tip off the bat of a Detroit Wolverines player sticks in the face mask of Boston Beaneaters catcher Mike Hines. Umpire Van Court rules it a catch and calls the batter out. National League secretary Nicholas Young will instruct all NL umpires to not call an out in that scenario again.\nMay 22 \u2013 The Indianapolis Hoosiers release catcher George Mundinger and pitcher Pete Fries.\nMay 24 \u2013 Al Atkinson of the Philadelphia Athletics retires the final 27 batters in pitching a no-hitter over the Pittsburgh Alleghenys. Atkinson hit the lead off batter, Ed Swartwood, who stole second, moved to third on a ground out and scored on a wild pitch, then did not allow another base runner in the 10\u20131 victory.\nMay 24 \u2013 The St. Louis Maroons of the Union Association, after starting the season with 20 consecutive wins, lose their first game of the year.\nMay 29 \u2013 Ed Morris of the Columbus Buckeyes pitches a no-hitter against the Pittsburgh Alleghenys in an American Association game.\nMay 29 \u2013 The Chicago White Stockings hit 5 over-the-fence home runs in their home opener against the Detroit Wolverines. The White Stockings new ground rule allows a home run instead of a double for any ball hit in the air over the 180' left field fence or the 215' right field fence. After Chicago increases their home run output from 13 in 1883 to 142 this season, the National League will mandate a minimum fence distance of 210 feet beginning in 1885.\nMay 30 \u2013 Ned Williamson of the Chicago White Stockings becomes the first player to hit 3 home runs in one game in Chicago's 12\u20132 win over the Detroit Wolverines.\nMay 31 \u2013 Altoona Mountain City drops out of the Union Association and folds, being replaced by the Kansas City Cowboys. Teams leaving and entering will become a recurring theme during the UA's one and only season.\nJune 5 \u2013 Frank Mountain of the Columbus Buckeyes pitches a no-hitter and hits a home run in a 12\u20130 victory.\nJune 7 \u2013 Charlie Sweeney of the Providence Grays strikes out 19 batters in a game to set a record that will last for over 100 years.\nJune 10 \u2013 Larry Corcoran of the Chicago White Stockings switch-pitches in a 2\u20130 win over the Cleveland Blues.\nJune 13 \u2013 The Baltimore Orioles place a barbed-wire fence around the field after the crowd swarmed the field and threatened the umpire in the previous day's game.\nJune 16 \u2013 Buffalo Bisons outfielder Jim O'Rourke hits for the cycle as the Bisons crush the Chicago White Stockings, 20\u20139.\nJune 20 \u2013 The Toledo Blue Stockings sign catcher Deacon McGuire. \nJune 27 \u2013 Larry Corcoran of the Chicago White Stockings throws a no-hitter against the Providence Grays. It is the 3rd no-hitter of Corcoran's career and the first in the National League this season.\nJune 28 \u2013 While playing a Sunday game in Toledo, the players are arrested in the 6th inning for violating the city ordinance banning Sunday baseball. Due to the unruly crowd, the police allow the players to complete the game. The Brooklyn Atlantics defeat Toledo 5\u20133 before players from both teams are taken into custody.\n\nJuly\u2013September\n 1884 \u2013 In American Association action, Guy Hecker of the Louisville Eclipse pitches complete games to win both ends of a doubleheader. Hecker does not walk a single batter in this day as he beats the Brooklyn Atlantics, 5\u20134 and 8\u20132.\nJuly 5 \u2013 Al Atkinson jumps from the American Association Philadelphia Athletics to the Union Association Chicago Browns, the first player to jump mid-season to the new league.\nJuly 7 \u2013 Hugh Daily strikes out 19, tying the record set a month earlier while throwing a one-hitter in the process.\nJuly 10 \u2013 Hugh Daily of the Chicago Browns pitches his second consecutive one-hitter. Daily will pitch four one-hitters by season's end, setting a major league record.\nJuly 11 \u2013 Billy Taylor, who had a 25\u20134 record for the St. Louis Maroons in the Union Association, jumps to the Philadelphia Athletics of the American Association and wins the first of 17 games for Philadelphia, ending with a combined 43\u201316 record.\nJuly 28 \u2013 Charles Radbourn gains a victory in relief for the Providence Grays in the game that provides the point of contention as to whether Radbourn won 59 games or 60 in 1884. The Grays were trailing 4\u20133 when starting pitcher Cyclone Miller finished pitching in the bottom of the 5th inning. Providence scored 4 runs in the top of the 6th to take the lead, then Radbourn came in to pitch starting in the bottom of the 6th. Under the scoring rules of the day, Radbourn was credited with the win. Miller would have gotten the victory under today's scoring rules, hence the discrepancy in total wins for Radbourn.\nAugust 4 \u2013 Pud Galvin of the Buffalo Bisons pitches a no-hitter against the Detroit Wolverines.\nAugust 5 \u2013 Thomas Lynch, a deaf-mute, makes his major league debut for the Chicago White Stockings in the pitcher's box and is winning until he tires in the eighth inning. Cap Anson, who had hit two homers in the game, relieves him and promptly loses 8\u20135. Lynch will never appear in another major league game.\nAugust 6 \u2013 Cap Anson hits three home runs in a 13\u20134 win, giving him five homers in his last two games.\nAugust 21 \u2013 Charlie Geggus pitches a no-hitter for the Washington Nationals of the Union Association. The game is halted after eight innings as the Nationals defeat the Wilmington Quicksteps 12\u20131.\nAugust 25 \u2013 The Chicago Browns of the Union Association, after losing $15,000 in Chicago, move to Pittsburgh and become the Pittsburgh Stogies. They defeated the first-place St. Louis Maroons in their first official game in Pittsburgh on this day.\nAugust 26 \u2013 Dick Burns of the Cincinnati Outlaw Reds pitches a no-hitter against the Kansas City Cowboys.\nAugust 28 \u2013 Mickey Welch strikes out the first 9 batters of the game to set a record that would not be broken until 1970 by Tom Seaver.\nAugust 29 \u2013 The St. Louis Maroons win the only Union Association pennant with a 7\u20132 win over the Pittsburgh Stogies.\nSeptember 11 \u2013 When no umpire shows up for the American Association game between the Philadelphia Athletics and the Toledo Blue Stockings, rookie pitcher Hank O'Day of Toledo fills in as a substitute. After his playing career, O'Day would later be recognized as the best umpire of the first quarter of the 20th century and would be the umpire to make the famous call involving Fred Merkle in 1908.\nSeptember 15 \u2013 Manager Joe Simmons of the Wilmington Quicksteps pulls his team off the field before a home game against the Kansas City Cowboys when he realizes he will be unable to pay the required $60 gate fee to the visiting Cowboys as the attendance is zero. The visiting Cowboys are 7\u201355\u20132 (.112) while the Quicksteps are 2\u201316 (.111) and occupy the cellar in the Union Association standings; following this, the Quicksteps drop out of the Association and disband.\nSeptember 15 \u2013 The Providence Grays win the National League pennant with a 10\u20132 win over the Cleveland Blues.\nSeptember 19 \u2013 The Union Association replaces the Wilmington Quicksteps and Pittsburgh Stogies and with the Milwaukee Brewers and a team from Omaha sponsored by the Union Pacific Railroad.\nSeptember 27 \u2013 Before playing a single game in the Union Association, Omaha is replaced by the St. Paul Saints.\nSeptember 28 \u2013 Ed Cushman of the Milwaukee Brewers pitches a no-hitter in the Brewer's 2nd game in the Union Association.\nSeptember 29 \u2013 Moses Fleetwood Walker, the first African-American to play in the major leagues, is released by the Toledo Blue Stockings. Walker never again played in the major leagues and the color barrier would not be broken for over sixty years.\n\nOctober\u2013December\nOctober 1 \u2013 Charlie Getzien of the Detroit Wolverines pitches a no-hitter in a game called after 6 innings as Detroit wins 1\u20130.\nOctober 1 \u2013 The New York Metropolitans clinch the American Association pennant with a 4\u20131 victory over the Columbus Buckeyes.\nOctober 3 \u2013 Henry Porter playing for the Milwaukee Brewers of the Union Association strikes out 18 batters in one game against the Boston Reds, a record that stood until broken by Steve Carlton in 1969.\nOctober 4 \u2013 In his first start since his no-hitter on September 28, Ed Cushman takes another no-hitter into the 9th inning only to give up a bloop single and finish with a 1-hitter.\nOctober 4 \u2013 Sam Kimber of the Brooklyn Atlantics pitches a 10 inning no-hitter that ends in a 0\u20130 tie after the game is called because of darkness.\nOctober 5 \u2013 Charlie Sweeney and Henry Boyle of the St. Louis Maroons combine on a 5 inning no-hitter when the game is called on account of rain. Despite the no-hitter, the Maroons lose 1\u20130 when 2 errors allow the only run of the game.\nOctober 9 \u2013 Jack Manning only hits 14 career home runs in a career that spans 12 seasons and over 800 games, but he hits 3 out on this day at the Chicago White Stockings cozy Lake Front Park.\nOctober 23 \u2013 The Providence Grays, champions of the National League, behind the pitching of Charley Radbourn, defeat the American Association champion New York Metropolitans 6\u20130 at the Polo Grounds in New York City.\nOctober 24 \u2013 The Providence Grays take the 2nd game of the best of 3 series against the New York Metropolitans by a score of 3\u20131. The game at the Polo Grounds is called after 7 innings because of darkness.\nOctober 25 \u2013 The Providence Grays complete the sweep of the New York Metropolitans with a 12\u20132 win in a game called after 6 innings because of extreme cold and an attendance of only 300 at the Polo Grounds. Charley Radbourn, after winning 59 games during the regular season, wins all 3 games for Providence while allowing no earned runs.\nOctober 30 \u2013 The Columbus Buckeyes of the American Association sell their players to the Pittsburgh Alleghenys for $6,000 and disband the team.\nNovember 4 \u2013 Tony Mullane signs a contract with the Cincinnati Red Stockings for the 1885 season, in direct conflict with his prior oral agreement to play for the St. Louis Browns. The American Association will suspend Mullane for the entire 1885 season because of this and previous contract troubles, but allow him to remain the property of Cincinnati.\nNovember 19 \u2013 National League president A. G. Mills resigns and league secretary Nick Young replaces him.\nNovember 20 \u2013 The National League votes to allow overhand pitching for the 1885 season, although there are restrictions placed on the delivery in order to keep velocity down. In addition, teams are now required to supply a separate bench for each club at their park to limit inter-team fraternization.\nDecember 11 \u2013 The American Association votes to continue their ban on overhand pitching.\nDecember 18 \u2013 The Union Association has only four teams in attendance at their winter meetings. The UA will officially fold in early 1885.\n\nBirths\n\nJanuary\u2013April\nJanuary 1 \u2013 Tom Downey\nJanuary 4 \u2013 Al Bridwell\nJanuary 26 \u2013 Tubby Spencer\nFebruary 1 \u2013 Joe Connolly\nFebruary 1 \u2013 Rosey Rowswell \nFebruary 1 \u2013 Candy Jim Taylor\nFebruary 10 \u2013 Billy Evans\nFebruary 14 \u2013 Jack Lewis\nFebruary 25 \u2013 Bob Bescher\nMarch 4 \u2013 Red Murray\nMarch 7 \u2013 Sam Bennett\nMarch 7 \u2013 Ed Willett\nMarch 19 \u2013 Clyde Engle\nMarch 21 \u2013 Mysterious Walker\nMarch 31 \u2013 Frank Truesdale\nApril 6 \u2013 Rudy Schwenck\nApril 7 \u2013 Jake Daubert\nApril 20 \u2013 Mike Mowrey\nApril 25 \u2013 John Henry \"Pop\" Lloyd\n\nMay\u2013August\nMay 5 \u2013 Chief Bender\nMay 13 \u2013 Bert Niehoff\nMay 16 \u2013 Peter McLaughlin\nMay 20 \u2013 Paul Howard\nMay 26 \u2013 Jimmy Lavender\nMay 30 \u2013 Rube Oldring\nJune 7 \u2013 George Moriarty\nJune 12 \u2013 Otto Knabe\nJune 16 \u2013 Bob Peterson\nJune 19 \u2013 Eddie Cicotte\nJune 23 \u2013 Dick Egan\nJuly 4 \u2013 Jack Warhop\nAugust 6 \u2013 Sherry Magee\nAugust 6 \u2013 Joe Birmingham\n\nSeptember\u2013December\nSeptember 7 \u2013 Earl Moseley *\nSeptember 14 \u2013 Willie Hogan\nSeptember 22 \u2013 Grover Land\nSeptember 30 \u2013 Nap Rucker\nOctober 18 \u2013 Burt Shotton\nOctober 28 \u2013 Chet Chadbourne\nNovember 3 \u2013 Charley Stis\nNovember 15 \u2013 Red Kelly\nNovember 24 \u2013 Tullie McAdoo\nDecember 1 \u2013 Charley Moore\nDecember 4 \u2013 Biff Schlitzer\nDecember 5 \u2013 Ed Summers\nDecember 10 \u2013 Art Griggs\nDecember 15 \u2013 Jim Nealon\nDecember 31 \u2013 Bobby Byrne\n\n\u00a0* Some sources show 1887\n\nDeaths\nMarch 16 \u2013 Art Croft, 29, first baseman and left fielder for 1877 St. Lous and 1878 Indianapolis teams.\nApril 29 \u2013 John Morrissey, 27, played in for the Buffalo Bisons.\nJuly 11 \u2013 Bill Smiley, 28?, utility player who played mainly in 1882.\nSeptember 26 \u2013 Jim Egan, 26?, pitcher for the 1882 Troy Trojans.\nNovember 13 \u2013 Bill Sullivan, 31, played in 2 games for the 1878 Chicago White Stockings.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal", " of these sections, the easterly of two concurrencies with NY\u00a05 across the northern Finger Lakes, is the second-longest surface-road concurrency in New York, behind only the concurrency of I-86 and NY\u00a017 in the Southern Tier, extending from Avon to Auburn.\n\nFrom Oneida County to Albany, the road follows the historic Cherry Valley Turnpike, built at the beginning of the 19th century to connect Albany and, at the time, the important villages of Duanesburg, Cherry Valley, Richfield Springs, Cazenovia, and Skaneateles. US\u00a020 itself was assigned in 1926 and was the state's main east\u2013west route from that time until the Thruway was completed in the 1950s.\n\nRoute description\nUS\u00a020 enters Western New York closely paralleling the Lake Erie shoreline, the Thruway and NY\u00a05. Passing through the southeastern suburbs of Buffalo, it assumes a due-east heading at Depew, taking it to the NY\u00a05 overlap in Avon. The two roads pass through many of the communities at the north ends of the larger Finger Lakes, splitting in Auburn. Through Central New York and the Central New York Region to its east, US\u00a020 drifts south into the rugged upper reaches of the Allegheny Plateau, distancing itself from the Thruway and NY\u00a05 by as much as at some points.\n\nIn the Capital District, the three routes all converge again, and US\u00a020 goes right through downtown Albany, the largest city along its route in New York. Just before crossing the Hudson River, US\u00a020 is joined again by US\u00a09 for its second-longest concurrency, which ends just before the Thruway's Berkshire section in Schodack Center. From there, it drifts southward into the Berkshires, crossing the Massachusetts state line west of Pittsfield.\n\nAll but of US\u00a020's alignment in New York is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT). In Cayuga County, the section of US\u00a020 in Auburn between NY\u00a038A and the eastern city line is maintained by the city of Auburn. To the east in Albany County, the of US\u00a020 in Albany from the western city line to the north end of the NY\u00a032 overlap is also city-maintained.\n\nWestern New York\nFrom the state line to the Buffalo suburbs, US\u00a020 is largely a two-lane through road on the same northeastern heading it has followed most of the way from Cleveland. It serves as the main street of the few communities it passes directly through. In the Buffalo area, US\u00a020 begins to head more east, widening to four lanes and becoming a busy regional artery that intersects many other roads of major and minor importance. For the leading into Depew, it runs due north along with NY\u00a078 as part of Transit Road, a busy commercial strip east of the city. At Depew, US\u00a020 leaves Transit Road and begins its journey east across the state. The surrounding countryside returns to farmland by the Genesee County line.\n\nLake Erie\n\nUS\u00a020 enters New York immediately after passing through State Line, Pennsylvania. It remains on the northeasterly course it has been following as I-90, now the New York State Thruway, veers between it and what is now NY\u00a05 in order to remain on level ground. This section of US\u00a020 hugs the foot of the beach ridge to the south of Lake Erie, which is sometimes visible from sections of the highway, in Chautauqua County. A mile and a half () east of the state line, Shortman Road (unsigned NY\u00a0950D) leaves to the left for exit\u00a061, the westernmost interchange on the Thruway. Shortly afterward, US\u00a020 reaches its first settlement in New York, the hamlet of Ripley, where it intersects NY\u00a076, the first touring route along US\u00a020 in the state.\n\nAnother of two-lane rural road, crossed at its midpoint by the onetime New York Central Railroad and now CSX Transportation mainline, brings US\u00a020 into its first incorporated community, the village of Westfield. Here, NY\u00a0394 intersects US\u00a020 in the middle of town on its way to the Thruway's next exit and the hamlet of Barcelona, where it encounters NY\u00a05 and the lake. Beyond Westfield, US\u00a020 begins to drift south, coming further inland as it heads northeast. to the east, it reaches Fredonia, the largest village along its route so far. 20 intersects with NY\u00a060 at Reed Corners at the eastern edge of Fredonia, which heads north to the neighboring city of Dunkirk. east, NY\u00a039 becomes the first state route to end at US\u00a020. It makes a loop of nearly through the interior of the state to return to US\u00a020 in the Finger Lakes.\n\nPast this junction, the Thruway and US\u00a020 begin to converge in flatter country until they cross as US\u00a020 veers northward south of Silver Creek. US\u00a020 Truck splits off from US\u00a020 in the center of town and rejoins its parent northeast of the village. This portion of the truck route is cosigned as NY\u00a05, and the first of two overlaps between US\u00a020 and NY\u00a05 begins here. The road resumes its northeasterly course to an access road to the Thruway's exit\u00a058 at Irving. After crossing Cattaraugus Creek into Erie County, the concurrency ends, with NY\u00a05 staying close to the lake and US\u00a020 closely paralleling the Thruway. NY\u00a0438 leaves this junction to the east, following the creek into Cattaraugus Reservation.\n\nUS 20, which is now Southwestern Boulevard, remains straight when paralleling the Thruway, intersecting only one other state highway, NY\u00a0249, just east of the village of Farnham, in an stretch that brings it to the outer fringes of the Buffalo\u2013Niagara Falls metropolitan area at Hamburg. Within of the junction with NY\u00a075, which provides access to the Thruway, US\u00a020 intersects US\u00a062, the first U.S. Highway that it encounters in New York. Continuing on, US\u00a020 crosses the Thruway to reach Big Tree. This hamlet was once home to a six-way intersection featuring US\u00a020A, but a late 2000s reconstruction project moved the west end of US\u00a020A to a new junction to the northeast. Like NY\u00a039, US\u00a020A makes a long loop through Wyoming and Livingston counties to return to US\u00a020 in the Finger Lakes.\n\nBuffalo area\nAfter the US\u00a020A split, US\u00a020 begins moving away from the lake and trends more to the east-northeast. The road becomes more developed, and, ahead, a major Buffalo landmark looms to the south\u2014Highmark Stadium, home of the Buffalo Bills. On home game days in the fall, traffic clogs the highway as it crosses over the US\u00a0219 expressway and curves northeast to reach the eastern terminus of NY\u00a0179 at Mile Strip Road. NY\u00a0179 offers access to US\u00a0219 via an interchange to the west. A half-mile () beyond, the four-lane US\u00a020 intersects the concurrent routes of NY\u00a0240 and NY\u00a0277, the main route to the village of Orchard Park off to the south.\n\nAt the West Seneca town line, US\u00a020 turns due east when Reserve Road merges in from the west. After another mile (), the road makes a 90-degree left turn at NY\u00a0187's northern terminus. It is now headed due north as Transit Road, a busy regional route that continues north as far as Lockport. After yet another mile (), NY\u00a016 and NY\u00a078 come in from East Aurora to the southeast. NY\u00a016 continues west to downtown Buffalo while NY\u00a078 turns north to join US\u00a020. Just north of the junction, Transit Road connects to the entrance ramps for an interchange with the NY\u00a0400 freeway, US\u00a020's first interchange with a limited-access highway since meeting the Thruway in Irving.\n\nShops and stores line busy Transit Road on both sides as it divides the towns of West Seneca and Elma. north of NY\u00a0400, US\u00a020 and NY\u00a078 reach another state highway, NY\u00a0354, near Ebenezer. Not far from that intersection, Cheektowaga and Lancaster replace West Seneca and Elma as the towns on either side of the road. Increasing development and traffic heralds Transit Road's entry into the village of Depew, and, at NY\u00a0130, US\u00a020 turns east, ending the overlap and taking the direction it will follow for most of the rest of its crossing of the state.\n\nEast of Buffalo\nTaking the name Broadway, which NY\u00a0130 had retained from the city of Buffalo, US\u00a020 goes through downtown Depew before it proceeds into the neighboring village of Lancaster. It returns to a rural two-lane road beyond Lancaster, passing through a traffic light only at the small village of Alden before crossing into Genesee County. In the town of Darien, US\u00a020 continues straight past Darien Lakes State Park to the junction with NY\u00a077 at Darien Center, where much summertime traffic turns north toward nearby Six Flags Darien Lake. NY\u00a0238 forks off to the southeast towards Attica at a junction to the east of Darien Center.\n\nPast the junction with NY\u00a0238, which forks off to the southeast toward Attica, the highway begins going straight up and down into the creek valleys here at the northern fringe of the Allegheny Plateau. Passing lanes are sometimes available on the downhill sections, particularly in the next community to the east, Alexander, where another route to Attica, NY\u00a098 crosses via an overpass. This allows traffic to continue at a high speed through the surrounding dairy and sod farms up the other side and into Bethany, the next town, whose four four-way intersections offer only blinking yellow lights and no stop or yield traffic control devices to slow down drivers.\n\nThis unbroken stretch ends with a new light shortly into the next town, Pavilion, where NY\u00a063 crosses at an angle. Here, traffic bound for the Southern Tier and further turn right to eventually connect to I-390 at Mount Morris. The four-lane US\u00a020 straightaway continues across the town, with NY\u00a019 also on an overpass at Pavilion Center. US\u00a020 goes on past the Livingston County line to the east, where it finally drops the Broadway name. After another , the route enters the hamlet of Fraser, where the north\u2013south NY\u00a036 crosses US\u00a020 on its way from Mount Morris to Caledonia. US\u00a020 continues on to the community of Canawaugus to the east, where NY\u00a05 enters from the village of Caledonia to the northwest and rejoins US\u00a020. The two routes continue east from here to the village of Avon.\n\nNY 5 concurrency and Finger Lakes\nThe concurrency that begins here is the longest in the state, and it carries the two routes across the northern Finger Lakes region, a section of the plateau where glaciers carved deep valleys only to fill them with their meltwater. The land around the road is gently hilly, often wide open and heavily farmed, on the outermost fringes of the Rochester area. NY\u00a039 is the first highway that intersects the concurrency, ending its loop just west of the traffic circle at Avon's center. About east of Avon, NY\u00a05 and US\u00a020 intersect NY\u00a015, followed shortly by I-390, a north\u2013south highway connecting US\u00a020 and NY\u00a05 to Rochester in the north and Corning in the south. In the village of Lima ahead, NY\u00a05 and US\u00a020 meet NY\u00a015A, the eastern alternate route of NY\u00a015. Just east of the village, the road crosses Honeoye Creek and enters Ontario County.\n\nAcross the county line, US\u00a020 and NY\u00a05 pass through the town and hamlet of West Bloomfield, where NY\u00a065 comes to an end from the left. Next, in neighboring East Bloomfield, NY\u00a0444 leaves to the north for Victor and NY\u00a064 joins the concurrency. NY\u00a064 leaves later at the eastern end of US\u00a020A in South Bloomfield. The highway continues through the open, rolling lake country to a junction with West Avenue west of the city of Canandaigua. At this point, NY\u00a05 and US\u00a020 turn southward to follow a bypass around the western and southern edge of the city. At Bristol Road, the first highway that the bypass crosses, NY\u00a021 joins US\u00a020 and NY\u00a05 and follows both routes to Canandaigua, where a hill west of downtown offers a view to Canandaigua Lake, the first of the lakes it passes in this region.\n\nIn downtown Canandaigua, NY\u00a021 leaves to join NY\u00a0332, a prime route from Canandaigua and the lake region to the eastern suburbs of Rochester via I-490. Past NY\u00a0332, the highway runs past the lowlands abutting the lakes to a junction with NY\u00a0364, which heads south down the east side of the lake. Now named Eastern Boulevard, the routes continue past Finger Lakes Community College to the next southbound highway, NY\u00a0247. Roughly of open road climb the gentle rise dividing Canandaigua and Seneca lakes, the latter of which is the largest of the Finger Lakes. This ascent is subsequently met by a descent as the highway heads toward Geneva.\n\nJust outside the city in the Lenox Park neighborhood of the town of Geneva, another pair of routes, NY\u00a014A and NY\u00a0245, come to their northern end. After entering the city and passing the campus of Hobart and William Smith Colleges, NY\u00a05 and US\u00a020 cross under NY\u00a014A's parent route, NY\u00a014, just before the lake shore. US\u00a020 and NY\u00a05 continue along the water as a four-lane road with a median and cross into Seneca County at the lake's outlet. As at Canandaigua, a southbound route, NY\u00a096A, leaves just past the lake. NY\u00a05 and US\u00a020 continue on, following the northern edge of the Cayuga\u2013Seneca Canal toward the village of Waterloo.\n\nAbout east of NY\u00a096A, US\u00a020 and NY\u00a05 reach that route's parent route, NY\u00a096, in the center of Waterloo. Just outside the village, NY\u00a0414, a major north\u2013south highway, creates another three-route concurrency when it joins from the north. It lasts for just to the center of Seneca Falls, home to Women's Rights National Historical Park and the National Women's Hall of Fame. Here, NY\u00a0414 departs to the south to follow the lake down to Watkins Glen while NY\u00a05 and US\u00a020 turn to the northeast at Van Cleef Lake.\n\nThis heading lasts for until NY\u00a0318 ends to the west right before a four-way intersection at NY\u00a089. From here, the road runs straight in a slightly more easterly direction south of Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge, where the Thruway is briefly visible to the north, before entering Cayuga County as it crosses over the Cayuga\u2013Seneca Canal. In Cayuga County, the highway briefly returns to the east before a junction with NY\u00a090. The highway subsequently turns southeast and back east over the next as it approaches Auburn. NY\u00a0326 departs to the south at the western city limits. Roughly into the city, the roadway briefly splits as NY\u00a034 and NY\u00a038 briefly join. At NY\u00a038A, the overlap between NY\u00a05 and US\u00a020 comes to an end as the two routes go their separate ways.\n\nCentral New York\nWhile NY\u00a05 heads north from the split toward Syracuse and the Thruway, US\u00a020 keeps to its easterly heading, following East Genesee Street out of the city, proceeding past Auburn Correctional Facility to the Onondaga County line. Here, NY\u00a041A comes in from the south at the western end of the village of Skaneateles, a community at the north end of the eponymous lake, the last Finger Lake along US\u00a020. NY\u00a0321 leaves to the north in the center of town, and NY\u00a041A's parent route, NY\u00a041, begins its long journey to the Southern Tier on the other side of Skaneateles. US\u00a020 continues east for another out of the village to the south end of NY\u00a0175, after which it starts trending southward, returning to two lanes.\n\nThe landscape starts to grow hillier as it begins to cross the glacial moraines of the less populated reaches of southern Onondaga County. About east of NY\u00a0175, US\u00a020 is briefly joined by NY\u00a0174, which goes to Otisco Lake, the easternmost Finger Lake. The southward trend continues for another to an intersection with NY\u00a080, a signed east\u2013west route running north\u2013south at this point. East of NY\u00a080, it drops into the Onondaga Creek valley to connect to the northern terminus of NY\u00a011A to the east before climbing the next ridge to LaFayette, where it intersects I-81 at exit\u00a015 and meets its paralleling surface route, US\u00a011 at junctions apart. At this point, US\u00a020 is south of the Thruway.\n\nFrom LaFayette, it drops into another deep valley, curving around an area known as Big Bend, prior to climbing back up towards the crest of the ridge at Pompey. Here, US\u00a020 and NY\u00a091 intersect at an elevation of above sea level. After another , the road drops down into the Limestone Creek valley and crosses into Madison County as it curves back up into higher ground. Another brings US\u00a020 to the eastern terminus of NY\u00a092, the south end of Cazenovia Lake and the village of Cazenovia itself. Its main street is marked by a brief concurrency with NY\u00a013, a long, curving north\u2013south route that comes from the cities of Ithaca and Cortland to the south.\n\nEast of Cazenovia, US\u00a020 resumes its southward drift as it climbs into the high ground again and expands to four lanes, passing the small village of Morrisville in the process. It descends from there to its next state highway, NY", "\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u0432 \u0442\u043e\u0442 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434 \u043d\u0430 \u0411\u043b\u0438\u0436\u043d\u0435\u043c \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0435 \u0438 \u0442\u0430\u043a \u0436\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0445\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0432\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0442\u0432\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u0438\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435.\n\n\u0421\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u044b \u0435\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u0437 \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0431\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043a\u0438 \u043a \u043a\u043e\u0437\u0430\u043c \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0435\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0430 \u0441 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\u0411\u043b\u0438\u0436\u043d\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0443. \u041d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0442\u044b\u0441\u044f\u0447 \u043b\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044f \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043a \u043e\u0445\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0432\u0441\u044e \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0443 \u0438 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0410\u0444\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0443. \u0412 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 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\u043b\u044e\u0434\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u0437, \u043e\u0432\u0435\u0446, \u0441\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0438 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u044b\u043d\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u0438\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0442\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432 (Bos primigenius), \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0435\u043b\u043e \u043a \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0434\u0432\u0443\u0445 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0441\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u043e\u0433\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043a\u043e\u0442\u0430 B. taurus \u0438 B. indicus. \u0410\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437 \u044f\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0414\u041d\u041a \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043e\u0434\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0448\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 B. taurus (\u0434\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0431\u044b\u043a\u0430) \u0438 B. indicus (\u0437\u0435\u0431\u0443) \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0448\u043b\u043e \u043d\u0430 \u0411\u043b\u0438\u0436\u043d\u0435\u043c \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0435 \u0438 \u0432 \u042e\u0433\u043e-\u0417\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0410\u0437\u0438\u0438 \u043e\u0442 \u0433\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0438 \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0446\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430. \u0410\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437 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\u043d\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438 \u0438\u0441\u0447\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0442\u0430\u043a \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0438\u0437 69 \u044e\u043a\u0430\u0433\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e 6 \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u043c.\n\n\u0418\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u044e\u043a\u0430\u0433\u0438\u0440\u044b \n\n \u0423\u043b\u0443\u0440\u043e \u0410\u0434\u043e\n \u041a\u0443\u0440\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0432, \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0439 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447\n \u041a\u0443\u0440\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0432, \u0421\u0435\u043c\u0451\u043d \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n\n \u0413\u0443\u0440\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0418. \u0421. \u042d\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043e-\u0412\u043e", " nationally leading programs in business and chemistry. The campus is situated in Halifax's South End and covers approximately .\n\nHistory\n\nFounding\n\nSaint Mary's is the second-oldest English-speaking and first Roman Catholic-initiated university in Canada. The Roman Catholic church founded Saint Mary's College in Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1802. It was established in Glebe House, on the corner of Spring Garden Road and Barrington Street, with the aim of extending educational opportunities for Catholic youth and training candidates for the clergy.\n\nIn 1840 the Nova Scotia Legislature bestowed the degree granting charter to Saint Mary's and eleven years later granted the university formal legal status. Saint Mary's collapsed in 1883, but was revived in 1903 by Cornelius O'Brien, then Archbishop of Halifax. It reopened as a high school in a new campus on Windsor Street, near the junction with Quinpool Road.\n\nIn 1913 the Christian Brothers of Ireland were asked by the Archdiocese of Halifax to direct the college and academic programs. Degree-granting resumed in 1918. With this change of leadership the university's reputation thrived as a liberal arts institution and expanded its undergraduate programs, with the most notable being the Faculty of Commerce in 1934 (now known as the Sobey School of Business), which was the first of its kind in Canada. In 1940 the Upper Province of the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) was invited to succeed the Christian Brothers as both administrators and faculty. A Roll of Honour at Saint Mary's University is dedicated to students of Saint Mary's College who volunteered for the Second World War.\n\nExpansion\n\nDue to rapid growth the college was fast outgrowing the Windsor Street campus, and so the Gorsebrook Golf Club was purchased in 1943. Construction of the new campus was delayed by wartime steel shortages. The relocation was completed in 1952. The former college building was rented by the Halifax school board and the overcrowded Saint Patrick's Boys' School was relocated there. The modern Saint Patrick's High School opened on the site in 1954 and operated until 2007. The old Saint Mary's College building was rented for a time by the Maritime Conservatory of Music before it was sold to the city in 1968 and demolished to make way for the expansion of Saint Patrick's.\n\nThe next 30 years would see the university flourish under Jesuit supervision, with such advancements as the formal recognition of the \"college\" as a university in 1952 and purchasing the first computer in Atlantic Canada (a Royal McBee LGP-30) in 1959. In 1970 the Jesuits formally incorporated the university under the \"Acts of Incorporation\" which gave all administrative and academic duties to the Board of Governors and Academic Senate, making Saint Mary's a secular institution. Saint Mary's University was established by the Saint Mary's University Act, 1970.\n\nHigh school\n\nIn 1951, the High School moved with Saint Mary's College to the Robie Street campus where they occupied three classrooms on the second floor of the new McNally building. The High School offered an embellished junior matriculation for grades 9,10,11 and many of the boys entered Saint Mary's directly upon graduation although some went to Saint Patrick's or Queen Elizabeth to attend grade 12.\nThe Jesuit influence, which incorporated the principles of a sound mind and a sound body, meant that everyone who attended the high school became an active participant in intramural hockey, football, and basketball.\n\nWith fewer than 100 students enrolled in any one year, developing teams to represent Saint Mary's University High School on the extracurricular level seemed daunting but with the astute coaching of the future Hall of Fame coach, Frank \"Mr Basketball\" Baldwin, success was achieved. Saint Mary's High School \"A\" and \"B\" basketball teams won three straight Halifax City Championships. Back to back Provincial Headmasters Championships by the \"A\" team in 1960\u201361 and 1961\u201362 epitomized the rich athletic tradition cultivated by the Jesuits. This accomplishment was even more significant when you consider that the school drew its athletes from fewer than 100 students.\n\nThe Saint Mary's University High School closed in 1963. A plaque detailing the history of the high school was placed at the entrance to the McNally building in 1988 as part of a Twenty Five year reunion.\n\nModern history\nSince then the university has continued expansion of its academic programs with the most notable being the offerings of doctoral level studies in astronomy and business and the accreditation of the business school with the AACSB (Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business). At the same time the university has expanded its campus facilities with noted additions of the Burke\u2013Gaffney Observatory in the 1970s and the Sobey Building in 1998. In 1992, the Faculty of Commerce was renamed the Sobey School of Business, after Frank H. Sobey, founder of Sobeys. In 2001, SMU's Huskies were the first Atlantic Canadian university team to advance to the world finals in the ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest World Finals.\n\nIn early 1994 workers renovating the Rice Residence found that an exterior wall on the 16th storey was dangerously unstable and posed a hazard to those walking below. Over 250 students were moved to the Halifax Hilton, which had recently gone out of business, which was used as a temporary residence while repairs were carried out.\n\nIn the 1990s the provincial government sought to cut funding to Nova Scotia's universities. Teacher education programs were consolidated at Mount Saint Vincent University, Acadia University, and Universit\u00e9 Sainte-Anne, while the education faculties at Saint Mary's and Dalhousie were wound up and the 140-year-old Nova Scotia Teachers College was closed altogether. The Saint Mary's education program ended in the spring of 1996. It was not forcibly closed by the province, but the minister of education stated that he would only licence teachers who had graduated from the three approved universities.\n\nIn 2013 the Saint Mary's High School basketball achievement was recognized at the Hall of Fame events and a plaque containing the names of all of the players who represented the school on the 1959\u20131962. The plaque can be seen in the Tower at Saint Mary's University.\n\nFaculties \nSaint Mary's comprises four faculties:\n\n Arts\n Dean: Dr. Mary I. Ingraham\n Sobey School of Business\n Dean: Dr. Harjeet Bhabra \n Science\n Dean: Dr. Lori Francis (Acting)\n Graduate Studies and Research\nDean: Dr. Adam Sarty\n\nCampus\n\nThe Saint Mary's 80-acre (32 hectare) campus is located in the south end, not far from Downtown Halifax and just down the road from Dalhousie University. Major buildings include:\n\nOver the past decade many of the older buildings on campus have been substantially renovated. In March 2005, Saint Mary's started the \u201cScience Building Renewal Project\u201d which was estimated to cost $100 million. This project is part of the larger project the \u201cUniversity\u2019s Strategic Directions and Academic Plan\u201d which was developed in consultation with students, faculty and local citizens in order to meet both the needs of the university and local community over the next decade. The project focused on modernising and expanding the science faculty's resources, generally renewing the architectural, mechanical and electrical infrastructures of the Science Building, providing additional office and research space to faculty members, improving lab layout, and integrating with future campus developments.\n\nThe university completed construction of the Atrium and Global Commons project in late 2009. The three-storey $17.5 million complex links the Science Centre, the Burke Building and the Patrick Power Library. The space features a common area, theatre style classrooms, offices and study spaces. The project also features advanced green environmental technologies, has fully integrated hard and Wi-Fi systems, a food outlet and a three-storey green wall.\n\nThe 62-year-old McNally Building recently underwent a $27 million renewal thanks in large part to the Canadian governments Infrastructure Renewal Programme. Most of the interior of the four floor, four wing complex was rebuilt.\n\nConstruction of the new Homburg Centre for Health and Wellness began in October 2010. This complex, an extension of the Tower Fitness Centre, houses new space for community health and wellness activities and is the new home for the Centre for the Study of Sport and Health. The $8 million project was funded by a donation from real estate developer and manager Richard Homburg and the university's capital campaign. It opened in 2012.\n\n960 Tower Road, a three-storey, 28,000 square foot building, opened in 2013. It is home to the English as a second language program as well as the Sobey School Business Development Centre, which moved back to campus from a downtown location. The university stirred controversy when it demolished the former Halifax Infants\u2019 Home in 2014.\n\nSMU's new Dauphinee Centre ice arena sits on the site of the 54 year old Alumni Arena. Made possible through generous donations from the estate of the late alumni Bob Dauphinee and SMU parents Glen and Nancy Holmes. The Dauphinee Centre is connected to the Homburg Centre for Health and Wellness, by a pedway and features an NHL regulation ice surface, heated viewing gallery, community meeting rooms, canteen facilities and capacity of 1200 fans.\n\nConstruction is presently underway on the new $30-million, Entrepreneurship and Innovation HUB at the southern edge of the campus. 42,700-square-foot building will be integrated with the Loyola Academic Complex and the Sobey Building. University administration anticipate completion of the building by 2023.\n\nLegacy\nThe Saint Mary's University mace shows the religious background of this now secular institution. There are crests for the Archdiocese of Halifax. the LaSalle Christian Brothers, the Irish Christian Brothers and the Jesuits.\n\nOn 27 May 2002, Canada Post issued \"Saint Mary's University, 1802\u20132002\" as part of the Canadian Universities series, based upon a design by Steven Slipp, based on photographs by James Steeves and on an illustration by Bonnie Ross. The 48\u00a2 stamps are perforated 13.5 and were printed by Ashton-Potter Canada Limited.\n\nIn June 2021, Saint Mary's University announced a rebranding of its logo, backgrounds and tag lines.\n\nReputation\n\nThe annual Maclean's rankings evaluate universities on 13 performance measures. Maclean's evaluates universities in three categories, with Saint Mary's being ranked amongst other universities the publication categorized as \"primarily undergraduate\" institutions. In Maclean's 2023 rankings, Saint Mary's was ranked third amongst 19 \"primarily undergraduate\" universities in Canada.\n\nThe Canadian University Report is conducted annually by The Globe and Mail, and reflects the opinions of more than 33,000 undergraduate students across the country as gathered in a student satisfaction survey. Saint Mary's University is in the \"small\" category of along with 15 other universities with enrolment between 4,000 and 12,000 students.\n\nThe Canadian University Report stated that overall student satisfaction had a grade of B+ in 2013, the same as in 2012, A\u2212 in quality of teaching, A\u2212 in class size, A\u2212 in buildings and facilities and improvement shown in six key categories.\n\nStudent life\n\nHuskies football\n\nThe Huskies won back-to-back Canadian University Football Championships (2001 & 2002), the third university to do so (after Manitoba and Western).\n\nHuskies hockey\nIn 2010, the men Huskies won their first CIS University Hockey Cup by defeating the Alberta Golden Bears 3\u20132 in overtime.\n\nSaint Mary's University Students' Association\nThe Saint Mary's University Students' Association (SMUSA) is the official representation of the students of Saint Mary's University. The association was incorporated in 1966, however, unofficially has represented students for many years previous. The Association main offices are located on the top floor of the student centre at the heart of campus. \n\nSMUSA provides such services as a safe drive program, tutor database, online book exchange, health and dental plans and the Gorsebrook Lounge. SMUSA also operates many departments that help in the mission of serving students and making their lives at Saint Mary's the best possible. These departments include the volunteer department, events and programming, marketing and communications, the yearbook, the information desk and husky patrol.\n\nThe Saint Mary's University Students Association is represented federally by the Canadian Alliance of Student Associations and provincially by StudentsNS (formerly ANSSA. \n\nSMUSA came under scrutiny after their first-year student orientation in 2013. A traditional chant promoting non-consensual sex with underage girls was posted on Instagram, and then picked up by traditional media. Student union president Jared Perry resigned as president of Students Nova Scotia but stayed on as head of the university's student association. Saint Mary's University Communications manager Steve Proctor opined that \"nobody actually doing the cheer believed in what it was\" but the Avalon Sexual Assault Centre reported that it received calls from survivors specifically regarding the cheer. Peter MacKay, a federal cabinet minister from Nova Scotia, also criticized the chant as \"offensive and dangerous\". A review conducted in the following months detailed a plan to require sensitivity training for the frosh leaders and to discuss informed consent with the incoming students. The university also changed the name \"Orientation Week\" to \"Welcome Week\" for 2014.\n\nSaint Mary's University student athletic clubs\nSaint Mary's University is home to numerous student based sports clubs that provide club members with the opportunity to get involved in a variety of athletic activities.\nClubs include, but are not limited to:\n Cheerleading \n Dance (Saint Mary's University Dance Club)\n Equestrian (Saint Mary's Equestrian Team)\n Karate (Saint Mary's University Shotokan Karate Club) \n Men's Baseball (League) \n Men's Rugby Club (League) \n Men's Field Lacrosse (League) \n Men's & Women's Curling (League) \n Ringette \n Taiko Drumming (SMU Taiko) \n Tennis \n Women's Field Hockey (League)\n\nNotable alumni\n\n Alan Abraham, former Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia\n Brian Ahern, producer for Anne Murray, Emmylou Harris, Johnny Cash\n Steve Armitage, CBC Sportscaster\n John William Ashe, President of the United Nations General Assembly, 68th session and former ambassador to the United Nations for Antigua and Barbuda.\n Jackie Barrett, Special Olympics Powerlifter, amassed 15 Powerlifting medals at four Special Olympics World Games appearances\n Micah Brown, United States national American football team and international football player\n Signa Butler, CBC Sports host and play-by-play commentator\n Noah Cantor, Canadian Football League player\n Karen Casey, Nova Scotia MLA for Colchester North\n Kori Cheverie, the first female full-time assistant coach in Canadian Interuniversity Sport men's hockey history.\n Zach Churchill, Nova Scotia MLA for Yarmouth\n Louis Comeau, member of Parliament, entrepreneur and former CEO of Nova Scotia Power\n Patrick H. Curran, former Chief Judge of the Provincial Court of Nova Scotia\n Chris d'Entremont Nova Scotia MLA for Argyle\n Mal Davis, former National Hockey League player\n Terry Donahoe, former leader of the Nova Scotia Progressive Conservative Party\nMiguel Figueroa, political activist, former leader of the Communist Party of Canada and of the Figueroa v Canada case.\n Chris Flynn, Canadian Football Hall of Famer, 3 time Hec Crighton Trophy winner\n Mayann Francis, former Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia \u2013 first African Nova Scotian to hold title; author\n Wayne Gaudet, Nova Scotia MLA for Clare\n Glenn Graham, Celtic musician\n Paul Hollingsworth, CTV Atlantic newscaster and TSN reporter\n Don Johnson, president of the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association and former hockey player and coach with Saint Mary's\n Andy Jones, comedian\n Peter J. Kelly, former Mayor of Halifax, Nova Scotia\n Robert P. Kelly, former CEO of the Bank of New York Mellon\n Terry Kelly, CM, blind musician\n Joseph Phillip Kennedy, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia\n Becky Kent, Nova Scotia MLA for Cole Harbour \u2013 Eastern Passage\n Steven Laffoley, educator and author of creative nonfiction and fiction\n John MacDonell, Nova Scotia MLA for Hants East\n Jasmine R. Marcelin, physician\n Terry Mercer, Canadian Senator for Northend Halifax\n Wilfred Moore, Canadian Senator for Stanhope St./Bluenose\n Steve Morley, former professional football player (CFL, NFL)\n William Njoku, basketball player who played professionally for 10 years for various clubs in Europe\n Justin Palardy, CFL player\n Gerald Regan, former Premier of Nova Scotia\n Dave Stala, CFL player\n Brody Steele, professional wrestler, former Strongman competitor\n Mat Whynott, Nova Scotia MLA for Hammonds Plains \u2013 Upper Sackville\n Cherno Omar Barry, Vice-Chancellor of the International Open University\n Richard William Smith, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Edmonton\n\nSaint Mary's University Academic Senate\nThe Saint Mary's University Academic Senate is the part of a bicameral university governance structure responsible for academic decisions at the university. It is paired with a board of governors responsible for administrative and financial decisions. The Senate has ten ex-officio members: the president, vice-presidents, deans, registrar, director of student services, director of continuing education, and university librarian. Fifteen faculty members are elected to three year terms and five students are elected by the general university population to one year terms.\n\nFunction\nThe academic senate is governed by the Saint Mary's University Act and subject to the powers of the university's Board and is responsible for the educational policy of the university in addition to:\n\n May create, maintain and discontinue such faculties, departments, schools or institutes and establish such chairs as it may determine and may fix the duties of those employed therein\n May recommend to the Board the affiliation or discontinuance of the affiliation of or with other universities\n May determine courses of study, admission standards, qualifications for diplomas, certificates and degrees, examinations, scholarships and bursaries and may issue university calendars and other official publications\n Shall be responsible for the library\n Shall be responsible for student discipline\n May create such committees as it deems necessary or useful\n May make regulations governing the matters that are assigned to it by this Section\n\nSee also\n\n Canadian government scientific research organizations\n Canadian Interuniversity Sport\n Canadian industrial research and development organizations\n Canadian university scientific research organizations\n Higher education in Nova Scotia\n List of Jesuit sites\n List of universities in Nova Scotia\n Master of Management: Co-operatives and Credit Unions\n Saint", " goblet-shaped cup full of jewels and bordered by agricultural motifs. Unlike the coats of arms of the neighboring countries, that of Gioia del Colle, dating back to 1934, is not linked to any symbol depicting families, marquisates or duchies. It tells the presence of a heterogeneous civilization ranging from poverty to wealth, from crafts to large estates . It is inspired by a sculpture made in 1480 by Joannes de Rocca, on a stone walled in the University of Gioia's seat. It depicts three coats of arms: that of Gioia with the inscription Universitas Joe, the Aragonese one with the royal crown and that of the Acquaviva counts of Conversano.\n\nThe inhabited area was rebuilt by the Norman Richard of Hauteville, only to be destroyed by William I of Sicily. It was re-founded in 1230 by Frederick II of Swabia on his return from the Crusade. It seems that the castle was a residence where he stopped during his hunting trips. It was then completed by the Angevins who opened windows on the curtain.\n\nBetween 1600 and 1800 the successive owners (Acquaviva d'Aragona, the De Mari and Donna Maria Emanuela Caracciolo) removed the appearance of a fortified residence from the complex.\n\nThe \"new\" city, however, would have originated from a much older settlement: Monte Sannace, about 5\u00a0km away from today's town. Archaeological excavations, even today, bring to light the remains of a village of Peucetians dating back to the 7th century BC. Gioia was born during the Byzantine dominion and then passed under the Norman dominion, it was given to Count Richard of Hauteville. Frederick II was responsible for the reconstruction of the castle. It was principality of Taranto and fief of the De Mari princes of Acquaviva delle Fonti until the abolition of feudalism.\n\nMarzagaglia's massacre \nIn 1920 the Marzagaglia massacre took place, in the difficult social and political climate of the first post-war period. On 1 July 6 workers were killed and following day in retaliation three landowners.\n\nMonuments and interesting places\n\nNorman-Hohenstaufen castle \n\nThe Gioia del Colle Norman-Swabian Castle is the result of at least three construction interventions: one dating back to the Byzantine period, another to the Norman one and the last to the Swabian one. Initially it consisted of a fortified enclosure in stone ashlars. It was enlarged in the 12th century by the Norman Richard of Hauteville, who transformed it into a noble residence.\n\nThe final castle arrangement is due to Frederick II of Swabia around 1230. It has a quadrangular courtyard, halls and rooms that overlook it, and is bordered by four corner towers. Of the four original corner towers, which are mentioned in the book the Terra di Gioia both by the architect and tabular book Honofrio Tangho of 1640 and by Gennaro Pinto of 1653, today only two towers remain: that of De 'Rossi and that of the Empress.\n\nThe castle permanently houses the Gioia del Colle National Archaeological Museum.\n\nThe main Church \nIt was built towards the end of the 11th century by Riccardo Siniscalco with the name of \"Palatine Church of St. Peter\". It was initially dedicated to St. Peter, but it was later renamed \"Madonna della Neve\". The church was destroyed in 1764 by a fire. In the same year the church was rebuilt and dedicated to the nativity of the Blessed Virgin.This period dates back to the two stone sculptures on the front (S. Filippo Neri and the Madonna with the Child in her womb).\n\nThe church was damaged again in 1857, by an earthquake. It was then closed to worship. The church's front and the bell tower were restored in 1893.\n\nThe downfall of the bell tower dates back to 1942 and it is due to structural instability between the part built in the 12th century and that of 1893.\n\nThe Baptismal Books were established in the church in 1575 and the Registers of the Dead in 1584.\n\nIt has inside numerous frescoes dating back to different historical periods and a crypt in which the body of Prince Carlo III De' Mari is buried. It was rebuilt over the centuries, it still retains the original jamb of the entrance door and a sarcophagus used as a washbasin (preserved in the sacristy).\n\nOther churches \n\n Parrocchia Sacro Cuore\nParrocchia Santa Lucia\n Parrocchia San Vito\n Parrocchia Immacolata di Lourdes\n Parrocchia Madonna di Loreto\n Chiesa San Rocco\n Chiesa Sant'Angelo\n Chiesa Sant'Andrea\n Chiesa San Domenico\n Chiesa San Francesco\n Chiesa del Crocifisso\n Chiesa della Candelora\n Chiesa Maria SS.Annunziata\n Chiesa San Giuseppe lavoratore\n\nOld town's arches\n\nCassano distillery \nGioia area has always been interested in an important wine production, which in the past centuries found a market especially in France. When this trade was closed as a result of the protectionist measures of 1887 between Italy and France, producers began distilling the large quantities of unsold wine to produce cognac and alcoholic beverages.\n\nFollowing the example of others, in 1891 Paolo Cassano had a distillery set up inside the Cassano farm. The activity of the factory continued until 1914 (in this period the Italian Fides Cognac was born, the best known cognac produced in Gioia), when the company was put into liquidation due to a series of concomitant negative factors that had reduced it excellent profitability. First of all an epidemic of phylloxera which decimated the vineyards of the whole Puglia; furthermore, in 1912 there was a notable increase in taxation together with the abolition of tax rebates for cognac producers.\n\nThe distillery passed to the Taranto family which kept in a state of neglect. In 1970 it was then sold to the USL (today public local health authority) to renovate it into a hospital. In 1997 the building was again sold to the municipality of Gioia del Colle.\n\nThe ancient distillery represented a pioneering example of the Apulian industry. Due to these considerations the Ministry of Cultural and Environmental Heritage has sanctioned its historical importance with the inscription in the list of monumental and environmental assets with a binding decree of 26 September 1992.\n\nRenovated since 2006, the distillery occasionally hosts exhibitions and festivals, such as the mozzarella festival held in August.\n\nNatural areas \nThe Boschi Romanazzi are an oasis managed by WWF Italy.\n\nSociety\n\nDemographic evolution \nRegistered inhabitants:\n\nForeign ethnicities and minorities \n\n Albania, 393\n Marocco, 279\n Romania, 243\n India, 58\n Georgia, 52\n China, 30\n\nCulture\n\nInstruction\n\nSchools \nIn Gioia del Colle there are 5 kindergartens, 4 primary schools and 2 lower secondary schools. The secondary schools which are located in the city are: the \"Ricciotto Canudo\" liceo scientifico, the \"Publio Virgilio Marone\" liceo classico and the \"Galileo Galilei\" industrial technical institute.\n\nMuseums\n\nNational archeologic museum \nThe Archaeological Museum's rooms are set up inside the Norman-Hohenstaufen Castle. There is a systematic exposure of the numerous grave items from the necropolis of Mount Sannace and Santo Mola which cover a wide chronological period. From the beginning of the 6th to the 2nd century BC. geometric and figurative vases, bronze weapons, fibulae and clay statuettes define the usual composition of the funerary objects of the indigenous center but also of the wider Peucete communities.\n\nMonte Sannace Archaeological Park \nThe site is 5\u00a0km away from the town in the direction of Turi and it has been the subject of archaeological excavations since 1957 by the Superintendence of Antiquities of Puglia and Matera. The excavations have been completed in 1961, they brought to light a settlement of the ancient Peucezi dating back to the 9th century BC. which lasted, with brief interruptions, until the Hellenistic-Roman period (approximately until the 1st century AD).\n\nThe archaeological park includes some defensive circuits' areas and the north gate includes numerous tombs and various buildings of the acropolis, as well as a large part of the town.\n\nThe finds from the excavations are kept in the National Archeological Museum located inside the Norman-Swabian Castle.\n\nCinema \nBesides having given birth to Ricciotto Canudo, who during his stay in Paris increased the debate around the art of cinema, Gioia del Colle is linked to cinema for having hosted the set of three films, in different eras:\n\n Between 1930 and 1931 some shots of the silent film Idillio, directed by Milanese Nello Mauri, were shot in the city center and in the countryside around Gioia.\n In 1964 Pier Paolo Pasolini for the film The Gospel According to St. Matthew whose Gioia del Colle Castle to shoot two scenes: Herod's palace and Salom\u00e9's dance, which took place in the north wing of the building's courtyard. The expulsion from the temple, with the priests who attend the events, was filmed \u2013 instead \u2013 in Castel del Monte.\n In 1999, Terra bruciata was set there, Fabio Segatori's debut film with Raoul Bova, Giancarlo Giannini, Michele Placido and Bianca Guaccero.\n In 2014 Matteo Garrone chose the Norman-Swabian castle of Gioia del Colle to set some scenes from the film Tale of Tales with Salma Hayek, Vincent Cassel and Toby Johnes.\n\nMusic \n\n The Gioia del Colle Music Band won the Venice International Competition in 1924 and the Professional Competition in Rome in 1929.\n Since 1998 the international music competition Pietro Argento Award has been held in Gioia del Colle.\n In 2012, from the initiative of numerous musicians from Gioia, Rockerella was born, a project of production, historical research, census and coordination of alternative music by Gioia del Colle, which becomes a festival of the same name and produces two compilations and the documentary \"Rockerella, history of Gioia del Colle's music from the 1950s to the present day \".\n\nTheaters \n Rossini municipal theater\n\nEvents \n Festa Patronale di San Filippo Neri, 25 \u2013 26 \u2013 27 maggio;\n Festa del compatrono San Rocco, 15 \u2013 16 agosto;\n Processione dei Sacri Misteri della Passione, Venerd\u00ec Santo;\n Festival Internazionale TeatroLab2.0 \u2013 Chi\u00e8discena, aprile \u2013 maggio;\n Palio delle Botti, agosto.\n\nEconomy \nGioia del Colle is famous for its mozzarella and Gioia del Colle Primitivo wine. There are also important producers of pasta and extra virgin olive oil. Agriculture, dairy industries, cellars, pasta factories and oil mills together with commercial enterprises represent the economic engine of this country. Ansaldo Caldaie was present with a plant for the construction of large industrial boilers, a leader in the international field.\n\nRed, white, rose, sweet dolce and fortified liquoroso wines are permitted in the Italian wine DOC of the area. Red and rose wine grapes are limited to a harvest yield of 12 tonnes/ha while white wine grapes are limited to a yield of 13 tonnes/ha. The reds and roses are a blend of 50\u201360% Primitivo, a 40\u201350% blend component of Montepulciano, Sangiovese, Negroamaro and Malvasia (with Malvasia being further limited to a 10% maximum). The whites are composed of 50\u201370% Trebbiano with other permitted local grape varieties, such as Pampanuto, making up the remainder. A varietal Primitivo wine is permitted, provided the wine is 100% composed of the grape with yields limited to 8 tonnes/ha and a minimum alcohol level of 13%. The dolce wine of the area is composed of at least 85% Aleatico with a 15% maximum blend component of Malvasia, Negroamaro and Primitivo making up the rest. The grapes must also be limited to a harvest yield of 8 tonnes/ha and have a minimum alcohol level of 15%. The liquoroso version must have a minimum alcohol of 18.5%.\n\nInfrastructure and transport\n\nStreets \n\nThe main Gioia del Colle's road districts of Gioia del Colle are:\n\n Autostrada A14 Bologna-Taranto, Gioia del Colle exit.\n Strada statale 100 di Gioia del Colle.\n\nThe train station is on the Bari-Taranto railway and it is Gioia del Colle-Rocchetta Sant'Antonio line.\n\nAirports \nThe 36th Stormo of the Italian Air Force is at Gioia del Colle \"Antonio Ramirez\" air base.\n\nUrban mobility \nUrban public transport is a service made available by the municipal administration and managed by the Sabato Viaggi company. The network consists of two circular lines, two lines serving the Termosud area, two lines for the industrial area and two lines connecting the main school sites in the municipality of Gioia del Colle.\n\nAdministration\n\nTwinning \n T\u00e2rgovi\u0219te, Romania\n\nOther administrative information \nGioia del Colle is the capital of the South-East Murgia Barese mountain community, which groups together 6 municipalities.\n\nSport\n\nFootball \nThe main football team in the city was the A.S.D. Pro Gioia, which played in Group B of the First Category until 2011. It was founded in 1911. The company colors are yellow and black. Currently there is the Partizan Gioia which plays in the Second Category.\n\nVolleyball \nThe local volleyball team is the New Real Volley Gioia which plays in the Italian A2 series of men's volleyball. The company colors are white and red. The team inherits the glories of the ASPC Volley Gioia and the Gioia del Volley company which boasted 4 seasons in the top flight: 1994\u20131995, 1995\u20131996, 2003\u20132004 and 2004\u20132005 as well as a Serie A2 Italian Cup final. Currently the structure that hosts the home matches of the New Real Volley Gioia is the PalaCapurso, a sports hall in Gioia del Colle.\n\nAfter the excellent volleyball tradition started by the main team since 1975, other realities started in the national volleyball scene. The A.S.D. New Volley Joy of women's volleyball plays in the 2012\u20132013 season in the women's Serie C.\n\nOther sports \nLocal rugby team Federiciana Rugby A.S.D. was founded in 2010. It plays in the Apulian Serie C of the Italian Rugby Federation. In 2013 the team was refounded taking the name of Rugby Club Granata A.S.D., relying on a new technical guide. In 2017 the team is tinted pink, to become a women's rugby team at 7.\n\nBasketball is played at a youth level. The A.S.D. Gioia Running was founded in 2012 and it participates in running competitions at the regional level.\n\nPaolo Cantore, Patrizia Castellaneta and Vito Acito are militants in the A.S.D. Archers of the Murgia. They are athletes and they several times won the FITARCO regional title in the discipline of archery. Patrizia Castellanete in 2011 won the title of absolute Italian champion and Paolo Cantore in 2014 won the title of Italian team champion.\n\nSport systems \nThe local stadium is named \"P. Martucci\" and it is used by the local football teams. The F.I.G.C.-L.N.D. objected to the use of the facilities for rugby matches. Palasport Gioia del Colle is used for volleyball and basketball and it is called PalaCapurso. Finally, there are the PalaKoutnetsov, known as 'Palestrone' where the youth sector matches of Team Volley Joya (the Academy), of New Volley Gioia (Women's C Series) are hosted as well as matches of the youth championships of other Gioia volleyball teams.\n\nPeople\n\n Gigi Angelillo, actor.\n Ricciotto Canudo, intellectual and theorist of the cinema.\n Nicola Legrottaglie, Italian association football player.\n Maurizio Vasco, author and journalist, living in New York City.\n Bob Pisani, journalist CNBC, whose grandfather was from Gioia del Colle\n Frank Stallone Sr., father of Sylvester Stallone, born in Gioia del Colle before emigrating to the United States\n Sergeant Romano, of the Bourbon army. (it.)\n Sebastiano Cantore, actor and character of TV Series \"Sebian\"\n\nTrivia\nThe song L'onorevole Bricolle by Clara Jaione (1948), which Claudio Villa later famously interpreted, is about the wry story of a fictitious \"Honorable Bricolle, a Member of Parliament from Gioia del Colle\".\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography \n\n Vincenzo Tuccillo. La nostra Gioia del Colle. Fasano, Schena Editore, 1998. .\n A. Ciancio, C. Colafemmina, C. D'Angela, A. Donvito, M. I. Gatti, M. Girardi, F. Matarrese, R. Striccioli, M. Tondo, A. M. Tripputi. Gioia \u2013 Una citt\u00e0 nella storia e civilt\u00e0 di Puglia. Fasano, Schena Editore, 1986. .\n L. Bertoldi Lenoci, A. Ciancio, A. Donvito, L. Fico, M. Girardi, N. Lavermicocca, O. Liuzzi, V. Marinelli, A. Muscedra, T. Piacente, D. Posa, G. Salvatori, A. Siciliano, R. Striccioli. Gioia \u2013 Una citt\u00e0 nella storia e civilt\u00e0 di Puglia. Vol. 2. Fasano, Schena Editore. .\n E. Cavalieri, P. Cordascio, E. M. De Juliis, A. Donvito, M. Donvito, M", " in 1888, he became adjutant of the 4th Battalion, the Bedfordshire Regiment on 15 December 1890. He attended Staff College, Camberley, in 1897.\n\nPromoted to major on 1 June 1898, Murray served in the Second Boer War as Deputy Assistant Adjutant-General for Intelligence in Natal from 9 October 1899 and then as chief of staff to the commander there. He took part in the withdrawal from Dundee and then the siege of Ladysmith in late 1899 and became senior staff officer to Sir Archibald Hunter, General Officer Commanding 10th Division, early in 1900. He was appointed Assistant Adjutant-General on 6 March 1900, promoted to lieutenant colonel on 29 October 1900 and awarded the Distinguished Service Order on 29 November 1900. He was again mentioned in despatches in February 1901.\n\nMurray was appointed Commanding Officer of the 2nd Battalion Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers, stationed in India, in October 1901, but never took up this position. He was deployed to Northern Transvaal in February 1902 where he was seriously wounded in April 1902 and mentioned in despatches once more in July 1902. After the end of hostilities in South Africa, he returned to England in June 1902, and became Assistant Adjutant-General at Headquarters 1st Division at Aldershot on 3 November 1902. Promoted to colonel on 29 October 1903, he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the King's Birthday Honours 1904 and a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order on 12 June 1907.\n\nMurray became Director of Military Training at the War Office on 9 November 1907 and, having been promoted to major general on 13 July 1910, he was advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in the Coronation Honours in June 1911. He also took part in the procession for the coronation of King George V on 22 June 1911. Murray became Inspector of Infantry on 9 December 1912. At the General Staff Conference in January 1914 he rejected proposals to adopt what he saw as a stereotyped French fire-and-movement doctrine. He then briefly commanded 2nd Division from 1 February 1914.\n\nChief of Staff, British Expeditionary Force, France and Belgium\n\nAppointment\n\nWhen the First World War started in July 1914 Murray was not appointed QuarterMaster-General of the British Expeditionary Force as was originally intended. Instead he became Chief of Staff. Murray had already earned a high reputation as a staff officer in South Africa and under French at the War Office. It is sometimes claimed that Murray was given the position largely because French's initial choice for the post, Wilson, was vetoed because of his role in the Curragh Affair. Although this claim was made after the war by Edmonds, Kirke (in his memoir of Macdonogh) and Murray, there is no contemporary evidence, even in Wilson's diary, to confirm it (unlike January 1915, when Wilson was certainly blocked from succeeding Murray for political reasons).\n\nWilson, Sir John French (BEF Commander-in-Chief) and Murray crossed to France on 14 August. The code books had been left behind in London, and Lieutenant Spears had to go back to London for another set. He returned to find Murray at Rheims trying to \"unravel\" the strategic situation of the German Empire's armies' invasion of France on a set of large maps spread out upon the floor of his hotel room, on all fours, dressed only in his \"pants\" (underwear), whilst chambermaids came and went.\n\nRetreat from Mons\nDuring the retreat of August 1914 the BEF staff, who had not rehearsed their roles, performed poorly. French was a dynamic leader but no manager. Robertson and Kirke recorded that Murray knew little of the plans which Wilson had drawn up with the French and had to work with a staff \"almost entirely staffed from the (Military Operations) Directorate\" who were used to working with Wilson. This staff included Colonel Harper, GSO1.\n\nMurray summoned the Corps Chiefs of Staff at around 1am on 24 August (the night after the Battle of Mons), and ordered them to retreat, but gave them no detailed plans, leaving them to work out the details themselves. French agreed to Haig's request that I Corps retreat east of the Forest of Mormal (Haig Diary, 24 August) without, apparently, Smith-Dorrien (GOC II Corps) being asked or informed. (Inept staffwork was not unique to GHQ \u2013 neither I nor II Corps staff had checked whether or not the Forest of Mormal was occupied by the enemy.) On 24 August Harper refused to do anything for Murray, so that Lord Loch had to write messages even though it was not his job. Loch wrote in his diary for that day that Murray was \"by nature petulant\" and \"difficult to work with\". Murray and his staff were working flat out in intense heat at Bavai, and recorded (24 August) that he had passed 24 hours without undressing or sleeping. Smith-Dorrien visited GHQ to request detailed orders on the evening of 24 August, and had to bully Murray into issuing orders for II Corps to retreat to Le Cateau.\n\nMurray noted in his diary (25 August) that GHQ had moved back from Le Cateau to St Quentin and that I Corps was being heavily engaged by night \u2013 making no mention of what II Corps were up to. When 4th Division arrived (25 August) Snow's orders were to help prepare a defensive position on the Cambrai-Le Cateau position, as GHQ had no idea of the seriousness of the situation facing II Corps. 4th Division was eventually able to participate in the Battle of Le Cateau. The news that Smith-Dorrien planned to stand and fight at Le Cateau reached GHQ at 5 am on 26 August \u2013 French was woken from his sleep, and insisting that Murray not be woken, sent Smith-Dorrien an ambiguous message that he had \"a free hand as to the method\" by which he fell back, which Smith-Dorrien took as permission to fight.\n\nMurray appears to have suffered some kind of physical collapse round about this time, although the details differ between different eyewitness accounts. Wilson recorded that Murray had \"completely broken down\", had been given \"morphia or some other drug\" which made him incapable of work and when told (7 am on 26 August) of Smith-Dorrien's decision to stand and fight \"promptly got a fainting fit\". Spears' recollection (in 1930) was that Murray had collapsed with a weak pulse, but did not actually faint, when told earlier during the same night (the news later turned out to be exaggerated) that the Germans had fallen upon Haig's I Corps at Landrecies. Spears wrote that Murray was too ill to attend the meeting of Sir John French with Joffre and Lanrezac on 26 August, although Terraine has him attending this meeting. General Macready later recorded that Murray fainted at his desk whilst working at Noyon (where GHQ was based on 27 August).\n\nWilson returned to GHQ on 29 August from a visit to Joffre to find \u2013 he said \u2013 \"a perfect debacle\" with \"Murray leading the fright\".\n\nAutumn 1914\nOn 4 September Murray had an important meeting with Gallieni (military governor of Paris) and Maunoury (commander, French Sixth Army) to discuss the planned Allied counterattack which would become the First Battle of the Marne. Murray had no idea when French, who was out visiting British I Corps, was to return and was unwilling to make any decision in his absence. After a three-hour meeting a provisional agreement was drawn up; the French came away with the impression that the British would not cooperate and that Murray had \"une grande repugnance\" for them, but he did in fact pass the plans along to French. Whilst this was going on, Wilson was negotiating separate plans with Franchet d'Esperey (French Fifth Army, on the British right).\n\nWilson noted (diary 6 Sep \u2013 the day on which the BEF began to advance as part of the Battle of the Marne) that French and Murray \"were out motoring and playing the ass all day\". He had to intercede to prevent French from sacking Harper (Wilson diary 7 Sep) but a week later recorded (Wilson diary 14 Sep), that Murray and Harper argued constantly. After a month Murray was still talking of \"my men\" and \"(Wilson')s men\" which Wilson thought \"rather sad\" and \"deplorable\" (Clive diary 18 Sep). Wilson thought French and Murray were \"between them quite unable to size up a position or to act with constancy for 24 hours\" (Wilson diary 28 Sep)\n\nMurray complained to Victor Huguet (a French liaison officer serving with the British) about Wilson (6 October), but also told Wilson that French was getting \"more unreasonable\" and asked Wilson whether he (Murray) should resign; Wilson informed Billy Lambton, French's secretary, of both of these incidents. Murray also (4\u20135 November) complained and threatened to resign when Wilson amended one of his orders without telling him. Murray later wrote (in 1930) \"Why did I stay with (this) War Office clique when I knew I was not wanted? I wanted to see Sir John through. I had been so many years with him, and knew better than anyone how his health, temper and temperament rendered him unfit, in my opinion, for the crisis we had to face. ... the senior members (of GHQ staff) entirely ignored me, as far as possible, continually thwarted me, even altered my instructions.\" He also said that Wilson's disloyalty had left him the impossible job of managing French alone. Rawlinson noted in his diary that Murray became \"a cipher at GHQ\" (28 November 1914), was disliked by his subordinates (4 December) and that French often ignored his staff \"chiefly because Murray is incapable of managing them and getting any good work out of them\" (6 December 1914). Edmonds later said that Murray sometimes falsified the timing of orders, but he was given away by the time stamp which the duty clerk placed on them.\n\nRemoval\nAt the end of November and again in mid-December French told Wilson he was thinking of moving Murray to a corps command. Asquith and Kitchener (20 December) forbade French to replace Murray with Wilson. Wilson claimed to have heard Joffre, on a visit to GHQ (27 December), complain that it was \"a pity\" that Murray had not been removed.\n\nMurray was sent off sick for a month (24 January 1915) and French demanded his resignation (25 January 1915), despite Murray insisting that he only needed to take a few days off. Wilson was widely suspected of having plotted for Murray's removal in the vain hope of replacing him, but the job went to Robertson. Although a sore throat prevented him seeing Murray off, French wrote to him (29 January) saying he hoped to see him back as an army commander before long. Haig wrote (diary 26 January) that \"Murray was a kindly fellow but not a practical man in the field\".\n\nA staff officer, Brigadier General Philip Howell, wrote to his wife (27 February 1915) that Murray had been \"incompetent, cantankerous, timid & quite useless\". The Official Historian Edmonds later described him as \"a complete nonentity\". Richard Holmes described him as \"an intelligent, cultivated man\" who had not yet recovered from a stomach wound in South Africa.\n\nChief of the Imperial General Staff\nHe was made Deputy Chief of the Imperial General Staff on 10 February 1915 and was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George on 18 February 1915. As Deputy CIGS Murray's responsibility was training and organising the New Armies, a job requiring much travel.\n\nMurray became Chief of the Imperial General Staff on 26 September 1915. He was promoted to permanent lieutenant general on 28 October 1915. After the war he wrote to Ian Hamilton, criticising Kitchener in harsh terms, writing that \"He seldom told the absolute the truth and the whole truth\" and that it was not until Kitchener left for his inspection of the Dardanelles that Murray was able to inform the Cabinet that volunteering had fallen far below the level needed to maintain a BEF of 70 divisions, requiring the introduction of conscription. The Cabinet insisted on proper General Staff papers being presented in Kitchener's absence. Murray wrote that \"I have never in my forty years' service done better work than I did during the three months I was CIGS\". Cabinet Secretary Maurice Hankey praised Murray highly as a real \"St John the Baptist\" to Sir William Robertson, his successor as CIGS.\n\nHowever H. H. Asquith, the Prime Minister, sought changes in senior military positions. Haig, about to be appointed Commander-in-Chief of the BEF (3 December 1915), rejected Kitchener's suggestion that Murray be reappointed as Chief of Staff BEF (the job which Robertson was vacating to become CIGS). In his final days in office Murray issued a paper urging concentration of effort on the Western Front (16 December 1915) which was described by Robertson as the \"Bible of the war\". Murray was forced out as CIGS on 23 December 1915 and replaced by Robertson, a strong advocate of the single (Western) front strategy.\n\nMurray's advice had been met with dismay from some Liberal members of the coalition Cabinet, who were unhappy at the realignment of Britain's war effort towards total war and a massive commitment of troops to the Western Front. Augustine Birrell (Chief Secretary for Ireland), along with Reginald McKenna (Chancellor of the Exchequer), Walter Runciman (President of the Board of Trade) and Sir Edward Grey (Foreign Secretary) had contemplated joining Sir John Simon (Home Secretary) in resigning in protest at the conscription of bachelors, due to be enacted in January 1916. Birrell wrote to the Prime Minister (29 December) that he and Runciman agreed that finance and \"strategic policy as expounded in Murray's long, unconvincing and frightening paper\" were more important than conscription.\n\nEgyptian Command\n\n1916\nIn January 1916, Murray was given command of the British Troops in Egypt and the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. Egypt was a base for the Salonika and Gallipoli Fronts. In January 1916 Murray was relieved of operational command of (though not logistical responsibility for) British troops at Salonika, which was given to the French General Sarrail. Initially General Maxwell still had command of Western Egypt (facing the Senussi Revolt) until he was sent to Ireland to suppress the Easter Rising.\n\nMurray wrote to Robertson (18 March 1916) that the Australians were \"from a physical point of view a magnificent body of men\" but had \"no idea of ordinary decency or self control\".\n\nBritain had 300,000 men in Egypt, many of them ANZACs or Gallipoli evacuees, supposedly to guard against a Turkish attack across the Sinai, which Robertson thought logistically unlikely. By July 1916, on Robertson's orders, Murray had shipped out 240,000 of them, including 9 infantry divisions, three independent infantry brigades and 9 heavy artillery batteries, most of them going to France, leaving him with four Territorial divisions and some mounted troops. 11,000 Indian troops were shipped out, and another division to Mesopotamia and an eleventh to France early in 1917, leaving him with three under-strength infantry divisions and the elements of two more, and two cavalry divisions.\n\nTrying to prevent another Turkish attack against the Suez Canal, Murray reorganized his troops and led a counterattack, winning a victory at Romani in August 1916. He now had to advance over the Sinai Peninsula, which consisted of sand in the north, gravel and clay in the centre and mountains in the south. 400 miles of railway, 300 miles of metalled and wire-meshed roads and 300 miles of pipes had to be laid. Drinking water had to be pumped underneath the Suez Canal from the Sweet Water Canal in the Nile Delta, requiring the construction of filtration plants, reservoirs and pumping stations. The line on the frontier was 45 miles in width, half the width of the 80\u201390-mile front on the Canal. Murray captured El Arish in December and Rafa on the Palestine frontier in January 1917.\n\n1917\n\nLloyd George wanted to make the destruction of Turkey a major British war aim, and two days after becoming Prime Minister told Robertson that he wanted a major victory, preferably the capture of Jerusalem, to impress British public opinion. Robertson thought the capture of Beersheba should suffice as more divisions were needed in France. However, Robertson was not entirely hostile to efforts in Palestine, telling Murray (31 January 1917) he wanted him to launch a Palestine Offensive in autumn and winter 1917, if the war was still going on then. The object was to sustain public morale and, with a compromise peace leaving Germany in control of the Balkans increasingly possible, to capture Aleppo. Aleppo was more easily reached from Palestine than from Mesopotamia, and her capture would make untenable Turkey's hold on both regions. At this stage Russia was still pinning down many Turkish troops, although the Admiralty were not enthused about suggestions that the Royal Navy make amphibious landings in Palestine. It was agreed to build up Murray's forces to 6 infantry divisions and 2 mounted divisions by the autumn, as well as 16 Imperial Camel Companies and possibly some Indian cavalry from France.\n\nMurray was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George on 20 January 1917.\n\nIt was Murray who authorized T. E. Lawrence's expedition to join the Arab Revolt against the Turks in Arabia, providing monetary and limited military support for Lawrence's attack on Aqaba: initially skeptical of the Revolt's potential, Murray became an ardent supporter of it later in his tenure in Cairo, largely through Lawrence's persuasion. By early 1917 the Turks had also withdrawn from Persia and had pulled", "ality of Mi\u00f1o de Medinaceli) and Torralba del Moral (municipality of Medinaceli).\n\nFrom these sites have been obtained fossils of large mammals, mainly elephants (Straight-tusked elephant), with remains of nearly fifty individuals from each site, in addition to large bovines and horses. The sites can be seen as an elephants' graveyard, although the use of the term for a concentration of bones raises a problem of definition.\nThe sites show evidence of successive occupations by human beings, who had a hunting station or, more likely, scavanged carrion and carried out quartering. \n\nKnown since the end of the 19th century, they were excavated first by the Marquis of Cerralbo between 1909 and 1914, later, in the early '60s and early '80s, by the American Francis Clark Howell with the collaboration of the paleontologist Emiliano Aguirre and later, in the '90s, new campaigns were carried out by Manuel Santonja and Alfredo P\u00e9rez-Gonz\u00e1lez. The remains from the different excavations are scattered, mainly, between the Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, the Museo Arqueol\u00f3gico Nacional, the Museo Numantino de Soria and the museum in situ of Ambrona.\n\nThey were declared Bien de Inter\u00e9s Cultural in the category of \"archaeological zone\" on September 7, 1995. They are also declared as \"a place of international geological interest of international relevance\" (\"Geosite\") by the Geological and Mining Institute of Spain, with the designations \"VP -07: Loma del Sa\u00faco, Torralba\" and \"VP-07b: Loma de los Huesos, Ambrona\", within the category \"vertebrate sites of the Pliocene-Spanish Pleistocene\".\n\nHistory\n\n1888: discovery \nIn the late 19th century it was decided that a new railway line should link Torralba and Soria. The contract was awarded to a Belgian company.\nThe first remains appeared in 1888, with the works of canalization of the water that the company was carrying out for the first railway station of Torralba (moved later twice, before 1926 and in 1959). Part of that material was acquired by the Escuela Superior de Minas de Madrid and the rest distributed among individuals.\n\n1909\u20131916: the Marquis of Cerralbo \n\nThe first excavations were carried out by Enrique de Aguilera y Gamboa, Marquis of Cerralbo, first in Torralba from 1909 to 1913 and later in Ambrona from 1914 to 1916, and have been considered as the best performed of the first half of the 20th century.\n\nIn 1907, when the Marquis of Cerralbo vacationed in the area, he had news of the appearance of \"colossal\" elephant carcasses; after visiting the place and aware, from the beginning, of the antiquity of the remains, he decided to undertake and pay for the excavations himself, hoping to find evidence of its synchrony with the \"most primitive\" man. He initiated them in 1909 \u2013 a year after taking office as Permanent Academician of the Real Academia de la Historia \u2013 and established his paleontological workshop in a palace of his property in Santa Mar\u00eda de Huerta, relatively close location.\n\nCerralbo excavated between 1000 and 2000\u00a0m2 of the Torralba site and an unknown, but much smaller, area of Ambrona. Paleontological elements recovered accounted for 525 elephant remains (Straight-tusked elephant), 86 horse (Equus caballus torralbae), 37 of a great bovid (Aurochs), 25 deer (Cervus elaphus) and 3 rhinoceros (Stephanorhinus hemitoechus), and the lithic industry accounted for a total of 557 specimens, including hand axes, cleavers, flakes, cores and Chopping tools.\n\nCerralbo was accompanied in his excavations by the archaeologist Juan Cabr\u00e9, the geologist Pedro Palacios and the French paleontologist \u00c9douard Harl\u00e9.\n\nThe international diffusion of the works in Torralba was due, on the one hand, to the communication that Marquis of Cerralbo himself presented at the International Congress of Prehistory that was held in Geneva in 1912, which he accompanied with a sample of his discoveries, and, on the other hand, to the book by the German paleontologist Hugo Obermaier, The fossil man -reference work during the first third of the 20th century-, in which he describe the findings of Torralba, originally published in Spanish in 1916, with a second edition expanded in 1925 that was translated into English.\n\n1961\u20131983: Howell and Aguirre \n\nThe American anthropologist Francis Clark Howell conducted six excavation campaigns in Torralba and Ambrona, between 1961 and 1963 and in 1980, 1981 and 1983. The results of his studies seemed to have demonstrated the practice of active hunting by the human groups of the time-hypothesis discussed later, in favor of occasional scavenging. Also carbonaceous remains to indicate the presence of homes: the intentional and controlled use of fire.\n\nIn 1959, during the Pan-African Congress of Prehistory and Quaternary Studies, in which John Desmond Clark was presenting the concept of \"occupation sites\", the Spanish archaeologist Llu\u00eds Pericot (University of Barcelona) interested the anthropologists F. Clark Howell (University of Chicago) and Pierre Biberson (Museum of the Man of Paris), in the works that the Marquis of Cerralbo had done in Torralba and his concept of \"station\", very similar to the one they were discussing.\n\nHowell visited Ambrona and Torralba in 1960. He obtained funding and permits to excavate, helped by Biberson, who was also able to provide some funding for the work. An international multidisciplinary team and a modern work methodology were proposed.\n\nIn the different campaigns from 1961 to 1963 they were part of Howell's teams: Pierre Biberson (Museum of the Man of Paris, deputy director of the excavations and head of the Ambrona area), Emiliano Aguirre (Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, paleontology of vertebrates), Dolores Echaide (University of Zaragoza, representative in 1961 of the Direcci\u00f3n General de Bellas Artes), Francisco Jord\u00e1 Cerd\u00e1 (professor at the University of Salamanca, delegate of Fine Arts in 1962\u201363), Desmond Collins (University of Cambridge, United Kingdom), Peter Taylor, Richard G. Klein, Blanca Izquierdo, Jos\u00e9 Viloria (MNCN, preparation and restoration of fossils), Karl W. Butzer (University of Wisconsin, edaphology and geology), Josefina Men\u00e9ndez Amor (MNCN) and F. Florschutz (palynology and paleobotany, Leslie Gordon Freeman (University of Chicago, record), Thomas Lynch (University of Chicago), Susan Tax (cartoonist), several Spanish and American students denses and more than twenty workers in the area.\n\nGrids were drawn, stratigraphic profiles were raised and each extracted remainder was labeled. As an example of thoroughness, samples of pollen were taken from the clay adhered between the teeth of the elephants, to get as close as possible to the existing environment during the accumulation of the remains.\n\nIn 1973 Aguirre directed the systematic excavation of more than 200\u00a0m2 around the Museum of Ambrona, built ten years earlier, necessary to correct the humidity that endangered it, recovering more fossils and lithic industry.\n\nThe last campaigns of Howel were realized in 1980, 1981 and 1983. The possibility of finding some human fossil facilitated new economic supports, even of the National Geographic Society. For the excavations and analysis of samples of these campaigns, he had the following team: co-directors: Leslie Gordon Freeman (lithic industry) and Mart\u00edn Almagro Basch (director of the Museo Arqueol\u00f3gico Nacional de Espa\u00f1a); researchers: Emiliano Aguirre, Karl W. Butzer, Richard G. Klein, M. Teresa Alberdi, A. Azzaroli, J. Bischoff, T. E. Cerling, Katherine Cruz-Uribe, Ignacio Doadrio, Frank Harrold, Manuel Hoyos, P. Preece, Antonio S\u00e1nchez-Marco (birds), F. Borja Sanchiz (amphibians), H. P. Schwarcz, Carmen Ses\u00e9 (micromammals), Kathy Schick, N. P. Toth and Charles Turner.\n\nIn all its campaigns, Howell excavated more than 1000\u00a0m2 in Torralba, recovering about 700 lithic instruments and more than 2100 fossils, and about 2700\u00a0m2 in Ambrona, with more than 4400 lithic instruments and several thousand fossils (of them more of 2000 elephants).\n\nThe investigations of these years gave rise to a large number of scientific publications on all related aspects, paleontology, archeology, geology, paleoclimatology, etc., but highlighting, due to its social impact, those related to the presumed hunting activities of primitive man.\n\n1990\u20132002: Santonja and P\u00e9rez-Gonz\u00e1lez \n\nAs a result of the results of Howell and collaborators, in the following years, extensive discussions took place on some conclusions related to human behavior, mainly those related to active hunting or the use of bone instruments. In order to establish a precise formation model of the deposits, the archaeologist Manuel Santonja and the geologist Alfredo P\u00e9rez-Gonz\u00e1lez proposed and co-directed a new stage of excavations, focused mainly to establish with precision the geology and the detailed stratigraphy of the same. The approach was based on the realization, prior to the systematic excavation, of trial pits and sections for detailed stratigraphic analysis, since simultaneous excavation in large areas could lead to confusion among very similar facies, mixing levels that should be differentiated with this other method. The works began in the years 1990 and 1991, with the elaboration of surface geological studies complemented with some soundings, and the main excavation campaigns were carried out, this time only in Ambrona, the summers from 1993 to 2000, without interruption, taking place some complementary sampling and other trials between 2001 and 2002.\n\nThe team had numerous specialists: Carmen Ses\u00e9 and Enrique Soto (mammals), Paola Villa (taphonomy), Blanca Ruiz Zapata (palynology), Rafael Mora (area of Torralba, registry and cartography), Josep Mar\u00eda Par\u00e9s (paleomagnetism), \u00c1ngel Baltan\u00e1s (ostracods), Ignacio Doadrio (fishes), Ascensi\u00f3n Pinilla (phytoliths), Borja Sanchiz (amphibians and reptiles), Antonio S\u00e1nchez Marco (birds), Juan M. Rodr\u00edguez de Tembleque, Joaqu\u00edn Panera and Susana Rubio (archeology), Christophe Falgu\u00e8res (dating), Alfonso Benito Calvo (geology), C. \u00c1lvaro Chirveches, M. Vil\u00e0 Margalef and Alexandra Vicent (consolidation and restoration). The excavations were carried out by a large number of archeology students, reaching over fifty in one of the campaigns.\n\nIn Ambrona a total of 688\u00a0m2 were excavated and some surveys and control tastings were carried out in Torralba. Some 975 lithic industry specimens were obtained, however, most paleontological remains were left unexploded, consolidated, covered again and protected to prevent spoilage and looting, in anticipation of a possible future extension of the museum exhibition in situ to a much larger extension of the site.\n\nThe works were followed by numerous publications, highlighting an extensive monographic volume of the magazine Zona Arqueol\u00f3gica (vol.5, 2005).\n\nGeology \nThe sediments in which the deposits are integrated correspond to ancient fluvium-Lake, Discordant deposits, by a soft local pale-relief, on the Triassic materials of the area (locally constituted by lutites and gypsums facies of type Keuper). They were located in the flat and impermeable bottom of an elongated valley from an ancient polje, then open and in the process of erosion.\n\nStratigraphy \nThe Ambrona site is located in the \"Ambrona formation\", whose sediment thickness, as a whole, would not exceed eight meters. Seven levels or litic facies have been identified, grouped into three members: one lower (AS1 to AS5 levels) \u2013 gravels, gray silts and clays, another medium (AS6) \u2013 sands and gray limes, and the upper one (AS7) \u2013 graves and red sands. The AS3 level (silt and clays) is locally eroded, supporting AS4 directly on AS2 at some points. The base, discordant, corresponds to facies of alluvial fans channel (AS1 and AS2). The AS3 level has been interpreted as lacustrine environment. The rest of the lower and middle members (AS4 to AS6) are interpreted as deposited in low-energy shallow fluvial-lacustrine environments, with some sediments of channel and overflow. The upper member (AS7), with a granulometry higher than the previous ones, corresponds again to alluvial fan facies, in which neither fossils nor lithic industry have been found.\n\nThe Torralba site, in turn, is integrated into the Torralba Formation. It would be more recent than Ambrona, formed at a later time, not determinable, of the encasement of the fluvial network in the valley, although Aguirre it supposes a probable temporary overlap between the superior members of Ambrona and the inferior ones of Torralba. The maximum recognized thickness of this formation is about 15 meters. In 1965, Butzer differentiated thirteen units in the stratigraphic column, grouped into two \"complexes\", both with fossils and lithic industry:\n Lower complex, of gray tones, characterized by gravels, sands and marls (IIa to IId, IIIa, IIIb, IVa and IVb units).\n Superior complex, of reddish colors, composed of sands, marls and gravels (Va to Vd units).\nAbove the Torralba Formation, the Sahuco Formation, of the Upper Pleistocene, absent in Ambrona, is superimposed.\n\nDating \nCombining the methods of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and uranium-thorium (U-Th), on the enamel and dentin of horse teeth, a dating has been obtained absolute not inferior to 350,000 years, contemporary of OSI 9 or final of OSI 11.\n\nThe studies of paleomagnetism have given in all Ambrona samples a normal polarity value, consistent with the cron Brunhes, the current one, which started 779\u00a0000 years ago .\n\nPaleontology\n\nSystematics \nThe lists of taxa identified in the deposits have been changing over time, depending on the discovery of better diagnostic elements or the vagaries of the systematic; we try to present the most up-to-date relation.\n\nMicroorganisms \n Algae: diatoms (Amphora, Hantzschia, Surriella, Cyclotella, Anomoeoensis, Epithemia, Rhopalodia, Cocconeis, Pinnularia, Nitzschia), chrysophytes.\n\nVegetation \n Herbaceous: Poaceae, Asteraceae, Cichoriaceae, Fabaceae, Rumex, Plantago.\n Aquatic: Cyperaceae, Nymphaeaceae, Polygonum , Ranunculaceae, Typha.\n Shrubs: juniper (Juniperus), Rosaceae, Cistaceae, Ericaceae.\n Trees: pine (Pinus), alder (Alnus), willow (Salix), elm (Ulmus), oak (Quercus), birch (Betula), chestnut (Castanea), hazel (Corylus), walnut (Juglans).\n\nArthropods \n Ostracodes (Candona, Cypris, Cypridopsis, Eucypris, Herpetocypris, Heterocypris, Ilyocypris, Leucocythere, Plesiocyrpdopsis, Potamocypris).\n\nFishes, amphibians and reptiles \n Bermejuela (Chondrostoma arcasii)\n Common toad (Bufo bufo)\n Runner toad (Bufo calamita)\n Spanish painted frog (Discoglosus cf. jeanneae)\n European tree frog (Hyla arborea)\n Spanish spadefoot toad (Pelobates cultripes)\n Common parsley frog (Pelodytes punctatus)\n Perez's frog (Rana perezi)\n Lizard (Lacertidae indeterm.)\n Ladder snake (cf. Elaphe scalaris)\n Water snake (Natrix sp.)\n\nBirds \n Greylag goose (Anser anser)\n Ruddy shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea)\n Northern pintail (Anas acuta)\n Gadwall (Anas strepera)\n Common merganser (Mergus merganser)\n Red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator)\n Western swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio)\n Eurasian coot (Fulica cf. atra)\n Northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus)\n Great bustard (Otis tarda)\n\nSoricomorphs, rodents and lagomorphs \n Musk shrews (Crocidura sp.)\n Topillo de las brechas (Microtus (Iberomys) brecciensis)\n Southwestern water vole (Arvicola aff. Sapidus)\n Wood mouse ( Apodemus aff. Sylvaticus )\n Rabbit (Oryctolagus sp.)\n\nCarnivores \n\n Early Middle Pleistocene European cave hyena (Crocuta crocuta aff. praespelaea)\n Early Middle Pleistocene European cave lion (Panthera leo cf. fossilis)\n Fox (Vulpes sp.)\n Mosbach's wolf (Canis lupus cf. mosbachensis)\n\nProboscides, perissodactyla and artiodactyla \n\n Ancient elephant with a septated nose (Palaeoloxodon antiquus platyrhynchus)\n Rhinoceros with a septated nose (Stephanorhinus hemitoechus)\n Torralba's horse (Equus caballus torralbae)\n European red deer (Cervus elaphus)\n Fallow deer (Dama cf. dama)\n Roe Deer (Capreolus sp.)\n Great-horned deer (Megaloceros aff. Savini)\n Ancient bull (Bos antiquus) or primitive bull (Bos primigenius)\n\nPrimates \n Heidelberg's man? (? Homo heidelbergensis). Without skeletal remains in the sites, human presence is identified by the lithic industry and the activity marks on elephant bones. The species is inferred only by correlation with the S", " on the Anthropology of Reason (1996), Anthropos Today: Reflections on Modern Equipment (2003), and Marking Time: On the Anthropology of the Contemporary (2007).\n\nBiographical details\nRabinow was born in Florida but raised in New York City from a young age. His grandparents were all Russian Jewish immigrants. He lived in Sunnyside, Queens. He stated that at the time, the neighborhood was a garden city and a socialist and communist 'zone'. He attended Stuyvesant High. School. Rabinow received his B.A. (1965), M.A. (1967), and Ph.D. (1970) in anthropology from the University of Chicago. He studied at the \u00c9cole Pratique des Hautes \u00c9tudes in Paris (1965\u201366). He received a Guggenheim Fellowship (1980), was a visiting Fulbright Professor at the National Museum in Rio de Janeiro (1987), taught at the \u00c9cole des Hautes \u00c9tudes en Sciences Sociales in Paris (1986) as well as the \u00c9cole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure (1997), and was a visiting Fulbright Professor at the University of Iceland (1999). He held fellowships from the National Endowment for the Humanities and National Science Foundation Professional Development Fellowships (for training in molecular biology). He was co-founder of the Berkeley Program in French Cultural Studies. He was named Chevalier de l\u2019Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French Government in 1998. He received the University of Chicago Alumni Association Professional Achievement Award in 2000. He was awarded the visiting Chaire Internationale de Recherche Blaise Pascal at the \u00c9cole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure for 2001\u20132002. STICERD Distinguished Visiting Professor \u2013 BIOS Centre for the Study of Bioscience, Biomedicine, Biotechnology and Society, London School of Economics (2004). Rabinow died on April 6, 2021.\n\nOverview\n\nRabinow is known for his development of an \"anthropology of reason\". If anthropology is understood as being composed of anthropos + logos, then anthropology can be taken up as a practice of studying how the mutually productive relations of knowledge, thought, and care are given form within shifting relations of power. More recently, Rabinow developed a distinctive approach to what he called an \"anthropology of the contemporary\" that moves methodologically beyond modernity as an object of study or as a metric to order all inquiries.\n\nRabinow is well known for conceptual work drawing on French, German, and American traditions. He was a close interlocutor of Michel Foucault and edited and interpreted Foucault\u2019s work as well as ramifying it in new directions.\n\nRabinow\u2019s work consistently confronted the challenge of inventing and practicing new forms of inquiry, writing, and ethics for the human sciences. He argued that, currently, the dominant knowledge production practices, institutions, and venues for understanding human things in the 21st century are inadequate institutionally and epistemologically. In response, he designed modes of experimentation and collaboration consisting of focused concept work and the explorations of new forms of case-based inquiry.\n\nRabinow also devoted a great deal of energy to the invention of new venues adjacent to the existing university structures, diagnosing the university\u2019s disciplinary organization and career patterns as among the major impediments to 21st century thought. In view of the fact that the organization and practices of the social sciences and humanities in the U.S. university system have changed little in recent decades, they are unlikely to facilitate the composition of contemporary equipment. Rabinow called for the creation of venues that are adjacent to, but more flexible than, the university and the existing disciplinary structure. He played leading roles in the design of two such organizations, the Anthropology of the Contemporary Research Collaboratory (ARC) and the Synthetic Biology Engineering Research Center (SynBERC).\n\nThe Anthropology of the Contemporary Research Collaboratory was founded by Paul Rabinow, Stephen Collier, and Andrew Lakoff as part of an effort to create new forms of inquiry in the human sciences. Its aspiration is to create models for new infrastructures, tools of collaboration, and practices of inquiry. The core of the ARC collaboratory is ongoing reflection and communication in a now broadening network of scholars about concept formation and collaboratory work in the human sciences. ARC is a collaboratory for inquiry into contemporary forms of life, labor, and language. ARC engages in empirical study and conceptual work with global reach and long-term perspective. ARC creates contemporary equipment for collaborative work adequate to emergent challenges in the 21st century. ARC\u2019s current concerns focus on interconnections among security, ethics, and the sciences.\n\nConcept work\nThe relation of concepts and cases in Rabinow\u2019s work distinguishes itself from the more common mode of social science work predicated on using examples to test general theories or philosophical practice that seeks analytic clarity about universals or general (often highly abstract) cases. In contrast, Rabinow argues that work on concepts opens up and orients inquiry into the concrete features of distinctive cases, whereas the use of ostensibly timeless theory or universal concepts is unlikely to be very helpful in drawing attention to particularities and singularities. Given this goal, such traditional approaches can function as a real impediment to inquiry. Rabinow defines concept work as \u201cconstructing, elaborating and testing a conceptual inventory as well as specifying and experimenting with multi-dimensional diagnostic and analytic frames.\u201d In that sense, Rabinow\u2019s work continues with appropriate modifications a social scientific tradition stretching from Max Weber through Clifford Geertz.\n\nRabinow held that concepts are tools designed to be used on specified problems and calibrated to the production of pragmatic outcomes, both analytic and ethical. As such, concepts must be adjusted to the changing topology of problem spaces. Concept work involves archaeological, genealogical, and diagnostic dimensions. Archaeologically, concept work involves investigating and characterizing concepts as part of a prior repertoire or structured conceptual ensemble. Genealogically, concept work frees concepts from their field of emergence by showing the contingent history of their selection, formation, and potential contemporary significance. Diagnostically, concept work involves a critical function: testing the adequacy and appropriateness of a given concept or repertoire of concepts to new problems and purposes.\n\nAnthropology of the contemporary\nAs a mode of inquiry, Rabinow distinguishes the Anthropology of the Contemporary from Michel Foucault\u2019s History of the Present. As Rabinow describes it, the History of the Present consists in formulating an understanding of the past as \u201ca means of showing the contingency of the present and thereby contribute to making a more open future.\u201d The current challenge is to be specific about which inquiries and what objects are best engaged with an approach that is drawn from a History of the Present orientation.\nContrastingly, Rabinow defined the contemporary as a (re)assemblage of both old and new elements and their interactions and interfaces. This means, among other things, that contemporary problems and objects are emergent and consequently, by definition, contingent. Emergence refers to \u201ca state in which multiple elements combine to produce an assemblage, whose significance cannot be reduced to prior elements and relations.\u201d It follows that the History of the Present, while often helpful, is not fully adequate to work on the contemporary because by definition the contemporary is contingent.\n\nRabinow identified \u201cthe contemporary\u201d as a temporal and ontological problem space. In Marking Time (2007) he distinguished two senses of the term contemporary. First, to be contemporary is to exist at the same time as something else. This meaning has temporal but no historical connotations. The second sense, however, carries both temporal and historical connotations, and it is this meaning that figures in Rabinow's work. Rabinow took up the contemporary as a \u201cmoving ratio.\u201d Just as \u201cthe modern\u201d can be thought of as a moving ratio of tradition and modernity, the contemporary \u201cis a moving ratio of modernity, moving through the recent past and near future in a (non-linear) space.\u201d\n\nAs such, the Anthropology of the Contemporary consists of analytic work that helps develop modes of inquiry into under-determined, emergent, and discordant relations. It seeks to develop methods, practices, and forms of inquiry and narration coherent and co-operable with understandings of the mode (or modes) taken by anthropos as figure and an assemblage today.\n\nInquiry into the contemporary is both analytic and synthetic. It is analytic in that sets of relations must be decomposed and specified, synthetic in that these relations must be recomposed and given new form. In this sense, work on the contemporary falls within a zone of analytic consideration in that it consists of linking the recent past to the near future and the near future to the recent past.\n\nAnthropos as a problem\nRabinow\u2019s work on the anthropology of the contemporary was formally initiated by his diagnosis of anthropos (Greek, \u201cthe human thing\u201d) as a problem today for thought, equipment, and venues. This diagnosis is carried out most systematically in his works Anthropos Today (2003) and Marking Time (2007). Rabinow describes anthropos as a being that today is burdened with multiple and heterogeneous truths about itself, a being of hetero-logoi. Modes of inquiry, methods of narration, and principles of verification must be designed in view of the \u201capparently unavoidable fact that anthropos is that being who suffers from too many logoi.\u201d\n\nIt follows that in order to pose and eventually answer the question \u201cWhat is anthropos today?\u201d modes of thought are needed which not only open up new possibilities, but also discriminate significance and form truth claims into practices for the ethical life. Using a classical formulation, Rabinow argues that anthropos today is in need of paraskeue, or equipment, for forming logos into ethos. In his 1981-82 lectures at the Coll\u00e8ge de France, Michel Foucault provided an extensive meditation on the classical notion of equipment. In those lectures, Foucault shows that in antique thought the mandate to \u201cknow thyself\u201d was connected and oriented to an imperative to \u201ccare for thyself.\u201d Ramifying Foucault\u2019s insight in new directions, Rabinow has posed the challenge of inventing equipment adequate to ethical and scientific problems today\u2014contemporary equipment.\n\nIf the challenge of contemporary equipment is to develop a mode of thinking as ethical practice, it also involves the design or redesign of venues within which such formation is possible. Rabinow deals directly with the problem of venues in the work Synthetic Anthropos (with Gaymon Bennett) (2009). In that work, Rabinow and Bennett argue that the question of where and how the composition of equipment takes place is itself a primary problem site.\n\nCollaboration\nA defining feature of the venues Rabinow has called for and worked on is collaboration. Understood as a mode of work, Rabinow defined collaboration in distinction to cooperation. A cooperative mode of work consists of \u201cdemarcated tasking on distinct problems and objects, with occasional if regular exchange.\u201d Cooperation does not entail either a common definition of problems or shared techniques of remediation. A collaborative mode of work, by contrast, proceeds from an interdependent division of labor on shared problems. It entails a common definition of problems (or acceptance of a problem-space).\n\nRabinow called for the invention of new modes of collaboration where problem-spaces are unstable or emergent and where prior problems and their significance can no longer be taken for granted and can fruitfully be contested. Such situations require the reworking of existing modes of reasoning and intervention, adjusting these modes to the topography of the emerging problem-space. It follows that collaboration is a mode of work appropriate to the anthropology of the contemporary.\n\nCase work\n\nCase work functions as an exercise in framing problems so as to identify potentially significant elements, relations, and interfaces. Case work underscores questions of how such material should be presented. Case work can indicate strengths and weaknesses in the venues in which inquiry is initiated and formed. Casework, therefore, is an essential aspect of inquiry neither reducible to theory nor an end-in-itself.\n\n(a) Constructing Equipment, Can the Human and Life Science Collaborate? (SynBERC 2006\u20132011).\n\nRabinow was an investigator in the (Human) Practices Thrust of the Synthetic Biology Engineering Research Center. Synberc (Synthetic Biology Research Center) | EBRC. With Gaymon Bennett, he had been part of a collaborative effort to re-think the relationship between ethics and science within this NSF-funded Engineering Research Center. In SynBERC, the mandate from the NSF was to invent a collaborative mode of engagement such that the relationship between ethics and science might be reconceived and reworked.\n\n(b) Chronicling Emergent Organizations (Celera Diagnostics 2003).\n\nRabinow, working with Talia Dan-Cohen, then an undergraduate at Berkeley, took up the challenge of chronicling Celera Diagnostic\u2019s efforts to turn the complete sequence of the human genome into tools for diagnosing molecular predispositions for pathological developments in health. The anthropological work was an experiment in thought and production, given a self-imposed one-year time limit for both research and writing. It was an experiment in collaboration involving first and second order modes of observation. The product is Rabinow and Dan-Cohen\u2019s A Machine to Make a Future: Biotech Chronicles.\n\n(c) New Venues: Problematizing Knowledge, Care and Ethics (Centre d'\u00c9tudes du Polymorphisme Humain (CEPH) 1994).\n\nThe fieldwork leading up to French DNA: Trouble in Purgatory focused on a multidimensional crisis revolving around a proposal for commercial collaboration between an American biotechnology start-up company and the French laboratory that led the genome sequencing effort in France, the CEPH. As opposed to his earlier book, French Modern, French DNA is not a history of the present but an initial case study in the anthropology of the contemporary. Rabinow accepted the challenge from the Center\u2019s scientific director to be a \"philosophic observer.\" His task was to identify the formation of constellations of value judgments around new forms of scientific knowledge and to make that process available for further debate and modification, not to adjudicate disputes. The text is, in part, a meditation on committed \"disinterestedness,\" or \u201ca certain vocational integrity, an asceticism in Weber and Foucault's senses, a certain rigor and patience that could, lead us somewhere beyond what we already believe and know.\u201d This work still emphasizes the observation in \u201cparticipant-observation\u201d and can be contrasted to later work at SynBERC in which both poles are put into play.\n\n(d) New Venues of Knowledge and Commerce: The Rise of Biotech Start-up Companies, (Cetus Corporation 1980s).\n\nCetus Corporation (later, Roche Molecular Systems) figured as both a scientific and anthropological milieu within which to explore a highly specific set of political, economic, scientific, and legal vectors that generated a new industry as well as a major technological development, the polymerase chain reaction. Contrary to narratives of invention and discovery as the work of individual geniuses, Making PCR: A Story of Biotechnology highlights the assembling and governing of scientific and technical prowess, sustained teamwork, management skills, legal input, and material resources, all of which were necessary for this fundamental molecular biological tool to emerge, be stabilized, commercialized and to rapidly become a fundamental tool for all biological research.\n\n(e) The Invention of Modern Equipment: (France and its Colonies 1830-1930).\n\nFrench Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Environment is a fine-grained genealogical account of the rise of the French \u201csocial\u201d moving conceptually through domains as diverse as nineteenth century epidemiology, sociology, the Beaux Arts, colonial administration, Lamarckian biology, statistics, etc. French Modern demonstrates the century long process of bringing these domains of knowledge and practices of power slowly into a common frame of rationality and eventually into an operative apparatus characteristic of the welfare state.\n\n(f) Philosophy as Inquiry: Fieldwork in Philosophy (Encountering Hubert Dreyfus, Robert Bellah and Michel Foucault, 1976-84).\n\nTrained at the University of Chicago in the history of philosophy under the tutelage of Richard McKeon, where McKeon emphasized the rhetorical and pragmatic functions of philosophy (Dewey), Rabinow renewed this activity and moved beyond the work of his advisor, Clifford Geertz. Encounters with Robert Bellah and Hubert Dreyfus at UC Berkeley in the context of a National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship year (1976\u201377) led to a focus on interpretive social science and ethical practice on the one hand, and an education in Heidegger and the question of technology and modern philosophy on the other. The work with Dreyfus led to a fortuitous encounter with Michel Foucault in 1979, the development of an intense dialogic working relationship, and a joint book with Dreyfus, Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics, as well as an anthology of Foucault\u2019s works (in consultation with Foucault), The Foucault Reader, published shortly before his death.\n\n(g) Anthropology as Inquiry: Inheriting the Modern(Morocco, Middle Atlas Mountains 1968-1970).\n\nThe importance of colonial history, the self-understanding of descendants of an Islamic saint, the dilemma of tradition and modernity, as well as fieldwork itself, as a practice, rite, and site of self-formation, became case material for reflection. The major themes that Rabinow planned to consistently pursue for the next decades are all incipiently present in these untimely reflections: ethics as form giving, motion, and care.\n\nEthical considerations about Rabinow's fieldwork in Morocco \nWhile discussing the ethics of ethnography, Gary Alan Fine discusses Rainbow's work in Morocco, specifically describing the sexual relationship he had with a prostitute when the opportunity of sleeping with her was provided to him by his informant. Fine uses this as an example of one of the few cases where an ethnographer reveals such personal information, going against the general trend of eliding such details in scholarship.\n\nMajor works\n Symbolic Domination: Cultural Form and Historical Change in Morocco, University of Chicago Press, 1975.\n Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco, University of California Press, 1977. [French, Spanish, Japanese, Arabic].\n Interpretive Social Science: A Reader, with W. Sullivan, University of California Press, 1978.\n Michel Foucault, Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics, with Hubert Dreyfus, University of Chicago Press, 1983 (2nd edition). [French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Japanese, Russian.]\n The Foucault Reader, Pantheon Books, 1984.\n Interpretive Social Science: A Second Look, with W. Sullivan, University of California Press, 1987.\n French Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Environment, MIT Press, 1989 (University of Chicago Press, 1995). [French, 2004].\n Making PCR. A Story of Biotechnology, University of Chicago Press, 1996. [French, Japanese, Chinese, Italian].\n Ethics, Subjectivity and Truth, Vol. 1 of The Essential Works of Michel Foucault 1954-1984, Series editor and editor of Vol. 1. 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\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0434\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0432 1493 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443, \u043a\u0430\u0437\u043d\u044c (\u0441\u043e\u0436\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0436\u0438\u0432\u043e) \u0434\u0432\u0443\u0445 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0432 \u0420\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u0432 1494 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 (\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043a\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0435\u043d \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0444\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a, \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0438) \u0431\u0435\u0437", " Until 2014 Sokil remained the oldest and most accomplished team in Ukrainian hockey, winning 12 of the 19 Ukrainian Hockey Championships held since 1992. The club's senior team was inactive from 2014 to 2020.\n\nThe club was founded in 1963 as part of the Dynamo sports society, and adopted its current moniker in 1973. They are the second major-professional ice hockey team to represent the city of Kyiv, preceded only by its short lived predecessor, also named Dynamo (founded in 1953). They are the most successful Ukrainian team to have competed in the Soviet Championship, finishing as high as third in the highly competitive circuit (1985) and producing several award-winning players. In 1986, Sokil managed to become the first and only Ukrainian-based team to compete in the Spengler Cup ice hockey tournament, where they would finish 2nd. They also became the first Ukrainian team to win an international league championship, doing so in the Eastern European Hockey League consecutively in 1998 and 1999.\n\nSokil is accredited with developing a majority of the country's top young hockey players, producing NHL All Stars such as Dmytro Khrystych and Oleksiy Zhytnyk, and Stanley Cup Champions Ruslan Fedotenko and Anton Babchuk.\n\nFranchise history\n\n1963\u20131973: Dynamo\nThe team was founded in the summer of 1963 by the Deputy Chairman of Sports of Ukraine, Adrian Miziak, under the name of Dynamo Kyiv. 1963 may be the official birth date of the team, but it was a decade earlier that a Dynamo team from Kyiv would play in the Soviet Cup, making it as far as the second round of the playoffs. The current incarnation, however, would begin its hockey operations in the second tier of Soviet ice hockey, holding its first game on 27 October 1963 against SKA Kuybyshev. The team's first head coach was Dmitri Boginov. Forward Viktor Martinov would score the first goal in club history two minutes into the match, and the team would go on to win the game at a score of 4:1. Martinov would go on to lead the team in goals that season with 16.\n\nThough the team would finish 6th in its inaugural season, they would go on to have the best record in their division the following year; earning a promotion to the top level of competition in the Soviet leagues. To open the 1965\u201366 season, Kyiv would boast the second largest arena in the Soviet Union. However, while competing at the top level, Dynamo struggled. During its five years of competition in the league, which included playoff qualification each year, the team would exhibit sub-par play. Sokil's Soviet Cup playoff run in 1968 would prove to be a highlight in otherwise disappointing campaigns. Their elimination by SKA Leningrad in the quarterfinals would be the furthest the team would finish in the tournament for nearly a decade. In the following season, Sokil would finish the first round of competition in 10th place of 12 teams, resulting in a temporary demotion to the second-tier of competition. This would last the remainder of the season. They would finish 6th in this group of 18, and 12th of 24 in the record books. This poor showing would not prove a motivator for the following year, though the departure of coach Boginov would not help either. He would be replaced by Igor Shichkov, the team would finish dead last in the 1969\u201370 season, and once again become subject to outright relegation. The final three years under the Dynamo name would show gradual, albeit slow improvements; each season finishing one place higher in the standings.\n\n1973\u20131996: The Falcons\nFor the club's 10th anniversary in 1973, the club would drop the Dynamo moniker, a move which would have a lasting legacy. The historical white and blue colors of the Dynamo sports society would be kept intact, but the team would adopt the name of the \"Falcon\", or \"Sokil\" in Ukrainian.\n\nThough Sokil's play would remain inconsistent throughout the 70s, the hiring of Anatoli Bogdanov as head coach in 1976 would have an immediate impact on the team's fortunes. By the 1978 season, the team would finish 2nd overall and re-ascend to the top of the Soviet league. In their first season back, great goaltending by Konstantin Gavrilov managed to overcome a poor offense, and ultimately allowed the team squeak into the playoffs, bypassing Avtomobilist Sverdlovsk by a mere point. This foray into Soviet Cup playoffs would prove to be one of the best runs in the team's history, making it as far as the semifinals where they would ultimately fall to the legendary CSKA Moscow team. Unfortunately for the team, the Cup playoffs would not be held again for another 8 years. During this period of emphasis on regular season performance, several stars would begin to emerge from the team's ranks. Between 1981 and 1990, six players would be named to the league's 34 man All Star selections, 5 of whom were multiple time recipients.\n\nSokil would remain competitive, but the addition of homegrown forward Dmytro Khrystych and defenseman Oleksandr Hodyniuk in 1985 and 1986, respectively, would elevate the team to new heights. Their 3rd-place finish in 1985 would remain a franchise best, Ramil Yuldashev would claim the league award for most hat-tricks this year with 2, and Nikolai Narimanov would lead the league in goals with 26. The following year in 1986, Sergei Davydov would follow up on Yuldashev's success and win the hat-trick award. Sokil would be invited to the Spengler Cup tournament where they would continue their success as finalists, succumbing only to Team Canada.\n\nWinning the Tampere Cup in 1989 marked a turning point for the franchise, which would be a victim to the Soviet Union's collapse. The coming down of the Iron Curtain would allow the Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League to draft rising local talent and Kyiv teammate Oleksiy Zhytnyk 81st overall in the 1991 NHL draft. Zhitnik would remain the highest drafted professional Sokil player to this day. Not all talent was affected, however, as Yuldashev would lead the league in goals in 1990 along with points in 1991, and Valeri Shyriaiev would be named the league's top defensemen in both years as well. Following a 15th-place finish in 1992, the lowest in team history, the team and coach Bogdanov would part ways. This would also mark a change in the team's official name to accommodate a new sponsor; the club competed under the name Sokil Eskulap () for only the 1992\u201393 International Hockey League (IHL) season. Bogdanov's dismissal did little to curtail the franchise's downward spiral, with the team reaching new record lows with head coach Alexander Fedeev at the helm. He would hold the position until 1996, which also marked the team's parting of ways with the newly formed Russian Hockey League.\n\nA positive product of these troubled years is the continued development of local talent. Future Olympian and Stanley Cup champion, Ruslan Fedotenko would leave the team in 1996 to pursue his NHL dreams. Kyivans Anton Babchuk and Nikolai Zherdev, products of the Sokil junior development program, would later be recruited by Elektrostal scouts in the Russian Major League. They would later be drafted into the NHL, both in the first round.\n\n1996\u20132009: transitions\nWith the dissolution of the IHL, orphaned teams from the Soviet Bloc found a home in the newly formed Eastern European Hockey League. Benefiting from a lower level of competition than that of the Russian league, and new head coach Oleksandr Seukand, the team would find renewed success. Sokil would finish 1st overall in 4 of the league's 8 seasons, and become league champions in both 1998 and 1999. Sokil players like Valentyn Oletsky (1997, 2000) and Dmitri Markovskiy (1998) would secure scoring titles, Konstantin Kasyanchuk was awarded league forward MVP in 2001, and Vadim Seliverstov was named top goaltender in 2003.\n\nFrom 2004 through to the 2006\u201307 season, the team would also compete in the Open Championship of Belarus, the EEHL's spiritual successor. Here they would continue their success until hitting a metaphorical wall in 2006\u201307, allowing more than twice as many goals against than for, and ultimately not qualifying for the playoffs. It would be the first time they would not qualify for a league playoff in over a decade.\n\nIn spite of government cuts to hockey programs in the city, the team would realign its franchise with Russia, though this time with the more modest Russian Major League. Here, they received relative success. In their first season, Sokil would finish 5th in the division, 8th overall in wins. On top of these improvements, they would carry the 4th most potent offense in the league. The newly revived team was met with continued success in the Russian league, finishing with the best regular season record that year; 4th overall in points percentage. They would qualify for a bye in the first round, handily defeat Ryazan in the secondaries, but would ultimately fall to Yugra Khanty-Mansiysk in a 3\u20131 lopsided series.\n\nPresent\n\nFollowing the 2008\u201309 season in the Russian league, the club announced they would rejoining the Belarusian Extraleague for the following year. This was a move largely attributed to the financial burdens brought on by the Russian Ice Hockey Federation's (RHF) mandate that foreign teams pay for the travel, accommodations, and meals of visiting teams. The RHF also demanded that foreign teams pay an annual fee of p.1,500,000 (approx \u20ac35,000).\n\nGoing into the 2009\u201310 Extraleague season, Sokil elevated team expenditures and signed several Ukrainian players who had been in the Kontinental Hockey League, bolstering the roster with professional names such as Kostiantyn Simchuk, Serhiy Varlamov, and Serhiy Klymentiev. They would face further financial difficulties, losing players along the way (including Varlamov), and finish 4th in the Belarusian league's standings, ultimately falling to Yunost Minsk in the semifinals. Sokil would continue their winning streak in the Ukrainian Championship, however, winning their 12th championship.\nThe team's financial issues continued in the 2010\u201312 season, however, and apart from losing many key players, the team missed the Belarusian league's playoffs and their streak in the Ukrainian Championship was broken, when they lost to HC Donbas in the finals. For the 2012 season, Sokil withdrew from the Belarusian league and joined the newly formed Professional Hockey League of Ukraine.\n\nDuring its first two years in the PHL, Sokil forfeited its streak of Ukrainian Championships, with rival HC Donbas-2 becoming the new national standard. To make matters worse, the team was mired in financial difficulties, with players alleging that they were not being paid by the team.\n\nIn December 2013, players on the team went on strike due to not being paid their salaries, which stemmed from sponsorship issues. The team was forced to forfeit games.\n\nTeam colours and mascot\n\nLogo\nThe team's original colors as Dynamo were, hence the nickname that has held to this day (\"white-blues\"), white and blue. When the Sokil name was adopted, the team changed their colors to red and blue, the same colors of the Kyiv coat of arms of the time. The team would eventually return to its white and blue roots, along with the addition of a darker accent of blue, as well as black. Sokil's primary logo has, since 1973, featured a horse-chestnut leaf, the symbol of the city. This element has remained constant on both the chest piece as well as the shoulder patches throughout the team's history since adopting the \"Sokil\" name. The adding of a profile image of a falcon was added later on, and the team would return to its white and blue roots. To mark their 45th anniversary, Sokil updated their classic team logo for the 2008\u201309 season. The re-branding saw a modernization of the team's crest; with a new and more aggressive falcon centerpiece, while retaining the classic, albeit broadened, chestnut leaf backdrop.\n\nJerseys\n\nThe team's original jerseys were white with horizontal blue striping. In 1973, the primary color of red was added, and the body striping was eliminated for a more contemporary look. When the sponsor's name (\"Eskulap\") was added briefly in 1992, the team logo was changed to a tryzub. Also, the Coca-Cola logo was added to the front of the team's jerseys for a period of time. Aside from this, when the blue and white colors came into use, the jerseys went through a series of design changes, running a gamut of styles containing variations of arm and hem striping, shoulder yolks, and design coloring. The contemporary jersey features a body and arm design that has a graphic of feathers rather than traditional hockey striping. It is the same design used by Avangard Omsk of the Kontinental Hockey League. The jerseys are made by the Russian company Lutch.\n\nSeasons and records\n\nSeason by season results\n\nLeague history and results\n\nSoviet era\n\nModern era\n\nTeam awards\n\nLeagues\n Eastern European Hockey League winners (2): 1998, 1999\n Ukrainian Hockey Championship winners (12): 1993, 1995, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010\n Soviet Championship League third place (1): 1984\u201385\n\nOther tournaments\n Cup of Eastern European Hockey League winners (2): 1998, 1999\n Ukrainian Hockey Cup winners (1): 2007\n Ukrainian Federation Cup winners (1): 2010\n Tampere Cup winners (1): 1989\n\nPlayers\n\nHonored members\n\nHonored numbers\n\nSokil Kyiv has officially honored five numbers in their history. All of the honorees were born in Ukraine.\n\n*Both Zhitnik and Shyriaiev are also members of the Soviet Hockey Hall of Fame\n\nIndividual awards\nSoviet Championship All Stars\n Yuri Shundrov: 1980\u201381, 1987\u201388\n Sergei Gorbushin: 1981\u201382, 1982\u201383\n Mikhail Tatarinov: 1983\u201384, 1985\u201386\n Anatoly Stepanischev: 1985\u201386, 1989\u201390\n Valeri Shyriaiev: 1987\u201388, 1988\u201389, 1989\u201390\n Dmitri Khristich: 1989\u201390\n\nSoviet League Knight Attack award (most hat-tricks)\n Ramil Yuldashev: 1984\u201385, 1989\u201390\n Sergei Davydov: 1985\u201386Soviet League Sniper award (most goals)\n Nikolai Narimanov: 1984\u201385\n Evgeni Shastin: 1987\u201388\n Ramil Yuldashev: 1990\u201391\n\nSoviet League Total Points award\n Ramil Yuldashev: 1990\u201391\n\nSoviet League Top Defenseman award\n Valeri Shyriaiev: 1989\u201390, 1990\u201391\n\nTeam leaders\nHead coaches\n Dmitri Boginov, 1963\u201369\n Igor Shichkov, 1969\u201374\n Vladimir Egorov, 1974\u201376\n Anatoly Egorov, 1976\u201377 (until November 1977)\n Anatoli Bogdanov, 1977\u201391\n Alexander Fadeev, 1991\u201396\n Alexei Boginov 1996\u201397\n Oleksandr Seukand 1997\u201399\n Oleksandr Kulikov 1999\u20132001\n Oleksandr Seukand 2001\u201311\n Oleksandr Hodyniuk 2011\u20132013\n Serhiy Lubnin 2013\u2013presentTeam captains\n Valentin Utkin, 1963\u2013\n Yuri Pavlov,\n Vladimir Andreyev, 1978\u201380\n Anatoly Demin, 1980\u201382\n Oleg Islamov, 1984\u201385\n Vasyl Bobrovnikov 2003\u201304\n Yuri Hunko, \u20132010\n Serhiy Klymentiev 2010\u201312\n\nDrafted players\nThe following are players who have been drafted in the National Hockey League (NHL) Entry Draft and played the season prior to the draft for the Sokil ice hockey organization. There have been 11 players drafted in the NHL Entry Draft from the Sokil hockey club.\n\nThe most notable players drafted from Sokil are defenseman Alexei Zhitnik, who played more the 1000 regular season games in the NHL, and forward Dmitri Khristich, who scored over 250 goals and 500 points.\n\nJunior program NHL alumni\nThe following pupils of Sokil's hockey school have gone on to be drafted into the NHL.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\n \nIce hockey clubs in Kyiv\nProfessional Hockey League teams\nEastern European Hockey League teams\nBelarusian Extraleague teams\n1963 establishments in Ukraine\nIce hockey clubs", " three-story addition and a two-story gymnasium were built in 1938. A newer, two-story gymnasium was constructed in 1966. The main building and the 1938 addition reflect Collegiate Gothic (or Tudor Revival) and Classical Revival styles of architecture. The high school was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1989.\n\nDuring its early years, Attucks was known for its excellence in academics, in addition to its successful athletic teams, especially its basketball program. The high school also became a gathering place and a source of pride for the city's African American community. In 1955, the Attucks Tigers won the Indiana High School Athletic Association's state basketball championship, becoming the first all-black school in the nation to win a state title. In 1956, the team became the first state champions in IHSAA history to complete a season undefeated since the Indiana High School Boys Basketball Tournament began in 1911. Attucks also won the IHSAA state basketball championship in 1959 and in 2017 (Class 3A). The school contains the Crispus Attucks Museum, which opened in 1998.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly 1920s\nIndianapolis was a largely segregated city in the early twentieth century, although three of its public high schools enrolled black students: Emmerich Manual High School, Arsenal Technical High School, and Shortridge High School. Overcrowding, especially at Shortridge, led Indianapolis Public Schools' board members to begin discussions on the construction of a new high school. In 1922, as interest in building an all-black public high school increased, the IPS board decided to pursue the idea and began to move ahead with its plans.\n\nSome white residents of the city, not wanting their children to attend an integrated high school, urged the school board to build a new public high school specifically for African American students. However, some African Americans in the community adamantly opposed the establishment of an all-black high school and preferred an integrated public school system. Despite the differing viewpoints, the IPS board decided that all of the city's African American high school students would attend the new school.\n\nEarly years\nCrispus Attucks High School was built northwest of downtown Indianapolis, in the area that was known as the Bottoms, near the Indiana Central Canal and Indiana Avenue, which was the African American community's business and cultural hub. The Bottoms was also the largest and best-known area of the city's African American community.\n\nThe IPS board initially chose Thomas Jefferson High School as the name for the new school, but some members of the community objected to the choice and circulated petitions to have the name changed to Crispus Attucks High School. The school board reversed its decision and named the school in honor of Crispus Attucks. His ethnicity is now uncertain, but at the time the new school was named, it was believed he was a black man who was killed in the attack on British soldiers in Boston, Massachusetts, in March 1770 during what became known as the Boston Massacre.\n\nAll the African American teenagers enrolled at the city's other public high schools, such as Arsenal Technical High School, George Washington Community High School, and Shortridge High School, were moved to Crispus Attucks when it opened in 1927 with the promise that the Attucks students would receive a \"separate but equal\" education. After Attucks opened, IPS administrators prohibited African American students from attending any other public high school in the city until integration of the schools was mandated by law. Community activists who opposed the decision challenged the local school board through the legal justice system, but efforts to desegregate the city's schools continued for several decades after the school opened.\n\nStudents and faculty \nIn addition to its students, Attucks's first principal, Matthias Nolcox, and its initial faculty were African Americans, making it the only all-black high school in Indianapolis. Nolcox recruited well-educated teachers for the new school from the traditionally black colleges in the South, as well as from high schools in other areas of the country. While black students were allowed to attend colleges and universities, the schools of higher learning did not hire black educators for their faculties leaving a large group of overqualified teachers forced to teach at the high school level.\n\nIndianapolis's new high school was originally planned for 1,000 students; however, the estimate soon increased to 1,200 students, requiring Nolcox to hire additional staff to accommodate the projected increase in enrollment. The school opened on September 12, 1927, with 42 faculty and 1,345 students. Formal dedication ceremonies took place on October 28, 1927. After Attucks, Indiana had two other all-black public high schools opened in the state: Gary's Roosevelt High School and Evansville's Lincoln High School.\n\nFrom the beginning, overcrowding was a persistent problem at Attucks. The IPS board authorized the remodeling of IPS Number 17, a school building adjacent to Attucks, to house the overflow of students. Nolcox served as principal of both facilities. Thomas J. Anderson replaced Nolcox as the school's second principal from July to September 1930. An interim principal briefly assumed Anderson's duties until Russell A. Lane, who was hired as one of the school's original English teachers, was named the new principal later that fall.\n\nLane continued to hire well-educated faculty for the school. At a time when most other high schools in the city had teachers with undergraduate bachelor's degrees, several of Attucks's teachers had master's degrees or PhDs. During these early years, Attucks's percentage of teachers with advanced degrees was higher than any other school in the area. By 1934, Attucks had 62 faculty members; 17 of them had master's degrees and two had doctorate degrees. In 1935\u201336, the school had grown to include 68 faculty and 2,327 students. A freshman center was added to the high school in 1938 to alleviate overcrowding.\n\nCurriculum and events \nAttucks offered an extensive curriculum, including general education courses such as math, sciences, language arts, art, music, and physical education, as well as home economics and industrial arts courses to provide vocational training. Because of its faculty and varied curriculum, Attucks became known for its excellence in academics, in addition to its successful athletic programs.\n\nThe Indianapolis Recorder, the local newspaper for the African American community, publicized school events, which helped to bring Attucks's various activities to the public's attention. The school became a gathering place and a source of pride for the city's African American community. The school's athletic teams, especially its basketball program, \"represented the African American community in Indianapolis.\"\n\nTo encourage the students and show support for the school, several celebrities made visits to the school and addressed gatherings of the student body. Notable visitors included Jesse Owens, Langston Hughes, Thurgood Marshall, George Washington Carver, and Floyd Patterson, as well as other notable athletes, authors, scientists, politicians, and civil rights activists who came to the city to speak the previous Sunday at the nearby Senate Avenue Young Men's Christian Association's speakers' series, called \"Monster Meetings\".\n\n1940s and 1950s\nDesegregation of the city's schools became a major issue in the late-1940s and during the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. Despite the state legislature's passage of mandatory desegregation laws in 1949, the IPS board approved a gradual desegregation plan and Attucks remained an all-black high school, largely due to residential segregation. During this period, the high school's enrollment began to decline from 2,364 students in 1949 to 1,612 in 1953. Attucks had two white educators on its faculty in 1956 and continued to remain the only \"high school in the city with a single-race student body.\"\n\n1950s basketball team state championships\n\nThe Indiana High School Athletic Association (IHSAA) refused full membership to private, parochial, and all-black high schools until 1942 when full membership opened to include all of the state's three- and four-year high schools. The change in membership allowed Attucks and the state's other all-black high schools, as well as Indiana's Catholic high schools, to participate for the first time in IHSAA-sanctioned basketball tournaments. Attucks had good success in basketball during the 1950s, producing two Indiana Mr. Basketballs: Hallie Bryant and Oscar Robertson. In addition to Bryant and Robertson, several other Attucks players and coaches have been inducted into the Indiana Basketball Hall of Fame.\n\nThe Attucks Tigers made it to the Indiana High School Boys Basketball Tournament championship game for the first time in 1951 but lost to Evansville's Reitz Memorial High School, 66\u201359. On March 19, 1955, the Attucks team, led by future professional star and National Basketball Association Hall of Famer Oscar Robertson, won the IHSAA's state championship, beating Gary's Roosevelt High School, 97\u201364, and becoming the first all-black school in the nation to win a state title. Robertson led Attucks to another championship in 1956, beating Lafayette's Jefferson High School, 79\u201357, and becoming the first state champion team in IHSAA history to complete a season undefeated since the state tournament began in 1911. The program won its third IHSAA state basketball championship in 1959. Because the school's black student-athletes played and won contests with predominately white teams, historians have pointed out that Attucks's successful basketball program also \"mobilized the black community\" and served as \"role models for black youths\".\n\n1960s\u20131990s\nBy the 1960s Indianapolis's racial and class segregation led to changes at Attucks. As the city's black middle class moved to other neighborhoods, some of their children were enrolled at Shortridge and Arsenal Tech high schools, while the children of poorer African Americans continued to attend Attucks. In addition, the IPS board continued to ignore the federal government's suggestions for integration of its schools. In 1970, U.S. District Court Judge Samuel Hugh Dillin \"found IPS guilty of operating a segregated school system.\" Although IPS opened an integrated secondary campus on Cold Springs Road in 1970 to help ease some of the overcrowding at Attucks, the main high school building remained a segregated school while appeals of the federal court's decision continued. As a result of the lengthy appeals process, sources indicate that it is difficult to specify an exact date for Attucks's formal desegregation. School historians believe that the first white students enrolled at Attucks's main campus in 1971, although others have suggested that it occurred in 1968.\n\nIn 1981, IPS administrators considered closing the high school due to rapidly declining enrollment. Attucks's student body was 973 in 1980, but enrollment had fallen to 885 in 1985. Although many opposed the idea, Attucks was converted from a high school to a junior high school in 1986 and became a middle school in 1993. The building was placed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1989 and the Indiana Historical Bureau erected a state historical marker at the school in 1992.\n\n2000s\u2013present\nAttucks reverted to a high school in 2006, when IPS superintendent Eugene White announced the formation of the Crispus Attucks Medical Magnet, changing the school from a middle school to a medical preparatory school for grades 6\u201312. The designation as a medical magnet school is partially due to the school's proximity to the campus of the Indiana University School of Medicine and its associated hospitals. The change was made by adding one grade each year. The magnet school's first class graduated in 2010; its first class to complete the full medical magnet program graduated in 2013. Attucks restored its basketball program in 2008 as an IHSAA Class 3A school. The team won the Class 3A title on March 25, 2017, its first state basketball championship since 1959.\n\nBuilding description\n\nExterior\nThe school covers a two-square-block area and was built in three phases: a three-story, flat-roofed main building with an E-shaped plan on the east, constructed in 1927; a three-story addition to the west of the main building and a two-story gymnasium, built in 1938; and a newer, two-story gymnasium constructed in 1966. The main building, designed by local architects Merritt Harrison and Llewellyn A. Turnock, as well as the 1938 addition, reflect Collegiate Gothic (or Tudor Revival) and Classical Revival styles of architecture. The main building is constructed primarily of red brick and includes buff-colored glazed architectural terra-cotta detailing. The red brick addition built in 1938 has similar architectural detailing but uses limestone instead of terra-cotta. The newer red brick gymnasium built in 1966 has concrete vertical and horizontal bands.\n\nThe main fa\u00e7ade, facing east, dates to 1927 and has a center section and nearly identical projecting sections at each end. The center section's one-story entrance foyer has three pairs of entry doors with fanlights and a terra-cotta belt course separating a terra-cotta balustrade, above, from a round-arched, terra-cotta arcade, below. Each of the center section's two upper stories contains panels with terra-cotta detailing around a grouping of three windows. Terra-cotta panels on the second include a lyre, laurel leaves, and violins in bas-relief. Terra-cotta panels above the third-floor windows contain the words Attucks High School inscribed in Old English typeface. Windows along the main fa\u00e7ade are grouped in threes (a pair of smaller windows on either side of a double window). A belt course runs across the entire main fa\u00e7ade above the first-floor lintels and windows. Upper-story windows have terra-cotta molding above the lintels and windows.\n\nThe north fa\u00e7ade shows the original, three-story section on the east with two wings flanking a center section. There are entrances in each wing and nine windows on each floor of the center section. The two upper stories of the original building have windows set in three terra-cotta panels. Oil lamps and other decorations in bas-relief decorate the panels separating the first and second floors. Each story of the 1938 red-brick and limestone addition has four groupings of windows, each one with four windows, and limestone details. The three-story addition rests on a limestone foundation. The two-story gymnasium, built to the west of the 1938 addition, has an entry framed with a limestone arch. The word Gymnasium is inscribed in Old English typeface on a stone tablet above the arch. A newer gymnasium, constructed of brick with concrete bands, was added to the west of the older gymnasium in 1966. The main entrance to the new gymnasium is on the north side. A side entry is on the building's south elevation. The south fa\u00e7ade contains the main building constructed in 1927 (similar in appearance to the north fa\u00e7ade) and a one-story greenhouse, also original to the building. Interconnected additions on the south fa\u00e7ade include the 1938 addition, service areas, and loading docks constructed at various times. There is also a five-story, red brick smokestack.\n\nInterior\nThe original 1927 school building has classrooms with double-loaded corridors arranged in a square around the auditorium. Notable features of the original interior include the main entry foyer with its terrazzo floors and a triple-arched arcade with terra-cotta columns. The plastered ceilings of the foyer and auditorium have exposed beams. The Crispus Attucks museum was also established in another section of the building.\n\nMuseum\nAfter several years of development, the Crispus Attucks Museum opened in the school's former auxiliary gym in 1998. The museum houses four galleries and 38 exhibits recalling local, state, national, and international African American history. Indiana Black Expo, Indiana University, and the Madam Walker Legacy Center are frequent collaborators. The museum underwent a renovation in 2009.\n\nIt is open to guests by appointment only, Monday through Friday (9 a.m. to 6 p.m.) and Saturday through Sunday (10 a.m. to 3 p.m.).\n\nNotable alumni\nHarriette Bailey Conn, politician, lawyer, and Indiana public defender\nDavid Baker, jazz musician and composer; founder and chair of Indiana University Bloomington's jazz studies program\nNerissa Brokenburr Stickney, pianist and music educator\nAngela Brown, dramatic soprano\nHarry W. Brooks Jr., Major General, U.S. Army\nHallie Bryant, professional basketball player\nJulia Carson, politician\nThe Counts, rhythm and blues and \"doo-wop\" band\nBobby Edmonds, professional basketball player\n\"Wee\" Willie Gardner, professional basketball player\nFelrath Hines (1913-1993), visual artist and art conservator\nJ. J. Johnson, jazz musician and composer\nJanet Langhart-Cohen, writer\nWes Montgomery, jazz musician\nBernard Parham, chess master and chess teacher and originator of the Parham Attack chess opening\nPaul Parks, civil engineer and public servant\nBailey \"Flap\" Robertson, professional basketball player\nOscar Robertson, professional basketball player\nJames Spaulding, jazz musician\nMeshach Taylor, actor\nJoAnne Terry, Olympic Hurdler\n\nNotable administrators and faculty\n\nPrincipals\nMatthias Nolcox, first high school principal (1927\u20131930)\nThomas J. Anderson, second high school principal (1930)\nRussell A. Lane, third high school principal (1930\u20131957); became Indianapolis Public Schools administrator in 1957\nDr. Alexander M. Moor, fourth high school principal (1957\u20131968); became Indianapolis Public Schools assistant superintendent in 1968\nEarl Donalson, fifth high school principal (1969\u20131983)\nDr. Charles David Robinson, sixth high school principal (1983\u20131986)\n\nNotable faculty\nRay Crowe, Attucks's boys' basketball coach (1950\u20131957); coached the Attucks team to back-to-back IHSAA high school basketball championship titles in 1955 and 1956; Attucks's athletic director (1957\u20131967); member of Indiana", "3 v3\n Xeon E5-2695 v3\n Xeon E5-2697 v3\n Xeon E5-2675 v3\n Xeon E5-2698 v3\n Xeon E5-2698A v3\n Xeon E5-2698B v3\n Xeon E5-2686 v3\n Xeon E5-2696 v3\n Xeon E5-2699 v3\n Xeon E5-4655 v3\n Xeon E5-4610 v3\n Xeon E5-4620 v3\n Xeon E5-4627 v3\n Xeon E5-4640 v3\n Xeon E5-4648 v3\n Xeon E5-4650 v3\n Xeon E5-4660 v3\n Xeon E5-4667 v3\n Xeon E5-4669 v3\n\nXeon E7 v3 \n\n Xeon E7-4809 v3\n Xeon E7-4820 v3\n Xeon E7-4830 v3\n Xeon E7-4850 v3\n Xeon E7-8893 v3\n Xeon E7-8891 v3\n Xeon E7-8860 v3\n Xeon E7-8867 v3\n Xeon E7-8870 v3\n Xeon E7-8880 v3\n Xeon E7-8880L v3\n Xeon E7-8890 v3\n Xeon E7-8895 v3\n\nBroadwell-based\n\nXeon D \n\n Xeon D-1513N\n Xeon D-1518\n Xeon D-1520\n Xeon D-1521\n Xeon D-1523N\n Xeon D-1527\n Xeon D-1529\n Xeon D-1528\n Xeon D-1531\n Xeon D-1533N\n Xeon D-1537\n Xeon D-1539\n Xeon D-1540\n Xeon D-1541\n Xeon D-1543N\n Xeon D-1548\n Xeon D-1553N\n Xeon D-1557\n Xeon D-1559\n Xeon D-1567\n Xeon D-1571\n Xeon D-1577\n Xeon D-1581\n Xeon D-1587\n Xeon D-1602\n Xeon D-1622\n Xeon D-1627\n Xeon D-1637\n Xeon D-1623N\n Xeon D-1633N\n Xeon D-1649N\n Xeon D-1653N\n\nXeon E3 v4 \n\n Xeon E3-1285 v4\n Xeon E3-1258L v4\n Xeon E3-1265L v4\n Xeon E3-1270L v4\n Xeon E3-1278L v4\n Xeon E3-1283L v4\n Xeon E3-1284L v4\n Xeon E3-1285L v4\n\nXeon E5 v4 \n\n Xeon E5-1603 v4\n Xeon E5-1607 v4\n Xeon E5-1620 v4\n Xeon E5-1630 v4\n Xeon E5-1650 v4\n Xeon E5-1660 v4\n Xeon E5-1680 v4\n Xeon E5-2623 v4\n Xeon E5-2637 v4\n Xeon E5-2603 v4\n Xeon E5-2643 v4\n Xeon E5-2608L v4\n Xeon E5-2609 v4\n Xeon E5-2620 v4\n Xeon E5-2667 v4\n Xeon E5-2689A v4\n Xeon E5-2618L v4\n Xeon E5-2630 v4\n Xeon E5-2630L v4\n Xeon E5-2640 v4\n Xeon E5-2689 v4\n Xeon E5-2628L v4\n Xeon E5-2650 v4\n Xeon E5-2666 v4\n Xeon E5-2687W v4\n Xeon E5-2648L v4\n Xeon E5-2650L v4\n Xeon E5-2658 v4\n Xeon E5-2660 v4\n Xeon E5-2680 v4\n Xeon E5-2690 v4\n Xeon AWS-1100 v4\n Xeon E5-2676 v4\n Xeon E5-2682 v4\n Xeon E5-2683 v4\n Xeon E5-2697A v4\n Xeon E5-2686 v4\n Xeon E5-2695 v4\n Xeon E5-2697 v4\n Xeon E5-2673 v4\n Xeon E5-2679 v4\n Xeon E5-2698 v4\n Xeon E5-2696 v4\n Xeon E5-2699 v4\n Xeon E5-2699A v4\n Xeon E5-2699C v4\n Xeon E5-2699R v4\n Xeon E5-2699P v4\n Xeon E5-4610 v4\n Xeon E5-4620 v4\n Xeon E5-4627 v4\n Xeon E5-4628L v4\n Xeon E5-4640 v4\n Xeon E5-4650 v4\n Xeon E5-4655 v4\n Xeon E5-4660 v4\n Xeon E5-4667 v4\n Xeon E5-4669 v4\n\nXeon E7 v4 \n\n Xeon E7-4809 v4\n Xeon E7-4820 v4\n Xeon E7-4830 v4\n Xeon E7-4850 v4\n Xeon E7-8855 v4\n Xeon E7-8860 v4\n Xeon E7-8867 v4\n Xeon E7-8870 v4\n Xeon E7-8880 v4\n Xeon E7-8890 v4\n Xeon E7-8891 v4\n Xeon E7-8893 v4\n Xeon E7-8894 v4\n\nSkylake-based\n\nXeon D \n\n Xeon D-2141I\n Xeon D-2161I\n Xeon D-2191\n Xeon D-2123IT\n Xeon D-2142IT\n Xeon D-2143IT\n Xeon D-2163IT\n Xeon D-2173IT\n Xeon D-2183IT\n Xeon D-2145NT\n Xeon D-2146NT\n Xeon D-2166NT\n Xeon D-2177NT\n Xeon D-2187NT\n\nXeon E3 v5 \n\n Xeon E3-1220 v5\n Xeon E3-1225 v5\n Xeon E3-1230 v5\n Xeon E3-1240 v5\n Xeon E3-1245 v5\n Xeon E3-1270 v5\n Xeon E3-1275 v5\n Xeon E3-1280 v5\n Xeon E3-1260L v5\n Xeon E3-1268L v5\n Xeon E3-1235L v5\n Xeon E3-1240L v5\n Xeon E3-1585 v5\n Xeon E3-1505M v5\n Xeon E3-1515M v5\n Xeon E3-1535M v5\n Xeon E3-1545M v5\n Xeon E3-1575M v5\n Xeon E3-1565L v5\n Xeon E3-1585L v5\n Xeon E3-1505L v5\n Xeon E3-1558L v5\n Xeon E3-1578L v5\n\nXeon W \n\n Xeon W-2102\n Xeon W-2104\n Xeon W-2123\n Xeon W-2125\n Xeon W-2133\n Xeon W-2135\n Xeon W-2140B\n Xeon W-2145\n Xeon W-2150B\n Xeon W-2155\n Xeon W-2175\n Xeon W-2190B\n Xeon W-2195\n Xeon W-3175X\n\nXeon Bronze \n\n Xeon Bronze 3104\n Xeon Bronze 3106\n\nXeon Silver \n\n Xeon Silver 4106H\n Xeon Silver 4108\n Xeon Silver 4109T\n Xeon Silver 4110\n Xeon Silver 4112\n Xeon Silver 4114\n Xeon Silver 4114T\n Xeon Silver 4116\n Xeon Silver 4116T\n Xeon Silver 4123\n\nXeon Gold \n\n Xeon Gold 5115\n Xeon Gold 5117\n Xeon Gold 5117F\n Xeon Gold 5118\n Xeon Gold 5119T\n Xeon Gold 5120\n Xeon Gold 5120T\n Xeon Gold 5122\n Xeon Gold 6122\n Xeon Gold 6126\n Xeon Gold 6126F\n Xeon Gold 6126T\n Xeon Gold 6127M\n Xeon Gold 6128\n Xeon Gold 6130\n Xeon Gold 6130F\n Xeon Gold 6130T\n Xeon Gold 6132\n Xeon Gold 6133\n Xeon Gold 6134\n Xeon Gold 6134M\n Xeon Gold 6135\n Xeon Gold 6135M\n Xeon Gold 6136\n Xeon Gold 6137\n Xeon Gold 6137M\n Xeon Gold 6138\n Xeon Gold 6138F\n Xeon Gold 6138P\n Xeon Gold 6138T\n Xeon Gold 6139\n Xeon Gold 6139M\n Xeon Gold 6140\n Xeon Gold 6140M\n Xeon Gold 6142\n Xeon Gold 6142F\n Xeon Gold 6142M\n Xeon Gold 6143\n Xeon Gold 6144\n Xeon Gold 6145\n Xeon Gold 6146\n Xeon Gold 6148\n Xeon Gold 6148F\n Xeon Gold 6149\n Xeon Gold 6150\n Xeon Gold 6151\n Xeon Gold 6152\n Xeon Gold 6154\n Xeon Gold 6155\n Xeon Gold 6159\n Xeon Gold 6161\n\nXeon Platinum \n\n Xeon Platinum P-8124\n Xeon Platinum 8124M\n Xeon Platinum P-8136\n Xeon Platinum 8153\n Xeon Platinum 8156\n Xeon Platinum 8158\n Xeon Platinum 8160\n Xeon Platinum 8160F\n Xeon Platinum 8160H\n Xeon Platinum 8160M\n Xeon Platinum 8160T\n Xeon Platinum 8163\n Xeon Platinum 8164\n Xeon Platinum 8165\n Xeon Platinum 8167M\n Xeon Platinum 8168\n Xeon Platinum 8170\n Xeon Platinum 8170M\n Xeon Platinum 8171M\n Xeon Platinum 8172M\n Xeon Platinum 8173M\n Xeon Platinum 8174\n Xeon Platinum 8175M\n Xeon Platinum 8176\n Xeon Platinum 8176F\n Xeon Platinum 8176M\n Xeon Platinum 8179M\n Xeon Platinum 8180\n Xeon Platinum 8180M\n\nKaby Lake-based\n\nXeon E3 v6 \n\n Xeon E3-1205 v6\n Xeon E3-1220 v6\n Xeon E3-1225 v6\n Xeon E3-1230 v6\n Xeon E3-1240 v6\n Xeon E3-1245 v6\n Xeon E3-1270 v6\n Xeon E3-1275 v6\n Xeon E3-1280 v6\n Xeon E3-1285 v6\n Xeon E3-1505M v6\n Xeon E3-1535M v6\n Xeon E3-1501M v6\n Xeon E3-1501L v6\n Xeon E3-1505L v6\n\nCoffee Lake-based\n\nXeon E \n\n Xeon E-2104G\n Xeon E-2124\n Xeon E-2124G\n Xeon E-2126G\n Xeon E-2134\n Xeon E-2136\n Xeon E-2144G\n Xeon E-2146G\n Xeon E-2174G\n Xeon E-2176G\n Xeon E-2186G\n Xeon E-2224\n Xeon E-2224G\n Xeon E-2226G\n Xeon E-2234\n Xeon E-2236\n Xeon E-2244G\n Xeon E-2246G\n Xeon E-2274G\n Xeon E-2276G\n Xeon E-2278G\n Xeon E-2286G\n Xeon E-2288G\n Xeon E-2226GE\n Xeon E-2278GE\n Xeon E-2278GEL\n Xeon E-2176M\n Xeon E-2186M\n Xeon E-2276M\n Xeon E-2286M\n Xeon E-2254ME\n Xeon E-2276ME\n Xeon E-2254ML\n Xeon E-2276ML\n\nCascade Lake-based\n\nXeon Bronze \n\n Xeon Bronze 3204\n Xeon Bronze 3206R\n\nXeon Silver \n\n Xeon Silver 4208\n Xeon Silver 4209T\n Xeon Silver 4210\n Xeon Silver 4210R\n Xeon Silver 4210T\n Xeon Silver 4214\n Xeon Silver 4214R\n Xeon Silver 4214Y\n Xeon Silver 4215\n Xeon Silver 4215R\n Xeon Silver 4216\n\nXeon Gold \n\n Xeon Gold 5215\n Xeon Gold 5215L\n Xeon Gold 5215M\n Xeon Gold 5217\n Xeon Gold 5218\n Xeon Gold 5218B\n Xeon Gold 5218N\n Xeon Gold 5218T\n Xeon Gold 5219Y\n Xeon Gold 5220\n Xeon Gold 5220R\n Xeon Gold 5220S\n Xeon Gold 5220T\n Xeon Gold 5222\n Xeon Gold 6208U\n Xeon Gold 6209U\n Xeon Gold 6210U\n Xeon Gold 6212U\n Xeon Gold 6222V\n Xeon Gold 6222\n Xeon Gold 6226\n Xeon Gold 6226R\n Xeon Gold 6230\n Xe", "\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0445 5 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f 1945 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043e\u043d \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043b\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c \u043e\u043f\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438; \u0432 \u0421\u0428\u0410 \u043d\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0435 \u0441 \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c 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\u0430\u0431\u0437\u0430\u0446 \u043e \u00ab\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0437\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0435\u00bb \u0427\u0435\u0440\u0447\u0438\u043b\u043b\u044c \u043d\u0435 \u0432\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0438\u043b \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0440\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0442. \u0421\u0442\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0438 \u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0451\u0440\u044b, \u043d\u0435 \u043e\u0436\u0438\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0435, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043e\u043d \u043e\u0442\u043e\u0439\u0434\u0451\u0442 \u043e\u0442 \u0442\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0442\u0430, \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0442\u0438 \u0443\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0442 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u0431\u0437\u0430\u0446. \u0422\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0446\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043e\u043d\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043c\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u0437 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043a\u0430\u0436\u0434\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0443\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043b \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u044c. \u0422\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430\u0448\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u043d\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443 \u0441\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0430\u0443\u0434\u0438\u043e\u0437\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u0411\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043b\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u00ab\u0410\u0443\u0434\u0438\u043e-\u0421\u043a\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0448", " of the primacy of Armagh by laymen in the 11th century has received great prominence owing to St. Bernard's denunciation of it in his \"Life of St. Malachy\", but the abuse was not without a parallel on the continent of Europe. The chiefs of the tribe in whose territory Armagh stood usurped the position and temporal emoluments of the primacy and discharged by deputy the ecclesiastical functions. The abuse continued for eight generations until Cellach, known as St. Celsus (1105\u201329), who was intruded as a layman, had himself consecrated bishop, and ruled the see with great wisdom.\n\nIn 1111 he held a great synod at Fiadh-Mic-Aengus at which were present fifty bishops, 300 priests, and 3,000 other ecclesiastics, and also Murrough O'Brian, King of Southern Ireland, and his nobles. During his incumbency the priory of Sts. Peter and Paul at Armagh was re-founded by Imar, the learned preceptor of St. Malachy. This was the first establishment in Ireland into which the Canons Regular of St. Augustine had been introduced. Rory O'Connor, High King of Ireland, afterwards granted it an annual pension for a public school.\n\nAfter a short interval, Celsus was succeeded by St. Malachy O'Morgair (1134\u201337), who later suffered many tribulations in trying to effect a reformation in the diocese. He resigned the see after three years and retired to the Bishopric of Down. In 1139 he went to Rome and solicited the Pope for two palliums, one for the See of Armagh and the other probably for a new Metropolitan See of Cashel. The following year he introduced the Cistercian Order into Ireland, by the advice of St. Bernard. He died at Clairvaux, while making a second journey to Rome. St. Malachy is honoured as the patron saint of the diocese.\n\nGelasius succeeded him and during a long incumbency of thirty-seven years held many important synods which effected great reforms. At the Synod of Kells, held in 1152 and presided over by Cardinal Paparo, the Pope's legate Gelasius received the pallium and at the same time three others were handed over to the new metropolitan sees of Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam.\n\nThe successor of Gelasius in the see, Cornelius Mac Concaille, who died at Chamb\u00e9ry the following year, on a journey to Rome, has been venerated ever since in that locality as a saint. He was succeeded by Gilbert O'Caran (1175\u201380), during whose incumbency the see suffered greatly from the depredations of the Anglo-Norman invaders. William Fitz-Aldelm pillaged Armagh and carried away St. Patrick's crosier, called the \"Staff of Jesus\". O'Caran's successor was Thomas O'Connor (1181\u20131201). In the year after his succession to the see, Pope Lucius III, at the instance of John Comyn, the first English prelate in the See of Dublin, tried to abolish the old Irish custom according to which the primates claimed the right of making solemn circuits and visitations in the province of Leinster as well as those of Tuam and Munster. The papal bull issued was to the effect that no archbishop or bishop should hold any assembly or ecclesiastical court in the Diocese of Dublin, or treat of the ecclesiastical causes and affairs of the said diocese, without the consent of the Archbishop of Dublin, if the latter were actually in his see, unless specially authorised by the Papal See or the Apostolic legate. This Bull laid the groundwork of a bitter and protracted controversy between the Archbishops of Armagh and of Dublin, concerning the primatial right of the former to have his cross carried before him and to try ecclesiastical cases in the diocese of the latter. This contest, however, must not be confounded with that regarding the primacy, which did not arise until the 17th century.\n\nLordship of Ireland (1215\u20131539)\nAs the first Anglo-Norman adventurers who came to Ireland showed very little scruple in despoiling the churches and monasteries, Armagh suffered considerably from their depredations. When the English kings got a footing in the country, they began to intervene in the election of bishops and a contest arose between King John and Pope Innocent III regarding Eugene MacGillaweer, elected to the primatial see in 1203. This prelate was present at the Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215 and died at Rome the following year. The English kings also began to claim possession of the temporalities of the sees during vacancies and to insist on the newly elected bishops suing them humbly for their restitution.\n\nPrimate Reginald (1247\u201356), a Dominican, obtained a papal brief uniting the county of Louth to the See of Armagh. Primate Patrick O'Scanlan (1261\u201370), also a Dominican, rebuilt to a large extent the cathedral of Armagh and founded a house for Franciscans in that city. Primate Nicholas MacMaelisu (1272\u20131302) convened an important assembly of the bishops and clergy of Ireland at Tuam in 1291, at which they bound themselves by solemn oaths to resist the encroachments of the secular power. Primate Richard Fitz-Ralph (1346\u201360) contended publicly both in Ireland and England with the Mendicant Orders on the question of their vows and privileges.\n\nA contest regarding the primacy of Armagh was carried on intermittently during these centuries by the Archbishops of Dublin and Cashel, especially the former, as the city of Dublin was the civic metropolis of the kingdom. During the English period, the primates rarely visited the city of Armagh, preferring to reside at the arch-episcopal manors of Dromiskin and Termonfechan, in the county of Louth, which was within the Pale. During the reign of Henry VIII, Primate Cromer, being suspected of heresy by the Holy See, was deposed in favour of Robert Wauchope (1539\u201351), a distinguished theologian, who assisted at the Council of Trent. In the meantime, George Dowdall, a zealous supporter of Henry, had been elevated into the Church of Ireland See of Armagh by that monarch, but upon the introduction of the Book of Common Prayer in the reign of Edward VI, he left Ireland in disgust. In the beginning of the reign of Queen Mary I, Dowdall (1553\u201358) was appointed properly by the Pope on account of the great zeal he had shown against Protestantism. He survived his consecration only three months.\n\nDuring the English Reformation\nAfter the short incumbency of Donagh O'Tighe (1560\u201362), the see was filled by Richard Creagh (1564\u201385), a native of Limerick. He was lawfully arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London, where he was judicially examined and left to languish in captivity for some years until his death. Edward MacGauran, who succeeded him (1587\u201394), was very active in soliciting aid from the pope and Philip II of Spain for the Irish who were then engaged in a struggle with the Crown. After an interval of eight years, MacGauran was succeeded by Peter Lombard (1601\u201325) (not to be confused with Peter Lombard, the medieval Bishop of Paris). He remained in exile, in Rome, during the whole twenty-four years of his incumbency and thus never once visited his diocese.\n\nHugh MacCawell, a Franciscan, was consecrated abroad for the see in 1626, but died before he could reach it. Hugh O'Reilly, the next primate (1628\u201353), was very active in the political movements of his day. In the chaotic aftermath of the Irish Rebellion of 1641, in 1642, he summoned the Ulster bishops and clergy to a synod at Kells in which the war then carried on by the Irish was declared lawful and pious. He took a prominent part in the Irish Confederation of Kilkenny and was appointed a member of the Supreme Council of twenty-four persons who carried on the government of the country in the name of King Charles I. During the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland (1649\u201353), Ireland was re-conquered by English Parliamentarian forces, who were very hostile to Catholicism. After the defeat, death or exile of most of the Roman Catholic Irish leaders he was elected nominal commander of the Roman Catholic forces for the remainder of the conflict.\n\nEdmund O'Reilly (1657\u201369) succeeded to the see, but owing to the difficulties of the time was only able to spend two years in the diocese out of the twelve of his incumbency. He was exiled on four occasions. During the whole time he spent in the diocese, he was hiding in woods and caves and never had any bed but a cloak thrown over straw. He opposed Peter Valesius Walsh, the author of the \"Loyal Remonstrance\" (1661, 1672) to King Charles II, and died in exile in France.\n\nThe next primate was Oliver Plunkett (1669\u201381). Shortly after his accession to the see, he was obliged to defend the primatial rights of Armagh against the claims put forward for Dublin by its archbishop, Peter Talbot. At a meeting of the Roman clergy in Dublin in 1670, each of these prelates refused to subscribe subsequent to the other. Plunkett thereupon wrote a work on the ancient rights and prerogatives of his see, published in 1672, under the title Jus Primatiale; or the ancient Preeminence of the See of Armagh above all the other Archbishops in the Kingdom of Ireland, asserted by O. A. T. H. P. Talbot replied to two years later in a dissertation styled Primatus Dublinensis; or the chief reasons on which the Church of Dublin relies in the possession and prosecution of her right to the Primacy of Ireland. A violent persecution stilled the controversy for some time and subsequent primates asserted their authority from time to time in Dublin.\n\nIn 1719 two Briefs of Pope Clement XI were in favour of the claims of Armagh. In practice, however, the primatial right has fallen into desuetude in Ireland as in every other part of the Church. In 1679, Oliver Plunkett was arrested on a charge of conspiring to bring 20,000 Frenchmen into the country and of having levied moneys on his clergy for the purpose of maintaining 70,000 men for an armed rebellion against the Crown. After being confined in Dublin Castle for many months, he was presented for trial on these and other charges in Dundalk; but the jury, though all Protestants, refused to find a true bill against him. The venue, however, of his trial was changed to London, where he was tried by a jury before he was able to gather his witnesses and bring them across, though he made the request to the judge. The principal witnesses against him were some priests and friars of Armagh whom he had censured and suspended for their alleged conduct. He was dragged on a sledge to Tyburn on 1 July 1681, where he was hanged, drawn, and quartered in presence of an immense multitude. His head, still in a good state of preservation, can be viewed to this day in St. Peter's church, West St., Drogheda.\n\nPenal times\nDominic Maguire (1683\u20131707), a Dominican, succeeded to the see after the death of the Oliver Plunket. This primate, having to go into exile after the surrender of Limerick in 1691, spent the sixteen years that intervened between that time and his death in a very destitute condition. In the meantime the See of Armagh was administered by a vicar, Patrick Donnelly, a priest of the diocese, who in 1697 was appointed Bishop of Dromore, though retaining the administration of Armagh for several years afterwards.\n\nOwing to the severity of the laws there was no primate resident in Ireland for twenty-three years after the flight of Primate Maguire, in 1691. Hugh MacMahon (1714\u201337), Bishop of Clogher, was at last appointed to the bereft see. Living during the worst of the penal times, the primate was obliged constantly to wander from place to place, saying Mass and administering Confirmation in the open air. Nevertheless, in spite of these difficulties he has left his name to posterity by the learned work Jus Primatiale Armacanum, written by command of the pope in defence of the primatial rights of Armagh. He was succeeded by his nephew, Bernard MacMahon (1737\u201347), then Bishop of Clogher, who is described as a prelate remarkable for zeal, charity, prudence, and sound doctrine. He also suffered considerably from the persecution, and spent most of his time in hiding. Bernard was succeeded in the primacy by his brother, Ross MacMahon (1747\u201348), also Bishop of Clogher.\n\nMichael O'Reilly (1749\u201358), Bishop of Derry, was the next primate. He published two catechisms, one in Irish and the other in English, the latter of which has been in use in parts of the north of Ireland until our own time. On one occasion this primate and eighteen of his priests were arrested near Dundalk. He lived in a small thatched cottage at Milltown, in Termonfechin parish, and at times had to lie concealed in a narrow loft under the thatch. Anthony Blake (1758\u201386) was his successor. The persecution having subsided to a great extent, he was not harried like his predecessors, but nevertheless could not be induced to live permanently in his diocese, a circumstance which was the occasion of much discontent among his clergy and led to a temporary suspension from his duties. Richard O'Reilly (1787\u20131818) was his successor in the primacy. Having an independent fortune, he was the first Catholic prelate since the Revolution who was able to live in a manner becoming his station. By his gentleness and affability he succeeded in quieting the dissensions which had distracted the diocese during the time of his predecessor and was thenceforward known as the \"Angel of Peace\". In 1793, he laid the foundation-stone of Saint Peter's Church in Drogheda, which was to serve as his pro-cathedral, one of the first Catholic churches to be built within the walls of a town in Ireland since the Reformation. The Corporation of Drogheda, wearing their robes and carrying the mace and sword, appeared on the scene and forbade the ceremony to proceed, but their protest was disregarded.\n\n19th and 20th centuries\nPatrick Curtis (1819\u201332), who had been rector of the Irish College of Salamanca, was appointed to the see in more hopeful times, and lived to witness the emancipation of the Roman Church in the UK. He was one of the first to join the Catholic Association, and was on friendly terms with the Duke of Wellington, whom he had met in Spain during the Peninsular War. Thomas Kelly succeeded Curtis (1832\u201335). He lived and died with the reputation of a saint.\n\nWilliam Crolly succeeded him (1835\u201349). He was the first Catholic primate to reside in Armagh, and perform episcopal functions there, since the introduction of the Penal Laws. He began construction of St. Patrick's Cathedral, which took more than sixty years to bring to completion. The foundation-stone was laid 17 March 1840, and before the primate's death, the walls had been raised to a considerable height. Paul Cullen succeeded in 1849, but was translated to the See of Dublin in 1852. In 1850 he presided over the National Synod of Thurles, the first synod held in Ireland since the convention of the bishops and clergy in Kilkenny in 1642.\n\nJoseph Dixon (1852\u201366), the next primate, held a synod in Drogheda in 1854, at which all the northern bishops assisted. Archbishop Dixon resumed the building of the cathedral, but did not live to see it finished. Michael Kieran (1866\u201369) succeeded, residing in Dundalk during his tenure of the primatial see. His successor, Daniel McGettigan (1870\u201387), spent three years of earnest labour in the completion of the cathedral, and was able to open it in 1873. He was succeeded by Cardinal Michael Logue, who succeeded to the primacy in 1887. He was the first Primate of Armagh to become a member of the College of Cardinals. He devoted himself for several years to the task of beautifying and completing in every sense the noble edifice. In the building of the sacristy, library, synod-hall, muniment-room, the purchase in fee-simple of the site, and the interior decorations and altars, he spent more than \u00a350,000 on the cathedral. This great cathedral was consecrated on 24 July 1904. Cardinal Vincenzo Vannutelli, representing Pope Pius X, was present at the consecration.\n\nRedemptoris Mater Seminary\nA House of Formation was founded in 2012 by Cardinal Se\u00e1n Brady and in 2016, the Redemptoris Mater Seminary was officially opened (in the former De La Salle monastery), in Dundalk, County Louth, in the Archdiocese of Armagh, it is a diocesan seminary that operates under the auspices of the Neocatechumenal way. Seminarians travel to Maynooth College for philosophical and theological studies. The first ordination took place in 2014. Rev. Giuseppe Pollio from Italy, serves as rector of the seminary. In 2022, Archbishop Eamon Martin, laid the foundation stone for an extension to the seminary.\n\nAdult Faith Programmes\nThe Armagh Diocese in conjunction with St. Patrick's College, Maynooth commenced in 2019, Certificate, Diploma and Degree programmes in Theology (Adult Education and Pastoral Ministry) in Armagh and Dundalk. The archdiocese of Armagh is one of the regional locations where Maynooth run the Diploma in Diaconate Studies programme.\n\nOrdinaries\n\nList of recent archbishops", " sustained heavy losses and were forced to postpone a further attack on Saigon, while 1 ATF also suffered significant casualties. The largest unit-level action of the war for the Australians, today the battle is considered one of the most famous actions fought by the Australian Army during the Vietnam War.\n\nBackground\n\nMilitary situation\n\nBased in Nui Dat in Ph\u01b0\u1edbc Tuy Province, the 1st Australian Task Force (1 ATF) was part of US II Field Force, Vietnam (IIFFV), under the overall command of Lieutenant General Frederick Weyand. By early 1968, 1 ATF had been reinforced and was at full strength with three infantry battalions supported by armour, artillery, aviation and engineers, while logistic arrangements were provided by the 1st Australian Logistic Support Group (1 ALSG) based at the port of V\u0169ng T\u00e0u. Commanded by Brigadier Ron Hughes, 1 ATF had continued to operate independently within Ph\u01b0\u1edbc Tuy, and while the war had become a series of large-scale search-and-destroy operations in a war of attrition for the Americans, the Australians had largely pursued their own counter-insurgency campaign despite the differences between Australian and American methods at times producing friction between the allies. Regardless, 1 ATF was also available for deployment elsewhere in the III Corps Tactical Zone and with the province coming progressively under control throughout 1967, the Australians would increasingly spend a significant period of time conducting operations further afield.\n\nThe Tet Offensive began on 31 January 1968, with 85,000 to 100,000 PAVN/VC troops simultaneously assaulting population centres and allied installations across South Vietnam in an attempt to incite a general uprising against the South Vietnamese government and its American supporters. In response, 1 ATF was deployed along likely infiltration routes in order to defend the vital Bi\u00ean H\u00f2a\u2013Long Binh complex near Saigon between January and March, as part of Operation Coburg. Heavy fighting resulted in 17 Australians killed and 61 wounded, while PAVN/VC casualties included at least 145 killed, 110 wounded and five captured, with many more removed from the battlefield. Meanwhile, the remaining Australian forces in Ph\u01b0\u1edbc Tuy were stretched thin, with elements of 3 RAR successfully repelling an assault on B\u00e0 R\u1ecba and later spoiling a harassing attack on Long \u0110i\u1ec1n and conducting a sweep of H\u1ecfa L\u00f2ng, killing 50 VC and wounding 25 for the loss of five killed and 24 wounded.\n\nAt the strategic level the general uprising never eventuated, and in late-February the PAVN/VC offensive collapsed after suffering more than 45,000 killed, against South Vietnamese and allied losses of 6,000 men. Regardless, it proved to be a turning point in the war and although it had been a tactical disaster for the PAVN/VC, Hanoi emerged with a significant political victory as confidence in the American military and political leadership collapsed, as did public support for the war in the United States. Prior to Tet, American commanders and politicians had talked confidently about winning the war, arguing that General William Westmoreland's strategy of attrition had reached the point where the PAVN/VC were losing soldiers and equipment faster than they could be replaced. Yet the scale of the offensive, and the surprise and violence with which it had been launched, had shocked the American public and contradicted such predictions of imminent victory; in its wake President Lyndon Johnson announced that he would no longer seek a second term in office. Tet had a similar effect on Australian public opinion, and caused growing uncertainty in the government about the determination of the United States to remain militarily involved in Southeast Asia. Amid the initial shock, Prime Minister John Gorton unexpectedly declared that Australia would not increase its military commitment in South Vietnam beyond the current level of 8,000 personnel.\n\nOn the ground, the war continued without respite and Hughes\u2014the 1 ATF commander\u2014turned his attention to the VC D445 Provincial Mobile Battalion, deciding to strike at its base areas in the Minh Dam Secret Zone located in the Long H\u1ea3i Hills south of Long \u0110i\u1ec1n and \u0110\u1ea5t \u0110\u1ecf, from Nui Dat. The 5th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (5 RAR) had suffered heavy casualties in February 1967 while operating in the Long H\u1ea3is, which were heavily defended by mines and booby traps; despite previous operations by the US 173rd Airborne Brigade in June 1966 and two smaller South Vietnamese operations, the area had remained a VC safe haven. However, this time the Australians would use two battalions supported by tanks and air strikes in an attempt to reduce the base area. Operation Pinnaroo began on 27 February, with 2 RAR and 3 RAR cordoning off the complex with the rifle companies patrolling and ambushing at night in order to prevent the VC from escaping. On 8 March the Australians conducted a wide encircling movement to tighten the cordon, while a sustained bombardment by US B-52 heavy bombers and artillery targeted the hill the next day. A combined force of infantry from 3 RAR supported by armour then advanced on the foothills, before clearing the minefields and destroying an extensive base area which included a deep cave system that had first been used by the Vi\u1ec7t Minh against the French in the 1950s. Each Australian rifle company then methodically searched its area of operations, while engineers destroyed the underground facilities; a task which required the use of tonnes of explosives.\n\nThe operation lasted until 15 April, with mines\u2014including many M16s that had been lifted by the VC from the controversial barrier minefield laid by the Australians at \u0110\u1ea5t \u0110\u1ecf\u2014once again claiming a significant toll. Ten Australians were killed and another 36 were wounded, while known VC casualties included 21 killed, 14 wounded and 40 captured. Fifty-seven camps and bunker systems were also destroyed, as were large quantities of weapons, munitions and supplies. Judged a success by the Australians despite their heavy losses, the operation had resulted in significant disruption to the VC and hindered their operations for some time. Regardless, with 1 ATF lacking the manpower to hold the area, the failure of South Vietnamese forces to permanently occupy the Long Hais meant that any gains were only fleeting, and the D445 Battalion headquarters soon returned to the area after ejecting a South Vietnamese regional force company a few months later. Meanwhile, 7 RAR had finished its last operation in March and was relieved by 1 RAR on 9 April, returning to Australia having completed its twelve-month tour.\n\nPrelude\n\nPlanning and preliminary operations\n\nDespite their losses during the previous fighting, the PAVN/VC appeared to have gained the initiative. Indeed, although the Tet offensive had devastated the VC, costing them about half their strength in the south, the Defense Minister of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam\u2014General V\u00f5 Nguy\u00ean Gi\u00e1p\u2014had moved quickly to replace these losses with reinforcements, and by early May 15,000 PAVN soldiers were serving in VC units in South Vietnam. On 8 April, Westmoreland launched a series of large-scale sweeps involving over 70,000 South Vietnamese, American, Australian, New Zealand and Thai troops, code-named Operation Toan Thang I. Meanwhile, on 5 May the PAVN/VC launched attacks against 119 provincial and district capitals, military installations and major cities during the May Offensive in an attempt to gain an advantage at the first session of peace negotiations scheduled to begin in Paris on the 13th. Saigon was successfully infiltrated in an event that received widespread international media coverage and resulted in considerable embarrassment for the Americans and their allies, with as many as five of the 13 attacking VC battalions penetrating the city's outer defences, plunging the capital into chaos and resulting in heavy civilian casualties. After three days of intense fighting American and South Vietnamese forces successfully repelled the assault while, as the peace talks neared, a fresh wave of attacks was launched on Saigon several days later. However, by 12 May the fighting was over, and the VC were forced to withdraw having suffered more than 5,500 dead in just over one week of fighting. US casualties were also heavy, amounting to 652 killed and 2,225 wounded, which made it the most costly week of the war for the Americans.\n\nThe Australians were initially employed on operations inside Ph\u01b0\u1edbc Tuy Province during Operation Toan Thang I. VC activity in their traditional base areas in the Hat Dich north of Nui Thi Vai hills, had been increasing in February and March and 3 RAR subsequently commenced operations along the north-western border of Ph\u01b0\u1edbc Tuy Province on 21 April. These operations resulted in little contact. In light of this, the Commander Australian Forces Vietnam\u2014Major General Arthur MacDonald\u2014believed that the task force would be better employed against PAVN forces, rather than in local pacification operations; later, following a request from Weyand, 1 ATF would again redeploy outside the province. As such, in an operation similar to those three months earlier at Bi\u00ean H\u00f2a, it was planned that 1 ATF would be used to help block infiltration towards Saigon. Overall responsibility for the defence of the capital was assigned to US IIFFV, and included the US 1st, 9th, and 25th Division, as well as the US 199th Light Infantry Brigade, 1 ATF, and a number of South Vietnamese units. The main deployment began on 25 April in response to intelligence reports of another impending offensive, with 1 ATF headquarters established at the US Bearcat Base, while 2 RAR and 3 RAR deployed to the Bi\u00ean H\u00f2a\u2013Long Kh\u00e1nh border to block likely infiltration routes east of the large American base complex at Long Binh, which included Bi\u00ean H\u00f2a Air Base and the large Long Binh Logistics Depot. Meanwhile, the task force base at Nui Dat was defended by one infantry battalion, a squadron of tanks and the remainder of the cavalry. The SAS squadron also remained in Ph\u01b0\u1edbc Tuy during this period, continuing reconnaissance and surveillance operations in the province.\n\n2 RAR was tasked with patrolling and ambushing tracks and likely rocket-launching sites to disrupt the expected attack against Saigon. The battalion established FSB Hunt, and conducted a number of small but successful ambushes. Meanwhile, 3 RAR established FSB Evans and conducted search-and-ambush operations before returning to Nui Dat on 3 May after being replaced by 1 RAR, which then joined 2 RAR for a sweep. In response to the attacks on Saigon, elements of 1 ATF redeployed on 5 May, relieving the US 199th Light Infantry Brigade in an area of operations (AO) known as AO Columbus so that it could be released for operations elsewhere, with companies from both battalions deploying to ambush suspected infiltration routes in the expectation of an attack by the 274th Regiment from the VC 5th Division. Five days later 2 RAR was relieved by 3 RAR, having completed its last major operation before returning to Australia. The Australians waited for the VC to make their move, but they again proved elusive and contact was only light, and by 10 May just six had been killed and one wounded after 21 days of operations. Having missed the PAVN/VC units as they infiltrated the capital, it was planned that the Australians would be again redeployed on 12 May in order to obstruct the withdrawal of these forces following their defeat in Saigon. The task force would subsequently concentrate astride Route 16 on one of the major north\u2013south supply routes north-east of Saigon, just east of Lai Khe in B\u00ecnh D\u01b0\u01a1ng Province, in a new area of operations known as AO Surfers. Meanwhile, US forces would operate in support on the flanks.\n\nOpposing forces\n\n1 ATF would move with its headquarters and two infantry battalions\u20141 RAR and 3 RAR\u2014as well as cavalry, artillery, engineer, and aviation elements operating in support, including M113 armoured personnel carriers from A Squadron, 3rd Cavalry Regiment, 105\u00a0mm M2A2 howitzers from 12th Field Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery, Bell H-13 Sioux light observation helicopters from 161st Reconnaissance Flight and mortar locating radars from 131st Divisional Locating Battery. The concept of operations called for the establishment battalion AOs, named Bondi, Manly and Newport. 1 RAR was allocated to AO Bondi with artillery support from the 102nd Field Battery established at a fire support base, named FSB Coral. 3 RAR was initially allocated to AO Manly, west of Bondi, and would also be supported from FSB Coral by its own supporting battery, 161st Battery, Royal New Zealand Artillery. The operation would be conducted in three phases. 3 RAR\u2014under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Jim Shelton\u2014would conduct an air assault into Coral early on 12 May, with the lead elements securing the landing zone for the fly-in of the remainder of the battalion, and 1 RAR under Lieutenant Colonel Phillip Bennett. Leaving its supporting artillery and one infantry company for protection, 3 RAR would then move west to establish blocking positions and patrol AO Manly in order to intercept PAVN/VC forces attempting to withdraw from the south and south-west. Meanwhile, 1 RAR would establish its supporting artillery and mortars at FSB Coral, and then with one company, clear Route 16 to the village of Tan Uyen, to the south. The battalion would then occupy blocking positions and patrol AO Bondi. 1 ATF headquarters would then move from Bearcat to FSB Coral on 13 May, while the forward task force maintenance area would move from Bearcat by road convoy and be operational by 14 May.\n\nA number of PAVN units had been identified in AO Surfers, including the regular PAVN 7th Division\u2014consisting of the PAVN 141st and 165th Regiments under the command of Nguyen the Bon, the VC 5th Division\u2014consisting of VC 274th and 275th Regiments, and the \u0110\u1ed3ng Nai Regiment. These divisions were believed to have participated in the assault on Saigon and allied intelligence considered it likely they would attempt to withdraw through the Australian area of operations in order to regroup. Other forces included the PAVN 85th Regiment as well as the 165th, 233rd, 269th, 275th, D280 and 745th VC Infiltration Groups and various units used for reconnaissance, guiding, logistics, liaison and other tasks. In total, an estimated strength of 3,000 to 4,000 men. Regardless, despite earlier warnings that they may concentrate up to regimental-strength, a breakdown in the passage of intelligence led the Australians to believe that the PAVN/VC would remain dispersed in small groups in an attempt to avoid detection. As such the Australians assumed that the PAVN/VC forces would pose little threat and envisioned patrolling from company harbours to find and ambush them as they withdrew. Meanwhile, due to the risk of heavy ground fire, only a very limited aerial reconnaissance of the new area of operations was undertaken and this later had significant implications.\n\nBattle\n\nOccupation of FSB Coral, 12 May 1968\nOn the night of 11/12 May, only a few hours before the Australian redeployment was scheduled to commence, forces from US 1st Division operating in AO Surfers were attacked just west of the proposed landing zone (LZ). Continuing through the night and into the following morning, the fighting prevented the Americans from leaving the area and led to initial delays in occupying FSB Coral. Further delays arose after the terrain around the proposed LZ was found to be unsuitable for helicopters, and Shelton was forced to designate a new location to the south-west for his battalion. Meanwhile, the American company providing security for the lead Australian elements had to redeploy to secure the new LZ. Communications were problematic throughout the operation and this further compounded the delays. The first infantry company to fly in\u2014B Company, 3 RAR under the command of Major Bert Irwin\u2014was already airborne and Shelton directed them to the new LZ. On landing, Irwin moved quickly to the original position, and despite rapidly clearing it, the insertion was further delayed.\n\n1 ATF was not well practised in flying in and setting up a large fire support base, and a poorly co-ordinated, prolonged and dislocated operation caused considerable delay in getting on the ground, and the scattering of a number of units. Confusion continued to affect the operation, with 161st Battery, RNZA arriving by CH-47 Chinook before FSB Coral was ready, and being forced to land in an improvised LZ in a clearing to the south-west. Meanwhile, the continued presence of American forces in AO Manly also prevented 3 RAR from deploying as planned, and as the battalion began landing it was forced to remain on the western side of the FSB. 102nd Field Battery, the direct support battery for 1 RAR, was subsequently landed at FSB Coral and Major Brian Murtagh, second-in-command of 12th Field Regiment and the artillery tactical headquarters, was subsequently designated as the FSB commander, even though his guns were now physically dislocated from each other.\n\nThese delays in turn affected the fly-in of 1 RAR, with the companies forced to wait at the departure point in AO Columbus before they commenced the air move to FSB Coral. Hughes visited Bennett at FSB Coral at 15:30 to discuss aspects of the defence, as well as events planned for the following day. The deployment of the second battalion was not complete until 16:10, with the 1 RAR Mortar Platoon arriving on the last flight, more than four hours late. It became clear to Bennett that 1 RAR would need to deploy to the east of the FSB, and with just two hours before last light the companies were moved into hasty defensive positions, the last of which were not established until 17:00. Due to the hurried deployment, by dusk the two battalions of 1 ATF and their supporting elements were scattered around FSB Coral in four roughly connected groups, rather than in a co-ordinated defensive position. The task force headquarters advance party and part of its Defence Platoon were located centrally, yet the task force tactical headquarters and the artillery tactical headquarters under Lieutenant Colonel Jack Kelly\u2014Commanding Officer of 12th Field Regiment\u2014both remained in Bearcat. Hughes was not present either, having left Bearcat to attend to matters at the task force rear headquarters at Nui Dat, and was due to move forward with the tactical headquarters to FSB Coral the following day.\n\nThere had been little opportunity for co-ordination, with the Australian infantry strung out along the routes away from FSB Coral in preparation for their move the next day. 3 RAR was responsible for the security of FSB Coral, with D Company defending", " aims to be simple and consistent in the design of its syntax, encapsulated in the mantra , from the Zen of Python.\n\nThis mantra is deliberately opposed to the Perl and Ruby mantra, \"there's more than one way to do it\".\n\nKeywords \n\nPython has 35 keywords or reserved words; they cannot be used as identifiers.\n\nand\nas\nassert\nasync\nawait\nbreak\nclass\ncontinue\ndef\ndel\nelif\nelse\nexcept\nFalse\nfinally\nfor\nfrom\nglobal\nif\nimport\nin\nis\nlambda\nNone\nnonlocal\nnot\nor\npass\nraise\nreturn\nTrue\ntry\nwhile\nwith\nyield\n\nIn addition, Python also has 3 soft keywords. Unlike regular hard keywords, soft keywords are reserved words only in the limited contexts where interpreting them as keywords would make syntactic sense. These words can be used as identifiers elsewhere; You can define a function or variable named match or case.\n_\ncase\nmatch\nNotes\n\nIndentation \n\nPython uses whitespace to delimit control flow blocks (following the off-side rule). Python borrows this feature from its predecessor ABC: instead of punctuation or keywords, it uses indentation to indicate the run of a block.\n\nIn so-called \"free-format\" languages\u2014that use the block structure derived from ALGOL\u2014blocks of code are set off with braces ({\u00a0}) or keywords. In most coding conventions for these languages, programmers conventionally indent the code within a block, to visually set it apart from the surrounding code.\n\nA recursive function named foo, which is passed a single parameter, x, and if the parameter is 0 will call a different function named bar and otherwise will call baz, passing x, and also call itself recursively, passing x-1 as the parameter, could be implemented like this in Python:\n\ndef foo(x):\n if x == 0:\n bar()\n else:\n baz(x)\n foo(x - 1)\n\nand could be written like this in C with K&R indent style:\n\nvoid foo(int x)\n{\n if (x == 0) {\n bar();\n } else {\n baz(x);\n foo(x - 1);\n }\n}\n\nIncorrectly indented code could be misread by a human reader differently than it would be interpreted by a compiler or interpreter. For example, if the function call foo(x - 1) on the last line in the example above was erroneously indented to be outside the if/else block: \n\ndef foo(x):\n if x == 0:\n bar()\n else:\n baz(x)\n foo(x - 1)\n\nit would cause the last line to always be executed, even when x is 0, resulting in an endless recursion.\n\nWhile both space and tab characters are accepted as forms of indentation and any multiple of spaces can be used, spaces are recommended and 4 spaces (as in the above examples) are recommended and are by far the most commonly used. Mixing spaces and tabs on consecutive lines is not allowed starting with Python 3 because that can create bugs which are difficult to see, since many text editors do not visually distinguish spaces and tabs.\n\nData structures \n\nSince Python is a dynamically-typed language, Python values, not variables, carry type information. All variables in Python hold references to objects, and these references are passed to functions. Some people (including Guido van Rossum himself) have called this parameter-passing scheme \"call by object reference\". An object reference means a name, and the passed reference is an \"alias\", i.e. a copy of the reference to the same object, just as in C/C++. The object's value may be changed in the called function with the \"alias\", for example:\n\n>>> alist = ['a', 'b', 'c']\n>>> def my_func(al):\n... al.append('x')\n... print(al)\n...\n>>> my_func(alist)\n['a', 'b', 'c', 'x']\n>>> alist\n['a', 'b', 'c', 'x']\n\nFunction my_func changes the value of alist with the formal argument al, which is an alias of alist. However, any attempt to operate (assign a new object reference to) on the alias itself will have no effect on the original object. \n\n>>> alist = ['a', 'b', 'c']\n>>> def my_func(al):\n... # al.append('x')\n... al = al + ['x'] # a new list created and assigned to al means al is no more alias for alist\n... print(al)\n...\n>>> my_func(alist)\n['a', 'b', 'c', 'x']\n>>> print(alist)\n['a', 'b', 'c']\n\nIn Python, non-innermost-local and not-declared-global accessible names are all aliases.\n\nAmong dynamically-typed languages, Python is moderately type-checked. Implicit conversion is defined for numeric types (as well as booleans), so one may validly multiply a complex number by an integer (for instance) without explicit casting. However, there is no implicit conversion between, for example, numbers and strings; a string is an invalid argument to a mathematical function expecting a number.\n\nBase types \n\nPython has a broad range of basic data types. Alongside conventional integer and floating-point arithmetic, it transparently supports arbitrary-precision arithmetic, complex numbers, and decimal numbers.\n\nPython supports a wide variety of string operations. Strings in Python are immutable, so a string operation such as a substitution of characters, that in other programming languages might alter the string in place, returns a new string in Python. Performance considerations sometimes push for using special techniques in programs that modify strings intensively, such as joining character arrays into strings only as needed.\n\nCollection types \n\nOne of the very useful aspects of Python is the concept of collection (or container) types. In general a collection is an object that contains other objects in a way that is easily referenced or indexed. Collections come in two basic forms: sequences and mappings.\n\nThe ordered sequential types are lists (dynamic arrays), tuples, and strings. All sequences are indexed positionally (0 through length - 1) and all but strings can contain any type of object, including multiple types in the same sequence. Both strings and tuples are immutable, making them perfect candidates for dictionary keys (see below). Lists, on the other hand, are mutable; elements can be inserted, deleted, modified, appended, or sorted in-place.\n\nMappings, on the other hand, are (often unordered) types implemented in the form of dictionaries which \"map\" a set of immutable keys to corresponding elements (much like a mathematical function). For example, one could define a dictionary having a string \"toast\" mapped to the integer 42 or vice versa. The keys in a dictionary must be of an immutable Python type, such as an integer or a string, because under the hood they are implemented via a hash function. This makes for much faster lookup times, but requires keys not change.\n\nDictionaries are central to the internals of Python as they reside at the core of all objects and classes: the mappings between variable names (strings) and the values which the names reference are stored as dictionaries (see Object system). Since these dictionaries are directly accessible (via an object's __dict__ attribute), metaprogramming is a straightforward and natural process in Python.\n\nA set collection type is an unindexed, unordered collection that contains no duplicates, and implements set theoretic operations such as union, intersection, difference, symmetric difference, and subset testing. There are two types of sets: set and frozenset, the only difference being that set is mutable and frozenset is immutable. Elements in a set must be hashable. Thus, for example, a frozenset can be an element of a regular set whereas the opposite is not true.\n\nPython also provides extensive collection manipulating abilities such as built in containment checking and a generic iteration protocol.\n\nObject system \n\nIn Python, everything is an object, even classes. Classes, as objects, have a class, which is known as their metaclass. Python also supports multiple inheritance and mixins.\n\nThe language supports extensive introspection of types and classes. Types can be read and compared\u2014types are instances of type. The attributes of an object can be extracted as a dictionary.\n\nOperators can be overloaded in Python by defining special member functions\u2014for instance, defining a method named __add__ on a class permits one to use the + operator on objects of that class.\n\nLiterals\n\nStrings \n\nPython has various kinds of string literals.\n\nNormal string literals \n\nEither single or double quotes can be used to quote strings. Unlike in Unix shell languages, Perl or Perl-influenced languages such as Ruby or Groovy, single quotes and double quotes function identically, i.e. there is no string interpolation of $foo expressions. However, interpolation can be done in various ways: with \"f-strings\" (since Python 3.6), using the format method or the old % string-format operator.\n\nFor instance, all of these Python statements:print(f\"I just printed {num} pages to the printer {printer}\")\n\nprint(\"I just printed {} pages to the printer {}\".format(num, printer))\nprint(\"I just printed {0} pages to the printer {1}\".format(num, printer))\nprint(\"I just printed {num} pages to the printer {printer}\".format(num=num, printer=printer))\n\nprint(\"I just printed %s pages to the printer %s\" % (num, printer))\nprint(\"I just printed %(num)s pages to the printer %(printer)s\" % {\"num\": num, \"printer\": printer})are equivalent to the Perl statement:print \"I just printed $num pages to the printer $printer\\n\"They build a string using the variables num and printer.\n\nMulti-line string literals \n\nThere are also multi-line strings, which begin and end with a series of three single or double quotes and function like here documents in Perl and Ruby.\n\nA simple example with variable interpolation (using the format method) is:\n\nprint('''Dear {recipient},\n\nI wish you to leave Sunnydale and never return.\n\nNot Quite Love,\n{sender}\n'''.format(sender=\"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\", recipient=\"Spike\"))\n\nRaw strings \n\nFinally, all of the previously mentioned string types come in \"raw\" varieties (denoted by placing a literal r before the opening quote), which do no backslash-interpolation and hence are very useful for regular expressions; compare \"@-quoting\" in C#. Raw strings were originally included specifically for regular expressions. Due to limitations of the tokenizer, raw strings may not have a trailing backslash. Creating a raw string holding a Windows path ending with a backslash requires some variety of workaround (commonly, using forward slashes instead of backslashes, since Windows accepts both).\n\nExamples include:\n\n>>> # A Windows path, even raw strings cannot end in a backslash\n>>> r\"C:\\Foo\\Bar\\Baz\\\"\n File \"\", line 1\n r\"C:\\Foo\\Bar\\Baz\\\"\n ^\nSyntaxError: EOL while scanning string literal\n\n>>> dos_path = r\"C:\\Foo\\Bar\\Baz\\ \" # avoids the error by adding\n>>> dos_path.rstrip() # and removing trailing space\n'C:\\\\Foo\\\\Bar\\\\Baz\\\\'\n\n>>> quoted_dos_path = r'\"{}\"'.format(dos_path)\n>>> quoted_dos_path\n'\"C:\\\\Foo\\\\Bar\\\\Baz\\\\ \"'\n\n>>> # A regular expression matching a quoted string with possible backslash quoting\n>>> re.match(r'\"(([^\"\\\\]|\\\\.)*)\"', quoted_dos_path).group(1).rstrip()\n'C:\\\\Foo\\\\Bar\\\\Baz\\\\'\n\n>>> code = 'foo(2, bar)'\n>>> # Reverse the arguments in a two-arg function call\n>>> re.sub(r'\\(([^,]*?),([^ ,]*?)\\)', r'(\\2, \\1)', code)\n'foo(2, bar)'\n>>> # Note that this won't work if either argument has parens or commas in it.\n\nConcatenation of adjacent string literals \n\nString literals (using possibly different quote conventions) appearing contiguously and only separated by whitespace (including new lines), are allowed and are aggregated into a single longer string.\nThus\n\ntitle = \"One Good Turn: \" \\\n 'A Natural History of the Screwdriver and the Screw'\n\nis equivalent to\n\ntitle = \"One Good Turn: A Natural History of the Screwdriver and the Screw\"\n\nUnicode \n\nSince Python 3.0, the default character set is UTF-8 both for source code and the interpreter. In UTF-8, unicode strings are handled like traditional byte strings. This example will work:\n\ns = \"\u0393\u03b5\u03b9\u03ac\" # Hello in Greek\nprint(s)\n\nNumbers \n\nNumeric literals in Python are of the normal sort, e.g. 0, -1, 3.4, 3.5e-8.\n\nPython has arbitrary-length integers and automatically increases their storage size as necessary. Prior to Python 3, there were two kinds of integral numbers: traditional fixed size integers and \"long\" integers of arbitrary size. The conversion to \"long\" integers was performed automatically when required, and thus the programmer usually didn't have to be aware of the two integral types. In newer language versions the distinction is completely gone and all integers behave like arbitrary-length integers.\n\nPython supports normal floating point numbers, which are created when a dot is used in a literal (e.g. 1.1), when an integer and a floating point number are used in an expression, or as a result of some mathematical operations (\"true division\" via the / operator, or exponentiation with a negative exponent).\n\nPython also supports complex numbers natively. Complex numbers are indicated with the J or j suffix, e.g. 3 + 4j.\n\nLists, tuples, sets, dictionaries \n\nPython has syntactic support for the creation of container types.\n\nLists (class list) are mutable sequences of items of arbitrary types, and can be created either with the special syntax\na_list = [1, 2, 3, \"a dog\"]\nor using normal object creation\na_second_list = list()\na_second_list.append(4)\na_second_list.append(5)\n\nTuples (class tuple) are immutable sequences of items of arbitrary types. There is also a special syntax to create tuples\na_tuple = 1, 2, 3, \"four\"\na_tuple = (1, 2, 3, \"four\")Although tuples are created by separating items with commas, the whole construct is usually wrapped in parentheses to increase readability. An empty tuple is denoted by (), while a tuple with a single value can be created with (1,).\n\nSets (class set) are mutable containers of hashable items of arbitrary types, with no duplicates. The items are not ordered, but sets support iteration over the items. The syntax for set creation uses curly brackets\nsome_set = {0, (), False}\nPython sets are very much like mathematical sets, and support operations like set intersection and union. Python also features a frozenset class for immutable sets, see Collection types.\n\nDictionaries (class dict) are mutable mappings tying keys and corresponding values. Python has special syntax to create dictionaries ({key: value})\n\na_dictionary = {\"key 1\": \"value 1\", 2: 3, 4: []}\n\nThe dictionary syntax is similar to the set syntax, the difference is the presence of colons. The empty literal {} results in an empty dictionary rather than an empty set, which is instead created using the non-literal constructor: set().\n\nOperators\n\nArithmetic \n\nPython includes the +, -, *, / (\"true division\"), // (floor division), % (modulus), and ** (exponentiation) operators, with their usual mathematical precedence.\n\nIn Python 3, x / y performs \"true division\", meaning that it always returns a float, even if both x and y are integers that divide evenly.\n\n>>> 4 / 2\n2.0\n\nand // performs integer division or floor division, returning the floor of the quotient as an integer.\n\nIn Python 2 (and most other programming languages), unless explicitly requested, x / y performed integer division, returning a float only if either input was a float. However, because Python is a dynamically-typed language, it was not always possible to tell which operation was being performed, which often led to subtle bugs, thus prompting the introduction of the // operator and the change in semantics of the / operator in Python 3.\n\nComparison operators \n\nThe comparison operators, i.e. ==, !=, <, >, <=, >=, is, is not, in and not in are used on all manner of values. Numbers, strings, sequences, and mappings can all be compared. In Python 3, disparate types (such as a str and an int) do not have a consistent relative ordering. While it was possible to compare whether some string was greater-than or less-than some integer in Python 2, this was considered a historical design quirk and was ultimately removed in Python 3.\n\nChained comparison expressions such as a < b < c have roughly the meaning that they have in mathematics, rather than the unusual meaning found in C and similar languages. The terms are evaluated and compared in order. The operation has short-circuit semantics, meaning that evaluation is guaranteed to stop as soon as a verdict is clear: if a < b is false, c is never evaluated as the expression cannot possibly be true anymore.\n\nFor expressions without side effects, a < b < c is equivalent to a < b and b < c. However, there is a substantial difference when the expressions have side effects. a < f(x) < b will evaluate f(x) exactly once, whereas a < f(x) and f(x) < b will evaluate it twice if the value of a is less than f(x) and once otherwise.\n\nLogical operators \n\nIn all versions of Python, boolean operators treat zero values or empty values such as \"\", 0, None, 0.0, [], and {} as false, while in general treating non-empty, non-zero values as true. The boolean values True and False were added to the language in Python 2.2.1 as constants (subclassed from 1 and 0) and were changed to be full blown keywords in Python 3. The binary comparison operators such as == and > return either True or False.\n\nThe boolean operators and and or use minimal evaluation. For example, y == 0 or x/y > 100 will never raise a divide-by-zero exception. These operators return the value of the last operand evaluated, rather than True or False. Thus the expression (4 and 5) evaluates to 5, and (4 or 5) evaluates to 4.\n\nFunctional programming \n\nAs mentioned above, another strength of Python is the availability of a functional programming style. As may be expected, this makes working with lists and other collections much more straightforward.\n\nComprehensions \n\nOne such construction is the list comprehension, which can be expressed with the following format:\n\nL = [mapping_expression for element in source_list if filter_expression]\n\nUsing list comprehension to calculate the first five powers of two:\n\npowers_of_two = [2**n for n in range(1, 6)]\n\nThe Quicksort algorithm can be expressed elegantly (albeit inefficiently) using list comprehensions:\n\n", "\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0433\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0432. \u0421\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043b \u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043e \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043e \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435, 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\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u0412. \u0412. \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430),\n \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0432 \u00ab\u0431\u0443\u0440\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0438\u00bb,\n \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e-\u0410\u043d\u0430\u0434\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a.\n\n\u0411\u044b\u043b \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0443\u0442 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u044d\u0444\u0444\u0435\u043a\u0442, \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e \u0432\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434 \u043e\u0442 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c, \u0438 \u0432 1897 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b \u0432\u043e\u0432\u0441\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c. \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u043e\u0442\u0447\u0451\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d \u0432 1898 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443.\n\n\u0418\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0421\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0442-\u041f\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0430 \u0438 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0439 \n\u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0435 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u044b\u043c \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u0441\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u0421\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0442-\u041f\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0430 \u0438 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0439. \u041e\u043d \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430 8 \u0421\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0435 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0438\u0441\u043f\u044b\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0438 \u0432\u0440\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0439, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043b \u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a. C 1894 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043e\u043d \u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0422\u0440\u0443\u0434\u044b \u041d\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438. \u041a 1900 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043b\u0451\u043a \u043a \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0443 \u0432\u0430\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0443\u0447\u0451\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439, 200 \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u044b \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0434\u0430\u0436\u0435 \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u0412 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0435 1900 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043e\u0434\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435\u043d \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0443\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0435, \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430. \u041e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e, \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0437 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0446 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0438\u0441\u043f\u044b\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439", " Squadron \"A\", July\u2013December 1918\n 112th Aero Squadron (II), May 1918\n Re-designated as Squadron \"B\", July\u2013December 1918 \n 203d Aero Squadron (II), March 1918\n Re-designated as Squadron \"C\", July\u2013December 1918\n 287th Aero Squadron (Service), June 1918\n Re-designated as Squadron \"D\", July\u2013December 1918\n 288th Aero Squadron, June 1918\n Re-designated as Squadron \"E\", July\u2013December 1918 \n Flying School Detachment (Consolidation of Squadrons A\u2013D), December 1918 \u2013 November 1919\n\nAs World War I ended in November 1918, Chanute Field had trained several thousand pilots, and pilot training ended. In December, the last Aero Squadrons were demobilized and the airplanes flown out to other airfields. The base became a storage depot for OX-5 aircraft engines and paint, with a staff of about 30 personnel.\n\nInter-War period\n\nWhen World War I ended in November 1918, the Army Air Service, along with the rest of the Army, faced crucial reductions. Thousands of officers and enlisted men were released, leaving only 10,000 men to fly and repair the planes and engines left over from the war. Hundreds of small flying fields closed, forcing consolidation of supply and aviation repair depots.\n\nIn November 1918, the first talk of base closure occurred and in August 1919, the recommendation was made in Washington to close Chanute Field. However, on 11 February 1920 Congress approved funding to buy Chanute Field. The state of the facility, however, was less than optimal. The facility was constructed rapidly due to the pressing need to train pilots during World War I, and by 1920, the facility was falling into disrepair. On 4 January 1921, Chanute was given a mission and the Air Service Mechanics School was transferred to Chanute from Kelly Field, Texas, followed by the entire Air Corps Training School.\n\nIn 1922 the photography school at Langley Field, Virginia and the communications school at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, both joined the mechanics course at Chanute, grouping all technical training in the Air Service at that location.\n\nIn 1922, funds were appropriated to construct nine steel hangars on the south edge of the original 1917 airfield. The completion of Hangar 10 in 1923 represented the last major construction at Chanute until 1938. By 1923 these nine hangars had been converted to classrooms.\nThe three previously autonomous schools consolidated to form the Air Service Technical School, re-designated the Air Corps Technical School in 1926, with the former separate schools becoming \"Departments\". From 1922 to 1938, Chanute Field provided all technical training for the U.S. Army Air Corps.\n\nChanute Field's \"Great Renaissance,\" as the period came to be known, brought the construction of many new buildings. Since most of the base was of wooden construction, the threat of fire became Chanute's greatest enemy during the early thirties. After several fires the Army Air Corps named Chanute as one of four bases to be rebuilt.\n\nIn late summer 1938 work began on two massive hangars. By the following year the headquarters building, hospital, warehouses, barracks, officers' quarters, test cells, a fire station, and a 300,000 gallon water tower were all finished. The total expenditure amounted to $13.8 million with most of it being funded by President Roosevelt's Works Progress Administration (WPA). Two additional hangars, theaters, numerous barracks and family housing units, a gymnasium, and a network of concrete runways were also added. These projects were completed in 1941, just months before Pearl Harbor.\n\nScott Field, Illinois, came under the jurisdiction of the Chanute school in 1939. The Department of Basic Instruction, inaugurated in 1935 at Chanute, relocated to the new location. The department returned to Chanute, however, when Scott became a radio school in 1940. Four of the departments\u2014mechanics, communications, photography, and armament\u2014taught both officers and enlisted personnel.\n\nThe commandant of the Air Corps Technical School at Chanute had final authority for curricular development and supervised technical training in all Air Corps schools, but he lacked command authority over the schools and the installations where they were located. To rectify this problem, the Air Corps established the Technical Training Command on 26 March 1941, headquartered at Chanute Field. The new command was responsible for the orientation, classification, basic, and technical training of enlisted men and the training of non-rated officers at officer candidate and officer training schools and in technical subjects like armament, engineering, communications, and photography. The headquarters of the new command moved from Chanute to Tulsa, Oklahoma, in 1941.\n\nWorld War II\n\nWith Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, citizens flocked to Chanute Field in large numbers to enlist in the U.S. Army Air Forces. Chanute's transition from peace to war became apparent immediately following Japan's surprise attack. The technical training mission remained; however, a massive influx of new recruits and volunteers led to a critical housing shortage. The new 15,000-man quarters built during Chanute's \"Great Renaissance\" proved insufficient to accommodate the large influx of new personnel. Many soldiers were housed temporarily in large tents. Chanute's student load continued to grow until it reached a peak of 25,000 in January 1943.\n\nThe Women's Army Corps School was established in early 1944. Along with the military at Chanute, the city of Rantoul mobilized during the war, with family opening their homes on holidays and aggressively participating in war bond and defense stamp drives. To help provide recreational opportunities for the large number of students at Chanute, local organizations such as the St. Malachy Catholic Church and Masonic Lodge opened servicemen's centers.\n\nArmy Air Forces Training Command (AAFTC) moved helicopter training to Chanute Field at the end of 1944 so it could consolidate the flying training operation with helicopter mechanic training. Helicopter pilot training remained at Chanute until 1 June 1945 when it transferred to Sheppard Field, Texas.\n\nAfter September 1945, Chanute Field became a primary separation center for the armed forces, processing about 100 men per day from the armed forces back to civilian life\n\nTuskegee Airmen\nOn 22 March 1941, the first all-black fighter squadron was activated at Chanute Field. Formed without pilots with the purpose of training the officer corps and ground support personnel, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was the first unit of what popularly became known as the Tuskegee Airmen. Over 250 enlisted men were trained at Chanute in aircraft ground support trades such as airplane mechanics, supply clerks, armorers, and weather forecasters. This small number of enlisted men was to become the core of other black squadrons forming at Tuskegee Field and Maxwell Field in Alabama\u2014the famed Tuskegee Airmen.\n\nUnited States Air Force\n\nFollowing World War II, on 14 January 1948, Chanute Field became Chanute Air Force Base with the establishment of the United States Air Force as a separate military service. At this time, Chanute was also undergoing a major technological shift with the introduction and adoption of jet engines and the required technical curricula to support them. One of the first generalized courses was airplane and engine mechanic, jet propulsion, which opened at Chanute on 17 September. By mid-1948 this course made up almost 50 percent of Chanute's student body.\n\nIn October 1949, Air Training Command organized the 3499th Training Aids Wing, the purpose of which was to provide training in the field for maintenance personnel assigned to work on various types of aircraft in general use in the Air Force. By 1 January 1950, the\nwing possessed 37 detachments: 15 bomber, 7 cargo, and 15 fighter. This unit, eventually grew to over 170 detachments, was to become the nucleus of a new field training program at Air Force Bases worldwide. Effective 24 June 1957, ATC discontinued the 3499th Mobile Training Wing and activated the 3499th Field Training Wing at Chanute. The new wing operated the command's extensive field training program. Effective 1 September 1959, ATC discontinued the 3499th Field Training Wing when ATC decided that there would be less duplication of effort if field training responsibilities were reassigned to the technical training centers.\n\nThe North Korean invasion of South Korea on 25 June 1950 soon affected the training workload at Chanute Field. In October 1949, the student load had been 5,235 but by 1953 almost 12,000 students were at Chanute for critical training. Air Training Command also had to in-process thousands of volunteer reservists. Between late July and the end of October 1950, the command brought on active duty about 20,000 reservists. Most of this work was done at Chanute.\n\nIn early 1960, HQ USAF suggested the foreign language training program, conducted at 22 colleges and universities, be transferred from Air University control to ATC. After considerable study, the Air Force passed control of the program to ATC on 1 July. At that time, the training program covered 59 languages. Air Training Command subsequently assigned management responsibility to the Chanute Technical Training Center. This program provided language instruction for USAF personnel.\n\nIn the 1960s Chanute became the prime training center for one of the most important missile programs in history, the LGM-30 Minuteman intercontinental ballistic missile. The Minuteman ICBM became a key missile deterrent against the Soviet Union for America and her western allies. In September 1970, ATC transferred Chanute's Minuteman missile launch officer course to Vandenberg AFB, California. Beginning in the late 1960s Chanute also trained thousands of allied airmen from Asia and the Middle East.\n\nDuring the 1970s Chanute provided training for thousands of USAF airmen for service in Vietnam. The base invested heavily in quality-of-life programs, building new student dormitories and other support facilities. Due to the cessation of aircraft support requirements for Chanute's training mission, the Air Force closed the base's remaining active runway in 1971. In 1977, Chanute became the prime training center for the Air-Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM). The base was also involved in the Ground-Launched Cruise Missile (GLCM) and MX missile programs.\n\nIn September 1978, Air Training Command announced project Able Avionic which restructured and consolidated avionics specialists for F-111, F-15, and F-16 aircraft. With the introduction of modular F-100 engines used in the F-15 and F-16 aircraft, new Chanute training courses emerged to keep abreast of the changing equipment students would encounter in the field. The Jet Engine Branch received four J-85 engines during 1983 to familiarize students with engines used in the T-38 pilot trainer aircraft and the F-5 aggressor aircraft.\n\nIn 1982 the 928th Tactical Airlift Group proposed the establishment of drop and landing zones at Chanute. The zones would be used to conduct short-field landings and air drops to help C-130 pilots and navigators maintain proficiency. Additional benefits of the landing zone included opportunities for training experiences for students during drop operations, and increased interface between the active force and the Air Reserve Forces. Chanute's drop zone also improved contingency planning and operations.\n\nIn the three years from 1983\u20131985 Chanute training personnel worked closely with HQ USAF and ATC to restructure the Basic Jet Engine Courses to accommodate both conventional and modular engine technology. The center received four F-100 PW 200 engines and six F-110 GE 100 engines for updated training programs in 1985. Chanute's continuing drive to enhance technical training resulted in the consolidation of the Aircraft Environmental/Pneudraulics and Electrical Systems Division on July 1, 1985.\n\nChanute AFB eventually served as a major training facility for Air Force aircraft maintenance officers; Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps meteorology personnel (officer and enlisted); and enlisted technical training for Air Force fire fighters, aircraft maintenance, flight simulator maintenance, fuel system maintenance and ICBM missile maintenance.\n\nChanute AFB also contained training ICBM launch facility (\"silos\") for Minuteman ICBM maintenance personnel. These training facilities were housed at a hangar located on the flight line. After the deactivation of Chanute AFB, ICBM maintenance training was transferred to Vandenberg AFB, California.\n\nAn Air Force Technical Training Instructors Course was conducted as well. Additionally, Chanute AFB was the site for training USAF firefighters, life support specialists (ejection seat, aircrew survival equipment, aerospace ground equipment {AGE}, etc.), welders, non-destructive inspection (of materials), airframe repair and most of vehicle maintenance (general purpose, special purpose, fire truck maintenance, materiel handling equipment maintenance) technical schools.\n\nClosure\nOn 29 December 1988 the Department of Defense recommended Chanute's closure as part of the 1988 Base Realignment and Closure Commission. The subject of base closure had been considered numerous times during Chanute's 75-year history. The end of the Cold War and the reduced threat of future conflicts prompted the government to downsize the armed forces.\n\nFacility names\n\n Rantoul Aviation Field, 21 May 1917\n Chanute Field, 6 June 1917\n Chanute Air Force Base, 13 January 1948 \u2013 30 September 1993\n\nMajor commands to which assigned\n Aviation Section, Signal Corps, July 1917\n Director of Military Aeronautics, 29 May 1918\n Re-designated, Director of Air Service\n United States Army Air Service, 4 June 1920\n Also Sixth Corps, United States Army, c. 1921\u20131940\n United States Army Air Corps, 2 July 1926\n Air Corps Technical Training Command, 26 March 1941\n Re-designated: AAF Technical Training Command, March 1942\n AAF Flying Training Comd, 7 July 1943\n Re-designated: AAF Training Command, 31 July 1943\n Air Training Command, 1 July 1946\n Air Education and Training Command, 1 June 1992 \u2013 30 September 1993\n\nMajor units assigned\n\n Post Headquarters, Chanute Field, 6 June 1917 \u2013 March 1920\n 3rd Aviation School Squadron/16th Aero Squadron, 12 July 1917 \u2013 4 November 1917\n 10th Aero Squadron, 7 July\u2013November 1917\n 38th Aero Squadron/Squadron, A, Chanute Field, 25 August 1917 \u2013 1 December 1918\n 203rd Aero Squadron/Squadron, C, Chanute Field, March 1918 \u2013 December 1918\n Air Service Mechanics School 18 April 1921 \u2013 15 August 1973\n Renamed: Air Service Technical School July 1922\n Renamed: Air Corps Technical School July 1926\n Renamed: Army Air Forces Technical School March 1942\nRenamed: Air Force Technical School, 26 September 1947\n 15th Squadron (Observation)/15th Observation Squadron, 21 September 1921 \u2013 June 1927\n Army Air Corps Technical School, 1922\n Re-designated: Headquarters Technical School, AAF\n 98th School Squadron\n Re-designated: 98th Service Squadron\n Re-designated: 10th Air Base Squadron\n Re-designated: 10th Air Base Group\n Re-designated: 13th Materiel Squadron\n Re-designated: 13th Service Squadron, 1 August 1933 \u2013 28 August 1942\n 48th School Squadron/48th Pursuit Squadron, 1 August 1933 \u2013 1 September 1936\n\n 98th School Squadron/98th Service Squadron, 1 August 1933 \u2013 1 September 1936\n Army Air Forces Technical School, 9 May 1941\n Re-designated: USAF Technical School, September 1947 \u2013 15 August 1972\n Army Air Forces Pilot School (Specialized), 15 August 1943 \u2013 30 April 1944\n Army Air Forces Pilot School (Helicopter), 1 December 1944 \u2013 1 June 1945\n 3502d AAF Base Unit (Technical School), 1 May 1944\n 3502d AAF Base Unit (Technical School and Helicopter School), 1 December 1944\n 3502d AAF Base Unit (Technical School), 1 June 1945\n 3345th Air Base Group, 26 August 1948 \u2013 30 September 1993\n 3345th Technical Training Wing, 26 August 1948 \u2013 30 September 1993\n Air Force Processing Center, Chanute, 27 September 1950 \u2013 15 February 1978\n USAF School of Applied Aerospace Sciences, 1 August 1972 \u2013 1 April 1977\n USAF Technical Training 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\u0435\u0436\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u044b \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u044f\u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430, \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0432\u0441\u044f\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0421\u0442\u043e\u043b\u044b\u043f\u0438\u043d\u0430. \u0412 \u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 6 \u043b\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043b\u043e \u0432 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u043c:\n\n 1) \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u043a\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c, \u0441\u0443\u0445\u043e\u043c \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0436\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u0435\u0442\u0445\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0432, \u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u0435\u0436\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0439\u0441\u044f \u0432\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0439;\n 2) \u0432 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u0430\u0447 (\u0438\u0437 \u0441\u0443\u0445\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0430) \u0441 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0439\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u0447\u0443\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043a;\n 3) \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u043a\u0435 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0443\u043c\u044b\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b \u0432\u043e\u0434;\n 4) \u0432 \u0444\u0443\u043d\u0434\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u043a\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439: \u043a\u0443\u0440\u0437\u0430\u043b\u0430, \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u043e\u0442\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u0430\u0447;\n 5) \u0432 \u043e\u0448\u0442\u0443\u043a\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0440, \u0441\u043d\u0430\u0431\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0438\u0445 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438\u043c, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0436\u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e, \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0444\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0439 \u0434\u043b\u044f, \u0445\u043e\u0442\u044f \u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0438\u0445, \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0443\u0445\u0430;\n 6) \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0434\u0432\u0443\u0445 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 8- \u0438 18-\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0441\u043e\u0441\u0430 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0431\u0435\u0437\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0442\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d, \u0434\u0430\u0436\u0435 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u043c \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438;\n 7) \u0432 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0441\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438 \u0432 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0443\u043b\u043e\u043a;\n 8) \u0432 \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044c \u043e\u0442\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0431\u043d\u0438\u0446\u044b \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043c\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0443\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445.\n\u041d\u0430 \u0431\u043b\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0443\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043b\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0431\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0432 60000 \u0440\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0439.\n\n\u0412 1892\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043f\u043e \u0438\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0435 \u041a. \u0418\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0421\u0442\u043e\u043b\u044b\u043f\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u044b \u00ab\u0438\u043c\u0435\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb, \u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u043c \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0443\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0441 \u043e\u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0437\u043e\u043d\u044b.\n\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0418\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043d, \u043f\u043e \u043d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u043c\u044b\u043c \u043e\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u043c, \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u0435\u043d \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0435 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\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0434\u043e 200 \u043a\u0433/\u0413\u0430. \u0421 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u043e 600 \u043a\u0433/\u0413\u0430.\n \u0414\u0443\u0431 \u043e\u0431\u044b\u043a\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438 \u0434\u0443\u0431 \u0441\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439. \u0425\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u044b\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0441\u044b, \u0432 \u043e\u0442\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0441 \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0447\u0451\u043b\u044b \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0438 \u043d\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0440. \u0414\u0443\u0431 \u043e\u043f\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043d \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u0434\u0438.\n \u0414\u0443\u0448\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u044b\u043a\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f. \u0425\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441, \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0449\u0430\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0447\u0451\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u041c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c 3\u201420 \u043a\u0433/\u0433\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0438 50\u2014400 \u0441\u0442\u0435\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0439.\n \u0414\u044f\u0433\u0438\u043b\u044c \u043b\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439. \u0412 \u0442\u0451\u043f\u043b\u0443\u044e \u0438 \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0436\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043f\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430, \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0449\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0447\u0451\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0438. \u041c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0434\u043e 90 \u043a\u0433/\u0433\u0430. \u041c\u0451\u0434 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0430, \u0430\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439, \u043b\u0435\u0433\u043a\u043e \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f.\n \u0415\u0436\u0435\u0432\u0438\u043a\u0430. \u041c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c 20\u201425 \u043a\u0433/\u0433\u0430, \u043c\u0451\u0434 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043b\u044b\u0439, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439, \u0441\u043e \u0441\u043b\u0430\u0431\u044b\u043c \u0430\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c.\n \u0416\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u0441\u043b\u0430\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439. \u0414\u0430\u0451\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u0437\u044f\u0442\u043e\u043a, \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0434\u043e 25 \u043a\u0433/\u0433\u0430. \u041c\u0451\u0434 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\u043f\u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0443 \u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0443\u0436\u0435 \u0434\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0440 \u0438 \u043f\u044b\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0443, \u044d\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u0437\u044f\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0430. \u0420\u0430\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u044b \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0443\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e, \u044d\u0442\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044f\u0433\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434 \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u041f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u044b: \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u044f \u0438 \u041e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f. \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434 \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0410\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044c - \u041c\u0430\u0439. \u041c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0434\u043e 200 \u043a\u0433/\u0413\u0430. \n\u0418\u0440\u0433\u0430. \u041c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u0434\u043e 370 \u043a\u0433/ \u0413\u0430. \u0426\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0442 \u0438\u0440\u0433\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u0435 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438, \u0423\u0440\u0430\u043b, \u0421\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u044c \u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u041a\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0435. \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434 \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u041c\u0430\u0439 - \u0418\u044e\u043d\u044c. \n \u0418\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043f \u043b\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439. \u041f\u0447\u0451\u043b\u044b \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0440 \u0438 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u044b\u043b\u044c\u0446\u044b. \u041c\u0451\u0434 \u043e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0430\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439.\n \u041a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u044b\u043a\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f. \u041f\u043e\u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0441, \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0434\u043e 30 \u043a\u0433/\u0433\u0430.\n \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f, \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0436\u0451\u043b\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f. \u041f\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441, \u0434\u0430\u0451\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0437\u044f\u0442\u043e\u043a. \u041c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0434\u043e 300 \u043a\u0433/\u0433\u0430. \u041c\u0451\u0434 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439, \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043b\u043e-\u0436\u0451\u043b\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430, \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0445\u0430, \u0441 \u043d\u0435\u0436\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441\u043e\u043c, \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0435 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f. \u041c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0430\u0441\u0435\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u044f\u0442 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435 \u043b\u0438\u043f\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043e\u043d \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0437\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u0447\u0451\u043b.\n \u041a\u0430\u0448\u0442\u0430\u043d \u0414\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0442 \u0432 \u044e\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u041a\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0435. \u0426\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u0448\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441 \u043c\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044c. \u041c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043a\u0430\u0448\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0442 25 \u043a\u0433/\u0433\u0430.\n \u041a\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043b \u043e\u0431\u044b\u043a\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439. \u041e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441, \u0434\u0430\u0451\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0440, \u043f\u044b\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0443 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441.\n \u041a\u0438\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0439 \u0443\u0437\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 (\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d-\u0447\u0430\u0439). \u041e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441 \u0441 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e 500\u2014600 \u043a\u0433/\u0433\u0430. \u0417\u0430 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u0443\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0434\u043e 12\u00a0\u043a\u0433 \u043c\u0451\u0434\u0430. \u041f\u044b\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0441, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043f\u044b\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0430 \u0441 \u043a\u043b\u0435\u0439\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0430\u0451\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441. \u041c\u0451\u0434 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439, \u0437\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044b\u0439, \u0441 \u043d\u0435\u0436\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0430\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c, \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u0443\u044e \u0441\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0431\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0443.\n \u041a\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\n \u041a\u043b\u0451\u043d\u044b. \u041e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u044b, \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0438 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438\u0445 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\u0418\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043b\u0451\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u0431\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0430\u0434\u044c.\n \u041a\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\n \u041a\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043b\u043e\u043c\u043a\u0430\u044f. \u0425\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441, \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0451\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u044f\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043b\u0435\u0442\u0430, \u0434\u0430\u0451\u0442 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u0437\u044f\u0442\u043e\u043a \u043d\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u043f\u044b\u043b\u044c\u0446\u044b, \u0432 \u043b\u0435\u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b\u0445 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044f\u0445 \u0434\u0430\u0451\u0442 \u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0451\u0434. \u041c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0434\u043e 25 \u043a\u0433/\u0433\u0430, \u043f\u0447\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0432 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c 2\u20144\u00a0\u043a\u0433 \u043c\u0451\u0434\u0430. \u041c\u0451\u0434 \u0430\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439, \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u043c\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u043e\u0437\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b\u0439.\n\u041a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043a \u041c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0442 \u0441 \u0438\u044e\u043d\u044f \u043f\u043e \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442 \u043f\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0439 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438. \u041c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0430 \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e 200 \u043a\u0433/\u0413\u0430\n \u041b\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a \u043e\u0431\u044b\u043a\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438 \u043b\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0432\u044f\u0437\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439. \u0425\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u044b \u0438 \u043f\u044b\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0441\u044b.\n \u041b\u0435\u0449\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u044b\u043a\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f. \u041e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0438\u0437 \u0432\u0430\u0436\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u043b\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u044b\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432, \u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0447\u0451\u043b\u044b \u0431\u0435\u0440\u0443\u0442 \u0441 \u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0443 \u0441 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0432\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432. \u0427\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e \u043f\u044b\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0443 \u0437\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0437\u0438\u043c\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043a\u043e\u0440\u043c\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u0447\u0451\u043b.\n \u041b\u0438\u043f\u0430 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0434\u0446\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0438 \u043b\u0438\u043f\u0430 \u0435\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f. \u0412\u0430\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441, \u0434\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0437\u044f\u0442\u043e\u043a, \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0441\u043c\u0435\u0448\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441 \u0433\u0440\u0435\u0447\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0438\u043f. \u041c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0433\u0430\u0435\u0442 600\u2014800 \u043a\u0433/\u0433\u0430, \u043d\u043e \u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u0442 \u043e\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 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\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0432. \u0418\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0447\u0451\u043b\u044b \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043f\u0430\u0434\u044c, \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u0435\u043c\u0443\u044e \u0442\u043b\u044f\u043c\u0438, \u043b\u0438\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0430\u0434\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043e\u043f\u0430\u0441\u043d\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0437\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044c\u044f \u043f\u0447\u0451\u043b.\n \u041b\u043e\u0445 \u0443\u0437\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439. \u0426\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441, \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0451\u0442 10 \u0438 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0434\u043d\u0435\u0439, \u043f\u0447\u0451\u043b\u044b \u0431\u0435\u0440\u0443\u0442 \u0441 \u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0438\u043c\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0440. \u0414\u0430\u0451\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u0437\u044f\u0442\u043e\u043a, \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0438 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0438 \u043a \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u0432\u0437\u044f\u0442\u043a\u0443, \u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u0432 \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0445. \u041f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0447\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0438 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\u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0434\u043e 18 \u043a\u0433/\u0433\u0430, \u0432\u0437\u044f\u0442\u043e\u043a \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0430.\n \u041c\u0435\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u043b\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u043c\u044f\u0433\u043a\u0430\u044f. \u0420\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u044b, \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0434\u043e 100 \u043a\u0433/\u0433\u0430. \u041c\u0451\u0434 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0430\u0442\u044c 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\u00ab\u0411\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0430\u00bb.\n \u0412 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0435 Wasteland 2 \u0432 \u0445\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0422\u044e\u0440\u044c\u043c\u044b \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0443 \u0437\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0445\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a\u00bb.\n \u0418\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0438 SEGA Mega Drive Outlander 1992 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430, \u0436\u0430\u043d\u0440 \u0433\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0438/\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0430/\u0432\u044b\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435.\n \u0412 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0435 Bandits: Phoenix Rising \u0441\u043f\u0440\u044f\u0442\u0430\u043d \u043e\u0440\u0438\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \"\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0445\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a\", \u043d\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0449\u0438\u0439\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0437\u0435\u043c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0446\u0435\u0445\u0435 \u0412\u043e\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0425\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u044b\n\n\u0421\u043c. \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \n \u0411\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0435\u0440\u044b \u0432 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0435\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u0421\u0441\u044b\u043b\u043a\u0438 \n\n Mad Max Movies FAQ\n Mad Max Unlimited\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0445\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a\u0430\u00bb \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u043c\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d \u0438\u0437 \u00ab\u0411\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0430\u00bb\n\n\u0411\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0441\n\u0424\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u044b \u0410\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438 1979", " \u043e\u0431 \u0443\u0447\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 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\u043a\u0430\u043a \u0430\u043a\u0442 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f.\n\n\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 \u0442\u0435\u043a\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a \n\u0421 1841\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044b \u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435 (\u0434\u043e \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u043d\u0438 \u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435). \u041e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043e-\u0444\u0438\u043b\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0438 \u0424\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043a\u043e-\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043e\u0442\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0448\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0432 1864\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443.\n\n\u0427\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \n\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0432\u0443\u0445\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u0434\u044a\u044e\u043d\u043a\u0442 \u0438 \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043a. \u0412 1759\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u0432\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u043e \u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0430-\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430. \u0412 \u0420\u0435\u0433\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0435 1803\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0435\u0449\u0451 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430 \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0435\u043d\u044c, \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0445\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0442 \u0430\u0434\u044a\u044e\u043d\u043a\u0442\u0430 \u043a \u043e\u0440\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043a\u0443,\u00a0\u2014 \u044d\u043a\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043a. \u0422\u0430\u043a \u043a \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0443 XIX\u00a0\u0432. \u0441\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u043f\u044f\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0432 \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0440\u0445\u0438\u0438: \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0451\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d, \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d-\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442, \u0430\u0434\u044a\u044e\u043d", " \u0438 \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u00ab\u0421\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0424\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u043e\u0442\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u044d\u0442\u0438 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f.\n 14 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u0445\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0410\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432-\u043d\u0430-\u0414\u043e\u043d\u0443, \u0421\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0434\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u044b \u043e\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a.\n 15 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 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\u0437\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0434 \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443 \u0442\u044f\u0436\u0451\u043b\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0432 \u0420\u044c\u044e\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0435 (\u041d\u043e\u0440\u0432\u0435\u0433\u0438\u044f), \u043e\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u0432 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044f\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430.\n \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d \u042d\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043b\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d \u0421\u0421.\n\n\u041c\u0430\u0440\u0442 \n 1 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0414\u0435\u043c\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a.\n 2 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0442\u0440\u044f\u0434\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0421\u0421 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0448\u0442\u0430\u0431\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0412\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u043e\u0440\u044e\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0433\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f.\n 12 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0437\u0430\u043d \u041d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e-\u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0413\u0440\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0438 (\u042d\u041b\u0410\u0421) \u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u0430\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043e\u043d \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0432\u044b\u043d\u0443\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0433\u0440\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0430, \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u043c \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043c \u042e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b, \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043e\u0442 \u0444\u0430\u0448\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a.\n 22 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u0438\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0446\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u0436\u0438\u0432\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0436\u0436\u0435\u043d\u044b \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0442\u0438 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0436\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0438 \u0425\u0430\u0442\u044b\u043d\u044c \u0437\u0430 \u0442\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u044f\u043a\u043e\u0431\u044b \u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0449\u044c \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043c.\n\n\u0410\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044c \n 8 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u0412\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d \u0434\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440 \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u0421\u0428\u0410 \u0438 \u0418\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043e\u043c, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0441\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u043c\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0431\u043b\u0430\u0433\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u0440\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u0418\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435.\n 19 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0444\u0430\u0448\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0433\u0435\u0442\u0442\u043e.\n 22 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f\n \u0432 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0443\u043a\u0430\u0437 \u00ab\u041e \u043c\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043c \u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u044b \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f\u043c, \u0438 \u043e \u0432\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u044d\u0442\u0438\u0445 \u043b\u0438\u0446, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043c\u0435\u0440\u044b \u043d\u0430\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043a\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u00bb.\n \u0410\u043b\u044c\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442 \u0425\u043e\u0444\u043c\u0430\u043d\u043d (Albert Hofmann) \u0441\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043b \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043e 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\u00ab\u042d\u043d\u00bb.\n 13 \u043c\u0430\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e-\u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0410\u0444\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0443\u043b\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435 \u0411\u043e\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0430\u0444\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0430\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f (\u0441 13 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 1940 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430).\n 15 \u043c\u0430\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043d \u041a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d 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\u0441\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0433\u043d\u0443\u0442 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u00abGrupo de Oficiales Unidos\u00bb, \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u041c\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c \u041c\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0441\u043e\u043c, \u0425\u0443\u0430\u043d\u043e\u043c \u041f\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u042d\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043e \u0420\u0430\u043c\u0438\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043e\u043c. \u0412\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043e \u0420\u043e\u0443\u0441\u043e\u043d (\u0434\u043e 7 \u0438\u044e\u043d\u044f 1943 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430).\n\n 7 \u0438\u044e\u043d\u044f\n \u0412 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\u0438\u044e\u043d\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u0432\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u041e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430 \u043a \u043e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430\u043c \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043b\u044f\u043c.\n\n\u0418\u044e\u043b\u044c \n 3 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u041a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0426\u0435\u0439\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0430.\n 4 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u043a\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0431 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0435\u0440-\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0432 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\u0441\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0431 \u041d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e-\u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0410\u043b\u0431\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438.\n 11 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0438\u043a \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044f \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0412\u043e\u043b\u044b\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u043d\u0438.\n 12 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0435 \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0448\u043b\u043e \u043a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0435\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0442\u0430\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0435 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\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430.\n 17 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\n \u041a\u0432\u0435\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f;\n \u041f\u0430\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0421\u0438\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0438\u0437\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043b \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044f \u041a\u0443\u0442\u043b\u0430 \u0432\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0428\u0443\u043a\u0440\u0438 \u0430\u043b\u044c-\u041a\u0443\u0430\u0442\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044b.\n 18 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u043e\u0447\u044c\u044e 600 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0431\u043e\u043c\u0431\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0449\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440 \u043f\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0433\u043e\u043d\u0443 \u041f\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043c\u044e\u043d\u0434\u0435, \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0443 \u0433\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u044b.\n 20 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0442\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043e \u0413\u043b\u0443\u0431\u043e\u043a\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0433\u0435\u0442\u0442\u043e.\n 23 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u0425\u0430\u0440\u044c\u043a\u043e\u0432.\n 26 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0415\u0433\u0438\u043f\u0435\u0442 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043b \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420.\n 28 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u0421\u043e\u0444\u0438\u0438 \u043e\u0442 \u0438\u043d\u0444\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0442\u0430 \u0441\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0443\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439\u0441\u044f \u0438\u0437 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0438 \u0413\u0438\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0432 \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u041f\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0446\u0430\u0440\u044c \u0411\u043e\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441 III. \u041d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u0446\u0430\u0440\u0451\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0437\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0448\u0451\u043d \u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0421\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043e\u043d II \u0421\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0435\u043d-\u041a\u043e\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433-\u0413\u043e\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439.\n\n 30 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u0422\u0430\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0440\u043e\u0433. \u0412 \u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0431\u044b\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0434\u0430\u043d \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0439 \u0432 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u041e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0430\u043b\u044e\u0442.\n\n\u0421\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044c \n 3 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0418\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u043e \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u0441 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c \u041f\u044c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e \u0411\u0430\u0434\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0443\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u044f \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0418\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438. \u0412 \u0442\u043e\u0442 \u0436\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430 8-\u0439 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u044e\u0433\u0435 \u0410\u043f\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0435 \u0420\u0435\u0434\u0436\u043e-\u0434\u0438-\u041a\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0431\u0440\u0438\u044f.\n 4 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u041b\u044f\u0431\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0430 \u0412\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f \u041d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e-\u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0444\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430 \u0410\u043b\u0431\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438.\n 5 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f \u2014 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0414\u0437\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u043e\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u043a\u043a\u0443\u043f\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u0438 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u042e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0444\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0451\u043c\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a.\n 8 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0443\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u044f \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0418\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438. \u041d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b.\n 9 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\n \u0412\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430 5-\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0421\u0428\u0410 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0435 \u0421\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e \u0432 \u0418\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438.\n \u0418\u0440\u0430\u043d \u043e\u0431\u044a\u044f\u0432\u0438\u043b \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u0443 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438.\n 10 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0443\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c.\n 16 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434-\u0433\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a.\n 17 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0432\u043e\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044b \u0411\u0440\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a.\n 18 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\n \u041b\u0438\u043a\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0423\u0441\u0441\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0420\u0421\u0424\u0421\u0420.\n \u041e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0411\u0435\u0440\u0434\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a.\n 23 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\u043e\u043a\u043a\u0443\u043f\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0445\u0442\u043e\u043c.\n \u041e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u041f\u043e\u043b\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0430.\n 25 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u0421\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a.\n\n\u041e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044c \n 1 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0442\u0438 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0435\u0432\u0440\u0435\u0438 \u0414\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 7000 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a \u0441\u0438\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0434\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0437\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0432 \u043d\u0435\u0439\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0428\u0432\u0435\u0446\u0438\u044e.\n 9 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u0432\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0435\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0413\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u043b \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a.\n 10 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u0443\u0447\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u041e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d \u0411\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0425\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0446\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0440\u0451\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0439.\n 12 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\n 1-\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0434\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0437\u0438\u044f \u0438\u043c. \u0422\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0443\u0448\u0430 \u041a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044e\u0448\u043a\u043e \u0438 1-\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0430\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043a \u0438\u043c. \u0433\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0435\u0432 \u0412\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u0431\u043e\u0439 \u0441 \u0433\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0443 \u0434\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0438 \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u043e \u041c\u043e\u0433\u0438\u043b\u0451\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u0421\u0420. \u0414\u0435\u043d\u044c 12 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f \u043e\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u041f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u041d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0420\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0414\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0412\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u041f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e.\n \u0424\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043a \u041d\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0441 \u0411\u043e\u0440 \u0442\u0430\u0439\u043d\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0432\u0435\u0437\u0435\u043d \u0438\u0437 \u0428\u0432\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0410\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u044e \u043d\u0430 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0431\u043e\u043c\u0431\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0449\u0438\u043a\u0435.\n 13 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0418\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u044f \u0432\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0432 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u0443 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0433\u0438\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438.\n 23 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u041c\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0442\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c.\n 25 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0414\u043d\u0435\u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a.\n 30 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0449\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0438\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u0435\u043b \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432. \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0447\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u0442\u0430 \u0414\u0435\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0431 \u0410\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0438, \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420, \u0421\u0428\u0410 \u0438 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0437\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0439 \u0410\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0438.\n\n\u041d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044c \n 6 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u041a\u0438\u0435\u0432.\n 8 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\n \u0412 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u0443\u0447\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0438 \u043e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d \u0421\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044b \u0442\u0440\u0451\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0439.\n \u041f\u0430\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u041b\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0438\u043b \u0438\u0437 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438, \u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0443\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443 \u0424\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438.\n \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0423\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u0432 \u041a\u0438\u0435\u0432 \u0438\u0437 \u0425\u0430\u0440\u044c\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430.\n 9 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u0412\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0435 44 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0443\u0447\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0410\u0434\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u041e\u041e\u041d \u043f\u043e \u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0449\u0438 \u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (\u042e\u041d\u0420\u0420\u0410).\n 11 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u00ab\u0421\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0424\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438\u00bb \u0430\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430 \u041b\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0411\u0438\u0448\u0430\u0440\u0430 \u044d\u043b\u044c-\u0425\u0443\u0440\u0438, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0435\u0440-\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0420\u0438\u0430\u0434\u0430 \u0430\u0441-\u0421\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0445\u0430, \u0432\u0438\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u041a\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043b\u044f \u0428\u0430\u043c\u0443\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u041f\u044c\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0416\u043c\u0430\u0439\u0435\u043b\u044f. \u041f\u0430\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043d, \u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043e.\n 19 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0442\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430 \u041a\u043e\u043b\u0443\u043c\u0431\u0438\u0438 \u0410\u043b\u044c\u0444\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043e \u041b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0441 \u041f\u0443\u043c\u0430\u0440\u0435\u0445\u043e \u0432 \u0421\u0428\u0410 (\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0443\u043b\u0441\u044f 16 \u043c\u0430\u044f 1944 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430). \u0418\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c \u043e\u0431\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f .\n 21 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u0410\u043b\u0431\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0433\u043d\u0443\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0410\u0445\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u0417\u043e\u0433\u0443 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044e \u041b\u0435\u0433\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0431\u043e\u0440\u044c\u0431\u044b \u0441 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043e\u043a\u043a\u0443\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0438 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u044f \u0441\u0438\u043b\u0430\u043c \u041a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0410\u043b\u0431\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438.\n 22 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0430\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043b\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u041b\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0443 \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e. \u042d\u0442\u043e\u0442 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u043d\u0451\u043c \u043d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u041b\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430.\n 28 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 1 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u0435\u0433\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0442\u0440\u0451\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u043e 2-\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u0432: \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 (\u0418.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0421\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d), \u0421\u0428\u0410 (\u0424. \u0420\u0443\u0437\u0432\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0442) \u0438 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 (\u0423. \u0427\u0435\u0440\u0447\u0438\u043b\u043b\u044c); \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0432 \u0422\u0435\u0433\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435 (\u0418\u0440\u0430\u043d).\n 29 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0444\u0430\u0448\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0447\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u042e\u0433\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043b\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044e \u042e\u0433\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0438 \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0443 II \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0443.\n\n\u0414\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044c \n 8 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b \u0428\u0430\u0440\u043b\u044c \u0434\u0435 \u0413\u043e\u043b\u043b\u044c \u0437\u0430\u044f\u0432\u0438\u043b, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0424\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0431\u0443\u0434\u0435\u0442 \u0434\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0431\u043e\u0440\u044c\u0431\u0443 \u0437\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0424\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0418\u043d\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0442\u0430\u044f.\n 14 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0443\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u0438\u043c\u043d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 (\u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430 \u0410.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430, \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0421.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0438 \u0413.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u042d\u043b\u044c-\u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430).\n 24 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 1300 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0431\u043e\u043c\u0431\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0449\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u044b \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043c \u0433\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0442 \u00ab\u0424\u0430\u0443-1\u00bb \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0436\u044c\u0435 \u041b\u0430-\u041c\u0430\u043d\u0448\u0430.\n 28 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043a\u0430\u043b\u043c\u044b\u0446\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u0421\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u044c.\n\n\u0411\u0435\u0437 \u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u0430\u0442 \n \u041d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u00ab\u041c\u0430\u0440\u043a I\u00bb \u0443\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0448\u043d\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u0451\u043b \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u044b\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f.\n \u0410\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c \u041a\u0430\u0440\u043b \u0421\u0435\u0439\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0442 \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043b \u0432 \u043e\u0442\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441 \u0433\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0441 \u0430\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u044f\u0434\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0438 (\u0441\u0435\u0439\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438). \u0412 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0432\u044b\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0447\u0451\u0440\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0434\u044b\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0432 \u044f\u0434\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u044d\u0442\u0438\u0445 \u0433\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u043a.\n \u0410\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d \u0410\u043b\u0430\u043d \u0422\u044c\u044e\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0433 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u0441\u00bb, \u0441\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 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\u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420\n\n\u0410\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f\n\n\u041c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043d\n\n\u0416\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\n\n\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043e\u043d\u044b \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \n\u0427\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430 Time\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u0436\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0436 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u043b\u043b, \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0421\u0428\u0410.\n\n\u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \n\u0421\u043c. \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435: :\u041a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f:\u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0435\u0441\u044f \u0432 1943 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443\n\n\u0424\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c \n 5 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u043e\u043b\u0430\u043d \u0411\u0443\u0448\u043d\u0435\u043b\u043b, \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0438\u0437 \u043e\u0442\u0446\u043e\u0432-\u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0434\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440.\n 20 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432, \u043b\u0451\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a-\u043a\u043e\u0441\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0432\u0442 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420, \u0434\u0432\u0430\u0436\u0434\u044b \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430.\n 25 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u0436\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0436 \u0425\u0430\u0440\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043e\u043d, \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043a-\u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442, \u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b \u00abThe Beatles\u00bb (\u0443\u043c. \u0432 2001 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443).\n 26 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0430\u0437\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u041f\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0435\u043d\u0435, \u043b\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430.\n\n\u041c\u0430\u0440\u0442 \n 9 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\n \u0414\u0436\u0435\u0444 \u0420\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043d, \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430 Macintosh (\u0443\u043c. \u0432 2005 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443).\n \u0420\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442 \u0424\u0438\u0448\u0435\u0440, \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0448\u0430\u0445\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442, 11-\u0439 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 (\u0443\u043c. \u0432 2008 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443).\n 12 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0420\u0430\u0442\u043a\u043e \u041c\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0447, \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b, \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0431\u0430 \u0412\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0420\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 (1992\u20141995).\n 19 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u043e \u041c\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0438, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0435\u0440-\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440 \u0418\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438 (2011\u20142013).\n 28 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u0436\u0438\u043c\u043c\u0438 \u0412\u0430\u043d \u042e\u0439, \u0433\u043e\u043d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0433\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0442\u0430\u0439\u0432\u0430\u043d\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440, \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440, \u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044e\u0441\u0435\u0440 (\u0443\u043c. \u0432 2022).\n 29 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\n \u042d\u0440\u0438\u043a \u0410\u0439\u0434\u043b, \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440, \u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442. \u0423\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043a-\u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b \u00ab\u041c\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0438 \u041f\u0430\u0439\u0442\u043e\u043d\u00bb.\n \u0414\u0436\u043e\u043d \u041c\u0435\u0439\u0434\u0436\u043e\u0440, \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, 72-\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0435\u0440 \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438.\n\n\u0410\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044c \n 14 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0439 \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432, \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442 (\u0443\u043c. \u0432 2011 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443).\n\n\u041c\u0430\u0439 \n 4 \u043c\u0430\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u043b \u0428\u0435\u043c\u044f\u043a\u0438\u043d, \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0438 \u0441\u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u043f\u0442\u043e\u0440.\n 5 \u043c\u0430\u044f\n \u041c\u0430\u0439\u043a\u043b \u041f\u0435\u0439\u043b\u0438\u043d, \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440, \u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0438\u0437 \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b \u00ab\u041c\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0438 \u041f\u0430\u0439\u0442\u043e\u043d\u00bb.\n \u0420\u0430\u0444\u0430\u044d\u043b\u044c \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0441 \u0421\u0430\u043d\u0447\u0435\u0441, \u0438\u0441\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0446, \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440.\n\n\u0418\u044e\u043d\u044c \n 28 \u0438\u044e\u043d\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u043b\u0430\u0443\u0441 \u0444\u043e\u043d \u041a\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0433, \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043a, \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u041d\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438.\n 17 \u0438\u044e\u043d\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u044c\u044e\u0442 \u0413\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0440\u0438\u0447, \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a \u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440.\n\n\u0418\u044e\u043b\u044c \n 7 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u043e\u0442\u043e \u041a\u0443\u0442\u0443\u043d\u044c\u043e, \u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0438 \u044d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0446. (\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0440 \u0432 2023 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443)\n 19 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0441 \u0421\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0442, \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u041d\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043a\u0435 2011 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430.\n 26 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0438\u043a \u0414\u0436\u0430\u0433\u0433\u0435\u0440, \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043a-\u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442, \u043b\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0440 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b Rolling Stones.\n\n\u0410\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442 \n 8 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u042e\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0413\u0443\u0441\u043c\u0430\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e, \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0438\u0439, \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440, \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n 9 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0435\u043d \u041d\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043e\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u043e\u043a\u0441\u0451\u0440-\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b, \u0431\u044b\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u0432 \u0442\u044f\u0436\u0451\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0432\u0435\u0441\u0435 \u043f\u043e \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0438 WBC (\u0443\u043c. \u0432 2013 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443).\n 11 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0435\u0437 \u041c\u0443\u0448\u0430\u0440\u0440\u0430\u0444, \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b, \u0431\u044b\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430 (\u0443\u043c. \u0432 2023 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443).\n 17 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0420\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442 \u0414\u0435 \u041d\u0438\u0440\u043e, \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440, \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044e\u0441\u0435\u0440.\n 29 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440 \u0411\u0440\u044e\u0441 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0434, \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043a, \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u041d\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043a\u0435 2015 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430.\n\n\u0421\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044c \n 6 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\n \u0420\u043e\u0434\u0436\u0435\u0440 \u0423\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0441, \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043a-\u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442.\n \u0420\u0438\u0447\u0430\u0440\u0434 \u0414\u0436\u043e\u043d \u0420\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0441, \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u043a \u0438 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433, \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u041d\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0435 1993 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430.\n 23 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0425\u0443\u043b\u0438\u043e \u0418\u0433\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0438\u0430\u0441, \u0438\u0441\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0446.\n 29 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0435\u0445 \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0430, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u041d\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 1983 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u041f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438 \u0432 1990\u20141995 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445.\n\n\u041e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044c \n 5 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0418\u043d\u043d\u0430 \u0427\u0443\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430, \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430.\n 6 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0428\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0432, \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a.\n 22 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043d \u0414\u0435\u043d\u0451\u0432, \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430.\n\n\u0414\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044c \n 6 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u043b\u0435\u0433 \u0413\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0432, \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442 \u0438 \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a (\u0443\u043c. \u0432 1992 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443).\n 8 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u0436\u0438\u043c \u041c\u043e\u0440\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043e\u043d, \u043f\u043e\u044d", " of Trainer's mandate from the community was unclear and surveyed \"county political observers\", who offered the following \"possibilities for the voting trend\":\n\nDunnville Chamber of Commerce president Marg Clark suggested \"there was a preconceived notion that there was not much to choose from in the slate of candidates running for mayor. 'I would not be surprised that (those with this opinion) chose not to vote,'...\u00a0People were soliciting candidates to enter the mayoral race up to the nomination deadline and this is another indication of dissatisfaction with the options\" .\nCatherine Berry Stidsen surmised that voters noted \"Trainer's personal approach and ... Bergstrand's business like approach ... and nobody could get a feel for Marlowe ... With all these factors in play, some people opted not to vote for mayor\" . Stidsen further commented that \"[because] of the low voter turnout in this election and the past, she [felt] neither Bergstrand nor Trainer had a real mandate from the community\" .\nDunnville farmer Merv Watkins noted that ward candidates can campaign at every home while it is \"impossible\" for the mayoral candidate to cover the county; he also observed that \"people are generally uninformed. ... 'There are not a whole lot of people reading newspapers'\" .\n\n2003\u20132006 Term in Office\n\nMayor Marie Trainer and the Haldimand ward councilors elected in the 2003 Ontario municipal elections were inaugurated on December 1, 2003 (for three year terms).\n\nRole in the attempted sale of Haldimand County Hydro in 2004\u20132005\n\nThe council of the corporation of Haldimand County discovered, \"during [May] 2004 budget discussions\", that Haldimand County Hydro would likely fail \"to provide a forecast dividend of $280,000.\" Council met with the utility and \"despite low profits due to a rate freeze, the utility did provide the original dividend amount\" .\n\nHowever, according to statements made by Trainer to the Dunnville Chronicle in November 2004, \"council felt it was getting a poor return, one per cent, for their $23 million investment\" . Haldimand County Hydro is the county's biggest asset; the utility's sole shareholder is the Haldimand County corporation, acting on behalf of the county taxpayers . Trainer gave the value (after debts are deducted, the shareholder's interest) as $23 million while the chief administrative officer for the Haldimand County corporation, Bill Pearce, noted \"Haldimand Hydro has 20,000 customers and the book value of the utility is $20 million. 'But we're hoping to get more than that thanks to competition,'\" . Trainer noted that \"if that kind of money was in the bank, council could do more for residents. ... If the utility is sold, staff will recommend using the proceeds to finance hard assets like buildings, roads and equipment\" . Ward 3 (Caledonia) councilor Craig Ashbaugh later offered a third set of numbers and stated that \"With $1.5 million interest on the $25 million sale proceeds, the county can install community center water system upgrades, purchase defibrillators, replace the Dunnville arena floor or construct a Cayuga ambulance base and a new Lowbanks fire hall\" at which point another councillor, Lorne Boyko noted that \"this is the first time he's heard this list and that there has been no direction from council about it\" .\n\nThe council's decision-making before October 18, 2004, is not documented. When questioned at a meeting in January 2005, Bill Pearce \"confirmed that minutes were not taken for hydro sale committee meetings\" . At an open council session in November 2004, former mayor \"Lorraine Bergstrand criticized council for holding closed meetings for two months on the issue\" . Bergstrand noted that not \"only did this deny citizens, who own the utility, the right to know what was being considered, but it excluded them from a public input process prior to a council decision to sell\" .\n\nThe first documented decision occurred on October 18, 2004, when \"council approved $239,375 to hire the Miller Thomson firm for the job\" of consulting on the \"request for proposal and sale process for Haldimand Hydro\" . A public announcement of the intended sale was released on October 26 . noted in a November 3 article for the Dunnville Chronicle that the \"sale will be subject to Ontario Energy Board approval.\"\n\n\"On [November] 17, requests for proposals (RFP) were released\" and eleven \"prospective buyers\" emerged . By the middle of November 2004, Trainer stated that it had \"started to be controversial\" and reported receiving over a dozen calls protesting the decision . noted that Trainer had \"voted in\nfavour of the sale.\" In December 2004 Bill Pearce offered a controversial reflection on the numerous interested buyers, noting that \"the response shows that council's decision to look at divesture was probably the right course to follow. \"There's definitely a market out there\" . Council considered the proposals and formulated a shortlist at a closed meeting on December 22, 2004, and announced that at an open meeting (later scheduled for January 17, 2005) they would \"release terms of the proposed sale and accept public comments prior to making a final decision\" .\n \nWhen Haldimand County Hydro was created in 2000, a board containing council members and citizens appointed by council was formed to represent taxpayers' interests to Hydro management. The chair of this board was, from 2001-March 2005, council appointed citizen Bernie Corbett. By December 29, Corbett was asking \"if the county had analyzed the local impact of losing a business that had a $1.2 million payroll for 40 people and paid $60,000 in taxes..\n\nBy January 5, Donna Pitcher (a former Ward 2 candidate) had collected 2000 signatures opposing the sale and stated that the petition \"will be examined by the Ontario Energy Board (OEB) ... The petitions will go to the board if Haldimand County applies to sell the local utility, along with many letters protesting the sale\" . Pitcher also criticized Trainer, stating that \"[by] supporting the search for a buyer ... Mayor Marie Trainer is not living up to her campaign motto, a People's mayor\" . Pitcher threatened: \"'If [Trainer] keeps going as she has done, her career is over. She is done,'...\u00a0Around election time in 2006, [Pitcher promised to] remind the public, through ads, what council has done with the hydro company, if they [decided] to sell\" .\n\nBy January 12, 2005, Best quoted Trainer urging people to register as delegations to the January 17 meeting (registration and comments summaries would be required to take the floor); Trainer stated: \"We will stay here until they are all finished, ... We need to know what the public's saying.\".\n\nOn January 17, 2005, at \"a jammed public meeting ... a dozen residents spoke against the move [to sell]. No one supported it\" . In the intervening two weeks, an additional 900 people had signed the petition opposing the sale:\n\n\"Donna Pitcher presented petitions with 2,967 names voicing opposition to the utility sale. She wondered why no economic impact study was done when, by using the county's own economic development impact formula, she calculated an annual $15 million blow to the county's economy if HCH was sold.\" \n\nBernie Corbett stated at the meeting \"the community is dumbfounded. They cannot understand why you continue to pursue a course of action contrary to their wishes. ... There would be no problem getting enough signatures if the public had the right to recall council members\" . Lorraine Bergstrand also \"reminded Trainer about her election promises for open, accessible and responsible government for the people\" and \"criticized council for its quick decision to look for a buyer\" . At the meeting's close, Trainer addressed her fellow councilors and stated that she \"hoped\" the councilors \"would take citizen comments under advisement and make sure they were addressed in purchase applications\" which would be considered at the closed meeting scheduled for January 31, when Trainer and the other councilors would make their final decision .\n\nMarsha Cox, a Dunnville resident who registered and spoke at the meeting noted to that, in \"her opinion, council members acted like school yard bullies who didn't care and who were acting in a parochial manner ... 'It's about control.'\"\n\nOn February 1, 2005 \"council decided unanimously to stop the divesture process\" .\n\nIn a closed session on March 21, 2005, Trainer and four of the six councillors voted not to renew Bernie Corbett's term on the hydro board; the council returned the two other citizen members and appointed a councilor, Buck Sloat, to the now-vacant chair position, thereby changing the citizen representation on the board . Donna Pitcher commented: \"There's something seriously wrong with this council,\" and suggested Council did not have expertise in electricity without Corbett .\n\nOn April 13, 2005, Bill Pearce reported to County council that \"[costs] for the request for proposal and sale process for Haldimand Hydro exceeded estimates ... The final bill came to $243,501.77. Legal fees amounted to $162,096.25, consultant fees were $80,738.69 and meeting expenses came to $666.83\" . noted that \"Council is financing these costs from the contingency reserve, which is used to cover unexpected expenses and is a temporary fund for transition costs.\"\n\nHarassment complaint, censure by council, and lawsuit\n\nAs later revealed in a report prepared by human resources consultants The Burke Group, during the 2003 election campaign \"Trainer declared that she did not want to work with McLachlan and other senior staff\" in the event that she took office and became head of the municipal corporation . On November 13, 2003, four days after winning the election and two weeks before taking office on December 1, \"Trainer spoke to a senior county manager about changing administrative assistants\" . The administrative assistant to the mayor was, at that time, Janice McLachlan, hired to the position in 2000 by then-mayor Lorraine Bergstrand. On November 19 Trainer \"reported having a real problem working with McLachlan\" . quoted Trainer's summary of her relationship with McLachlan in an August 2005 Hamilton Spectator article:\n\n\"Trainer denies that [harassment occurred] and says what is getting lost is that McLachlan was hired by former mayor Lorraine Bergstrand, whom Trainer defeated in the 2003 election.\n'She was hired by her and was her assistant for three years ... It doesn't take a rocket scientist to figure out what's going on,' the mayor said after council's four-and-a-half-hour in-camera meeting. Trainer said the two did not get along from the time she assumed the mayor's chair. 'I tried, but she was very upset. I can understand that. I kicked her friend out of her job.' She said she asked for McLachlan to be reassigned but nothing happened.\" \n\nAt a municipal corporation meeting held on November 25, 2003, \"Trainer was advised by the county lawyer to inform McLachlan about expectations before her performance was criticized. She was warned that the issue could lead to a harassment charge against her or the county\" . However, The Burke Group report gave evidence that Trainer \"made derogatory comments regarding McLachlan's performance and publicly blamed her for errors\", \"denied her administrative assistant access to e-mail and voice mail,\" and \"failed to proactively provide good communication, clear direction and an understanding of her expectations, thus setting Janice up to fail\" .\n\nOn May 17, 2005, \"Trainer asked again for a new administrative coordinator and suggested dismissing McLachlan without cause\" . , paraphrasing The Burke Group report, noted the effect the mayor's actions had on McLachlan, particularly on May 18 and May 19, 2005:\n\n\"McLachlan told a senior manager that she was frustrated and had made some errors. She also said the mayor was rarely in her office and was not following up all phone messages\", McLachlan \"started crying and shaking at work as a result of the poisonous atmosphere and mental intimidation\", McLachlan noted that the mayor's \"relentless pursuit to remove her from her job\" made the situation \"intolerable\". \n\nMcLachlan commenced a leave of absence. \"Most citizens had no inkling of strife in their mayor's office until news broke about McLachlan's unexplained leave of absence\" .\n\nIn May 2005, McLachlan expressed the above concerns in an email to a senior manager and management deemed the email \"a complaint of harassment\" and, at that point, commissioned The Burke Group to investigate and report to the municipal council. In August 2005, the offices of The Dunnville Chronicle and Haldimand Review received the report via anonymous fax and noted in a subsequent article that \"Trainer, who did not send the report, later verified that the faxed edition was a copy of The Burke Group report. During the investigation, the firm interviewed 15 people and reviewed newspapers, meeting tapes and county policies and procedures on workplace harassment.\"\n\nOn August 10, 2005, after receipt of the report and a \"4\u00bd-hour private meeting, Haldimand council confirmed in a 6-0 vote that the mayor had harassed McLachlan\" . Council voted that three actions be taken: \"a written apology be extended to the employee on behalf of Haldimand County council; the mayor be requested to voluntarily reimburse the county for the costs of an investigation by the consulting firm; the mayor be requested to take training in the areas of sensitivity, understanding of harassment legislation, conflict resolution and effective communication skills\" . However, Trainer's response was that she was \"not going to pay for it\" (giving as one reason that \"she had no input in hiring the firm\") and that \"all of council should take the training and that she had not decided if she would undertake the training if council would not join her\" . Council's actions, and the ultimate consequences for Trainer, represented a mild reprimand compared to the one recommended by The Burke Group report, which noted:\n\nTrainer had \"a general lack of concern for the importance of both corporate and legislative policy.\" \n\n\"This behaviour clearly indicates a lack of competence as a manager and a definite lack of the required supervisory skills necessary to properly address the concerns identified.\" \n\n\"As head of a corporation, Trainer had added responsibility to ensure that the workplace remain free from harassment.\" \n\n\"If the mayor were a senior employee in a non-municipal setting, she would be removed from her position immediately, for cause.\" ( and ).\n\nThe Burke Group report \"suggested council seek legal advice to see if [removal] is an option\" , and also suggested that Trainer be given \"the opportunity to step down or retire from her role immediately\" . However, Bill Pearce, county chief administrative officer \"said a council member can be removed for a conflict of interest or an act in bad faith. To do so, council would require a judge's order to have the position vacated ... if a council member is convicted of a criminal act, council has no legal recourse to force the member to step down, but any council member can decide to leave\" . Given the report and on \"legal advice from the municipal lawyer\" council formulated the three actions listed above and \"Trainer said the censure does not make her ponder resigning\" .\n\n\"After Trainer was re-elected in the fall of 2006, McLachlan said she felt enough time had passed that she could return to her old job but was told that was not possible. She also said the county then refused to participate in a negotiation for a fair severance package and demanded she accept a lesser role in the planning department on a full-time basis\" . On February 2, 2007, Janice McLachlan was dismissed from her job and on April 23, 2007, Janice and Allan McLachlan \"filed a $1.37-million wrongful dismissal suit against the mayor and the county\" . The statement of claim was served May 8, 2007\u2014the suit \"seeks wrongful dismissal damages of $500,000 due to 'harassment and intimidation;' $150,000 general and aggravated damages for her alleged constructive dismissal; $150,000 for defamation and 'intentional infliction of mental distress;' another $500,000 in punitive damages; and $75,000 general damages for Allan McLachlan [husband to Janice]\" .\n\nThe Burke Group Report, which details the investigation of the harassment claim, was released to the public under a Freedom of Information appeal process on June 1, 2007. A supplementary report prepared by The Burke Group was released on June 1, 2007. See the External links section below to view/download the complete first Burke Report, the Supplementary Report and the Statement of Claim against Mayor Marie Trainer.\n\nOn November 6, 2007, Haldimand County \"announced it is paying a former employee $175,000 to end a lawsuit in which she claimed she was wrongfully dismissed and harassed out of her job by Mayor Marie Trainer\" . , writing for the Hamilton Spectator, noted that the settlement \"appears to end the ugly affair in which a consultant found Trainer had harassed McLachlan and created a bad work environment during the 17 months she served as the mayor's administrative coordinator following the 2003 election.\"\n\n reported that Haldimand County issued a statement noting that:\n\n\"the settlement was reached on the recommendation of a mediator and on the advice of the county's lawyer and the lawyer from its insurance company. The amount being paid by the county is $80,000 and the insurance firm is paying $95,000. The settlement includes $30,000 in legal fees.\"\n\n also reported that \"Trainer said she was glad the affair was behind her as it was not a happy situation. 'It's never a nice thing to happen to anyone. 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\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0446\u0438\u0438\u00bb (1923), \u00ab\u041e \u043f\u043e\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435 \u0435\u0432\u0440\u0435\u0435\u0432\u00bb (1924), \u00ab\u041f\u0438\u0441\u044c\u043c\u043e \u043a \u0441\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0443\u00bb (1922, \u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043e: 1924), \u00ab\u0424\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u00bb (\u043e\u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b. \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043d\u043e \u0432 1933).\n\n\u0412 2012\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0441\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0418\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u0410\u041d \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440\u00a0\u041b\u0430\u0432\u0440\u043e\u0432 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\u0441\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441\u043e\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430.\n\n\u0412 1919\u20141921\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445 \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043b \u043d\u0430 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u043e\u0444\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0430\u0445 16 \u0440\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0439.\n\n\u0411\u0438\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f\n\n\u0421\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0434\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432 \n \n \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0418. \u041d\u0435\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0434\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044b. 1891\u20141922 / \u0424\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440. \u0430\u0440\u0445\u0438\u0432. \u0430\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e, \u0420\u043e\u0441. \u0433\u043e\u0441. \u0430\u0440\u0445\u0438\u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0446.-\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442. \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438.; \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u042e.\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u0410\u043c\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u042e.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u0410\u0445\u0430\u043f\u043a\u0438\u043d, \u0412.\u00a0\u0422.\u00a0\u041b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432.\u00a0\u2014 2-\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0434.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u041f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u044d\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f (\u0420\u041e\u0421\u0421\u041f\u042d\u041d), 2017.\u00a0\u2014 671 \u0441. ISBN 978-5-8243-2108-1. 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\u0420\u041a\u041a\u0410.\n\n\u0422\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0432 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0449\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u041a\u043b\u0430\u0440\u044b \u0426\u0435\u0442\u043a\u0438\u043d \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0435\u0451 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u044c\u0431\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0440\u0435\u043f\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043a \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0444\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0447\u0443 \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u0418\u043b\u044c\u0438\u0447\u0430 \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0435\u0451 \u043e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 (\u0447\u0442\u043e \u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0435\u0451 \u0441\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0438).\n\n\u0421\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \n\u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0435 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445: \u0418\u043b\u044c\u0438 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447\u0430 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 (1831\u20141886) \u0438 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0438", " a space-themed multidirectional shooter arcade video game designed by Lyle Rains and Ed Logg released in November 1979 by Atari, Inc. The player controls a single spaceship in an asteroid field which is periodically traversed by flying saucers. The object of the game is to shoot and destroy the asteroids and saucers, while not colliding with either, or being hit by the saucers' counter-fire. The game becomes harder as the number of asteroids increases.\n\nAsteroids was conceived during a meeting between Logg and Rains, who decided to use hardware developed by Howard Delman previously used for Lunar Lander. Asteroids was based on an unfinished game titled Cosmos; its physics model, control scheme, and gameplay elements were derived from Spacewar!, Computer Space, and Space Invaders and refined through trial and error. The game is rendered on a vector display in a two-dimensional view that wraps around both screen axes.\n\nAsteroids was one of the first major hits of the golden age of arcade games; the game sold 47,840 upright cabinets and 8,725 cocktail cabinets arcade cabinets and proved both popular with players and influential with developers. In the 1980s it was ported to Atari's home systems, and the Atari VCS version sold over three million copies. The game was widely imitated, and it directly influenced Defender, Gravitar, and many other video games.\n\nGameplay\n\nThe objective of Asteroids is to destroy asteroids and saucers. The player controls a triangular ship that can rotate left and right, fire shots straight forward, and thrust forward. Once the ship begins moving in a direction, it will continue in that direction for a time without player intervention unless the player applies thrust in a different direction. The ship eventually comes to a stop when not thrusting. The player can also send the ship into hyperspace, causing it to disappear and reappear in a random location on the screen, at the risk of self-destructing or appearing on top of an asteroid.\n\nEach level starts with a few large asteroids drifting in various directions on the screen. Objects wrap around screen edges \u2013 for instance, an asteroid that drifts off the top edge of the screen reappears at the bottom and continues moving in the same direction. As the player shoots asteroids, they break into smaller asteroids that move faster and are more difficult to hit. Smaller asteroids are also worth more points. Two flying saucers appear periodically on the screen; the \"big saucer\" shoots randomly and poorly, while the \"small saucer\" fires frequently at the ship. After reaching a score of 40,000, only the small saucer appears. As the player's score increases, the angle range of the shots from the small saucer diminishes until the saucer fires extremely accurately. Once the screen has been cleared of all asteroids and flying saucers, a new set of large asteroids appears, thus starting the next level. The game gets harder as the number of asteroids increases until after the score reaches a range between 40,000 and 60,000. The player starts with 3\u20135 lives upon game start and gains an extra life per 10,000 points. Play continues to the last ship lost, which ends the game. The machine \"turns over\" at 99,990 points, which is the maximum high score that can be achieved.\n\nLurking exploit\nIn the original game design, saucers were supposed to begin shooting as soon as they appeared, but this was changed. Additionally, saucers can only aim at the player's ship on-screen; they are not capable of aiming across a screen boundary. These behaviors allow a \"lurking\" strategy, in which the player stays near the edge of the screen opposite the saucer. By keeping just one or two rocks in play, a player can shoot across the boundary and destroy saucers to accumulate points indefinitely with little risk of being destroyed. Arcade operators began to complain about losing revenue due to this exploit. In response, Atari issued a patched EPROM and, due to the impact of this exploit, Atari (and other companies) changed their development and testing policies to try to prevent future games from having such exploits.\n\nDevelopment\n\nConcept\nAsteroids was conceived by Lyle Rains and programmed by Ed Logg with collaborations from other Atari staff. Logg was impressed with the Atari Video Computer System (later called the Atari 2600), and he joined Atari's coin-op division to work on Dirt Bike, which was never released due to an unsuccessful field test. Paul Mancuso joined the development team as Asteroids technician and engineer Howard Delman contributed to the hardware. During a meeting in April 1979, Rains discussed Planet Grab, a multiplayer arcade game later renamed to Cosmos. Logg did not know the name of the game, thinking Computer Space as \"the inspiration for the two-dimensional approach\". Rains conceived of Asteroids as a mixture of Computer Space and Space Invaders, combining the two-dimensional approach of Computer Space with Space Invaders addictive gameplay of \"completion\" and \"eliminate all threats\". The unfinished game featured a giant, indestructible asteroid, so Rains asked Logg: \"Well, why don\u2019t we have a game where you shoot the rocks and blow them up?\" In response, Logg described a similar concept where the player selectively shoots at rocks that break into smaller pieces. Both agreed on the concept.\n\nHardware\nAsteroids was implemented on hardware developed by Delman and is a vector game, in which the graphics are composed of lines drawn on a vector monitor. Rains initially wanted the game done in raster graphics, but Logg, experienced in vector graphics, suggested an XY monitor because the high image quality would permit precise aiming. The hardware is chiefly a MOS 6502 executing the game program, and QuadraScan, a high-resolution vector graphics processor developed by Atari and referred to as an \"XY display system\" and the \"Digital Vector Generator (DVG)\".\n\nThe original design concepts for QuadraScan came out of Cyan Engineering, Atari's off-campus research lab in Grass Valley, California, in 1978. Cyan gave it to Delman, who finished the design and first used it for Lunar Lander. Logg received Delman's modified board with five buttons, 13 sound effects, and additional RAM, and he used it to develop Asteroids. The size of the board was 4 by 4 inches, and it was \"linked up\" to a monitor.\n\nImplementation\nLogg modeled the player's ship, the five-button control scheme, and the game physics after Spacewar!, which he had played as a student at the University of California, Berkeley, but made several changes to improve playability. The ship was programmed into the hardware and rendered by the monitor, and it was configured to move with thrust and inertia. The hyperspace button was not placed near Logg's right thumb, which he was dissatisfied with, as he had a problem \"tak[ing] his hand off the thrust button\". Drawings of asteroids in various shapes were incorporated into the game. Logg copied the idea of a high score table with initials from Exidy's Star Fire.\n\nThe two saucers were formulated to be different from each other. A steadily decreasing timer shortens intervals between saucer attacks to keep the player from not shooting asteroids and saucers. A \"heartbeat\" soundtrack quickens as the game progresses. The game does not have a sound chip. Delman created a hardware circuit for 13 sound effects by hand which was wired onto the board.\n\nA prototype of Asteroids was well received by several Atari staff and engineers, who \"wander[ed] between labs, passing comment and stopping to play as they went\". Logg was often asked when he would be leaving by employees eager to play the prototype, so he created a second prototype for staff to play. Atari tested the game in arcades in Sacramento, California, and also observed players during focus group sessions at Atari. Players used to Spacewar! struggled to maintain grip on the thrust button and requested a joystick; players accustomed to Space Invaders noted they get no break in the game. Logg and other engineers observed proceedings and documented comments in four pages.\n\nAsteroids slows down as the player gains 50\u2013100 lives, because there is no limit to the number of lives displayed. The player can \"lose\" the game after more than 250 lives are collected.\n\nPorts\nAsteroids was released for the Atari VCS (later renamed the Atari 2600) and Atari 8-bit family in 1981, then the Atari 7800 in 1986. A port for the Atari 5200, identical to the Atari 8-bit computer version, was in development in 1982, but was not published. The Atari 7800 version was a launch title and includes cooperative play; the asteroids have colorful textures and the \"heartbeat\" sound effect remains intact. \n\nProgrammers Brad Stewart and Bob Smith were unable to fit the Atari VCS port into a 4 KB cartridge. It became the first game for the console to use bank switching, a technique that increases ROM size from 4 KB to 8 KB.\n\nReception\nAsteroids was immediately successful upon release. It displaced Space Invaders by popularity in the United States and became Atari's best selling arcade game of all time, with over 70,000 units sold. Atari earned an estimated $150 million in sales from the game, and arcade operators earned a further $500 million from coin drops. Atari had been in the process of manufacturing another vector game, Lunar Lander, but demand for Asteroids was so high \"that several hundred Asteroids games were shipped in Lunar Lander cabinets\". Asteroids was so popular that some video arcade operators had to install large boxes to hold the number of coins spent by players. It replaced Space Invaders at the top of the US RePlay amusement arcade charts in April 1980, though Space Invaders remained the top game at street locations. Asteroids went on to become the highest-grossing arcade video game of 1980 in the United States, dethroning Space Invaders. It shipped 70,000 arcade units worldwide in 1980, including over 60,000 sold in the United States that year, and grossed about worldwide ( adjusted for inflation) by 1980. The game remained at the top of the US RePlay charts through March 1981. However, the game did not perform as well overseas in Europe and Asia. It sold 30,000 arcade units overseas, for a total of 100,000 arcade units sold worldwide. Atari manufactured 76,312 units from its US and Ireland plants, including 21,394 Asteroids Deluxe units. It was a commercial failure in Japan when it released there in 1980, partly due to its complex controls and partly due to the Japanese market beginning to lose interest in space shoot 'em ups at the time.\n\nAsteroids received positive reviews from video game critics and has been regarded as Logg's magnum opus. Richard A. Edwards reviewed the 1981 Asteroids home cartridge in The Space Gamer No. 46. Edwards commented that \"this home cartridge is a virtual duplicate of the ever-popular Atari arcade game. [...] If blasting asteroids is the thing you want to do then this is the game, but at this price I can't wholeheartedly recommend it\". Video Games Player magazine reviewed the Atari VCS version, rating the graphics and sound a B, while giving the game an overall B+ rating. Electronic Fun with Computers & Games magazine gave the Atari VCS version an A rating.\n\nWilliam Cassidy, writing for GameSpy's \"Classic Gaming\", noticed its innovations, including being one of the first video games to track initials and allow players to enter their initials for appearing in the top 10 high scores, and commented, \"the vector graphics fit the futuristic outer space theme very well\". In 1995, Flux magazine ranked the arcade version 11th on their \"Top 100 Video Games.\" In 1996, Next Generation listed it as number 39 on their \"Top 100 Games of All Time\", particularly lauding the control dynamics which require \"the constant juggling of speed, positioning, and direction\". In 1999, Next Generation listed Asteroids as number 29 on their \"Top 50 Games of All Time\", commenting that \"Asteroids was a classic the day it was released, and it has never lost any of its appeal\". Asteroids was ranked fourth on Retro Gamers list of \"Top 25 Arcade Games\"; the Retro Gamer staff cited its simplicity and the lack of a proper ending as allowances of revisiting the game. In 2012, Asteroids was listed on Time All-Time 100 greatest video games list. Entertainment Weekly named Asteroids one of the top ten games for the Atari 2600 in 2013. It was added to the Museum of Modern Art's collection of video games. In 2021, The Guardian listed Asteroids as the second greatest video game of the 1970s, just below Galaxian (1979). By contrast, in March 1983 the Atari 8-bit port of Asteroids won sixth place in Softlines Dog of the Year awards \"for badness in computer games\", Atari division, based on reader submissions.\n\nUsage of the names of Saturday Night Live characters \"Mr. Bill\" and \"Sluggo\" to refer to the saucers in an Esquire article about the game led to Logg receiving a cease and desist letter from a lawyer with the \"Mr. Bill Trademark\".\n\nLegacy\n\nArcade sequels\nReleased in 1981, Asteroids Deluxe was the first sequel to Asteroids. Dave Shepperd edited the code and made enhancements to the game without Logg's involvement. The onscreen objects are tinted blue, and hyperspace is replaced by a shield that depletes when used. The asteroids rotate, and new \"killer satellite\" enemies break into smaller ships that home in on the player's position. The arcade machine's monitor displays vector graphics overlaying a holographic backdrop. The game is more difficult than the original and enables saucers to shoot across the screen boundary, eliminating the lurking strategy for high scores in the original.\n\nSpace Duel, released in arcades in 1982, replaces the rocks with colorful geometric shapes and adds cooperative two-player gameplay.\n\n1987's Blasteroids includes \"power-ups, ship morphing, branching levels, bosses, and the ability to dock your ships in multiplayer for added firepower\". Blasteroids uses raster graphics instead of vectors.\n\nRe-releases\nThe game is half of the Atari Lynx pairing Super Asteroids & Missile Command, and included in the 1993 Microsoft Arcade compilation.\n\nActivision published an enhanced version of Asteroids for the PlayStation (1998), Nintendo 64 (1999), Microsoft Windows (1998), Game Boy Color (1999), and Mac (2000). The Atari Flashback series of dedicated video game consoles have included both the 2600 and the arcade versions of Asteroids.\n\nPublished by Crave Entertainment on December 14, 1999, Asteroids Hyper 64 made the ship and asteroids 3D and added new weapons and a multiplayer mode.\n\nA technical demo of Asteroids was developed by iThink for the Atari Jaguar but was never released. Unofficially referred to as Asteroids 2000, it was demonstrated at E-JagFest 2000.\n\nIn 2001, Infogrames released Atari Anniversary Edition for the Dreamcast, PlayStation, and Microsoft Windows. Developed by Digital Eclipse, it includes emulated versions of Asteroids and other games. The arcade and Atari 2600 versions of Asteroids were included in Atari Anthology for both Xbox and PlayStation 2.\n\nReleased on November 28, 2007, the Xbox Live Arcade port of Asteroids has revamped HD graphics along with an added intense \"throttle monkey\" mode. The arcade and 2600 versions were made available through Microsofts Game Room service in 2010. Glu Mobile released an enhanced mobile phone port.\n\nAsteroids is included on Atari Greatest Hits Volume 1 for the Nintendo DS.\n\nAn updated version of the game was announced in 2018 for the Intellivision Amico.\n\nBoth the Atari 2600 and Atari 7800 versions of the game was included on Atari Collection 1 and 2 in 2020 for the Evercade.\n\nA remake, Asteroids: Recharged, was released in December 2021 for the Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Windows, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S. It was developed by Adamvision Studios and SneakyBox.\n\nClones\nQuality Software's Asteroids in Space (1980) was one of the best selling games for the Apple II and voted one of the most popular software titles of 1978-80 by Softalk magazine.\nIn December 1981, Byte reviewed eight Asteroids clones for home computers. Three clones for the Apple II were reviewed together in the 1982 Creative Computing Software Buyers Guide: The Asteroid Field, Asteron, and Apple-Oids. In the last of these, the asteroids are in the shape of apples. Two independent clones, Asteroid for the Apple II and Fasteroids for TRS-80, were renamed to Planetoids and sold by Adventure International. Others clones include Acornsoft's Meteors, Moons of Jupiter for the VIC-20, MineStorm for the Vectrex, and Quicksilva's Meteor Storm for the ZX Spectrum which uses speech synthesis. A poorly implemented Asteroids clone for the VIC-20, published by Bug-Byte, motivated Jeff Minter to found Llamasoft.\n\nThe Intellivision game Meteor! was cancelled to avoid a lawsuit for being too similar to Asteroids and was reworked as Astrosmash. The game borrows elements from Asteroids and Space Invaders.\n\nProposed film adaptation\nOn July 2, 2009, Universal Pictures offered Emmerich the option to direct the film adaptation of Asteroids, with Matt Lopez writing the script and Lorenzo di Bonaventura will produce the film adaptation. On June 8, 2011, Universal offered Roland Emmerich the option to direct the film adaptation with Lopez and di Bonaventura still attached to write and produce the film adaptation, respectively, which Emmerich passed on directing, while Evan Spiliotopoulos and F. Scott Frazier were hired to rewrite the screenplay.\n\nWorld records\nOn February 6, 1982, Leo Daniels of Carolina Beach, North Carolina, set", " Britain offered any classical subjects to their students at all. In 2016, AQA, the largest exam board for A-Levels and GCSEs in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, announced that it would be scrapping A-Level subjects in Classical Civilisation, Archaeology, and Art History. This left just one out of five exam boards in England which still offered Classical Civilisation as a subject. The decision was immediately denounced by archaeologists and historians, with Natalie Haynes of the Guardian stating that the loss of the A-Level would deprive state school students, 93% of all students, the opportunity to study classics while making it once again the exclusive purview of wealthy private-school students.\n\nHowever, the study of classics has not declined as fast elsewhere in Europe. In 2009, a review of Meeting the Challenge, a collection of conference papers about the teaching of Latin in Europe, noted that though there is opposition to the teaching of Latin in Italy, it is nonetheless still compulsory in most secondary schools. The same can be said in the case of France or Greece, too. Indeed, Ancient Greek is one of the compulsory subjects in Greek secondary education, whereas in France, Latin is one of the optional subjects that can be chosen in a majority of middle schools and high schools. Ancient Greek is also still being taught, but not as much as Latin.\n\nSub-disciplines\nOne of the most notable characteristics of the modern study of classics is the diversity of the field. Although traditionally focused on ancient Greece and Rome, the study now encompasses the entire ancient Mediterranean world, thus expanding the studies to Northern Africa as well as parts of the Middle East.\n\nPhilology\n\nPhilology is the study of language preserved in written sources; classical philology is thus concerned with understanding any texts from the classical period written in the classical languages of Latin and Greek.\nThe roots of classical philology lie in the Renaissance, as humanist intellectuals attempted to return to the Latin of the classical period, especially of Cicero, and as scholars attempted to produce more accurate editions of ancient texts. Some of the principles of philology still used today were developed during this period, for instance, the observation that if a manuscript could be shown to be a copy of an earlier extant manuscript, then it provides no further evidence of the original text, was made as early as 1489 by Angelo Poliziano. Other philological tools took longer to be developed: the first statement, for instance, of the principle that a more difficult reading should be preferred over a simpler one, was in 1697 by Jean Le Clerc.\n\nThe modern discipline of classical philology began in Germany at the turn of the nineteenth century. It was during this period that scientific principles of philology began to be put together into a coherent whole, in order to provide a set of rules by which scholars could determine which manuscripts were most accurate. This \"new philology\", as it was known, centered around the construction of a genealogy of manuscripts, with which a hypothetical common ancestor, closer to the original text than any existing manuscript, could be reconstructed.\n\nArchaeology\n\nClassical archaeology is the oldest branch of archaeology, with its roots going back to J.J. Winckelmann's work on Herculaneum in the 1760s. It was not until the last decades of the 19th century, however, that classical archaeology became part of the tradition of Western classical scholarship. It was included as part of Cambridge University's Classical Tripos for the first time after the reforms of the 1880s, though it did not become part of Oxford's Greats until much later.\n\nThe second half of the 19th century saw Schliemann's excavations of Troy and Mycenae; the first excavations at Olympia and Delos; and Arthur Evans' work in Crete, particularly on Knossos. This period also saw the foundation of important archaeological associations (e.g. the Archaeological Institute of America in 1879), including many foreign archaeological institutes in Athens and Rome (the American School of Classical Studies at Athens in 1881, British School at Athens in 1886, American Academy in Rome in 1895, and British School at Rome in 1900).\n\nMore recently, classical archaeology has taken little part in the theoretical changes in the rest of the discipline, largely ignoring the popularity of \"New Archaeology\", which emphasized the development of general laws derived from studying material culture, in the 1960s. New Archaeology is still criticized by traditional minded scholars of classical archaeology despite a wide acceptance of its basic techniques.\n\nArt history\n\nSome art historians focus their study on the development of art in the classical world. Indeed, the art and architecture of Ancient Rome and Greece is very well regarded and remains at the heart of much of our art today. For example, Ancient Greek architecture gave us the Classical Orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Parthenon is still the architectural symbol of the classical world.\n\nGreek sculpture is well known and we know the names of several Ancient Greek artists: for example, Phidias.\n\nAncient history\nWith philology, archaeology, and art history, scholars seek understanding of the history and culture of a civilization, through critical study of the extant literary and physical artefacts, in order to compose and establish a continual historic narrative of the Ancient World and its peoples. The task is difficult due to a dearth of physical evidence: for example, Sparta was a leading Greek city-state, yet little evidence of it survives to study, and what is available comes from Athens, Sparta's principal rival; likewise, the Roman Empire destroyed most evidence (cultural artefacts) of earlier, conquered civilizations, such as that of the Etruscans.\n\nPhilosophy\n\nThe English word \"philosophy\" comes from the Greek word \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1, meaning \"love of wisdom\", probably coined by Pythagoras. Along with the word itself, the discipline of philosophy as we know it today has its roots in ancient Greek thought, and according to Martin West \"philosophy as we understand it is a Greek creation\". Ancient philosophy was traditionally divided into three branches: logic, physics, and ethics. However, not all of the works of ancient philosophers fit neatly into one of these three branches. For instance, Aristotle's Rhetoric and Poetics have been traditionally classified in the West as \"ethics\", but in the Arabic world were grouped with logic; in reality, they do not fit neatly into either category.\n\nFrom the last decade of the eighteenth century, scholars of ancient philosophy began to study the discipline historically. Previously, works on ancient philosophy had been unconcerned with chronological sequence and with reconstructing the reasoning of ancient thinkers; with what Wolfgang-Ranier Mann calls \"New Philosophy\", this changed.\n\nReception studies\n\nAnother discipline within the classics is \"reception studies\", which developed in the 1960s at the University of Konstanz.\nReception studies is concerned with how students of classical texts have understood and interpreted them.\nAs such, reception studies is interested in a two-way interaction between reader and text, taking place within a historical context.\n\nThough the idea of an \"aesthetics of reception\" was first put forward by Hans Robert Jauss in 1967, the principles of reception theory go back much earlier than this.\nAs early as 1920, T. S. Eliot wrote that \"the past [is] altered by the present as much as the present is directed by the past\"; Charles Martindale describes this as a \"cardinal principle\" for many versions of modern reception theory.\n\nClassical Greece\n\nAncient Greece was the civilization belonging to the period of Greek history lasting from the Archaic period, beginning in the eighth century BC, to the Roman conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC. The Classical period, during the fifth and fourth centuries BC, has traditionally been considered the height of Greek civilisation. The Classical period of Greek history is generally considered to have begun with the first and second Persian invasions of Greece at the start of the Greco-Persian wars, and to have ended with the death of Alexander the Great.\n\nClassical Greek culture had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe; thus Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of Western civilization.\n\nLanguage\n\nAncient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning the Archaic ( to 6th centuries BC), Classical ( to 4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic ( century BC to 6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world. It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek. Its Hellenistic phase is known as Koine (\"common\") or Biblical Greek, and its late period mutates imperceptibly into Medieval Greek. Koine is regarded as a separate historical stage of its own, although in its earlier form it closely resembles Classical Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classical and earlier periods included several regional dialects.\n\nAncient Greek was the language of Homer and of classical Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to the vocabulary of English and many other European languages, and has been a standard subject of study in Western educational institutions since the Renaissance. Latinized forms of Ancient Greek roots are used in many of the scientific names of species and in other scientific terminology.\n\nLiterature\n\nThe earliest surviving works of Greek literature are epic poetry. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey are the earliest to survive to us today, probably composed in the eighth century BC. These early epics were oral compositions, created without the use of writing.\nAround the same time that the Homeric epics were composed, the Greek alphabet was introduced; the earliest surviving inscriptions date from around 750 BC.\n\nEuropean drama was invented in ancient Greece. Traditionally this was attributed to Thespis, around the middle of the sixth century BC, though the earliest surviving work of Greek drama is Aeschylus' tragedy The Persians, which dates to 472 BC. Early Greek tragedy was performed by a chorus and two actors, but by the end of Aeschylus' life, a third actor had been introduced, either by him or by Sophocles. The last surviving Greek tragedies are the Bacchae of Euripides and Sophocles' Oedipus at Colonus, both from the end of the fifth century BC.\n\nSurviving Greek comedy begins later than tragedy; the earliest surviving work, Aristophanes' Acharnians, comes from 425 BC. However, comedy dates back as early as 486 BC, when the Dionysia added a competition for comedy to the much earlier competition for tragedy. The comedy of the fifth century is known as Old Comedy, and it comes down to us solely in the eleven surviving plays of Aristophanes, along with a few fragments. Sixty years after the end of Aristophanes' career, the next author of comedies to have any substantial body of work survive is Menander, whose style is known as New Comedy.\n\nTwo historians flourished during Greece's classical age: Herodotus and Thucydides. Herodotus is commonly called the father of history, and his \"History\" contains the first truly literary use of prose in Western literature. Of the two, Thucydides was the more careful historian. His critical use of sources, inclusion of documents, and laborious research made his History of the Peloponnesian War a significant influence on later generations of historians. The greatest achievement of the 4th century was in philosophy. There were many Greek philosophers, but three names tower above the rest: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. These have had a profound influence on Western society.\n\nMythology and religion\n\nGreek mythology is the body of myths and legends belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. They were a part of religion in ancient Greece. Modern scholars refer to the myths and study them in an attempt to throw light on the religious and political institutions of Ancient Greece and its civilization, and to gain understanding of the nature of myth-making itself.\n\nGreek religion encompassed the collection of beliefs and rituals practiced in ancient Greece in the form of both popular public religion and cult practices. These different groups varied enough for it to be possible to speak of Greek religions or \"cults\" in the plural, though most of them shared similarities. Also, the Greek religion extended out of Greece and out to neighbouring islands.\n\nMany Greek people recognized the major gods and goddesses: Zeus, Poseidon, Hades, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, Ares, Dionysus, Hephaestus, Athena, Hermes, Demeter, Hestia and Hera; though philosophies such as Stoicism and some forms of Platonism used language that seems to posit a transcendent single deity. Different cities often worshipped the same deities, sometimes with epithets that distinguished them and specified their local nature.\n\nPhilosophy\n\nThe earliest surviving philosophy from ancient Greece dates back to the 6th century BC, when according to Aristotle Thales of Miletus was considered to have been the first Greek philosopher. Other influential pre-Socratic philosophers include Pythagoras and Heraclitus. The most famous and significant figures in classical Athenian philosophy, from the 5th to the 3rd centuries BC, are Socrates, his student Plato, and Aristotle, who studied at Plato's Academy before founding his own school, known as the Lyceum. Later Greek schools of philosophy, including the Cynics, Stoics, and Epicureans, continued to be influential after the Roman annexation of Greece, and into the post-Classical world.\n\nGreek philosophy dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, and logic, as well as disciplines which are not today thought of as part of philosophy, such as biology and rhetoric.\n\nClassical Rome\n\nLanguage\n\nThe language of ancient Rome was Latin, a member of the Italic family of languages. The earliest surviving inscription in Latin comes from the 7th century BC, on a brooch from Palestrina. Latin from between this point and the early 1st century BC is known as Old Latin. Most surviving Latin literature is Classical Latin, from the 1st century BC to the 2nd century AD. Latin then evolved into Late Latin, in use during the late antique period. Late Latin survived long after the end of classical antiquity, and was finally replaced by written Romance languages around the 9th century AD. Along with literary forms of Latin, there existed various vernacular dialects, generally known as Vulgar Latin, in use throughout antiquity. These are mainly preserved in sources such as graffiti and the Vindolanda tablets.\n\nLiterature\n\nLatin literature seems to have started in 240 BC, when a Roman audience saw a play adapted from the Greek by Livius Andronicus. Andronicus also translated Homer's Odyssey into an Saturnian verse. The poets Ennius, Accius, and Patruvius followed. Their work survives only in fragments; the earliest Latin authors whose work we have full examples of are the playwrights Plautus and Terence. Much of the best known and most highly thought of Latin literature comes from the classical period, with poets such as Virgil, Horace, and Ovid; historians such as Julius Caesar and Tacitus; orators such as Cicero; and philosophers such as Seneca the Younger and Lucretius. Late Latin authors include many Christian writers such as Lactantius, Tertullian and Ambrose; non-Christian authors, such as the historian Ammianus Marcellinus, are also preserved.\n\nHistory\n\nAccording to legend, the city of Rome was founded in 753 BC; in reality, there had been a settlement on the site since around 1000 BC, when the Palatine Hill was settled. The city was originally ruled by kings, first Roman, and then Etruscanaccording to Roman tradition, the first Etruscan king of Rome, Tarquinius Priscus, ruled from 616 BC. Over the course of the 6th century BC, the city expanded its influence over the entirety of Latium. Around the end of the 6th century \u2013 traditionally in 510 BCthe kings of Rome were driven out, and the city became a republic.\n\nAround 387 BC, Rome was sacked by the Gauls following the Battle of the Allia. It soon recovered from this humiliating defeat, however, and in 381 the inhabitants of Tusculum in Latium were made Roman citizens. This was the first time Roman citizenship was extended in this way. Rome went on to expand its area of influence, until by 269 the entirety of the Italian peninsula was under Roman rule. Soon afterwards, in 264, the First Punic War began; it lasted until 241. The Second Punic War began in 218, and by the end of that year, the Carthaginian general Hannibal had invaded Italy. The war saw Rome's worst defeat to that point at Cannae; the largest army Rome had yet put into the field was wiped out, and one of the two consuls leading it was killed. However, Rome continued to fight, annexing much of Spain and eventually defeating Carthage, ending her position as a major power and securing Roman preeminence in the Western Mediterranean.\n\nLegacy of the classical world\nThe classical languages of the Ancient Mediterranean world influenced every European language, imparting to each a learned vocabulary of international application. Thus, Latin grew from a highly developed cultural product of the Golden and Silver eras of Latin literature to become the international lingua franca in matters diplomatic, scientific, philosophic and religious, until the 17th century. Long before this, Latin had evolved into the Romance languages and Ancient Greek into Modern Greek and its dialects. In the specialised science and technology vocabularies, the influence of Latin and Greek is notable. Ecclesiastical Latin, the Roman Catholic Church's official language, remains a living legacy of the classical world in the contemporary world.\n\nLatin had an impact far beyond the classical world. It continued to be the pre-eminent language for serious writings in Europe long after the fall of the Roman empire. The modern Romance languages (Catalan, French, Italian, Portuguese, Galician, Romanian, Spanish) all derive from Latin. Latin is still seen as a foundational aspect of European culture.\n\nThe legacy of the classical world is not confined to the influence of classical languages. The Roman empire was taken as a model by later European empires, such as the Spanish and British empires. Classical art has been taken as a model in later periods \u2013 medieval Romanesque architecture and Enlightenment-era neoclassical literature were both influenced by classical models, to take but two examples, while James Joyce's Ulysses is one of the most influential works of twentieth-century literature.\n\nSee also\n\n Classical tradition\n Great Books of the Western World\n Neoclassicism\n Outline of classical studies\n Outline of ancient Greece\n Outline of ancient Rome\n\nReferences\n\nCitations\n\nSources \n Works cited\n\nFurther reading\nGeneral\n \n \n \nArt and archaeology\n \n History, Greek\n \n \n \nHistory, Roman\n \n \n \n \nLiterature\n \nPhilology\n \nPhilosophy\n\nExternal links\n\n Electronic Resources for Classicists by the", " pinewood derby car; Cub Scout theme is minor subplot.\n The Last Eagle Scout (2012) US; In the not-so-distant future, society has allowed political correctness to go beyond the point of the absurd. For years the Boy Scouts have been under the government microscope and finally have been mandated to close their doors for good. Boy Scout, Cliff Elliot, stirs the pot as he tries to cling to the last shreds of patriotism and earn his Eagle Scout Award. In this 'dramedy', watch as Cliff jumps through ridiculous hoops, avoids the bumbling antics of government cronies, and tries to escape murderous plots against him, as he sets out to accomplish what he sees as the ultimate honor\u2014becoming the Last Eagle Scout.\n Moonrise Kingdom (2012) US; On an island off the coast of New England in the 1960s, a young Khaki Scout runs away with his girl friend. The whole town, including his troop, sets out to track them down.\n Troop 491: The Adventures of the Muddy Lions (2013) US; A young inner-city Scout witnesses a murder and must make choices.\n Mystery of Ghost River (2014) Canada; Some Scouts go canoeing in Northern Ontario where they are haunted by the ghost of Ghost River.\n Scouts Guide to the Zombie Apocalypse (2015) US; A horror comedy film about three Scouts and a cocktail waitress as they combine forces to try and save their town from a zombie apocalypse. The film is rated R for sex, violence, language and nudity. It is not suitable for unit functions.\n The Clovehitch Killer (2018) US; A murder mystery involving a Scoutmaster who, of course is an upstanding citizen of the local community and thus, not a suspect in the Clovehitch Murders. Not suitable for unit functions.\n (2019) historical film about the true story of an Italian group of boy scouts during the fascist dictatorship, and how they cooperated for the liberation of Italy from nazi-fascism.\n\nTV\n\n 3rd Rock from the Sun episode \"I Brake for Dick\" (1997) US; Harry attempts to follow the ways of the Boy Scouts.\n The Addams Family (1964\u20131966) US; episode \"Morticia and the Psychiatrist\" (1964) After Pugsley joins the Boy Scouts, begins playing baseball and gets a puppy, Gomez and Morticia seek the aid of a psychiatrist.\n All of Us episode \"Crime and Maybe Some Punishment\" (2006) US; Bobby goes to a Fireside Kids jamboree.\n American Dad! episode \"Homeland Insecurity\" (2005) US; Stan forces Steve to join the Scout Rangers to be prepared for the coming foreign invasion. However, the Scout clubhouse is a front for drinking and gambling by a bunch of partying delinquents.\n The Andy Griffith Show (1960\u20131968) US; Opie was shown as a Cub Scout in a few episodes and as a Boy Scout in at least one episode.\n Are You Tougher Than a Boy Scout? (2013) US; A reality series on The National Geographic Channel which pits a team of adult former Scouts against a team of Eagle Scouts in several outdoor competitions.\n Armchair Theatre UK: Season 15, Episode 4 Brussels Sprouts-Boy Scouts (2 October 1973). Controversial drama about teen-aged Scouts.\n The Big Bang Theory episode \"The Adhesive Duck Deficiency\" (2009) US; After they run out of food, Leonard, Howard, and Raj go insane and develop a plan to raid a Cub Scout Troop to obtain more food.\n Boardwalk Empire episode \"Ging Gang Goolie\" (2012) US; at a Boy Scouts of America breakfast in 1923 Washington, D.C., \"Ging Gang Goolie\" is sung.\n The Brady Bunch episode \"The Liberation of Marcia Brady\" (1971) US; Marcia joins Greg's Frontier Scouts to prove she is equal to the initiation tasks. Greg then tries to retaliate by joining Marcia's Sunflower Girls.\n Camp Lazlo (2005) US; An animated series about Bean Scouts at summer camp.\n Casper the Friendly Ghost episode \"Boo Scout\" (1951) US; Casper the Friendly Ghost, while all the other ghosts spend their time ghosting, is studying about how to become a Boy Scout. He finds a troop of Boy Scouts, but they all run away in fear. Finally, he meets Little Billy, who is too young to be a Scout but is okay with Casper being his friend. Billy sees that a large bear has the Scouts cornered, and Casper comes to their aid and scares the bear away. The grateful Scouts acclaim Casper as a hero.\nCraig of the Creek Jason, Boris, and Tony are Junior Forest Scouts.\n The Danny Thomas Show (1953\u20131964) US; Several episodes (\"Pride Takes a Holiday\" (1956), \"Jack Benny Takes Danny's Job\" (1958), \"Danny, The Handyman\" (1960), and \"The Scoutmaster\" (1961)) involve Cub Scouts or Boy Scouts.\n Dad's Army (1968\u20131977) UK; The character of Maurice Yeatman, the belligerent verger, is also the leader of the local Sea Scouts. The Scouts make brief appearances in several episodes, most notably The Big Parade (Episode 1 of Season 4, first shown 25 September 1970), and Come In, Your Time Is Up (Episode 4 of Season 8, first shown 26 September 1975).\n Diff'rent Strokes (1978\u20131986) US; Two episodes involved Cub Scouts: \"Arnold Saves the Squirrel\" and \"Sam Adopts a Grandparent\", both aired in 1985.\n Dragon Tales (1999\u20132005) US; episode \"Back to the Storybook\"/\"Dragon Scouts\" (4 September 2001) Emmy tries to figure out the best way to fit in when Cassie invites her to join the Dragon Scouts.\nDuckTales \u2013 Junior Woodchucks\n Ed, Edd n Eddy (1999) US; Several episodes (\" Oath to an Ed\", \"To Sir with Ed\", \"An Ed in the Bush\", \"Ed Overboard\", \"Mission Ed-Possible\", \"No Speak Da Ed\" and \"The Good, The Bad and The Ed\") feature the Urban Rangers consisting of Rolf, Jimmy, Jonny and Plank.\n The Fairly OddParents (2001\u20132013) US; Several episodes (\"Scout's Honor\", \"Odd, Odd West\", \"Who's Your Daddy?\", \"Squirrely Puffs\", and \"Dinklescouts\") feature a Scout-like group called the Squirrely Scouts, which first appeared over 21 years before the official introduction of Squirrel Scouts in the real world.\n Family Guy episode \"The Son Also Draws\" (1999) US; The episode follows the Griffin family's efforts to get Chris readmitted to the Scouts after he is expelled.\n The Flintstones (1960\u20131966) US; episode \"The Good Scout\" (1961) Assuming command of a Boy Scout troop, Fred quickly learns the hazards of a \"routine\" camping trip; episode \"Cave Scout Jamboree\" (1964) While camping, Fred and Barney stumble upon a Cave Scout jamboree, and Fred helps out as Scoutmaster.\n Friends episode \"The One where Rachel Quits\" After Ross accidentally breaks a young girl's leg, he offers to make it up to her by selling her Girl Scouts-like cookies. The girl has to sell at least 400 boxes to go to Space Camp, mocking both the prizes offered by troops for selling the cookies, and the rising prices of the boxes in recent times.\nFull House (1987\u20131995) US; Stephanie, DJ, and Michelle Tanner are all members of the Honey Bees in various episodes. The Honey Bees wear bee costumes, complete with stinger. A girl does the honey bee salute by moving her body in such a manner as to make the stinger move back-and-forth. They sell jars of honey rather than cookies.\nFury (1955\u20131960) US; episode \"The Boy Scout Story\" (1956) Joey is excited about the prospect of his friend joining his Boy Scout troop; \"Girl Scout\" (1959) The boys get lost during an expedition into the mountains.\nGalactica 1980 episode \"The Super Scouts (Parts 1 & 2)\" (1980) US;\nGeneral Hospital (1963\u2013present) US; on 16 May 2017, Elizabeth Webber mentions that her oldest son Cameron Spencer is a Boy Scout\nGeorge and Mildred UK; episode In Sickness and in Health (October 1979). Mildred goes to hospital; George is invited next-door for dinner and allows his friend Jerry to entertain a \"niece\" at his house in the meantime. Mildred is released from hospital and ejects Jerry and partner; fortunately, the neighbours' son Tristram (in Cub uniform) has put up a tent in the garden that they can use.\nGhosts (2019 TV series) The character of Pat is a deceased scout leader who was shot by one of the scouts while teaching them archery.\nThe Golden Girls (1985\u20131992) US; In several episodes, Rose Nylund is the Cadet Master of a group of sunshine Cadets. Some members of the Sunshine Cadets are portrayed as committing mild acts of hooliganism.\nGood Grief (1990\u20131991) US; episode \"Cub Scouts And Horses And Whiskers on Kittens\" (1990) Ernie plans a funeral for Buckaroo Bob whose dying wish was to be buried with his horse. He must also deal with some grown-up Cub Scouts whose den mother also died. All while directing a presentation of the Sound of Music.\nThe Goodies UK; episode Scoutrageous (1977). When Graeme and Bill find out that Tim is secretly a Scout, they become masked \"bad Scouts\", which result in Scouting becoming an illegal organisation. Tim and the other Scouts are forced to hide from the \"Scoutfinder General\".\n Hallmark Hall of Fame (1951\u20132014) US; episode \"Juliette Low and the Girl Scouts\" (1952) The founding of the Girl Scouts, presented on the occasion of their 40th anniversary.\n Hazel (1961\u20131966) US; Episodes \"Three Little Cubs\" (1962) and \"Hazel's Nest Egg\" (1963) involve Cub Scouts\n Home Improvement (1991\u20131999) US; episode \"Wild Kingdom\" (1991): Tim thinks there is a mouse in the basement. The boys think it is a snake. Mark's friends, the Cub Scouts, want Tim to kill it.\n iCarly (2007\u20132012) US; In Season 2, Spencer tries to help a Sunshine Girl sell the most fudgeballs to win a bicycle so he can date her mother, who he also tells that his sister, Carly, was also a Sunshine Girl when she was little. Spencer ends up in direct competition with two other Sunshine Girls for the bike (who both look too old to be Sunshine Girls).\n It (1990) US; Young Stan uses the Scout Oath and Scout Law as mantras against fear.\n I've Got A Secret (1959) with Rocky Graziano. Garry and Rocky compete in a Tenderfoot Competition.\n Jackie Chan Adventures (2000\u20132005) US; episode \"Scouts Honor\" (2001) Jackie finds an ancient necklace that a relic hunter/thief is also after. When Jackie returns home, he notices Jade's lack of activity and makes her join the Buttercup Scouts. Jade returns the favor by making Jackie accompany the troop on a camping trip.\n The Jetsons episode \"Good Little Scouts\" (1962) US; George goes camping on the moon with Elroy and Space Cub Troop 54.\n Jim'll Fix It (1980) UK; This was a series where viewers wrote in and each episode several of the wishes would be realized. In one episode, a pack of Cub Scouts requested having their lunch somewhere unusual. The program sent them on the Revolution at Pleasure Beach Blackpool. The clip became one of the most requested on British TV shows. The situation was repeated in 2007 with the same participants for Jim'll Fix it Strikes Again.\n Kim Possible (2002\u20132007) US; In several episodes, Pixie Scouts are mentioned and shown. A Girl Scout-style organization whose motto is \"Pixies Stick Together!\". They're mentioned to sell both muffins and cookies, the former of which Ron Stoppable says he loves. Pixies are either guided by a den mother, or in Mr. Barkin's case, a \"Brigadier Pixie.\" Kim Possible (Ron's best friend who later becomes his girlfriend), was a Pixie Scout herself when she was younger.\n King of the Hill US; In episode \"The Order of the Straight Arrow\" (1997) Hank and the guys take Bobby's troop camping, and induct them into the Order of the Straight Arrow, a parody of the Order of the Arrow. In \"Straight as an Arrow\" (2008), Bobby and his friends join the Order of the Straight Arrow; this time presented as a parody of a Boy Scout troop with no continuity to the 1997 episode.\n Lassie (1954\u20131973) US; Several episodes (\"The Cub Scout\" (1958), \"The Young Flyers\" (1959), \"The Explorers\" (1960), \"The Journey\" part 3 (1963), \"Honor Bright\" (1965), and The Ledge\" (1968)) involve Cub Scouts or Boy Scouts.\n Leave It to Beaver episode \"Lonesome Beaver\" (1958) US; 12-year-old Wally and Eddie Haskell join the Boy Scouts but Beaver at age \"seven and three-quarters\" learns he must wait until he is at least\u00a011. When Wally's troop goes on a weekend campout, Beaver is forlorn.\n Lost episode \"Hearts and Minds\" (2005); John Locke (Terry O'Quinn) describes being a Webelos scout.\n Lost in Space episode \"His Majesty Smith\" (1966) US; Doctor Zachary Smith (Jonathan Harris) recites the Scout Law in an attempt to free himself from the Androids, creatures who crown the most worthless man as king of Andromeda, as a part of their Festival of Sacrifice each year.\n The Lucy Show (1962\u20131968) US; Several episodes (\"Lucy Visits the White House\" (1963), \"Ethel Merman and the Boy Scout Show\" (1964), \"Lucy Teaches Ethel Merman to Sing\" (1964), and \"Lucy and the Scout Trip\" (1964)) involve Boy Scouts or Cub Scouts.\n MacGyver Angus MacGyver frequently relates his Boy Scouting experiences with several episodes during the first three seasons of this popular action-adventure series.\n The Man Show US; The Man Show Boy dresses like a Girl Scout and attempts to sell cookies.\n The Mighty B! (2008) \u2013 the main character of this show is a badge-obsessed Honeybee Scout who wants to become a superhero, the other Scout troops are the Butterflies, the Black Widows, the Beavers, The Junebugs, and the Dragonflies.\n Mockingbird Lane (2012) US; in this remake of The Munsters, Eddie Munster is a Wilderness Explorer.\n Mork & Mindy (1978\u20131982): In an episode where Mork learns to say \"No,\" a Girl Scout selling cookies bullies him into buying five boxes (\"or else a sweet, little kid [namely me] doesn't get to go to camp.\") She then drops the cookie boxes on the floor as she storms out of Mindy's apartment.\n My Three Sons (1960\u20131972) US; Several episodes (\"Heat Wave\" (1962), \"Big Chief Bub\" (1963), and \"One of Our Moose is Missing\" (1964)) involve the Cub Scouts\n The Nanny (1993\u20131998); Grace is mentioned to be a Red Robin Scout in two episodes: \"Material Fran\" and \"Curse Of The Grandmas\"\n NCIS: The character Timothy McGee is mentioned several times to have been a Boy Scout in his youth.\n The New Normal episode About a Boy Scout involved the Boy Scouts of America membership controversies.\n Nickelodeon's 14th Annual Kids Choice Awards (2001) US; Destiny's Child appeared wearing BSA uniforms\n Phineas and Ferb (2007) Isabella Garcia-Shapiro is a Fireside Girls troop leader.\n Project Blue Book (2019) US; In episode \"The Scoutmaster\", Scouts camping near Bowling Green, OH are buzzed by UFOs; their Scoutmaster goes to investigate. After taking several pictures and shooting an alien, he mysteriously goes missing for several days. The episode is loosely based on the 1952 case of Scoutmaster Sonny DesVergers in West Palm Beach, FL, which the real Project Blue Book determined to be a hoax.\n Real Kids, Real Adventures (1997\u20132001) US; episode \"Scout's Honor: The Stephanie Shearman Story\" (1999) Twelve-year-old Girl Scout Stephanie Shearman of Jonesboro, Arkansas was running in the Arkansas State University's five-kilometer \"Fun Run\" in Hot Springs when she saw a 52-year-old runner just ahead collapse. Since none of the adults on the scene knew how to perform CPR, Stephanie stepped in to save the man's life.\n Recess (2000) Phil is a Wild Screaming Woodchuck Scout who is always seen in uniform. In the episode \"Beyond a Reasonable Scout\" Mikey and Gus attempt to join as well.\n The Replacements (2006) US; Riley is in the Jerky Girls.\n Scarecrow and Mrs. King (1983\u20131987) US; In episode \"Utopia Now\" (1", "\u20142008), \u0441\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044c \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u0431\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0424\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0441 12 \u043c\u0430\u044f 2008 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430. \u0413\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b \u0430\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0438 (2001). \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0424\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (2000). \u041f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0440 \u043e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u00ab\u0417\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433\u0438 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\u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432.\n\n\u0411\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f \n\u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u043e\u0440\u044f\u043a\u0430. \u041e\u0442\u0435\u0446\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043d \u0418\u0433\u043d\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u041f\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0435\u0432 (1918\u20141995), \u0438\u0437 \u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044f\u043d. \u0421\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0439. \u0412 \u0412\u041c\u0424 \u0441 1938 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430. \u0427\u043b\u0435\u043d \u0412\u041a\u041f(\u0431) \u0441 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 1939 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430. \u0423\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u041e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b: 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\u0413\u0440\u044b\u0437\u043b\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c. \u0412 1974 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0438\u043b \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0444\u0430\u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0435\u0442 \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u0430, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0447\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0438\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0432 \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0431\u044e\u0440\u043e. \u0412 1974\u20141975 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445\u00a0\u2014 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\u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0435 2018 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0428\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0446 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438.\n\n\u0422\u0435\u043c \u043d\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0435, \u043f\u043e \u0438\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0430\u043c \u0434\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0432\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0439\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0443\u043c\u0430, \u0432\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044c \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u044f, \u0438 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e 15 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430 2018 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0441\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e \u0447\u0435\u0442\u0432\u0451\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u041c\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0441 \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b-\u0434\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432.\n\n22 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f 2018 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0441 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c 66\u00a0% \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0435\u0430 \u041d\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0441, \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439 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\u00ab\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438\u00bb.\n\n\u0412\u043e \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438 (\u0441 2021) \n\u041d\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u0435 2021 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0434\u0435\u043f\u0443\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0441\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0421\u0432\u0414\u041f \u0438 \u0417\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0432\u043e \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u0441 \u041e\u043b\u0430\u0444\u043e\u043c \u0428\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0435\u043c.\n\n\u041e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n\u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u0442 \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432 (Parteimitglied) (\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0439 (Parteigenosse)), \u043a\u0430\u0436\u0434\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u0437 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0442 \u043e\u0431\u044f\u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0441\u044b, \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044b \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0432 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (Ortsverein, \u0432 \u0411\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0435 Abteilung), \u043a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043c\u043e\u0433\u0443\u0442 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0442\u044b (Distrikt) (\u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435 XX\u00a0\u0432.\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u043b\u043e\u043a\u0438 (Block)), \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 (Unterbezirk), \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 \u0432 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 (Bezirk).\n\n\u0412\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u0444\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434 (Bundesparteitag) (\u0434\u043e 1949 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434 (Reichsparteitag)), \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u0444\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0442 (Parteikonvent) (\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442 (Parteirat)), \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00a0\u2014 (Parteivorstand), \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 (Parteivorsitzender), \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 (stellvertretender Parteivorsitzender), \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044f (Bundesgeneralsekret\u00e4r), \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0434\u0436\u0435\u0440\u0430 (Bundesgesch\u00e4ftsf\u00fchrer), \u043a\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u044f (Bundesschatzmeister) \u0438 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438, \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u0424\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f (Bundesschiedskommission), \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u0424\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f (Bundeskontrollkommission).\n\n\u041e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\n\u041e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u043b\u044f\u043c \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0430\u0434\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\u043c \u0432 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u043b\u044f\u0445. \u0415\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0443 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u043b\u044e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0432 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u0442\u043e \u043d\u0430 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u0442\u044c \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f (Landesverband):\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0411\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043d-\u0412\u044e\u0440\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0433\u00bb (SPD-Landesverband Baden-W\u00fcrttemberg)\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0411\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u044f\u00bb (SPD-Landesverband Bayern)\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0411\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0438\u043d\u00bb (SPD-Landesverband Berlin)\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0411\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u00bb (SPD-Landesverband Brandenburg)\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0411\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u00bb (SPD-Landesorganisation Bremen)\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0413\u0430\u043c\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u00bb (SPD-Landesorganisation Hamburg)\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0413\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0435\u043d\u00bb (SPD-Landesverband Hessen)\n \u041e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0413\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0435\u043d-\u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u00bb (SPD-Bezirk Hessen-Nord)\n \u041e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0413\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0435\u043d-\u042e\u0433\u00bb (SPD-Bezirk Hessen-S\u00fcd)\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u041c\u0435\u043a\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433-\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u044f\u044f \u041f\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00bb (SPD-Landesverband Mecklenburg-Vorpommern)\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u041d\u0438\u0436\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0421\u0430\u043a\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00bb (SPD-Landesverband Niedersachsen)\n \u041e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0411\u0440\u0430\u0443\u043d\u0448\u0432\u0435\u0439\u0433\u00bb (SPD-Bezirk Braunschweig)\n \u041e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0413\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u00bb (SPD-Bezirk Hannover)\n \u041e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u041d\u0438\u0436\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0421\u0430\u043a\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f-\u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u00bb (SPD-Bezirk Nord-Niedersachsen)\n \u041e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0412\u0435\u0437\u0435\u0440-\u042d\u043c\u0441\u00bb (SPD-Bezirk Weser-Ems)\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0420\u0435\u0439\u043d-\u0412\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0444\u0430\u043b\u0438\u044f\u00bb (SPD-Landesverband Nordrhein-Westfalen)\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0420\u0435\u0439\u043d\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434-\u041f\u0444\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0446\u00bb (SPD-Landesverband Rheinland-Pfalz)\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0421\u0430\u0430\u0440\u00bb (SPD-Landesverband Saar)\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0421\u0430\u043a\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00bb (SPD-Landesverband Sachsen)\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0421\u0430\u043a\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f-\u0410\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0442\u00bb (SPD-Landesverband Sachsen-Anhalt)\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0428\u043b\u0435\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0433-\u0413\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0442\u0435\u0439\u043d\u00bb (SPD-Landesverband Schleswig-Holstein)\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437 \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u00ab\u0422\u044e\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0438\u044f\u00bb (SPD-Landesverband Th\u00fcringen)\n\n\u0412\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434 (Bezirksparteitag), \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442 (Bezirksausschuss), \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 (Bezirksvorstand), \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f (Bezirksvorsitzender), \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f (stellvertretender Bezirksvorsitzender), \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044f \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 (Bezirksgeneralsekret\u00e4r), \u043a\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u044f \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 (Bezirksschatzmeister) \u0438 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f (Bezirksschiedskommission), \u0440\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f (Bezirkskontrollkommission).\n\n\u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u0432 1945 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0438 \u0441 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c (\u0443\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u041f\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0438\u043f\u043f\u0435, \u0410\u043d\u0445\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0442, \u0411\u0440\u0430\u0443\u043d\u0448\u0432\u0435\u0439\u0433) \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0432 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0430 .\n\n\u0412\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434 (Landesparteitag), \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442 (Landesausschuss), \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00a0\u2014 (Landesvorstand), \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0435\u0435 \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043b\u0438\u0446\u043e \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c (Landesvorsitzender), \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0447\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f (stellvertretender Landesvorsitzender), \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044c (Landesgeneralsekret\u00e4r), \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 (Landesgesch\u00e4ftsf\u00fchrer) \u0438 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0439 (Landesschatzmeister), \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f (Landesschiedskommission), \u0440\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f (Landeskontrollkommission).\n\n\u041f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\n\u041f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043c, \u0432\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u043c, \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\u043c \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0411\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0438\u043d \u0438 \u0413\u0430\u043c\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433.\n\n\u0412\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434 (Unterbezirksparteitag), \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442 (Unterbezirksausschuss), \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 (Unterbezirksvorstand), \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f (Unterbezirksvorsitzender), \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f (stellvertretender Unterbezirksvorsitzender), \u0441\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044c \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 (Unterbezirksschriftf\u00fchrer), \u043a\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0440 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 (Unterbezirkskassier) \u0438 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f (Unterbezirksschiedskommission), \u0440\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f (Unterbezirkskontrollkommission).\n\n\u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0421\u0414\u041f\u0413 \u0432 1945 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0438 \u0441 \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0446 \u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0432 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0430 .\n\n\u0412\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434 (Kreisparteitag), \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442 (Kreisausschuss), \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00a0\u2014 (Kreisvorstand), \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f (Kreisvorsitzender), \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f (stellvertretender Kreisvorsitzender), \u0441\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (Kreisschriftf\u00fchrer), \u043a\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (Kreiskassier) \u0438 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f (Kreisschiedskommission) (\u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0432 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f\u0445), \u0440\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f (Kreiskontrollkommission).\n\n\u041c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438\n\u041c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u043c, \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c, \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\u043c \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043c \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0411\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0438\u043d \u0438 \u0413\u0430\u043c\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433.\n\n\u0412\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (Ortsvereinsmitgliederversammlung) (\u0432 \u043e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u043a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u0445\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u044a\u0435\u0437\u0434 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (Ortsvereinsparteitag)), \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (Ortsvereinsvorstand), \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f (Ortsvereinsvorsitzender), \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (stellvertretender Ortsvereinsvorsitzender), \u0441\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044c \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (Ortsvereinsschriftf\u00fchrer), \u043a\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0440 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (Ortsvereinskassier), \u0440\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (Ortsvereinskontrollkommission).\n\n\u0412 \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435 \u0435\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0430\u043c \u043c\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0438\u043d \u0442\u043e \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 (Ortsverband).\n\n\u0412\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 (Ortsmitgliederversammlung), \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438\u00a0\u2014 (Ortsvorstand), \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u00a0\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (Ortsvorsitzender), \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (stellvertretender Ortsvorsitzender), \u0441\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (Ortsschriftf\u00fchrer) \u0438 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f.\n\n\u0414\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0442\u044b\n\u0414\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0442\u044b \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043c \u0438 \u0434\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u044f\u043c.\n\n\u0412\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 (Distriktsmitgliederversammlung), \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 (Distriktsvorstand), \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0442\u0430 (Distriktsvorsitzender), \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0442\u0430 (stellvertretender Distriktsvorsitzender), \u043a\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0442\u0430 (Distriktskassier) \u0438 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f.\n\n\u0420\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0447\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \n\u0414\u043b\u044f \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0438 \u0421", " \u2014 11 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 1987, \u041e\u0434\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0430)\u00a0\u2014 \u0443\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0442\u044b, \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440, \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e, \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0446, \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u044c\u0435. \u041d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 (1976).\n\n\u0411\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f \n\u0412\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0438 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0434\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043b\u0435\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0434, \u041c. \u0412\u043e\u0434\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043e\u0434\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0442\u043e\u043c. \u041e\u043d \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0425\u0430\u0440\u044c\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0435 23 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f 1924 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u043c \u0440\u0435\u0431\u0451\u043d\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0432 \u0435\u0432\u0440\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0435. \u0421\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0434\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0435\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0435, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0430\u044f \u0444\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044f \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d, \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e \u0444\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044e \u0412\u043e\u0434\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0443\u0436\u0435 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442. \u0412\u0435\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u043e\u044f\u0442\u043d\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0444\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044e \u0441\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0438 \u2014 \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 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\u0421\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439, \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u044b \u041e\u0434\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0438, \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u0421\u0420 (1963), \u00ab\u0441\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0442\u044c \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0433\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044b. \u041f\u043b\u0430\u043a\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0442 \u043c\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0434\u043e \u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u2026 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\u00ab\u0427\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a \u0438\u0437 \u041b\u0430\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0447\u0438\u00bb \u041c. \u041b\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0430\u043d\u0447\u043e \u041f\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0430\n \u00ab\u041a\u0438\u043d\u00bb \u0410. \u0414\u044e\u043c\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043e\u043d\n \u00ab\u041b\u0435\u0442\u0443\u0447\u0430\u044f \u043c\u044b\u0448\u044c\u00bb \u0418. \u0428\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0443\u0441\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0424\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043a\n \u00ab\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u00bb \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0426\u0430\u0440\u044c\n \u00ab\u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u0418.\u00a0\u041e.\u00a0\u0414\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e\u00a0\u2014 \u042f\u0448\u043a\u0430 \u0411\u0443\u043a\u0441\u0438\u0440\n \u00ab\u0421\u043a\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0430\u0447 \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u0440\u044b\u0448\u0435\u00bb \u0414\u0436. \u0411\u043e\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u0435\u0432\u044c\u0435 (\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c)\n \u00ab\u0421\u0432\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0435\u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435\u00bb \u041d.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0411\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e\n \u00ab\u041c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430\u00bb \u0418. \u041a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0417\u0443\u043f\u0430\u043d\n \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0430 \u0446\u0438\u0440\u043a\u0430\u00bb \u0418. \u041a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u043e\u043d\u0438\n\n\u0424\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f \n 1960\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 (\u0424\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c \u2116\u00a03, \u0438\u0437 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u00ab\u041a\u0438\u0435\u0432\u043b\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430\u00bb)\u00a0\u2014 \u042e\u0440\u0430\n 1965\u00a0\u2014 \u042d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0440\u0430 \u0443\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0438\u0448\u043a\u0430 \u042f\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0438\u043a\n 1967\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0432\u0430\u0434\u044c\u0431\u0430 \u0432 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u043e\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u043e\n 1969\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u044e\u0440\u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437 (\u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0442\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0439)\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\n 1971\u00a0\u2014 \u0418\u043d\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0443\u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u043e\u0437\u044b\u0441\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0444\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a \u0421\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043d\n 1971\u00a0\u2014 \u0424\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0440 \u043d\u0430 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0438\u0444\u0442\u0451\u0440 \u0410\u043a\u0438\u043c\n 1973\u00a0\u2014 \u0411\u0443\u0434\u043d\u0438 \u0443\u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u043e\u0437\u044b\u0441\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043d\n 1975\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0446\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0436\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0430\u043d \u0421\u0430\u043d\u044b\u0447\n 1976\u00a0\u2014 12 \u0441\u0442\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439, (\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0451\u0440 \u0433\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0442\u044b \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u043a\u00bb)\n 1979\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e \u043e\u043f\u0430\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0435\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0434\n 1981\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u043f\u0430\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0442\u0435\u0446 \u041b\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0438\n 1983\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u00a0\u2014 \u0413\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433 \u0421\u0442\u044d\u043d\n\n\u0422\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u043a\u043b\u0438 \n 1957\u00a0\u2014 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f (\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u043a\u043b\u044c)\u00a0\u2014 \u042f\u0448\u043a\u0430 \u00ab\u0411\u0443\u043a\u0441\u0438\u0440\u00bb\n 1967\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442 (\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u043a\u043b\u044c)\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\n\n\u0412\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b \n 1983\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\n 1967\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0432\u0430\u0434\u044c\u0431\u0430 \u0432 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435\n\n\u0423\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430\u0445 \n 1983\u00a0\u2014 \u042f \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0430\u044e \u0412\u0430\u0448 \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442 (\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439)\n\n\u0421\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u043b\u044b \n\u0412 1979\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0440\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c \u0438 \u0434\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0438, \u0441\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0432 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440\u0430 \u041c. \u041e\u0448\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0435\u0433\u043e \u044d\u0442\u0443 \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0441 1962 \u043f\u043e 1977 \u0433\u043e\u0434. \u041d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u0421\u0420 \u041b. \u0421\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0451\u043c \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044c\u044e \u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0438\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043d\u044f\u0442\u0438\u044f \u041c. \u041e\u0448\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0431\u044b\u043b \u041c. \u0412\u043e\u0434\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0439. \u042d\u0442\u043e\u0442 \u0444\u0430\u043a\u0442 \u043d\u0430\u0448\u0451\u043b \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0451 \u043e\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0435 \u0413. \u0413\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e \u00ab\u0422\u0440\u0430\u0433\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u043b\u0451\u0433\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0436\u0430\u043d\u0440\u0435\u00bb. \u0421\u043e \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u044b, \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 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\u041c. \u0412\u043e\u0434\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u0430 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0430 \u0413\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u00ab\u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u043b \u0412\u043e\u0434\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0439. \u041e\u0447\u0435\u0440\u043a \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0438 \u0438 \u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u00bb, \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a 85-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u044e\u0431\u0438\u043b\u0435\u044e \u041c\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430. \u0418\u0434\u0435\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0434\u043b\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0442 \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u043b\u0443 \u041f\u043e\u0439\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0443 \u0438 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2009.\u00a0\u2014 72 \u0441.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-966-8145-93-3.\n\n\u041e\u0442\u0437\u044b\u0432\u044b \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \n\u0412\u043e\u0434\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0438\u043b \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u044b\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043e \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0433\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0435. \u0411\u0443\u0434\u0443\u0447\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430, \u043e\u043d, \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043c\u043e\u0442\u0440\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u044e \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u0443\u044e \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c, \u043d\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0446 \u0432 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\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440\u043e\u043c.\n\n\u2026\u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434", " and producer Margaret Mayo. The following February, the Shubert family acquired a partial interest in the three theaters that the Selwyns were constructing. By this time, the planned Illington Theatre was to be known as the Times Square Theater. The Selwyn brothers leased the eastern site from Sperry and Hutchinson Co. in July 1918, after the plot had already been excavated. In May 1919, the New York City Department of Buildings approved the Selwyn brothers' plans for a 1,100-seat theater on 42nd Street and a 1,200-seat theater on 43rd Street. The O'Day Construction Company was hired to erect both theaters. The Selwyn brothers intended to use the two theaters exclusively for their own productions.\n\nLegitimate use\n\nSelwyn years\nThe Times Square opened on September 30, 1920, with Florence Reed starring in Edgar Selwyn's play The Mirage. The production was a relative hit, lasting for 192 performances through March 1921. During that play's run, G.K. Chesterton spoke on the topic \"Shall We Abolish the Inevitable?\" at the theater. This was followed by the musical comedy The Right Girl, as well as the mhort-lived usical revue The Broadway Whirl. The plays The Demi-Virgin, Honors Are Even, and Love Dreams had short runs at the Times Square in late 1921. That November, the Clemence Dane play A Bill of Divorcement moved from George M. Cohan's Theatre to the Times Square; it was one of the first hits that featured actress Katharine Cornell. The theater also hosted recitals by actress Ruth Draper, who continued her performances there for several years. In 1922, the Times Square hosted plays such as The Charlatan, as well as The Exciters with Tallulah Bankhead.\n\nThe Fool, by Channing Pollock, opened in October 1922 and ran for over 200 performances through the next year. As an experiment, the Selwyn brothers brought over several visiting companies in mid-1923 to perform The Fool in place of the usual actors. Each company performed for three days before being performing the production at other theaters. The play Helen of Troy, New York, transferred from the Selwyn Theatre in October 1923; this was followed in December by Pell\u00e9as and M\u00e9lisande with Jane Cowl, which flopped after 13 performances. During early 1924, Andr\u00e9 Charlot presented his eponymous musical revue, featuring Gertrude Lawrence, Beatrice Lillie, and Jack Buchanan. Charlot's revue transferred to the Selwyn Theatre in April 1924, swapping houses with the musical Battling Buttler. The theater also hosted a dance recital by Albertina Rasch in May 1924, though the Sabbath Committee ruled that the recital could not be staged on Sundays. That September, the theater hosted Jerome Kern and Howard Dietz's musical Dear Sir, featuring Oscar Shaw and Walter Catlett. It was followed in November by Clifford Grey, Clare Kummer, and Sigmund Romberg's musical Annie Dear, which featured Billie Burke.\n\nDecline\nThe Selwyn brothers dissolved their firm in 1925. The same year, the theater hosted the play Mismates, the namesake of the film Mismates. The musical Kosher Kitty Kelly also ran for 166 total performances at the Times Square Theater and Daly's 63rd Street Theatre, in spite of negative critical reception. Pollock's play The Enemy opened in late 1925 and ran for 202 performances. The Times Square Theater then showed a variety of films in early 1926, including The Volga Boatman and a double feature of Silence and The Prince of Pilsen. The theater's next legitimate show was Love 'Em and Leave 'Em, which relocated from the Apollo in May 1926.\n\nThe Anita Loos play Gentlemen Prefer Blondes opened in September 1926 and ran for 199 total performances across two theaters. During the play's run, the theater also hosted a speech by explorer Richard E. Byrd, a documentary presented by aviator Alan Cobham, and a ballet show. After Blondes relocated from the Times Square in March 1927, A. H. Woods planned to move his production of the play Crime into the theater. Instead, the Times Square screened silent films for the 1927\u20131928 season. The silent film Sunrise opened at the Times Square in September 1927, and the theater screened the film Dawn in May 1928. Although other theaters on 42nd Street were already struggling to book long-running shows by the late 1920s, the Times Square was still able to secure some hits. Jed Harris leased the theater in mid-1928 and presented the original Broadway production of Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur's comedy The Front Page, which opened in August 1928. The Front Page ran for 276 performances through April 1929.\n\nSeveral shows had short runs in 1929, including The Middle Watch and Other Men's Wives. The next hit was George and Ira Gershwin's musical Strike Up the Band, which opened at the theater in January 1930 and ran for 191 performances over the next five months. At the onset of the Great Depression, many Broadway theaters were impacted by declining attendance, leading to many flops. The 1930\u20131931 season alone had six shows, including a revival of The Merchant of Venice. The season ended with No\u00ebl Coward's Private Lives, starring Coward and Gertrude Lawrence, which lasted 256 performances. In the 1931\u20131932 season, four successive plays closed within one month. The 1932\u20131933 season, with three shows, was the Times Square's final season as a live venue. The season's shows included Clear All Wires!, Foolscap, and Forsaking All Others. The play Angel, with Lenore Ulric, was supposed to have opened at the Times Square in June 1933 but never did so.\n\nMovies\n\nThe theater remained dark for the 1933\u20131934 season, even though the play Ragged Army had been planned to open there in February 1934. The theater's owner Burgwyn Realty Corp. leased the theater to the Brandt family for use as a cinema in May 1934. The Brandts planned to operate the theater under a grindhouse format, with films running continuously. This was part of a decline in the Broadway theater industry in the mid-20th century; from 1931 to 1950, the number of legitimate theaters decreased from 68 to 30. The lease originally ran for five years. The following year, Burgwyn lost the theater in a foreclosure proceeding. The Times Square and Apollo theaters were auctioned off; Timap Inc. acquired them in June 1935 for $110,000 and assumed responsibility for the existing $800,000 mortgage. The proscenium arch was infilled in 1939 when the former stage house was converted to a haberdashery, since the theater no longer needed these facilities after its conversion into a cinema.\n\nBy the mid-1940s, the ten theaters along 42nd Street between Seventh and Eighth Avenues were all showing movies; this led Variety to call the block the \"biggest movie center of the world\". The Brandts owned seven of these theaters, while the Cinema circuit operated the other three. The Brandt theaters included the Selwyn, Apollo, Times Square, Lyric, and Victory theaters on the north side of 42nd Street, as well as the Eltinge and Liberty theaters on the south side. The Times Square Theater showed action films and Westerns, and the Brandt changed the bill three times a week. Several producers offered to stage legitimate productions in the Brandt theaters, but none of the offers were successful. William Brandt indicated in 1946 that he might replace the theaters on the north side of 42nd Street with a skyscraper. By then, there was a shortage of new films in the theaters along 42nd Street, which led to decreased attendance.\n\nWilliam Brandt said in 1953 that any of his 42nd Street theaters could be converted to a legitimate house within 24 hours' notice, but producers did not take up his offer. By the late 1950s, the Times Square was classified as a \"western and action outlet\", displaying films that related to that genre. Tickets cost 25 to 65 cents apiece, the cheapest admission scale for any theater on 42nd Street. The Times Square and the other 42nd Street theaters operated from 8 a.m. to 3 a.m., with three shifts of workers. The ten theaters on the block attracted about five million visitors a year between them.\n\nThe 42nd Street Company was established in 1961 to operate the Brandts' seven theaters on 42nd Street. By the early 1960s, the surrounding block had decayed, but many of the old theater buildings from the block's heyday remained, including the Times Square. Martin Levine and Richard Brandt took over the 42nd Street Company in 1972. The Times Square still operated as an action house. The other six theaters showed a variety of genres, though Levine said none of the company's 42nd Street theaters showed hardcore porn. The Brandts' theaters had a combined annual gross of about $2 million and operated nearly the entire day. However, the area was in decline; the Brandts' theaters only had three million visitors by 1977, about half of the number in 1963. The area had also become dangerous and rundown as well. Patrons were fatally shot in separate incidents in 1977 and 1980. The Brandts' movie theaters on 42nd Street continued to operate through the mid-1980s, at which point the Times Square was showing \"obscure horror/action triple-bills\".\n\nRedevelopment\nThe 42nd Street Development Corporation had been formed in 1976 to discuss plans for redeveloping Times Square. The same year, the City University of New York's Graduate Center hosted an exhibition with photographs of the Times Square Theatre and other theaters to advocate for the area's restoration. Another plan, in 1978, called for restoring the Selwyn, Apollo, and Harris for opera and dance, rather than for theatrical purposes. Other nearby buildings, including possibly the Times Square Theater, would have been razed to create a park.\n\nPreservation attempts\n\nAnother plan, called the City at 42nd Street, was announced in December 1979 as part of a proposal to restore West 42nd Street around Times Square. Under the plan, the Times Square Theatre would have been preserved, and some of the other theaters would have been modified. Mayor Ed Koch wavered in his support of the plan, criticizing it as a \"Disneyland on 42nd Street\". Subsequently, Hugh Hardy conducted a report on 42nd Street's theaters in 1980. His report, in conjunction with a movement opposing the demolition of the nearby Helen Hayes and Morosco theaters, motivated the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) to survey fifty of Midtown Manhattan's extant theaters in the early 1980s.\n\nThe LPC started to consider protecting theaters, including the Times Square Theater, as landmarks in 1982, with discussions continuing over the next several years. While the LPC granted landmark status to many Broadway theaters starting in 1987, it deferred decisions on the exterior and interior of the Times Square Theater. Further discussion of the landmark designations was delayed for several decades. In late 2015, the LPC hosted public hearings on whether to designate the Times Square and six other theaters as landmarks. The LPC rejected the designations in February 2016, as the theaters were already subject to historic-preservation regulations set by the state government.\n\nEarly redevelopment proposals\nThe Urban Development Corporation (UDC), an agency of the New York state government, then proposed redeveloping the area around a portion of West 42nd Street in 1981. The plan centered around four towers that were to be built at 42nd Street's intersections with Broadway and Seventh Avenue, developed by Park Tower Realty and the Prudential Insurance Company of America. The Brandt family planned to submit a bid to redevelop some of the theaters they owned on 42nd Street. In June 1982, the Brandts' five theaters on the north side of 42nd Street, including the Times Square, were added to the redevelopment plan. In August 1984, the UDC granted Jujamcyn Theaters the right to operate the Selwyn, Apollo, and Lyric theaters; as part of the same project, the Times Square Theater would have become retail space. In response, Brandt and Cine Theater Corp. sued the UDC, claiming that the moves shut out independent theatrical operators. Michael J. Lazar would have renovated the four theaters for Jujamcyn, but the city and state removed him from the project in 1986 following a parking scandal. The Brandts also leased all their movie theaters on 42nd Street, including the Times Square, to the Cine 42nd Street Corporation in 1986.\n\nFrom 1987 to 1989, Park Tower and Prudential hired Robert A. M. Stern to conduct a study on the Apollo, Lyric, Selwyn, Times Square, and Victory theaters on the north side of 42nd Street. Stern devised three alternatives for the five theaters. City and state officials announced plans for the five theaters, along with the Liberty Theatre on the south side of 42nd Street, in September 1988. Stern presented a model of his plan the next month. The plan called for reducing the size of the Selwyn Theatre to accommodate \"intimate drama\", as well as replacing the Selwyn Building with a structure containing rehearsal studios. The UDC opened a request for proposals for six of the theaters that October. The Liberty and Victory were to be converted into performing-arts venues for nonprofit organizations, while the Selwyn, Apollo, Lyric, and Times Square were to be converted to commercial use. By the end of the year, the plans were threatened by a lack of money.\n\nIn early 1989, several dozen nonprofit theater companies submitted plans to the UDC for the takeover of six theaters. Most of the bids were for the Liberty and Victory, but the Selwyn, Apollo, Lyric, and Times Square theaters received 13 bids between them. That year, the Durst Organization acquired the leases to eight theaters in Times Square, including the Selwyn. It subsequently announced plans to renovate the eight theaters in February 1990. The theaters closed when the New York state government acquired the theater sites that April via eminent domain. The city had planned to buy out the theaters' leases but withdrew after the 42nd Street Company indicated it would lease the theaters to another developer. Although Durst protested the move, a New York Supreme Court judge ruled that the condemnation could occur.\n\nNew 42nd Street control\n\n1990s proposals\n\nA nonprofit organization, New 42nd Street, was formed in September 1990 to restore six of the theaters and find uses for them. Government officials hoped that development of the theaters would finally allow the construction of the four towers around 42nd Street, Broadway, and Seventh Avenue. In 1992, New 42nd Street received a $18.2 million grant for restoring the six theaters as part of an agreement with Prudential and Park Tower. Donna Dennis used the vacant theater's facade in 1993 for an art exhibition that included old playbills. That year, officials proposed opening the New York Information Center, which would occupy the Times Square Theater and either the Apollo or Lyric theaters. After Disney committed to restoring the New Amsterdam Theatre in 1994, most of the other theaters around 42nd Street were quickly leased. Garth Drabinsky, president of Canadian company Livent, signed a long-term lease for the Apollo and Lyric theaters in July 1995, and the present Lyric Theatre (then known as the Ford Center for the Performing Arts) opened in 1998.\n\nIn September 1994, MTV took an option on the Apollo, Lyric, and Times Square theaters, which it planned to convert into a production studio. However, the negotiations with MTV fell through. Marvel Entertainment signed a letter of intent to build a Marvel Mania restaurant inside in May 1996. These plans were placed on hold after Marvel Entertainment Group filed for bankruptcy protection at the end of the year. In mid-1997, Billboard Live International was negotiating to renovate the Times Square into a live-concert venue. Had this plan been successful, the theater building would have been expanded to to accommodate live concerts, and much of the theater's architectural details would have been preserved. After Billboard Live reneged, CBS considered leasing the theater as a broadcast studio by late 1997. Ultimately, CBS never signed a lease. Yet another themed restaurant, operated by WrestleMania, was proposed for the theater in early 1998, though WrestleMania also did not sign a lease.\n\nNew 42nd Street leased the theater in August 1998 to Livent, which proposed an entertainment complex with a 500-seat auditorium and a themed restaurant. Livent encountered major accounting issues within a week of the lease. By November 1998, Livent had filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, and the company canceled its plans to redevelop the Times Square Theater. New 42nd Street Inc. president Cora Cahan said she had received several proposals for potential uses of the theater, though most bidders said they did not want to build a performance space there. Producer Stewart F. Lane had proposed converting the theater for live use, but Cahan rejected the plan in January 1999. In the meantime, advertising firm TDI installed seven advertisement panels between the theater's columns. Cahan said that, in three months, the ads could raise $100,000 for New 42nd Street's adjacent rehearsal studios. By then, the popularity of theme restaurants was decreasing, and most sites in the neighborhood had already been redeveloped.\n\n2000s and early 2010s\nThe Times Square Theater remained empty in 2000, after every other theater on the block had been renovated. 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\u043f\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e. \u041d\u0430 \u0434\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u044c \u0441 \u043b\u0438\u0448\u043d\u0438\u043c \u043b\u0435\u0442 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430.\n\n\u0421\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u044b (1960 \u043f\u043e 1970) \n\u0421\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0432 1958\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0410\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0438\u044f \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u0430 \u0421\u0435\u0433\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430 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\u0412\u044f\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432. \u0421 17-\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430, \u0437\u0430\u043d\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u00ab\u0421\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043c\u00bb \u0432 1960\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443, \u0432 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u043c \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430 \u0448\u0430\u0433\u043d\u0443\u043b\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e. \u0412 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0436\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u00ab\u0421\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u043a\u00bb \u0432\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0432 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0442\u0440\u0451\u0445 \u0445\u043e\u043a\u043a\u0435\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432. \u042d\u0442\u043e \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441 \u0438 \u0415\u0432\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u041c\u0430\u0439\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044b \u0438 \u0412\u044f\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u043a\u0430 \u00ab\u0421\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0430\u00bb.\n\n\u0412 1962\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u00ab\u0421\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u043a\u00bb \u0432\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044b. \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u044b\u00a0\u2014 23\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430.\n\n\u00ab\u041a 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\u043f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0443 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u041c\u0438\u0433\u0443\u043d\u044c\u043a\u043e, \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u044b\u043d\u044e\u043a \u0438 \u0415\u0432\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0417\u0438\u043c\u0438\u043d, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0411\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u0412 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0435 1966/67\u00a0\u00ab\u0421\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u043a\u00bb \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437 \u0432 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044b. \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0411\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0443\u0448\u0451\u043b \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0443 \u0426\u0421\u041a\u0410. \u0427\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0437 \u043d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0438\u043c \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0439 \u041a\u0430\u0440\u043f\u043e\u0432 \u0412 1969\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430 \u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c.\n\n\u0421 1970 \u043f\u043e 1990\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u044b \n\u0421\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c \u044f\u0440\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c. \u0413\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0443\u0441\u043e\u043c \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u0442\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043e\u043a \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0448\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044b \u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0441\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f. \u0412\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u00a0\u2014 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0441\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0430. \u0422\u0435\u043c \u043d\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u0432 1976\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0441\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0446\u044b, \u043a\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0443 \u0432\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044c \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0439 \u041a\u0430\u0440\u043f\u043e\u0432, \u0432 \u0447\u0435\u0442\u0432\u0451\u0440\u0442\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420.\n\n\u0412 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435 1979\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0443 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u043b \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441 \u041f\u0430\u0432\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u041a\u0443\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0438\u043d. \u0412 \u043d\u0435\u0451 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 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\u00ab\u041d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0442\u0430\u00bb\n, \u00ab\u041c\u0438\u0440 \u0444\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438\u00bb, Empire, The Village, \u00ab\u0421\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0441\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u00bb. \u0418\u0441\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0439 \u041e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0432 Lenta.ru, \u0410\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d \u0414\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d \u0432 \u00ab\u0412\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044f\u0445\u00bb \u0438 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u044f \u041a\u0443\u0432\u0448\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0432 \u00ab\u0410\u0444\u0438\u0448\u0435\u00bb, \u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c \u043d\u0435\u0439\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0439.\n\n\u041b. \u041b\u043e\u0431\u0430\u0440\u0451\u0432 \u0443\u043a\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043b, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0432 \u043e\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0442 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430, \u0437\u0434\u0435\u0441\u044c \u0434\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u043b\u044f\u043d \u043d\u0435 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0435\u0439, \u043f\u043e \u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u043a \u044d\u0433\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0438\u043d\u043e\u043f\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0442\u044f\u043d\u0430\u043c, \u043c\u043e\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438. \u0415\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u00ab\u041a\u0438\u043d-\u0434\u0437\u0430-\u0434\u0437\u0430\u00bb \u043e\u043d\u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438 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\u043c\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0430\u0439\u0442\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041d\u0430\u0448\u0435 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u00bb (\u043f\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a\u0430", " have any simple and universally accepted definition, though statutory definitions have been provided for certain purposes. The most popular view is that crime is a category created by law; in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law. One proposed definition is that a crime or offence (or criminal offence) is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society, or the state (\"a public wrong\"). Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law.\n\nThe notion that acts such as murder, rape, and theft are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is a criminal offence is defined by the criminal law of each relevant jurisdiction. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the criminal code, in some common law nations no such comprehensive statute exists.\n\nThe state (government) has the power to severely restrict one's liberty for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must adhere. If found guilty, an offender may be sentenced to a form of reparation such as a community sentence, or, depending on the nature of their offence, to undergo imprisonment, life imprisonment or, in some jurisdictions, death. \n\nUsually, to be classified as a crime, the \"act of doing something criminal\" (actus reus) mustwith certain exceptionsbe accompanied by the \"intention to do something criminal\" (mens rea).\n\nWhile every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime. Breaches of private law (torts and breaches of contract) are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through civil procedure.\n\nDefinition \nThe exact definition of crime is a philosophical issue without an agreed upon answer. Fields such as law, politics, sociology, and psychology define crime in different ways. Crimes may be variously considered as wrongs against individuals, against the community, or against the state. The criminality of an action is dependent on its context; acts of violence will be seen as crimes in many circumstances but as permissible or desirable in others. Crime was historically seen as a manifestation of evil, but this has been superseded by modern criminal theories.\n\nLegalism \n\nLegal and political definitions of crime consider actions that are banned by authorities or punishable by law. Crime is defined by the criminal law of a given jurisdiction, including all actions that are subject to criminal procedure. There is no limit to what can be considered a crime in a legal system, so there may not be a unifying principle used to determine whether an action should be designated as a crime. From a legal perspective, crimes are generally wrong actions that are severe enough to warrant punishment that infringes on the perpetrator's liberties. \n\nEnglish criminal law and the related common law of Commonwealth countries can define offences that the courts alone have developed over the years, without any actual legislation: common law offences. The courts used the concept of malum in se to develop various common law offences.\n\nSociology \nAs a sociological concept, crime is associated with actions that cause harm and violate social norms. Under this definition, crime is a type of social construct, and societal attitudes determine what is considered criminal. \n\nIn legal systems based on legal moralism, the predominant moral beliefs of society determine the legal definition as well as the social definition of crime. This system is less prominent in liberal democratic societies that prioritize individualism and multiculturalism over other moral beliefs.\n\nPaternalism defines crime not only as harm to others or to society, but also as harm to the self.\n\nPsychology \nPsychological definitions consider the state of mind of perpetrators and their relationship with their environment.\n\nStudy \n\nThe study of crime is called criminology. Criminology is a subfield of sociology that addresses issues of social norms, social order, deviance, and violence. It includes the motivations and consequences of crime and its perpetrators, as well as preventative measures, either studying criminal acts on an individual level or the relationship of crime and the community. Due to the wide range of concepts associated with crime and the disagreement on a precise definition, the focus of criminology can vary considerably. Various theories within criminology provide different descriptions and explanations for crime, including social control theory, subcultural theory, strain theory, differential association, and labeling theory.\n\nSubfields of criminology and related fields of study include crime prevention, criminal law, crime statistics, anthropological criminology, criminal psychology, criminal sociology, criminal psychiatry, victimology, penology, and forensic science. Besides sociology, criminology is often associated with law and psychology.\n\nInformation and statistics about crime in a given jurisdiction are collected as crime estimates, typically produced by national or international agencies. Methods to collect crime statistics may vary, even between jurisdictions within the same nation. Under-reporting of crime is common, particularly in developing nations. Victim studies may be used to determine the frequency of crime in a given population.\n\nFoundational systems\n\nNatural-law theory \nJustifying the state's use of force to coerce compliance with its laws has proven a consistent theoretical problem. One of the earliest justifications involved the theory of natural law. This posits that the nature of the world or of human beings underlies the standards of morality or constructs them. Thomas Aquinas wrote in the 13th century: \"the rule and measure of human acts is the reason, which is the first principle of human acts\". He regarded people as by nature rational beings, concluding that it becomes morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable. In the 1760s, William Blackstone described the thesis:\n\n \"This law of nature, being co-eval with mankind and dictated by God himself, is of course superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original.\"\n\nBut John Austin (1790\u20131859), an early positivist, applied utilitarianism in accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality. He denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality. Thus in Austinian terms, a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody whatever norms the legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual remains free to choose what to do. Similarly, H.L.A. Hart saw the law as an aspect of sovereignty, with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end.\n\nThus the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law involved internal logic and consistency, and that the state's agents used state power with responsibility. Ronald Dworkin rejects Hart's theory and proposes that all individuals should expect the equal respect and concern of those who govern them as a fundamental political right. He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory of deference (the citizen's duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment. Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make.\n\nThere are natural-law theorists who have accepted the idea of enforcing the prevailing morality as a primary function of the law. This view entails the problem that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible: if conformity with natural law forms a necessary condition for legal validity, all valid law must, by definition, count as morally just. Thus, on this line of reasoning, the legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly history \nRestrictions on behavior existed in all prehistoric societies. Crime in early human society was seen as a personal transgression and was addressed by the community as a whole rather than through a formal legal system, often through the use of custom, religion, or the rule of a tribal leader. Some of the oldest extant writings are ancient criminal codes. The earliest known criminal code was the Code of Ur-Nammu (), and the known first criminal code that incorporated retaliatory justice was the Code of Hammurabi. The latter influenced the conception of crime across several civilizations over the following millennia.\n\nThe Romans systematized law and applied their system across the Roman Empire. The initial rules of Roman law regarded assaults as a matter of private compensation. The most significant Roman law concept involved dominion. Most acts recognized as crimes in ancient societies, such as violence and theft, have persisted to the modern era. The criminal justice system of Imperial China existed unbroken for over 2,000 years.\n\nMany of the earliest conceptions of crime are associated with sin and corresponded to acts that were believed to invoke the anger of a deity. This idea was further popularized with the development of the Abrahamic religions. The understanding of crime and sin were closely associated with one another for much of history, and conceptions of crime took on many of the ideas associated with sin. Islamic law developed its own system of criminal justice as Islam spread in the seventh and eighth centuries.\n\nPost-classical era \nIn post-classical Europe and East Asia, central government was limited and crime was defined locally. Towns established their own criminal justice systems, while crime in the countryside was defined by the social hierarchies of feudalism. In some places, such as the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Italy, feudal justice survived into the 19th century.\n\nCommon law first developed in England under the rule of Henry II in the 12th century. He established a system of traveling judges that tried accused criminals in each region of England by applying precedent from previous rulings. Legal developments in 12th century England also resulted in the earliest known recording of official crime data.\n\nModern era \nIn the modern era, crime came to be seen as an issue affecting society rather than conflicts between individuals. Writers such as Thomas Hobbes saw crime as a societal issue as early as the 17th century. Imprisonment developed as a long-term penalty for crime in the 18th century. Increasing urbanization and industrialization in the 19th century caused crime to become an immediate issue that affected society, prompting government intervention in crime and the establishment of criminology as its own field.\n\nAnthropological criminology was popularized by Cesare Lombroso in the late-19th century. This was a biological determinist school of thought based in social darwinism, arguing that certain people are naturally born as criminals. The eugenics movement of the early-20th century similarly held that crime was caused primarily by genetic factors.\n\nThe concept of crime underwent a period of change as modernism was widely accepted in the years following World War II. Crime increasingly came to be seen as a societal issue, and criminal law was seen as a means to protect the public from antisocial behavior. This idea was associated with a larger trend in the western world toward social democracy and centre-left politics.\n\nThrough most of history, reporting of crime was generally local. The advent of mass media through radio and television in the mid-20th century allowed for the sensationalism of crime. This created well-known stories of criminals such as Jeffrey Dahmer, and it allowed for dramatization that perpetuates misconceptions about crime. Forensic science was popularized in the 1980s, establishing DNA profiling as a new method to prevent and analyze crime.\n\nTypes\n\nViolent crime \n\nViolent crime is crime that involves an act of violent aggression against another person. Common examples of violent crime include homicide, assault, sexual assault, and robbery. Some violent crimes, such as assault, may be committed with the intention of causing harm. Other violent crimes, such as robbery, may use violence to further another goal. Violent crime is distinct from noncriminal types of violence, such as self-defense, use of force, and acts of war. Acts of violence are most often perceived as deviant when they are committed as an overreaction or a disproportionate response to provocation.\n\nProperty crime \n\nCommon examples of property crime include burglary, theft, and vandalism.\n\nExamples of financial crimes include counterfeiting, smuggling, tax evasion, and bribery. The scope of financial crimes has expanded significantly since the beginning of modern economics in the 17th century. In occupational crime, the complexity and anonymity of computer systems may help criminal employees camouflage their operations. The victims of the most costly scams include banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies, and other large financial institutions.\n\nPublic order crime \n\nPublic order crime is crime that violates a society's norms about what constitutes socially acceptable behavior. Examples of public order crimes include gambling, drug-related crime, public intoxication, prostitution, loitering, breach of the peace, panhandling, vagrancy, street harassment, excessive noise, and littering. Public order crime is associated with the broken windows theory, which posits that public order crimes increase the likelihood of other types of crime. Some public order crimes are considered victimless crimes in which no specific victim an be identified. Most nations in the Western world have moved toward decriminalization of victimless crimes in the modern era.\n\nAdultery, fornication, blasphemy, apostasy, and invoking the name of God are commonly recognized as crimes in theocratic societies or those heavily influenced by religion.\n\nPolitical crime \n\nPolitical crime is crime that directly challenges or threatens the state. Examples of political crimes include subversion, rebellion, treason, mutiny, espionage, sedition, terrorism, riot, and unlawful assembly. Political crimes are associated with the political agenda of a given state, and they are necessarily applied against political dissidents. Due to their unique relation to the state, political crimes are often encouraged by one nation against another, and it is political alignment rather than the act itself that determines criminality. State crime that is carried out by the state to repress law-abiding citizens may also be considered political crime.\n\nInchoate crime \n\nInchoate crime is crime that is carried out in anticipation of other illegal actions but does not cause direct harm. Examples of inchoate crimes include attempt and conspiracy. Inchoate crimes are defined by substantial action to facilitate a crime with the intention of the crime's occurrence. This is distinct from simple preparation for or consideration of criminal activity. They are unique in that renunciation of criminal intention is generally enough to absolve the perpetrator of criminal liability, as their actions are no longer facilitating a potential future crime.\n\nParticipants\n\nCriminal \nA criminal is an individual who commits a crime. What constitutes a criminal can vary depending on the context and the law, and it often carries a pejorative connotation. Criminals are often seen as embodying certain stereotypes or traits and are seen as a distinct type of person from law-abiding citizens. Despite this, no mental or physical trend is identifiable that differentiates criminals from non-criminals. Public response to criminals may be indignant or sympathetic. Indignant responses involve resentment and a desire for vengeance, wishing to see criminals removed from society or made to suffer for harm that they cause. Sympathetic responses involve compassion and understanding, seeking to rehabilitate or forgive criminals and absolve them of blame.\n\nVictim \nA victim is an individual who has been treated unjustly or made to suffer. In the context of crime, the victim is the individual that is harmed by a violation of criminal law. Victimization is associated with post-traumatic stress and a long-term decrease in quality of life. Victimology is the study of victims, including their role in crime and how they are affected.\n\nSeveral factors affect an individual's likelihood of becoming a victim. Some factors may cause victims of crime to experience short-term or long-term \"repeat victimization\". Common long-term victims are those that have close relationships with the criminal, manifesting in crimes such as domestic violence, embezzlement, child abuse, and bullying. Repeat victimization may also occur when a potential victim appears to be a viable target, such as when indicating wealth in a less affluent region. Many of the traits that indicate criminality also indicate victimality; victims of crime are more likely to engage in unlawful behavior and respond to provocation. Overall demographic trends of victims and criminals are often similar, and victims are more likely to have engaged in criminal activities themselves.\n\nThe victims may only want compensation for the injuries suffered, while remaining indifferent to a possible desire for deterrence. Victims, on their own, may lack the economies of scale that could allow them to administer a penal system, let alone to collect any fines levied by a court. Historically, from ancient times until the 19th century, many societies believed that non-human animals were capable of committing crimes, and prosecuted and punished them accordingly. Prosecutions of animals gradually dwindled during the 19th century, although a few were recorded as late as the 1910s and 1920s.\n\nCriminal law \n\nVirtually all countries in the 21st century have criminal law grounded in civil law, common law, Islamic law, or socialist law. Historically, criminal codes have often divided criminals by class or caste, prescribing different penalties depending on status. In some tribal societies, an entire clan is recognized as liable for a crime. In many cases, disputes over a crime in this system lead to a feud that lasts over several generations.\n\nCriminalization \n\nThe state determines what actions are considered criminal in the scope of the law. Criminalization has significant human rights considerations, as it can infringe on rights of autonomy and subject individuals to unjust punishment.\n\nCriminal justice\n\nLaw enforcement \n\nThe enforcement of criminal law seeks to prevent crime and sanction crimes that do occur. This enforcement is carried out by the state through law enforcement agencies, such as police, which are empowered to arrest suspected perpetrators of crimes. Law enforcement may focus on policing individual crimes, or it may focus on bringing down overall crime rates. One common variant, community policing, seeks to prevent crime by integrating police into the community and public life.\n\nCriminal procedure \n\nWhen the perpetrator of a crime is found guilty of the crime, the state delivers a sentence to determine the penalty for the crime.\n\nCorrections and punishment \n\nAuthorities may respond to crime through corrections, carrying out punishment as a means to censure the criminal act. Punishment is generally reserved for serious offenses. Individuals regularly engage in activity that could be scrutinized under criminal law but are deemed inconsequential. Retributive justice seeks to create a system of accountability and punish criminals in a way that knowingly causes suffering. This may arise out of a feeling that criminals deserve to suffer and that punishment should exist for its own sake. The existence of punishment also creates an effect of deterrence that discourages criminal action for fear of punishment. \n\nRehabilitation seeks to understand and mitigate the causes of a criminal's unlawful action to prevent recidivism. Different criminological theories propose different methods of rehabilitation, including strengthening social networks, reducing poverty, influencing values, and providing therapy for physical and mental ailments. Rehabilitative programs may include counseling or vocational education.\n\nDeveloped nations are less likely to use physical punishments. Instead, they will impose financial penalties or imprisonment. In places with widespread corruption or limited rule of law, crime may be punished extralegally through mob rule and lynching.\n\nWhether a crime can be resolved through financial compensation varies depending on the culture", " Catalonia.\n\nWith a ground surface of 32,000 m2, the Spanish Renaissance-inspired building has a rectangular floor plan flanked by two side and one rear square sections, with an elliptical dome in the centre. The fountains by the staircases leading to the palace are the work of Carles Bu\u00efgas.\n\nBetween 1996 and 2004, the palace was extended to accommodate the National Art Museum's entire collection of over 5,000 artworks.\n\nFirst projects of the Palau Nacional \n\nAhead of the 1929 International Exhibition, Barcelona had already commenced urbanizing parts of Montju\u00efc. From the second half of the 19th century, projects were presented regarding the installation of public facilities in the area. Up until this time, Montju\u00efc had only been used for its resources: pockets of private properties and numerous quarries. The lack of roadways made it area difficult to access, however.\n\nA project by Ildefons Cerd\u00e0 and another by Josep Amarg\u00f3s in 1894 proposed to convert the mountain into a residential area. A similar later plan was L\u00e9on Jaussely's 1905 Pla d'Enlla\u00e7os. \nAnother idea for the celebration of the exhibition in Montju\u00efc was proposed in 1909 when Manuel Vega i March suggested that the culminating point of the development should be 'a great Temple of Art, a summary and compendium of our most prodigious knowledge'. \nFinally, in 1913, it was decided that Montju\u00efc would be the definite location for the Exhibition of Electric Industries (Exposici\u00f3 d'Ind\u00fastries Electriques), promoted by the industry and the city council of Barcelona.\n \nThe initial plan proposed by architect Josep Puig i Cadafalch in 1915 was basic in design, depicting a large central avenue crowned by a rectangular palace with a great dome, the top of which had a statue of a winged Victory surrounded by eight towers. \nIn 1920, the same architect designed a detailed project named (Palace of Ancient Art), which later became known as (Palace of the Nations). \nIn order to construct the dome, a system was conceived to include a combination of a concrete and geodesic dome structure. The construction of this design began in 1923. \nHowever, in September of the same year, the arrival general Miguel Primo de Rivera to power brought on the dismissal of Puig i Cadafalch from his position as president of the Commonwealth of Catalonia and his subsequent distancing from the Exhibition project.\n\nThe distancing of Puig i Cadafalch from the project was not only for political reasons, but financial ones as well. \nIn a document titled Advancement of the Budget of the Exhibition, the budget valued the Palace at 8,080,000 pesetas. \nAnother reason for the new organizational committee to avoid Puig i Cadafalch's continuation was the transfer of the contract from the construction company to another company , contradicting the statement of conditions previously agreed. \nAs a result, the new committee decided to suspend the construction works of the palace.\n\nCompetition of 1924 \nOn the 18th of July 1924 the engineer Mari\u00e0 Rubi\u00f3 i Bellver, member of the organization and lawyer of J.M. Almirall Carb\u00f3, launched a competition of projects. The participation was open to all Spanish architects, who could present an individual project or one together with the proposal of a construction company. It was the latter option that gave way to the final winner. \nTen projects in total were presented. That of Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda Mart\u00edn was rejected, as it was considered outside of the scope of the project. The nine successful entries were made public in January 1925:\n\nBenet Guitart i Trulls: The architect with the longest standing qualification, he proposed a structure made of iron that was based on an Islamic style of architecture.\nJuan Brugera Rogent: An architect from Madrid who presented a purely neoclassical design, with the main fa\u00e7ade consisting of a Corinthian colonnade and a dome 65 meters in diameter.\nSalvador Soteras i Taberner: This project suggested a palace where the ground floor could not be seen from Pla\u00e7a Espanya. The structure was reduced to a minimum; however it did include a dome and two towers. The architect received an honorable mention, although almost posthumously, as he died in the spring of 1925.\nRafael Bergam\u00edn, Luis Blanco Soler and Ricardo Garc\u00eda Guereta: Three architects belonging to the school of Madrid, their project was one that deviated from the earlier design by Puig i Cadafalch. Classical in style, it presented a fa\u00e7ade of columns and a pediment and was the only proposal which did not suggest a dome or towers. The project also included a rear fa\u00e7ade which included a sculpture realized by Victorio Macho.\nEduardo Fern\u00e1ndez D\u00edaz: The design was one of a neoclassical style with a central cupola.\nEugenio Cendoya and Enric Cat\u00e0: The winning project (see below for more details).\nNicolau Maria Rubi\u00f3 i Tudur\u00ed, Ramon Revent\u00f3s and Francesc Folguera: Their design attempted to harmonize with the palaces constructed by Puig i Cadafalch. Curiously, this project and that of Eduardo Fernandez were the only ones which did not feature in the magazine Arquitectura, which published the results of the competition and their illustrations.\nRamon T\u00e9rmens Mauri: One of the most disparate projects presented in relation to that designed by Puig i Cadafalch, it proposed the main fa\u00e7ade be on the street of the stadium instead of facing Pla\u00e7a Espanya. The Great Hall has a cruciform plan, with large vaults and a central dome.\nJaume Santom\u00e0 and Mariano Roman\u00ed: The youngest architects of all the entries. Roman\u00ed was said to have not yet completed his architectural studies at the time. Their proposal was clearly based on that of Puig i Cadafalch, but with easier construction solutions. They received second prize.\n\nThe winning proposal was that of Eugenio Cendoya and Enric Cat\u00e0, with honorable mentions given to Salvador Soteras and Santom\u00e0 i Roman\u00ed. \nThe president of the presiding jury was the then-mayor of Barcelona, Darius Rumeu i Freixa. The winning project also included the collaboration of the constructor Antoni Montseny, and in some publications, the name Pere Dom\u00e8nech i Roura appears, who was already the general manager of construction of the Exhibition.\n\nExecutive project\n\nDuring 1925 the competition, winners made the implementation plan of their project. One of the most important factors was the guarantee of development of the work in a given timeframe. A mechanism to bring the construction time forward was found in the rationalization of architectonic elements; searching for repetition that would serve to save time during the building process. \nThree materials served to be most important during the construction; concrete, artificial stone and iron. According to the architects themselves, the artificial stone, manufactured on-site, is T-shaped in order to provide a good grip on the wall structures between which they are applied. \nA norm was presented by which all walls and framework were to be realized in concrete and the lost formwork in artificial stone, incorporating the visible decoration. \nThe flat roofs were constructed using a system of reinforced concrete and coffering, which formed the final decoration. As a result, the interior comprises iron housing, filled with concrete to one side, and the other treated with decorative plaster work.\nFor the lobby, stairs and basement, the so-called 'Catalan Vault' was used, consisting of flat-laid brick work. Amongst the pieces of artificial stone made on-site are sixteen columns supporting the dome, each of one meter in diameter and ten in height, and hollow in structure. Each column is made from a singular piece of artificial stone. The structure of the Great Hall measures 46 x 74 meters with a height of 70 meters. \nOn the 30th of June 1926 the first stone of the construction was placed, an occasion marked by diverse authorities including the president of the executive committee of the Exhibition, Mariano de Foronda, the mayor of Barcelona Darius Rumeu i Freixa, and the director of construction Pere Dom\u00e8nech i Roura.\n\nArchitecture \n\nThe design of the National Palace is a unified style of Spanish Renaissance architecture with an air of academic classicism.\n\nIt is the result of different functional forms and construction procedures, resolved by a technical language attributed to the Barcelona School of Architecture.\nThe construction of the Palace consists of the combination of traditional systems based on symmetry, as clearly outlined in its composition and, that of the building procedure dominated by more modern techniques and materials such as the use of concrete.\n \nThe building has two floors: one base or ground floor and another main floor which holds double pilasters, marking the great blind wall panels. At the north-eastern part of the structure lies a subterranean space, which at the moment of construction was destined for the installation of kitchens. There was also a set of rooms constructed: the Throne Room, rooms for the King and Queen and, to the front of the building, the museum section. To the back of the building an area for events was created, with a small tea room or restaurant, located in the body of space which stands behind the Great Hall.\nThe fa\u00e7ade consists of a central body flanked by two smaller side ones. The center topped by a large dome reminiscent of that of St. Paul's in London or that of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican, with two smaller domes on each side. At the four angles corresponding to those of the Great Hall stand four towers that resemble those of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostella or the Giralda of Seville.\n\nInterior decoration \nThe architectural project not only included architectural decoration such as columns, pediments and moldings but also considered such interior decoration as murals and sculptures. \nThe ornamentation of the interior spaces depended on the organizational committee who resulted in giving the amount of 1,200,000 pesetas towards its realization. Responsible for the project management was Louis Plenduira, curator of the Fine Arts Exhibition. The work commenced in winter of 1928, leaving the artists three months to carry out their pieces. The style of the art work produced belongs to that of which prevailed in Catalonia at the time namely the noucentisme style, which is found especially in the decoration of the main dome and the domes under the Throne Room, the Great Hall and the Tea Room.\n\nThe neo-Renaissance architecture contrasts with its 20th-century decoration by sculptors Enric Casanoves, Josep Dunyach, Federic Mar\u00e8s and Josep Llimona, and painters Francesc d'\u00c1ss\u00eds Gal\u00ed, Josep de Togores, Manuel Humbert, Josep Obiols i Palau, Joan Colom i August\u00ed and Francesc Labarta.\n\nThe Great Hall \nBeyond the lobby is the Great Hall (), or Oval Room (). Due to its large dimensions, it was conceived as a space for the hosting of great events; from the official ceremony to the inauguration of the Exhibition, as well as concerts, balls, galas and conferences. \nThe hall is 2,300 m2 and has standing room for 1,300 people.\nThe Oval Room hosted the opening ceremony of the Exhibition, presided by Alfonso XIII and Queen Victoria Eugenie.\n\nThe Great Hall is covered by an oval shaped coffered vault, with large columns dominating the decoration. The column's shafts are adorned with a Renaissance grotesque decoration. The decoration is simple, consisting of ornamental borders and basic vegetation motifs, which line both the arches and the coves of the vault. \nAnother design element of the Salon is the fifty-six small heraldic shields which occupy the space between the arches and represent the fifty Spanish provinces which existed in 1929. The six remaining shields depict musical instruments and are located in the part of the Salon where the organ is found.\n\nFor the Universal Exhibition of 1888 in Barcelona two electric organs were installed in the Salon of the Queen of Regent of the Palace of the Fine Arts (Palau de les Belles Arts); this initiative being faithful to the tradition undertaken in other Exhibitions such as that of Glasgow in 1901, of Saint Louis in 1904 and that of San Diego in 1915. \nIt was thus seen appropriate to continue this tradition and so install an organ for the new Exhibition in Barcelona. The organ was built in 1929 by E.F. Walcker & Cie. from Ludwigsburg (Germany). The mechanisms entirely electric and consisted of 154 music registers divided into five keyboards and a pedal keyboard of thirty-two notes, with more than two thousand organ pipes. It was inaugurated by Professor Alfred Sittard on the 6th of July 1929. The organ was restored and enlarged in 1955, wherein two thousand five hundred new pipes were added to the previous amount. With the expansion of the organ it now contains six keyboards and measures a total of eleven meters in height and 34 meters in width.\n\nThrone Room \nThe Throne Room (), also known as the Conference or Proceedings Room (), is that decorated with the most noble of materials. Each wall surface is treated with different coloured marbles, realized in the formation of geometric designs. Above the throne hangs a portrait of King Alfonso XIII. It is an oil painting which was commissioned for the occasion of the 1929 Exhibition and was realized by the Barcelona painter Richard Canals. The lateral walls of the room are decorated with allegorical paintings referencing the Exhibition of 1888 and realized by Francesc Labarta; others relate to the Exhibition of 1929 and were painted by Xavier Nogu\u00e9s.\nThe painter Josep Obiols i Palau also contributed with a series of four frescos depicting the cardinal virtues: Fortitude, Temperance, Justice and Prudence, located in the four tympana of the arches in the Throne Room.\n\nPrincipal dome \n\nFor the decoration of the dome, Llu\u00eds Plandiura suggested that is should be entrusted to one of the best Catalan artists of the time. \nFor this reason the central part of the dome (a surface area of about 300 m2) was realized by Francesc d'Ass\u00eds Gal\u00ed, who was contracted to represent 'in a tremendous way, the grandeur of Spain, justified in a symbolic composition defined by four fields: Religion, Science, Fine Arts and Land'.\n\nReligion: The scene of Christ crucified, at his sides are the figures of a martyr and an angel, at his feet, an infidel. Another scene depicts a Saracen leader handing over the keys of a city to the Christian army.\nScience: A female allegory of geometry and triumphs of science, accompanied by Miguel Servet and his investigation of the circulatory system; Blasco de Garay, the inventor of navigation with use of the paddle wheel; and an Arab from C\u00f3rdoba observing the stars.\nThe Fine Arts: A woman with a rainbow and a laurel branch. Two female figures symbolising Architecture hold a building model. There are also representations of Painting, Sculpture, Literature and Music.\nThe Earth: A female figure holding the moon with one hand and the sun lying at her feet. There are also several painted fruits of the earth relating to agriculture, industry and livestock.\n\nThe drum of the dome consists of eight panels representing ancient civilization paintings, realized by Josep Togores and Manual Humbert. The shells were painted by the aforementioned artists in the grisaille technique and depict four allegories relating to the former kingdoms of Le\u00f3n, Castille, Navarre and the Crown of Aragon. Under the shells, four sculptures are located in niches representing to one side, Law and Force by sculptor Josep Dunyach; and to the other side, Work and Religion, by sculptor Enric Casanovas.\n\nArt in Spain \nThe 1929 International Exhibition was organised around three thematic areas: Industry, Sport and Art, the last of which led to a grand exhibition in the National Palace titled el arte en Espa\u00f1a ('Art in Spain').\n\nA 'Regulation and Guarantee of the dedicated section of Art in Spain at the National Palace' was developed, whereby the purpose of the collection was outlined: \n\nThe organisers chose highlights of the history of art, particularly for their value and significance, soliciting the works from their owners as well as accepting proposals. \nThey gathered in total some 5,000 works of diverse nature from museums, individuals, religious institutions, libraries and archives from different parts of Spain. In total the works are said to have had a value of some 800 million pesetas.\n\nThe collection was organised in chronological order, from the epoch of Roman Spain to the period of Isabella II. Months later, a pre-historic section was added to the exhibition, which was located in the basement of the Palace.\nAmongst the pieces created exclusively for the collection were a number of commissioned dioramas which highlight the history of Spain, realised by the same artists that had participated in the decoration of the Palace. There were fifteen final themes in total, part of the twenty-seven initially planned for the exhibition:\n\nRecceswinth\nAl-Mansur\nThe Exile of El Cid\nRomanesque Painting\nJames I Cries at the Bodies of the Montcada Brothers\nAlfonso X the Wise\nPeter the Cruel\nThe Entrance of Alfonso V to Naples\nThe Arrival of Columbus to Barcelona \nFriar Luis de Le\u00f3n\nCharles V at Yuste\nPhilip II and the Duchess of Alba\nQuevedo on the Steps of San Felipe\nCharles III\nInauguration of the first Barcelona-Matar\u00f3 railway\n\nRestoration \n\nArchitects Eugenio Cendoya, Enric Cat\u00e0 and Pere Dom\u00e8nech i Roura constructed Palau Nacional as a temporary building for the Exhibition of 1929. The speed of the construction and the modesty of the materials used meant that a restoration of the structure was called for in 1934, when it became the National Art Museum of Catalonia. It was the ground floor rooms which underwent the most important transformation. \nThe architect Ramon Revent\u00f3s was appointed in charge of the renovation, in which they removed excess interior decorations and smoothed the wall surfaces to prepare for the display of paintings. They also undertook the creation of an exterior water collection network to prevent moisture leaks and repaired the cracks which had become visible on some of the wall surfaces.\n\nThe Palau Nacional has undergone many different interventions. A few years later the first-floor rooms were rendered unusable after damage to the roof during the Spanish Civil War. This damage was repaired during the restoration undertaken in the 1960s to prepare for the exhibition on Romanesque art, a project directed by the head of Museums of Art of Barcelona, Joan Ainaud de Lasarte. \n\nFrom the 1960s until the 1980s the Italian architect Gae Aulenti was contracted to rectify the problems that surfaced during the exhibition. 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\u043e\u0431\u044f\u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u043d\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u0442\u044c \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043a \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0445\u0435\u043c\u0435 (\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0443), \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044b \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0442\u0430\u043a \u0438 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0441\u0434\u0432\u0438\u0433\u0430, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0445\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0443 \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432. \u041a\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043d\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440.\n\n\u041f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430 \n\u0414\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0442\u0438\u043f \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044b\u043c \u0441 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0438 \u0437\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u041f\u0417\u0421-\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0435\u0439 (full-frame CCD-matrix). \u041f\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043c\u043e \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0445\u0435\u043c \u00ab\u043e\u0431\u0432\u044f\u0437\u043a\u0438\u00bb, \u0442\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0438\u043f \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446 \u043d\u0443\u0436\u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0432 \u043c\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0437\u0430\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0435, \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u043c \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043a \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u0414\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0437\u0430\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0440\u044f\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0437\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0447\u0435\u043c \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0435 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0441\u0434\u0432\u0438\u0433\u0430 \u043a \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0443 \u043a\u0430\u0436\u0434\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0437 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0438\u043a\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0434\u043e\u0431\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043b\u0438\u0448\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u044b, \u0432\u044b\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0443\u044e \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u041f\u0417\u0421-\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u044b. \u0414\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u00ab\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043c\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c\u00bb \u0437\u0430\u0440\u044f\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0435 (full-frame matrix smear).\n\n\u0422\u0430\u043a\u0438\u043c \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u043c, \u0441\u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u0430\u0434\u0440\u0430 \u0432 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0445\u0435\u043c\u0435 \u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0442\u0430\u043a \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0441\u0434\u0432\u0438\u0433\u0430. \u0422\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u043e\u0447\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0434\u043d\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043a, \u0438\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0437 \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430, \u0434\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0430 \u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u043b \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0442\u043e\u0436\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u0442 \u043e\u0442 \u0441\u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f.\n\n\u041c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u044b \u0441 \u0431\u0443\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0434\u0440\u0430 \n\u0421\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0443\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 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\u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0441\u0434\u0432\u0438\u0433\u0430, \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0449\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0431\u0443\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440 \u0438 \u0443\u0436\u0435 \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u0445\u043e\u0434 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0441\u0434\u0432\u0438\u0433\u0430. \u041f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0431\u0443\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e 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\u043f\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0447\u0443\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0438 \u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044f\u0445 \u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0430, \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u044b \u0441 \u043e\u0431", " occasional freight services and for empty passenger stock movements across the city. The Bellgrove section that passed to the NBR remains in intensive passenger use, but the elevated section across the city is the iconic part of the line, with large span lattice bridges over Saltmarket, London Road and Gallowgate, which is currently only used for non-passenger movements of trains.\n\nA railway development scheme being considered may lead to renewed use of the line as a cross-city passenger link.\n\nHistory\n\nPlans\nThe Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway (GPK&AR) and its rival, the Glasgow, Paisley and Greenock Railway, received their authorising Acts of Parliament on 15 July 1837. Although they hoped for separate lines, they were obliged to build their line as far as Paisley jointly; their lines diverged west of that point. Their Glasgow terminus was Bridge Street, on the south bank of the River Clyde. At first this was adequate but as traffic developed the arrangement became unsatisfactory. The GPK&AR absorbed another railway and was renamed the Glasgow and South Western Railway (G&SWR), and was running trains to a range of destinations in its area of influence.\n\nSuggestions had been made for some years to connect the lines south and north of the Clyde: in 1846 a Parliamentary Select Committee produced a report of 1,470 pages on the subject, but in the face of opposition from vested interests including those who received the tolls on the existing road bridges, nothing was done.\n\nOther unsuccessful proposals followed, but in 1863 a prospectus for a City of Glasgow Union Railway was published: it would \"unite the whole of the Railways now terminating North and South of the River Clyde\", and provide a \"general Central Station\" (at St Enoch Square) for passengers and a separate \"General Goods Station\" on lands to be vacated by the University of Glasgow: \"College Goods station\". The promoters were contractors, hoping to generate construction work for themselves, and they wished to involve all the railways in the scheme, taking a substantial block of shares themselves. The G&SWR and the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway (E&GR) were favourable towards such a scheme as the trade in goods between their areas of influence was considerable, and the available through route was circuitous. The other major player was the Caledonian Railway (CR) which had terminals north and south of the Clyde; it was developing its Buchanan Street station and it had adequate goods facilities, but it was not opposed to the idea of a link and a common passenger terminal.\n\nThe line would be over long, from West Street to Sighthill, where the E&GR had a goods yard; it would cost \u00a3650,000 to build. The original \"St Enoch's Square Central Station\" was designed by John Fowler and J F Blair. It was a through station: a general plan shows an eight platform station on the site actually used; there are three short bay platforms, a \"Northern Division\" of two platform faces, and a southern division with four tracks extending westwards across Dixon Street. There is no indication where the tracks are destined; in earlier years there had been considerable interest in providing rail access to the Broomielaw quays on the north bank of the Clyde, and this may be the purpose. In 1869-1870 when the Queen's Dock was being planned at Stobcross, the G&SWR applied for running powers there, intending to build a line west from Dunlop Street, bridging St Enoch Square and running parallel and close to the north bank of the Clyde. The scheme would have been enormously disruptive and expensive, and the application was refused.\n\nThe capital requirement soon escalated to \u00a3900,000, and the G&SWR and the E&GR were supportive, but the CR was not greatly interested (and may have taken offence at the manner of the approach) and opposed the scheme. Nonetheless, it received the Royal Assent on 29 July 1864. In early 1865 it was agreed that the G&SWR and the E&GR would between them take the whole of the stock of the new company, releasing the prospective contractors from that obligation. On 1 August 1865 the E&GR was taken over by the larger, but more remote, North British Railway (NBR).\n\nThe scheme for the general passenger station was now modified, as it emerged that the NBR did not contemplate making much use of it, although hopes lingered that the Caledonian would have a change of heart and join in the project. For the time being a smaller station at Dunlop Street was considered to suffice. The NBR was experiencing financial difficulties. Access for mineral traffic to the General Terminus goods station on the south bank of the Clyde was a significant consideration in supporting the CGUR, but the huge expenditure on a grand terminal passenger station was too much for the NBR board.\n\nOpening\nWork progressed and in September 1870 the City of Glasgow Union line opened to goods traffic only. It opened for full passenger use between Shields Road and Dunlop Street on 12 December 1870; St Enoch station was not ready and the Dunlop Street station was a temporary terminus. The Dunlop Street station had cost \u00a3200,000.\n\nAt Shields Road there was a station on the Union line and also on the Glasgow and Paisley Joint line, where passengers could change for Paisley, Ayr and Greenock.\n\nThe construction had cost about \u00a31 million, due chiefly to escalating land acquisition costs. The new line incorporated the first railway bridge over the Clyde in the city; but the St Enoch Square terminus had not been started yet.\n\nOn 1 June 1871 the service was extended to Bellgrove, with an intermediate station at Gallowgate. Trains towards Bellgrove worked into Dunlop Street terminus, and then were propelled back to Clyde Junction to resume their onward journey. At this time the NBR was extending westwards from Coatbridge via Shettleston and opened the line to College passenger station on 1 February 1871. This brought extra flows of Monklands coal to the CGUR, destined for the Clyde at General Terminus. By October 1872 the College Goods station was in operation, though with costs escalating, it was long before it was completed.\n\nThe line through to Sighthill Junction was opened to goods traffic on 18 August 1875, although it was not until 1 January 1881 that passenger services reached Alexandra Parade, and 1 January 1887 to Springburn, beyond Sighthill Junction.\n\nOver 1300 houses had been demolished in the construction, and by 1874 \u00a32,200,000 had been expended.\n\nSt Enoch station opened at last\nNegotiations between the G&SWR and the English Midland Railway for mutual co-operation or merger had blown hot and cold. Finally on 1 May 1876 the first through trains ran from St Enoch to St Pancras station, London, over the two lines. Four trains ran daily, with Pullman drawing room cars, and sleeping cars on a night service. In fact the station was far from complete: it was not until the end of 1877 that the station was ready, with the southwards connection opening on 1 November.\n\nThere were six platforms beneath the arch iron and glass roof, which was in length, high and with a clear span of . The cost had risen to \u00a31,275,000. There were 43 trains each way, six days a week. Through coaches from Edinburgh to Ayr were operated in association with the North British Railway; they were detached from trains to Queen Street at Bellgrove, and worked forward to Clyde Junction, where they were attached to trains starting from St Enoch.\n\nThe station was the first public area in Scotland to be lit by electricity, although 464 gas jet lamps were provided as an emergency standby. Nonetheless, Johnston calls it \"by far the gloomiest of the Glasgow quartet [of main line terminals]\".\n\nAs late as July 1876 the Caledonian Railway renewed an approach concerning use of St Enoch by their trains; they were rebuffed by the G&SWR, who said that a minimum payment of \u00a3500,000 would be necessary to permit the access.\n\nOn 3 July 1879 the St Enoch station hotel opened: it was the largest in Scotland.\n\nSt Enoch station had been built under a separate financial account; on 29 June 1883 that charge was incorporated into the G&SWR general account; it had cost \u00a31,672,474. The station and the immediate approach lines were transferred to the G&SWR from that date.\n\nFrom July 1883 there were through services from Greenock, Ayr and Ardrossan to Edinburgh; complicated movements were necessary at St Enoch to achieve a through service.\n\nQuadrupling, and division\nIn 1894, discussions took place about capacity on the Union Line. The North British Railway had opened its Bridgeton terminus, on a branch from High Street, and a short spur was proposed to enable eastbound trains on the Union Line to run to Bridgeton.\n\nQuadrupling of the section of the Union Line between Clyde Junction and Port Eglinton Junction was proposed, responding to the increasing density of traffic: the line was said to be carrying 9 million passengers a year, and a million tons of goods and minerals. The section east of College West Junction fell logically to the North British, and it was proposed to divide the company, the NBR taking 40% of the share capital. The G&SWR was to take over the whole of the railway south and west of the junction.\n\nThe Act authorising this split was passed on 7 August 1896, in the face of opposition from the City Council of Glasgow, who calculated that it would lose rates income from the split.\n\nOn 18 August 1898 an Act for the extension of St Enoch station was passed. This involved a second arch roof and six further platforms; they were brought into use progressively from 1901. The station was completed in 1904, at a cost of \u00a32,500,000.\n\nSubsequent history\nWith the separation of the north-eastern section, the part of the original Union Railway north-east of St Enoch became simply a part of the North British Railway system.\n\nIn the 1960s, consideration was being given to rationalisation of railway facilities in the city: at the time there were four major termini. It was decided to concentrate the services of the former G&SWR and the Caledonian Railway on Glasgow Central station, and St Enoch station was closed to passengers on 27 June 1966. Parcels trains continued to use the station until 5 June 1967. For some time the extensive site in the city centre lay almost abandoned to pigeons and car parking, but a commercial shopping development was built on the site: the St Enoch Centre. College Goods station closed with the decline of wagonload freight.\n\nThe through route from Shields Junction to Bellgrove remained in use for a light freight service, and to transfer empty coaching stock across the city. The large span lattice girder bridges over Saltmarket, London Road and Gallowgate, and the elevated viaduct sections there and near Cumberland Street are reminders of an ambitious scheme to connect the north and south railway networks in the city.\n\nThat connection may once again be resumed: a development scheme is being planned that may lead to use of the line as a cross-city passenger link.\n\nDescription of the route\nNote: junction names and exact junction locations changed somewhat over time as new lines made connections and later, signalling was concentrated.\n\nMain section south\nThe main section of the CGUR is still in existence; it runs from Shields Junction on the Paisley to Glasgow line, and runs to College East Junction (later High Street Junction) between High Street and Bellgrove on the former NBR Coatbridge line. From Shields Jn the line climbs on viaduct and swings north to cross the Clyde by the Union Railway Bridge, then crossing Bridgegate, London Road and Gallowgate by long-span lattice bridges.\n\nThis section remains open for freight and empty coaching stock movements.\n\nIn 1885 the Paisley Canal Line was opened, and the G&SWR built a westward extension of the CGUR to enable its own trains to run from the Canal Line to St Enoch without using the Glasgow and Paisley Joint Line. At this period the configuration at Shields Road was exceedingly complex. The thoroughfare ran north to south on a bridge; there were three surface routes, each having a passenger station. From north to south \n the Joint Line; the station was Pollokshields;\n the CGUR, (which has diverged, for eastbound trains, from the Joint Line at Pollok Junction); the station was Shields Road; and \n the G&SWR Canal Line (which will join the CGUR at Eglinton Street Junction); the station was Shields.\n\nThe separate station designations persisted until 1925.\n\nIn addition there were three lower level lines, crossing north-west to south-east under the surface lines at the road bridge. These were \n a single line from Scotland Street Junction (i.e. General Terminus goods) to the CGUR;\n double track Caledonian Railway line from Scotland Street Junction to Larkhall Junction (towards Rutherglen);\n a converging double junction, of routes from Scotland Street and from Kinning Park goods station, leading to General Terminus Junction, whence onward to Larkhall Junction or Strathbungo Junction (for the Barrhead line);\n A double track from Maxwell Junction to General Terminus Junction, enabling through running from Paisley to either Rutherglen or Barrhead.\n\nIn 1893 the G&SWR opened a spur line from St Johns Junction, a short distance north of Gallowgate station, to Gallowgate Central Junction on the NBR Bridgeton line. This enabled a through service to be run from Greenock (Princes Pier) to Bridgeton via St Enoch.\n\nSt Enoch section\nThe St Enoch section formed a triangle of lines west of the main section, with Clyde Junction at the southern apex and Saltmarket Junction at the north-eastern apex. It was almost all on viaduct.\n\nThis section is closed.\n\nMain section north\nAfter a short section in which CGUR trains used the NBR line, the CGUR reappears, swinging northwards at the east end of Bellgrove and climbing in retaining-wall cutting to Alexandra Parade and then in more open country crossing the original Garnkirk and Glasgow Railway line to Barnhill and Sighthill Junction. Springburn station lies just beyond Sighthill Junction, but the CGUR never built that far; G&SWR trains however operated a service from St Enoch station to Springburn.\n\nThis section remains open for passenger services between Queen Street Low Level and Springburn.\n\nLangside Junction section\nThe short Langside Junction section struck southwards from Gorbals Junction past the site of the former South Side station to Langside Junction, giving G&SWR trains access to the Glasgow Barrhead and Kilmarnock Joint Line.\n\nThis section is closed.\n\nParkhead Branch\nEnabling eastbound running from Cowlairs towards Shettleston, this branch ran from Haghill Junction (near Alexandra Parade) to Parkhead Junction.\n\nThis section is closed.\n\nStations and locations\nLocations in italics are not passenger stations.\n\nMain section south\n Shields Junction;\n Shields Road; combined with adjacent stations on 1 April 1925; closed 14 February 1966;\n Eglinton Street; opened 1 October 1900; renamed Cumberland Street 2 June 1924; closed 14 February 1966;\n Eglinton Street Junction;\n Main Street, Gorbals; opened 19 December 1870; closed 30 September 1900;\n Clyde Junction;\n Saltmarket Junction;\n Gallowgate; opened 19 December 1870; closed except for special purposes 1 October 1902; finally closed 1934;\n St Johns Junction; divergence for Bridgeton;\n College East Junction.\n\nSt Enoch section\nSouthern arm:\n Clyde Junction;\n Glasgow Dunlop Street; opened 12 December 1870; closed 17 October 1876;\n Glasgow St Enoch; opened 17 October 1876; closed 27 June 1966.\n\nNorthern arm:\n St Enoch station; see above;\n Saltmarket Junction.\n\nMain section north\n Bellgrove Junction;\n Duke Street;\n Haghill Junction; \n Alexandra Park; opened 1 July 1881; closed 1 January 1917; reopened 2 June 1919; renamed Alexandra Parade 9 July 1923;\n Blochairn; opened 1883; renamed Garngad 1885; closed 1 March 1910.\n Barnhill; opened 13 December 1886; closed 1 January 1917; reopened 1 February 1919; renamed Barnhill 8 June 1953;\n Sighthill Junction.\n\nLangside Junction section\n Eglinton Street Junction;\n Gorbals; opened 1 September 1877; closed 1 June 1928;\n Langside Junction; junction with line to Kilmarnock.\n\nParkhead branch\n Haghill Junction;\n Parkhead Junction.\n\nThe Clyde Bridge\nThe CGUR built the first railway bridge over the River Clyde in the City of Glasgow, opened in 1870. It consisted of twin-lattice parallel iron girders in seven spans; the engineers were John Fowler and J F Blair, and the contractor was Thomas Brassey & co. Deep foundations to the piers required\u2014up to \u2014and cylinder caissons were lowered to firm rock by the use of a grab type excavator working within; the excavated face was kept under water.\n\nIn 1898 the bridge was reconstructed and widened for quadruple track; compressed air excavation for diameter steel piers were used. The structure consists of two variable depth continuous girders. The visible spandrel braced arches are not primary structural members. There is a decorative cast-iron cornice and parapet, and towers and half turrets in red sandstone. The work cost \u00a367,970. It is a listed building, category B.\n\nConnections to other lines\nEdinburgh and Glasgow Railway at Sighthill Junction\nGarnkirk and Glasgow Railway at Sighthill Junction\nCoatbridge Branch of the North British Railway at Haghill Junction and Bellgrove\nGlasgow City and District Railway at High Street West Junction\nGlasgow, Barrhead and Neilston Direct Railway at Gorbals Junction\nPaisley Canal Line, General Terminus and Glasgow Harbour Railway and Glasgow and Paisley Joint Railway at Shields Junction\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nFurther reading\n \n \n \n Railscot on", " \u043e\u043d \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e \u0441\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043b \u0441 \u043d\u0435\u0451 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0439, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043c\u0443\u0436\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f\u043c. \u041f\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043c\u043e \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0443 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u044b \u0441\u043e \u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0435\u043c, \u041c\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0435\u0440 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u043d\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043f\u0438\u0441\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0432 \u043d\u043e\u0447\u044c \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0441\u044a\u0451\u043c\u043e\u043a, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u043d\u0435 \u043d\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u041c\u044d\u0440\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043d. \u0412 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u0435 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 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\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0434\u043d\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0431\u044f. \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0438\u044f\u0436 \u0435\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438, \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0430 \u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043f\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0431\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u0430 \u0447\u0442\u043e\u0431\u044b \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0435\u0451 \u0432 \u0447\u0443\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u0437\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0435\u0451 \u043f\u043e\u0434 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\u0432\u043e \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437 \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0432\u044b\u043a\u0438\u0434\u044b\u0448.\n\n\u0412 1960\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443, \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0441\u044a\u0451\u043c\u043e\u043a \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u00ab\u0417\u0430\u0439\u043c\u0451\u043c\u0441\u044f \u043b\u044e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044c\u044e\u00bb \u0443 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u044b \u0437\u0430\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d \u0441 \u0435\u0451 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u043d\u0451\u0440\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e \u0441\u044a\u0451\u043c\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0434\u043a\u0435 \u0418\u0432\u043e\u043c \u041c\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u043c. \u0421\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043c\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u041c\u044d\u0440\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043d \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0431\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0442 \u041c\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430.\n\n20 \u044f\u043d\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044f 1961\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041c\u043e\u043d\u0440\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0441 \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043e\u043c \u041c\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c. \u041e\u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0434\u043e\u043c\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043c\u043d\u0451\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0435, \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043d\u043e\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0438\u043b\u044e\u043b\u044f\u0445 \u0438 \u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e \u0441\u043d\u0438\u0436\u0430\u044f \u0432\u0435\u0441. \u0422\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u0436\u0435 \u0432 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\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043b\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043b\u0444\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442.\n\n\u041e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u044b \u0442\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432 \n\n(1)\n\u041d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u043a\u0438 \u00ab\u041b\u043e\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0438 \u0441\u0430\u043d\u0433\u04d9 \u043d\u04af\u0437\u044b\u00bb (\u00ab\u0422\u0440\u0438 \u0434\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0440\u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u00bb; \u00ab\u8001\u6c49\u4e4b\u4e09\u4e2a\u5973\u5b50\u00bb).\n\n(2)\n\u0421\u0442\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u042f\u0441\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u0428\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0437\u044b, \u00ab\u041d\u0438 \u0437\u044d \u0431\u04d9 \u0449\u0451\u00bb (\u00ab\u041d\u0435 \u0443\u043b\u044b\u0431\u0430\u0439\u0441\u044f \u0432\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044c\u00bb). \u0422\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0442 \u0446\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0435, \u0441\u0442\u0440. 194; \u043a\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u00ab\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0446\u0438\u044f\u00bb, \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0434\u043b\u0435\u0436\u0430\u0449\u0430\u044f \u0421\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0435 \u0420\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u0438-\u041a\u043e\u0440\u0441\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0444\u0444, \u0438\u043c\u0435\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u044c\u044e \u043c\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0431\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043a \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043e\u0440\u0438\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0443, \u0430 \u043d\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0443\u043d\u0445\u0443\u0430.)\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n\n \u0412\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u044b \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0438. \u0411\u0438\u0448\u043a\u0435\u043a, 1991.\n \u0412\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u044b \u043e\u0440\u0444\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0438 \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430. \u0424\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0437\u0435, 1937.\n \u0414\u0440\u0430\u0433\u0443\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0410.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u0418\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438 // \u0422\u0440\u0443\u0434\u044b \u0418\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0410\u041d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420. \u0422. 27. \u041c.; \u041b., 1940.\n \u0417\u0430\u0432\u044c\u044f\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u041e.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u0422\u043e\u043d\u044b \u0432 \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435 // \u041d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0410\u0437\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0410\u0444\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0438. 1973. \u2116\u00a03. \u0421. 109\u2014119.\n \u0417\u0430\u0432\u044c\u044f\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u041e.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u0422\u043e\u043d\u044b \u0432 \u0448\u044d\u043d\u044c\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0434\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0435 \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430 // \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u044b \u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438. \u041c.: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430, 1978.\n \u0417\u0430\u0432\u044c\u044f\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u041e.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u0414\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u044b \u0413\u0430\u043d\u044c\u0441\u0443. \u041c., 1979. \u0421.20-34, 65. \u0420\u0438\u0441. 17-43 \u043d\u0430 \u0441. 92-38.\n \u0417\u0430\u0432\u044c\u044f\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u041e.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u0421\u0438\u043d\u043e-\u043c\u0443\u0441\u0443\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0442\u044b: \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0444\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u043e\u0440\u0444\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f // \u0412\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u044b \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f. 1992. \u2116\u00a06. \u0421. 113\u2014122.\n \u0417\u0430\u0432\u044c\u044f\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u041e.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u0414\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u044b \u043a\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430 / \u0420\u0410\u041d. \u0418\u0414\u0412. \u041c.: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u0430, 1996. \u0421. 52, 53,114, 143\u2014157.\n \u0417\u0430\u0432\u044c\u044f\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u041e.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u041a\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0443\u0441\u0443\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0435 \u0445\u0443\u044d\u0439\u0446\u0437\u0443: \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a \u0438 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438 // \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u044b \u0414\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0430. 2007. \u2116\u00a03. C. 153\u2014160.\n \u0417\u0430\u0432\u044c\u044f\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u041e.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u042f\u0437\u044b\u043a \u0438 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u043a\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043c\u0443\u0441\u0443\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430\u043d-\u0445\u0443\u044d\u0439\u0446\u0437\u0443 // \u0414\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0435: \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430: \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b \u043e \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0445 / \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442. \u041c.\u00a0\u0420.\u00a0\u041c\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d; \u043e\u0442\u0432. \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u041e.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u0417\u0430\u0432\u044c\u044f\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 ; \u0418\u043d-\u0442 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u0443\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0439 (\u0410\u0437\u0438\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u041c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0439) \u0420\u0410\u041d ; \u0418\u043d-\u0442 \u0414\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0430 \u0420\u0410\u041d.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430, 2017. \n \u0417\u0435\u0432\u0430\u0445\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0422.\u00a0\u0421.\u00a0\u041f\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0446\u044b \u0432 \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u043a\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u0445: \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f, \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442, \u0431\u0430\u0437\u044b \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 // \u00ab\u041b\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430. \u042f\u0437\u044b\u043a \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e. \u042f\u0437\u044b\u043a \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb, \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a 21. \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, \u041c\u0410\u041a\u0421 \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441,\n \u0417\u0435\u0432\u0430\u0445\u0438\u043d\u0430\u00a0\u0422.\u00a0\u0421., \u041e\u043b\u0435\u0439\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0415.\u00a0\u0415.\u00a0\u0418\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0443\u0431\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438: \u0446\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438 \u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0438 (\u041e\u0442 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u043a \u0441\u0435\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0435 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0441\u0430) // \u00ab\u041b\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430. \u042f\u0437\u044b\u043a \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e. \u042f\u0437\u044b\u043a \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb, \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a 21. \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, \u041c\u0410\u041a\u0421 \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441,\n \u0417\u0435\u0432\u0430\u0445\u0438\u043d\u0430\u00a0\u0422.\u00a0\u0421., \u0418\u043c\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432 \u041c.\u00a0\u0425.\u00a0\u0414\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a // \u042f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0424\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432. \u042d\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f. \u0422. 1. \u0421. . 349\u2014362. \u041c., 1997. ISBN 5-02-011237-2.\n \u0417\u0435\u0432\u0430\u0445\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0422.\u00a0\u0421.\u00a0\u0424\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e-\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e (\u043f\u043e \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430) // \u00ab\u041b\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430. \u042f\u0437\u044b\u043a \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e. \u042f\u0437\u044b\u043a \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb, \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a 20. \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, \u041c\u0410\u041a\u0421 \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441, 2001\u00a0\u0433. \u0421\u0442\u0440. 69-86.\n \u0418\u043c\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432 \u041c.\u00a0\u0425.\u00a0\u041e\u0447\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438\u0441\u0443 \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430. \u0424\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0437\u0435, 1987.\n \u041a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u0410.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u041d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043e \u043f\u0443\u0442\u044f\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430 // \u0421\u043e\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u044b \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445\u0441\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d. \u041c., 1975.\n \u0421\u0443\u0448\u0430\u043d\u043b\u043e\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u042f. \u0423 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 // \u041e\u0440\u0438\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u041a\u0438\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0438. \u0424\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0437\u0435, 1987. \u0421. 3-11.\n \u042f\u043d\u0449\u044f\u043d\u0441\u044b\u043d \u042e. \u0425\u0443\u044d\u0439\u0437\u045e \u0439\u04af\u044f\u043d\u0434\u0438 \u0422\u043e\u0445\u043c\u0430 \u0444\u043e\u043d-\u044f\u043d (\u0422\u043e\u043a\u043c\u0430\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442 \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430). \u0424\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0437\u0435, 1968.\n Zavjalova Olga I. Some Phonological Aspects of the Dungan Dialects // Computational Analyses of Asian and African Languages. Tokyo, 1978. No. 9. pp.\u00a01-24.\n \u675c\u677e\u5bff\u3002 \u4e1c\u5e72\u8bed\u62fc\u97f3\u6587\u5b57\u8d44\u6599 (\u0414\u0443 \u0421\u0443\u043d\u0448\u043e\u0443. \u0414\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u044c\u044e\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u043d\u044c\u0438\u043d\u044c \u0432\u044d\u043d\u044c\u0446\u0437\u044b \u0446\u0437\u044b\u043b\u044f\u043e\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b \u043f\u043e \u0430\u043b\u0444\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430). // \u62fc\u97f3\u6587\u5b57\u7814\u7a76\u53c2\u8003\u8d44\u6599\u96c6\u520a (\u041f\u0438\u043d\u044c\u0438\u043d\u044c \u0432\u044d\u043d\u044c\u0446\u0437\u044b \u044f\u043d\u044c\u0446\u0437\u044e \u0446\u0430\u043d\u044c\u043a\u0430\u043e \u0446\u0437\u044b\u043b\u044f\u043e \u0446\u0437\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u044c\u00a0\u2014 \u0418\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0441\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b \u043f\u043e \u0430\u043b\u0444\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438). \u0422. 1. \u041f\u0435\u043a\u0438\u043d, 1959.\n \u6d77\u5cf0\u3002 \u4e2d\u4e9a\u4e1c\u5e72\u8bed\u8a00\u7814\u7a76 (\u0425\u0430\u0439 \u0424\u044d\u043d. \u0427\u0436\u0443\u043d\u044a\u044f \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u044c \u044e\u0439\u044f\u043d\u044c \u044f\u043d\u044c\u0446\u0437\u044e\u00a0\u2014 \u0418\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0430\u0437\u0438\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d). \u0423\u0440\u0443\u043c\u0447\u0438, 2003. 479 \u0441.\n \u6d77\u5cf0\u3002\"\u4e1c\u5e72\"\u6765\u81ea\"\u5c6f\u57a6\" (\u0425\u0430\u0439 \u0424\u044d\u043d. \u00ab\u0414\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u044c\u00bb \u043b\u0430\u0439 \u0446\u0437\u044b \u00ab\u0442\u0443\u043d\u044c\u043a\u044d\u043d\u044c\u00bb \u0422\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0438\u043d \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u044c \u00ab\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0435\u00bb \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u043a \u0442\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0443 \u0442\u0443\u043d\u044c\u043a\u044d\u043d\u044c \u00ab\u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u00bb) // \u897f\u5317\u6c11\u65cf\u7814\u7a76 (\u0421\u0438\u0431\u044d\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u043d\u044c\u0446\u0437\u0443 \u044f\u043d\u044c\u0446\u0437\u044e). \u0412\u044b\u043f. 1. 2005.\n\n\u0421\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\n \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044c / \u0496\u0435\u0451\u0434\u0438 \u0445\u0443\u044d\u0439\u0437\u045e-\u0432\u0443\u0440\u0443\u0441 \u0445\u0443\u0430\u0434\u044f\u043d, \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u041c.\u0421\u0443\u0448\u0430\u043d\u043b\u043e. \u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a \u041a\u0438\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0437\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u0421\u0420. \u0424\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0437\u0435, 1968. (\u0442\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0436 500 \u044d\u043a\u0437., \u043d\u0435\u0442 ISBN).\n \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044c. \u0422. 1-3. \u0424\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0437\u0435, 1981.\n \u042f\u043d\u0448\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0438\u043d \u042e. \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044c. \u0424\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0437\u0435, ", " the Witch's Cat: Sheila Hancock\n The Hare and the Tortoise: Bernard Cribbins\n The Shoe Tree: Sheila Hancock\n The Emperor's New Clothes: Bernard Cribbins\n The Red Nightcaps: Marise Hepworth\n Aldo in Arcadia (1): Nigel Lambert & John Brewer\n The Forest Troll: Nigel Lambert\n\nPart 2\n\n The Elves & the Shoemaker: Brian Blessed\n Master Tiger: Nigel Lambert\n Aldo in Arcadia (2): Nigel Lambert, John Brewer & John Green\n The Last Slice of Rainbow: Sheila Hancock\n Gobbolino the Ship's Cat: Sheila Hancock\n The Greedy Fox: Brian Blessed\n Sinbad & the Valley of Diamonds: Brian Blessed\n Bring on the Clowns: Nigel Lambert\n\nPart 3\n\n The Great Big Hairy Boggart: Dermot Crowley\n The Owl and the Pussycat: Susannah York\n Gobbolino the Knight's Cat: Sheila Hancock\n The Lion & the Mouse: Dermot Crowley\n Simon's Canal: Susannah York\n Hansel and Gretel: Susannah York\n Aldo in Arcadia (3): Robert Powell, Susannah York, Nigel Lambert & John Brewer\n Child of the Sun: Dermot Crowley\n\nPart 4\n\n Narana's Strange Journey: Roy Hudd\n Rhubarb Ted: Nigel Lambert\n Gobbolino the Kitchen Cat: Sheila Hancock\n Noisy Neighbours: Nigel Lambert\n Jester Minute (Part 1): Nigel Lambert\n The Princess & the Pea: Tina Jones\n The Ant and the Grasshopper: Marian Hepworth\n Santa's Early Christmas: Roy Hudd\n\nPart 5\n\n Timbertwig: George Layton\n The Fox and the Crow: Hayley Mills\n Drummerboy & the Gypsy: George Layton\n Rapunzel: Hayley Mills\n Virgil's Big Mistake: Nigel Lambert\n Jester Minute (Part 2): Nigel Lambert\n 'O Here It Is: Hayley Mills\n\nPart 6\n\n Beauty and the Beast: Hywel Bennett\n Dodo & the Pot of Gold: Patricia Brake\n Timbertwig & the Caravan of Surprises: George Layton\n The Flying Piggy-Bank: Patricia Brake\n The Land of the Bumbley Boo: Patricia Brake\n The Moon and the Millpond: Dick Vosburgh\n The Friendly Bear: Hywel Bennett\n\nPart 7\n\n The Billy Goats Gruff: Nigel Pegram\n The Snow Queen: Liza Goddard\n A Pocketful of Trouble: Nigel Pegram\n Little Spook of Spook Hall: Liza Goddard\n The Silly Tortoise: Nigel Pegram\n Timbertwig Gets a New Hat: George Layton\n Faster than Fairies: Liza Goddard\n\nPart 8\n\n Dot & the Kangaroo (Part 1: Dot Loses Her Way): Carole Boyd\n Oliphaunt: Joss Ackland\n The Goose that Laid the Golden Egg: Carole Boyd\n The Selfish Giant: Joss Ackland\n Jester Minute & the Vanishing castle (1): Nigel Lambert\n The Creation of Man: Joss Ackland\n Boffy & The Teacher Eater: Nigel Lambert\n\nPart 9\n\n Abdulla and the Genie: Nigel Lambert\n Dot & the Kangaroo (Part 2): Carole Boyd\n Jester Minute and the Vanishing Castle (2): Nigel Lambert\n The Boy Who Cried Wolf: Robert Powell\n Neville Toogood: Carole Boyd\n The Pied Piper of Hamelin: Robert Powell\n\nPart 10\n\n Gulliver's Travels (Part 1): Joanna Lumley\n Dot & the Kangaroo (Part 3): Carole Boyd\n Mike's Bike (Part 1): Mick Ford\n The Three Wishes: Carole Boyd\n David and Goliath: Mick Ford\n The Enchanted Horse: Joanna Lumley\n Mr. Tom Narrow: Carole Boyd\n\nPart 11\n\n Gulliver's Travels (Part 2): Joanna Lumley\n Pinocchio (Part 1): Ian Lavender\n The Dog and the Bone: David Graham\n Sleeping Beauty: Joanna Lumley\n Walter Spaggot: Nigel Lambert\n Growling at Tigers: David Graham\n Mike's Bike (Part 2): Mick Ford\n\nPart 12\n\n The Mighty Prince: Una Stubbs\n Ford's Toy Cars (Part 1): George Layton\n Drummerboy Races for his Life: George Layton\n First Flight: Ian Lavender\n The Town Mouse & the Country Mouse: Una Stubbs\n Pinocchio (Part 2): Ian Lavender\n The Gingerbread Man: Una Stubbs\n\nPart 13\n\n The Tinder Box: Si\u00e2n Phillips\n Ford's Toy Cars (Part 2): George Layton\n Warrior Girl: Floella Benjamin\n Pinocchio (Part 3): Ian Lavender\n Three Bald Spots: Carole Boyd\n The Ugly Duckling: Si\u00e2n Phillips\n\nPart 14\n\n The Monster in the Labyrinth: Dermot Crowley\n Who's Stronger?: Diana Rigg\n Pinocchio (Part 4): Ian Lavender\n The Old Man of Torbay: Diana Rigg\n Scarlet Braces: Dermot Crowley\n Grogre the Ogre (Part 1): Nigel Lambert\n Cinderella: Diana Rigg\n\nPart 15\n\n Pandora's Box: Morag Hood\n A Fishy Tale: Morag Hood\n Pinocchio (Part 5): Ian Lavender\n Grogre the Ogre (Part 2): Nigel Lambert\n The Parasol: Kay Parks\n The Flying Jacket: Lionel Jeffries\n The Three Little Pigs: Lionel Jeffries\n\nPart 16\n\n Sam's Big Break: Tommy Eytle\n The Mango-Seller: Judy Geeson\n Hen-Hustler Kluk: Tommy Eytle\n Puss in Boots: Judy Geeson\n Grogre the Ogre (Part 3): Nigel Lambert\n Pinocchio (Part 6): Ian Lavender\n\nPart 17\n\n William Tell: Tom Baker\n I Saw a Ship a-Sailing: Carole Boyd\n Pinocchio (Part 7): Ian Lavender\n Anansi and the Fancy Dress Party: Tom Baker\n Jojo's Jigsaw Puzzle: Carole Boyd\n Can You Keep a Secret?: Carole Boyd\n The Lion and the Peacock: Tom Baker\n\nPart 18\n\n Heidi (Part 1): Denise Bryer\n Father William: Steven Pacey\n George and the Dragon: Steven Pacey\n The Frog Prince: Gemma Craven\n Bubble and Squeek: Steven Pacey\n No Mules: Gemma Craven\n\nPart 19\n\n Jack & the Beanstalk: Brian Blessed\n Why the Giraffe Can't Speak: Carole Boyd\n Sinbad and the Amazing Islands: Brian Blessed\n The Book of Beasts (Part 1): John Baddeley\n Car Attack: Carole Boyd\n Heidi (Part 2): Denise Bryer\n Hedge's Problem Tree: Carole Boyd\n\nPart 20\n\n Rumpelstiltskin: Hayley Mills\n Heidi (Part 3): Denise Bryer\n The Green Maiden of the Lake: Hayley Mills\n The Book of Beasts (Part 2): John Baddeley\n It Makes a Change: Denise Bryer\n Lutra the Otter: Michael Tudor Barnes\n\nPart 21\n\n The Bold Little Tailor: Michael Hordern\n The Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: Nigel Lambert\n Wiser than the Czar: Michael Hordern\n Bobbie and the Magic Go-Cart: Nigel Lambert\n Heidi (Part 4): Denise Bryer\n The Mighty Rabbit: Nigel Lambert\n\nPart 22\n\n Waldorf's Fantastic Trip (Part 1): Gay Soper\n The Midas Touch: Joanna Lumley\n A Meal with a Magician: George Layton\n Eleven Wild Swans: Joanna Lumley\n Timbertwig Catches a Marrow: George Layton\n The Human Fly from Bendigo: Joanna Lumley\n\nPart 23\n\n Timbertwig's Birthday: George Layton\n Waldorf's Fantastic Trip (Part 2): Gay Soper\n Goldilocks: Annette Crosbie\n Dad and the Cat and the Tree: David Ashford\n The Faery Flag: Annette Crosbie\n The Runaway Piano: David Ashford\n The Little Red Hen: Annette Crosbie\n\nPart 24\n\n I Wish, I Wish: Carole Boyd\n Counting Chickens: Carole Boyd\n A Hedgehog Learns to Fly: John Brewer, John Green and Steven Pacey\n The Little Tin Soldier: Ian Holm\n Kingdom of the Seals: Ian Holm\n Aldo in Arcadia (4): Steven Pacey, Nigel Lambert, John Green & John Brewer\n\nPart 25\n\n Little Red Riding Hood: Denise Bryer\n The Happy Prince: Tim Curry\n Aldo in Arcadia (5): John Brewer, Tina Jones, Nigel Lambert & Steven Pacey\n Mr Miacca: Denise Bryer\n The Great Pie Contest: Steven Pacey\n Stolen Thunder: Tim Curry\n\nPart 26\n\n The Goblin Rat: Liza Goddard\n Thumbelina: Liza Goddard\n Where Can an Elephant Hide?: Steven Pacey\n A Lion at School: Liza Goddard\n Captain Bones: Dermot Crowley\n Aldo in Arcadia (6): John Brewer, Tina Jones, Nigel Lambert & Steven Pacey\n\nPart 26 Story Teller 2 Special Preview Issue\n\n The Wind in the Willows: Michael Jayston\n Jack-in-the-Box: Steven Pacey\n Campbell the Travelling Cat: Una Stubbs\n Arthur the Lazy Ant: Steven Pacey\n Dragon Child: Una Stubbs\n The Magic Porridge Pot: Steven Pacey\n The Lobster Quadrille: Una Stubbs\n\nStory Teller 2\n\nPart 1\n\n The Wizard of Oz : Miriam Margolyes\n The Creatures with Beautiful Eyes : Martin Shaw\n The Circus Animal's Strike : David Tate\n Yushkin the Watchmaker : Martin Shaw\n Rumbles in the Jungles (1) : David Tate\n The Dancing Fairies : Miriam Margolyes\n There Once Was a Puffin : Martin Shaw\n\nPart 2\n\n The Magic of Funky Monkey : Gemma Craven\n The Snake and the Rose : Gemma Craven\n Rumbles in the Jungles (2) : David Tate\n The Wizard of Oz: In The Forest : Miriam Margolyes\n The Wind in the Willows: The Wild Wood : Michael Jayston\n The Troll : Gemma Craven\n\nPart 3\n\n The Musicians Of Bremen : Nigel Hawthorne\n Little Joe and the Sea Dragon : Dermot Crowley\n The Lord of the Rushie River (1) : Denise Bryer\n The Wizard of Oz: The Emerald City : Miriam Margolyes\n Party in the Sky : Nigel Hawthorne\n Kebeg : Denise Bryer\n The Song of the Engine : Nigel Hawthorne\n\nPart 4\n\n Shorty the Satellite and the Lost Rocket : Nigel Lambert\n The Wizard of Oz: Quest for the Wicked Witch : Miriam Margolyes\n Petrushka : Janet Suzman\n The Garden : Nigel Lambert\n Master of the Lake : Janet Suzman\n The Lord of the Rushie River (2) : Denise Bryer\n Riloby-rill : Janet Suzman\n\nPart 5\n\n The Snow Bear : Derek Jacobi\n The Inn of Donkeys : Derek Jacobi\n Shorty the Satellite and the Brigadier : Nigel Lambert\n The Nightingale : Derek Jacobi\n Hugo and the Man Who Stole Colours : Nigel Lambert\n The Wizard of Oz: A Great And Terrible Humbug : Miriam Margolyes\n Recipe : Nigel Lambert\n\nPart 6\n\n Gobbolino and the Little Wooden Horse (1) : Sheila Hancock\n The Wizard of Oz: The Final Journey : Miriam Margolyes\n The Farmer, the Tomt and the Troll : Carole Boyd\n Shorty The Satellite And The Shooting Star : Nigel Lambert\n The Fishing Stone : Carole Boyd\n Silly Old Baboon : Nigel Lambert\n\nPart 7\n\n Traveller Ned : Morag Hood\n Gobbolino and the Little Wooden Horse (2) : Sheila Hancock\n Little Bear And The Beaver : Ian Lavender\n The Ju-Ju Man : Floella Benjamin\n A Song for Slug : Ian Lavender\n Larkspur Gets Her Wings : Morag Hood\n Windy Nights : Ian Lavender\n\nPart 8\n\n The Most Beautiful House : Robin Nedwell\n Gobbolino and the Little Wooden Horse (3) : Sheila Hancock\n The Orchestra That Lost Its Voice : Steven Pacey\n Stone Soup : Debbie Arnold\n The Man Who Knew Better : Robin Nedwell\n How the Polar Bear Became : Debbie Arnold\n The Marrog : Steven Pacey\n\nPart 9\n\n Diggersaurs (1) : Steven Pacey\n Molly Whuppie : Eve Karpf\n Young Kate : Eve Karpf\n Upside-Down Willie (1) : Steven Pacey\n Gobbolino and the Little Wooden Horse (4) : Sheila Hancock\n Meeting : Eve Karpf\n\nPart 10\n\n Toad of Toad Hall (1) : Richard Briers\n Simeom the Sorcerer's Son (1) : George Layton\n Anansi and the Python : Ysanne Churchman\n Stone Drum : Ysanne Churchman\n Upside-Down Willie (2) : Steven Pacey\n Gobbolino and the Little Wooden Horse (5) : Sheila Hancock\n Hannibal : George Layton\n\nPart 11\n\n Grogre the Golden Ogre (1) : Nigel Lambert\n Anya's Garden : Carole Boyd\n Miss Priscilla's Secret : Carole Boyd\n Simeom the Sorcerer's Son (2) : George Layton\n The Tortoises' Picnic : David Adams\n Toad of Toad Hall (2) : Richard Briers\n Big Gumbo : Carole Boyd\n\nPart 12\n\n Box of Robbers : Patricia Hodge\n The Challenging Bull : Nigel Lambert\n Barney's Winter Present : Antonia Swinson\n Toad of Toad Hall (3) : Richard Briers\n Minnie the Floating Witch : Patricia Hodge\n Grogre the Golden Ogre (2) : Nigel Lambert\n An Eskimo Baby : Patricia Hodge\n\nPart 13\n\n Brer Rabbit and the Tar-Baby : Dick Vosburgh\n Geordie's Mermaid : Susan Jameson\n Grogre the Golden Ogre (3) : Nigel Lambert\n Gatecrashers : Susan Jameson\n Toad of Toad Hall (4) : Richard Briers\n The Princess Who Met the North Wind : Susan Jameson\n\nPart 14\n\n Peter Pan (1) : Derek Jacobi\n The Scrubs and the Dubs (1) : Windsor Davies\n Horace's Vanishing Trick : Gay Soper\n The Tumbledown Boy : Gay Soper\n The Horn Flute : John Shrapnel\n King Ferdinand's Fancy Socks : Gay Soper\n The Flower Seller : John Shrapnel\n\nPart 15\n\n Peter Pan (2) : Derek Jacobi\n Cath's Cradle : Una Stubbs\n The Scrubs and the Dubs (2) : Windsor Davies\n Willow Pattern : Anthony Jackson\n Gary the Greatest : Anthony Jackson\n Campbell Finds a Castle : Una Stubbs\n A Child's Thought : Una Stubbs\n\nPart 16\n\n The Thin King and the Fat Cook : Patricia Brake\n Peter Pan (3) : Derek Jacobi\n Bored Brenda : Patricia Brake\n The Swords of King Arthur : Mick Ford\n Touching Silver : Patricia Brake\n Noggin and the Birds : Oliver Postgate\n Goblin Market : Mick Ford\n\nPart 17\n\n Longtooth's Tale (1) : Steven Pacey\n Shubiki's Hat : Eva Haddon\n Big Red Head (1) : Ruth Madoc\n The Tree that Sang : Steven Pacey\n Too Many Buns for Rosie : Eva Haddon\n Peter Pan (4) : Derek Jacobi\n The Moon : Eva Haddon\n\nPart 18\n\n Longtooth's Tale (2) : Steven Pacey\n Galldora and the Woods-Beyond : Eve Karpf\n Big Red Head (2) : Ruth Madoc\n At the Forge : James Bryce\n Mouse in the Snow : Eve Karpf\n Peter Pan (5) : Derek Jacobi\n I Had a Little Nut-Tree : James Bryce\n\nPart 19\n\n Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1) : Patricia Hodge\n Wonder Wellies : Nigel Lambert\n Peter and the Mountainy Men : Carole Boyd\n The Treachery of Morgan : Mick Ford\n Pat's Piano : Carole Boyd\n Danger in the Reeds : Nigel Lambert\n My Uncle Paul of Pimlico : Nigel Lambert\n\nPart 20\n\n Arthur Gives Back His Sword : Mick Ford\n Butterflies on the Moon : Geoffrey Matthews\n Ginger's Secret Weapons : Cass Allen\n Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (2) : Patricia Hodge\n A Great Escape : Cass Allen\n The Miller and His Donkey : Geoffrey Matthews\n Sheep-Dog : Geoffrey Matthews\n\nPart 21\n\n Never Tangle With aA Tengu : Christopher Timothy\n Diggersaurs (2) : Steven Pacey\n Nothing Like a Bath : Denise Bryer\n Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (3) : Patricia Hodge\n The Neat and Tidy Kitchen : Denise Bryer\n Tommy's Shadow : Steven Pacey\n My Mother Said : Denise Bryer\n\nPart 22\n\n Quest of the Brave : Martin Jarvis\n The Captain's Horse : Martin Jarvis\n Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (4) : Patricia Hodge\n The City of Lost Submarines (1) : David Tate\n Nogbad Comes Back : Oliver Postgate\n Ostriches Can't Fly : Joanna Wake\n The Cottage : Joanna Wake\n\nPart 23\n\n Cyril Snorkel - The Performing Beast : Denise Bryer\n Dorrie and the Witch's Visit : Denise Bryer\n What the Smoke Said : George Layton\n Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (5) : Patricia Hodge\n The City of Lost Submarines (2) : David Tate\n Simon Rhymon : George Layton\n The Sunlight Falls Upon the Grass : Denise Bryer\n\nPart 24\n\n Harlequin and Columbine (1) : Leonard Rossiter\n The City of Lost Submarines (3) : David Tate\n The Kind Scarecrow : Maureen O'Brien\n Seadna and The Devil : Anthony Jackson\n The Birthday Candle : Maureen O'Brien\n Superbabe : Anthony Jackson\n Upon My Golden Backbone : Maureen O'Brien\n\nPart 25\n\n It Takes Time to Teach a King : Dermot Crowley\n Harlequin And Columbine (2) : Leonard Rossiter\n Cabbage and the Foxes : Carole Boyd\n The Donkey Who Fetched the Sea : Dermot Crowley\n Give It to Zico! (1) : Ian Lavender\n The Electric Imps : Carole Boyd\n If You Should Meet a Crocodile : Carole Boyd\n\nPart 26\n\n The Mermaid Who Couldn't Swim : Maureen O'Brien\n Give It to Zico! (2) : Ian Lavender\n Mandy and the Space Race : Maureen O'Brien\n Somewhere Safe : Maureen O'Brien\n Noggin and the Money : Oliver Postgate\n Harlequin and Columbine (3) :", ".\n\n26 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f 2013\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u00ab\u0414\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u00bb \u0432 \u042e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043b\u0435 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u043c\u043a\u0430\u0445 \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0441\u0430 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u044b\u0445 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0438 \u00ab\u041d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0430\u00bb 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\u0441\u043a\u043b\u0435\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0446\u00bb \u0432\u043e\u0448\u0451\u043b \u0432 \u0441\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043e\u043a \u00ab10 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u043f\u043e \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0438 InterMedia.\n\n\u0412 2012\u20142014 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u0440\u0451\u0445 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u00ab\u0413\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u00bb \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0413\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c, \u041f\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0435\u0435\u0439 \u0438 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\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442-\u043c\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043c, \u043a\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0443 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0448\u0451\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043a\u0430\u0434\u0440 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0438, \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u043e\u043d, \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043c\u0430\u0445\u043d\u0443\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0441\u044c, \u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0436\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043d\u043e\u043f\u043a\u0443.\n\n\u0412 2018\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0432 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0435: \u00ab\u0413\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441. 60+\u00bb 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\u0448\u043e\u0443 \u00ab\u0413\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442 \u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0443\u043b\u0441\u044f \u00ab\u0437\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u00bb \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432: \u0410\u0433\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d, \u0411\u0438\u043b\u0430\u043d, \u041f\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0435\u044f, \u0413\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439. \u0421\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d \u043e\u043c\u0440\u0430\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0433\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0435\u0439: \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430 \u043d\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0430 \u0413\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e. \u042d\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u041f\u0430\u043d \u0438\u0437 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u044b \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0434\u0430 \u0410\u0433\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u043d\u044f\u043b\u0430 4-\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e.\n\n\u0412 2020\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u043f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0441\u0430 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d \u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 USA Songwriting Competition. \u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f Just a Rainy Day \u0438\u0437 \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u043c\u0430 La Vida Cosmopolita! \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0432 \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 World Music, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0430 \u0432 \u0448\u043e\u0440\u0442-\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 Lyrics Only \u0437\u0430 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0442.\n\n \u041e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0446\u0438\u044f \n\u0412 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0435 2022\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0438\u043b \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0446\u0438\u044e \u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0441 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439.\n\n \u041b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u044c \n\n\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0430 (1988\u20141993)\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u044b\u0445.\n\n\u041d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u0440\u0430\u043a (1994\u20141997)\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0412\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u044c\u0451\u0432\u0430, \u0431\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430. \u041f\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0432 1994\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0436\u0435. \u0420\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c \u0432 \u0431\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0448\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0435. \u0414\u043e\u0447\u044c\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0412\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u044c\u0451\u0432\u0430.\n\n\u0412\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 26 \u043c\u0430\u044f 1969), \u044d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430, \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430, \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0420\u0424 (2011). \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0430 \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 1997\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430. \u0411\u0440\u0430\u043a \u0441\u0443\u043f\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u0435 2000\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u0441\u0432\u0430\u0434\u044c\u0431\u0443 \u0441\u044b\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u0412\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0438\u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0434 \u0410\u0433\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0438 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c \u043e\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u044f\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0441\u0432\u0430\u0434\u044c\u0431\u0443. // kp.by (15 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f 2010\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430). \u0414\u043e\u0447\u044c\u00a0\u2014 \u0415\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430-\u041c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c-\u0410\u0433\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 9 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044f 1999), \u0436\u0438\u0432\u0451\u0442 \u0432 \u041c\u0430\u0439\u0430\u043c\u0438. \u0421\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0440\u043e\u043a-\u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0443 \u00abWithout Gravity\u00bb (\u00ab\u0411\u0435\u0437 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0442\u044f\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00bb), \u0441 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0430\u0445 \u0432 \u0448\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0445, \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0430\u0445 \u0443 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439, \u043f\u0438\u0448\u0435\u0442 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0443, \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0435.\n\n\u041c\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0451\u0441\u0442\u0440\u044b: \u041a\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u044f.\n\n \u0420\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b \n\n \u0410\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u043c\u044b \n 1994\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0411\u043e\u0441\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0447\u0438\u043a\u00bb\n 1995\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0414\u0435\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043d\u00bb\n 1998\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u0436\u0434\u044c\u00bb\n 2000\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0421\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u0431\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u00bb\n 2000\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0434 \u0410\u0433\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d\u00bb\n 2003\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0414\u0435\u0436\u0430 \u0412\u044e\u00bb\n 2005\u00a0\u2014 \u00abCosmopolitan Life\u00bb (\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442 \u0441 \u042d\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0434\u0438 \u041c\u0435\u043e\u043b\u0430)\n 2007\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041b\u044e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044c. \u0414\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0430. \u0413\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0438 \u0420\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u00bb\n 2012\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0412\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u00bb\n 2013\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0422\u0430\u0439\u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043a\u043b\u0435\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0446\u00bb\n 2016\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e \u043e \u0432\u0430\u0436\u043d\u043e\u043c\u00bb\n 2018\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab50\u00bb\n 2018\u00a0\u2014 \u00abCover Version\u00bb\n 2020\u00a0\u2014 \u00abLa Vida Cosmopolita\u00bb\n 2021\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0412\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442\u00bb\n\n \u0411\u0438\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f \n 2008\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0417\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0436\u043a\u0430 69. \u0421\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-5-17-056811-6\n 2009\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-5-17-057125-3\n 2015\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u044d\u0437\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0431\u044b\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u043d\u0435\u0439. \u0410\u0440\u0442-\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043a\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-6-00057-375-4\n 2017\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u042f \u0441\u043b\u043e\u043d\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-5-9614-6468-9\n 2019\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0434 \u0410\u0433\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d. \u0411\u0435\u0437\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-5-4496-8447-9\n\n \u0424\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f \n \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435\n 1996\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u043e \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0448\u043e\u0444\u0451\u0440\u0430 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u041b\u0451\u043d\u0438\n 1997\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u043e \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c 2\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0430 \u041b\u0451\u043d\u0438\n 1998\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u043e \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c 3\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0428\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430\n 2001\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u043e \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c. \u041f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0442\u0443\u043c\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u043e\u0434\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u043e\u0440\u044f\u043a\u0430 \u041a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\n 2017\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0417\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u044d\u043f\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0433\u0435\u0440\u043e\u044f\n 2018\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0416\u0438\u043b\u0438-\u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0438 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0441\u0430\u0443\u043d\u0434\u0442\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0430 \u043a \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0443 \u00ab\u042f \u0442\u0435\u0431\u044f \u043d\u0435 \u0432\u0438\u0436\u0443\u00bb.\n \u0434\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435\n 2013\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0434 \u0410\u0433\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d. \u041a\u0430\u043f\u043b\u044f \u0441\u043e\u0436\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430\u00bb \u043a 45-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0410\u0433\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 (\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0439 \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432).\n 2021\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0434 \u0410\u0433\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d. COSMO LIFE\u00bb (80 \u043c\u0438\u043d., \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e-\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439; \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u0441 1 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f 2021\u00a0\u0433.)\n\n \u0420\u0435\u043a\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0430 \n \u0411\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0439\u043d (2020)\n \u041f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0451\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u00ab\u041c\u0438\u0440\u00bb \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043f\u043e\u043a \u043d\u0430 AliExpress (2021)\n \u041c\u0438\u0440 (2022)\n\n \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \n\u0413\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u044b \u0438 \u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n 2008\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0451\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u00ab\u0417\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0424\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433\u0438 \u0432 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430.\n 2018\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d \u0414\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0431\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u0430 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b \u0438 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430, \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u044e\u044e \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c''.\n\n\u041e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u044b \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438\n\n\u0414\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c\u044b \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb\n 1994\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0425\u043e\u043f-\u0445\u0435\u0439-\u043b\u0430\u043b\u0430-\u043b\u0435\u0439\u00bb.\n 1995\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041f\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434\u00bb\n 1996\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u00bb\n 1997\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0430\u00bb \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c\n 1998\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0424\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u00bb \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c\n 1998\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u0436\u0434\u044c\u00bb\n 1999\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0411\u043e\u0441\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0447\u0438\u043a\u00bb\n 1999\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0412\u0441\u0451 \u0432 \u0442\u0432\u043e\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0443\u043a\u0430\u0445\u00bb \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c\n 2000\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0439\u00bb \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c\n 2001\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0422\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0432\u0430\u0439\u0447\u0438\u043a\u00bb\n 2002\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0415\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u0442\u044b \u043a\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430-\u043d\u0438\u0431\u0443\u0434\u044c \u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0448\u044c\u00bb \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c\n 2002\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00bb\n 2003\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0413\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430\u00bb \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u043e\u0439 \u00ab\u041e\u0442\u043f\u0435\u0442\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u00bb\n 2003\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u042f \u0431\u0443\u0434\u0443 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u0441 \u0442\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0439\u00bb \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c\n 2004\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0414\u043e\u0436\u0434\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0435\u043b\u00bb\n 2004\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0421\u0430\u043c\u0430\u044f \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0430\u044f\u00bb \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c \u0438 \u0412\u0418\u0410 \u00ab\u0421\u043b\u0438\u0432\u043a\u0438\u00bb. (\u041c\u0443\u0437. \u0438 \u0441\u043b. \u041b. \u0410\u0433\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d).\n 2005\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041f\u043e \u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u044e\u0433\u00bb (\u0444\u0440\u0430\u0433\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u043a\u043b\u0438\u043f\u0430).\n 2006\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0410\u044d\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u044b\u00bb \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u043c \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c-\u043c\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0448\u0438\u043c\n 2007\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0414\u0432\u0435 \u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0438, \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0438\u00bb \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c\n 2008\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0411\u044b\u0442\u044c \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u0442\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0433\u043e\u00bb \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c, \u041d\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0439 \u041f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438 \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u043c \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c-\u043c\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0448\u0438\u043c\n 2008\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041d\u0435 \u0443\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438 \u0434\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043a\u043e\u00bb\n 2008\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041b\u044e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044c \u0438 \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u00bb. \u041b\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0414\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430. (\u041c\u0443\u0437. \u0438 \u0441\u043b. \u041b. \u0410\u0433\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d).\n 2009\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0422\u044b \u043d\u0435 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0435\u0448\u044c\u00bb\n 2010\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041d\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044c \u043c\u043d\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0431\u043d\u0443\u0442\u044c\u00bb (\u0418\u0437 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u00ab\u0411\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u00bb).\n 2011\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041a\u0430\u043a \u043d\u0435 \u0434\u0443\u043c\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043e \u0442\u0435\u0431\u0435\u00bb \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c\n 2012\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0410\u0439 \u044f\u0439 \u044f\u0439\u00bb \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0422\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0441\u043e\u043c \u041d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0440\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043c\n 2013\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0434\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0439\u00bb\n 2014\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0434 \u0410\u0433\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0438 \u0421\u043e\u0441\u043e \u041f\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0438\u0430\u0448\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0411\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u043b\u0451\u0437\u00bb (\u043c\u0443\u0437. \u0421. \u041f\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0438\u0430\u0448\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0438, \u0441\u043b. \u041a. \u0413\u0443\u0431\u0438\u043d)\n 2015\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041c\u0438\u0440 \u0437\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430\u00bb\n 2016\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041e\u0442\u0435\u0446 \u0440\u044f\u0434\u043e\u043c \u0441 \u0442\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0439\u00bb.\n 2017\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0432 \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb\n 2017\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041c\u0430\u043c\u0430\u00bb. \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c. (\u043c\u0443\u0437. \u0418. \u041a\u0440\u0443\u0442\u043e\u0439, \u0441\u043b. \u041b. \u0410\u0433\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d)\n 2017\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0421\u0430\u043c\u0431\u0430\u00bb.\n 2018\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0432 \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u044d\u0442 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0432 \u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c 50-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044f \u044e\u0431\u0438\u043b\u0435\u044f \u0432\u0440\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442 \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u043b \u0413\u0443\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0435\u0432\n 2018\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u042f \u0442\u0435\u0431\u044f \u043d\u0435 \u0432\u0438\u0436\u0443\u00bb\n 2019\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0439\u00bb. \u0413\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0430 \u00ab\u0410-\u0421\u0442\u0443\u0434\u0438\u043e\u00bb \u0438 The Jigits (\u043c\u0443\u0437. \u041b. \u0410\u0433\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d, \u0441\u043b. \u041b. \u0410\u0433\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d, \u0411. \u0421\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0435\u0431\u0430\u0435\u0432, \u0410. \u0415\u0433\u0435\u043c\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0435\u0432)\n 2019\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0412 90-\u0425\u00bb \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u043e\u0439 \u00ab\u041e\u0442\u043f\u0435\u0442\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u00bb\n 2020\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041f\u043e \u0442\u0435\u0431\u0435 \u0441\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0431\u0430\u0440\u044b\u00bb\n 2021\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0412\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442\u00bb \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0425\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0418\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044f \u041a\u0440\u0443\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u0417\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u043e\u0444\u043e\u043d\u00bb\n 1996\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0414\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0438 \u0432 \u043d\u0435\u0431\u0435\u0441\u0430\u00bb (I\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f).\n 1997\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0434\u0443\u044d\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0430\u00bb (II\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f).\n 1998\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0434\u0443\u044d\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0424\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u00bb (III\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f).\n 1999\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0434\u0443\u044d\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0412\u0441\u0451 \u0432 \u0442\u0432\u043e\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0443\u043a\u0430\u0445\u00bb (IV\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f).\n 2002\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0434\u0443\u044d\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0415\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u0442\u044b \u043a\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430-\u043d\u0438\u0431\u0443\u0434\u044c \u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0448\u044c\u00bb (VII\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f).\n 2003\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0434\u0443\u044d\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u043e\u0439 \u00ab\u041e\u0442\u043f\u0435\u0442\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u00bb \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0413\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430\u00bb (VIII\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f).\n 2006\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0434\u0443\u044d\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u043c \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c-\u043c\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0448\u0438\u043c \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0410\u044d\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u044b\u00bb (XI\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f).\n 2007\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0434\u0443\u044d\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u0414\u0432\u0435 \u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0438, \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0438\u00bb (XII\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f).\n 2008\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041d\u0435 \u0443\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438 \u0434\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043a\u043e\u00bb (XIII\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f).\n 2012\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0434\u0443\u044d\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0443\u043c \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u00ab\u041a\u0430\u043a \u043d\u0435 \u0434\u0443\u043c\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043e \u0442\u0435\u0431\u0435\u00bb (XVII\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f).\n\n\u0420\u0435\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044f MusicBox\n 2015\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u00abGold (\u041d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f MusicBox TV)\u00bb.\n 2016\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0446 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430. Gold\u00bb.\n\n\u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044f \u00ab\u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f\u00bb\n 2016\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u044d\u0442 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb. \u00ab\u041e\u0442\u0435\u0446 \u0440\u044f\u0434\u043e\u043c \u0441 \u0442\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0439\u00bb.\n 2016\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb. \u00ab\u041e\u0442\u0435\u0446 \u0440\u044f\u0434\u043e\u043c \u0441 \u0442\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0439\u00bb.\n 2017\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043f-\u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb. \u00ab\u0421\u0430\u043c\u0431\u0430\u00bb.\n 2017\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u0435 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043e \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb. \u00ab\u0421\u0430\u043c\u0431\u0430\u00bb.\n 2017\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb. \u00ab\u0421\u0430\u043c\u0431\u0430\u00bb.\n 2018\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u0417\u0430 \u0432\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0434\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0438\u00bb.\n 2018\u00a0\u2014", "\u044d.\n \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0438\u0439 \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0443\u043b\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0443\u043b, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e, \u0410\u0437\u0438\u0438 \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e 110 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0434\u043e \u043d. \u044d.\n \u041f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0439 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\u043f\u043e 158 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0434\u043e\u00a0\u043d.\u00a0\u044d., \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0432 140-\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445 \u0434\u043e\u00a0\u043d.\u00a0\u044d. \u0412\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e, \u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u044b\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043c\u0443.\n \u0413\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0411\u043b\u0430\u0437\u0438\u043e\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d \u043a\u043e\u043b\u043b\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u0440\u0438\u0443\u043c\u0432\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0432 112\u2014111 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445 \u0434\u043e\u00a0\u043d.\u00a0\u044d.\n \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0424\u0430\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430 (\u0443\u043c. \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 81 \u0434\u043e \u043d. \u044d.), \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0441\u0443\u043b\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0442\u0440\u044f\u0434\u0430, \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0443\u0431\u0438\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u0445 \u0431\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0440\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0434\u0438\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430. \u0412\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e, \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u043a\u043d\u0443\u043b \u043a \u0437\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0443 \u041a\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043d\u044b;\n \u041b\u0443\u0446\u0438\u0439 \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0421\u0438\u0437\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430 (\u043e\u043a. 118\u201467 \u0434\u043e\u00a0\u043d.\u00a0\u044d.), \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043a \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0438\u043e\u043d \u0430\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u041e\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0430, \u043e\u0442\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u043c \u043a \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0443, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0438\u043c\u044f \u043d\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e.\n\n\u041f\u043b\u0435\u0431\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\n\n\u041a\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0438 \u0411\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0431\u044b \n \u041b\u0443\u0446\u0438\u0439 \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0439", " shudders exceedingly\") after head injury were described. Observations by ancient civilizations of the human brain suggest only a relative understanding of the basic mechanics and the importance of cranial security. Furthermore, considering the general consensus of medical practice pertaining to human anatomy was based on myths and superstition, the thoughts of the battlefield surgeon appear to be empirical and based on logical deduction and simple observation.\n\nIn Ancient Greece, interest in the brain began with the work of Alcmaeon, who appeared to have dissected the eye and related the brain to vision. He also suggested that the brain, not the heart, was the organ that ruled the body (what Stoics would call the hegemonikon) and that the senses were dependent on the brain. According to ancient authorities, Alcmaeon believed the power of the brain to synthesize sensations made it also the seat of memories and thought. The author of On the Sacred Disease, part of the Hippocratic corpus, likewise believed the brain to be the seat of intelligence.\n\nThe debate regarding the hegemonikon persisted among ancient Greek philosophers and physicians for a very long time. Already in the 4th century BC, Aristotle thought that the heart was the seat of intelligence, while the brain was a cooling mechanism for the blood. He reasoned that humans are more rational than the beasts because, among other reasons, they have a larger brain to cool their hot-bloodedness. On the opposite end, during the Hellenistic period, Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria engaged in studies that involved dissecting human bodies, providing evidence for the primacy of the brain. They affirmed the distinction between the cerebrum and the cerebellum, and identifying the ventricles and the dura mater. Their works are now mostly lost, and we know about their achievements due mostly to secondary sources. Some of their discoveries had to be re-discovered a millennium after their death.\n\nDuring the Roman Empire, the Greek physician and philosopher Galen dissected the brains of oxen, Barbary apes, swine, and other non-human mammals. He concluded that, as the cerebellum was denser than the brain, it must control the muscles, while as the cerebrum was soft, it must be where the senses were processed. Galen further theorized that the brain functioned by the movement of animal spirits through the ventricles. He also noted that specific spinal nerves controlled specific muscles, and had the idea of the reciprocal action of muscles. Only in the 19th century, in the work of Fran\u00e7ois Magendie and Charles Bell, would the understanding of spinal function surpass that of Galen.\n\nMedieval to early modern\nIslamic medicine in the middle ages was focused on how the mind and body interacted and emphasized a need to understand mental health.\nCirca 1000, Al-Zahrawi, living in Islamic Iberia, evaluated neurological patients and performed surgical treatments of head injuries, skull fractures, spinal injuries, hydrocephalus, subdural effusions and headache. In Persia, Avicenna (Ibn-Sina) presented detailed knowledge about skull fractures and their surgical treatments.\nAvicenna is regarded by some as the father of modern medicine. He wrote 40 pieces on medicine with the most notable being the Qanun, a medical encyclopedia that would become a staple at universities for nearly a hundred years. He also explained phenomena such as, insomnia, mania, hallucinations, nightmares, dementia, epilepsy, stroke, paralysis, vertigo, melancholia and tremors. He also discovered a condition similar to schizophrenia, which he called Junun Mufrit, characterized by agitation, behavioral and sleep disturbances, giving inappropriate answers to questions, and occasional inability to speak. Avicenna also discovered the cerebellar vermis, which he simply called the vermis, and the caudate nucleus. Both terms are still used in neuroanatomy today. He was also the first person to associate mental deficits with deficits in the brain's middle ventricle or frontal lobe. Abulcasis, Averroes, Avenzoar, and Maimonides, active in the Medieval Muslim world, also described a number of medical problems related to the brain.\n\nBetween the 13th and 14th centuries, the first anatomy textbooks in Europe, which included a description of the brain, were written by Mondino de Luzzi and Guido da Vigevano.\n\nRenaissance\n\nWork by Andreas Vesalius on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy. Vesalius noted many structural characteristics of both the brain and general nervous system during his dissections. In addition to recording many anatomical features such as the putamen and corpus callosum, Vesalius proposed that the brain was made up of seven pairs of 'brain nerves', each with a specialized function. Other scholars furthered Vesalius' work by adding their own detailed sketches of the human brain.\n\nScientific Revolution\nIn the 17th century, Ren\u00e9 Descartes studied the physiology of the brain, proposing the theory of dualism to tackle the issue of the brain's relation to the mind. He suggested that the pineal gland was where the mind interacted with the body after recording the brain mechanisms responsible for circulating cerebrospinal fluid. Jan Swammerdam placed severed frog thigh muscle in an airtight syringe with a small amount of water in the tip and when he caused the muscle to contract by irritating the nerve, the water level did not rise but rather was lowered by a minute amount debunking balloonist theory. The idea that nerve stimulation led to movement had important implications by putting forward the idea that behaviour is based on stimuli. Thomas Willis studied the brain, nerves, and behavior to develop neurologic treatments. He described in great detail the structure of the brainstem, the cerebellum, the ventricles, and the cerebral hemispheres.\n\nModern period\n\nThe role of electricity in nerves was first observed in dissected frogs by Luigi Galvani, Lucia Galeazzi Galvani and Giovanni Aldini in the second half of the 18th century. In 1811, C\u00e9sar Julien Jean Legallois defined a specific function of a brain region for the first time. He studied respiration in animal dissection and lesions, and found the center of respiration in the medulla oblongata. Between 1811 and 1824, Charles Bell and Fran\u00e7ois Magendie discovered through dissection and vivisection that the ventral roots in spine transmit motor impulses and the posterior roots receive sensory input (Bell\u2013Magendie law). In the 1820s, Jean Pierre Flourens pioneered the experimental method of carrying out localized lesions of the brain in animals describing their effects on motricity, sensibility and behavior. He concluded that the ablation of the cerebellum resulted in movements that \u201cwere not regular and coordinated\". In 1843, Carlo Matteucci and Emil du Bois-Reymond demonstrated that nerve fibers transmitted electrical signals. Hermann von Helmholtz measured these to travel at a rate between 24 to 38 meters per second in 1850.\n\nIn 1848, John Martyn Harlow described that Phineas Gage had his frontal lobe pierced by an iron tamping rod in a blasting accident. He became a case study in the connection between the prefrontal cortex and executive functions. In 1861, Paul Broca heard of a patient at the Bic\u00eatre Hospital who had a 21-year progressive loss of speech and paralysis but neither a loss of comprehension nor mental function. Broca performed an autopsy and determined that the patient had a lesion in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere. Broca published his findings from the autopsies of twelve patients in 1865. His work inspired others to perform careful autopsies with the aim of linking more brain regions to sensory and motor functions. Another French neurologist, Marc Dax, made similar observations a generation earlier. Broca's hypothesis was supported by Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig who discovered in 1870 that electrical stimulation of motor cortex caused involuntary muscular contractions of specific parts of a dog's body and by observations of epileptic patients conducted by John Hughlings Jackson, who correctly deduced in the 1870s the organization of the motor cortex by watching the progression of seizures through the body. Carl Wernicke further developed the theory of the specialization of specific brain structures in language comprehension and production. Richard Caton presented his findings in 1875 about electrical phenomena of the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys. In 1878, Hermann Munk found in dogs and monkeys that vision was localized in the occipital cortical area, David Ferrier found in 1881 that audition was localized in the superior temporal gyrus and Harvey Cushing found in 1909 that the sense of touch was localized in the postcentral gyrus. Modern research still uses the Korbinian Brodmann's cytoarchitectonic (referring to study of cell structure) anatomical definitions from this era in continuing to show that distinct areas of the cortex are activated in the execution of specific tasks.\n\nStudies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the microscope and the development of a staining procedure by Camillo Golgi during the late 1890s that used a silver chromate salt to reveal the intricate structures of single neurons. His technique was used by Santiago Ram\u00f3n y Cajal and led to the formation of the neuron doctrine, the hypothesis that the functional unit of the brain is the neuron. Golgi and Ram\u00f3n y Cajal shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain. The hypotheses of the neuron doctrine were supported by experiments following Galvani's pioneering work in the electrical excitability of muscles and neurons. In 1898, British scientist John Newport Langley first coined the term \"autonomic\" in classifying the connections of nerve fibers to peripheral nerve cells. Langley is known as one of the fathers of the chemical receptor theory, and as the origin of the concept of \"receptive substance\". Towards the end of the nineteenth century Francis Gotch conducted several experiments on nervous system function. In 1899 he described the \"inexcitable\" or \"refractory phase\" that takes place between nerve impulses. His primary focus was on how nerve interaction affected the muscles and eyes.\n\nHeinrich Obersteiner in 1887 founded the \u2018\u2018Institute for Anatomy and Physiology of the CNS\u2019\u2019, later called Neurological or Obersteiner Institute of the Vienna University School of Medicine. It was one of the first brain research institutions in the world. He studied the cerebellar cortex, described the Redlich\u2013Obersteiner's zone and wrote one of the first books on neuroanatomy in 1888. R\u00f3bert B\u00e1r\u00e1ny, who worked on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus, attended this school, graduating in 1900. Obersteiner was later superseded by Otto Marburg.\n\nTwentieth century\nNeuroscience during the twentieth century began to be recognized as a distinct unified academic discipline, rather than studies of the nervous system being a factor of science belonging to a variety of disciplines.\n\nIvan Pavlov contributed to many areas of neurophysiology. Most of his work involved research in temperament, conditioning and involuntary reflex actions. In 1891, Pavlov was invited to the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg to organize and direct the Department of Physiology. He published The Work of the Digestive Glands in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. During the same period, Vladimir Bekhterev discovered 15 new reflexes and is known for his competition with Pavlov regarding the study of conditioned reflexes. He founded the Psychoneurological Institute at the St. Petersburg State Medical Academy in 1907 where he worked with Alexandre Dogiel. In the institute, he attempted to establish a multidisciplinary approach to brain exploration. The Institute of Higher Nervous Activity in Moscow, Russia was established on July 14, 1950.\n\nCharles Scott Sherrington's work focused strongly on reflexes and his experiments led up to the discovery of motor units. His concepts centered around unitary behaviour of cells activated or inhibited at what he called synapses. Sherrington received the Nobel prize for showing that reflexes require integrated activation and demonstrated reciprocal innervation of muscles (Sherrington's law). Sherrington also worked with Thomas Graham Brown who developed one of the first ideas about central pattern generators in 1911. Brown recognized that the basic pattern of stepping can be produced by the spinal cord without the need of descending commands from the cortex.\n\nAcetylcholine was the first neurotransmitter to be identified. It was first identified in 1915 by Henry Hallett Dale for its actions on heart tissue. It was confirmed as a neurotransmitter in 1921 by Otto Loewi in Graz. Loewi demonstrated the \u2033humorale \u00dcbertragbarkeit der Herznervenwirkung\u2033 first in amphibians. He initially gave it the name Vagusstoff because it was released from the vagus nerve and in 1936 he wrote: \u2033I no longer hesitate to identify the Sympathicusstoff with adrenaline.\u2033\n\nOne major question for neuroscientists in the early twentieth century was the physiology of nerve impulses. In 1902 and again in 1912, Julius Bernstein advanced the hypothesis that the action potential resulted from a change in the permeability of the axonal membrane to ions. Bernstein was also the first to introduce the Nernst equation for resting potential across the membrane. In 1907, Louis Lapicque suggested that the action potential was generated as a threshold was crossed, what would be later shown as a product of the dynamical systems of ionic conductances. A great deal of study on sensory organs and the function of nerve cells was conducted by British physiologist Keith Lucas and his protege Edgar Adrian. Keith Lucas' experiments in the first decade of the twentieth century proved that muscles contract entirely or not at all, this was referred to as the all-or-none principle. Edgar Adrian observed nerve fibers in action during his experiments on frogs. This proved that scientists could study nervous system function directly, not just indirectly. This led to a rapid increase in the variety of experiments conducted in the field of neurophysiology and innovation in the technology necessary for these experiments. Much of Adrian's early research was inspired by studying the way vacuum tubes intercepted and enhanced coded messages. Concurrently, Josepht Erlanger and Herbert Gasser were able to modify an oscilloscope to run at low voltages and were able to observe that action potentials occurred in two phases\u2014a spike followed by an after-spike. They discovered that nerves were found in many forms, each with their own potential for excitability. With this research, the pair discovered that the velocity of action potentials was directly proportional to the diameter of the nerve fiber and received a Nobel Prize for their work.\n\nIn the process of treating epilepsy, Wilder Penfield produced maps of the location of various functions (motor, sensory, memory, vision) in the brain. He summarized his findings in a 1950 book called The Cerebral Cortex of Man. Wilder Penfield and his co-investigators Edwin Boldrey and Theodore Rasmussen are considered to be the originators of the cortical homunculus.\n\nKenneth Cole joined Columbia University in 1937 and remained there until 1946 where he made pioneering advances modelling the electrical properties of nervous tissue. Bernstein's hypothesis about the action potential was confirmed by Cole and Howard Curtis, who showed that membrane conductance increases during an action potential. David E. Goldman worked with Cole and derived the Goldman equation in 1943 at Columbia University.\nAlan Lloyd Hodgkin spent a year (1937\u201338) at the Rockefeller Institute, during which he joined Cole to measure the D.C. resistance of the membrane of the squid giant axon in the resting state. In 1939 they began using internal electrodes inside the giant nerve fibre of the squid and Cole developed the voltage clamp technique in 1947. Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley later presented a mathematical model for transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the Hodgkin\u2013Huxley model. In 1961\u20131962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin\u2013Huxley, in what is called the FitzHugh\u2013Nagumo model. In 1962, Bernard Katz modeled neurotransmission across the space between neurons known as synapses. Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in Aplysia. In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in the Morris\u2013Lecar model. Such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerous biological neuron models and models of neural computation.\n\nEric Kandel and collaborators have cited David Rioch, Francis O. Schmitt, and Stephen Kuffler as having played critical roles in establishing the field. Rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, starting in the 1950s. During the same period, Schmitt established a neuroscience research program within the Biology Department at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, bringing together biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. The first freestanding neuroscience department (then called Psychobiology) was founded in 1964 at the University of California, Irvine by James L. McGaugh. Stephen Kuffler started the Department of Neurobiology at Harvard Medical School in 1966. The first official use of the word \"Neuroscience\" may be in 1962 with Francis O. Schmitt's \"Neuroscience Research Program\", which was hosted by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.\n\nOver time, brain research has gone through philosophical, experimental, and theoretical phases, with work on brain simulation predicted to be important in the future.\n\nInstitutes and organizations\nAs a result of the increasing interest about the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience institutes and organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists. The largest professional neuroscience organization is the Society for Neuroscience (SFN), which is based in the United States but includes many members from other countries.\n\nIn 2013, the BRAIN Initiative was announced in the US. An International Brain Initiative was created in 2017, currently integrated by more than seven national-level brain research initiatives (US, Europe, Allen Institute, Japan, China, Australia, Canada, Korea, Israel) spanning four continents.\n\nSee also\n\n History of catecholamine research\n History of neuraxial anesthesia\n History of neurology and neurosurgery\n History of psychiatry\n History of psychology\n History of neuropsychology\n History of neurophysiology\n History of science\n List of neurologists\n List of neuroscientists\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n Rousseau, George S. (2004). Nervous Acts: Essays on Literature, Culture and Sensibility. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. (Paperback) \n Wickens, Andrew P. (2015) A History of the Brain: From Stone Age Surgery to Modern Neuroscience. London: Psychology Press. (Paperback), 978-84872-364-1 (Hardback), 978-1-315-79454-9 (Ebook)\n\nExternal links\n\nA History", " allocated four newly formed strategic reserve armies there rather than to the Southwestern Main Direction. Instead, the Southwestern Front received seven rifle divisions and three tank corps, which proved inadequate to deal with the German threat.\n\nAt the same time, the commitment of the panzer divisions that Paulus and Kleist needed for Case Blau to the Second Battle of Kharkov further delayed the start of the offensive, since they required time to train and replace their losses from the battle. At a conference at Army Group South's headquarters at Poltava on 1 June, Hitler modified the plans for the summer operations. Before the main offensive began, simultaneous attacks were to be launched on 7 June: Operation Wilhelm at Volchansk northeast of Kharkov and Operation St\u00f6rfang against Sevastopol. The latter aimed to destroy the last Soviet troops in Crimea in order to secure the German southern flank. Kleist was to follow with these Operation Fridericus II on 12 June against the Izyum salient. The attacks in Ukraine aimed to give German forces space to amass supplies east of the Donets. The start of Case Blau itself was delayed to 20 June, by which point victory in the preliminary operations was anticipated.\n\nPrelude\n\nArmy Group South was selected for a sprint forward through the southern Russian steppes into the Caucasus to capture the vital Soviet oil fields there. The planned summer offensive, code-named Fall Blau (Case Blue), was to include the German 6th, 17th, 4th Panzer and 1st Panzer Armies. Army Group South had overrun the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1941. Poised in Eastern Ukraine, it was to spearhead the offensive.\n\nHitler intervened, however, ordering the Army Group to split in two. Army Group South (A), under the command of Wilhelm List, was to continue advancing south towards the Caucasus as planned with the 17th Army and First Panzer Army. Army Group South (B), including Friedrich Paulus's 6th Army and Hermann Hoth's 4th Panzer Army, was to move east towards the Volga and Stalingrad. Army Group B was commanded by General Maximilian von Weichs.\n\nThe start of Case Blue had been planned for late May 1942. However, a number of German and Romanian units that were to take part in Blau were besieging Sevastopol on the Crimean Peninsula. Delays in ending the siege pushed back the start date for Blau several times, and the city did not fall until early July.\n\nOperation Fridericus I by the Germans against the \"Izyum bulge\", pinched off the Soviet salient in the Second Battle of Kharkov, and resulted in the envelopment of a large Soviet force between 17 May and 29 May. Similarly, Operation Wilhelm attacked Voltshansk on 13 June, and Operation Fridericus attacked Kupiansk on 22 June.\n\nBlau finally opened as Army Group South began its attack into southern Russia on 28 June 1942. The German offensive started well. Soviet forces offered little resistance in the vast empty steppes and started streaming eastward. Several attempts to re-establish a defensive line failed when German units outflanked them. Two major pockets were formed and destroyed: the first, northeast of Kharkov, on 2 July, and a second, around Millerovo, Rostov Oblast, a week later. Meanwhile, the Hungarian 2nd Army and the German 4th Panzer Army had launched an assault on Voronezh, capturing the city on 5 July.\n\nThe initial advance of the 6th Army was so successful that Hitler intervened and ordered the 4th Panzer Army to join Army Group South (A) to the south. A massive road block resulted when the 4th Panzer and the 1st Panzer choked the roads, stopping both in their tracks while they cleared the mess of thousands of vehicles. The traffic jam is thought to have delayed the advance by at least one week. With the advance now slowed, Hitler changed his mind and reassigned the 4th Panzer Army back to the attack on Stalingrad.\n\nBy the end of July, the Germans had pushed the Soviets across the Don River. At this point, the Don and Volga Rivers are only apart, and the Germans left their main supply depots west of the Don, which had important implications later in the course of the battle. The Germans began using the armies of their Italian, Hungarian and Romanian allies to guard their left (northern) flank. Occasionally Italian actions were mentioned in official German communiques. Italian forces were generally held in little regard by the Germans, and were accused of low morale: in reality, the Italian divisions fought comparatively well, with the 3rd Infantry Division \"Ravenna\" and 5th Infantry Division \"Cosseria\" showing spirit, according to a German liaison officer. The Italians were forced to retreat only after a massive armoured attack in which German reinforcements failed to arrive in time, according to German historian Rolf-Dieter M\u00fcller.\n\nOn 25 July the Germans faced stiff resistance with a Soviet bridgehead west of Kalach. \"We had had to pay a high cost in men and material\u00a0... left on the Kalach battlefield were numerous burnt-out or shot-up German tanks.\"\n\nThe Germans formed bridgeheads across the Don on 20 August, with the 295th and 76th Infantry Divisions enabling the XIVth Panzer Corps \"to thrust to the Volga north of Stalingrad.\" The German 6th Army was only a few dozen kilometres from Stalingrad. The 4th Panzer Army, ordered south on 13 July to block the Soviet retreat \"weakened by the 17th Army and the 1st Panzer Army\", had turned northwards to help take the city from the south.\n\nTo the south, Army Group A was pushing far into the Caucasus, but their advance slowed as supply lines grew overextended. The two German army groups were too far apart to support one another.\n\nAfter German intentions became clear in July 1942, Stalin appointed General Andrey Yeryomenko commander of the Southeastern Front on 1 August 1942. Yeryomenko and Commissar Nikita Khrushchev were tasked with planning the defence of Stalingrad. Beyond the Volga River on the eastern boundary of Stalingrad, additional Soviet units were formed into the 62nd Army under Lieutenant General Vasiliy Chuikov on 11 September 1942. Tasked with holding the city at all costs, Chuikov proclaimed, \"We will defend the city or die in the attempt.\" The battle earned him one of his two Hero of the Soviet Union awards.\n\nOrders of battle\n\nRed Army \n\nDuring the defence of Stalingrad, the Red Army deployed five armies in and around the city (28th, 51st, 57th, 62nd and 64th Armies); and an additional nine armies in the encirclement counteroffensive (24th, 65th, 66th Armies and 16th Air Army from the north as part of the Don Front offensive, and 1st Guards Army, 5th Tank, 21st Army, 2nd Air Army and 17th Air Army from the south as part of the Southwestern Front).\n\nAxis\n\nAttack on Stalingrad\n\nInitial attack\n\nDavid Glantz indicated that four hard-fought battles \u2013 collectively known as the Kotluban Operations \u2013 north of Stalingrad, where the Soviets made their greatest stand, decided Germany's fate before the Nazis ever set foot in the city itself, and were a turning point in the war. Beginning in late August, continuing in September and into October, the Soviets committed between two and four armies in hastily coordinated and poorly controlled attacks against the Germans' northern flank. The actions resulted in more than 200,000 Soviet Army casualties but did slow the German assault.\n\nOn 23 August the 6th Army reached the outskirts of Stalingrad in pursuit of the 62nd and 64th Armies, which had fallen back into the city. Kleist later said after the war:\n\nThe Soviets had enough warning of the German advance to ship grain, cattle, and railway cars across the Volga out of harm's way, but Stalin refused to evacuate the 400,000 civilian residents of Stalingrad. This \"harvest victory\" left the city short of food even before the German attack began. Before the Heer reached the city itself, the Luftwaffe had cut off shipping on the Volga, vital for bringing supplies into the city. Between 25 and 31 July, 32 Soviet ships were sunk, with another nine crippled.\n\nThe battle began with the heavy bombing of the city by Generaloberst Wolfram von Richthofen's Luftflotte 4. Some 1,000 tons of bombs were dropped in 48 hours, more than in London at the height of the Blitz. At least 90% of the city's housing stock was obliterated. The aerial assault on Stalingrad was the most concentrated on the Ostfront according to Beevor. The exact number of civilians killed is unknown but was most likely very high. Around 40,000 civilians were taken to Germany as slave workers, some fled during battle and a small number were evacuated by the Soviets, but by February 1943 only 10,000 to 60,000 civilians were still alive. Much of the city was smashed to rubble, although some factories continued production while workers joined in the fighting. The Stalingrad Tractor Factory continued to turn out T-34 tanks up until German troops burst into the plant. The 369th (Croatian) Reinforced Infantry Regiment was the only non-German unit selected by the Wehrmacht to enter Stalingrad city during assault operations. It fought as part of the 100th J\u00e4ger Division.\n\nStalin rushed all available troops to the east bank of the Volga, some from as far away as Siberia. Regular river ferries were quickly destroyed by the Luftwaffe, which then targeted troop barges being towed slowly across by tugs. It has been said that Stalin prevented civilians from leaving the city in the belief that their presence would encourage greater resistance from the city's defenders. Civilians, including women and children, were put to work building trenchworks and protective fortifications. A massive German air raid on 23 August caused a firestorm, killing hundreds and turning Stalingrad into a vast landscape of rubble and burnt ruins. Ninety percent of the living space in the Voroshilovskiy area was destroyed. Between 23 and 26 August, Soviet reports indicate 955 people were killed and another 1,181 wounded as a result of the bombing. Casualties were estimated to have been 40,000, or as many as 70,000, though these estimates were likely exaggerated, and after 25 August the Soviets did not record any civilian and military casualties as a result of air raids.\n\nThe Soviet Air Force, the Voyenno-Vozdushnye Sily (VVS), was swept aside by the Luftwaffe. The VVS bases in the immediate area lost 201 aircraft between 23 and 31 August, and despite meagre reinforcements of some 100 aircraft in August, it was left with just 192 serviceable aircraft, 57 of which were fighters. The Soviets continued to pour aerial reinforcements into the Stalingrad area in late September, but continued to suffer appalling losses; the Luftwaffe had complete control of the skies.\n\nEarly on 23 August, the German 16th Panzer and 3rd Motorized Divisions attacked out of the Vertyachy bridgehead with a force 120 tanks and over 200 armored personnel carriers strong. The German attack broke through the 1382nd Rifle Regiment of the 87th Rifle Division and the 137th Tank Brigade, which were forced to retreat towards Dmitryevka. Encountering little resistance, the 16th Panzer Division drove east towards the Volga, supported by the strikes of Henschel Hs 129 ground attack aircraft. Crossing the railway line to Stalingrad at 564 km Station around midday, both divisions continued their rush towards the river. Around 15:00, Hyacinth Graf Strachwitz's Panzer Detachment and the kampfgruppe of the 2nd Battalion, 64th Panzer Grenadier Regiment from the 16th Panzer reached the area of Latashanka, Rynok, and Spartanovka, northern suburbs of Stalingrad, and the Stalingrad Tractor Factory. \n\nOne of the first units to offer resistance in this area was the 1077th Anti-Aircraft Regiment, covering the Stalingrad Tractor Factory and the Volga ferry near Latashanka. The majority of the regiment was composed of men, but its directing and rangefinding crews and unit headquarters were made up of women. Several women also crewed anti-aircraft guns. The 1077th was notified of the German tanks' approach at 14:30 and its 6th Battery, dominating the Sukhaya Mechatka ravine, claimed the destruction of 28 German tanks. Later that day, its 3rd Battery on the road between Yerzovka and Stalingrad, saw particularly intense fighting against the 16th Panzer, reportedly fighting \"shot for shot.\" Two women were decorated for their actions that day, and the regiment's report praised the \"exceptional steadfastness and heroism\" of the women soldiers. The regiment lost 35 guns, eighteen killed, 46 wounded, and 74 missing on 23 and 24 August. The 16th Panzer Division's history mentioned its encounter with the regiment, claiming the destruction of 37 guns, and the unit's surprise that its opponents had in part included women. \n\nIn the early stages of the battle, the NKVD organised poorly armed \"Workers' militias\" similar to those that had defended the city twenty-four years earlier, composed of civilians not directly involved in war production for immediate use in the battle. The civilians were often sent into battle without rifles. Staff and students from the local technical university formed a \"tank destroyer\" unit. They assembled tanks from leftover parts at the tractor factory. These tanks, unpainted and lacking gun-sights, were driven directly from the factory floor to the front line. They could only be aimed at point-blank range through the bore of their gun barrels.\n\nBy the end of August, Army Group South (B) had finally reached the Volga, north of Stalingrad. Another advance to the river south of the city followed, while the Soviets abandoned their Rossoshka position for the inner defensive ring west of Stalingrad. The wings of the 6th Army and the 4th Panzer Army met near Jablotchni along the Zaritza on 2 Sept. By 1 September, the Soviets could only reinforce and supply their forces in Stalingrad by perilous crossings of the Volga under constant bombardment by artillery and aircraft.\n\nSeptember city battles\n\nOn 5 September, the Soviet 24th and 66th Armies organized a massive attack against XIV Panzer Corps. The Luftwaffe helped repel the offensive by heavily attacking Soviet artillery positions and defensive lines. The Soviets were forced to withdraw at midday after only a few hours. Of the 120 tanks the Soviets had committed, 30 were lost to air attack.\n\nSoviet operations were constantly hampered by the Luftwaffe. On 18 September, the Soviet 1st Guards and 24th Army launched an offensive against VIII Army Corps at Kotluban. VIII. Fliegerkorps dispatched multiple waves of Stuka dive-bombers to prevent a breakthrough. The offensive was repelled. The Stukas claimed 41 of the 106 Soviet tanks knocked out that morning, while escorting Bf 109s destroyed 77 Soviet aircraft. Amid the debris of the wrecked city, the Soviet 62nd and 64th Armies, which included the Soviet 13th Guards Rifle Division, anchored their defence lines with strong-points in houses and factories.\n\nFighting within the ruined city was fierce and desperate. Lieutenant General Alexander Rodimtsev was in charge of the 13th Guards Rifle Division, and received one of two Heroes of the Soviet Union awarded during the battle for his actions. Stalin's Order No. 227 of 27 July 1942 decreed that all commanders who ordered unauthorised retreats would be subject to a military tribunal. Blocking detachments composed of NKVD or regular troops were positioned behind Red Army units to prevent desertion and straggling, sometimes executing deserters and perceived malingerers. During the battle the 62nd Army had the most arrests and executions: 203 in all, of which 49 were executed, while 139 were sent to penal companies and battalions. Blocking detachments of the Stalingrad and Don Fronts detained 51,758 men from the beginning of the battle to 15 October, with the majority returned to their units. Of those detained, the vast majority of which were from the Don Front, 980 were executed, and 1,349 sent to penal companies. In the two day period between 13 and 15 September, the 62nd Army blocking detachment detained 1,218 men, returning most to their units while shooting 21 men and arresting ten. Beevor claims that 13,500 Soviet soldiers were executed by Soviet authorities at Stalingrad, however, this claim is disputed by Hellbeck. \n\nBy 12 September, at the time of their retreat into the city, the Soviet 62nd Army had been reduced to 90 tanks, 700 mortars and just 20,000 personnel. The remaining tanks were used as immobile strong-points within the city. The initial German attack on 14 September attempted to take the city in a rush. The 51st Army Corps' 295th Infantry Division went after the Mamayev Kurgan hill, the 71st attacked the central rail station and toward the central landing stage on the Volga, while 48th Panzer Corps attacked south of the Tsaritsa River. Though initially successful, the German attacks stalled in the face of Soviet reinforcements brought in from across the Volga. Rodimtsev's 13th Guards Rifle Division had been hurried up to cross the river and join the defenders inside the city. Assigned to counterattack at the Mamayev Kurgan and at Railway Station No. 1, it suffered particularly heavy losses. Despite their losses, Rodimtsev's troops were able to inflict similar damage on their opponents. By 26 September, the opposing 71st Infantry Division had half of its battalions considered exhausted, reduced from all of them being considered average in combat capability when the attack began twelve days earlier.\n\nThe brutality of the battle was noted in", " from different regions.\n\nThe exact origins of the Great Army are obscure. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle sometimes identifies the Vikings as Danes. The 10th-century Vita Alfredi seems to allege that the invaders came from Denmark. A Scandinavian origin may be evinced by the 10th-century Chronicon \u00c6thelweardi, which states that \"the fleets of the tyrant Ivar\" arrived in Anglo-Saxon England from \"the north\". By the mid-9th century, this Ivar (died 870/873) was one of the foremost Viking leaders in Britain and Ireland.\n\nThe Great Army may have included Vikings already active in Anglo-Saxon England, as well as men directly from Scandinavia, Ireland, the Irish Sea region and the Continent. There is reason to suspect that a proportion of the army specifically originated in Frisia. For example, the 9th-century Annales Bertiniani reveals that Danish Vikings devastated Frisia in 850, and the 12th-century Annales Lindisfarnenses et Dunelmenses states that a Viking force of Danes and Frisians made landfall on the Isle of Sheppey in 855. The same source, and the 10th- or 11th-century Historia de sancto Cuthberto, describe Ubba as of the Frisians.\n\nWhilst the Old English Anglo-Saxon Chronicle calls the Viking army , the Latin Historia de sancto Cuthberto instead gives , a term of uncertain meaning that is employed three times in reference to the leadership of the Viking forces. One possibility is that the word means \"people from the River Scheldt\". This could indicate that Ubba was from Walcheren, an island in the mouth of the Scheldt. Walcheren is known to have been occupied by Danish Vikings over two decades before. For example, the Annales Bertiniani reports that Lothair I, King of Middle Francia (died 855) granted the island to a Viking named Herioldus in 841. Another possibility is that this term simply refers to Scyldings, an ancient lineage from which Danish monarchs of the time claimed descent.\n\nAccording to the same source and the 9th-century Annales Fuldenses, another Viking named Roricus was granted a large part of Frisia as a benefice or fief from Lothair in 850. As men who held military and judicial authority on behalf of the Franks, Herioldus and Roricus can also be regarded as Frisian . Although it is uncertain whether Ubba was a native Frisian or a Scandinavian expatriate, if he was indeed involved with a Frisian benefice his forces would have probably been partly composed of Frisians. If his troops were drawn from the Scandinavian settlement started by Herioldus over two decades before, many of Ubba's men might well have been born in Frisia. In fact, the length of Scandinavian occupation suggests that some of the Vikings from Frisia would have been native Franks and Frisians. The considerable time that members of the Great Army appear to have spent in Ireland and on the Continent suggests that these men were well accustomed to Christian society, which in turn may partly explain their successes in Anglo-Saxon England.\n\nViking invasion of Anglo-Saxon England\n\nIn the autumn of 865, the Anglo Saxon Chronicle records that the Great Army invaded the Kingdom of East Anglia, where they afterwards made peace with the East Anglians and overwintered. The terminology employed by this source suggests the Vikings attacked by sea. The invaders evidently gained valuable intelligence during the stay, as the Great Army is next stated to have left on horses gained from the subordinated population, striking deep into the Kingdom of Northumbria, a fractured realm in the midst of a bitter civil war between two competing kings: \u00c6lla (died 867) and Osberht (died 867).\n\nLate in 866 the Vikings seized York\u2014one of only two archiepiscopal sees in Anglo-Saxon England, and one of the richest trading centres in Britain. Although \u00c6lla and Osberht responded to this attack by joining forces against the Vikings, the chronicle indicates that their assault on York was a disaster that resulted in both their deaths. According to Annales Lindisfarnenses et Dunelmenses, and Historia de sancto Cuthberto, the Northumbrians and their kings were crushed by Ubba himself.\n\nAlso that year, Annales Bertiniani reports that Charles II, King of West Francia (died 877) paid off a Viking fleet stationed on the Seine. After proceeding down the Seine towards the sea, where they repaired and rebuilt their fleet, a portion of the force is reported to have left for the district of IJssel (either Hollandse IJssel or Gelderse IJssel). Although the destination of the rest of the fleet is unrecorded, one possibility is that it participated in the sack of York. The fact that the Great Army remained in East Anglia for about a year before it attacked Northumbria could mean that it had been reinforced from the Continent during the layover. The part of the fleet that went to Frisia is later stated to have been unable to secure an alliance with Lothair. This statement seems to suggest that these Vikings had intended to acquire a grant of lands in the region, which could mean that they thereafter took part in the Great Army's campaigning across the Channel. Furthermore, Annales Bertiniani notes that Roricus was forced from Frisia the following year. This ejection could also account for the evidence of a Frisian dimension to the Great Army, and for the attestations of Ubba himself.\n\nWith the collapse of the Northumbrian kingdom, and the destruction of its regime, the 12th-century Historia regum Anglorum, and Libellus de exordio, reveal that a certain Ecgberht (died 873) was installed by the Vikings as client king over a northern region of Northumbria. In the following year, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that the Great Army attacked Mercia, after which the Vikings seized Nottingham and overwintered there. Although the Mercian and West Saxon kings, Burgred (died 874?) and \u00c6thelred (died 871), responded by joining forces and besieging the occupied town, both the chronicle and Vita Alfredi report that this combined Anglo-Saxon force was unable to dislodge the army. According to both sources, the Mercians made peace with the Vikings. It was probably on account of this seemingly purchased peace that the Great Army relocated to York, as reported by the chronicle, where it evidently renewed its strength for future forays.\n\nHagiographic association with Edmund\n\nThe earliest source to make specific note of Ubba is Passio sancti Eadmundi, which includes him in its account of the downfall of Edmund, King of East Anglia (died 869). Almost nothing is known of this king's career, and all that remains of his reign are a few coins. The first contemporary documentary source to cast any light upon his reign is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. According to this account, the Great Army invaded East Anglia in the autumn of 869, before setting up winter quarters at Thetford. The chronicle relates that the kingdom was conquered and Edmund was amongst the slain.\n\nAlthough the specific wording employed by most versions of the chronicle suggests that Edmund was killed in battle, and Vita Alfredi certainly states as much\u2014with neither source making note of a martyrdom ordeal\u2014later hagiographical accounts portray the king in an idealised light, and depict his death in the context of a peace-loving Christian monarch, who willingly suffered martyrdom after refusing to shed blood in defence of himself.\n\nOne such account is Passio sancti Eadmundi, a source that makes no mention of a battle. Whilst this source's claim that Edmund was martyred after being captured is not implausible, the fact that he came to regarded as a martyr does not negate the possibility that he was slain in battle (as suggested by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle). The apparent contradictory accounts of Edmund's demise given by these sources may stem from the telescoping of events surrounding an East Anglian military defeat and the subsequent arrest and execution of the king. In any case, surviving numismatic evidence of coins bearing Edmund's name\u2014the so-called St Edmund memorial coinage\u2014reveals that he was certainly regarded as a saint about twenty years after his death.\n\nThe reliability of Passio sancti Eadmundi is nevertheless uncertain. Although this source was composed over a century after the event, it may convey some credible material as the latest useful source. Nevertheless, there is also reason to suspect that the account is little more than a collection of well-known hagiographical elements, and that the composer knew little to nothing of Edmund's demise and early cult. The lurid depictions of Viking invaders presented by Passio sancti Eadmundi appears to owe much to the author's otherwise known association with Fleury, and specifically to the account of the Viking invasion of the Loire Valley detailed by Miracula sancti Benedicti, a 9th-century work composed by the Fleurian monk Adrevaldus (fl. 860s).\n\nIn specific regard to Ubba, Passio sancti Eadmundi states that Ivar left him in Northumbria before launching his assault upon the East Angles in 869. If this source is to be believed, it could indicate that Ubba stayed behind to ensure the cooperation of the conquered Northumbrians. Although Vita Alfredi and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle fail to note any Viking garrisons in the conquered Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, this may merely be a consequence of their otherwise perceptible West Saxon bias. In contrast to Passio sancti Eadmundi, the 12th-century \"F\" version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle specifically identifies Ubba and Ivar as the chiefs of the men who killed the king. Whilst this identification could be derived from Passio sancti Eadmundi or the 10th-century Lives of the Saints, it could merely be a mistake on the chronicler's part. In any case, later and less reliable literature covering the martyrdom associates both men with the event, revealing that this version of events was current as early as the 12th century.\n\nHagiographic association with \u00c6bbe and Osyth\n\nUbba is associated with the martyrdom of \u00c6bbe, an alleged abbess of Coldingham said to have been slain by Vikings in 870. The historicity of this woman is nevertheless uncertain. The earliest accounts of the alleged events at Coldingham date to the 13th century. They include Chronica majora, and both the Wendover and Paris versions of Flores historiarum. According to these sources, \u00c6bbe compelled the nuns of Coldingham to disfigure themselves to preserve their virginity from an incoming horde of Vikings. Leading by example, \u00c6bbe is said to have cut off her nose and upper lip with a razor. When the Viking arrived the following morning, the sight of the mutilated and bloody women repelled the raiders. Nevertheless, Ivar and Ubba are stated to have ordered the razing of the monastery, burning to death \u00c6bbe and her faithful nuns.\n\nDespite many lurid 12th-century tales of ecclesiastical devastation wrought by Vikings, the principal contemporary source for this period, the 9th- or 10th-century \"A\" version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, fails to note the destruction of a single Anglo-Saxon church by Scandinavians during the 8th and 9th centuries. Although Passio sancti Eadmundi presents the invasion of East Anglia by Ubba and Ivar as a campaign of wanton rape and murder, the account does not depict the destruction of the kingdom's monasteries. In fact, there is reason to suspect that most Anglo-Saxon monastic sites probably survived the Viking invasions of the era, and that the East Anglian Church withstood the Viking invasions and occupation.\n\nWhilst Viking depredations of monasteries tend not to feature in sources intended for royal audiences, religious desecrations appear in sources composed for ecclesiastical audiences. There are several reasons why 12th-century sources associate the Vikings with seemingly unhistorical atrocities against particular monasteries. For example, such depredations could explain changes in monastic observance, or the switch from monastic- to clerical observance. Stories of Viking attacks could be used as evidence of the former possession of property claimed by religious houses centuries after the fact. The 9th-century Viking onslaught may have also been a way in which 12th-century commentators sought to explain what was regarded as monastic decay in 10th-century Anglo-Saxon England. This imagined or exaggerated religious extirpation could well have been a convenient way of accounting for the scarcity of documentary evidence concerning early religious institutions. Twelfth-century ecclesiastical historians availed themselves of sources such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and Passio sancti Eadmundi. The fact that the latter was particularly influential to mediaeval historians is evidenced by the frequent occurrences of Ivar and Ubba in reports of religious atrocities. To medieval hagiographers and historians, these two figures were archetypal Viking invaders and emblematic opponents of Christianity.\n\nThe accounts of \u00c6bbe could be an example of such a constructed tale. The story appears be ultimately derived from the account of Coldingham preserved by the eighth-century Historia ecclesiastica. According to this source, \u00c6thelthryth (died 679), wife of Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria (died 685), entered the monastery under the tutelage of an abbess named \u00c6bbe (died 683?). At some point after \u00c6thelthryth left Coldingham to found a monastery at Ely, Historia ecclesiastica reports that the monastery of Coldingham burned to the ground. This account of Coldingham's burning was later incorporated into Liber Eliensis, a 12th-century chronicle covering the history of \u00c6thelthryth's establishment at Ely. The account of the burning given by Historia ecclesiastica may well be the inspiration behind the tale of facial mutilation and fiery martyrdom first associated with Coldingham by the Wendover version of Flores historiarum. To 12th-century ecclesiasts, invented tales of 9th-century violence\u2014particularly violence inflicted by Ivar and Ubba\u2014may have been intended to validate the refoundation of certain religious communities.\n\nThe earliest Anglo-Saxon virgin-martyr is Osyth. A now-lost 12th-century of this woman associated Ivar and Ubba with her seventh-century martyrdom. According to this source, Ivar and Ubba commanded the pirates who beheaded her after she refused to worship their pagan idols. This work may have been the inspiration behind the Anglo-Norman hagiography Vie seinte Osith, a composition that also attributes Osyth's killing to Ivar and Ubba and their followers.\n\nThe Great Army after Ivar\n\nThe history of East Anglia immediately after Edmund's demise is extremely obscure. The account of events presented by Passio sancti Eadmundi seems to show that Edmund was killed in the context of the Great Army attempting to impose authority over him and his realm. Such an accommodation appears to have been gained by the Vikings in Northumbria and Mercia. In any case, numismatic evidence appears to indicate that two client kings\u2014a certain \u00c6thelred and Oswald\u2014thereafter ruled over the East Angles on behalf of the Viking conquerors.\n\nIt is at about this point that Ivar disappears from English history. According to Chronicon \u00c6thelweardi, he died in the same year as Edmund. However, this record may partly stem from the fact that he did not take part in the subsequent war against the Kingdom of Wessex, beginning in the autumn or winter of 870. In any case, the leadership of the Great Army appears to have fallen to kings Bagsecg (died 871) and Halfdan (died 877), the first principal Viking leaders attested by all versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle after the army's recorded arrival.\n\nFor about a year, the Great Army campaigned against the West Saxons, before overwintering in London. Late in 872, after spending nearly a year in London, the Vikings were drawn back to Northumbria, and afterwards to Mercia. By the end of 874, the kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria were finally broken. At this point, the Great Army split. Whilst Halfdan settled his followers in Northumbria, the army under Guthrum (died 890), Oscytel (fl. 875) and Anwend (fl. 875), struck out southwards, and based itself at Cambridge. In 875, the Vikings invaded Wessex and seized Wareham. Although Alfred, King of Wessex (died 899) sued for peace in 876, the Vikings broke the truce the following year, seized Exeter, and were finally forced to withdraw back to Mercia.\n\nAlthough much of Guthrum's army started to settle in Mercia, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and Vita Alfredi reveal that Guthrum launched a surprise attack against the West Saxons in the winter of 877/878. Setting off from their base in Gloucester, the latter source specifies that the Vikings drove deep into Wessex, and sacked the royal vill of Chippenham. It is possible that this operation was coordinated with another Viking attack in Devon that culminated in the Battle of in 878.\n\nBattle of \n\nMost versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle locate the battle to Devon. Vita Alfredi specifies that it was fought at a fortress called , a name which appears to equate to what is today Countisbury, in North Devon. This source also states that the Vikings made landfall in Devon from a base in Dyfed, where they had previously overwintered. As such, the Viking army could have arrived in Dyfed from Ireland, and overwintered in Wales before striking forth into Devon.\n\nThe Anglo-Saxon Chronicle does not identify the army's commander by name. It merely describes him as a brother of Ivar and Halfdan, and observes that he was slain in the encounter. Although Ubba is identified as the slain commander by the 12th-century Estoire des Engleis, it is unknown whether this identification is merely an inference by its author, or if it is derived from an earlier source. For example, this identification could have been influenced by the earlier association of Ubba and Ivar in the legends surrounding Edmund's martyrdom. In any case, Estoire des Engleis further specifies that Ubba was slain at \"\"\u2014which may refer to Penselwood, near the Somerset\u2013Wiltshire border\u2014and buried in Devon within a mound called \"\".\n\nThe clash at culminated in a West Saxon victory. Whilst Vita Alfredi attributes the outcome to unnamed thegns of Alfred, Chronicon \u00c6thelweardi identifies the victorious commander as Odda, Ealdorman of Devon (fl. 878). Most versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle number the Viking fleet at twenty-three ships, and most versions number the Viking casualties at eight hundred and forty dead. These numbers roughly give about thirty-six-and-a-half men per ship, which is comparable to the", "\u043c\u0430\u043c \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0438\u044f\u043c \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0438\u043d\u044b.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0448\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0436 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0438 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u00ab\u043a\u043e\u043d\u044c\u043a\u043e\u043c\u00bb \u044f\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0430. \u042d\u0442\u043e \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430, \u043f\u043e \u043c\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0440\u044f\u0434\u0430 \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0448\u0430\u0433\u043d\u0443\u0442\u044c \u0438\u0437 \u0438\u0437\u043e\u043b\u044f\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0444\u0435\u043e\u0434\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0430 \u0432 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e. \u041d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440, \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 Sony \u0431\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0442 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e \u043e\u0442 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0433\u0440\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u0434\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0437\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f [55].\n\n\u041f\u043e \u043c\u0435\u0440\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0439 \u0443\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u0441 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0448\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0436\u0430 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0435 \u044f\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u043a\u043e \u0441\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0437\u0430 \u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442 \u0443\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0438. \u042d\u0442\u0430 \u0442\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u043e\u0442\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043e\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0448\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0436\u0430 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0438 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u043d\u0430\u0431\u043b\u044e\u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044f \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043c \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0435.\n\n\u041a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u0435\u0451 \u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044f\u0448\u043d\u0435\u043c \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0441 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435 1980-\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432. \u0420\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u041a\u0441\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0441 (Xerox), \u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043a\u043d\u0443\u0432\u0448\u0430\u044f\u0441\u044f \u0441 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u0441\u043e \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u044b \u044f\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439. \u042d\u0442\u043e \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0442\u044c, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0443 \u044f\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0446\u044b \u0432\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u044b\u043d\u043e\u043a \u0441 \u0440\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u0438\u0436\u0435 \u0441\u0435\u0431\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u041a\u0441\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0441\u0430. \u041d\u043e \u041a\u0441\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0441, \u0431\u043b\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0440\u044f \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u044f\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0443, \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043b \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0443\u044e \u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0431\u0435\u043d\u0447\u043c\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0433\u043e\u043c, \u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043c \u0430\u0434\u0430\u043f\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043b \u043a \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0443 \u0431\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0441\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u043c\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0451\u043c\u0435. \u0415\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0443 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438. \u0427\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0437 \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u043b\u0435\u0442 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435, \u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043c \u0438 \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043c \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0435. \u042d\u0442\u043e\u0442 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0438 \u0432 \u043e\u0442\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438.\n\n\u0421\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044f\u0448\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e, \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0438 \u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043b\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0443 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0438 \u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043e \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u044b\u0445, \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0438 \u0434\u0430\u0436\u0435 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043c\u0430\u043b\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439. \u0412\u043e\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044f \u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u043e\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043b\u044f\u0445 \u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044f\u0445 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\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u043c\u043a\u0430\u0445 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0433\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u0430\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0441 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0449\u044c\u044e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043c\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0443\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0439, \u0432\u044b\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435 \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u043e\u0439.\n \u041f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0433\u043e\u0434 \u043e\u0442 \u0441\u043b\u0438\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0433\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439. \u041a\u0430\u043a \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u043e, \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0441\u043b\u0438\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0433\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u044b\u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438, \u0435\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u0431\u044b \u043d\u0435 \u0435\u0451 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430, \u043e\u043d\u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0438 \u0431\u044b \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438. \u042d\u0442\u043e \u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u0432\u0430\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0432 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043b\u044f\u0445.\n \u0420\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0443\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043e \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430, \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438, \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0441\u0431\u044b\u0442\u0430.\n \u0412\u044b\u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u00ab\u043a\u0430\u043a \u0432\u044b\u0433\u043b\u044f\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441\u043e \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u044b\u00bb (\u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440 \u0441 \u0442\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0438 \u0437\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u043b\u0438\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u0433\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432).\n \u0412\u044b\u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0443\u0442\u0435\u0447\u043a\u0438 \u0438\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (\u043a\u0430\u043a \u044d\u0442\u043e \u043d\u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e).\n \u0412\u043b\u0438\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0438\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438.\n\n\u042d\u0442\u043e \u043b\u0438\u0448\u044c \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043e\u0447\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432. \u041f\u0440\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0435 \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0431\u044b \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043e\u0449\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043c\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0438\u043c\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u043e \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435\u043c \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0439.\n\n\u0421\u043c. \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \n \u041f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0448\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0436\n \u041a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0430\u0439\u043d\u0430\n \u041d\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f\n \u042d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\n \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u044b \u043e\u0442 \u0431\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0441-\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0438\n \u0421\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0438\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0438\u044f\n \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442-\u0440\u043e\u0437\u044b\u0441\u043a\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n \u041d\u0430 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435\n \u0411.\u0428\u043d\u0430\u0439\u0435\u0440, \u00ab\u0421\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u044b \u0438 \u043b\u043e\u0436\u044c. \u0411\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432 \u0446\u0438\u0444\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043c \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0435\u00bb, \u041f\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440, 2003\n \u0414\u0436. \u0422. \u041a\u0430\u043b\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0441\u043e\u043d, \u00ab\u041c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0446\u0438\u0444\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u00bb, \u041c., \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435, 1965\n \u041c\u0443\u0440\u0442\u0430\u0437\u0438\u043d \u042d. \u0412. \u00ab\u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442\u00bb, \u041c., \u0414\u041c\u041a, 2004\n \u041a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0410. \u0411., \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u0438\u0441\u043a \u0432 \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0435: \u0421\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0443\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c. 3-\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0434\u00bb, \u041f\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440, 2005\n \u041c\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0443\u0441 \u0411\u0440\u0430\u0443\u043d, \u00ab\u041c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u044b \u043f\u043e\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0438\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442\u00bb, \u0417\u0410\u041e \u041d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u043c, 2005\n Alex WebKnacKer, \u00ab\u0425\u0430\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0433 \u0438 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0430\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0433\u00bb, \u00ab\u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u0438\u00bb, 2004\n \u0412.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u042f\u0440\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0438\u043d, \u042f.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0411\u0443\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430, \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u0440\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0430\u00bb, \u041e\u0441\u044c-89\n \u0414\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d \u0410. \u0418., \u00ab\u0411\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0441-\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0430\u00bb, \u041e\u0441\u044c-89, 2006\n \u0414\u0443\u0434\u0438\u0445\u0438\u043d \u0412. \u0412., \u0414\u0443\u0434\u0438\u0445\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u041e. \u0412., \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442\u00bb, \u00ab\u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0410\u0421\u0422\u00bb, 2004\n \u0418\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c \u041d\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u00ab\u0410\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0431\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0441\u0430\u00bb., \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, \u041e\u0441\u044c-89, 2008 . ISBN 978-5-98534-798-2\n \u0418\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c \u041d\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u00ab\u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0431\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0441\u0430\u00bb., \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, \u041e\u0441\u044c-89, 2010 . ISBN 978-5-98534-554-4]\n \u0418\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c \u041d\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 \"\u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0438\" \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430 2013\n \u0420\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d \u0420\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0432, \u0418\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c \u041d\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0430\u00bb., \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, \u041e\u0441\u044c-89, 2007 . ISBN 978-5-98534-674-9\n \u0413\u0435\u043d\u0440\u0438\u0445 \u041b\u0435\u043c\u043a\u0435 \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u0430. \u041d\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u0435\u043c\u044b\u00bb., \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, \u041e\u0441\u044c-89, 2007 . ISBN 978-5-98534-678-7\n \u0413\u0435\u043d\u0440\u0438\u0445 \u041b\u0435\u043c\u043a\u0435 \u00ab\u0421\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u044b \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0438\u00bb., \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, \u041e\u0441\u044c-89, 2006 . ISBN 5-8018-0292-4\n \u0413\u0435\u043d\u0440\u0438\u0445 \u041b\u0435\u043c\u043a\u0435 \u00ab\u041d\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0434\u0436\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438\u00bb., \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, \u0414\u0435\u043b\u043e \u0438 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0438\u0441, 2006 . ISBN 5-8018-0292-4\n \u0413\u0435\u043d\u0440\u0438\u0445 \u041b\u0435\u043c\u043a\u0435 \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u00bb., \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0424\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043e-\u041f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044f, 2011 . ISBN 978-5-902597-16-2\n \u0415\u0432\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u042e\u0449\u0443\u043a \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0430: \u043c\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0433 \u0440\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0439\u00bb., \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0434\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b \u0412\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0430, 2006 . ISBN 5-9626-0027-4\n \u0415\u0432\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u042e\u0449\u0443\u043a \u00ab\u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442-\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0430. \u0420\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043a \u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u044e\u00bb, \u0412\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0430, 2007 . ISBN 5-9626-0290-0\n \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u041a\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d, \u0418\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c \u041d\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u0415\u0432\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u042e\u0449\u0443\u043a \u00ab\u0414\u0435\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0431\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0441\u0435\u00bb, \u042f\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0444, 2009 . ISBN 978-5-91817-002-1\n \u0414\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0410.\u0413., \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u044d \u0414.\u0412., \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0449\u0435\u043f\u0430 \u0412.\u0412., \u041f\u0443\u0442\u044f\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0412.\u0413. \"\u041a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0435\u0442\u044f\u0445\", - \u041a.: \u0418\u041f\u0420\u0418 \u041d\u0410\u041d \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u044b, 2013. ISBN 978-966-2944-96-9\n\n \u041d\u0430 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435\n Larry Kahaner \u00abCompetitive Intelligence\u00bb, Simon & Shuster, 1997\n Margaret Metcalf Carr, \u00abSuper searchers on Competitive Intelligence\u00bb, CyberAge Books, 2003\n Chris Sherman, Gary Price, \u00abThe Invisible Web\u00bb, CyberAge Books, 2001\n Helen P. Burwell, \u00abOnline Competitive Intelligence: increase your profits using cyber-intelligence\u00bb, Facts on Demand Press, 1999\n Randolph Hock, \u00abThe Extreme Searcher\u2019s Guide to Web Search Engines\u00bb, CyberAge Books, 1999\n David Vine, \u00abInternet Business Inyelligence\u00bb, CyberAge Books, 2000, 438c.\n Ben Gilad, \u00abEarly Warning\u00bb, AMACOM, 2004\n Leonard M. Fuld, \u00abCompetitor Intelligence\u00bb, John Willey & Sons, 1985\n Leonard M. Fuld, \u00abThe New Competitor Intelligence\u00bb, John Willey & Sons, 1995\n Benjamin Gilad \u00abBusiness Blindspots\u00bb, Probus Publishing Company, 1994\n Bernard Liautaud with Mark Hammond, \u00abe-B|usiness Intelligence\u00bb, McGraw-Hill, 2001\n Jon Cherry and Chris Gardner, \u00abGetting the Best Intelligence at Trade Shows\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Amy Berger, \u00abHow to Support Your Sales Force with Competitive Intelligence\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Steven M. Shaker and George Kardulias, \u00abScoring at Conferences: The Quarterback Technique for Gathering Intelligence\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Anne Barron, \u00abThree Easy Steps for Gathering Intelligence at Trade Shows.\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Laurence A. Carr, \u00abFront-Line CI: Actionable Intelligence for the Business Infantry\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Conway L. Lackman, Kenneth Saban, and John M. Lanasa, \u00abOrganizing the Competitive Intelligence Function: A Benchmarking Study\u00bb, SCIP online.\n John Cain, \u00abSupporting Field Sales with CI: AT&T\u2019s Intranet\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Mark Chussil, \u00abBusiness War Games\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Ian Gordon, \u00abConducting telephone interviews.\u00bb, SCIP online.\n David Carpe, \u00abDirect pathways to human sources via the Internet\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Bob Stewart, \u00abFinding the needle in a stack of needles\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Andrea Saade, \u00abTen steps to protect privacy online.\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Mark Chussil, \u00abThe seven deadly sins of business war games\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Jeffrey Flint, \u00abSolving the Russian Research Riddle. CI lessons from what\u2019s still an enigma nation.\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Alexander A. Ignatov, \u00abCompetitive Intelligence in Russia\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Arthur Weiss, \u00abCompetitive Strategies\u00a0\u2014 the dog fight!\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Arthur Weiss, \u00abIdentifying risk and opportunities for your company by effective use of SWOT analysis\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Carolina Olivieri, \u00abA European perspective on CI.\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Anne Barron, \u00abThree Easy Steps for Gathering Intelligence at Trade Shows\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Steve Levy, \u00abIntegrating CI into your sales force.\u00bb, SCIP online.\n Ellen Naylor, \u00abCapturing Competitive Intelligence from Your Sales Force\u00bb, SCIP online.\n \u0425.\u0414\u0436. \u0425\u0430\u0440\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0442\u043e\u043d \u0438 \u0414\u0436. \u0421.\u0425\u0430\u0440\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0442\u043e\u043d \u00ab\u0411\u0435\u043d\u0447\u043c\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0433 \u0432 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u043c \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435! 20 \u0448\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0432 \u043a \u0443\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0445\u0443\u00bb, \u041f\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440, 2004\n Steven M. Shaker, Mark P. Gembicki, \u00abThe WarRoom Guide to Competitive Intelligence\u00bb, McGraw-Hill, 1998\n Ben", "itic nickel ore deposits are a class of magmatic iron-nickel-copper-platinum-group element ore deposit in which the physical processes of komatiite volcanology serve to deposit, concentrate and enrich a Fe-Ni-Cu-(PGE) sulfide melt within the lava flow environment of an erupting komatiite volcano.\n\nDefinition\nThe classification of the type of ore environment sets these apart from other magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE ore deposits, which share many of the same genetic (formational) controls.\n\nKambalda-type ore deposits are distinctive in that the deposition of an immiscible Fe-Ni-Cu sulfide melt occurs within a lava flow channel upon the palaeosurface. This is distinct from other magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE deposits, where Fe-Ni-Cu sulfide melt accumulates within a subvolcanic feeder dike, sill, or magma chamber.\n\nGenetic model\nThe genetic model of Kambalda-type Ni-Cu-(PGE) ore deposits is similar that of many other magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE ore deposits:\n\n Metal Source: komatiitic magma, which has been generated by high-degree partial melting of the mantle and which was strongly undersaturated in sulfide in the source (Wendlandt, 1982; see also Mavrogenes and O'Neill, 1999)\n Sulfur Source: S-rich country rocks (sulfidic sediments and volcanic rocks), from which the sulfide is melted by the high-temperature komatiite magma\n Dynamic System: Ni-Cu-Co-PGE are chalcophile and will preferentially partition from the silicate melt into the sulfide melt. The metal tenors (abundances in 100% sulfide) are enhanced by the flushing of voluminous komatiitic melt across the sulfide accumulation.\n Physical Trap: depressions in the footwall rocks, which may represent volcanic topographic irregularities modified by thermomechanical erosion. Sulfides within the komatiite lava flows are denser than the silicate melt and tend to pool within topographic lows, which may be enhanced in the lava channel by proposed thermal erosion of the substrate by the komatiite lava.\n\nRecent research on the S isotopic compositions of komatiitic sulfides (Bekker et al., 2009) indicates that they lack the non-mass dependent isotope fractionation typical of sulfides formed at the surface during the Archaean, as would be expected if much of the sulfur was sourced from the sedimentary substrate, confirming that the S was derived 'upstream' in the system, not from the local country rocks.\n\nVolcanic setting\n\nKomatiite-associated Ni-Cu-PGE deposits can form in a wide range of volcanic environments and overlie a wide range of footwall rocks, including basalts (e.g., Kambalda, Western Australia), andesites (e.g., Alexo, Ontario), dacites (e.g., Bannockburn, Ontario; Silver Swan, Western Australia), rhyolites (e.g., Dee's Flow, Ontario), sulfide facies iron-formations (e.g., Windarra, Western Australia), and sulfidic semi-pelites (e.g., Raglan, Quebec).\n\nMorphology \nThe morphology of Kambalda-type Ni-Cu-PGE deposits is distinctive because the Fe-Ni-Cu sulfides occur along the floor of a komatiite lava flow, concentrated within a zone of highest flow in the lava channel facies (Lesher et al., 1984).\n\nThe lava channel is typically recognised within a komatiite sequence by;\n Thickening of the basal flow of the komatiite sequence\n Increased MgO, Ni, Cu, and concomitant decrease in Zn, Cr, Fe, Ti as compared to 'flanking flows'\n A 'sediment free window' where sediment has been scoured or melted from the basal or footwall contact of the komatiite with the underlying substrate\n A trough morphology, which is recognisable by a reentrant flat and steep-sided embayment in the footwall underlying thickest cumulate piles\n\nThe ore zone typically consists, from the base upwards, of a zone of massive sulfides, matrix/net-textured sulfides, disseminated sulfides, and cloud sulfides.\n\nMassive sulfides are not always present but where present are composed of >90% Fe-Ni-Cu sulfides occasionally with exotic enclaves of olivine, metasedimentary or melted material derived from the footwall to the lava flow. The massive sulfide normally sits upon a footwall of basalt or felsic volcanic rock, into which the massive sulfide may locally intrude, forming veins, interpillow sulfides, and interbreccia sulfides. Semi-massive sulfides are more common and are composed of 75-90% Fe-Ni-Cu sulfides with inclusions of olivine and wall rocks.\n\nNet-textured sulfides (Canada) or matrix sulfides (Australia) are composed of 30-50% sulfide interstitial to olivine (typically serpentinized), which have been interpreted to have formed by static gravitational segregation, dynamic flow segregation, or capillary infiltration. This texture is well preserved in many areas (e.g., Alexo, Ontario; Kambalda, Western Australia; Raglan, New Quebec), but in high-grade metamorphic areas it has been replaced jackstraw texture, composed of bladed to acicular metamorphic olivines, which superficially resembles spinifex textured olivines, within a matrix of Fe-Ni-Cu sulfides.\n\nDisseminated sulfides are the most common ore type and are composed of 5-30% Fe-Ni-Cu sulfides and grade upwards into subeconomic and barren olivine cumulate rocks. Lower grade zones are rarely economic to mine in the majority of komatiites, except when close to surface.\n\nOre localization \n\nType I Contact Ores: Ores along the basal contact are normally localized in footwall embayments, most of which have been deformed by superimposed deformation, but which in less-deformed areas range from broad shallow embayments (e.g., Alexo, Ontario) and shallow re-entrant embayments (e.g., many Kambalda ore bodies) to subcircular depressions (e.g., some Kamblada ore bodies, Raglan, Quebec).\n\nType II Internal Ores: Some deposits also contain or instead contain disseminated, blebby, or net-textured\n\n Interformational sulfides; So-called serp-serp ore which is developed off a thrust pinchout, or via remobilisation of massive sulfide along a shear surface or thrust which drags ore up off the contact into the serpentinitised komatiite. Serp-serp ore may, in some cases, be similar to interspinifex ore, the diagnostic spinifex textures often absent due to thermal erosion or metamorphic overprint, and can only be determined as such by comparison of chemistry of the ultramafics above and below.\n Basalt-basalt pinchout, or pinchout or Bas-bas ore, is developed during deformation by remobilisation of massive sulfide into the footwall via attenuation of the trough and structural re-closing. Bas-bas ore can be found up to 40\u201360 m into the footwall leading from a trough position.\n Interspinifex ore, developed on the upper contact of the basal flow and on the basal contact of a fertile second flow. In some cases, liquid sulfide from the second flow is seen intermingled intimately with spinifex-textured ultramafic flow tops of the basal flow (e.g.; Long-Victor Shoot, Kambalda) and may be present above remnant sediments and intermingled with remnant sediments (e.g.; Hilditch Prospect, Wannaway, Bradley Prospect, Location 1 and likely others).\n Remobilised ore. In rare cases, ore may be remobilised into a bas-bas or serp-serp position geometrically variant to the stratigraphy. Such examples include Waterloo-Amorac, Emily Ann, Wannaway and potentially other small pods of remobilised and structurally complicated sulfides (e.g., Wedgetail, in the Honeymoon Well complex). In most cases, sulfides move less than 100m, although in the case of Emily Ann, over 600m of displacement is known.\n\nMetamorphic overprint\nMetamorphism is nearly ubiquitous within Archaean komatiites. The type locality for Kambalda-type Ni-Cu-PGE deposits has suffered several metamorphic events which have altered the mineralogy, textures and morphology of the komatiite-hosted ore.\n\nSeveral key features of the metamorphic history affect the present-day morphology and mineralogy of the ore environments;\n\nPrograde metamorphism\nPrograde metamorphism to either greenschist facies or amphibolite facies tends to revert igneous olivine to metamorphic olivine, serpentinite or talc carbonated ultramafic schists.\n\nIn the ore environment, the metamorphism tends to remobilise the nickel sulfide which, during peak metamorphism, has the yield strength and behaviour of toothpaste as conceptualised by workers within the field. The massive sulfides tend to move tens to hundreds of meters away from their original depositional position into fold hinges, footwall sediments, faults or become caught up within asymmetric shear zones.\n\nWhile sulfide minerals do not change their mineralogy during metamorphism as silicates do, the yield strength of the nickel sulfide pentlandite, and copper sulfide chalcopyrite is less than that of pyrrhotite and pyrite, resulting in a potential to segregate the sulfides mechanically throughout a shear zone.\n\nRetrograde metamorphism\nUltramafic mineralogy is especially susceptible to retrograde metamorphism, especially when water is present. Few komatiite sequences display even pristine metamorphic assemblages, with most metamorphic olivine replaced by serpentine, anthophyllite, talc or chlorite. Pyroxene tends to retrogress to actinolite-cummingtonite or chlorite. Chromite may hydrothermally alter to stichtite, and pentlandite may retrogress into millerite or heazlewoodite.\n\nSupergene modification \nKambalda style komatiitic nickel mineralisation was initially discovered by gossan searching in ~1965, which discovered the Long, Victor, Otter-Juan and other shoots within the Kambalda Dome. The Redross, Widgie Townsite, Mariners, Wannaway, Dordie North and Miitel nickel gossans were identified generally at or around the time of drilling of the Widgiemoltha area beginning in 1985, and continuing till today.\n\nGossans of nickel mineralisation, especially massive sulfides, are dominated in the arid Yilgarn Craton by boxworks of goethite, hematite, maghemite and ocher clays. Non-sulfide nickel minerals are typically soluble, and preserved rarely at surface as carbonates, although often can be preserved as nickel arsenates (nickeline) within gossans. Within subtropical and Arctic regions, it is unlikely gossans would be preserved or, if they are, would not contain carbonate minerals.\n\nMinerals such as gaspeite, hellyerite, otwayite, widgiemoolthalite and related hydrous nickel carbonates are diagnostic of nickel gossans, but are exceedingly rare. More usually, malachite, azurite, chalcocite and cobalt compounds are more persistent in boxworks and may provide diagnostic information.\n\nNickel mineralisation in the regolith, in the upper saprolite typically exists as goethite, hematite, limonite and is often associated with polydymite and violarite, nickel sulfides which are of supergene association. Within the lower saprolite, violarite is transitional with unaltered pentlandite-pyrite-pyrrhotite ore.\n\nExploration for Kambalda Ni-Cu-PGE ores \nExploration for Kambalda-style nickel ores focuses on identifying prospective elements of komatiite sequences via geochemistry, geophysical prospecting methods and stratigraphic analysis.\n\nGeochemically, the Kambalda Ratio Ni:Cr/Cu:Zn identifies areas of enriched Ni, Cu and depleted Cr and Zn. Cr is associated with fractionated, low-MgO rocks and Zn is a typical sediment contaminant. If the ratio is at around unity or greater than 1, the komatiite flow is considered fertile. Other geochemical trends sought include high MgO contents to identify the area with highest cumulate olivine contents; identifying low-Zn flows; tracking Al content to identify contaminated lavas and, chiefly, identifying anomalously enriched Ni (direct detection). In many areas, economic deposits are identified within a halo of lower grade mineralisation, with a 1% or 2% Ni in hole value contoured.\n\nGeophysically, nickel sulfides are considered effective superconductors in a geologic context. They are explored for using electromagnetic exploration techniques which measure the current and magnetic fields generated in buried and concealed mineralisation. Mapping of regional magnetic response and gravity is also of use in defining the komatiite sequences, though of little use in directly detecting the mineralisation itself.\n\nStratigraphic analysis of an area seeks to identify thickening basal lava flows, trough morphologies, or areas with a known sediment-free window on the basal contact. Likewise, identifying areas where cumulate and channelised flow dominates over apparent flanking thin flow stratigraphy, dominated by multiple thin lava horizons defined by recurrence of A-zone spinifex textured rocks, is effective at regionally vectoring in toward areas with the highest magma throughput. Finally, regionally it is common for komatiite sequences to be drilled in areas of high magnetic anomalism based on the inferred likelihood that increased magnetic response correlates with the thickest cumulate piles.\n\nGeneral morphological phenomena\n\nParallel ore trends \nOne notable phenomena in and around the domes which host the majority of the komatiitic nickel ore deposits in Australia is the high degree of parallelism of the ore shoots, especially at the Kambalda Dome and Widgiemooltha Dome.\n\nOre shoots continue, in essential parallelism, for several kilometres down plunge; furthermore in some ore trends at Widgiemooltha, ore trends and thickened basal flow channels are mirrored by low-tenor and low-grade 'flanking channels'. These flanking channels mimic the sinuous meandering ore shoots. Why extremely hot and superfluid komatiitic lavas and nickel sulfides would deposit themselves in parallel systems can only be described by Horst-Graben type faulting which is commonly seen at rift zones.\n\nSubvolcanic feeder vs. mega-channels \nOne of the major problems in classifying and identifying komatiite-hosted NiS ore deposits as Kambalda type is the structural complication and overprint of metamorphism upon the volcanic morphology and textures of the ore deposit.\n\nThis is especially true of the peridotite and dunite hosted low-grade disseminated Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits such as Perseverance, Mount Keith MKD5, Yakabindie and Honeymoon Well, which occupy peridotite bodies which are at least 300m and up to 1200m thickness (or more).\n\nThe major difficulty in identifying adcumulate peridotite piles in excess of 1\u00a0km as being entirely volcanic is the difficulty in envisaging a komatiitic eruptive event which is prolonged enough to persist long enough to build up via accumulation such a thickness of olivine-only material. It is considered equally plausible that such large dunite-peridotite bodies represent lave channels or sills through which, perhaps, great volumes of lava flowed en route to the surface.\n\nThis is exemplified by the Mount Keith MKD5 orebody, near Leinster, Western Australia, which has recently been reclassified according to a subvolcanic intrusive model. Extremely thick olivine adcumulate piles were interpreted as representing a 'mega' flow channel facies, and it was only upon mining into a low-strain margin of the body at Mount Keith that an intact intrusive-type contact was discovered.\n\nSimilar thick adcumulate bodies of komatiitic affinity which have sheared or faulted-off contacts could also represent intrusive bodies. For example, the Maggie Hays and Emily Ann ore deposits, in the Lake Johnston Greenstone Belt, Western Australia, are highly structurally remobilised (up to 600 m into felsic footwall rocks) but are hosted in folded podiform adcumulate to mesocumulate bodies which lack typical spinifex flow-top facies and exhibit an orthocumulate margin. This may represent a sill or lopolith form of intrusion, not a channelised flow, but structural modification of the contacts precludes a definitive conclusion.\n\nExample ore deposits \nDefinitive Kambalda-type\n Kambalda-St Ives-Tramways district, Western Australia (including Durkin, Otter-Juan, Coronet, Long, Victor, Loreto, Hunt, Fisher, Lunnon, Foster, Lanfranci, and Edwin shoots)\n Carnilya Hill deposit, Western Australia\n Widgiemooltha Dome, Western Australia (including Miitel, Mariners, Redross, and Wannaway deposits)\n Forrestania belt, Western Australia (including Cosmic Boy, Flying Fox, and Liquid Acrobat deposits)\n Silver Swan deposit, Western Australia\n Raglan district, New Quebec (including Cross Lake, Zone 2-3, Katinniq, Zone 5-8, Zone 13-14, West Boundary, Boundary, and Donaldson deposits)\n\nIntrusive equivalents\n Thompson Nickel Belt, Manitoba (including Birchtree, Pipe, and Thompson deposits)\n\nProbable Kambalda-type\n Maggie Hays and Emily Ann, Lake Johnstone Greenstone Belt, Western Australia\n Waterloo Nickel Deposit, Agnew-Wiluna Greenstone Belt, Western Australia\n\nSee also\n Komatiite\n Basalt\n Nickel\n Rock microstructure\n List of rock textures\n List of rock types\n Igneous rocks\n Definition of ultramafic rocks\n Cumulate rocks\n\nReferences\n \n \n \n \n \n Lesher, C.M., and Keays, R.R., 2002, Komatiite-Associated Ni-Cu-(PGE) Deposits: Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Genesis, in L.J. Cabri (Editor), The Geology, Geochemistry, Mineralogy, and Mineral Beneficiation of the Platinum-Group Elements, Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, Special Volume 54, p.\u00a0579-617\n Lesher, C.M., 1989, Komatiite-associated nickel sulfide deposits, Chapter 5 in J.A., Whitney and A.J. Naldrett (Editors), Ore Deposition Associated with Magmas, Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 4, Economic Geology Publishing Company, El Paso, p.\u00a045-101\n \n Lesher, C.M., Arndt, N.T., and Groves, D.I., 1984, Genesis of komatiite-associated nickel sulphide deposits at Kambalda, Western Australia: A distal volcanic model, in Buchanan, D.L., and Jones, M.J. (Editors), Sulphide Deposits in Mafic and Ultramafic Rocks, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London, p.\u00a070-80.\n ", "9). In exchange for decriminalisation, Western Australian conservatives required a higher age of consent and an anti-proselytising provision similar to the United Kingdom's section 28, both since repealed.\n\nQueensland legalised male same-sex activity with effect from 19 January 1991 after the long-standing Nationals government had lost power.\n\nThe Tasmanian Government refused to repeal its sodomy law, which led to the case of Toonen v Australia, in which the United Nations Human Rights Committee ruled that sodomy laws violated the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Tasmania's continued refusal to repeal the offending law led the Keating government to pass the Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Act 1994, which legalised sexual activity between consenting adults throughout Australia and prohibited laws that arbitrarily interfered with the sexual conduct of adults in private.\n\nIn the 1997 case of Croome v Tasmania, Rodney Croome applied to the High Court of Australia to strike down the Tasmanian anti-gay law as inconsistent with federal law; after having failed to have the matter thrown out, the Tasmanian Government decriminalised homosexuality on 1 May 1997, becoming the final Australian jurisdiction to do so.\n\nAge of consent equalisation \n\nThe age of consent laws of all states and territories of Australia apply equally regardless of the gender and sexual orientation of participants. The age of consent in all states, territories and on the federal level is 16, except for Tasmania and South Australia where it is 17. The age of consent was equalised in 2002 by Western Australia and in 2003 by New South Wales and the Northern Territory. The last state to equalise its age of consent was Queensland in 2016, when it brought the age of consent for anal intercourse into line with vaginal intercourse and oral sex from 18 to 16 years of age.\n\nHistorical conviction expungement \nAll Australian jurisdictions have passed legislation that allows men charged or convicted under historical anti-homosexuality laws to apply for expungement, which clears the charge or conviction from their criminal record, and in South Australia, men can apply to have their convictions spent, but not expunged. After expungement, the conviction is treated as having never occurred, with the individual not required to disclose it and the conviction not showing up on a police records check. Without expungement laws, men who had been convicted of historical sodomy offences were at a disadvantage, including being subject to restrictions on travel and in applying for some jobs.\n\nThe dates when these laws took effect were as follows:\n\n South Australia \u2014 22 December 2013;\n New South Wales \u2014 24 November 2014;\n Victoria \u2014 1 September 2015;\n Australian Capital Territory \u2014 7 November 2015; \n Tasmania \u2014 9 April 2018;\n Queensland \u2014 30 June 2018;\n Western Australia \u2014 15 October 2018;\n Northern Territory \u2014 14 November 2018.\n\nRecognition of same-sex relationships \n\nAustralian law allows the recognition of same-sex relationships in a multitude of forms, depending on the couple's wishes. Same-sex couples can marry, enter into a civil union or domestic partnership in most states and territories, or can simply live together in an unregistered de facto relationship. Couples who enter into a civil union or domestic partnership are recognised as being in a de facto relationship for the purpose of federal law. According to the 2016 Census, there were around 46,800 same-sex couples in Australia.\n\nFederal de facto relationship recognition \nFollowing the Australian Human Rights Commission's report Same-Sex: Same Entitlements, and an audit of Commonwealth legislation, in 2009, the federal Rudd government introduced several reforms designed to equalise treatment for same-sex couples and their families. The reforms took the form of two pieces of amending legislation, the Same-Sex Relationships (Equal Treatment in Commonwealth Laws-General Law Reform) Act 2008 and the Same-Sex Relationships (Equal Treatment in Commonwealth Laws-Superannuation) Act 2008. These laws amended 85 other existing federal laws to equalise the treatment of same-sex couples, and any children raised by those couples, in a range of areas including taxation, superannuation, health, social security, aged care and child support, immigration, citizenship and veterans' affairs.\n\nFor instance, in relation to social security and general family law, same-sex couples were not previously recognised as a couple for social security or family assistance purposes. A person who had a same-sex de facto partner was treated as a single person. The reforms ensured that, for the first time under Australian law, same-sex couples were recognised as a couple akin to opposite-sex partners. Consequently, a same-sex couple receives the same rate of social security and family assistance payments as a mixed-sex couple. Generally speaking, a couple in a de facto relationship is treated equally to a married couple in legal proceedings, with a few small differences in family law disputes, including property settlements and entitlements to spousal maintenance. A partner in a de facto relationship may also be required to prove the existence of a relationship before a court in order to access benefits, a process which is automatic for married couples and consequently had a discriminatory impact on same-sex couples before they were able to marry in Australia.\n\nDe facto relationships also have different time eligibility requirements than marriages under laws relating to Centrelink, migration, family law matters and assisted reproduction. The higher burden of proof for de facto relationships relative to marriages can impact on a person's ability to arrange their partner's funeral, and the rights of a de facto partner may be poorly understood by government departments.\n\nFrom 1 July 2009, amendments to the Social Security Act 1991 meant that customers in a same-sex de facto relationship are recognised as partners for Centrelink and Family Assistance Office purposes. All customers who are assessed as being a member of a couple have their rate of payment calculated in the same way.\n\nInheritance and property rights \nBefore same-sex marriage provided the automatic legal protections that married couples received under the law with regard to inheriting assets from their partners, same-sex couples had to take specific legal actions. Individuals were not entitled to a partial pension after their same-sex partner's death. Same-sex and de facto couples who separated also did not have the same property rights as married couples under federal law and were required to use more expensive state courts, rather than the Family Court, to resolve disputes. The plan to grant equivalent rights to gays and de factos had been up for discussion since 2002, and all states eventually agreed, but the change was blocked because the Howard government insisted on excluding same-sex couples.\n\nIn June 2008, the Rudd government introduced the Family Law Amendment (De Facto Financial Matters and Other Measures) Act 2008 to allow same-sex and de facto couples access to the federal Family Court on property and maintenance matters, rather than the state Supreme Court. This reform was not part of the 100 equality measures promised by the Government but stemmed from the 2002 agreement between the states and territories that the previous Howard government did not fulfill. Coalition amendments to the bill failed and it was passed in November 2008.\n\nSame-sex marriage \n\nThe Marriage Act 1961 defines marriage as \"the union of 2 people to the exclusion of all others, voluntarily entered into for life\". The Act was amended in 2004 by the Howard government to recognise only marriages between a man and a woman. Many subsequent attempts to legalise same-sex marriage nationwide failed in the Federal Parliament. The Turnbull government put legislation to the Parliament establishing a plebiscite on same-sex marriage, to be held in February 2017, though this was rejected by the Senate after it failed to attract the support of the opposition Labor Party and minor parties.\n\nSeveral years beforehand, the Australian Capital Territory had passed laws instituting same-sex marriage in the territory. These laws were rejected by the High Court of Australia in December 2013, shortly after they came into effect. The Court held that Section 51 of the Constitution of Australia grants the Federal Parliament the power to legislate with regard to marriage, and the federal definition of marriage overrides any state or territory definition under Section 109. The court did find, however, that \"marriage\" for the purposes of Section 51 includes same-sex marriage, thus clarifying that there is no constitutional impediment to the Federal Parliament legislating for same-sex marriage in the future. Before the legalisation of same-sex marriage in December 2017, same-sex couples who married overseas were prevented from divorcing in Australia.\n\nAfter its plebiscite proposals were twice rejected by the Senate, the Turnbull government instead held a non-binding voluntary postal survey, asking Australians if same-sex couples should be allowed to marry. The survey, held between September and November 2017, did not require parliamentary approval. It returned a 61.6% \"Yes\" response in favour of same-sex marriage. A bill to legalise same-sex marriage was introduced into the Parliament shortly after the results were announced. The bill, titled the Marriage Amendment (Definition and Religious Freedoms) Act 2017, passed the Senate by 43 votes to 12 on 29 November 2017, and passed the House of Representatives on 7 December 2017. The bill received royal assent on 8 December 2017 and went into effect the following day. Same-sex marriages lawfully entered into overseas automatically became recognised and the first marriages under the amended law were to occur on 9 January 2018. However, several couples successfully applied for an exemption from the normal one-month waiting period, and the first legal same-sex wedding under Australian law was held on 15 December 2017, with further weddings occurring the following day.\n\nState and territory recognition \nAside from Western Australia and the Northern Territory, all other states and territories in Australia have their own state-based civil union or domestic partnership laws. Cohabiting same-sex couples are otherwise recognised as de facto couples for the purposes of state or territory law.\n\nSame-sex couples may enter into civil partnerships in the Australian Capital Territory and Queensland. Both unions allow couples to have state-sanctioned ceremonies and both laws are commonly referred to as civil unions. In New South Wales, Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia, same-sex couples can enter into domestic registered partnerships/relationships. These provide conclusive proof of the existence of the relationship, thereby gaining the same rights afforded to de facto couples under state and federal law without having to prove any further factual evidence of the relationship. In this way, a registered relationship is similar to a registered partnership or civil union in other parts of the world. Victoria and Tasmania's domestic partnership laws also allow any couple the option of having an official ceremony when registering their relationship. South Australia's law allowing registered relationships and recognised overseas and interstate same-sex unions went into effect on 1 August 2017. In Western Australia and the Northern Territory, same-sex couples must often seek judicial approval to prove a de facto relationship exists. Norfolk Island, from 1 July 2016, has been incorporated into NSW legislation, under both the Norfolk Island Legislation Amendment Act 2015 and the Territories Legislation Amendment Act 2016.\n\nPrior to the federal legalisation of same-sex marriage, six Australian jurisdictions (Tasmania, Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and South Australia), comprising 90% of Australia's population, recognised same-sex marriages and civil partnerships performed overseas, providing automatic recognition of such unions in their respective state registers.\n\nAdoption and parenting \n\nStates and territories make laws with respect to adoption and child-rearing. Since April 2018, same-sex couples can adopt children in all jurisdictions in Australia. The 2011 Australian census counted 6,300 children living in same-sex couple families, up from 3,400 in 2001, make up one in a thousand of all children in couple families (0.1%). Altruistic surrogacy is legal in all Australian jurisdictions \u2013 except Western Australia (where it is legal for heterosexual couples but illegal for singles and same-sex couples). Commercial surrogacy is banned nationwide. The Northern Territory has no laws on surrogacy at all. In recent years, a dramatic increase in the use of overseas surrogacy programs has occurred amongst both same-sex and opposite-sex couples, creating some unique legal concerns with respect to citizenship and parenting rights. It is believed that only 1 in 20 surrogacy arrangements occur in Australia, with almost all involving foreign surrogates mainly from Southeast Asia and the United States. Assisted reproductive technology/treatment (ART) is accessible to same-sex couples in all states and territories, with South Australia being the final jurisdiction to pass such a law, in March 2017. Female same-sex partners of mothers are usually considered the automatic co-parent of the child(ren) born as a result of assisted reproduction.\n\nDiscrimination protections\n\nFederal law protections\nPrior to 1 August 2013, Australia did not comprehensively outlaw discrimination based on sexual orientation at the federal level. However, in response to Australia's agreement to implement the principle of non-discrimination in employment and occupation pursuant to the International Labour Organisation Convention No.111 (ILO 111), the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Act 1986 established the HREOC, and empowers it to investigate complaints of discrimination in employment and occupation on various grounds, including sexual orientation, and to resolve such complaints by conciliation. If it cannot be conciliated, the Commission prepares a report to the federal Attorney-General who then tables the report in Parliament. Employment discrimination on the ground of \"sexual orientation\" is also rendered unlawful in the Fair Work Act 2009, allowing complaints to be made to the Fair Work Ombudsman.\n\nThe Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Act 1994 provided that sexual conduct involving only consenting adults (18 years or over) acting in private would not be subject to arbitrary interference by law enforcement. This applies to any law of the Commonwealth, State or Territory.\n\nIn late 2010, the Gillard Labor government announced a review of federal anti-discrimination laws, with the aim of introducing a single equality law that would also cover sexual orientation and gender identity. This approach was abandoned and instead on 25 June 2013, the Federal Parliament added marital or relationship status, sexual orientation, gender identity and intersex status as protected attributes to the existing Sex Discrimination Act 1984 by passing the Sex Discrimination Amendment (Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Intersex Status) Act 2013.\n\nFrom 1 August 2013, discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex people became illegal for the first time under national law. Aged care providers who are owned by religious groups will no longer be able to exclude people from aged care services based on their LGBTI or same-sex relationship status. However, religious owned private schools and religious owned hospitals are exempt from gender identity and sexual orientation provisions in the Sex Discrimination Amendment (Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Intersex Status) Act 2013. No religious exemptions exist on the basis of intersex status.\n\nReligious exemptions \nIn introducing federal discrimination protections for LGBTI people, the Gillard government promised that religious bodies would be exempt, unless they were aged care providers receiving Commonwealth funding. The main exemptions are in sections 37 and 38 of the Sex Discrimination Act 1984, which include the ability for religious educational institutions to discriminate against LGBT students and teachers \"in good faith in order to avoid injury to the religious susceptibilities of adherents of that religion\". In 2017, Perth teacher Craig Campbell was dismissed from a Baptist school after he revealed his sexuality on social media. The Greens promised to repeal religious exemptions to LGBT anti-discrimination protections before the 2016 election, while in January 2018 the Labor Party announced it had no plans to act upon the issue. In the wake of the same-sex marriage debate, the Turnbull government commissioned a review of religious freedoms chaired by Phillip Ruddock, after conservative Coalition politicians called for increased religious freedoms to discriminate against LGBT people. The need to protect religious freedom was emphasised by Scott Morrison after he replaced Malcolm Turnbull as Prime Minister.\n\nIn October 2018, various portions of the Ruddock Review report were leaked, which included recommendations to clarify how religious schools could discriminate against LGBT teachers and students. This led to media backlash and polling showed that legal religious discrimination against gay students and teachers was opposed by most Australians, with majorities from every party's voters opposed. The Greens moved to repeal the religious school exemptions altogether, with Labor offering to work with the Coalition to repeal the student discrimination exemptions. After initially defending the status quo, Morrison stated the Coalition would remove the exemption allowing LGBT children to be discriminated against. Labor subsequently offered to repeal the exemptions allowing LGBT teachers' dismissal as well, which gained supported from Liberals Treasurer Josh Frydenberg and Wentworth by-election candidate Dave Sharma, but split the broader Liberal Party. Despite a promise to move rapidly on the issue, the Government and Opposition disagreed on the amendments to be made, blaming each other for the impasse. In 2019, the Morrison government referred the issue to the Australian Law Reform Commission. The Morrison government shifted its focus to introducing a Religious Discrimination Act, with its proposals criticised by Equality Australia and Ian Thorpe as providing a \"licence to discriminate\" against LGBT people and others in the name of religion, though the legislation failed to pass the parliament and the government was defeated at the 2022 election.\n\nFollowing the Labor Party's victory at the 2022 election, the Albanese Government tasked the Australian Law Reform Commission with investiging the topic of religious exemptions in federal law. In January 2023 the commission released a consultation paper, recommending the law be amended to explicitly outlaw discrimination against both students and teachers on the grounds of sexual orientation, gender identity, marital status, and other traits. The commission also recommended allowing religious schools to maintain their religious character by being permitted to give preference to prospective staff on religious grounds where the teaching, observance, or practice of religion is a part of their role (and it is not discriminatory on other grounds); and\nrequire all staff to respect the educational institution's religious ethos.\n\nState and territory law protections\nEach of the states and territories introduced their own anti-discrimination laws to protect LGBTI people from discrimination before the Commonwealth did so in 2013. The first anti-discrimination protections were enacted in New South Wales by the Wran Government in 1982, two years before the decriminalisation of homosexuality in that state. All have religious exemptions, although discrimination by religious schools against LGBT students is not permitted in Queensland, the Northern Territory or Tasmania. South Australia requires a religious school discriminating against LGBT students to set out its position in a written policy. 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\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0448\u0451\u043b \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0434\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u041d. \u0413\u0443\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0451\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u0447\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u043d\u0435 \u0443\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0448\u044c\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u041b\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u044b \u041c\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0435\u0440)\n \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043a \u0438 \u0442\u0443\u043c\u0430\u043d\u044b\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0437\u044c\u044f\u043c (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u042e. \u041a\u0443\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0446\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u0432\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043a \u043f\u043e\u0437\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0431\u0443\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u041c. \u0426\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0439)\n \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043b\u0443\u0448\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u0430\u043c\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0412. \u0422\u0443\u0448\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439)\n \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u044f\u0434\u0443 \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u0440\u044b\u043b\u044c\u0446\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434 \u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0435\u0439\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0412. \u041f\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0430) \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0439, \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0430\u0431\u0443\u0434\u044c \u0438 \u043d\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0443\u0434\u044c\"\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0418. \u0411\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e)\n \u00ab\u0420\u0430\u0437\u043c\u044b\u0442\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u044c \u0438 \u0432\u0434\u043e\u043b\u044c \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044f\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u043f\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0430\u043c \u041d.\u0420\u0443\u0431\u0446\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0420\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0430\u0445\u043d\u0443\u0442\u044b \u0441\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044b, \u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0430 \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0430\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u0425\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u043a\u0430 \u041c\u0435\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u044b (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0422. \u0421\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0448\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0439)\n \u00ab\u0421 \u0431\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0443\u043b\u0438\u0446\u044b\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0412. \u0425\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0441\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0421 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0432\u0441\u0451 \u0431\u0435\u0437\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0435\u0439\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0412. \u0428\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0421 \u0442\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0442\u0438 \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0447\u044c\u0435\u0439\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0412. \u0428\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0421\u0435\u0432\u0438\u043b\u044c\u044f \u0441\u0435\u0440\u044c\u0433\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442, \u0441\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442 \u0441\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043d\u044c\u044e\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0438\u043b\u044c\u044f (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0415. \u0415\u0432\u0442\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e)\n \u00ab\u0421\u0435\u043c\u044c \u043b\u0435\u0442 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0434 \u044f \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u043b \u0438\u0437 \u0442\u044e\u0440\u044c\u043c\u044b\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u043d\u044b (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0410. \u0416\u0438\u0433\u0443\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0421\u043a\u0432\u043e\u0437\u044c \u0434\u0438\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442 \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0444\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0412. \u0425\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0441\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0421\u043a\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0438\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0451\u043b\u043e\u043a \u0434\u0430\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0448\u0438\u0432\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0431\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u043e\u0441\u0451\u043b\u043e\u043a \u0434\u0430\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u041b. \u0414\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0421\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0439\u0442\u0435, \u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0449\u0438, \u043a\u043b\u044e\u043a\u0432\u0443\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u043b\u044e\u043a\u0432\u0430 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0414. \u0421\u0443\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0421\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0438, \u0443\u0435\u0437\u0436\u0430\u044f: \u201e\u041a\u0443\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0439\u0434\u0451\u0448\u044c?\u201c\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u041d. \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0451\u0432\u043e\u0439)\n \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0433\u0430 \u0432 \u0410\u0434\u0434\u0438\u0441-\u0410\u0431\u0435\u0431\u0435\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u043e\u0438 \u0447\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u041d. \u0413\u0443\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0451\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0451\u0434, \u0445\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0438\u0432\u043e\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0451\u0434 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u041c. \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0430\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439)\n \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u043e\u043b\u044f\u0440 \u0433\u0443\u043b\u044f\u043b \u0432 \u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043c \u043b\u0435\u0441\u0443\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0430 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0420. \u0421\u0435\u0444\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u043e\u044e, \u0441\u0442\u043e\u044e, \u0440\u043e\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0440\u0443\u043a\u0438\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u0440\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u043d\u044b (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0412. \u041f\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0443\u043a\u043d\u0443\u043b \u043f\u043e \u043a\u0430\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0443\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0435 \u0437\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0442\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u042d\u043b\u0435\u0433\u0438\u044f (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u041d. \u0420\u0443\u0431\u0446\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0421\u044b\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0442\u044f\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0433\u0430, \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0435\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u0430\u0439\u0433\u0430 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0418. \u0416\u0434\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0422\u0435\u0431\u0435, \u043c\u043e\u044f \u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c, \u043d\u0435 \u0411\u043e\u0433\u0443, \u043d\u0435 \u0437\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044e\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0411. \u0427\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0431\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0422\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043f\u0430\u0442\u0438\u044f, \u0443\u0445, \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043f\u0430\u0442\u0438\u044f\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043f\u0430\u0442\u0438\u044f (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u041e. \u0422\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0422\u0438\u0445\u043e \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0430\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u041d\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438 \u0410\u043a\u0441\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0440\u0443\u0434)\n \u00ab\u0422\u0438\u0445\u043e\u043d\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0434\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043b\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u0430\u0434 \u0437\u0430\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0430\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043a\n \u00ab\u0422\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0440\u043e, \u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0447\u0438\u043a, \u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u043a\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0440\u043e (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0415.\u0415\u0432\u0442\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e)\n \u00ab\u0422\u0440\u0451\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0440\u0435 \u0445\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0442\u043e\u043c \u043e \u0434\u043d\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043b\u044f\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043b\u044c (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0410. \u041a\u043d\u0438\u043f\u0435\u0440-\u0422\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440\u0451\u0432\u043e\u0439)\n \u00ab\u0422\u044b \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0442\u0438 \u043d\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0448\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb\u2026\n \u00ab\u0423 \u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u044b \u043f\u044f\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e \u043f\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0446\u043e\u0432\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0420. \u0421\u0435\u0444\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0423\u0435\u0434\u0443, \u0443\u0435\u0434\u0443, \u0443\u0435\u0434\u0443\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u042e. \u041c\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0446)\n \u00ab\u0423\u0441\u044b\u043f\u0438\u043b \u043d\u0430\u0441 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0433\u043e\u043d\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u041e\u0442\u0446\u0435\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0430\u0433\u043e\u043d (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u042e. \u041a\u0443\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0446\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0425\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0414\u0438\u043c\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u043c \u043a\u0443\u043f\u0438\u043b \u043c\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0443\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0440\u043e \u0425\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0414\u0438\u043c\u0443\n \u00ab\u0427\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u043d\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u043f\u0438\u0434\u0436\u0430\u043a\u0430\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0451\u0440 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u041b. \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u044b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0427\u0451\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d, \u0431\u0435\u043b\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043d\u0435\u0433\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0410. \u0416\u0438\u0433\u0443\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0427\u0442\u043e \u0436\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0431\u044b\u0442\u044c \u0447\u0443\u0434\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0435\u0439\u00bb\u2026\n \u00ab\u0428\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0431\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0420. \u0421\u0435\u0444\u0430)\n \u00ab\u042d\u0439, \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a, \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043c\u044f\u00bb\u2026\n \u00ab\u042d\u0442\u043e \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0435, \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u043d\u0438\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u043d\u0438 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u041d. \u0417\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u042d\u0445, \u0432\u044b, \u0441\u0430\u043d\u0438! \u0410 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0438, \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0438\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0421. \u0415\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430)\n \u00ab\u042f\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u043e\u0448\u0430\u0434\u044c \u043f\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0440\u0430, \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0446\u0435 \u044f \u0432\u043f\u043e\u0442\u044c\u043c\u0430\u0445\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u043e\u0448\u0430\u0434\u044c \u043f\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0440\u0430 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0415. \u0415\u0432\u0442\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e)\n \u00ab\u042f\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0434\u0435\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0431\u0430\u0448\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0435\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0418.\u0411\u0443\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430)\n \u00ab\u042f \u0431\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d, \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a \u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0433\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0412. \u0428\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u042f \u0431\u044b\u043a. \u0425\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0431\u044b \u0432\u044b, \u0447\u0442\u043e\u0431\u044b \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u044f \u0433\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0437 \u0448\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438 \u0437\u043b\u043e\u0431\u044b?\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u0411\u044b\u043a (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0415. \u0415\u0432\u0442\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e)\n \u00ab\u042f \u0432 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0438 \u043c\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0439\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0414. \u0421\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0439\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u042f \u0435\u0434\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u043e\u044e \u0434\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044c\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u044c (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0410. \u041a\u043d\u0438\u043f\u0435\u0440-\u0422\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440\u0451\u0432\u043e\u0439)\n \u00ab\u042f \u043a \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0434\u0435 \u0448\u0451\u043b \u0432 \u0433\u043b\u0443\u0431\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043c\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0435\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u0417\u043d\u0430\u043a \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0434\u044b (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u041d. \u041c\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430). \u0418\u0437 \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0413\u044e\u0433\u043e\n \u00ab\u042f, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u041d\u043e\u0439, \u043d\u0430\u0434 \u043c\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u044e \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u044e\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0412. \u0428\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u042f \u043b\u0435\u0436\u0443 \u0441\u0435\u0431\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0433\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0430 \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0431\u0438\u0449\u0435 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u041a. \u0421\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e)\n \u00ab\u042f \u043c\u0435\u0447\u0442\u043e\u044e \u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043b \u0443\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u041a. \u0411\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430)\n \u00ab\u042f \u043d\u0430 \u044f\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0435, \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043b\u0451\u043d\u0435\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0418. \u0421\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e)\n \u00ab\u042f \u043d\u0430\u0436\u0438\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e \u043c\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u044e\u0447\u043e\u043a\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u0420\u044b\u0431\u0430\u043a (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0412. \u0425\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0441\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447\u0430)\n \u00ab\u042f \u043d\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u0438, \u043d\u0435 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0443\u0437\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0412. \u041a\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0430)\n \u00ab\u042f \u043f\u0438\u043b \u0438\u0437 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043f\u0430 \u043e\u0442\u0446\u0430\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u042e. \u041a\u0443\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0446\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u042f \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044f\u043b \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0430\u043d \u0437\u0430 \u0433\u043b\u0443\u0445\u0443\u044e \u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0443\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u0417\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u0447\u043a\u0443 \u0410\u044f\u043d-\u0423\u0440\u044f\u0445 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0412. \u0428\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n \u00ab\u042f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u0440\u0435\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0439 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0410. \u0416\u0438\u0433\u0443\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430)\n \u00ab\u042f \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430, \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430, \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430 (\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0415. \u0415\u0432\u0442\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e)\n \u00ab\u042f \u0443\u043c\u0440\u0443, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0438\u043d\u044b\u0435, \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0430\u0442 \u0432 \u0433\u0440\u043e\u0431\u00bb\u2026\u00a0\u2014 \u042d\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f (\u043f\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0430\u043c \u041e. \u0422\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430)\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \n\u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0414\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0432 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0433\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430 \u0438 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 80 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442.\n\n\u0421\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043e\u043a \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u0410.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u0414\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\n Dulova, N.; Trapido, M.; Dulov, A. Catalytic degradation of picric acid by heterogeneous Fenton-based processes. Environmental Technology (2011), 32(3-4), 439\u2014446.\n Dulov, A. A.; Koksharov, Yu. A.; Abramova, L. A.; Sherle, A. I. Electric and magnetic characteristics of metal-free polymers containing azaporphine macrocycles. Vysokomolekulyarnye Soedineniya, Ser. A i Ser. B (2008), 50(8), 1506\u20141514.\n Dulov, A. A.; Abramova, L. A.; Shcherbakova, I. M.; Sherle, A. I. Correlation of electric conductivity with the conjugation length and intermolecular barriers in polyazaporphine compounds: metal-containing complexes. Vysokomolekulyarnye Soedineniya, Ser. A i Ser. B (2006), 48(4), 624\u2014631.\n Dulov, A. A.; Abramova, L. A.; Promyslova, V. V.; Sherle, A. I. Correlation of electric conductivity with the conjugation length and intermolecular barriers in polyazaporphine compounds: metal-free oligo- and polyphthalocyanines. Vysokomolekulyarnye Soedineniya, Ser. A i Ser. B (2005), 47(10), 1822\u20141831.\n Abramova, L. A.; Baranov, S. P.; Dulov, A. A. Modeling of surface CO oxidation using modified adsorption rules. Kinetics and Catalysis (Transl. of Kinetika i Kataliz) (2005), 46(1), 96-99.\n Abramova, L. A.; Baranov, S. P.; Dulov, A. A. A Model for the CO Oxidation Reaction over a Catalyst Surface with Microscopic Nonuniformities. Kinetics and Catalysis (Transl. of Kinetika i Kataliz) (2003), 44(6), 862\u2014864.\n Abramova, L. A.; Baranov, S. P.; Dulov, A. A.; Vargaftic, M. N.; Moiseev, I. I. Giant clusters Pd561: charge distribution in the metal core and catalytic properties. Dokl. Akad. Nauk (2001), 377(3), 344\u2014347.\n Dulov, A. A.; Abramova, L. A.; Morozova, O. S.; Zharov, A. A.; Fedorovskaya, E. A.; Slinkin, A. A. Transformation of nickel oxide crystals as a result of shear deformation under high pressure as a function of the history of the material. Khimiya v Interesakh Ustoichivogo Razvitiya (1998), 6(2-3), 175\u2014177.\n Abramova, L. A.; Baranov, S. P.; Dulov, A. A. Lattice Monte Carlo simulations of the activity of supported liquid-phase catalysts. Part II. Nonuniform liquid distributions. Applied Catalysis, A: General (2000), 193(1,2), 251\u2014256.\n Abramova, L. A.; Baranov, S. P.; Dulov, A. A. Lattice Monte Carlo simulations of the activity of supported liquid-phase catalysts. Part I. Uniform liquid distributions. Applied Catalysis, A: General (2000), 193(1,2), 243\u2014250.\n Abramova, L. A.; Dulov, A. A.; Baranov, S. P. Dielectric constant and dielectric anomaly as a tool probing the phase-structure state of a material. J. Phys. Chem. Solids (1997), 58(3), 441\u2014447.\n Abramova, L. A.; Baranov, S. P.; Dulov, A. A. Theoretical description of pores in modeling composite materials. Izv. Akad Nauk, Ser. Khim. (1996), (6), 1349\u20141353.\n Dulov, A. A.; Abramova, L. A.; Baranov, S. P. Phase analysis of the surface of catalysts and other dispersed materials using electric conductivity: TVE-curve method. Izv. Akad. Nauk, Ser. Khim. (1996), (2), 271\u2014297.\n Abramova, L. A.; Baranov, S. P.; Dulov, A. A. Computer simulation analysis of conductivity of supported polydisperse systems. Izv. Akad Nauk, Ser. Khim. (1995), (8), 1449-53.\n Abramova, L. A.; Baranov, S. P.; Dulov, A. A. Probing the catalyst structure by electroconductivity using computer simulation analysis. Mendeleev Communications (1995), (4), 150-1.\n Dulov, A. A.; Abramova, L. A.; Sherle, A. I.; Epshtejn, V. R. Material for elements of electric switches. U.S.S.R. (1993), SU 1559992 A1 19931130 CAN 123:46208\n Dulov, A. A.; Stasenko, E. M.; Abramova, L. A.; Akhverdiev, R. B.; Ashavskaya, G. A.; Golosman, E. Z.; Yakerson, V. I. The surface state of copper-nickel cement catalysts in the process of heavy residue cracking. Kinetics and Catalysis (Translation of Kinetika i Kataliz) (1995), 36(2), 260-3.\n Abramova, L. A.; Baranov, S. P.; Dulov, A. A. Analysis of electroconductivity of binary solid-state catalysts via computer simulation. Izv. Akad Nauk, Ser. Khim. (1993), (11), 1874-7.\n Abramova, L. A.; Baranov, S. P.; Dulov, A. A. Computer models for electroconductivity of multicomponent solid-phase systems. Izv. Akad. Nauk, Ser. Khim. (1993), (11), 1868-73.\n Dulov, A. A.; Abramova, L. A.; Stasenko, E. M.; Efremov, V. N.; Tesakova, G. M.; Golosman, E. Z.; Yakerson, V. I. Surface solid-state interactions in copper-nickel-cement catalysts of oxygen hydrogenation. Izv. Akad Nauk, Ser. Khim. (1994), (9), 1559-62.\n Abramova, L. A.; Dulov, A. A.; Baranov, S. P. Computer simulations aimed at the analysis of the state and the evolution of multicomponent systems-II. Binary mechanical mixtures analyzed with conductivity. J. Phys, Chem. Solids (1994), 55(4), 373-6.\n Abramova, L. A.; Dulov, A. A.; Baranov, S. P. Computer simulations aimed at the analysis of the state and the evolution of multicomponent systems-I. Electroconductivity models for system monitoring. J. Phys. Chem. Solids (1994), 55(4), 367-72.\n Dulov, A. A.; Stasenko, E. M.; Abramova, L. A.; Karamanenko, S. V.; Mamaeva, I. A.; Golosman, E. Z.; Yakerson, V. I. Relations between activity and surface composition of the catalysts nickel oxide-cupric oxide-cement in hydrogenation of oxygen. Kinetika i Kataliz (1992), 33(5-6), 1183-9.\n Dulov, A. A.; Kuznetsov, B. N.; Stasenko, E. M.; Yakerson, V. I. Surface state of active and inactive cement-supported nickel catalysts. Kinetika i Kataliz (1993), 34(2), 362-4.\n Dulov, A. A.; Stasenko, E. M.; Efremov, V. N.; Tesakova, G. M.; Abramova, L. A.; Golosman, E. Z.; Yakerson, V. I. Reproducibility of phase composition of the surface in standard synthesis of cement-containing nickel-copper oxide catalysts. Kinetika i Kataliz", " international commitments; and the second, the treaties are for an unlimited period, with no provision for withdrawal and calling for an \"ever closer union\" \u2013 such commitment to unification is incompatible with a unilateral withdrawal. The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties states where a party wants to withdraw unilaterally from a treaty that is silent on secession, there are only two cases where withdrawal is allowed: where all parties recognise an informal right to do so and where the situation has changed so drastically, that the obligations of a signatory have been radically transformed.\n\nProcedure \n\nArticle 50 of the Treaty on European Union, enacted by the Treaty of Lisbon on 1 December 2009, introduced for the first time a procedure for a member state to withdraw voluntarily from the EU. The article states that:\n\nThis provision does not cover certain overseas territories which under TFEU Article 355 do not require a full treaty revision.\n\nInvocation \nThus, once a member state has notified the European Council of its intention to leave, a period begins during which a withdrawal agreement is negotiated, setting out the arrangements for the withdrawal and outlining the country's future relationship with the Union. Commencing the process is up to the member state that intends to leave.\n\nThe article allows for a negotiated withdrawal, due to the complexities of leaving the EU. However, it does include in it a strong implication of a unilateral right to withdraw. This is through the fact that a state would decide to withdraw \"in accordance with its own constitutional requirements\" and that the end of the treaties' application in a member state that intends to withdraw is not dependent on any agreement being reached (it would occur after two years regardless).\n\nNegotiation \nThe treaties cease to apply to the member state concerned on the entry into force of the withdrawal agreement or, in the absence of such an agreement, two years after the member state notified the European Council of its intention to leave, although this period can be extended by unanimous agreement of the European Council.\n\nThe leaving agreement is negotiated on behalf of the EU by the European Commission on the basis of a mandate given by the remaining Member States, meeting in the Council of the European Union. It must set out the arrangements for withdrawal, taking account of the framework for the member state's future relationship with the EU, though without itself settling that framework. The agreement is to be approved on the EU side by the Council of the EU, acting by qualified majority, after obtaining the consent of the European Parliament. For the agreement to pass the Council of the EU it needs to be approved by at least 72 percent of the continuing member states representing at least 65 percent of their population.\n\nThe agreement is concluded on behalf of the Union by the council and must set out the arrangements for withdrawal, including a framework for the State's future relationship with the Union, negotiated in accordance with Article 218(3) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. The agreement is to be approved by the council, acting by qualified majority, after obtaining the consent of the European Parliament. Should a former Member State seek to rejoin the European Union, it would be subject to the same conditions as any other applicant country.\n\nRemaining members of the EU would need to manage consequential changes over the EU's budgets, voting allocations and policies brought about by the withdrawal of any member state.\n\nFailure of negotiations \nThis system provides for a negotiated withdrawal, rather than an abrupt exit from the Union. This preference for a negotiated withdrawal is based on the expected complexities of leaving the EU (including concerning the euro) when so much European law is codified in member states' laws. However, the process of Article 50 also includes a strong implication of unilateral right to withdraw. This is through the fact the state would decide \"in accordance with its own constitutional requirements\" and that the end of the treaties' application in said state is not dependent on any agreement being reached (it would occur after two years regardless). In other words, the European Union can not block a member state from leaving.\n\nIf negotiations do not result in a ratified agreement, the seceding country leaves without an agreement, and the EU Treaties shall cease to apply to the seceding country, without any substitute or transitional arrangements being put in place. As regards trade, the parties would likely follow World Trade Organization rules on tariffs.\n\nRe-entry or unilateral revocation \nArticle 50 does not spell out whether Member States can rescind their notification of their intention to withdraw during the negotiation period while their country is still a Member of the European Union. However, the President of the European Council said to the European Parliament on 24 October 2017 that \u201cdeal, no deal or no Brexit\u201d is up to Britain. Indeed, the prevailing legal opinion among EU law experts and the EU institutions themselves is that a member state intending to leave may change its mind, as an \u201cintention\u201d is not yet a deed and intentions can change before the deed is done. Until the Scottish Government did so in late 2018, the issue had been untested in court. On 10 December 2018, the European Court of Justice ruled that it would be \u201cinconsistent with the EU treaties\u2019 purpose of creating an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe to force the withdrawal of a member state\u201d against its wishes, and that consequently an Article 50 notification may be revoked unilaterally by the notifying member without the permission of the other EU members, provided the state has not already left the EU, and provided the revocation is decided \u201cfollowing a democratic process in accordance with national constitutional requirements\u201d.\n\nThe European Parliament resolution of 5 April 2017 (on negotiations with the United Kingdom following its notification that it intends to withdraw from the European Union) states, \"a revocation of notification needs to be subject to conditions set by all EU-27, so that it cannot be used as a procedural device or abused in an attempt to improve on the current terms of the United Kingdom\u2019s membership.\" The European Union Policy Department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs has stated that a hypothetical right of revocation can only be examined and confirmed or infirmed by the EU institution competent to this purpose, namely the CJEU. In addition the European Commission considers that Article 50 does not provide for the unilateral withdrawal of the notification.\nLord Kerr, the British author of Article 50, also considers the process is reversible as does Jens Dammann. Professor Stephen Weatherill disagrees. Former Brexit Secretary David Davis has stated that the British Government \"does not know for sure\" whether Article 50 is revocable; the British prime minister [then Theresa May] \"does not intend\" to reverse it.\n\nExtension of the two years time from notification to exit from the union, still requires unanimous support from all member countries, that is clearly stated in Article 50(3).\n\nShould a former member state seek to rejoin the European Union after having actually left, it would be subject to the same conditions as any other applicant country and need to negotiate a Treaty of Accession, ratified by every Member State.\n\nOutermost regions \nTFEU Article 355(6), introduced by the Treaty of Lisbon allows the status of French, Dutch and Danish overseas territories to be changed more easily, by no longer requiring a full treaty revision. Instead, the European Council may, on the initiative of the member state concerned, change the status of an overseas country or territory (OCT) to an outermost region (OMR) or vice versa.\n\nWithdrawals \nSome former territories of European Union members broke formal links with the EU when they gained independence from their ruling country or were transferred to an EU non-member state. Most of these territories were not classed as part of the EU, but were at most associated with OCT status, and EC laws were generally not in force in these countries.\n\nSome current territories changed or are in the process of changing their status so that, instead of EU law applying fully or with limited exceptions, EU law mostly will not apply. The process also occurs in the opposite direction, as formal enlargements of the union occur. The procedure for implementing such changes was made easier by the Treaty of Lisbon.\n\nPast withdrawals\n\nTerritories\n\nAlgeria \nFrench Algeria had joined the European Communities as part of the French Republic (since legally it was not a colony of France, but rather one of its overseas departments). Upon independence in 1962, Algeria left France and thus left the European Communities.\n\nGreenland \n\nGreenland chose to leave the EU predecessor without also seceding from a member state. It initially voted against joining the EEC when Denmark joined in 1973, but because Denmark as a whole voted to join, Greenland, as a county of Denmark, joined too. When home rule for Greenland began in 1979, it held a new referendum and voted to leave the EEC. After wrangling over fishing rights, the territory left the EEC in 1985, but remains subject to the EU treaties through association of Overseas Countries and Territories with the EU. This was permitted by the Greenland Treaty, a special treaty signed in 1984 to allow its withdrawal.\n\nSaint Pierre and Miquelon \nSaint Pierre and Miquelon, a territory of France, used to be part of the EU but left on 11 June 1985.\n\nSaint Barth\u00e9lemy \nSaint Martin and Saint-Barth\u00e9lemy in 2007 seceded from Guadeloupe (overseas department of France and outermost region (OMR) of the EU) and became overseas collectivities of France, but at the same time remained OMRs of the European Union. Later, the elected representatives of the island of Saint-Barth\u00e9lemy expressed a desire to \"obtain a European status which would be better suited to its status under domestic law, particularly given its remoteness from the mainland, its small insular economy largely devoted to tourism and subject to difficulties in obtaining supplies which hamper the application of some European Union standards.\" France, reflecting this desire, requested at the European Council to change the status of Saint Barth\u00e9lemy to an overseas country or territory (OCT) associated with the European Union. The status change came into effect from 1 January 2012.\n\nMember states\n\nUnited Kingdom \n\nThe UK formally left the EU on 31 January 2020, following on a public vote held in June 2016. However, the country benefitted from a transition period to give time to negotiate a trade deal between the UK and the EU.\n\nThe British government led by David Cameron held a referendum on the issue in 2016; the electorate decided by a 3.8% majority to favour leaving the European Union. On 29 March 2017, arising from a decision by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, Prime Minister Theresa May invoked Article 50 in a letter to the President of the European Council, Donald Tusk. The UK ceased to be an EU member state as from 00:00, 1 February 2020 Central European Time (UTC+1) (23:00, 31 January 2020 Western European Time (GMT, UTC+0). Following the UK Parliament's decisions not to ratify the Brexit withdrawal agreement negotiated between the European Council and the UK government, several extensions of the deadline were agreed.\n\nFollowing a decisive election victory for Prime Minister Boris Johnson and the Conservative Party in December 2019, the UK Parliament ratified the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020, approving the terms of withdrawal as formally agreed between the UK government and the EU Commission. After the European Parliament ratified the agreement on 29 January, the United Kingdom withdrew from the European Union at 23:00 London time (GMT) on 31 January 2020, with a withdrawal agreement in place.\n\nAdvocates in other countries for withdrawal \n\nSeveral states have political parties represented in national assemblies or the European Parliament that advocate withdrawal from the EU.\n\nAs of 2022, no country other than the United Kingdom has voted on whether to withdraw from the EU. Political parties criticizing the federative trend of the European Union and advocating withdrawal have gained prominence in several member states since the European Parliament election in 2014, similarly to the rise of UKIP in the United Kingdom. The EU Exit Index, which measures the risk of member states leaving the EU, shows that the UK was a clear outlier and no other state is likely to leave the EU in the foreseeable future.\n\nBulgaria\nIn Bulgaria, the far-right Revival party, and third largest party in the National Assembly as of 2023, supports either \"renegotiation\" for special status within the EU, or withdrawal. Additionally, other smaller non-parliamentary parties, mostly from the coalition Neutral Bulgaria support withdrawal, such as Attack who called the politicians who signed the treaty to join the EU \"traitors.\"\n\nCzechia \n\nIn Czechia, the far-right Freedom and Direct Democracy opposes Czech membership of the European Union.\n\nDenmark \n\nIn the Danish Parliament, the national conservative New Right party opposes Denmark's membership in the EU. The ideologically similar Danish People's Party in principle opposes EU membership, but has since 2001 in practice supported pro-EU right-wing coalitions. The party's support of the common market and opt-in/opt-out solutions was reflected in the slogan Mere Danmark, mindre EU (\"More Denmark, less EU\"). In 2020, the party proclaimed a strengthening of its anti-EU stance. The left-wing Red Green Alliance which is the 3rd largest party in the country, still officially opposes EU membership, but its members are divided on the issue.\n\nIn the European Parliament, the Danish People's Movement against the EU was represented from the first direct elections in 1979 until 2019. The Unity List is a collective member of The People's Movement and used to only participate in European Elections as candidates for The People's Movement. At the 2019 EP Election the Unity List participated independently and gained a seat, in an electoral alliance with The People's Movement who lost their seat. Former MEP for The People's Movement Rina Ronja Kari resigned her personal membership of the Unity List.\n\nOpinion polls have mostly shown that Danes are pro EU membership, but eurosceptic. A 2018 opinion poll suggested that while a minority of Danes wanted withdrawal (12% \"to a high degree\" and 16% \"to some degree\"), a large majority were against abolishing the opt-outs (57 % against and 22 % for the euro; 42 % against and 30 % for defense cooperation; 47 % against and 22 % for judicial cooperation). A 2019 opinion poll showed that 37 % of voters of the New Right wanted withdrawal and other 50 % were eurosceptic (\"remain in the EU, but the EU should have less influence on Danish conditions\"). Among voters of the Danish People's party, the numbers were 18% and 57%, and of the Unity List, 11% and 42%, respectively. In all other parties, withdrawal was supported by 5% of voters or less, but there was substantial euroscepticism (between 26 and 32%), although less among voters of the Social Liberal Party (15%) and The Alternative (20%).\n\nOccasionally, polls about a choice between the EU and a Nordic cooperation have shown equally divided support; a 2020 poll showed 39% support for each alternative. In a 2019 poll, the same question showed 42.7% support for the Nordic option and 40.5% for the EU option.\n\nFinland \nIn Finland, the Finns Party proposed the withdrawal from the EU.\n\nFrance \n\nUntil 2018, the far-right National Rally advocated for France to leave the EU. However, shortly after the party's renaming (from ), the party leader Marine Le Pen ruled out that policy, proposing instead to focus on changing the European Union's institutions.\n\nGreece \n\nIn Greece, Greek Solution is campaigning for a withdrawal, as was Golden Dawn.\n\nHungary \n\nAs a result of the approval of an anti-LGBT law, it has been suggested that Hungary should leave the EU. Currently, Our Homeland Movement is the only party that has proposed doing so through a referendum.\n\nItaly \nIn July 2020, Italian journalist and senator Gianluigi Paragone formed Italexit, a new political party with a main goal to withdraw Italy from the European Union.\n\nNetherlands \n\nIn the Netherlands, the main party advocating for a withdrawal is Forum for Democracy, additionally Party for Freedom also supports a withdrawal from the European Union.\n\nPoland \n\nIn Poland, the far-right party Confederation Liberty and Independence is against the membership of the country in the European Union. Following the 2019 Polish parliamentary election, the party has eleven (out of 460) members of the Sejm, zero members of the Senate, zero members of the European Parliament and zero members of Regional Assemblies.\n\nRomania \n\nIn Romania, the small right-wing party Noua Dreapt\u0103 opposes Romania's membership of the European Union and NATO. At the end of 2020, the party had no members of the national assembly or in the European Parliament. By December 2020, the fellow Eurosceptic and far-right party Alliance for the Union of Romanians (AUR) entered the parliament for the first time and became the 4th largest party in the country, although it is unclear whether the party supports leaving the EU or not.\n\nSecession from a member state \n\nThere are no clear agreements, treaties or precedents covering the scenario of an existing EU member state breaking into two or more states. The question is whether one state is a successor rump state which remains a member of the EU and the other is a new state which must reapply and be accepted by all other member states to remain in the EU, or alternatively whether both states retain their EU membership following secession.\n\nIn some cases, a region leaving its state would leave the EU \u2013 for example, if any of the various proposals for the enlargement of Switzerland from surrounding countries were to be implemented at a future date.\n\nDuring the failed Scottish independence referendum of 2014, the European Commission said that any newly independent country would be considered as a new state which would have to negotiate with the EU to rejoin, though EU experts also suggested transitional arrangements and an expedited process could apply. Political considerations are likely to have a significant influence on the process; in the case of Catalonia, for example, other EU member states may have an interest in blocking an independent Catalonia's EU membership in order to deter independence movements within their own borders.\n\nLegal effect on EU citizenship \n\nCitizenship of the European Union is dependent on citizenship (nationality) of a member state, and citizenship remains a competence entirely vested with the member states. Citizenship of the EU can therefore only be acquired or lost by the acquisition or loss of citizenship of a member state. A probable but untested consequence of a country withdrawing from the EU is that, without otherwise negotiated and then legally implemented, its citizens are no longer citizens of the EU. 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\u043d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0432\u044b\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0431\u0438\u043a\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0443\u044e \u0434\u0435\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044e, \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043a\u0435 \u0440\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0451\u0442; \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u044c \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0432\u0430\u0436\u043d\u0443\u044e 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\u043d\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0435 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0441\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043c\u043e DAB1.\n\n\u0421 \u0432\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0441\u0435\u0433\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043c VLDLR \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043e\u043a LIS1, \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u043b\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0440\u044f \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u043b\u0438\u0441\u0441\u044d\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0444\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438. \u041e\u0442\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0435\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442 \u043e \u0442\u043e\u043c, \u0447\u0442\u043e VLDLR \u043e\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u043f-\u0441\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430, \u0430 ApoER2 \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043c\u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043d\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0445\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0435\u0439\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0435\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430.\n\n\u0412\u044b\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0435 \u0440\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0443\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0437\u0430 \u043e\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e \u043a\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 Src \u0438 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u0442 \u043e\u0442 \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 Crk \u0438 CrkL, \u043f\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043c \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0441\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0441\u044f \u0441 \u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u043e \u0432\u0437\u0430\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0438 \u044d\u0442\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0441 \u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0438\u043d-\u0444\u043e\u0441\u0444\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c DAB1. \u0411\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0432 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0441 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c Cre-LoxP-\u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u0433\u043b\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0430 \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 Crk \u0438 CrkL \u0432 \u043d\u0435\u0439\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u0432\u044b\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0443 \u043c\u044b\u0448\u0438 reeler-\u0444\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0442\u0438\u043f, \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e, \u044d\u0442\u0438 \u0430\u0434\u0430\u043f\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u044b \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 DAB1 \u0438 Akt \u0432 \u0441\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0435 \u0440\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430.\n\n\u041f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0440\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0434 \u043d\u0435\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u043c \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043a\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0434 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043c\u0435\u043c\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0446\u0435\u043f\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 Notch-1, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u043a \u0438\u043d\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u043b\u0438\u043f\u0438\u0434-\u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0430 \u043c\u043e\u0437\u0433\u0430 FABP7 \u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043d\u0435\u0439\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043e\u043a-\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u043a \u0444\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0442\u0438\u043f\u0443 \u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043b\u0438\u0438.\n\n\u0411\u044b\u043b\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043c\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0443\u043b\u044b \u0440\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 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Her father, Edm\u00e9 Tiburce Morisot, was the prefect (senior administrator) of the department of Cher. He also studied architecture at \u00c9cole des Beaux Arts. Her mother, Marie-Jos\u00e9phine-Corn\u00e9lie Thomas, was the great-niece of Jean-Honor\u00e9 Fragonard, one of the most prolific Rococo painters of the ancien r\u00e9gime. She had two older sisters, Yves (1838\u20131893) and Edma (1839\u20131921), plus a younger brother, Tiburce, born in 1848. The family moved to Paris in 1852, when Morisot was a child.\n\nIt was commonplace for daughters of bourgeois families to receive art education, so Berthe and her sisters Yves and Edma were taught privately by Geoffroy-Alphonse Chocarne and Joseph Guichard. Morisot and her sisters initially started taking lessons so that they could each make a drawing for their father for his birthday. In 1857 Guichard, who ran a school for girls in Rue des Moulins, introduced Berthe and Edma to the Louvre gallery where from 1858 they learned by copying paintings. The Morisots were not only forbidden to work at the museum unchaperoned, but they were also totally barred from formal training. Guichard also introduced them to the works of Gavarni.\n\nAs art students, Berthe and Edma worked closely together until 1869, when Edma married Adolphe Pontillon, a naval officer, moved to Cherbourg, and had less time to paint. Letters between the sisters show a loving relationship, underscored by Berthe's regret at the distance between them and Edma's withdrawal from painting. Edma wholeheartedly supported Berthe's continued work and their families always remained close. Edma wrote \"\u2026 I am often with you in thought, dear Berthe. I\u2019m in your studio and I like to slip away, if only for a quarter of an hour, to breathe that atmosphere that we shared for many years\u2026\".\n\nHer sister Yves married Theodore Gobillard, a tax inspector, in 1866 and was painted by Edgar Degas as Mrs Theodore Gobillard (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City).\n\nAs a copyist at the Louvre, Morisot met and befriended other artists such as Manet and Monet. In 1861 she was introduced to Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, the pivotal landscape painter of the Barbizon school who also excelled in figure painting. Under Corot's influence, she took up the plein air (outdoors) method of working. By 1863 she was studying under , another Barbizon painter. In the winter of 1863\u201364 she studied sculpture under Aim\u00e9 Millet, but none of her sculptures is known to survive.\n\n Main periods of Morisot's work \n\n Training, 1857\u20131870 \nIt is hard to trace the stages of Morisot's training and to tell the exact influence of her teachers because she was never pleased with her work and she destroyed nearly all of the artworks she produced before 1869. Her first teacher, Geoffroy-Alphonse Chocarne, taught her the basics of drawing. After several months, Morisot began to take classes taught by Guichard. During this period, she drew mostly ancient classical figures. When Morisot expressed her interests in plein-air painting, Guichard sent her to follow Corot and Oudinot. Painting outdoors, she used watercolors which are easy to carry. At that time, Morisot also became interested in pastel.\n\n Watercolorist, 1870\u20131874 \nDuring this period, Morisot still found oil painting difficult, and worked mostly in watercolor. Her choice of colors is rather restrained; however, the delicate repetition of hues renders a balanced effect. Due to specific characteristics of watercolors as a medium, Morisot was able to create a translucent atmosphere and feathery touch, which contribute to the freshness in her paintings.\n\n Impressionism, 1875\u20131885 \nHaving become more confident about oil painting, Morisot worked in oil, watercolor and pastel at the same time, as Degas did. She painted very quickly but did much sketching as preparation, so she could paint \"a mouth, eyes, and a nose with a single brushstroke.\" She made countless studies of her subjects, which were drawn from her life so she became quite familiar with them. When it became inconvenient to paint outdoors, the highly finished watercolors done in the preparatory stages allowed her to continue painting indoors later.\n\n Turning, 1885\u20131887 \nAfter 1885, drawing began to dominate in Morisot's works. Morisot actively experimented with charcoals and color pencils. Her reviving interest in drawing was motivated by her Impressionist friends, who are known for blurring forms. Morisot put her emphasis on the clarification of the form and lines during this period. In addition, she was influenced by photography and Japonisme. She adopted the style of placing objects away from the center of the composition from Japanese prints of the time.\n\n Synthesis, 1887\u20131895 \nMorisot started to use the technique of squaring and the medium of tracing paper to transcribe her drawing to the canvas exactly. By employing this new method, Morisot was able to create compositions with more complicated interaction between figures. She stressed the composition and the forms while her Impressionist brushstrokes still remained. Her original synthesis of the Impressionist touch with broad strokes and light reflections, and the graphic approach featured by clear lines, made her late works distinctive.\n\n Style and technique \nBecause she was a female artist, Morisot's paintings were often labeled as being full of \"feminine charm\" by male critics, for their elegance and lightness. In 1890, Morisot wrote in a notebook about her struggles to be taken seriously as an artist: \"I don't think there has ever been a man who treated a woman as an equal and that's all I would have asked for, for I know I'm worth as much as they.\" \nHer light brushstrokes often led to critics using the verb \"effleurer\" (to touch lightly, brush against) to describe her technique. In her early life, Morisot painted in the open air as other Impressionists to look for truths in observation. Around 1880 she began painting on unprimed canvases\u2014a technique Manet and Eva Gonzal\u00e8s also experimented with at the time\u2014and her brushwork became looser. In 1888\u201389, her brushstrokes transitioned from short, rapid strokes to long, sinuous ones that define form. The outer edges of her paintings were often left unfinished, allowing the canvas to show through and increasing the sense of spontaneity. After 1885, she worked mostly from preliminary drawings before beginning her oil paintings. She often worked in oil paint, watercolors, and pastel simultaneously, and sketched using various drawing media. Morisot's works are almost always small in scale.\n\nMorisot creates a sense of space and depth through the use of color. Although her color palette was somewhat limited, her fellow impressionists regarded her as a \"virtuoso colorist\". She typically made expansive use of white to create a sense of transparency, whether used as a pure white or mixed with other colors. In her large painting The Cherry Tree, the colors are more vivid but still emphasize the form.\n\nInspired by Manet's drawings, she kept the use of color to a minimum when constructing a motif. Responding to the experiments conducted by Manet and Edgar Degas, Morisot used barely tinted whites to harmonize the paintings. Like Degas, she played with three media simultaneously in one painting: watercolor, pastel, and oil paints. In the second half of her career, she learned from Renoir by mimicking his motifs. She also shared an interest in keeping a balance between the density of figures and the atmospheric traits of light with Renoir in her later works.\n\n Subjects \n\nMorisot painted what she experienced on a daily basis. Most of her paintings include domestic scenes of family, children, ladies, and flowers, depicting what women's life was like in the late nineteenth century. Instead of portraying the public space and society, Morisot preferred private, intimate scenes. This reflects the cultural restrictions of her class and gender at that time. Like her fellow Impressionist Mary Cassatt, she focused on domestic life and portraits in which she could use family and personal friends as models, including her daughter Julie and sister Edma. The stenographic presentation of her daily life conveys a strong hope to stop the fleeting passage of time. By portraying flowers, she used metaphors to celebrate womanhood. Prior to the 1860s, Morisot painted subjects in line with the Barbizon school before turning to scenes of contemporary femininity. Paintings like The Cradle (1872), in which she depicted current trends for nursery furniture, reflect her sensitivity to fashion and advertising, both of which would have been apparent to her female audience. Her works also include landscapes, garden settings, boating scenes, and themes of boredom or ennui. Later in her career Morisot worked with more ambitious themes, such as nudes. In her late works, she often referred to the past to recall a memory from her earlier life and youth, and her departed companions.\n\n Impressionism \n\nMorisot's first appearance in the Salon de Paris came at the age of twenty-three in 1864, with the acceptance of two landscape paintings. She continued to show regularly in the Salon, to generally favorable reviews, until 1873, the year before the first Impressionist exhibition. She exhibited with the Impressionists from 1874 onwards, only missing the exhibition in 1878 when her daughter was born.\n\nImpressionism's alleged attachment to brilliant color, sensual surface effects, and fleeting sensory perceptions led a number of critics to assert in retrospect that this style, once primarily the battlefield of insouciant, combative males, was inherently feminine and best suited to women's weaker temperaments, lesser intellectual capabilities, and greater sensibility.\n\nDuring Morisot's 1874 exhibition with the Impressionists, such as Monet and Manet, Le Figaro critic Albert Wolff noted that the Impressionists consisted of \"five or six lunatics of which one is a woman...[whose] feminine grace is maintained amid the outpourings of a delirious mind.\"\n\nMorisot's mature career began in 1872. She found an audience for her work with Durand-Ruel, the private dealer, who bought twenty-two paintings. In 1877, she was described by the critic for Le Temps as the \"one real Impressionist in this group.\" She chose to exhibit under her full maiden name instead of using a pseudonym or her married name. As her skill and style improved, many began to rethink their opinion toward Morisot. In the 1880 exhibition, many reviews judged Morisot among the best, even including Le Figaro critic Albert Wolff.\n\nPersonal life\nMorisot came from an eminent family, the daughter of a government official and the great-niece of Rococo artist Jean-Honor\u00e9 Fragonard. She met her longtime friend and colleague, \u00c9douard Manet, in 1868. By the introduction of Manet, Morisot was married to \u00c9douard's brother, Eug\u00e8ne Manet in 1874. On November 14, 1878, she gave birth to her only child, Julie, who posed frequently for her mother and other Impressionist artists, including Renoir and her uncle \u00c9douard. \n\nCorrespondence between Morisot and \u00c9douard Manet shows warm affection, and Manet gave her an easel as a Christmas present. Morisot often posed for Manet and there are several portrait paintings of Morisot such as Repose (Portrait of Berthe Morisot) and Berthe Morisot with a Bouquet. Morisot died on March 2, 1895, in Paris, of pneumonia contracted while attending to her daughter Julie's similar illness, thus making Julie an orphan at the age of 16. She was interred in the Cimeti\u00e8re de Passy.\n\nWorks\n\nSelection of worksThis list is incomplete, you can help by expanding it with certified entries.This limited selection is based in part on the book Berthe Morisot by Charles F. Stuckey, William P. Scott and Susan G. Lindsay, which is in turn drawn from the 1961 catalogue by Marie-Louise Bataille, Rouaart Denis and Georges Wildenstein. There are variations between the dates of execution, first showing and purchase. Titles may vary between sources.\n\n1864\u20131874\n \u00c9tude, 1864, oil on canvas, 60.3 \u00d7 73\u00a0cm, private collection\n Chaumi\u00e8re en Normandie, 1865, oil on canvas, 46 \u00d7 55\u00a0cm, private collection\n La Seine en aval du pont d'I\u00e9na, 1866, oil on canvas, 51 \u00d7 73\u00a0cm, private collection \n La Rivi\u00e8re de Pont Aven \u00e0 Roz-Bras, 1867, oil on canvas, 55 \u00d7 73\u00a0cm, private collection \u2013 Chicago\n Bateaux \u00e0 l'aurore, 1869, pastel on paper, 19.7 \u00d7 26.7\u00a0cm, private collectionJeune fille \u00e0 sa fen\u00eatre, 1869, oil on canvas, 36.8 \u00d7 45.4\u00a0cm, private collection\n Madame Morisot et sa fille Madame Pontillon (La Lecture), 1869\u20131870, oil on canvas, 101 \u00d7 81.8\u00a0cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.\n Le Port de Cherbourg, 1871, crayon and watercolour on paper, 15.6 \u00d7 20.3\u00a0cm, private collection of Paul Mellon, Upperville, Virginia\n Le Port de Cherbourg, 1871, oil on canvas, 41.9 \u00d7 55.9\u00a0cm, private collection of Paul Mellon, Upperville, Virginia\n Vue de paris de hauteurs du Trocad\u00e9ro, 1871, oil on canvas, 46.1 \u00d7 81.5\u00a0cm, Santa Barbara Museum of Art, California\n Femme et enfant au balcon, 1871\u201372, watercolor, 20.6 \u00d7 17.3\u00a0cm, Art Institute of Chicago\n Int\u00e9rieur, 1871, oil on canvas, 60 \u00d7 73\u00a0cm, private collection\n Portrait de Madame Pontillon, 1871, pastel on paper, 85.5 \u00d7 65.8\u00a0cm, Louvre \u2013 drawings cabinet gift of Madame Edma Pontillon to the Louvre in 1921, in the collection of the Mus\u00e9e d'Orsay\n L'Entr\u00e9e du port, 1871, watercolour on paper, 24.9 \u00d7 15.1\u00a0cm, , Bagnols-sur-C\u00e8ze \u2013 drawings cabinet\n Madame Pontillon et sa fille Jeanne sur un canap\u00e9, 1871, watercolour on paper, 25.1 \u00d7 25.9\u00a0cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington\n Jeune fille sur un banc (Edma Pontillon), 1872, oil on canvas, 33 \u00d7 41\u00a0cm \n Cache-cache, 1872, oil on canvas, 33 \u00d7 41\u00a0cm, Private collection \n Le Berceau, 1872, oil on canvas, 56 \u00d7 46\u00a0cm Mus\u00e9e d'Orsay, Paris\n La Lecture (Edma lisant), also titled L'Ombrelle verte, 1873, oil on canvas, 45.1 \u00d7 72.4\u00a0cm, Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio\n Sur la plage des Petites-Dalles, 1873, oil on canvas, 24.1 \u00d7 50.2\u00a0cm, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia\n Madame Boursier et sa fille, 1873, oil on canvas, 74 \u00d7 52\u00a0cm, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts \n Le Village de Maurecourt, 1873, pastel on paper, 47 \u00d7 71.8\u00a0cm, private collection \n Coin de Paris vu de Passy, 1873, pastel on paper, 27 \u00d7 34.9\u00a0cm, private collection \n Sur la terrasse, 1874, oil on canvas, 45 \u00d7 54\u00a0cm, Mus\u00e9e du Petit Palais, Paris\n In a Villa by the Seaside, 1874, oil on canvas,50.2 x 61\u00a0cm, Norton Simon Art Foundation, Norton Simon Museum, Pasadena, CA\n Portrait de Madame Hubbard, 1874, oil on canvas, 50.5 \u00d7 81\u00a0cm, Ordrupgaard museum de Copenhagen \n Femme et enfant au bord de la mer , 1874, watercolor on paper, 16 \u00d7 21.3\u00a0cm, private collection\n\n 1875\u20131884 \n Percher de blanchisseuses , 1875, Oil on canvas 33 \u00d7 40.8\u00a0cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.\n Jeune fille au miroir, 1875, oil on canvas, 54 \u00d7 45\u00a0cm, private collection\n Sc\u00e8ne de port dans l'\u00eele de Wight, 1875, oil on canvas, 48 \u00d7 36\u00a0cm private collection\n Sc\u00e8ne de port dans l'\u00eele de Wight, 1875, oil on canvas, 43 \u00d7 64\u00a0cm, Newark Museum, Newark, New Jersey\n Eug\u00e8ne Manet \u00e0 l'\u00eele de Wight, 1875, oil on canvas, 38 \u00d7 46\u00a0cm private collection\n Avant d'un yacht, 1875, watercolour on paper, 20.6 \u00d7 26.7\u00a0cm, Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute, Williamstown, Massachusetts\n Femme \u00e0 sa toilette, 1875, oil on canvas, 46 \u00d7 38\u00a0cm private collection\n Femme \u00e0 sa toilette , 1875\u20131880, hst, dim; 60.3 \u00d7 80.4\u00a0cm, Coll. Art Institute of Chicago \n Portrait de femme (Avant le", " a paramedic practitioner may attend different kinds of emergencies.\n\nAmbulance Control Centres \nThe Scottish Ambulance Service also maintains three command and control centres in Scotland, which facilitate handling of 999 calls and dispatch of ambulances; a further 350400 staff employed as call handlers and dispatchers fulfil this role across three locations: Edinburgh, Glasgow and Inverness. These three centres (which, through use of software, operate as one integrated unit) have been in use since 2004 and handle over 800,000calls per year. The Advanced Medical Priority Dispatch System (AMPDS) is used for call prioritisation, and provides post-dispatch instructions to callers, allowing medical advice to be given over the phone, before the ambulance arrives. Clinical staff are present to provide clinical oversight and tertiary triage. Co-located with the Ambulance Control Centres (ACC) are patient transport booking and control services, which handle approximately 1million patient journeys per year.\n\nAdvanced Paramedics\n\nCritical Care \nScottish Ambulance Service Advanced Practitioners in Critical Care (APCC) are based at Raigmore Hospital, Newbridge Ambulance Station in Edinburgh and Glasgow Airport. They are considered a Yellow level response in relation to the trauma network. They carry injectable medications not usually available to Scottish Ambulance Service paramedics, including: \n\n Ketamine, 200mg in 20ml (0.1-1mg/kg)\n Ketamine, 500mg in 10ml (4mg/kg of ideal body weight)\n Salbutamol 500mcg in 1ml (Adults; max dose 1mg, Children 2-12 years 15mcg/kg)\n Magnesium 5g in 10ml (Asthma: 2g, Pre/Eclampsia: 4g, toxidrome: 2g)\n Calcium Gluconate 10% w/v in 10ml (Toxidrome & hyperkalaemia: up to 20mls)\n Sodium Bicarbonate 8.4% w/v in 100ml (Toxidrome & hyperkalaemia: up to 100mls)\n Haloperidol, 5mg in 1 ml (1.25mg to 10mg).\n\nThey can undertake a number of advanced interventions, including:\n\n DC cardioversion\n Transthoracic pacing\n Sedation \n Surgical airway \n Thoracostomy \n Advanced clinical assessment\n Advanced decision making\n Point of care ultrasound \n Paediatric intubation\n\nUrgent and Primary Care \nAdvanced Practitioners in Urgent & Primary Care (APUC) are located more widely across Scotland. Specifically at the following ambulance stations: Lerwick, Kirkwall, Stornoway, Benbecula, Lairg, Inverness, Lochcarron, Elgin, Aberdeen, Oban, Pitlochry, Callander, Perth, Dundee, Campbeltown, Paisley, Glasgow (Castlemilk fire station), Kilmarnock, Hamilton, Stranraer, Newton Stewart, Dumfries, Biggar, Melrose, Prestonpans, Edinburgh, Livingston, Falkirk, Stirling, Dunfermline, Cupar and Leven.\n\nRetrieval Practitioners \nScottish Ambulance Service employ a number of Specialist and Advanced Retrieval Practitioners as part of the ScotSTAR service.\n\nRole within the Scottish Trauma Network \nThe Scottish Ambulance Service coordinates the pre-hospital and inter-hospital transfer elements of the Scottish Trauma Network. This response comes from the Scottish Ambulance Service and a number of partner agencies. These are sometimes categorised as Red, Yellow and Green resources; of these, Medic One and BASICS Scotland are registered charities. The use of Yellow and Red categorisation is also applied to the enhanced skills offered by different teams or clinicians.\n\nVolunteer Resources\n\nBASICS Scotland \nThe service also uses a number of volunteer responders in conjunction with BASICS Scotland and the Sandpiper Trust. These responders are doctors, nurses and paramedics who volunteer their time to respond on behalf of the ambulance service and help the sick and injured. Equipment is provided to these responders by both the ambulance service and BASICS Scotland, with assistance from the Sandpiper Trust. These responders may be able to offer enhanced \"Yellow\" skillsets and advanced interventions to assist the other emergency services. Such skills offered by BASICS Scotland responders may include: endotracheal intubation, procedural sedation, advanced analgesia, nerve blocks, cardioversion and thoracostomy with or without drain insertion.\n\nCommunity First Responder \nThere are also a number of Community First Responder schemes across Scotland which support the ambulance service. These are voluntary responders with basic medical training who are deployed to 999 calls, mostly cardiac arrests.\n\nHighland Prehospital Immediate Care and Trauma (PICT) Team \nThe Highland PICT Team is based at Raigmore Emergency Department, Inverness and respond to a round 150 patients a month. It was formed in 2016 to address a lack of physician-led pre-hospital care in the Highlands. It uses a doctor and advanced practitioner model, providing advanced care and extending the capabilities of the Scottish Ambulance Service. They were winners of the Highland Heroes award in 2022, with the team's founder and clinical lead receiving an international award for his work in rural pre-hospital medicine in 2021. One of the team's advanced nurses was also nominated for a Scottish Health Award for his part in the care and rescue of a child with traumatic injuries from a mountain.\n\nMedic One \nMedic One is a charity team formed in 1980 which deploys from the emergency department in Edinburgh. In 1998 a charitable trust was set up, aligned to the Medic One team, to facilitate learning and development of Edinburgh hospital staff. It has a fast response car, but relies on the Scottish Ambulance Service sending a driver to the hospital in order to attend 999 calls. The usual composition of the team is an emergency medicine consultant with a middle grade doctor, with one or two emergency nurses. They attend around three patients a month. In 2020 Medic One declared their intention to cease operations and it was noted that that their training and governance was unlikely to meet current standards.\n\nScotland's Charity Air Ambulance (SCAA) \nThe Scottish charity air ambulance is a Scottish charity which since 2013 has worked to provide additional air ambulance resources to support the work of the ambulance service. They transport around 1 patient a day. The helicopter is crewed by 1 or 2 paramedics and a pilot.\n\nTayside Trauma Team \nThe Tayside Trauma Team is an enhanced care team working out of Ninewells Hospital, Dundee. They attend around six patients a month. The team is made up of staff from the Emergency department, however they have no team capability to drive on blue lights, so need to be given a lift from another agency. This results in a variable mobilisation time: average time from 999 call to the team leaving the hospital is 25 minutes, with a range of 6 minutes to 1 hour 40 minutes. In 2020 the Tayside trauma team stated they would soon cease to operate and it was noted that their governance and training could be deemed inadequate by current standards.\n\n\u2020 NHS Funded * Charity Funded\n\nFleet, equipment and uniform\n\nThe Scottish Ambulance Service maintains a varied fleet of around 1,500 vehicles.\n\nEmergency response vehicles include ambulances, and single-response vehicles such as cars and small vans for paramedics. There are also patient-transport ambulances, which are adapted minibuses, lorries and support vehicles for major incidents and events, and specialist vehicles such as 4x4s and tracked vehicles for difficult access. The service also has three bicycles, which are only utilised during events at which Scottish Ambulance Service crews are present.\n\nThe geography of Scotland includes urban centres such as Edinburgh and Glasgow, areas of relatively low population density such as Grampian and the Scottish Highlands, and inhabited islands. Thus the fleet provision has to be flexible and include different kinds of vehicle. In the past, 4x4-build ambulances on van chassis were used in more rural areas, and traditional van conversions in more urban areas.\n\nWhen a large fleet upgrade project was commissioned in 2016, the business case was made to move to a solely box-body on chassis build, to provide some flexibility and more resilient parts procurement. Most of these replacement ambulances have been based on either Mercedes or Volkswagen chassis, with a mixture of automatic or manual transmissions. The equipment used on board Scottish Ambulance Service vehicles broadly falls in line with NHS Scotland and allows for interoperability in most cases. Equipment is standardised nationally and replaced at regular service intervals; for example, high-cost items such as defibrillators are costed and changed every seven years according to clinical need.\n\nThe uniform is in line with the NHS Scotland National Uniform standard, which is in keeping with the uniform standard described by the National Ambulance Uniform Procurement group in 2016. Amongst cost and comfort considerations, all Scottish Ambulance Service Staff now wear the national uniform which comprises a dark green trouser/shirt combination. Personal protective equipment (boots, helmet and protective jackets) is issued to all staff and denote rank/clinical rank by way of epaulette and helmet markings.\n\nOrganisation\n\nThe national headquarters is located at Gyle Square, South Gyle, on the west side of Edinburgh.\n\nThere are five divisions within the service, namely:\n\nPatient transport\nThe Patient Transport Service carries over 1.3 million patients every year. This service is provided to patients who are physically or medically unfit to travel to hospital out-patient appointments by any other means so that they can still make their appointments. The service also handles non-emergency admissions, discharges, transport of palliative care patients and a variety of other specialised roles.\n\nPatient Transport Vehicles come in a variety of forms and are staffed by ambulance care assistants, who work either double- or single-crewed. They are trained to look after patients during the journey, and to provide basic emergency care.\n\nAir operations\n\nThe service has the only government-funded air ambulance service in the UK, operated under contract by Gama Aviation. The fleet consists of two Airbus H145 helicopters and two Beechcraft B200C King Air fixed-wing aircraft, which provide emergency response and transfers of patients to and from remote areas of Scotland. \nThe two previous H145 helicopters were operated under sub-contract by Babcock Mission Critical Services Onshore until May 2020.\nIn 20152016, the air ambulance crews flew 3,849 missions. One helicopter and one King Air are based at a Gama Aviation facility at Glasgow Airport. The other operating bases are Inverness Airport (helicopter) and Aberdeen Airport (King Air).\n\nThe aircraft based in Glasgow are regularly used by the Emergency Medical Retrieval Service (EMRS). The air ambulance service was occasionally featured as part of the Channel 5 television documentary series Highland Emergency.\n\nCharity-funded air ambulance\nIn late 2010, a charity, Scotland's Charity Air Ambulance (SCAA), was founded to provide a further air ambulance, based at Perth Airport to work alongside the state-funded aircraft.\nSCAA commenced operations in May 2013 with a MBB Bo 105 helicopter. Since November 2015, SCAA has operated a Eurocopter EC135. The EC135 was previously operated by the state-funded service, until they replaced the fleet with H145 aircraft. The helicopter is crewed by Scottish Ambulance Service paramedics, tasking is from the SAS ambulance control centre at Cardonald.\n\nIn April 2018, it was announced by the charity that a drive was underway to raise funds to secure a second helicopter. This aircraft is now operational at Aberdeen Airport.\n\nNotable accidents involving air ambulances\nOn 19 May 1996, a Britten-Norman BN-2 Islander aircraft operated by Loganair for the Scottish Ambulance Service crashed short of the runway at Lerwick/Tingwall Airport in Shetland while turning to final approach at night during strong and gusting winds. The pilot was killed, and the physician and flight nurse were injured. There was no patient on board at the time.\nOn 15 March 2005, a Britten-Norman BN-2 Islander aircraft operated by Loganair crashed into the sea while descending toward Campbeltown Airport in western Scotland. The aircraft was operating an air ambulance flight on behalf of the Scottish Ambulance Service. The pilot and paramedic both died in the crash.\n\nSpecial Operations Response Team (SORT)\nThe SORT service is similar to the Hazardous Area Response Team in other parts of the United Kingdom. SORT paramedics have the same scope of practice as a regular paramedic, however have an enhanced scope of practice in relation to Personal protective equipment and other rescue equipment. They do not however carry nor administer ketamine.\n\nIn 2010, the service established three teams of specialist accident & emergency ambulance personnel who were given specialist training. This \u00a34.3million initiative was to provide additional preparedness to be able to respond to large-scale hazardous incidents, such as those that might involve chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear material. The work was in concert with the UK government. In 2019, the SORT services responded to 1,200 calls requiring specialist intervention, and supported a further 9,000 calls.\n\n there are five SORT teams; three full-time based in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, and two on-call teams in Inverness and Dumfries. These teams provide a specialist response to major incidents, and provide paramedic care in hostile environments. The team provides capability in arenas such as water rescue, safe working at height, search and rescue including the use of breathing apparatus, and confined space working. The SORT teams also provide a full-time emergency decontamination and inner-cordon capability.\n\nScotSTAR\nWith the remote towns and villages in Scotland often being hours away from advanced medical treatment, Scottish Specialist Transport and Retrieval (ScotSTAR) was setup incorporating paediatric and neo-natal retrieval and transfer teams and EMRS. The ScotSTAR service was set up on 1 April 2014 and transported 2,654 patients 20142015. The service uses multiple vehicles, either owned by the ambulance service or other organisations: specialist ambulances and cars, five air ambulances and HM Coastguard helicopters. The service is based in Glasgow.\n\nEMRS (The Emergency Medical Retrieval Service) was created in 2004 by ten emergency medical consultants from Glasgow and Paisley. Initially, the service provided aeromedical cover to six isolated hospitals within Argyll and Bute. The ten consultants only had \u00a340,000 worth of funding for medical equipment. In its first year the service transported 40 patients. In years to follow, the clinical crew began to gather evidence for the life-saving impact and cost effectiveness of the service. Following a successful 18-month trial period in the West of Scotland funded by the Scottish Government, in 2010 the service was opened up to the whole of the country, after securing permanent funding. The service is currently staffed by 47 part-time retrieval consultants, 14 retrieval practitioners, and 4 registrars, carrying out around 1000 missions every year.\n\nTraining academy\nThe service has its own dedicated training academy within the campus of Glasgow Caledonian University, which opened in June 2011. The facility has purpose built classrooms, lecture theatres, syndicate rooms and a clinical simulation area that recreates a 16-bed hospital ward and Accident & Emergency department allowing realistic interaction with other trainee healthcare professionals.\n\nFrom 1996 until April 2011, the service used its own dedicated training college located at Barony Castle in Eddleston near Peebles. Set in of formal gardens and woodlands, Barony was a residential training and conference centre with 78 bedrooms that allowed the service to carry out all its training in house. Between 1985 and 1996 it used the former Redlands women's and children's hospital in Glasgow's west end and prior to that the training school was based at Bangour Hospital before moving to Gartloch Hospital.\n\nFacts and figures\nIn year ended 31 March 2020, the service:\nResponded to 542,213 accident and emergency incidents.\nCarried out 606,015 non-emergency patient journeys.\nFlew 3,732 air ambulance missions.\n\nControversy and challenges \n\nIn 1999 it emerged that the Financial Director of the Scottish Ambulance Service had previously been jailed for fraud.\n\nIn 2017 the ambulance service was criticised for using an ancient fleet of ambulances, with nearly half having over 100,000 miles on them.\n\nIn 2018 it was revealed that frontline staff had been working \"dangerously long hours\", with one staff member working a 36 hour long shift. This was described as a national scandal at the time.\nIn 2020 both the Tayside Trauma Team and Medic 1 announced their continuing existence was unsustainable and the services would be terminated, removing this physician led resource from the ambulance services capabilities.\n\n2021 saw the Scottish Ambulance Service struggle to staff frontline ambulances; seeking help from firefighters, the military, and non-medical trained drivers to crew ambulances attending 999 calls. A number of tragic stories emerged highlighting the personal cost of this crisis, including one patient who died after waiting 40 hours for an ambulance, and an elderly man who died on his driveway after waiting four and a half hours for an ambulance. In the same year it was also revealed that a number of senior NHS managers from the ambulance service were running a camper van hire business during work hours, while planning for the COP26 international conference.\n\nResearch published in 2022 demonstrated that four out of five Scottish paramedics were considering quitting their jobs. It also revealed that 87% of staff do not feel valued by the Scottish Ambulance Service. The same report highlighted a third of staff working shifts lasting 15\u201320 hours. The same year, a story was published in which a member of the public was asked to perform CPR on their relative, alone in the back of the ambulance without help from the ambulance crew while en route to hospital. In the summer of 2022 it was claimed that an ambulance service senior manager was suspended as a result of requesting that a member of control-room staff leave their post and collect him (and his family) from Glasgow Airport. 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\u041d\u043e\u0447\u044c\u044e 6 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044f, \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0433\u0430\u044f\u0441\u044c \u0432 \u043d\u0430\u0434\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438, \u0421-13 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u043a\u043d\u0443\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0443\u044e \u0443\u0447\u0435\u0431\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043b\u043e\u0434\u043a\u0443 U-1303, \u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0438\u0432 \u0435\u0451 \u0441 \u043d\u0435\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438 (\u043f\u043e \u0434\u043e\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0443 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u00a0\u2014 \u0441 5 \u043a\u0430", " so much so that the expression for \"making music\" and \"prophesying\" were identical in ancient Greek.\n\nInstruments were also present in war time, though it may not have been considered music entirely. Specific notes of the trumpet were played to dictate commands to soldiers on the battlefield. The aulos and percussion instruments also accompanied the verbal commands given to oarsmen by the boatswain. The instruments were used mainly to help keep the oarsmen in time with one another.\n\nPopular song types\n Hymn\nA hymn is a metric composition whose text addresses a god, either directly or indirectly. They are the earliest formal type in Greek music, and survive in relatively large numbers.\n\n Paean\n Paeans were most commonly sung in honor or worship of Apollo as well as Athena. They usually solemnly expressed the hope for deliverance from a peril, or were sung in thanksgiving after a victory or escape.\n\n Prosodion\n A type of hymn or processional that invoked or praised a god. Prosodions were usually sung on the road to an altar or shrine, before or after a paean.\n\n Hyporchema\n Hyporchema was a dance-song with a marked rhythmic movement, commonly associated with the paean, and often difficult to distinguish from it. For example, the First Delphic Hymn is titled \"Paean or Hyporchema\".\n\n Dithyrambs\n Usually merrily sung in celebration at festivals, performed especially in dedication to Dionysus, the god of wine. Dithyrambs featured choirs (choros) of men and boys who were accompanied by an aulos player.\n\nPoetry and drama\nWhether or not long narrative poetry, or epic poetry like those of Homer, was sung is not entirely known. As in Plato's dialogue Ion, Socrates uses both the words \"sing\" and \"speak\" in connection with the Homeric epics, however there are heavy implications that they have been at least recited unaccompanied by instruments, in a sing-song chant.\n\nMusic was also present in ancient Greek lyric poetry, which by definition is poetry or a song accompanied by a lyre. Lyric poetry eventually branched into two paths, monodic lyric which were performed by a singular person, and choral lyric which were sung and sometimes danced by a group of people choros. Famous lyric poets include Alkaios and Sappho from the Island of Lesbos, Sappho being one of the few women whose poetry has been preserved.\n\nMusic was also heavily prevalent in ancient Greek Drama. In his Poetics, Aristotle links the origins of tragic drama to dithyrambs. The leaders of dithyrambs were the ones who led the song and dance moves, which would then be responded to by the group. Aristotle implies that this relationship between a single person and a group began the tragic drama, which in its earliest stages had a single actor who played all the parts through either song or speech. The single actor engaged in dialogue with the choros. The choros narrated most of the story through song and dance. In ancient Greece, the playwright was expected to not only write the script but also expected to compose the music and dance moves.\n\nMythology\n\nThe ancient Greek myths were never codified or documented into one form; what exists are several different versions from several different authors, across multiple centuries, which can lead to variations and even contradictions among authors and even the same author. According to Greek mythology, music, instruments, and the aural arts are attributed to divine origin, and the art of music was gift of the gods to men.\n\nAlthough Apollo was prominently considered the god of music and harmony, several legendary gods and demigods were purported to have created some aspect of music as well as contributed to its development. Some gods, and especially the Muses, represented specific aspects or elements of music. The 'inventions' or 'findings' of all ancient Greek instruments were accredited to the gods as well. The performance of music was integrated into many different modes of Greek story-telling and art related to mythology, including drama, and poetry, and there are a large number of ancient Greek myths related to music and musicians.\n\nIn Greek mythology: Amphion learned music from Hermes and then with a golden lyre built Thebes by moving the stones into place with the sound of his playing; Orpheus, the master-musician and lyre-player, played so magically that he could soothe wild beasts; the Orphic creation myths have Rhea \"playing on a brazen drum, and compelling man's attention to the oracles of the goddess\"; or Hermes [showing to Apollo] \"...\u00a0his newly-invented tortoise-shell lyre and [playing] such a ravishing tune on it with the plectrum he had also invented, at the same time singing to praise Apollo's nobility that he was forgiven at once\u00a0...\"; or Apollo's musical victories over Marsyas and Pan.\n\nThere are many such references that indicate that music was an integral part of the Greek perception of how their race had even come into existence and how their destinies continued to be watched over and controlled by the Gods. It is no wonder, then, that music was omnipresent at the Pythian Games, the Olympic Games, religious ceremonies, leisure activities, and even the beginnings of drama as an outgrowth of the dithyrambs performed in honor of Dionysus.\n\nIt may be that the actual sounds of the music heard at rituals, games, dramas, etc. underwent a change after the traumatic fall of Athens in 404\u00a0BC at the end of the first Peloponnesian War. Indeed, one reads of the \"revolution\" in Greek culture, and Plato's lament that the new music \"...\u00a0used high musical talent, showmanship and virtuosity ... consciously rejecting educated standards of judgement.\" Although instrumental virtuosity was prized, this complaint included excessive attention to instrumental music such as to interfere with accompanying the human voice, and the falling away from the traditional ethos in music.\n\nMythical origins\n\n Lyre\n According to the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, after stealing his brother Apollo's sacred cattle, Hermes was inspired to build an instrument out of a tortoise shell; he attached horns, and gut-string, to the shell and invented the first lyre. Afterwards, Hermes gave his lyre to Apollo, who took interest in the instrument, in repayment for the stolen cattle. In other accounts, Hermes gave his newly invented lyre to Amphion, a son of Zeus and a skilled musician.\n\n Aulos\n According to Pindar's Twelfth Pythian Ode, after Perseus beheaded Medusa, Athena 'found' or 'invented' the aulos in order to reproduce the lamentation of Medusa's sisters. Since the same Greek word is used for 'find' and 'invent', it is unclear; however, the writer Telestes in the 5th century states that Athena found the instrument in a thicket. In Plutarch's essay On the Restraint of Anger, he writes that Athena, after seeing her reflection while playing the aulos, threw the instrument away because it distorted her facial features when played, after which Marsyas a satyr, picked up her aulos and took it up as his own.\n\n Syrinx / Pan flute\n According to Ovid's Metamorpheses, the original Syrinx was a Naiad, a water nymph, who ran away from Pan after he tried to woo her. While she fled, she came upon an uncrossable river and prayed to her sisters to transform her so that she may escape Pan. Her Nymph sisters transformed Syrinx into a bundle of reeds which Pan found and fashioned an instrument out of, the Pan flute or syrinx.\n\nOrpheus myth\nOrpheus is a significant figure in the ancient Greek mythology of music. Orpheus was a legendary poet and musician, his lineage is unclear as some sources note him as the son of Apollo, the son of the Muse Calliope, or the son of mortal parents. Orpheus was the pupil and brother of Linus. Linus by some accounts is the son of Apollo and the Muse Urania; Linus was the first to be gifted the ability to sing by the Muses, which he passed to Orpheus. Other accounts state that Apollo gave Orpheus a golden lyre and taught him to play, while the muses taught Orpheus to sing.\n\nOrpheus was said to be such a skilled musician that he could charm inanimate objects. According to the Argonautica, Orpheus in his adventures with Jason and the Argonauts, was able to play music more beautiful and louder than the bewitching sirens, allowing the Argonauts to travel safely without being charmed by the sirens. When Orpheus' wife, Eurydice, died, he played a song so mournful that it caused the gods and all the nymphs to weep. Orpheus was then able to travel to the underworld, and with music, softened the heart of Hades enough that he was allowed to return with his wife; however, under the condition that he must not set eyes upon his wife until they finished their travel out of the underworld. Orpheus was unable to fulfill this condition and tragically, his wife vanished forever.\n\nMarsyas myth\n\nAccording to Pseudo-Apollodorus in Bibliotheca, Marsyas the Phrygian satyr once boasted of his skills in the aulos; a musical contest between Marsyas and Apollo was then conducted, where the victor could do \"whatever they wanted\" to the loser. Marsyas played his aulos so wildly that everyone burst into dance, while Apollo played his lyre so beautifully that everyone cried.\n\nThe muses judged the first round to be a draw. According to one account, Apollo then played his lyre upside down, which Marsyas could not do with the aulos. In another account Apollo sang beautifully, which Marsyas could not do. In another account, Marsyas played out of tune and accepted defeat. In all accounts, Apollo then flayed Marsyas alive for losing.\n\nPindar recounts a similar myth but instead of Marsyas, it was Pan who contests Apollo and the judge was Midas. This myth can be considered a testament of Apollo's skill but also a myth of caution towards pride.\n\nGreek musical instruments\nThe following were among the instruments used in the music of ancient Greece. \nThe lyre, cithara, aulos, barbiton, hydraulis, and salpinx all found their way into the music of ancient Rome.\n\nString\n\n Lyre\n A strummed and occasionally plucked string instrument, essentially a hand-held zither built on a tortoise-shell (chelys) frame, generally with seven or more strings tuned to the notes of one of the modes. The lyre was a folk-instrument, associated with the cult of Apollo. It was used to accompany others or even oneself for recitation and song, and was the conventional training-instrument for an aristocratic education.\n Cithara\n Cithara was a professional version of the lyre used by paid musicians. The kithara had a box-type frame with strings stretched from the cross-bar at the top to the sounding box at the bottom; it was held upright and played with a plectrum. The strings were tunable by adjusting wooden wedges along the cross-bar. In the Politics, Aristotle describes the cithara as an \"organon technikon\", or an artist's instrument, requiring training.\n\n Barbiton\n A larger, bass-version of the cithara, considered to be east-Ionian, an exotic and somewhat foreign instrument. The barbiton was the primary instrument of the highly regarded ancient lyricist Sappho, as well as often associated with satyrs.\n Kanonaki\n A trapezoidal psaltery, invented by the Pythagoreans in the 6th\u00a0century\u00a0BC, however, may have had Mycenaean origins. The kanonaki was held on the thighs of the player, and plucked with both hands with bone pickings.\n Harp\n Harps are among the oldest known string instruments, and were in use by Sumerians and Egyptians long before they were present in Greece. The ancient version of the harp resembles a bow, with the strings connecting to the top and bottom of the arch. The strings are perpendicular to the soundbox, while the strings on a lyre are parallel.\n\nWind\n\n Aulos\n Usually double, consisting of two double-reed (like an oboe) pipes, not joined but generally played with a mouth-band to hold both pipes steadily between the player's lips. Modern reconstructions of the aulos indicate that they produced a low, clarinet-like sound. There is some confusion about the exact nature of the instrument; alternate descriptions indicate single-reeds instead of double reeds. It was associated with the cult of Dionysus.\n Syrinx or Pan flute\n Syrinx (), also known as Pan flute, is an ancient musical instrument based on the principle of the stopped pipe, consisting of a series of such pipes of gradually increasing length, tuned (by cutting) to a desired scale. Sound is produced by blowing across the top of the open pipe (like blowing across a bottle top).\n Hydraulis\n\n A keyboard instrument, the forerunner of the modern pipe organ. As the name indicates, the hydraulis used water to supply a constant flow of pressure to the pipes. Two detailed descriptions have survived: that of Vitruvius and Heron of Alexandria. These descriptions deal primarily with the keyboard mechanism and with the apparatus that supplied the instrument with air.\n Salpinx\n A brass trumpet used for military calls, and even contested in the Olympics. A number of sources mention this metal instrument with a bone mouthpiece.\n\nPercussion\n Tympanum\n Tympanum, also called tympanon, is a type of frame drum or tambourine. It was circular, shallow, and beaten with the palm of the hand or a stick.\n Crotalum\n The crotalum was a kind of clapper or castanet used in religious dances by groups.\n Koudounia\n The Koudounia are bell-like percussion instruments made of copper.\n\nMusic and philosophy\n\nPythagoras\n\nThe enigmatic ancient Greek figure of Pythagoras with mathematical devotion laid the foundations of our knowledge of the study of harmonics\u2014how strings and columns of air vibrate, how they produce overtones, how the overtones are related arithmetically to one another, etc. It was common to hear of the \"music of the spheres\" from the Pythagoreans. After studying the sound hammers made in a blacksmith's forge, Pythagoras invented the monochord, which has a movable bridge along with a string stretched over a sounding board. Using the monochord, he found the association between the vibrations and the lengths of the strings.\n\nPlato\nAt a certain point, Plato complained about the new music:\nOur music was once divided into its proper forms ... It was not permitted to exchange the melodic styles of these established forms and others. Knowledge and informed judgment penalized disobedience. There were no whistles, unmusical mob-noises, or clapping for applause. The rule was to listen silently and learn; boys, teachers, and the crowd were kept in order by threat of the stick. ... But later, an unmusical anarchy was led by poets who had natural talent, but were ignorant of the laws of music ... Through foolishness they deceived themselves into thinking that there was no right or wrong way in music, that it was to be judged good or bad by the pleasure it gave. By their works and their theories they infected the masses with the presumption to think themselves adequate judges. So our theatres, once silent, grew vocal, and aristocracy of music gave way to a pernicious theatrocracy ... the criterion was not music, but a reputation for promiscuous cleverness and a spirit of law-breaking.\n\nFrom his references to \"established forms\" and \"laws of music\" we can assume that at least some of the formality of the Pythagorean system of harmonics and consonance had taken hold of Greek music, at least as it was performed by professional musicians in public, and that Plato was complaining about the falling away from such principles into a \"spirit of law-breaking\".\n\nPlaying what \"sounded good\" violated the established ethos of modes that the Greeks had developed by the time of Plato: a complex system of relating certain emotional and spiritual characteristics to certain modes (scales). The names for the various modes derived from the names of Greek tribes and peoples, the temperament and emotions of which were said to be characterized by the unique sound of each mode. Thus, Dorian modes were \"harsh\", Phrygian modes \"sensual\", and so forth. In his Republic, Plato talks about the proper use of various modes, the Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, etc. It is difficult for the modern listener to relate to that concept of ethos in music except by comparing our own perceptions that a minor scale is used for melancholy and a major scale for virtually everything else, from happy to heroic music.\n\nThe sounds of scales vary depending on the placement of tones. Modern Western scales use the placement of whole tones, such as C to D on a modern piano keyboard, and half tones, such as C to C-sharp, but not quarter-tones (\"in the cracks\" on a modern keyboard) at all. This limit on tone types creates relatively few kinds of scales in modern Western music compared to that of the Greeks, who used the placement of whole-tones, half-tones, and even quarter-tones (or still smaller intervals) to develop a large repertoire of scales, each with a unique ethos. The Greek concepts of scales (including the names) found its way into later Roman music and then the European Middle Ages to the extent that one can find references to, for example, a \"Lydian church mode\", although name is simply a historical reference with no relationship to the original Greek sound or ethos.\n\nFrom the descriptions that have come down to us through the writings of those such as Plato, Aristoxenus and, later, Boethius, we can say with some caution that the ancient Greeks, at least before Plato, heard music that was primarily monophonic; that is, music built on single melodies based on a system of modes / scales, themselves built on the concept that notes should be placed between consonant intervals. It is a commonplace of musicology to say that harmony, in the sense of a developed system of composition, in which many tones at once contribute to the listener's expectation of resolution, was invented in the European Middle Ages and that ancient cultures had no developed system of harmony\u2014that is, for example, playing the third and seventh above the dominant, in order to create the expectation for the listener that the tritone will resolve to the third.\n\nPlato's Republic notes that Greek musicians sometimes played more than one note at a time, although this was apparently considered an advanced technique. The Orestes fragment of Euripides seems to clearly call for more than one note to be sounded at once. Research in the field of music from the ancient Mediterranean\u2014decipherings of cuneiform music script\u2014argue for the sounding of different pitches simultaneously and for the theoretical recognition of a \"scale\" many centuries before the Greeks learned to write, which they would have done before they developed their system for notating music and recorded the written evidence for simultaneous tones. All", " \u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u044a\u0451\u043c\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u044b.\n\n\u0412 1562 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0432\u0437\u044f\u0442 \u043a\u043d\u044f\u0437\u0435\u043c \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u043c \u0420\u0430\u0434\u0437\u0438\u0432\u0438\u043b\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0432 \u0445\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u041b\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b 1558-1583. \u0412 1580 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0432\u0437\u044f\u043b\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u042f\u043d\u0430 \u0417\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0436 \u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 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\u0441\u043f\u043b\u043e\u0448\u044c \u0432\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u043b\u0435\u0436\u0430\u043b\u00bb. \u041f\u043e \u042f\u043c-\u0417\u0430\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0440\u0438\u044e 1582 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0436 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0437\u0430 \u0420\u0435\u0447\u044c\u044e \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0439.\n\n\u0412 1585 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0421\u0442\u0435\u0444\u0430\u043d \u0411\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0443\u0447\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043b \u0432 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0436\u0435 \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0436\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0433\u0435\u0440\u0431: \u0437\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442, \u043d\u0430\u0434 \u043d\u0438\u043c \u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430\u0436\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0447, \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0451\u043c \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a, \u043d\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0431\u043e\u043c \u0449\u0438\u0442\u0435 \u0435\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0438\u043f\u0430. \u0412 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0436\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0436 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b \u041c\u0430\u0433\u0434\u0435\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e, \u0441\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043b \u044e\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e, \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e-\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u043d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043e\u0442 \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u044b \u0444\u0435\u043e\u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438. \u0422\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u043f\u043e\u0436\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043c \u0441\u0442\u043e \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043a \u0437\u0435\u043c\u043b\u0438, \u0443\u0447\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043b \u0434\u0432\u0435 \u044f\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0438, \u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0432\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e, \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0443\u044e \u0434\u043e\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044f\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0434\u0432\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0442\u043e\u0440\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0431\u0435\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043d\u043e; \u0434\u043e\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043b \u0436\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f\u043c \u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u043a\u0443, \u043c\u0435\u0434 \u0438 \u043f\u0438\u0432\u043e. \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u043e\u0431\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043b, \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e, \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043a\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0438 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0432\u043e\u0440 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0435\u0437\u0436\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u043a\u0443\u043f\u0446\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u0412 1655 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443, \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b 1654\u20141667, \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0436 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0441\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438. \u0412 1667 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043f\u043e \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0434\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0443 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0436 \u043e\u0442\u043e\u0448\u0451\u043b \u043a 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\u041f\u043e\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0411\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0446\u044b (XVIII \u0432.; \u0420\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u043a\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f)\n \u0426\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044c \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0414\u0443\u0445\u0430 (1823)\n \u0426\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044c \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0418\u043b\u0438\u0438 \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0430 (1781; \u0420\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u043a\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f)\n \u0426\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044c \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u044f (1761; \u0420\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u043a\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f)\n \u0426\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044c \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0410\u0440\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0433\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u043b\u0430 ( \u0420\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u043a\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f)\n \u0426\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044c \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0422\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0446\u044b (XVIII \u0432.)\n \u0426\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044c \u0412\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430 (1785-1790; \u0420\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u043a\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f)\n\n\u041f\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \n \u0423\u0441\u0430\u0447\u0451\u0432, \u0417\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (1897\u20141982) \u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a, \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b-\u043c\u0430\u0439\u043e\u0440.\n\n\u0423\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0446\u044b \n\n \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0435\u0301\u0439 \u041e\u043d\u0443\u0301\u0444\u0440\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0411\u0435\u0301\u043c\u0431\u0435\u043b\u044c (1905 \u0433\u043e\u0434 \u2014 1986 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430) \u2014 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u043f\u0442\u043e\u0440, \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0411\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u0421\u0420 (1955), \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0440 (1962).\n \u041c\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0439 \u0417\u0430\u043b\u043c\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u0301\u043b \u0421\u0435\u043c\u0451\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447) \u0411\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 (1909-2003) \u2014 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440, \u0434\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442. \n \u042e\u0440\u043a\u0430 \u0412\u0438\u0442\u044c\u0431\u0438\u0447 (\u0421\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u043c (\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0413\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0439) \u0429\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432) (1905-1975) \u2014 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0438 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u044d\u043c\u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0421\u0428\u0410.\n \u0410\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0414\u0443\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0430 (1885-1937) \u2014 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0417\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 (1919\u20141943) \u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430 (1944 \u0433\u043e\u0434)\n \u0424\u0438\u0448\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043e\u043d, \u0421\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 - \u0433\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043a, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043a \u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e \"\u0413\u0415\u0420\u041e\u0419 \u0421\u041e\u0412\u0415\u0422\u0421\u041a\u041e\u0413\u041e \u0421\u041e\u042e\u0417\u0410\" (3 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0430)\n \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0441 \u0417\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u041f\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043e\u043d (17 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430 1893 \u2014 1959) \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0435\u0432\u0440\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444, \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a, \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0433\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0442\u044b \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0434\u0430 \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0430\u00bb \u0438 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0430\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0422\u0410\u0421\u0421.\n \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0439\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0422\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044c\u0435\u0432 (7 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f 1907 \u2014 14 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f 1983) \u2014 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439\n \u0418\u0433\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0439 \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 (2 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430 1882 \u2014 5 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430 1956) \u2014 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440, \u0434\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0443\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0436\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433 \u0432 \u041a\u0440\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0435, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0440 \u0438 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u043d \u041a\u0440\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u0421\u0441\u044b\u043b\u043a\u0438 \n\n \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0436 \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u043c\n \u041d\u0435\u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0430\u0439\u0442 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\n \u0412\u0438\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0436-\u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0436 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0442 \u0438\u0445 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0430 (\u0441\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043e\u043a \u0438 \u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f", " Grissom in 1965, becoming the first American not of the Mercury Seven to fly in space. He thereafter flew in Gemini 10 (1966) with Michael Collins and as command module pilot of Apollo 10 (1969). With Apollo 16, he became the second American, after Jim Lovell, to fly in space four times.\n\nThomas Kenneth \"Ken\" Mattingly, the command module pilot, was 36 years old and a lieutenant commander in the Navy at the time of Apollo 16. Mattingly had been selected in NASA's fifth group of astronauts in 1966. He was a member of the support crew for Apollo 8 and Apollo 9. Mattingly then undertook parallel training with Apollo 11's backup CMP, William Anders, who had announced his resignation from NASA effective at the end of July 1969 and would thus be unavailable if the first lunar landing mission was postponed. Had Anders left NASA before Apollo 11 flew, Mattingly would have taken his place on the backup crew.\n\nMattingly had originally been assigned to the prime crew of Apollo 13, but was exposed to rubella through Charles Duke, at that time with Young on Apollo 13's backup crew; Duke had caught it from one of his children. Mattingly never contracted the illness, but three days before launch was removed from the crew and replaced by his backup, Jack Swigert. Duke, also a Group 5 astronaut and a space rookie, had served on the support crew of Apollo 10 and was a capsule communicator (CAPCOM) for Apollo 11. A lieutenant colonel in the Air Force, Duke was 36 years old at the time of Apollo 16, which made him the youngest of the twelve astronauts who walked on the Moon during Apollo as of the time of the mission. All three men were announced as the prime crew of Apollo 16 on March 3, 1971.\n\nApollo 16's backup crew consisted of Fred W. Haise Jr. (commander, who had flown on Apollo 13), Stuart A. Roosa (CMP, who had flown on Apollo 14) and Edgar D. Mitchell (LMP, also Apollo 14). Although not officially announced, Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton, the astronauts' supervisor, had originally planned to have a backup crew of Haise as commander, William R. Pogue (CMP) and Gerald P. Carr (LMP), who were targeted for the prime crew assignment on Apollo 19. However, after the cancellations of Apollos 18 and 19 were announced in September 1970, it made more sense to use astronauts who had already flown lunar missions as backups, rather than training others on what would likely be a dead-end assignment. Subsequently, Roosa and Mitchell were assigned to the backup crew, while Pogue and Carr were reassigned to the Skylab program where they flew on Skylab 4.\n\nFor projects Mercury and Gemini, a prime and a backup crew had been designated, but for Apollo, a third group of astronauts, known as the support crew, was also designated. Slayton created the support crews early in the Apollo Program on the advice of Apollo crew commander James McDivitt, who would lead Apollo 9. McDivitt believed that, with preparation going on in facilities across the U.S., meetings that needed a member of the flight crew would be missed. Support crew members were to assist as directed by the mission commander. Usually low in seniority, they assembled the mission's rules, flight plan, and checklists, and kept them updated. For Apollo 16, they were: Anthony W. England, Karl G. Henize, Henry W. Hartsfield Jr., Robert F. Overmyer and Donald H. Peterson.\n\nFlight directors were Pete Frank and Philip Shaffer, first shift, Gene Kranz and Donald R. Puddy, second shift, and Gerry Griffin, Neil B. Hutchinson and Charles R. Lewis, third shift. Flight directors during Apollo had a one-sentence job description: \"The flight director may take any actions necessary for crew safety and mission success.\" CAPCOMs were Haise, Roosa, Mitchell, James B. Irwin, England, Peterson, Hartsfield, and C. Gordon Fullerton.\n\nMission insignia and call signs\n\nThe insignia of Apollo 16 is dominated by a rendering of an American eagle and a red, white and blue shield, representing the people of the United States, over a gray background representing the lunar surface. Overlaying the shield is a gold NASA vector, orbiting the Moon. On its gold-outlined blue border, there are 16 stars, representing the mission number, and the names of the crew members: Young, Mattingly, Duke. The insignia was designed from ideas originally submitted by the crew of the mission, by Barbara Matelski of the graphics shop at the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston.\n\nYoung and Duke chose \"Orion\" for the lunar module's call sign, while Mattingly chose \"Casper\" for the command and service module. According to Duke, he and Young chose \"Orion\" for the LM because they wanted something connected with the stars. Orion is one of the brightest constellations as seen from Earth, and one visible to the astronauts throughout their journey. Duke also stated, \"it is a prominent constellation and easy to pronounce and transmit to Mission Control\". Mattingly said he chose \"Casper\", evoking Casper the Friendly Ghost, because \"there are enough serious things in this flight, so I picked a non-serious name.\"\n\nPlanning and training\n\nLanding site selection\nApollo 16 was the second of Apollo's J missions, featuring the use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle, increased scientific capability, and three-day lunar surface stays. As Apollo 16 was the penultimate mission in the Apollo program and there was no major new hardware or procedures to test on the lunar surface, the last two missions (the other being Apollo 17) presented opportunities for astronauts to clear up some of the uncertainties in understanding the Moon's characteristics. Scientists sought information on the Moon's early history, which might be obtained from its ancient surface features, the lunar highlands. Previous Apollo expeditions, including Apollo 14 and Apollo 15, had obtained samples of pre-mare lunar material, likely thrown from the highlands by meteorite impacts. These were dated from before lava began to upwell from the Moon's interior and flood the low areas and basins. Nevertheless, no Apollo mission had actually visited the lunar highlands.\n\nApollo 14 had visited and sampled a ridge of material ejected by the impact that created the Mare Imbrium impact basin. Likewise, Apollo 15 had also sampled material in the region of Imbrium, visiting the basin's edge. Because the Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 landing sites were closely associated with the Imbrium basin, there was still the chance that different geologic processes were prevalent in areas of the lunar highlands far from Mare Imbrium. Scientist Dan Milton, studying photographs of the highlands from Lunar Orbiter photographs, saw an area in the Descartes region of the Moon with unusually high albedo that he theorized might be due to volcanic rock; his theory quickly gained wide support. Several members of the scientific community noted that the central lunar highlands resembled regions on Earth that were created by volcanism processes and hypothesized the same might be true on the Moon. They hoped scientific output from the Apollo 16 mission would provide an answer. Some scientists advocated for a landing near the large crater, Tycho, but its distance from the lunar equator and the fact that the lunar module would have to approach over very rough terrain ruled it out.\n\nThe Ad Hoc Apollo Site Evaluation Committee met in April and May 1971 to decide the Apollo 16 and 17 landing sites; it was chaired by Noel Hinners of Bellcomm. There was consensus the final landing sites should be in the lunar highlands, and among the sites considered for Apollo 16 were the Descartes Highlands region west of Mare Nectaris and the crater Alphonsus. The considerable distance between the Descartes site and previous Apollo landing sites would also be beneficial for the network of seismometers, deployed on each landing mission beginning with Apollo 12.\n\nAt Alphonsus, three scientific objectives were determined to be of primary interest and paramount importance: the possibility of old, pre-Imbrium impact material from within the crater's wall, the composition of the crater's interior and the possibility of past volcanic activity on the floor of the crater at several smaller \"dark halo\" craters. Geologists feared, however, that samples obtained from the crater might have been contaminated by the Imbrium impact, thus preventing Apollo 16 from obtaining samples of pre-Imbrium material. There also remained the distinct possibility that this objective would have already been satisfied by the Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 missions, as the Apollo 14 samples had not yet been completely analyzed and samples from Apollo 15 had not yet been obtained.\n\nOn June 3, 1971, the site selection committee decided to target the Apollo 16 mission for the Descartes site. Following the decision, the Alphonsus site was considered the most likely candidate for Apollo 17, but was eventually rejected. With the assistance of orbital photography obtained on the Apollo 14 mission, the Descartes site was determined to be safe enough for a crewed landing. The specific landing site was between two young impact craters, North Ray and South Ray craters \u2013 in diameter, respectively \u2013 which provided \"natural drill holes\" which penetrated through the lunar regolith at the site, thus leaving exposed bedrock that could be sampled by the crew.\n\nAfter the selection, mission planners made the Descartes and Cayley formations, two geologic units of the lunar highlands, the primary sampling interest of the mission. It was these formations that the scientific community widely suspected were formed by lunar volcanism, but this hypothesis was proven incorrect by the composition of lunar samples from the mission.\n\nTraining\n\nIn addition to the usual Apollo spacecraft training, Young and Duke, along with backup commander Fred Haise, underwent an extensive geological training program that included several field trips to introduce them to concepts and techniques they would use in analyzing features and collecting samples on the lunar surface. During these trips, they visited and provided scientific descriptions of geologic features they were likely to encounter. The backup LMP, Mitchell, was unavailable during the early part of the training, occupied with tasks relating to Apollo 14, but by September 1971 had joined the geology field trips. Before that, Tony England (a member of the support crew and the lunar EVA CAPCOM) or one of the geologist trainers would train alongside Haise on geology field trips.\n\nSince Descartes was believed to be volcanic, a good deal of this training was geared towards volcanic rocks and features, but field trips were made to sites featuring other sorts of rock. As Young later commented, the non-volcanic training proved more useful, given that Descartes did not prove to be volcanic. In July 1971, they visited Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, for geology training exercises, the first time U.S. astronauts trained in Canada. The Apollo 14 landing crew had visited a site in West Germany; geologist Don Wilhelms related that unspecified incidents there had caused Slayton to rule out further European training trips. Geologists chose Sudbury because of a wide crater created about 1.8\u00a0billion years ago by a large meteorite. The Sudbury Basin shows evidence of shatter cone geology, familiarizing the Apollo crew with geologic evidence of a meteorite impact. During the training exercises the astronauts did not wear space suits, but carried radio equipment to converse with each other and England, practicing procedures they would use on the lunar surface. By the end of the training, the field trips had become major exercises, involving up to eight astronauts and dozens of support personnel, attracting coverage from the media. For the exercise at the Nevada Test Site, where the massive craters left by nuclear explosions simulated the large craters to be found on the Moon, all participants had to have security clearance and a listed next-of-kin, and an overflight by CMP Mattingly required special permission.\n\nIn addition to the field geology training, Young and Duke also trained to use their EVA space suits, adapt to the reduced lunar gravity, collect samples, and drive the Lunar Roving Vehicle. The fact that they had been backups for Apollo 13, planned to be a landing mission, meant that they could spend about 40 percent of their time training for their surface operations. They also received survival training and prepared for technical aspects of the mission. The astronauts spent much time studying the lunar samples brought back by earlier missions, learning about the instruments to be carried on the mission, and hearing what the principal investigators in charge of those instruments expected to learn from Apollo 16. This training helped Young and Duke, while on the Moon, quickly realize that the expected volcanic rocks were not there, even though the geologists in Mission Control initially did not believe them. Much of the training\u2014according to Young, 350 hours\u2014was conducted with the crew wearing space suits, something that Young deemed vital, allowing the astronauts to know the limitations of the equipment in doing their assigned tasks. Mattingly also received training in recognizing geological features from orbit by flying over the field areas in an airplane, and trained to operate the Scientific Instrument Module from lunar orbit.\n\nEquipment\n\nLaunch vehicle\nThe launch vehicle which took Apollo 16 to the Moon was a Saturn V, designated as AS-511. This was the eleventh Saturn V to be flown and the ninth used on crewed missions. Apollo 16's Saturn V was almost identical to Apollo 15's. One change that was made was the restoration of four retrorockets to the S-IC first stage, meaning there would be a total of eight, as on Apollo 14 and earlier. The retrorockets were used to minimize the risk of collision between the jettisoned first stage and the Saturn V. These four retrorockets had been omitted from Apollo 15's Saturn V to save weight, but analysis of Apollo 15's flight showed that the S-IC came closer than expected after jettison, and it was feared that if there were only four rockets and one failed, there might be a collision.\n\nALSEP and other surface equipment\n\nAs on all lunar landing missions after Apollo 11, an Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) was flown on Apollo 16. This was a suite of nuclear-powered experiments designed to keep functioning after the astronauts who set them up returned to Earth. Apollo 16's ALSEP consisted of a Passive Seismic Experiment (PSE, a seismometer), an Active Seismic Experiment (ASE), a Lunar Heat Flow Experiment (HFE), and a Lunar Surface Magnetometer (LSM). The ALSEP was powered by a SNAP-27 radioisotope thermoelectric generator, developed by the Atomic Energy Commission.\n\nThe PSE added to the network of seismometers left by Apollo 12, 14 and 15. NASA intended to calibrate the Apollo 16 PSE by crashing the LM's ascent stage near it after the astronauts were done with it, an object of known mass and velocity impacting at a known location. However, NASA lost control of the ascent stage after jettison, and this did not occur. The ASE, designed to return data about the Moon's geologic structure, consisted of two groups of explosives: one, a line of \"thumpers\" were to be deployed attached to three geophones. The thumpers would be exploded during the ALSEP deployment. A second group was four mortars of different sizes, to be set off remotely once the astronauts had returned to Earth. Apollo 14 had also carried an ASE, though its mortars were never set off for fear of affecting other experiments.\n\nThe HFE involved the drilling of two holes into the lunar surface and emplacement of thermometers which would measure how much heat was flowing from the lunar interior. This was the third attempt to emplace a HFE: the first flew on Apollo 13 and never reached the lunar surface, while on Apollo 15, problems with the drill meant the probes did not go as deep as planned. The Apollo 16 attempt would fail after Duke had successfully emplaced the first probe; Young, unable to see his feet in the bulky spacesuit, pulled out and severed the cable after it wrapped around his leg. NASA managers vetoed a repair attempt due to the amount of time it would take. A HFE flew, and was successfully deployed, on Apollo 17.\n\nThe LSM was designed to measure the strength of the Moon's magnetic field, which is only a small fraction of Earth's. Additional data would be returned by the use of the Lunar Portable Magnetometer (LPM), to be carried on the lunar rover and activated at several geology stops. Scientists also hoped to learn from an Apollo 12 sample, to be briefly returned to the Moon on Apollo 16, from which \"soft\" magnetism had been removed, to see if it had been restored on its journey. Measurements after the mission found that \"soft\" magnetism had returned to the sample, although at a lower intensity than before.\n\nA Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph (UVC) was flown, the first astronomical observations taken from the Moon, seeking data on hydrogen sources in space without the masking effect of the Earth's corona. The instrument was placed in the LM's shadow and pointed at nebulae, other astronomical objects, the Earth itself, and any suspected volcanic vents seen on the lunar surface. The film was returned to Earth. When asked to summarize the results for a general audience, Dr. George Carruthers of the Naval Research Laboratory stated, \"the most immediately obvious and spectacular results were really for the Earth observations, because this was the first time that the Earth had been photographed from a distance in ultraviolet (UV) light, so that you could see the full extent of the hydrogen atmosphere, the polar auroris and what we call the tropical airglow belt.\"\n\nFour panels mounted on the LM's descent stage comprised the Cosmic Ray Detector, designed to record cosmic ray and solar wind particles. Three of the panels were left uncovered during the voyage to the Moon, with the fourth uncovered by the crew early in the EVA. The panels would be bagged for return to Earth. The free-standing Solar Wind Composition Experiment flew on Apollo 16, as it had on each of the lunar landings, for deployment on the lunar surface and return to Earth. Platinum foil was added to the aluminum of the previous experiments, to minimize contamination.\n\nParticles and Fields Subsatellite PFS-2\n\nThe Apollo 16 Particles and Fields Subsatellite (PFS-2) was a small satellite released into lunar orbit from the service module. Its principal objective was to measure charged particles and magnetic fields all around the Moon as the Moon orbited Earth, similar to its sister spacecraft, PFS-1, released eight months earlier by Apollo 15. The two probes were intended to have similar orbits, ranging from above the lunar surface.\n\nLike", " had been some independence agitation but minimal and concentrated in the very ineffectual Conspiracy of the Tres Antonios back in 1781. The majority of the people were fervent royalists but were divided into two groups: those who favored the status quo and the divine right of Ferdinand VII (known as absolutists) and those who wanted to proclaim Charlotte Joaquina as Queen (known as carlotists). A third group was composed of those who proposed the replacement of the Spanish authorities with a local junta of notable citizens, which would conform a provisional government to rule in the absence of the king and an independent Spain (known as juntistas).\n\nIn 1809, Governor Garc\u00eda Carrasco himself was implicated in a flagrant case of corruption (the Scorpion scandal) that managed to destroy whatever remnants of moral authority he or his office had left. From that moment on the pressure for his removal began to build. In June 1810 news arrived from Buenos Aires that Napoleon Bonaparte's forces had conquered Andalusia and laid siege to C\u00e1diz, the last redoubt against the French on Spanish soil. Moreover, the Supreme Central Junta, which had governed the Empire for the past two years, had abolished itself in favor of a Regency Council. Garc\u00eda Carrasco, who was a supporter of the carlotist group, managed to magnify the political problems by taking arbitrary and harsh measures, such as the arrest and deportation to Lima without due process of well-known and socially prominent citizens under simple suspicions of having been sympathetic to the junta idea. Among those arrested were Jos\u00e9 Antonio de Rojas, Juan Antonio Ovalle and Bernardo de Vera y Pintado.\n\nInspired by the May Revolution in Argentina, the autonomy movement had also propagated through the criollo elite. They resented the illegal arrests and, together with the news that C\u00e1diz was all that was left of a free Spain, finally solidified in their opposition to the Governor. Brigadier Garc\u00eda Carrasco was suspended from office and forced to resign on July 16, 1810, to be in turn replaced by the next most senior soldier, Mateo de Toro Zambrano Count of la Conquista, even though a legitimate Governor, Francisco Javier de El\u00edo, had already been appointed by the Viceroy of Peru.\n\nCount Toro Zambrano was, by all standards, a very unorthodox selection. He was a very old man already (82 years old at the time) and moreover a \"criollo\" (someone born in the colonies) as opposed to a \"peninsular\" (someone born in Spain). Immediately after his appointment in July, the juntistas began to lobby him in order to obtain the formation of a junta. In August the Royal Appeals Court () took a public loyalty oath to the Regency Council in front of a massive audience, which put added pressure on the Governor to define himself. After vacillating for some time over which party to follow, Toro Zambrano finally agreed to hold an open Cabildo (city hall) meeting in Santiago to discuss the issue. The date was set for September 18, 1810 at 11 am.\n\nPatria Vieja\n\nFirst Junta\n\nFrom the very beginning, the juntistas took the political initiative. As soon as the Cabildo was called, they were able to place their members in the committee charged with sending the invitations, thus manipulating the attendance lists to their own advantage. At the September 18 session, they grabbed center stage with shouts of \"\u00a1Junta queremos! \u00a1junta queremos!\" (\"We want a junta! We want a junta!\"). Count Toro Zambrano, faced with this very public show of force, acceded to their demands by depositing his ceremonial baton on top of the main table and saying \"Here is the baton, take it and rule.\"\n\nThe Government Junta of the Kingdom of Chile, also known as the First Junta, was organized with the same powers as a Royal Governor. Their first measure was to take a loyalty oath to Ferdinand VII as legitimate King. Count Toro Zambrano was elected President, and the rest of the positions were distributed equally among all parties, but the real power was left in the hands of the secretary, Juan Mart\u00ednez de Rozas. The Junta then proceeded to take some concrete measures that had been long-held aspirations of the colonials: it created a militia for the defense of the kingdom, decreed freedom of trade with all nations that were allied to Spain or neutrals, a unique tariff of 134% for all imports (with the exception of printing presses, books and guns which were liberated from all taxes) and in order to increase its representativity, ordered the convocatory of a National Congress. Immediately, political intrigue began amongst the ruling elite, with news of the political turbulence and wars of Europe all the while coming in. It was eventually decided that elections for the National Congress, to be composed of 42 representatives, would be held in 1811.\n\nThree political factions started to coalesce: the Extremists (), the Moderates () and the Royalists (). These groups were all decidedly against independence from Spain and differentiated themselves only in the degree of political autonomy that they sought. The Moderates, under the leadership of Jos\u00e9 Miguel Infante, were a majority, and wanted a very slow pace of reforms since they were afraid that once the King was back in power he would think that they were seeking independence and would roll-back all changes. The Extremists were the second most important group and they advocated a larger degree of freedom from the Crown and a faster pace of reforms stopping just short of full independence. Their leader was Juan Mart\u00ednez de Rozas. The Royalists were against any reform at all and for the maintenance of the status quo.\n\nBy March 1811, 36 representatives had already been elected in all major cities with the exception of Santiago and Valpara\u00edso. The great political surprise up to that point had been the results from the other center of power, Concepci\u00f3n, in which Royalists had defeated the supporters of Juan Mart\u00ednez de Rozas. In the rest of Chile, the results were more or less equally divided: twelve pro-Rozas delegates, fourteen anti-Rozas and three Royalists. So, the Santiago elections were the key to Rozas' desire to remain in power. This election was supposed to take place on April 10, but before they could be called the Figueroa mutiny broke out.\n\nOn April 1, Royalist colonel Tom\u00e1s de Figueroa\u2014considering the notion of elections to be too populist\u2014led a revolt in Santiago. The revolt sputtered, and Figueroa was arrested and summarily executed. The mutiny was successful in that temporarily sabotaged the elections, which had to be delayed. Eventually, however, a National Congress was duly elected, and all 6 deputies from Santiago came from the Moderate camp. Nonetheless, the mutiny also encouraged a radicalization of political postures. Although Moderates\u2014who continued advocating political control of the elites and greater autonomy without a complete rupture from Spain\u2014gained the majority of seats, a vocal minority was formed by Extremist revolutionaries who now wanted complete and instant independence from Spain. The Real Audiencia of Chile, a long-standing pillar of Spanish rule, was dissolved for its alleged \"complicity\" with the mutiny. The idea of full independence gained momentum for the first time.\n\nCarrera dictatorship\n\nDuring this time, a well-connected young man and a veteran of the Peninsular War, Jos\u00e9 Miguel Carrera, returned to Chile from Spain. Quickly, he was involved with the intrigues of various Extremists who plotted to wrest power from Mart\u00ednez de Rozas through armed means. After two coups, both in the end of 1811, the ambitious Carrera managed to take power, inaugurating a dictatorship. Prominent members of the government were Carrera's brothers Juan Jos\u00e9 and Luis, as well as Bernardo O'Higgins.\n\nMeanwhile, a provisional Constitution of 1812 was promulgated with a marked liberal character. An example of this is the stipulation that \"no order that emanates from outside the territory of Chile will have any effect, and anyone who tries to enforce such an order will be treated as a traitor.\" Carrera also created patriotic emblems for the Patria Vieja such as the flag, shield, and insignia. Also during his government, the first Chilean newspaper, the La Aurora de Chile was published under the editorship of Friar Camilo Henr\u00edquez. It supported the independence movement. Additionally, Carrera was responsible for bringing the first American consul to Chile. This was important, as it established a direct link between the liberalism and federalism of the United States with the principles of the Chilean independence movement. Finally, he founded the Instituto Nacional de Chile and the National Library of Chile. Both of these prestigious institutions have survived to the present day.\n\nSpanish invasions\n\nThe triumph of rebellions\u2014both in Chile and Argentina\u2014disquieted the Viceroy of Peru, Jos\u00e9 Fernando de Abascal. As a result, in 1813, he sent a military expedition by sea under the command of Antonio Pareja to deal with the situation in Chile, and sent another force by land to attack northern Argentina. The troops landed in Concepci\u00f3n, where they were received with applause. Pareja then attempted to take Santiago. This effort failed, as did a subsequent inconclusive assault led by Gabino Ga\u00ednza. However, this was not due to the military performance of Carrera, whose incompetence led to the rise of the moderate O'Higgins, who eventually took supreme control of the pro-independence forces. Harassed on all sides, Carrera resigned, in what is commonly taken to mark the beginning of the period of the Reconquista.\n\nAfter the attempt by Ga\u00ednza, the two sides had signed the Treaty of Lircay on May 14, nominally bringing peace but effectively only providing a breathing space. Abascal had no intention of honoring the treaty, and that very year sent a much more decisive force southwards, under the command of Mariano Osorio. The royalist force landed and moved to Chill\u00e1n, demanding complete surrender. O'Higgins wanted to defend the city of Rancagua, while Carrera wanted to make the stand at the pass of Angostura, a more felicitous defensive position but also closer to Santiago. Because of the disagreements and resulting lack of coordination, the independence forces were divided, and O'Higgins was obliged to meet the royalists at Rancagua without reinforcements. The resulting battle, the Disaster of Rancagua, on October 1 and 2 of 1814, was fought fiercely, but ended in stunning defeat for the independence forces of which only 500 of the original 5,000 survived. A little while later, Osorio entered Santiago and put the rebellion of the Patria Vieja to an end.\n\nReconquista \n\nThe viceroy Abascal confirmed Mariano Osorio as governor of Chile, although a later disagreement between the two would result in Osorio's removal and the installation of Francisco Casimiro Marc\u00f3 del Pont as governor in 1815. In any case, the Spanish believed that it was necessary to teach the revolutionaries a good lesson and embarked on a campaign of fierce political persecution, led by the infamous Vicente San Bruno. The patriots found in Santiago\u2014among whom were members of the First Junta\u2014were exiled to the Juan Fern\u00e1ndez Islands. Far from pacifying the patriots, these actions served to incite them, and soon even the most moderate concluded that anything short of independence was intolerable.\n\nA large group of patriots (among them Carrera and O'Higgins) decided to flee to Mendoza, an Andean province of the newly independent Argentina. At the time, the governor of this province was Jos\u00e9 de San Mart\u00edn, a leader of the Argentine independence movement who would become regarded as the \"Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar\" of the southern part of Spanish South America. Upon the arrival of the exiles, San Mart\u00edn immediately began to favor O'Higgins (probably because of their shared membership in the Logia Lautaro, a pro-independence secret society). Carrera's influence begun to fade and ended finally when he was executed by firing squad in 1821.\n\nWhile San Mart\u00edn and O'Higgins organized an army to recross the Andes and recapture Santiago, they charged the lawyer Manuel Rodr\u00edguez with the task of mounting a guerrilla campaign. The goals of the campaign were to keep the Spanish forces off balance, ridicule San Bruno, and generally bolster the morale of the patriots. Through his subsequent daring exploits, Rodr\u00edguez became a romantic hero of the revolution. In one of his more celebrated actions, he disguised himself as a beggar and succeeded in obtaining alms from Governor Marc\u00f3 del Pont himself, who by that time had put a price on Rodr\u00edguez's head.\n\nThe liberating Army of the Andes was prepared by 1817. After a difficult crossing the Andes, royalist forces led by Rafael Maroto were encountered on the plain of Chacabuco, to the north of Santiago. The resulting Battle of Chacabuco, on February 12, 1817, was a decisive victory for the independence forces. As a result, the patriots re-entered Santiago. San Mart\u00edn was proclaimed Supreme Director, but he declined the offer and put O'Higgins in the post, where he would remain until 1823. On the first anniversary of the Battle of Chacabuco, O'Higgins formally declared independence.\n\nPatria Nueva \n\nDuring the preceding time, Joaqu\u00edn de la Pezuela was installed as a new viceroy in Peru. He resolved to recall his son-in-law, Mariano Osorio, sending him south with another expeditionary force. The troops disembarked at Concepcion, and recruited a number of Amerindians to join their ranks. Meanwhile, Bernardo O'Higgins moved north to somehow stop the advance of the royalists. However, his forces were surprised and very badly beaten at the Second Battle of Cancha Rayada on March 18, 1818. In the confusion, a false rumor spread that San Martin and O'Higgins had died, and a panic seized the patriot troops, many of whom agitated for a full retreat back across the Andes to Mendoza. In these critical circumstances, the erstwhile Manuel Rodr\u00edguez jumped to the lead, haranguing and rallying the soldiers with the cry \"There's still a country, citizens!\" He named himself Supreme Director, a position which he would occupy for exactly 30 hours, which was the time the living, but wounded, O'Higgins took to return to Santiago and reclaim command.\n\nThen, on April 5, 1818, San Mart\u00edn inflicted a decisive defeat on Osorio the Battle of Maip\u00fa, after which the depleted royalists retreated to Concepcion, never again to launch a major offensive against Santiago. Independence was all but secured, and worries about internal divisions were allayed when O'Higgins saluted San Mart\u00edn as savior of the country, a moment which came to be known as the Embrace of Maip\u00fa.\n\nTotal war\n\nTo further secure Chilean independence, San Mart\u00edn launched a series of actions against armed bands in the mountains, consisting of assorted outlaws, royalists, and Indians who had taken advantage of the chaos of military expeditions and forced recruitments to pillage and sack the countryside. This time of irregular warfare was later called the Guerra a muerte (Total war) for its merciless tactics, as neither the guerillas nor the government soldiers took prisoners. Only after the band of Vicente Benavides was liquidated in 1822 was the region around Concepcion finally pacified.\n\nIncorporation of Valdivia and Chilo\u00e9\n\nAs San Mart\u00edn worked to establish internal stability, O'Higgins also looked to defend the country against further external threats by the Spanish and continue to roll back imperial control. He developed the Chilean navy as a line of defense against seaborne attacks, placing the Scotsman Lord Cochrane in the post of admiral. In 1820, Cochrane administered a stunning blow to the remaining royalist forces in a successful attack on a complex of fortifications at Valdivia. Later Cochrane disembarked troops under commander William Miller at northern Chilo\u00e9 Island in order to conquer the last Spanish stronghold in Chile, the Archipelago of Chilo\u00e9. This failed attempt ended in the minor but significant Battle of Ag\u00fci. Later on, Georges Beauchef headed from Valdivia an expedition to secure Osorno so that the Spanish would not reoccupy Valdivia from the land. Beauchef inflicted a decisive defeat on the royalists at the Battle of El Toro.\n\nIn any case, San Mart\u00edn and O'Higgins were in agreement that the danger would not be passed until the Viceroyalty of Peru itself was independent from Spain. Thus, a fleet and army was prepared for an expedition to the country, and in 1820, San Mart\u00edn and Cochrane set off for Peru. However, the audacious and daring character of Cochrane conflicted with the excessive prudence of San Mart\u00edn. San Mart\u00edn let escape a number of opportunities to land the decisive blow against the viceroy, and in the end it was Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar who launched the final offensive after coming down from Colombia, Peruvian independence was secured after the Battle of Ayacucho on December 9, 1824, in which forces led by Antonio Jos\u00e9 de Sucre\u2014a lieutenant of Bol\u00edvar\u2014defeated the royalist army for good.\n\nIn Chilean historiography, the Patria Nueva generally ends in 1823, with the resignation of O'Higgins. However, the last Spanish territory in Chile, the archipelago of Chilo\u00e9, was not conquered until 1826, during the government of Ram\u00f3n Freire, O'Higgins' successor.\n\nEconomic impact \n\nThe independence wars in Chile (1810\u20131818) and Peru (1809\u20131824) had a negative impact on the Chilean wheat industry. Trade was disrupted and armies in Chile pillaged the countryside. The Guerra a muerte phase was particularly destructive and ended only to see a period of outlaw banditry (e.g. Pincheira brothers) occur until the late 1820s. Trade with Peru did not fully recover after the independence struggles. Being isolated from Central Chile by hostile Mapuche-controlled territory and dependent upon seaborne trade with the port of Callao in Peru the city of Valdivia was particularly badly hit by the decline of the trade with Peru. The fortune of this city would not shift until the arrival of German settlers in the late 1840s.\n\nMuch of the war effort was financed with silver from Agua Amarga, a mining area south of Vallenar discovered in 1811. Chile adopted a free trade policy already in 1811 with the \"Decreto de Libre Comercio\". This allowed the country in the mid-19th century to exploit the opportunities that the California Gold Rush and the Australian gold rushes created for exporting wheat.\n\nIn 1822 Bernardo O'Higgins government obtained a large loan in London to finance the independence struggle. The resulting Chilean independence debt took decades to regularize, ending the default in 1840s thanks to the efforts of the Ministers of Finance Manuel Rengifo and Joaqu\u00edn Tocornal plus the favourable international markers for Chilean silver, copper and wheat.\n\nSee also\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n\n Harvey, Robert. \"Liberators: Latin America`s Struggle For Independence, 1810\u20131830\". John Murray: London (2000). \n\n \nSpanish American wars of independence\nIndependence", " summoning the powers of a Green Lantern, destroys Jean. Indigo-1 manages to summon the various armies and thanks Palmer for his help. He tells her to keep his involvement in the deployment of the troops a secret, and asks that she help him find a way to legitimately resurrect Hawkman and Hawkgirl.\n\nIn the final battle, Palmer gets his wish when Hawkman and Hawkgirl are brought back to life by power of white light at the end of the Blackest Night series. Ray's involvement of secret resurrect remains unknown.\n\nBrightest Day and Adventure Comics co-feature\nIn July 2010 Ray Palmer had a Brightest Day one-shot that led to a co-feature in Adventure Comics. Written by Jeff Lemire with art by Mahmud Asrar, the co-feature focused on Ray Palmer's early life. For a brief three-issue tenure, Palmer was part of writer James Robinson's new Justice League line-up, but resigned to help his friend Martin Stein with some sort of project. At the start of the Brightest Day event, Ray and Stein are seen at the funeral of Gehenna, the girlfriend and partner of the second Firestorm, Jason Rusch. When Jason gets into a confrontation with Ronnie Raymond over Gehenna's death, Ray steps in and tries to stop it. Ray manages to separate Jason and Ronnie from Black Lantern constructs.\n\nAfterward, Ray discovered his father was attacked and the suspect was his own uncle David. With Ray's father in the hospital, Ray discovers his father had a stroke and his investigation of technology had been stolen. He seeks out Oracle to find the Calculator, Oracle manages to trace a data line, and Ray enters through the internet where he then encounters the Calculator and interrogates him to find out the dealers are. However, Calculator creates a room with no oxygen to make Atom's heartrate slower and he attempts to kill the Atom. Ray manages to grab Calculator and shrinks to return to Oracle's base. While Ray is in remission, he threatens Calculator who tells him that something called the Colony has manipulated Ray. Later, Prof. Hyatt was attacked by the Colony while looking for white dwarf matter. When Ray arrives, he goes to rescue Prof. Hyatt. During the fight, the Colony dies by incineration from the white dwarf matter. Ray calls Oracle to trace the phone line, and while he arrives at the Colony's base he is confronted by the Colony squad.\n\nAfter failing to avoid detection, he is confronted by Uncle David and with his help, pulls him away from the Colony heading towards the teleporter. Once safe, Uncle David tells Ray about the Colony. David also tells Ray that he could not leave and could not work on the projects on his own, he shows Ray how to travel using the astrology orb called the ant farm to see a mini-planet of microscopic nature. But, the Colony followed them to David's hideout and travels to the ant farm Ray then engages them in an epic battle. After the battle the Colony died from incineration as it did before but, Ray managed to save him using his stable white dwarf matter. Ray demanded to know what they desired and the Colony tells him the same thing, and they transport the ant farm to the Colony's base. He destroys Ray's belt buckle's white dwarf matter and kills himself. Since they cannot return, Ray follows David with a backup plan when suddenly Ray is approached by robotic insects. David explains that the robotic insects are caretakers. They manage to fix the belt buckle and he returns to normal size when in Colony's base. Failing to escape, Ray is forced by the scientist to bring the white dwarf matter. He shows the monitor renderings where Colony is standing in front of the hospital where is father his and he is going to kill him.\n\nWhen Ray refused, Hawkman prevents Colony from attacking Ray's father. Ray receives a call from Oracle to trace the monitor renderings, but Hawkman is being attacked by the Colony squad that miniaturize into Hawkman's body. Ray chooses to save Hawkman to leave the Colony's base while the other Colony escapes and kidnaps Ray's father. Ray rescues Hawkman by leaping into a body of the Colony attackers. When Hawkman is recovering, the Colony leaves their message to bring the white dwarf meteor and warned him no tricks, and to bring the meteor to save his family. While Ray traded the meteor to Colony before the Colony leaves, they exchange it for Ray's family that is in the ant farm. Ray travels into the ant farm and discovers that they planted a nuclear bomb on a vest strapped to his uncle David. Ray then manages to save his father and David and shrinks the bomb before it had a chance to detonate. While Ray's father is recovering, Ray reveals to David that he planted the white dwarf meteor into a nano-liquid to make the Colony's headquarters shrink. Ray, David, and Hawkman arrive at the location of the Colony's headquarters to attack their base. After the Colony was defeated however, David tells him there are more Colonies in the area. Later, Ray returns his father home. Ray forgives his father and apologizes for giving him a rough life before he overhears a firefighter rescue service, as he is a capable hero once more.\n\nDuring this same period, Ray begins an investigation into the disappearance of Ryan, whom unbeknownst to the superhero community, had been murdered by Deathstroke. Ray comforts Ryan's girlfriend Amanda, and muses Ryan may be hiding out like Ray did after the events of Identity Crisis. While he shrinks himself to investigate he discovers microbiology blood. He arrives at the Hall of Justice to tell the League members that Ryan is missing. The League starts to help Ray's investigation to find Ryan's whereabouts. He discovers Ryan's DNA cell is not a match. The DNA cell came to someone else. Later, Ray discovers evidence that Dwarfstar had a hand in Ryan's death, and vows to find him and make him pay. Ray eventually finds Dwarfstar in a hospital, where he is recovering from the severe injuries he sustained from his torture at the hands of Giganta (Ryan's ex-girlfriend). Believing it may lead to a lighter sentence, Dwarfstar confesses to hiring Deathstroke to kill Ryan. Armed with this knowledge, Ray leaves to inform the Justice League. Later, he asked Batman (Dick Grayson) to get revenge on Deathstroke for murdering Ryan. Ray and the Justice League arrive to attempt to arrest Deathstroke and the Titans. The Justice League battle against the Titans in Khandaq, where Ray seriously injures Deathstroke for killing his friend. The battle is stopped by Isis, who forces the Justice League to flee to avoid restarting World War III. After failing, Ray begins writing the eulogy for Ryan's funeral, and is comforted by Superman. In the final issue, Ray meets Ryan's friends and family, and gives the speech at his prot\u00e9g\u00e9's funeral.\n\nConvergence\nIn the Convergence crossover, when the alternate Brainiac miniaturized the universe of the New Earth, Ray Palmer, who had been in a mental state with his powers to increase size affected since imprisoned in the dome, sends out a broadcast message that he will pursue Deathstroke for Ryan Choi's murder. Ray then engages Deathstroke in an epic battle, but Ray is being pulled by the mysterious voice of Telos to fight opposite Angor universe's Barracuda. While Ray battles Barracuda, Ryan Choi suddenly appears and to be alive, and confronts him. Ryan explains that his death and consciousness had survived in the universe where the Atoms' masses are shifted to whenever they change size. Ryan then returns to the realm of the living after appropriating Ray's hand that Barracuda severed during their battle, to create a new body for him after they defeat Barracuda. Ray is hospitalized after losing his hand, and Deathstroke infiltrates the hospital and attempts to kill him, but Ryan interferes as they work together to defeat Deathstroke and restored Ray's hand.\n\nThe New 52\nIn September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, Ray appears in Frankenstein: Agent of S.H.A.D.E. as S.H.A.D.E.'s science advisor, although he appears to have retained his abilities. His shrinking technology enables S.H.A.D.E. agents to enter and leave their microscopic headquarters, the Ant Farm. He later uses his size-shifting abilities to assist Superman in visiting the Bottle City of Kandor, during which he wears a protective suit similar to the Atom costume. At the end of this adventure he expresses an interest in becoming a superhero as the Atom. He subsequently assists Superman in costume during Superman's fight with Vandal Savage.\n\nDC Rebirth\nSubsequently, in the DC Rebirth reboot, on Earth-0, Ray Palmer is, by day, a professor at an Ivy League college and, by night, the experienced crime fighter The Atom. He reveals his secret identity to his friend and apprentice Ryan Choi, and enlists him for tech support during his adventures. After many adventures together, Ray disappears and Ryan is scolded when Ray cancels classes for the fifth day in a row. When Ryan goes to get Ray from his workshop where he has seemingly been confined for a week, he instead finds a video recording from Ray. In it he reveals he discovered a universe beyond the subatomic, a so-called Microverse while investigating a disruption in space and time, and within he found something that posed an existential threat to their universe. He asks Ryan, the only other person who knows how to use the Atom's technology and whom Ray trusts, to go into it, rescue him, and finish his work. Ray informs Ryan that upon arrival he will also meet with someone who he himself has encountered. He tries to warn Ryan about something, but the footage cuts out abruptly before he can finish. When Batman begins recruiting for his new Justice League of America, he chooses Ray as one of the members of the new league, however when he enters Ray's office he finds Ryan instead. Ryan explains to Batman about Ray's situation so he takes Ryan as Ray's successor.\n\nCarter Hall, during his ongoing quest to reveal the mysteries of his past lives, is transported to the Microverse, where Ray has relocated. Together they recover a starship located on the living planet Moz-Ga which belonged to several of Hall's past lives.\n\nPowers and abilities\nAtom possesses the power to alter his size down to the subatomic level while retaining his natural strength level. This is accomplished by using the remnants of a white-dwarf star made into a belt buckle worn with his costume. Originally, he had to manipulate his abilities via the belt, and later with hand movements, before eventually syncing directly with his brain via mental commands. The Atom is one of the few heroes in the DC Universe that has 100% control over his body on the molecular level (Plastic Man being another), thus making him exponentially more powerful than he is often portrayed; he is limited only by his application of his powers. Some of the applications he has demonstrated include reducing his mass to glide through the air and increasing his mass to punch through concrete. He also demonstrated the ability to make his costume appear and disappear at will by shifting its atoms between this dimension and another.\n\nDuring Countdown to Final Crisis, Palmer learned he could shrink down beyond the subatomic scale to traverse the Multiverse by slipping below the quantum layer beneath reality. He has been shown to be able to ride phone lines to his destination by dialing a number and traveling through the handset (his signature use of his power), and recently shrinking small enough to travel on photon signals through fiber optic cable.\n\nSome of The Atom's more impressive feats include shrinking into Superman's atomic structure and manually compile his protonic minutia to generate Kryptonite radiation and defusing Black Lantern Al Pratt's Atomic Punch and resizing within him, ripping his body apart in the process.\n\nFollowing the events of Zero Hour, the Atom gained the ability to also grow in size and internalizes his other abilities without the use of his white dwarf star-based apparatus. However, when returned to his natural age, these abilities were lost.\n\nAs a member of the Indigo Tribe, Ray possessed an indigo power ring powered by compassion, which provided him with flight, energy projection, and a protective force field. He also utilized a staff capable of duplicating the abilities of other wielders of the Emotional spectrum within range.\n\nHe has also shown the ability to allow others to shrink down with him if the situation requires it, such as when he shrank himself, Superman, Flash, Green Lantern, Wonder Woman and Plastic Man to repair the links between seven shattered subatomic particles, or shrinking Steel, Supergirl and Superboy to directly treat a kryptonite tumor in Superman's body. However, this ability is relatively limited; initially anyone other than himself who was shrunk would explode after two minutes if not returned to their normal size, although by the time he sent Superman's allies into the Man of Steel, he was able to extend this time to around an hour.\n\nPalmer is exceptionally intelligent. He has a IQ of 140 and prior to acquiring his abilities, he had four PhDs under his belt. He is a world authority on physics, with other superheroes often consulting him for assistance with physics-related projects.\n\nAlthough physics is his primary forte, he is proficient in various other scientific disciplines. He has proven to be a master of engineering, as he was able to design and build the A.T.O.M. He has also developed several other technologically sophisticated gadgets during his tenure as the CEO of Palmer Tech such as surgical nanobots, dispersal units, smartwatches, etc. He is an adept chemist as well, as he was able to analyze and modify Eobard Thawne's biomolecular enhancer to have lasting and more stable effects while in World War II, despite the formula initially being made from 22nd-century technology.\n\nAdditionally, he is in excellent physical condition, engaging in frequent exercise and workouts. He has a high level of experience with-hand-to-hand combat, having received training from various different Justice League members, namely Batman. Boxing and judo are his preferred fighting styles. He has also displayed proficiency in swordsmanship and acrobatics.\n\nSupporting cast\n\n Adam Cray - The son of an assassinated senator, Adam Cray is approached by Ray Palmer to take up his mantle as the Atom to bring Micro/Squad into the open so Palmer can infiltrate their ranks and bring them to justice. Cray steals the size-changing belt given to Paul Hoben and joins the Suicide Squad. The plan works but at the cost of Cray's life.\n Hawkman - Meeting in the Justice League, Hawkman became Palmer's best friend.\n Jean Loring - Palmer's girlfriend when he became the Atom. He would go on to marry her but the two would divorce years later when Jean had an affair with fellow lawyer Paul Hoben. Jean would marry Hoben but the two would eventually divorce. In wake of the events of Identity Crisis, Jean and Ray would reconnect until it was discovered Jean was behind the murders therein and separated again.\n Laethwyn - Princess of the Morlaidhans that falls mutually in love with the Atom when he helps her reclaim her throne. She, like the rest of her people, are murdered by the CIA operatives under order of the Cabal.\n Loren Jupiter - A wealthy philanthropist that financed the original Teen Titans during their early years. He would return to help form another band of Teen Titans with his daughter Lilith when the alien race H'San Natall threatened Earth, largely the force behind Ray Palmer's membership in the group as its leader in the wake of Zero Hour.\n Major Mynah - A myna Palmer saves and brings to Hawkman to give it prosthetic wings to replace its severely damaged wings. The bird goes on to become the Atom's partner and steed.\n Maya - Queen of the Flower Spirits/Dryads from another dimension, after the Atom frees her people from the control of the Plant Master they become his friends and assist him occasionally. She later became friends with Floronic Man. \n Norman Brawler - A close friend of Palmer's that authors his biography The Atom's Farewell where the Atom's identity is revealed to the world.\n Paul Hoben - Lawyer who had an affair with Jean Loring while she was married to Ray Palmer. After her divorce, she marries Paul with Ray's blessing. When Ray decides to remain in Morlaidh, he gives Paul his size-changing belt and the role as the protector of Ivy Town.\n Professor Alpheus V. Hyatt - A scientist and friend of Ray Palmer at Ivy University that invents a Time Pool, but the opening to it is remarkably small. As such, the Atom is the only person capable of using it to travel through time.\n\nRogues gallery\n Big Gang - A group of specialists that each take the title 'Big' for their specialties that target the largest/biggest of items to steal. Membership includes Big Deal (illusionist and expert in prestidigitation), Big Ben (timing specialist), Big Wig (master of disguise wigs), Big Bertha (strong woman), Big Shot (marksman), Big Cheese (who uses specially made cheeses with different properties), and led by Big Head.\n The Bug-Eyed Bandit - Bertram Larvan invented an army of mechanical insects and spiders to do his bidding as the Bug-Eyed Bandit.\n Chronos the Time-Thief - David Clinton was a criminal with perfect timing and developed an arsenal of time-based paraphernalia. As Chronos, he became the Atom's archenemy and would, in time, became an expert in time travel and time manipulation.\n The Colony - They started during the Cold War program using their connections, codenaming it Project Colony. The C.I.A. gathered a group of America's brightest scientific minds power of the United States. Project Colony quickly developed projects and weapons systems that over the next years. The original group changed over the decades, faces and minds were constantly being and handed an unlimited budget to explore and experiment. After the Cold War ended, the group and Project Colony was officially discontinued. However, the greatest minds the country had to offer were in the middle of new experiments and projects. They reformed as a private organization, now calling ourselves simply the Colony, and continued their work in secret to America's global and metahuman. Unfortunately, the global landscape grew increasingly unstable; tension grew within their ranks. The Colony was willing to sacrifice anything, including humans, for their mankind to come to fruition.\n Deathstroke the Terminator - Originally facing the mercenary as part of the Teen Titans and again when he protected Dr. Light, Palmer would help take down Deathstroke after he murdered his prot\u00e9g\u00e9 Ryan Choi.\n Doctor Light - After Dr. Light escapes from prison, the warden asks the Atom to discover how he achieved such a feat. The Atom is able to recreate the escape and follows the villain to his hideout. Though captured, he manages to stop Light from his assault on the Justice League and brings him into custody. Later, the Atom would vote to lobotomize Light for his rape of Sue Dibny.\n Eddie Gordon - A petty criminal, Eddie Gordon stumbled upon the Bat-Knights of Elvaran, a race of miniature humanoids, in Giants Cavern and would manipulate them on several occasions to perform crimes for him.\n The Floronic Man - Exiled from an alternate dimension, Jason Woodrue would become the Plant Master and try to control plants to conquer Earth. One of the Atom's most frequent opponents, Woodrue would become a living plant", " depicted as a member of the Young Avengers, a team of teenaged superheroes in the Marvel Universe. His powers are based on those of his uncle Quicksilver. Speed first appeared in the comic book Young Avengers #10 (March 2006). In the 12th issue, he adopts the costumed identity Speed and joins the Young Avengers.\n\nHis story sees him discovering that he and the magical teen hero Wiccan are in fact long lost twin brothers, and that the pair are the reincarnations of the sons of the Scarlet Witch and her former husband Vision.\n\nAn illusory Tommy appeared in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) Disney+ miniseries WandaVision (2021) played by Gavin Borders and Jett Klyne. Klyne returned as a human version of Tommy from an alternate reality in the film Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness (2022).\n\nPublication history\nSpeed made his debut in Young Avengers #10 (March 2006) when he was recruited into the team after being broken out of prison. He was a main character until the conclusion of the series, adopting the code name Speed in the twelfth and final issue (August 2006).\n\nAfterwards, Speed continued to appear alongside his team in miniseries such as Young Avengers Presents and Dark Reign: Young Avengers; the event comic tie-ins Civil War, Secret Invasion and Siege: Young Avengers (co-starring with The Runaways in the former two); and various other guest appearances. From 2010 to 2012 he was a part of the main cast in Avengers: The Children's Crusade, written and drawn by the original Young Avengers creative team of Allan Heinberg and Jim Cheung.\n\nSpeed next appeared in Young Avengers (vol. 2) #6 (August 2013) before mysteriously vanishing. He reappeared at the end of issue #14 (February 2014), with his recovery shown in the final issue #15 (March 2014).\n\nApart a single-panel appearance in the Scarlet Witch series by James Robinson, Speed was absent from comics for five years until a guest appearance alongside the other former Young Avengers in The Unstoppable Wasp #7 (July 2019). He was since featured in the event comic tie-in Lords of Empyre: Emperor Hulkling (September 2020), made a non-speaking cameo in the epilogue issue Empyre: Aftermath (November 2020), and guest-starred in X-Factor (vol. 4) #7 (April 2021) and #10 (August 2021). He was a supporting character in the limited series X-Men: The Trial of Magneto.\n\nFictional character biography\n\nThomas Maximoff\nThomas and William were twins, with Tommy being the older of the two, Thomas and Willian supposedly born to Scarlet Witch and Vision; in reality, Scarlet Witch used her reality warping powers to create twin sons, unknowingly, from two of five scattered fragments of the soul of the demon Mephisto that were previously lost to him in an ill-fated encounter with the powerful mutant child Franklin Richards. When the boys' souls were reabsorbed into Mephisto, because of the power Wanda put into the soul fragments, they destroyed him and their souls were reincarnated as Thomas Shepherd, the Young Avenger Speed, and Billy.\n\nThomas Shepherd\nThomas \"Tommy\" Shepherd was raised in Springfield, New Jersey as the only son of Frank and Mary Shepherd, who are divorced.\n\nWiccan and the other Young Avengers locate him as another teenager with ties to the Avengers using the same program devised by the Vision that Iron Lad used to locate most of the current Young Avengers, their intent being to recruit more super-powered teens who could help them rescue their abducted teammate, Hulkling.\n\nThe Young Avengers find Tommy in a high-powered facility in Springfield that Hawkeye (Kate Bishop) initially describes as \"just juvie\" (juvenile hall), though the facility and its staff are equipped with advanced offensive and defensive technology such as robotic suits and power dampening containment cells.\n\nVision states that Tommy is being held at the facility, presumably under court order, because he \"accidentally\" vaporized his school. When they release him from his cell, it is immediately noted that Tommy, a white-haired speedster, bears a striking resemblance to Billy (\"twin-like\") and Quicksilver, sharing the latter's hair color and similar abilities.\n\nThe team encounters the armed officers of the facility. Tommy cynically and cruelly begins attacking the officers and fleeing doctors, stating that he had been locked up for months and that during his time there, he was tested and experimented on with the goal to make him into a living weapon. Hawkeye and Patriot manage to stop him and convince him to join them in rescuing their teammate Hulkling from Kl'rt the Super-Skrull. Little more has been revealed about the facility or Tommy's experiences there prior to his release, nor have they been addressed by the other Young Avengers or Tommy himself.\n\nTommy joins Billy as they search for the Scarlet Witch through Genosha and Wundagore before finally encountering Master Pandemonium at a former residence of the Scarlet Witch and the Vision. Master Pandemonium decides not to fight the boys after recognizing Wiccan's magic as being the same as the Scarlet Witch's. Instead, he elaborates on their history concerning Mephisto and the Scarlet Witch and advises them that the history they search for is filled with \"darkness and chaos\" and that they should embrace who they are in the present.\n\nHe goes on a date with Kate to help relieve her tensions about losing her name and bow to Clint Barton. He then helps her break into the Secret Avengers home base and reclaim her bow. During the course of the evening, the two share a kiss, addressing the heretofore unspoken love triangle between himself, Kate, and Patriot. However, Kate decides to attempt a relationship with Patriot instead. Tommy decides to officially join the team and adopts the codename Speed.\n\nWhen the Young Avengers confront the group of teenagers that have been using their name, Tommy immediately recognizes the member Coat of Arms (Lisa Molinari). It is revealed that Tommy knew her from \"juvie\" and is implied that they used to have a relationship.\n\nTommy and his friends are recruited to assist in defending Asgard when it is attacked by the forces under the control of Norman Osborn. Specifically, Tommy is tasked with delivering a backup suit of armor to Iron Man, which is essential in winning the day.\n\nAn older version of Tommy appears alongside the other Young Avengers in Avengers: The Children's Crusade - Young Avengers, a one-shot with the possible future timeline where the Young Avengers are grown up and now the Avengers. Tommy is together with Kate, who is pregnant and expecting twins. The timeline is the result of Iron Lad continuing to alter the timestream in an attempt to defeat Kang the Conqueror.\n\nWhen the Young Avengers disband following the events of the Children's Crusade, Tommy gets a job assembling tablet computers. He eventually meets and befriends Prodigy, a former member of the New X-Men, and partners with the boy to catch a mysterious entity dressed as Patriot. The \"not-Patriot\" entity attacks Speed and dissipates his body, before leaving a horrified Prodigy behind. Eventually when Prodigy kisses the not-Patriot, Tommy reappears in the not-Patriot's place with no memory of being missing. Finding himself unexpectedly kissing Prodigy, he jumps back and says that Prodigy is \"moving too fast\". Later that night Tommy dances with Kate and is embraced tightly by Wiccan.\n\nIn the one-shot Lords of Empyre: Emperor Hulkling, Speed and Prodigy now appear to be dating. They go out drinking with Hulkling, who describes that they \"always have exactly one and a half drinks and start making out\". Their relationship status is confirmed in Marvel Voices: Pride #2021, where the characters discuss their different attitudes to being bisexual. For Prodigy, the label is material to his identity and helps him understand himself better, whereas Speed says \"I crushed on who I crushed and... never did much worrying about the labels.\"\n\nSpeed does not move to the mutant island nation of Krakoa along with Prodigy. He is shown visiting Prodigy at X-Factor headquarters on Krakoa by running across the ocean, rather than using the Krakoan gates. He later attends the Hellfire Gala and discovers the Scarlet Witch's corpse; afterwards remaining on Krakoa while X-Factor conduct the murder investigation.\n\nParentage\nIn Young Avengers #11, Tommy's possible relationship to the Scarlet Witch, the original android Vision, and Billy was revealed by the Super-Skrull and the current Vision. In the past, the Scarlet Witch used her reality-warping powers to create twin sons, unknowingly using two (of five) scattered fragments of the soul of the demon Mephisto that he had lost in an encounter with the powerful mutant child, Franklin Richards. When the boys' souls were reabsorbed into Mephisto, they destroyed him and the souls were reincarnated separately as Thomas Shepherd and William Kaplan.\n\nWriter Allan Heinberg stated of the situation, \"According to Billy's theory, the souls of Wanda's twins inhabited his and Tommy's bodies when they were dispersed from Mephisto. But it's only a theory.\" He also stated in another interview that his plans for the new 'season' involved the two searching for Wanda, stating \"If everything goes according to plan, Wanda will indeed return to Young Avengers early in Season Two, when Billy and Tommy embark on a search for the true source of their powers. Indeed, the Young Avengers Present issue from March 2008 has been solicited as involving \"twin brothers\" Wiccan and Speed looking for their \"mother Wanda\".\n\nMuch conjecture has been made as to their appearance and powers, and while Marvel's official character files state that they are, indeed, her children, in the comics the only indication thereof is K'Lrt's statements and Vision's files. Billy believes himself to be Wanda's son, however Tommy has been more skeptical about the situation.\n\nHowever, in Young Avengers Presents #3, where Speed and Wiccan search for the Scarlet Witch, Tommy's skepticism appears to have entirely diminished. He refers to himself as Wiccan's \"big brother\" (though neither truly knows who is older) and frequently refers to the Scarlet Witch during their search as \"Mom.\"\n\nIn the limited series Avengers: Children's Crusade, the Young Avengers set out to locate the Scarlet Witch and Speed displays his original skepticism of their link to her. As they begin their search, Magneto arrives, having noticed the twins and their similarities to Wanda and Pietro, stating that he wants Wiccan and Speed to finally know him as their grandfather. Upon hearing this, Speed immediately accepts that the relationship must be genuine, later referring to Quicksilver as his \"Uncle Pietro\".\n\nIn Children's Crusade #6, Scarlet Witch confirms that Billy and Tommy are the reincarnations of her sons. When Wanda is discussing her life with a psychiatrist, she again confirms that Billy and Tommy are the reincarnated souls of her sons. However, seeing as they are already teenagers, Wanda doesn't know if they were normal kids before her sons' souls took over their bodies (effectively killing whoever they were before) or whether the spirits went back in time to be born and raised by different parents.\n\nPowers and abilities\nSpeed is a mutant with the power to move and accelerate at speeds far beyond those of normal human beings. His physiology is designed to move at high speeds which also grants him superhuman reflexes, agility, and durability. This durability is limited to impact forces, so bullets, energy blasts, and other piercing attacks are capable of harming him. It is also likely that Speed possesses a high amount of superhuman strength in his lower body, allowing him to lift around 1 ton, while his upper body is strengthened to the point where he can lift around 800 lbs. Although his top speed is unknown, he can exceed the speed of sound (about 1,225\u00a0km/h, or 761\u00a0mph) and resist the effects of friction, reduced oxygen, and kinetic impact while moving at those speeds. In Young Avengers Presents #3 he asserts that he is \"Quicksilver fast\", shown running from the eastern seaboard of the United States to Genosha, an island off the east coast of Africa, as well as search the entire island for anyone living there in the same amount of time it takes Wiccan to teleport the same distance. This indicates that Speed is fast enough to run across the surface tension of a body of water without sinking. In addition, his mind can operate in an accelerated state, allowing him to read in super speed and remember everything he's seen.\n\nHe can also generate hyperkinetic vibrations that accelerate the molecules in matter, causing any solid object he directs his vibrations at to explode. During the Civil War: Young Avengers and Runaways crossover, when both teams invaded the Cube in order to save their friends, Speed is shown exploding a gun in his hand by using his hyperkinetic vibrations. He is also able to accelerate his molecules (or even those of small groups of people) and vibrate fast enough to pass through solid matter, such as walls.\n\nReception\n\nCritical reception \nNishid Motwani of CBR.com referred to Speed as a \"fan favorite character audiences can't help but love,\" writing, \"Speed has spent a lot of time isolated. He was kept in a facility where high-powered individuals are held captive and experimented upon. Despite the things he has gone through, Tommy's personality is still vibrant and he instantly makes fans fall in love with him.\" Alex Schlesinger of Screen Rant wrote, \"Speed sits at a unique intersection where Young Avengers fans feel they know Tommy and have witnessed his growth, and yet have incredibly few stories where he's a central character. Now would be the perfect time to tap Speed to act as the team lead and mentor for the next generation of youthful superheroes. Speed has the charisma, power, legacy, and connections to be an ideal leader, and it would be incredibly helpful for a new team to have a slightly older, more experienced leader who could guide them in their heroics. The hero Speed, son of the Scarlet Witch, has not been utilized enough in Marvel Comics, but hopefully the future will give Tommy the spotlight as the leader of the Young Avengers.\"\n\nAccolades \n\n In 2018, CBR.com ranked Speed 20th in their \"25 Fastest Characters In The Marvel Universe\" list.\n In 2021, Looper ranked Speed 9th in their \"Fastest Speedsters In History\" list.\n In 2021, Screen Rant ranked Speed 8th in their \"10 Most Powerful Members Of The Young Avengers\" list.\n In 2022, CBR.com ranked Speed and Wiccan 1st in their \"10 Best Twins In Comics\" list, and ranked Wiccan 7th in their \"8 Fastest Avengers\" list and 12th in their \"Marvel: The 20 Fastest Speedsters\" list.\n\nOther versions\n\nAvengers Fairy Tales\nIn the one-shot Avengers Fairy Tales, Speed appears as the White Rabbit in an adaptation of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. He refers to the March Hare (Wiccan) as his brother.\n\nThe Last Avengers Story\n\nIn The Last Avengers Story (which uses an alternate timeline), Billy and Tommy grew up as the children of the Vision and the Scarlet Witch. As a child, Tommy witnessed the accidental murder of his mother by his uncle, Quicksilver, which caused their father, the Vision to become emotionless and withdrawn. Tommy (known as \"Tommy Maximoff\") chose to become a student of Doctor Strange and learn the mystic arts. He and his brother Billy (who became a villain known as \"the Grim Reaper\" and sought revenge against him and their father) communicated via holograms where Tommy implored his brother to give up his villainy, stating that he was apprehensive to fight him.\n\nEventually the Reaper joined forces with Kang the Conqueror and Ultron-59 and their \"final battle\" with the Avengers. Tommy sought advice from Doctor Strange about what to do concerning his brother, stating that he was not ready to fight him. Tommy decided to assist the Avengers and tried to reach and recruit the Vision, who had become near-catatonic and enormous having apathetically allowed his molecules to diffuse, but to no avail. Angered and frustrated, Tommy left to fight his brother. Tommy and Billy were locked in battle until their father the Vision saw this and came to his senses and destroyed Ultron, ending the fight.\n\nUnlike his Earth-616 counterpart, Tommy Maximoff inherited his mystical abilities from his mother the Scarlet Witch rather than his uncle's super speed. As a student of Doctor Strange, Tommy was able to perform various magical feats, including concussive mystical bolts and creating force fields.\n\nIn other media\n\nMarvel Cinematic Universe\nSeveral versions of Thomas \"Tommy\" Maximoff appear in live-action media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, portrayed by Gavin Borders as a five-year old and Jett Klyne as a ten-year old.\n In the miniseries WandaVision Tommy appears as an illusion created by Wanda Maximoff via chaos magic when she placed Westview, New Jersey within a \"Hex\" and displays the ability to willingly age himself. In the episode \"Now in Color\", Wanda becomes pregnant by unknown means. As it progresses in a short span of time, she and her husband Vision argue over what to name the baby if it is a boy, with the latter pushing for Billy and Wanda wanting an \"all-American\" name like Tommy. While Vision assents to Wanda's choice, she gives birth to twins, allowing them to use both names. In the episode \"All-New Halloween Spooktacular!\", Tommy develops superhuman speed while trick-or-treating. In the episodes \"Breaking the Fourth Wall\" and \"Previously On\", Wanda and Vision's neighbor \"Agnes\", later revealed to be the witch Agatha Harkness, babysits Tommy and Billy, but she takes them captive in order to force Wanda to reveal how she changed Westview. In the episode \"The Series Finale\", Wanda undoes the hex, ending Billy's and Tommy's existence.\n In a post-credits scene of WandaVision, Wanda hears cries of Billy and Tommy while studying the Darkhold. In the film Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness (2022), these cries are revealed to be from alternate realities in which Billy and Tommy actually exist as humans, with Klyne primarily portraying the Tommy of Earth-838.\n\nVideo games\n Speed appeared as an unlockable playable character in Lego Marvel's Avengers, voiced by Josh Keaton.\n Speed appeared as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Avengers Academy.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Speed at Marvel.com\n Speed at Marvel Wiki\n Speed at Comic Vine\n\nAvengers (comics) characters\nComics characters introduced in 2006\nCharacters created by Steve Englehart\nCharacters created by Richard Howell\nFictional bisexual men\nFictional characters from New Jersey\nFictional characters who can turn intangible\nFictional characters who", " of the dramatist Sergei Khudekov and of Marius Petipa, the renowned Premier ma\u00eetre de ballet of the St. Petersburg Imperial Theatres. The music was composed by Ludwig Minkus, who from 1871 until 1886 held the official post of Ballet Composer to the St. Petersburg Imperial Theatres.\n\nPlot outline\nKhudekov's libretto for La Bayad\u00e8re (meaning The Temple Dancer or The Temple Maiden) tells the story of the bayad\u00e8re Nikiya and the warrior Solor, who have sworn eternal fidelity to each other. The High Brahmin, however, is also in love with Nikiya and learns of her relationship with Solor. Moreover, the Rajah Dugmanta of Golconda has selected Solor to wed his daughter Gamzatti (or Hamsatti, as she is known in the original production), and Nikiya, unaware of this arrangement, agrees to dance at the couple's betrothal celebrations.\n\nIn his effort to have Solor killed and have Nikiya for himself, the jealous High Brahmin informs the Rajah that the warrior has already vowed eternal love to Nikiya over a sacred fire. But the High Brahmin's plan backfires when, rather than becoming angry with Solor, the Rajah decides that it is Nikiya who must die. Gamzatti, who has eavesdropped on this exchange, summons Nikiya to the palace in an attempt to bribe the bayad\u00e8re into giving up her beloved. As their rivalry intensifies, Nikiya picks up a dagger in a fit of rage and attempts to kill Gamzatti, only to be stopped in the nick of time by Gamzatti's ayah. Nikiya flees in horror at what she has almost done. As did her father, Gamzatti vows that the bayad\u00e8re must die.\n\nAt the betrothal celebrations Nikiya performs a somber dance while playing her veena. She is then given a basket of flowers which she believes are from Solor, and begins a frenzied and joyous dance. Little does she know that the basket is from Gamzatti, who has concealed beneath the flowers a venomous snake. The bayad\u00e8re then holds the basket too close and the serpent bites her on the neck. The High Brahmin offers Nikiya an antidote to the poison, but she chooses death rather than life without her beloved Solor.\n\nIn the next scene the depressed Solor smokes opium. In his dream-like euphoria he has a vision of Nikiya's shade (or spirit) in a nirvana among the star-lit mountain peaks of the Himalayas called The Kingdom of the Shades. Here, the lovers reconcile among the shades of other bayad\u00e8res. (In the original 1877 production, this scene took place in an illuminated enchanted palace in the sky.) When Solor awakes, preparations are underway for his wedding to Gamzatti.\n\nIn the temple where the wedding is to take place the shade of Nikiya haunts Solor as he dances with Gamzatti. When the High Brahmin joins the couple's hands in marriage, the gods take revenge for Nikiya's murder by destroying the temple and all of its occupants. In an apotheosis, the shades of both Nikiya and Solor are reunited in death and eternal love.\n\nEarly productions \nLa Bayad\u00e8re was created especially for the benefit performance of Ekaterina Vazem, Prima ballerina of the St. Petersburg Imperial Theatres. The role of Solor was created by the forty-three-year-old Lev Ivanov, Premier danseur of the St. Petersburg Imperial Theatres, with the classical dances of the character Solor being performed by the younger Pavel Gerdt. The celebrated ballerina Maria Gorshenkova created the role of Gamzatti (or Hamsatti, as the character was known in the original production), while the role of the High Brahmin was created by Nikolai Golts. Dugmanta, the Rajah of Golconda was created by Christian Johansson, former Premier danseur of the St. Petersburg Imperial Theatres and an influential teacher. The lavish d\u00e9cor was designed by Mikhail Bocharov for Act I-scene 1; Matvei Shishkov for Act I-scene 2 and Act II; Ivan Andreyev for Act III-scene 1 and Act IV-scene 1; Heinrich Wagner for Act III-scene 2 The Kingdom of the Shades; and Piotr Lambin for the Act IV-scene 2 Apotheosis.\n\nPetipa spent almost six months staging La Bayad\u00e8re. During rehearsals, Petipa clashed with the Prima ballerina Vazem over the matter of her entrance in the ballet's final Grand pas d'action, while also experiencing many problems with the set designers who constructed the ballet's elaborate stage effects. Petipa was also worried that his new work would play to an empty house, as the Imperial Theatre's Director Baron Karl Kister increased the ticket prices to be higher than that of the Italian Opera, which at that time were expensive. The most celebrated and enduring passage of La Bayad\u00e8re was Petipa's grand vision scene known as The Kingdom of the Shades. Petipa staged this scene as a Grand pas classique, completely devoid of any dramatic action. His simple and academic choreography was to become one of his most celebrated compositions, with the Sortie des bayad\u00e8res of the thirty-two member Corps de ballet of shades arguably becoming his most celebrated composition of all.\n\nPetipa's final revival of La Bayad\u00e8re was first given on for the benefit performance of the Imperial Theatre's Premier danseur Pavel Gerdt, who performed the role of Solor. The Prima ballerina Mathilde Kschessinskaya performed the role of Nikiya, and Olga Preobrajenskaya performed as Gamzatti. Among Petipa's changes for this revival was the re-setting of the scene The Kingdom of the Shades from a brightly lit castle in the sky to a dark and rocky landscape on the peaks of the Himalayas. In this scene Petipa increased the number of dancers in the corps de ballet from thirty-two to forty-eight, making the illusion of descending spirits all the more effective.\n\nIn 1894, the Imperial Ballet implemented a project to document the company's repertory in the Stepanov method of choreographic notation. Petipa's 1900 revival of La Bayad\u00e8re was notated by the Imperial Ballet's r\u00e9gisseur Nikolai Sergeyev as rehearsals were conducted. Nearly the entire ballet was notated in detail.\n\nIn March 1903, the scene The Kingdom of the Shades was performed independently during a gala performance at Peterhof Palace in honor of a state visit from Kaiser Wilhelm II. This is the earliest occasion where the scene The Kingdom of the Shades was performed as an independently.\n\nVaganova's revival \nOn December 13, 1932 the great pedagogue of the Soviet Ballet Agrippina Vaganova presented her version of La Bayad\u00e8re for the Kirov Ballet (the former Imperial Ballet). Vaganova revised the ballerina's dances for her star pupil Marina Semenova, who danced Nikiya. This included triple pirouettes sur la pointe (on the toes), and fast piqu\u00e9 turns en dehors. Although Vaganova's revival did not find a permanent place in the repertory, her modifications to the Ballerina's dances would become the standard.\n\nThe Kirov Ballet's revival of 1941 \nIn 1940 the Kirov Ballet once again made plans to revive La Bayad\u00e8re, this time in a staging by the Balletmaster Vladimir Ponomarev and the Premier danseur Vakhtang Chabukiani. This version would be the definitive staging of La Bayad\u00e8re from which nearly every subsequent production would be based. The Ponomarev/Chabukiani revival of La Bayad\u00e8re premiered on February 10, 1941 to a resounding success, with Natalia Dudinskaya as Nikiya and Vakhtang Chabukiani as Solor.\n\nThe choreography for the character of Nikiya went through a renaissance in when performed by the virtuoso ballerina Dudinskaya, whose revisions to the choreography remain the standard. Although her interpretation of the tragic Nikiya was looked on as unsuitable for the stellar ballerina, she nevertheless excelled in The Kingdom of the Shades, where Petipa's strict academic patterns prevailed. In the Variation de Nikiya (often referred to as the Scarf Duet) Ponomarev and Chabukiani changed the original staging of Petipa \u2013 originally, this variation called for Nikiya to perform her variation alone, with a long veil connected by wire to a fly-space above the stage, with the veil flying upward upon the final moments of the variation. The variation was changed so that Solor would now hold one end of the veil as Nikiya danced, departing the stage half-way through her solo offstage. Dudinskaya studded the choreography with multiple tours en arabesque, and included, for the first time, airy splits in her Grand jet\u00e9s during the Entr\u00e9e de Nikiya, as well as adding fast piqu\u00e9 turns in the Grand coda. The choreography for Solor went through a renaissance as well with the great Premier danseur Chabukiani in the role. Although the dances for the role of Solor had become far more prominent since La Bayad\u00e8re had been performed in Imperial Russia, Chabukiani's revisions to the choreography would become the standard for all proceeding male dancers.\n\nIn 1977, the Kirov Ballet's 1941 Ponomarev/Chabukiani production of La Bayad\u00e8re was filmed and later released onto DVD/video with Gabriella Komleva as Nikiya, Tatiana Terekhova as Gamzatti, and Rejen Abdeyev as Solor.\n\nLa Bayad\u00e8re in the West \n\nAlthough La Bayad\u00e8re was considered a classic in Russia, the work was almost completely unknown in the west. The first western production of the scene The Kingdom of the Shades was mounted by Eugenia Feodorova at the Teatro Municipal in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It premiered on April 12, 1961 with Bertha Rosanova as Nikiya and Aldo Lotufo as Solor. But it was to be the Kirov Ballet's performance of The Kingdom of the Shades at the Palais Garnier in Paris on July 4, 1961 that roused widespread interest in this almost totally unknown ballet from the Imperial/Petipa repertory. Two years later, Rudolf Nureyev staged the scene for the Royal Ballet with Margot Fonteyn as Nikiya. Minkus's music was re-orchestrated by the Royal Opera House's composer/conductor John Lanchbery. The premiere was a resounding success, and is considered to be among the most important moments in the history of ballet.\n\nThe dance critic Arlene Croce commented on Petipa's The Kingdom of the Shades in her review of Makarova's staging of the scene in The New Yorker:\n\nNureyev's version of The Kingdom of the Shades was also staged by Eugen Valukin for the National Ballet of Canada, premiering on March 27, 1967. The first full-length production of La Bayad\u00e8re was staged by the Balletmistress Natalie Conus for the Iranian National Ballet Company in 1972, in a production based almost entirely on the 1941 Ponomarev/Chabukiani production for the Kirov Ballet. For this production Minkus' score was orchestrated from a piano reduction by Robin Barker.\n\nThe National Ballet of Panama's debut performance was La Bayad\u00e8re (1972), the principal dancers were Teresa Mann, Ginela Vazquez, Armando Villamil, Nitzia Cucalon, Raisa Gutierrez and Alejandro Lugo.\n\nNatalia Makarova's production \n\nIn 1974 Natalia Makarova mounted The Kingdom of the Shades for American Ballet Theatre in New York City, being the first staging of any part of La Bayad\u00e8re in the United States. In 1980 Makarova staged her own version of the full-length work for the company, based largely on the Ponomarev/Chabukiani version she danced during her career with the Kirov Ballet. Makarova's production premiered on May 21, 1980 at the Metropolitan Opera House, and was shown live on PBS during the Live from Lincoln Center broadcast. Makarova danced the role of Nikiya herself, but was replaced by Marianna Tcherkassky due to an injury during the first act. The principal roles included Anthony Dowell as Solor, Cynthia Harvey as Gamzatti, Alexander Minz as the High Brahmin and Victor Barbee as the Rajah. The d\u00e9cor was designed by Pier Luigi Samaritani, with costumes by Theoni V. Aldredge and lighting by Toshiro Ogawa. The premiere was a triumph for American Ballet Theatre, and the company has performed it consistently ever since.\n\nIn 1989, Makarova staged her version of La Bayad\u00e8re for the Royal Ballet in a totally un-changed production, including copies of Samaritani's designs for the d\u00e9cor, and new costumes by Yolanda Sonnabend. In 1990 her production was filmed, and later shown on PBS in 1994 and later released onto DVD/Video. The cast included Altynai Asylmuratova as Nikiya, Darcey Bussell as Gamzatti and Irek Mukhamedov as Solor. Makarova has since staged her production for many companies throughout the world, including the Ballet of La Scala (who have recently filmed their production and released it onto DVD), the Australian Ballet, the Polish National Ballet, the Stanislavsky Ballet in Moscow and the Royal Swedish Ballet.\n\nRudolf Nureyev's production \nIn late 1991, Rudolf Nureyev, artistic director of the Paris Opera Ballet, began making plans for a revival of the full-length La Bayad\u00e8re, to be derived from the traditional Ponomarev/Chabukiani version he danced during his career with the Kirov Ballet. Nureyev enlisted the assistance of his friend and colleague Ninel Kurgapkina, former Prima Ballerina of the Kirov Ballet, to assist in staging the work. The administration of the Paris Op\u00e9ra knew that this production of La Bayad\u00e8re would be Nureyev's last offering to the world, as his health was deteriorating more and more from advanced AIDS disease. Because of this, the cultural administration of the Paris Op\u00e9ra gave the production an enormous budget, with even more funding coming from various private donations.\n\nNureyev called upon the Italian opera designer Ezio Frigerio to create the d\u00e9cor, and his wife, opera designer Franca Squarciapino, to create the ballet's costumes. Frigerio took inspiration from the Taj Mahal and the architecture of the Ottoman Empire, as well as drawings of the original d\u00e9cor used for Petipa's 1877 production \u2013 Frigerio called his designs \"a dream of the Orient through Eastern-European eyes\". Squarciapino's costume designs were inspired by ancient Persian and Indian paintings, with elaborate head-dresses and hats, colorful shimmering fabrics, and traditional Indian garb, with much of the materials coming from Parisian boutiques that imported directly from India.\n\nNureyev's production of La Bayad\u00e8re was presented for the first time at the Palais Garnier (or the Paris Op\u00e9ra) on October 8, 1992, with Isabelle Gu\u00e9rin as Nikiya, Laurent Hilaire as Solor, and \u00c9lisabeth Platel as Gamzatti (and was later filmed in 1994 and released onto DVD/video with the same cast). The theatre was filled with many of the most prominent people of the ballet world, along with throngs of newspaper and television reporters from around the world. The production was a resounding success, with Nureyev being honored with the prestigious Ordre des Arts et des Lettres from the French Minister of Culture. The premiere of Nureyev's production was a special occasion for many in the world of ballet, as only three months later he died.\n\nThe danseur Laurent Hilaire later commented on Nureyev's revival:\n\nSergei Vikharev's production \nIn 2000 the Kirov/Mariinsky Ballet began mounting a new production of Petipa's 1900 revival of La Bayad\u00e8re.\n\nThe choreographer Sergei Vikharev made use of the Stepanov Choreographic Notation from the Sergeyev Collection to assist on mounting the choreography. The production included the long deleted final act, which included the lost Danse des fleurs de lotus (Dance of the Lotus Blossoms) and Petipa's original Grand Pas d'action, which up to that point had been performed during the second act in a revised edition from 1941 as staged by Vladimir Ponomarev and Vakhtang Chabukiani. In spite of the fact that the production was billed as a \"reconstruction\", Vikharev retained nearly all of the Soviet-era choreography.\n\nFor the majority of the 20th century Minkus's original score for La Bayad\u00e8re was thought to have been lost. Unbeknownst to the company, the Mariinsky Theatre's music library had in their possession two volumes of Minkus's complete, hand-written score of 1877, as well as three manuscript rehearsal r\u00e9p\u00e9titeurs in arrangement for two violins, which included many notes for ballet masters and performers. Sergei Vikharev commented on the restoration of Minkus's score:\n\nThe Kirov/Mariinsky Ballet opened the 10th International Stars of the White Nights Festival with their reconstruction of La Bayad\u00e8re at the Mariinsky Theatre on May 31, 2002, with Daria Pavlenko as Nikiya, Elvira Tarasova as Gamzatti, and Igor Kolb as Solor. The production received a mixed reaction from the St. Petersburg audience, which largely comprised the most prominent persons of the Russian ballet. The celebrated Ballerina of the Kirov/Mariinsky Ballet Altynai Asylmuratova was seen weeping after the performance, allegedly because of her shock at seeing the ballet presented in this way. When the company included the production on their tours, it caused a sensation around the world, particularly in New York and London. To date the Kirov/Mariinsky Ballet only perform the Vikharev production on special occasions.\n\nOther productions \nAmong other notable productions is Vladimir Malakhov's staging of La Bayad\u00e8re for Vienna State Opera in 1999 and for Staatsballett Berlin in 2002.\n\nEkaterina Vazem on the first production of 'La Bayad\u00e8re' \n\nHere is an account by Ekaterina Vazem, Soloist of His Imperial Majesty and Prima Ballerina of the St. Petersburg Imperial Theatres, on the first production of La Bayad\u00e8re.\n\nReferences\n\nSources \n\nAmerican Ballet Theatre. Program for Natalia Makar", " \"Jean Coeur,\" or \"John Ceur\" was traveling up and down the Ohio River, distributing gifts and gaining influence with the Indians.\n\nCroghan returned to Logstown again in November, 1750, to tend to his trading post there. He wrote to Governor James Hamilton on 16 November: \"Yesterday, Andrew Montour and I got to this Town, where we found thirty warriors of the Six Nations...They told us that they saw John Coeur [Joncaire] about one hundred and fifty miles up this River at an Indian Town, where he intends to build a Fort if he can get liberty from the Ohio Indians. He has five canoes loaded with goods, and is very generous in making presents to all the chiefs of the Indians that he meets with.\"\n\nAlarmed by these continued attempts of the French to maintain influence over the Ohio tribes, the Pennsylvania government purchased gifts and sent Croghan and Montour back to Logstown. They arrived on 18 May 1751, and were welcomed warmly. Two days after they arrived, \"Mr. loncoeur and one Frenchman more\" arrived, accompanied by forty Iroquois warriors. On 21 May Joncaire called a council with the leaders of Logstown, and Croghan was also there. Joncaire requested that the leaders respond to C\u00e9loron's speech of August, 1749, challenging them to end all trade relations with the English. In his letter to Governor Hamilton, Croghan noted, \"To enforce that speech he gave them a very large belt of wampum,\" a symbol of the importance of his message. Keeshequeatama, Speaker for the Six Nations, replied:\n\nYou desire we may turn our Brothers, the English, away, and not suffer them to come and trade with us again.\nI now tell you from our hearts, we will not; for we ourselves brought them here to trade with us and they shall live amongst us as long as there is one of us alive. You are always threatening our Brothers what you will do to them, and in particular, to that man (pointing to George Croghan); now, if you have anything to say to our Brothers, tell it to him if you be a man, as you Frenchmen always say you are, and the Head of all Nations. Our Brothers are the people we will trade with, and not you.\n\nHe then returned the belt of wampum, symbolically rejecting the French challenge to end trade with the English.\n\nOn 25 May Croghan met with Joncaire, who apologized for urging the leaders of Logstown to end trade with the English, saying that he was following orders from the Governor of Canada, but added that \"he was sure the French could not accomplish their designs with the Six Nations, without it could be done by force; which, he said, he believed they [the French] would find to be as difficult as the method they had just tried, and would meet with the like success.\"\n\nAt another meeting with the town's leaders on 28 May, the Speaker of the Six Nations addressed Joncaire directly, saying, \"Is it not our land (stamping on the ground, and putting his finger to Joncair's nose)? What right has Onontio (the Governor of New France) to our lands? I desire you may go home directly off our lands and tell Onontio to send us word immediately what was his reason for using our Brothers so, or what he means by such proceedings, that we may know what to do; for I can assure Onontio that we, the Six Nations, will not take such usage.\"\n\nOn 4 June 1751 Joncaire wrote directly to Governor Hamilton from Logstown, in French, with a warning:\n\nMonsieur the Marquis de La Jonquiere, Governor of the whole of New France, having honored me with his orders to watch that the English should make no treaty in the country of the Ohio, I have directed the traders of your government to withdraw. You cannot be ignorant, sir, that all the lands of this region have always belonged to the King of France, and that the English have no right to come there to trade. My superior has commanded me to apprise you of what I have done, in order that you might not affect ignorance of the reasons of it, and he has given me this order with so much the greater reason because it is now two years since Monsieur C\u00e9loron, by order of Monsieur de La Galissoniere, then Commandant General, warned many English who were trading with the Indians along the Ohio, against doing so, and they promised him not to return to trade on the lands, as Monsieur C\u00e9loron wrote to you.\nI have the honor to be, with great respect, Sir, Your very humble and obedient servant,\nJoncaire\nLieutenant of a detachment of the Marine\n\nJoncaire apparently abandoned the idea of constructing a blockhouse, and Governor Duquesne began preparations to send French and Canadian troupes de la marine to the south shore of Lake Erie, under the command of Paul Marin de la Malgue, to build a road and construct a series of forts (Fort Presque Isle, Fort Le Boeuf, Fort Machault), and later, Fort Duquesne.\n\nEnglish attempts to build a fort at Logstown\n\nThe Ohio Iroquois had been reluctant to allow the English to build forts in the region. As early as March 23, 1731, Seneca chiefs sent a message to Governor Patrick Gordon: \"It is [our] land but your people may trade there but not build Stone or Timber houses, but of Bark.\" Twenty years later, the English began working to obtain permission to build forts.\n\nGeorge Croghan was in Logstown in November, 1750 when the residents mentioned to him that Joncaire was exploring the idea of building a French fort nearby. In his letter of 16 November to Governor Hamilton, Croghan then adds: \"We have seen but very few of the Chiefs of the Indians they being all out a hunting, but those we have seen are of opinion that their Brothers the English ought to have a Fort on this River to secure the Trade.\" Governor Hamilton was evidently anxious to pursue this opportunity, and wanted Croghan to obtain approval from the Logstown sachems for the construction of an English fort, but told Croghan that no official request to build a fort should be made. Instead, Croghan was instructed to find out how the Indians felt about having an English stronghold on the Ohio.\n\nOn 29 May 1751, at a council meeting at Logstown between George Croghan, Andrew Montour and representatives of the Six Nations, Croghan reported the following statement from Iroquois speaker Toanahiso:\nWe expect that you our Brothers will build a Strong House on the River Ohio, that if we should be obliged to engage in a war that we should have a Place to secure our Wives and Children...Now, Brothers, we will take two months to consider and choose out a place fit for that Purpose, and then we will send You word. We hope Brothers that as soon as you receive our Message you will order such a House to be built. Brothers: that you may consider well the necessity of building such a Place of Security to strengthen our arms, and that this, our first request of that kind may have a good effect on your minds.\n\nGovernor Hamilton used this statement as evidence to the Pennsylvania Provincial Council that they should pay for the construction of a fort at a site selected by the sachems at Logstown, arguing that unless the fort were built, the English might lose not only Indian support, but control over the fur trade in Ohio. But Andrew Montour contradicted Croghan's account, stating that the Indians had never requested a fort but had only agreed to consider the idea. Montour doubted that they would allow a fort to be built near Logstown. As a result, the Provincial Council decided not to provide funding for a fort, arguing that fair dealings and occasional presents would hold the Indians as allies. At the Treaty of Logstown in June 1752, Tanacharison agreed to the construction of a fort upriver from Logstown, but his figurehead authority as half-king did not allow him to speak for the Onondaga Council. The following summer, Virginia's Ohio Company obtained permission from the Six Nations to build Fort Prince George, but construction did not begin until February of 1754.\n\nTreaty of Logstown, 1752\nIn 1749 the British Crown awarded the Ohio Company a grant of 500,000 acres in the Ohio Country between the Monongahela and the Kanawha Rivers, provided that the company would settle 100 families within seven years. The Ohio Company was also required to construct a fort and provide a garrison to protect the settlement at their own expense. The Treaty of Logstown was intended to open up land for settlement so that the Ohio Company could meet the seven-year deadline, and to obtain explicit permission to construct a fort.\n\nBetween 1 and 13 June 1752, the British held a council at Logstown with representatives of the Six Nations, and the Lenape and Shawnee who had been tributary to them. Colonel Joshua Fry, James Patton, and Lunsford Lomax represented the Colony of Virginia, and Christopher Gist, Thomas Lee, William Trent, and William Beverley represented the Ohio Company.\n\nOne of the main purposes of the Logstown treaty conference was to confirm the 1744 Lancaster Treaty in which the Six Nations supposedly gave up territory to Virginia, along the Ohio River on the southeast, as there was anxiety on the part of the colonial authorities as to whether the Indians were still willing to abide by the treaty. The Ohio Company and the Virginia commissioners also wanted the Ohio tribes to grant permission to build a fort at the forks of the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers and to allow new English settlements to be established on a half-million acres of unsettled land to the west and north of the Ohio River. The Company wanted to open trade with the Ohio Indians, which the French had forbidden. The Virginia and Pennsylvania delegates reminded the Delawares and Shawnees, \"We advise and exhort you to beware of French Councils, and that you will adhere to a strict friendship with us (the English colonies and the Six Nations).\"\n\nAt first, the Iroquois sachem, Tanacharison (referred to in the treaty as \"Thonariss, called by the English the half King\"), reminded the Virginia officials that \"the lands then sold [by the Six Nations at Lancaster in 1744] were to extend no further to the sunset [west] than the hill on the other [eastern] side of Allagany Hill,\" but he was eventually forced to cede Iroquois lands beyond the Alleghenies, granting access to the territory the colonial authorities wanted. The Virginia representatives also tried to pretend that Indians would still have access to these lands, stating in the treaty: \"Be assur'd that the King, our Father, by purchasing your Lands, had never any Intention of takeing them from you, but that we might live together as one People, & keep them from the French, who wou'd be bad Neighbours.\"\n\nAfter much urging from Andrew Montour, Tanacharison reluctantly agreed to allow a British fort to be built at the mouth of the Monongahela River, the site of present-day Pittsburgh.\n\nAt the conclusion of the Logstown conference, Tanacharison promised that existing settlements southeast of the Ohio River \"shall be unmolested by us, and that we will, as far as in our power, assist and Protect the British Subjects there.\" In spite of Tanacharison's promises, the Ohio Indians did not agree to allow English settlements in the Ohio region, and Scarouady, the Oneida half king to the Shawnees, warned, \"we [the Ohio Indians] intend to keep our country clear of settlements.\" Tanacharison himself had regrets, and a year later he told the French \"we live in a country in between [the French and the English colonies], therefore the land belongs to neither one nor t'other.\"\n\nTechnically, the treaty signed by the \"Half-king\" was not binding on the part of the Onondaga Council, although the colonial commissioners and the Ohio Company hoped that they would support the treaty, or at least agree to consider additional treaties in the coming months.\n\nAppointment of Shingas as chief of the Lenape\n\nSince the death of Sassoonan in 1747, the Lenape had been without an effective leader. Sassoonan had selected Pisquetomen as his successor, but James Logan saw him as an obstinate and independent obstructionist to Pennsylvania's political agenda. Logan also wanted a leader with the determination to bring those Lenape who had migrated to Ohio back to the Susquehanna region, and felt that Pisquetomen would be unable and unwilling to attempt this. Logan and Weiser actively tried to promote Lappapitton as Sassoonan's successor, but Lappapitton declined out of respect for Pisquetomen. The Iroquois instructed Tanacharison to decide on a leader acceptable to all parties, and at Logstown Tanacharison presented Shingas as his choice, arguing \"that is our right to give you a King\" to represent the Lenape in \"all publick Business\" between the Lenape, the Six Nations, and the British. Tanacharison announced to the Virginia commissioners, \"we have given our Cousins, the Delawars, a King, who lives there, we desire you will look upon him as a Chief of that Nation.\" Shingas was absent from the treaty conference, so Tamaqua \"stood proxy for his brother and was presented with a lace hat and jacket and suit.\"\n\nFrench response to the treaty\n\nThe French wanted to maintain control of the Ohio Valley because it lay between their two great provinces of Canada and La Louisiane, and English control of the region would make French commerce, defense and communication slower, more expensive, and less secure. They responded to the news of the treaty by sending troops to construct and garrison a series of forts, intended to solidify their military presence in the Ohio region, intimidate the Native American inhabitants, and keep the British out. Francois Bigot, intendant of New France since 1748, wrote this summary of the French plan on 26 October 1752:\nIt is necessary to send 2000 Frenchmen with 200 of our domiciliated savages to this river (the Ohio)...in the spring; to build a store house at the lower end of this portage on the shore of Lake Erie, and another at the end of this same portage on Lake Chatakouin; likewise, to make a fort at La Paille Coup\u00e9e (Brokenstraw Creek, later the site of Fort Le Boeuf) where M. de Joncaire is located, another at the Written Rock (McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania, below Pittsburgh) or at Chiningu\u00e9 (Logstown), and a third at Sonhioto (the Scioto River, site of Lower Shawneetown). The garrisons of these forts will be taken from the 2000 men.\n\nIn late 1753 (the exact date is unknown) the sachems at Logstown received a letter from Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre stating: \nI am commanded to build four strong Houses, viz. at Weningo, Mohongialo Forks, Logs-Town, and Beaver Creek, and this I will do...All the Land and Waters on this Side Allegheny Hills are mine, on the other Side theirs; this is agreed on between the two Crowns over the great Waters. I do not like your selling your Lands to the English; they shall draw you into no more foolish Bargains. I will take Care of your Lands for you, and of you.\n\nVisit by George Washington, 1753\nIn late 1753, Virginia Governor Dinwiddie appointed newly-commissioned Major George Washington as a special envoy to the French commander at Fort Le Boeuf to demand that the French vacate the Ohio Valley territory, which the British had claimed. Washington was also ordered to make peace with the Iroquois Confederacy and to gather intelligence about the French forces.\n\nWashington left Williamsburg, Virginia on 30 October with eight men, heading to Logstown to meet with Iroquois allies. On his way, he stopped at the homestead of Christopher Gist near Wills Creek and Gist joined them.\n\nArriving in Logstown on 23 November, Washington held council with Shingas, Scarouady, and Tanacharison, who had recently returned from a journey to Fort Le Boeuf himself. The chiefs provided Washington with information about the best route to Fort Le Boeuf, and called a council of sachems. Washington explained his mission, and received assurances that the Indians and the English \"were brothers.\" Tanacharison told Washington that \"he cou\u2019d not consent to our going without a Guard, for fear some Accident shou\u2019d befall us,\" and volunteered to accompany Washington, along with Kaghswaghtaniunt (White Thunder), Guyasuta, and Jeskakake, on his journey to Fort Le Boeuf. Their purpose was to return three belts of Wampum sent by the French as a symbol of friendship. Returning the wampum was a gesture intended to show Washington that the sachems at Logstown were allied with the English. Washington wrote in his diary that \"I knew that returning of Wampum was the abolishing of Agreements; & giving this up was shaking of all Dependence upon the French.\"\n\n While at Logstown, Washington encountered four French deserters who had fled from a French military supply convoy from Fort de Chartres in Illinois, under the command of Captain Demazili\u00e8re and headed towards Lake Erie, where a French military force under the command of Paul Marin de la Malgue was building a road between Fort Presque Isle, Fort Le Boeuf, and Fort Machault. The deserters had learned of La Malgue's sudden death on 29 October and had taken refuge in Lower Shawneetown. They were on their way to Philadelphia in the company of an English trader.\n\nWashington and his men left Logstown on 30 November and reached Venango at French Creek on 4 December, where they were warmly greeted by Philippe-Thomas Chabert de Joncaire, who was in command of the French troops at Venango. 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\u041e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\n \u0414\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\n \u0414\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0437\u043c (\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0430)\n \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0442\n \u0413\u0438\u043f\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u044c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043c\n \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0425\u0430\u0439\u0434\u0435\u0433\u0433\u0435\u0440\n \u0416\u0430\u043d-\u0424\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0443\u0430 \u041b\u0438\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0440\n \u0412\u0435\u0449\u044c\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0435\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0415., \u0422\u0443\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0422. \u0414\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f // \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0444\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0438\u0438. \u042d\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f. / \u041f\u043e\u0434 \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0410.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u0413\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u043d.: \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0438\u0441: \u041a\u043d\u0438\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0414\u043e\u043c, 2002.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 292\u2014293.\u00a0\u2014 (\u041c\u0438\u0440 \u044d\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0439) ISBN 985-6656-20-6. ISBN 985-428-461-1\n \u0410\u0432\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u0421. \u0424\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u044b \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430 \u0432 \u0433\u0443\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430\u0445.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c., 1977.\n \u0410\u0432\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u0421. \u0414\u0435\u0440\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0430 \u0438 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f // \u0414\u0435\u0440\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0430 \u0416. \u041e \u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u0444\u0440. \u0438 \u0432\u0441\u0442. \u0441\u0442. \u041d. \u0410\u0432\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: Ad Marginem, 2000.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 7\u2014107.\n \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0442 \u0420. \u041c\u0438\u0444\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 / \u043f\u0435\u0440., \u0432\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f. \u0441\u0442. \u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442. \u0421.\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u0417\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u0418\u0437\u0434-\u0432\u043e \u0438\u043c. \u0421\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0448\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445, 1996.\u00a0\u2014 312 \u0441.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 5-8242-0048-3; 2-\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0434., 2004.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 5-8242-0076-9; 3-\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0434.: \u041c.: \u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442, 2010.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-5-8291-1239-4.\n \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0442 \u0420. \u0421\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0442\u044c \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430. \u0418\u0437\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b: \u0421\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043e\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430. \u041f\u043e\u044d\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c., 1994\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 384\u2014391\n \u0411\u043e\u0434\u0440\u0438\u0439\u044f\u0440 \u0416. \u0421\u0438\u043c\u0443\u043b\u044f\u043a\u0440\u044b \u0438 \u0441\u0438\u043c\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0446\u0438\u044f / Simulacres et simulation (1981), \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 2011\u00a0\u0433., \u043f\u0435\u0440. \u0410. \u041a\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.:\u0420\u0438\u043f\u043e\u043b-\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u043a, 2015.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-5-386-07870-6, ISBN 978-5-91478-023-1; \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 2008\u00a0\u0433., \u043f\u0435\u0440. \u041e.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u041f\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u0443\u043b\u0430.: \u0422\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0441\u0442, 2013.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-5-88422-506-0\n \u0411\u044b\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0412. \u042d\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u0413\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430, 2004\n \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 A. A., \u0413\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0410. \u0410. \u0414\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f // \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0444\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0438\u0438: \u044d\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f / \u0421\u043e\u0441\u0442. \u0438 \u0433\u043b. \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447. \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0410. \u0410. \u0413\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u043d.: \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0438\u0441; \u041a\u043d\u0438\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0414\u043e\u043c. 2002.\u00a0\u2014 1376 \u0441.\u00a0\u2014 (\u041c\u0438\u0440 \u044d\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0439). ISBN 985-6656-20-6, ISBN 985-428-461-1.\n \u0414\u0435\u0440\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0430 \u0416. \u041e \u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u0444\u0440. \u0438 \u0432\u0441\u0442. \u0441\u0442. \u041d. \u0410\u0432\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: Ad Marginem, 2000.\u00a0\u2014 512 \u0441.\n \n \u0414\u043e\u0440\u0444\u043c\u0430\u043d \u041c. \u041a\u0430\u043a \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0448\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043c \u043e \u0434\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438? // Sensus Novus (\u0421\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0442-\u041f\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433), 2011\n \u0417\u044b\u0431\u0430\u0439\u043b\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u041b.\u00a0\u041a., \u0428\u0430\u043f\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0410. \u041a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438: \u0433\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0441 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438\u0441 // \u0413\u0443\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438: \u0441\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442\u044b. \u0424\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0438\u044f. \u041f\u0441\u0438\u0445\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f. \u041c., 1996.\u00a0\u2014 104 \u0441.\n \u0418\u043b\u044c\u0438\u043d \u0418. \u041f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043c, \u0434\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0437\u043c, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c. \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430: \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0430, 1996.\u00a0\u2014 256 \u0441.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 5-87\u043104-035-5.\n \u041c\u0430\u043a\u043b\u044e\u044d\u043d \u041c. \u041f\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0430: \u0432\u043d\u0435\u0448\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 = Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u041a\u0443\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435, 2007.\u00a0\u2014 464 \u0441.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-5-901679-58-6.\n \n \u041e\u0441\u0438\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u041d.\u00a0\u0413.\u00a0\u041f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c \u0438 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c: \u0410\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u00ab\u041a\u0420\u041f\u0410 \u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u00bb, 2005\n \u041f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c. \u042d\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f / \u041f\u043e\u0434 \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0410. \u0410. \u0413\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430, \u041c.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u041c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0439\u043a\u043e\n \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u043c\u0430\u043d \u0412.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u0414\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0434\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438: \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0443\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0445 \u0437\u0432\u0435\u0437\u0434\u044b \u0414\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0430 // \u0412\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u044b \u0444\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0438\u0438. \u2116\u00a010. 2001\n \u0425\u0430\u0439\u0434\u0435\u0433\u0433\u0435\u0440 \u041c. \u0411\u044b\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f\n Deconstruction.\u00a0\u2014 Yale Law School, 1995\n Derrida J. \"Letter to a Japanese Friend, \" in Derrida and Diff\u00e9rance, ed. David Wood and Robert Bernasconi (Warwick: Parousia Press, 1985).\n Deconstructing History, published 1997, 2nd. Edn. Routledge, 2006\n Phiddian R. Are Parody and Deconstruction Secretly the Same Thing?\u00a0\u2014 \u00abNew Literary History\u00bb, 1997\u00a0\u2014 vol.28, no.4, 673\u2014696\n\n\u041f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c\n \n\u0416", " \u0443 \u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0428\u0438\u0431\u0430\u043d-\u0445\u0430\u043d, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0411\u0430\u0433\u0430\u0434\u0443\u0440-\u0445\u0430\u043d, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0414\u0436\u0443\u0447\u0438-\u0431\u0443\u0433\u0430, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0411\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043a\u0443\u043b, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u044b\u043d \u041c\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0430-\u0422\u0438\u043c\u0443\u0440, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0411\u0438\u043a-\u043a\u0443\u043d\u0434\u0438-\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u043d, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0410\u043b\u0438\u0439-\u0443\u0433\u043b\u0430\u043d, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0425\u0430\u0434\u0436\u0438 \u041c\u043e\u0445\u0430\u043c\u043c\u0435\u0434-\u0445\u0430\u043d, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u044b\u043d \u041c\u0430\u0445\u043c\u0443\u0434\u0435\u043a-\u0445\u0430\u043d, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0410\u0431\u0430\u043a-\u0445\u0430\u043d, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0422\u0443\u043b\u0443\u043a-\u0445\u0430\u043d, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0428\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0439-\u0441\u0443\u043b\u0442\u0430\u043d, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0423\u0437\u0430\u0440-\u0441\u0443\u043b\u0442\u0430\u043d, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0411\u0430\u0433\u0430\u0434\u0443\u0440-\u0441\u0443\u043b\u0442\u0430\u043d. \u0423 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u044f\u043d\u0443\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435 \u041c\u0430\u0445\u043c\u0443\u0434\u0435\u043a-\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0441\u044b\u043d \u041c\u0443\u0440\u0442\u0430\u0437\u0430-\u0445\u0430\u043d, \u0443 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\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u044b\u0441\u0443 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0431\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0433\u0430 \u0418\u0440\u0442\u044b\u0448\u0430, \u0432 6 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0445 \u043d\u0438\u0436\u0435 \u0422\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0430 (\u0421\u0443\u0441\u0433\u0443\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u044b\u0441) \u0434\u043e\u0447\u044c \u0428\u0438\u0433\u0430\u0439-\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0430, \u043c\u0430\u0442\u044c \u041a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0438 \u0410\u0437\u0438\u043c\u0430\n \u0421\u0430\u043b\u0442\u0430\u043d\u044b\u043c\n \u0421\u044e\u0439\u0434\u0435\u0434\u0436\u0430\u043d\n \u042f\u043d\u0434\u0435\u0432\u043b\u0435\u0442 (\u0414\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0443\u043b\u0430\u0442)\n \u0410\u043a\u0442\u0443\u043b\u0443\u043c (\u0410\u043a\u0442\u043e\u043b\u044b\u043d)\n \u0410\u043a-\u0421\u044e\u0439\u0440\u044e\u043d (\u0410\u043a\u0441\u043e\u0440\u0435\u043a)\n \u0428\u0435\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043b\u044c (\u0428\u0435\u0433\u043b\u044f\u043b\u0438)\n \u041a\u0443\u0431\u0443\u043b (\u041a\u0443\u0431\u044b\u043b)\n \u0427\u0435\u043f\u0448\u0430\u043d (\u0427\u0435\u0431\u0435\u0448\u0430\u043d)\n\u0418\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e 17 \u0441\u044b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0439 \u0445\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u041a\u0443\u0447\u0443\u043c\u0430:\n \u0410\u0434\u0436\u0438-\u0413\u0438\u0440\u0435\u0439 (1587\u20141662)\n \u0410\u043b\u0438 (\u0410\u043b\u0435\u0439", " life\n\nHe was born in Montreal, Quebec, and attended Lower Canada College in Montreal. He studied creative writing at Concordia University under noted Canadian poet Deborah Eibel, and earned his BA magna cum laude in Communication Studies from Concordia in 1978. While a student, he took a six-month lecture-seminar with Jean-Luc Godard and worked as director John Huston's personal assistant during the filming of Angela. He began his media career covering the 1973 Yom Kippur War as a cameraman. He later worked as a reporter, editor and film critic for various Canadian publications, and made documentary films at the National Film Board of Canada. In 1980, he moved to Los Angeles, where he collaborated with cult film director Monte Hellman on a number of film projects. He later wrote screenplays for a variety of film producers including Francis Coppola, Lawrence Gordon, Steve Tisch, Michael Gruskoff, Martin Poll and Mace Neufeld. In 1988, he helped adapt Miguel Pinero's play Midnight Moon at the Greasy Spoon for KCRW radio, starring Ed Asner and Peter Falk. In 1989 he wrote his first television project, the movie of the week Out on the Edge which won the American Psychological Association Award of Excellence. This led to writing assignments on other movies of the week and for the series Star Trek: The Next Generation, Capital News, Veronica Clare and Nasty Boys.\n\nCareer\nBalcer is noted for writing and showrunning the television series Law & Order, and for creating and showrunning its spin-off series Law & Order: Criminal Intent. He was hired as staff writer on Law & Orders first season in 1990, becoming showrunner in the show's seventh season in 1996. During his tenure as showrunner, Law & Order won the Emmy for Outstanding Drama Series; became a Top Ten drama in the Nielsen ratings; was syndicated to TNT Network in a deal which at the time was the most expensive off-network series sale ever to cable; received an unprecedented five-season pick-up from NBC; and tied Gunsmoke for longest-running TV drama.\n\nBalcer won an Emmy in 1997 as Showrunner and Executive Producer of Law & Order. He has also won a Peabody Award, a Writers Guild of America Award, four Edgar Awards from the Mystery Writers of America (three for his writing for Law & Order, and a fourth for Law & Order: Criminal Intent), a Career Award from the Reims International Television Festival, and a Career Angie Award from the International Mystery Writers Festival.\n\nIn writing about legal issues, Balcer has drawn on his own experiences with law enforcement and his first-hand encounter with the brutal application of authoritarian power - at age 16, he was picked up as a suspected FLQ sympathizer during Quebec's October Crisis in 1970 and held overnight in the Montreal Police's infamous Station 10 where he was interrogated and beaten, before being released the next day. That experience, he says, gave him a harsh introduction to the reality lived by many disadvantaged communities.\n\nHis work has been recognized outside the entertainment community: in 1999 and 2000, he received the Silver Gavel Award from the American Bar Association for his Law & Order episodes \"DWB\" and \"Hate\"; in 2004, he received a Margaret Sanger Award from Planned Parenthood for his Law & Order: Criminal Intent episode \"The Third Horseman\"; in 2010, he received the Champion of Justice award from the Washington-based Alliance for Justice, for his work on the Law & Order episode \"Memo from the Dark Side\". In 2004, he was awarded the Alumnus of the Year from Concordia University. On November 17, 2008, he received an honorary Doctorate of Laws (LLD) from Concordia at their fall convocation and delivered the Commencement Address.\n\nBalcer has received additional recognitions, including being commissioned a Kentucky Colonel by Kentucky Governor Steve Beshear in 2008; in the Season Five episode of The Sopranos, \"In Camelot\", Chris's writing friend JT (played by Tim Daly) tells Chris that he has a meeting with Ren\u00e9 Balcer about a writing job. Balcer's altercation with a Fox employee during the Writers Guild strike on January 10, 2008 became the subject of a joke by David Letterman during his monologue on January 12, 2008. At the North Dakota Museum of Art, Balcer's Law & Order episodes are played in a continuous loop in the installation Barton Benes Period Room: 21st Century Artist Studio.\n\nIn October 2009, Balcer came under attack by right-wing bloggers for an episode of Law & Order about the Bush Administration's Enhanced Interrogation policy. Writing in Breitbart, former Law & Order star Michael Moriarty accused Balcer of being a \"Marxist agent provocateur.\" Balcer said of the attacks, \"What many of these critics fail to realize is that Law & Order has always been an equal-opportunity offender, and if a Democratic administration had implemented this despicable (torture) policy, our show would have taken them to task for it.\"\n\nBalcer was showrunner for Law & Order: Criminal Intent through the fifth season. In March 2007, Balcer returned to Law & Order at the end of its 17th season as executive producer and head writer. He continued on as showrunner through the show's 20th and final season, writing and directing the show's series finale \"Rubber Room\", which the New York Times called the \"best finale of all\" that season's TV series. In June 2010, he was hired as showrunner of the Law & Order spinoff, Law & Order: Los Angeles. LOLA, as it was called, was cancelled after one season, with Balcer again writing and directing the series finale. Balcer then rewrote the series finale of Law & Order Criminal Intent, bringing to a close his long association with the Law & Order franchise.\n\nIn 2012, Balcer created the series Jo, an English-language cop drama set in Paris and starring Jean Reno, Wunmi Mosaku and Celyn Jones. Shot in Paris, the eight-episode series premiered internationally in January 2013. Jo was ranked fourth in a listing of the Top 30 Best French Detective Series. In 2013, he served as showrunner and executive producer of the CBS pilot, The Ordained, with Charlie Cox.\n\nIn 2013, Balcer made two short videos: Watching Tea Leaves in Shanxi, was shot in China and is a zen meditation on the dynamics of tea leaves in fluid, the video is available on Vimeo and YouTube; the other, Blue Sky, was shot in Nice, France and is an \"unhinged zen piece\" featuring the music of Chinese contemporary composer Huang Ruo, the video is available on Vimeo and YouTube.\n\nIn 2015, Balcer wrote and produced For Justice, a pilot for CBS directed by Ava DuVernay, and developed a series about the porn world in the early 1980s with Owen Wilson for the Starz channel entitled WonderWorld,. In 2016, the CBC and NBC green lighted Balcer's environmental thriller The Council set in the Canadian Arctic.\n\nIn 2017, Balcer co-directed, co-wrote and produced the documentary Above the Drowning Sea, narrated by Julianna Margulies and Tony Goldwyn. The documentary tells the epic story of thousands of Austrian Jewish refugees who escaped the Holocaust and found refuge in Shanghai. The film has been the Official Selection at 31 international film festivals, winning the Golden Dragon Award for Best Documentary at the Ferrara Film Festival along with other awards and nominations at other festivals.\n\nIn the summer of 2017, Balcer wrote and produced the limited series Law & Order True Crime: The Menendez Murders, a kaleidoscopic take on the notorious 1989 murders of Beverly Hills socialites by their sons. Created by Balcer, the series stars Edie Falco, Heather Graham, Josh Charles, Elizabeth Reaser and Anthony Edwards. The eight-episode series aired in the Fall of 2017 on NBC.\n\nIn 2019, Balcer created FBI: Most Wanted. The series stars Julian McMahon, Kellan Lutz, Keisha Castle-Hughes, Roxy Sternberg and Nathaniel Arcand, and premiered on CBS on January 7, 2020. It was that season's highest-rated new drama. FBI: Most Wanted was renewed for a fourth and fifth season on May 9, 2022.\n\nBalcer has served on the jury for Best Drama Series at the 2013 Monte-Carlo Television Festival, and on the jury for Best Television Miniseries or Film at the 2014 Shanghai Television Festival.\n\nDuring his early days in Hollywood, Balcer was an usher at the Tiffany Theater in 1981 for its famous midnight and 2 am screenings of the cult classic Rocky Horror Picture Show.\n\nBalcer is a distant cousin of actress Alana de la Garza, sharing a common relative Juan Cortina, a Mexican folk hero known as the Rio Grande Robin Hood.\n\nOther activities\n\nIn the summer of 2011, Balcer collaborated with Chinese artist Xu Bing on an artwork that was part of Xu Bing's exhibition Tobacco Project Virginia at the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts in September of that year. The Washington Post named Tobacco Project Virginia one of the Top Ten art exhibitions of 2011. Balcer's contribution\u2014a poem entitled Backbone using Virginia tobacco plantation brand names as a tribute to the enslaved black women who picked the tobacco\u2014was integrated by Xu Bing into an installation. The work is now part of the VMFA's permanent collection.\n\nBalcer later turned the poem into a blues song, Backbone (Mattawin Music), featuring the blues artists Captain Luke on vocals and Big Ron Hunter on guitar and produced by Michael Sackler-Berner. Backbone was exhibited at the Aldrich Museum of Contemporary Art in Connecticut in 2012, the Taipei Fine Arts Museum and the Asia Society Hong Kong Center in 2014, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in 2015 at SCADA in 2015-16, and at the Ullens Center for Contemporary Art in Beijing in the fall of 2018. Balcer produced a film documenting Xu Bing's Tobacco Project: Virginia (2011).\n\nIn 2006, Balcer donated a collection of works by the Japanese woodblock artist Kawase Hasui to the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. The Ren\u00e9 and Carolyn Balcer Collection comprises some 800 works and includes woodblock prints, watercolors, screens, sketches and other works and writings by Hasui. A major exhibit of the collection, Hasui: Water & Shadow, opened at the VMFA in November 2014 and ran until March 2015.\n\nIn 2010, through his Mattawin Company, Balcer sponsored the publication of a 13-volume catalogue of the works of the Wuming (No Name) Group, a cooperative of underground Chinese artists during the Cultural Revolution. In the fall of 2011, Balcer and his wife Carolyn organized and sponsored the exhibition Blooming in the Shadows: Unofficial Chinese Art 1974\u20131985 at New York's China Institute, featuring works from the Wuming, Stars and Grass groups of experimental artists. A larger iteration of the exhibit, Light Before Dawn, opened at the new Asia Society Museum in Hong Kong in May 2013.\n\nThe exhibit was accompanied by a new documentary written and produced by Balcer, The No Name Painting Association, about the Wuming Group. The documentary was an official selection at some thirty festivals in the US, Canada, Europe and Australia, garnering a dozen awards and nominations.\n\nIn 2011, Mattawin sponsored the publication of a book of photographs by Chinese artist Ai Weiwei, Ai Weiwei New York 1983\u20131993. In 2014, it sponsored the art exhibit Oil and Water: Reinterpreting Ink at New York's Museum of Chinese in America.\n\nMattawin also co-published A Token of Elegance (2015), a historical and photo survey of cigarette holders as objets d'art; Chow! Secrets of Chinese Cooking (2020), an updated edition of a timeless classic about Chinese cuisine and culture and winner of a 2021 Gourmand World Cookbook Award; and the historical biographies Kuo Ping-Wen, Scholar, Reformer, Statesman (2016) and C.T. Wang: Looking Back and Looking Forward (2008).\n\nBalcer has contributed essays to Impressions: The Journal of the Japanese Art Society of America, and It Begins with Metamorphosis: Xu Bing.\n\nBalcer has lectured widely about writing, art and the duties of artists in free societies, notably at Columbia, NYU, Harvard, UCLA, UPenn, and Loyola Marymount; at Internews (Moscow), the Sorbonne (Paris), Central Academy of Fine Arts (Beijing), Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Museum of Fine Arts Boston, Canadian Film Centre (Toronto), Deauville American Film Festival, Banff World Media Festival, Monte Carlo TV Festival, International Ukiyo-e Society (Tokyo), and SPAA Conference (Brisbane).\n\nFilmography\n\nAverbach Vs. Zak (1976) Short\nSolid State (1976) Short\nTurcot Interchange (1978) Short\nTwist of Fate (1979) Short\nOut on the Edge (1989) TV movie\nNasty Boys (1990) TV series\nSolar Crisis (1990) Feature Film - Uncredited Rewrite\nStranger in the Family (1991) TV movie\nLaw & Order (1990\u20132010) TV series\nStar Trek:The Next Generation (1992) TV Series\nThe Crow (1994) Feature Film - Uncredited Rewrite\nJudge Dredd (1995) Feature Film - Uncredited Rewrite\nPeople V (1995) TV movie\nMission Protection Rapproch\u00e9e (1997) TV series\nLaw & Order: Special Victims Unit (1999) TV series\nHopewell (2000) TV movie\nLaw & Order: Criminal Intent (2001\u20132011) TV series\nProof of Lies (2006) TV movie\nParis Criminal Inquiries (2007\u20132008) TV series\nLaw & Order Criminal Intent Russia (2007\u20132009) TV series\nLaw & Order: UK (2009\u20132014) TV series\nXu Bing Tobacco Project Virginia (2011) Documentary Short\nLaw & Order LA (2011) TV series\nThe Ordained (2013) TV movie\nWatching Tea Leaves in Shanxi (2013) Video Short\nJo (2013) TV series\nThe No Name Painting Association (2013) Documentary Short\nBlue Sky (2013) Video Short \nFor Justice (2015) TV Movie\nBig Orange Predator (2016) Video Short\nThe Legend of Embroidery (2017) Documentary Short\nLaw & Order True Crime: The Menendez Murders (2017) Mini-series\nAbove The Drowning Sea (2017) Documentary Feature\nFBI (2019) TV series\nFBI: Most Wanted (2020) TV series\n\nAwards and nominationsEmmy Award 1994 Nominated for Best Drama Series Law & Order as producer\n 1995 Nominated for Best Drama Series Law & Order as supervising producer\n 1996 Nominated for Best Drama Series Law & Order as co-executive producer\n 1997 Won for Best Drama Series Law & Order as executive producer\n 1998 Nominated for Best Drama Series Law & Order as executive producer\n 1999 Nominated for Best Drama Series Law & Order as executive producer\n 2000 Nominated for Best Drama Series Law & Order as executive producerWriters Guild of America 1998 Won for Best Episode Episodic Drama\n 2000 Nominated for Best Episode Episodic DramaPeabody Award 1997 Won for Law & OrderGolden Globes 1998 Nominated for Best Television Series - Drama Law & Order as executive producer\n 1999 Nominated for Best Television Series - Drama Law & Order as executive producerEdgar Award \u2013 Mystery Writers of America 1993 Won for Best Television Episode + One Nomination\n 1994 Nominated for Best Television Episode\n 1995 Nominated for Best Television Episode\n 1998 Two Nominations for Best Television Episode\n 1999 Won for Best Television Episode\n 2000 Won for Best Television Episode + Two Nominations\n 2003 Nominated for Best Television Episode\n 2004 Nominated for Best Television Episode\n 2005 Won for Best Television Episode + Three NominationsProducers Guild of America Award 1997 Won for Outstanding Producer of Episodic TelevisionAmerican Psychological Association 1989 Award of ExcellenceAdvocates for Youth 1995 Nancy Susan Reynolds AwardInternational Monitor Award 1999 Best Achievement for Film Originated Television SeriesABA Silver Gavel Award for the Media & the Arts 1999 Silver Gavel Award for Television\n 2000 Silver Gavel Award for TelevisionPlanned Parenthood2004 Margaret Sanger AwardBanff Television Festival 2006 Nominated for Banff Rockie Award for Best Television SeriesReims International Television Festival 2006 Best Series or Serial\n 2006 Career AwardInternational Mystery Writers Festival2010 Career Angie AwardAlliance for Justice 2010 Champion of Justice AwardAlliance for Children's Rights 2010 National Champion for Children AwardIndie Fest 2013 Award of Merit for Best Documentary ShortCalifornia International Shorts Festival 2013 Won for Best Documentary ShortAccolade Competition 2013 Award of Merit for Best Short DocumentaryBest Shorts Competition 2013 Award of Excellence for Best Short DocumentaryKansas City Film Festival 2014 Won for Best US/International Short DocumentaryRichmond International Film Festival 2014 Best of Festival for Documentary Short FilmUSA Film Festival 2014 Nominated for Grand Prize Best Documentary ShortWilliamsburg Independent Film Festival 2014 Distinctive Honors for Best Documentary ShortPortsmouth International Film Festival 2014 Won for Best Short DocumentaryMadrid International Film Festival", " state shall consist of twelve persons chosen in the following manner...\"\n\nThe city of Philadelphia and the eleven counties existing at that time each elected a representative to sit on the Council. These eleven counties were Philadelphia (at that time a governmental entity distinct from the City of Philadelphia), Chester, Bucks, Lancaster, York, Cumberland, Berks, Northampton, Bedford, Northumberland, and Westmoreland. Seats were added for Washington, Fayette, Franklin, Montgomery, Dauphin, Luzerne, Huntingdon, and Allegheny as those counties were established. Many of these counties occupied considerably different and often much larger territories in the late 18th century than they presently.\n\nCounsellors were elected to three-year terms; the terms were staggered so that one third would be contested each year. (Counsellors is the spelling used in the Constitution itself, although the word is also rendered councillors, counsellors, and councilors in other documents.) The president and vice-president of the Council were chosen from those twelve counsellors, elected to one-year terms by an annual joint ballot of the Council and the General Assembly (the state legislature), usually held in November.\n\nSection 20: The Council and its president were given power to\n\n appoint judges, attorneys general, naval officers, and other officers\n fill offices vacant due to death, resignation, removal, or disqualification\n correspond with other states\n prepare business to present to the General Assembly\n serve as judges on cases of impeachment\n grant pardons and remit fines (except in cases of impeachment)\n grant reprieves in cases of treason and murder\n ensure that the laws and other acts of the General Assembly were carried out\n lay embargoes and prohibit the export of any commodity (in certain circumstances)\n\nAdditionally:\n\n the president of council was to serve as commander in chief of the military forces of the state\n the Council was ordered to keep an accurate record of its proceedings\n\nMeeting place and time\nThe 1776 Constitution stipulated that the Council meet at the same time and location as the General Assembly. In practice, the Council sat year-round: there was no formal cycle of sessions (e.g. 110th United States Congress) and no specific date for the start of term of councilors or council officers.\n\nThe Supreme Executive Council formally convened March 4, 1777. The first president and vice-president were elected the following day. The Council sat in the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia, now known as Independence Hall. It met in what had been the Governor's Council Chamber during British rule. The Executive Council, along with the General Assembly, moved to Lancaster, Pennsylvania ahead of the British occupation of Philadelphia in the fall of 1777\u2014the last meeting in Philadelphia took place on September 23 and the first in Lancaster on October 1. The Council returned to Philadelphia June 26, 1778.\n\nThe Council was replaced by a single governor on December 21, 1790.\n\nPresidents of Council\n\nSeven men served as president of the Supreme Executive Council. (One, George Bryan, was never elected to the position, but today is considered by the Commonwealth to have been a full-fledged governor of Pennsylvania, perhaps due to the length of his term as acting president.) Several figure prominently in the history of Pennsylvania, but none more so than Dr. Benjamin Franklin. His presidency was one of his last acts of public service, and he died less than two years after leaving office. Franklin was also the longest-serving president, having held the office for slightly over three years. There is some question about the de facto end of his term, suggesting that the aging Franklin was not actively involved in affairs of state toward the end of his presidency. (This is certainly not a consensus view, as other sources report that all actions of the Council during his term had Franklin's approval, even if that meant convening the Council at Franklin's home.) The shortest term was that of George Bryan, who served as acting president for just over six months. Although these men may be referred to properly as Presidents of Pennsylvania their office is analogous to the modern office of governor, and they are often included in lists of those who have held the latter title. Presidents and vice-presidents were styled His Excellency.\n\nLegacy\nThe neighborhood of South Philadelphia contains a series of east-west streets named in honor of Pennsylvania's presidents and early governors. Moving south on South 25th Street are Wharton, Reed and Dickinson Streets. (Bryan, never officially elected to the office, is omitted.) Moore Street, out of sequence, follows after two intervening streets (Tasker and Morris). There is no Franklin Street in the immediate neighborhood, probably because there already was a North Franklin Street on the west side of Franklin Square, these being two of the numerous memorials to Franklin already in Philadelphia. Moore is followed by Mifflin Street, McKean Street, and Snyder Street (the latter being Pennsylvania's second and third governors under the 1790 Constitution). Wharton Street borders Wharton Square Park, although it is not clear if the park is named after Thomas Wharton or another member of his prominent family. Dickinson College and the Dickinson School of Law, both in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, were named after John Dickinson.\n\nVice-presidents of Council\n\nSimilarly, the office of Vice-President of Pennsylvania is analogous to the modern office of Lieutenant Governor. Of the ten men who held the office, two succeeded to the presidency (the first\u2014Bryan\u2014de facto, the second\u2014Moore\u2014de jure). The longest vice-presidential term was that of George Bryan; he served over two and a half years, although he also served as de facto acting president for six months concurrent with his vice-presidential term. The shortest term was that of Matthew Smith, who served for twelve days in October 1779.\n\n\"Acting\" presidents\nAt least one source credits four vice-presidents with having served as acting presidents:\n\nGeorge Bryan (acting president May 23, 1778 \u2013 December 1, 1778)\nJames Potter (acting president October 8 \u2013 November 7, 1782)\nCharles Biddle (acting president October 10\u201318, 1785)\nDavid Redick (acting president October 14 \u2013 November 5, 1788) \n\nWith the exception of Bryan, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania makes no such distinction, and its listing of the state's early governors includes neither Potter, Biddle, nor Redick. (presidents of Pennsylvania are sometimes included in the listing of former governors). None of these men (including Bryan) was given the title of acting president during his time in office\u2014each continued to be addressed as Vice-President and was titled Acting President only after the fact. (And, regarding all but Bryan, the honor is strictly unofficial.)\n\nDuring George Bryan's \"term\" as acting president, the office of president was, in fact, vacant\u2014Thomas Wharton died May 23, 1778, and an election to choose his successor was not held until December 1\u2014due perhaps to the Council's evacuation to Lancaster during that time. At over seven months, Bryan's tenure was such that today he is considered a full-fledged governor by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.\n\nThe situations of the three other \"acting presidents\" is less clear, although there are some similarities. In each instance the president was replaced\u2014or due to be replaced\u2014as his county's Counsellor before the completion of his term as President. For example, Redick's supposed acting presidency spanned the final three weeks of Dr. Franklin's presidential term. Franklin's three-year term as counsellor from the City of Philadelphia was to expire on or around October 17, 1788\u2014two weeks before the conclusion of his final one-year presidential term on October 31. The 1776 Constitution is not specific on the matter, but as the president and vice-president were chosen from among the members of the Council, it appears that most presidents chose to leave that office, or were replaced, prior to the expiration of their term as counsellor, rather than have an executive preside over a body of which he was no longer a member. Thus, these \"acting presidencies\" may have spanned the period between the de facto end of one presidency (due to term limits) and the formal election of a successor. Franklin, for instance, was succeeded as counsellor for the City of Philadelphia by Samuel Miles on October 20, but his presidency officially did not end until November 5. If Franklin did indeed continue to exercise the office during those final weeks not only would he have been presiding beyond the end of his term as counsellor but also beyond the three-year term limit established by the 1776 Constitution. The official minutes of the Council contain no indication that the president in any of these situations (Moore, Dickinson and Franklin, respectively) had formally left, relinquished or been removed from office; nonetheless during these periods the president was absent from council meetings, which were thus overseen by the vice-president. This suggests that any \"interim administration\" was established quietly and \"off the record\".\n\nA similar situation occurred at the end of Joseph Reed's presidency. Reed was succeeded as counsellor from Philadelphia County by John Bayard on October 16, 1781 but ostensibly remained president until William Moore took office on November 15. Yet no claims of an \"acting presidency\" have been made for Moore, who held the Vice-Presidency during this interim period, immediately prior to his election as president.\n\nSimilarly, Charles Biddle appears to have retained the Vice-Presidency\u2014at least officially\u2014even after leaving his seat on the Council. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania reports that Biddle's vice-presidential term extended to October 31, 1787, at which time Peter Muhlenberg succeeded him in that office. However, Biddle's term as counsellor from Berks County ended eighteen days earlier, on October 13, when he was succeeded in that office by James Read. Furthermore, Biddle was elected secretary of the Council on October 23, a clerical position that likely would not have been assumed by one who was also an officer of the Council and a high state official.\n\nLeadership elections\nThe first election of a president and vice-president of Pennsylvania took place March 5, 1777, the day after the Council first convened. Thereafter, leadership elections took place in the fall, generally in November, following the popular election (held the second Tuesday in October) in which counsellors and Assemblymen were elected by eligible citizens. Routine elections involved a joint ballot of the Council and the General Assembly. Several other elections were held to fill vacancies resulting from resignation; these involved only a vote by the Council rather than a joint ballot with the Assembly. More often than not, records do not list contenders (other than the winners) or vote tallies, saying simply that a particular gentleman was duly elected president and another vice-president. Presidents and vice-presidents were elected to one-year terms. They could be reelected, but their term as president or vice-president could not (in theory) extend beyond the end of their three-year term as counsellor.\n\nDiscrepant dates and the oath of office\nThroughout the history of the Council it was standard practice for newly elected presidents and vice-presidents to take office immediately upon election. However, there were a few instances in which an individual did not take the oath of office until the day following his election. Section 40 of the 1776 Constitution stipulates: \"Every officer, whether judicial, executive or military, in authority under this commonwealth, shall take the following\u2026oath of office before he enters on the execution of his office,\" meaning that an individual could not assume the duties of his office before taking the necessary oath. Cross referencing the election dates above with the preceding listings of terms in office will thus reveal several slight discrepancies, all resulting from a delayed administration of the oath:\n\n George Bryan, elected vice-president March 5, 1777, took office March 6.\n William Moore, elected president November 14, 1781, took office November 15.\n James Potter, elected vice-president November 14, 1781, took office November 15.\n\nNo reasons for the delays are noted in the minutes of the Council. Neither set of dates involved a conflict with the sabbath. There were other instances that involved reelections of men who had already been sworn into office at the start of their previous term and which thus caused no delay. These are not noted here.\n\nCounsellors\nCounsellors were elected to represent each county in Pennsylvania as well as the city of Philadelphia. They were elected to three-year terms. Many served less than a full three, while others appear to have served slightly more. The Council sat year-round and there was no specific date set for the start of a session or of any counsellor's term. Rather, new counsellors appear to have begun their terms whenever they were able to reach Philadelphia following their elections. The general election at that time was held on the second Tuesday in October and most counsellors took office in late October or in November. In most instances it is easy to fix the date on which a particular counsellor's term began, as the Minutes of the Council will note that on a particular date a particular gentleman was administered the oath and admitted to his seat. Many counsellors had sporadic attendance, and several were absent for a year or more at a time. This was particularly true of representatives from the distant western counties, although the phenomenon was certainly not limited to those gentlemen. Some counsellors simply sat out the last several months of their terms, their names disappearing from the Minutes by late summer or early autumn. Thus, the following list of counsellors generally notes only the day on which each began his term; unless indicated otherwise it is assumed that each term extended to the beginning of the next, regardless of the incumbent's actual attendance. Counsellors were accorded the title of Esquire.\n\nTerm limits\nWith the Council set to be dissolved in December 1790, a provision of the new state constitution allowed counsellors and council officers whose terms would have expired that autumn to remain in office until December 21, rather than hold elections for new counsellors who would sit for only one or two months. Also, a review of the dates on which a particular county's counsellors began their terms will reveal several instances in which more than three years elapsed between the start of successive terms. It is uncertain whether the seat technically became vacant after exactly three years or if the incumbent's term extended to the start of his successor's, even if this meant exceeding the three-year term limit imposed by the 1776 Constitution.\n\nList of counsellors\n The home counties of two early counsellors, John Evans and John Lowdan, has not yet been determined. Both were sitting when the Council first convened on March 4, 1777. It appears that one likely represented Chester County and the other York.\n\nCity of Philadelphia\n George Bryan (March 4, 1777)\n William Moore (October 18, 1779)\n James Irvine (October 14, 1782)\n Benjamin Franklin (October 17, 1785)\n Samuel Miles (October 20, 1788 \u2013 December 21, 1790)\n\nPhiladelphia County\n Joseph Wharton (March 4, 1777; died in office May 23, 1778)\nJoseph Reed (November 24, 1778)\n John Bayard (October 16, 1781)\nJohn Dickinson (November 4, 1782)\n Henry Hill (October 17, 1785)\n Thomas Mifflin (October 20, 1788 \u2013 December 21, 1790)\n\nChester County\n John Mackey (McKay, MacKay, Macky) (November 21, 1777)\n Dr. Joseph Gardner (October 23, 1779)\n John McDowell (November 2, 1782)\n Evan Evans (October 28, 1785)\n Richard Willing (October 16, 1788 \u2013 December 21, 1790)\n\nBucks County\n Joseph Hart (July 23, 1777)\n Gen. John Lacey Jr. (October 28, 1779)\n George Wall Jr. (October 29, 1782)\n Samuel Dean (November 1, 1785)\n Amos Gregg (October 21, 1788 \u2013 December 21, 1790)\n\nLancaster County\n John Hubley (March 10, 1777)\n John Bailey (June 2, 1777)\n Col. Matthew Smith (May 28, 1778)\n James Cunningham (January 5, 1781)\n Samuel John Atlee (October 21, 1783)\n John Whitehill (December 22, 1784)\n George Ross (October 16, 1787 \u2013 December 21, 1790)\n\nYork County\n Jason Edgar (November 4, 1777)\n James Ewing (February 9, 1779; withdrew a few days later due to questions regarding his election)\n Mr. Thompson (March 8, 1779)\n James Ewing (October 26, 1781)\n Richard McCallister (McAlister) (October 26, 1784)\n Andrew Bellmeyer (Billmeyer) (January 19, 1787)\n Samuel Edie (October 25, 1787 \u2013 December 21, 1790)\n\nCumberland County\n Jonathan Hoge ( March 4, 1777)\n James McLene (McClean, M'Lean, McLean) (November 9, 1778)\n Robert Whitehill (December 28, 1779)\n John Buyers (Byers) (November 20, 1781)\n Jonathan Hoge (November 3, 1784)\n Frederick Watt (October 26, 1787 \u2013 December 21, 1790)\n\nBerks County\n Jacob Morgan (September 3, 1777)\n James Read (July 1, 1778)\n Sebastian Levan (October 31, 1781)\n Charles Biddle (October 30, 1784)\n James Read (October 13, 1787 \u2013 December 21, 1790)\n\nNorthampton County\n George Taylor (March 4, 1777)\n Jacob Arndt (Orndt) (November 8, 1777)\n John VanCampen (November 4, 1780)\n Stephen Balliot(Balliet) (November 3, 1783)\n Robert Trail (October 23, 178", " \u04ab\u0443\u0440\u0430\u043b\u043d\u04d1 \u043a\u0443\u043d\u043d\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u043c-\u043a\u0430\u043c \u043a\u0438\u043b\u0447\u04d1?\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u041a\u0442\u043e \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0448\u0451\u043b \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f?\u00bb); \u041a\u0443 \u043c\u0438\u04ab\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u043d\u043a\u04d7 \u0442\u04d1\u0440\u0430\u0442\u044c?\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u0421\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u044d\u0442\u043e \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u0442?\u00bb)\n\n\u041e\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \n\u041e\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043e\u0442 \u0432\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441 \u0434\u043e\u0431\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0438-\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0446\u044b \u043d\u0438-. \u041e\u043d\u0438 \u0432\u044b\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0442\u0435 \u0436\u0435 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0438 \u043e\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430. \u0412\u043e \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0442\u044e\u0440\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u0445 \u043e\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u044b, \u0447\u0435\u043c \u0432 \u0447\u0443\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c.\n\n\u041d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043c\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u00bb); \u043d\u0438\u043c, \u043d\u0438\u043c\u04d7\u043d\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0442\u043e\u00bb); \u043d\u0438\u0445\u04d1\u0448\u04d7\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445\u00bb); \u043d\u0438\u043c\u04d7\u043d\u043b\u0435\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0439\u00bb); \u043d\u0438\u0435\u043f\u043b\u0435\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043a\u00bb); \u043d\u0438\u043c \u0447\u0443\u0445\u043b\u04d7\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u043d\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e\u00bb) \u0438\u00a0\u0442.\u00a0\u0434.\n\n\u041d\u0435\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \n\u041d\u0435\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0435, \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0443\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043c\u0435\u0442 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043e\u0442 \u0432\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0449\u0438:\n\n\u0430) \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043e\u043a \u0442\u0430-(\u0442\u0435-): \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0430\u043c (\u00ab\u043a\u0442\u043e-\u0442\u043e\u00bb); \u0442\u0435\u043c\u04d7\u043d (\u00ab\u0447\u0442\u043e-\u0442\u043e\u00bb); \u0442\u0435\u043c\u04d7\u043d\u043b\u0435 (\u00ab\u043a\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0439-\u0442\u043e\u00bb); \u0442\u0430\u0445\u04d1\u0448\u04d7 (\u00ab\u043d\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u00bb); \u0442\u0435\u043c\u0438\u04ab\u0435 (\u00ab\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e\u00bb).\n\n\u0431) \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0446\u044b \u0442\u0430 (\u0442\u0435) \u0438 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0443\u043b\u0438\u043d: \u043a\u0430\u043c \u0442\u0430 \u043f\u0443\u043b\u0438\u043d (\u00ab\u043a\u0442\u043e-\u043d\u0438\u0431\u0443\u0434\u044c\u00bb); \u043c\u04d7\u043d \u0442\u0435 \u043f\u0443\u043b\u0438\u043d (\u00ab\u0447\u0442\u043e-\u043d\u0438\u0431\u0443\u0434\u044c\u00bb); \u043c\u0438\u04ab\u0435 \u0442\u0435 \u043f\u0443\u043b\u0438\u043d (\u00ab\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e-\u043d\u0438\u0431\u0443\u0434\u044c\u00bb).\n\n\u0432) \u0441 \u0434\u043e\u0431\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u043a\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043a \u043a \u0432\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e: \u043a\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043a \u043a\u0430\u043c \u0442\u0430 (\u00ab\u043a\u0442\u043e \u0431\u044b \u043d\u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u00bb); \u043a\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043a \u043c\u04d7\u043d \u0442\u0435 (\u00ab\u0447\u0442\u043e \u0431\u044b \u043d\u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e\u00bb) \u0438\u00a0\u0442.\u00a0\u0434.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u044b: \u041a\u0430\u0448\u043d\u0438 \u04ab\u044b\u043d \u0445\u04d1\u0439\u04d7\u043d \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0435 \u043a\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043a \u043c\u04d7\u043d\u043b\u0435 \u0441\u0430\u043a\u043a\u0443\u043d\u0430 \u0445\u0438\u0440\u04d7\u04ab\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d \u043c\u0435\u043b\u043f\u0435 \u0445\u04f3\u0442\u04d7\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435 \u043f\u0443\u043b\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0442\u044c.\u2014 (\u00ab\u041a\u0430\u0436\u0434\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0449\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u043b\u044e\u0431\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u0435\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00bb).\n\n\u041e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \n1) \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0432\u044b\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043f\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c: \u043f\u0443\u0440\u0442\u0435 (\u00ab\u0432\u0441\u0435, \u0432\u0441\u044f\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00bb); \u043f\u0443\u0440\u04d7 (\u00ab\u0432\u0435\u0441\u044c, \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e\u00bb); \u043f\u04d7\u0442\u04d7\u043c (\u00ab\u0446\u0435\u043b\u044b\u0439\u00bb); \u043c\u04d7\u043d \u043f\u0443\u0440 (\u00ab\u0432\u0441\u0451, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0438\u043c\u0435\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f\u00bb).\n\n2) \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0432\u044b\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435: \u043a\u0430\u0448\u043d\u0438 (\u00ab\u043a\u0430\u0436\u0434\u044b\u0439\u00bb); \u0445\u0430\u0440\u043f\u04d1\u0440 \u0445\u04d1\u0439 (\u00ab\u043a\u0430\u0436\u0434\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u00bb); \u044b\u0442\u0442\u0438 (\u00ab\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0447\u0438\u0439, \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439\u00bb); \u0443\u0440\u04d1\u0445, \u0442\u0435\u043f\u04d1\u0440 (\u00ab\u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0439, \u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439\u00bb).\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u044b: \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0438\u044f\u043d \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u043a\u043e\u0441\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0432\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u0443\u0440\u0442\u0435 \u043f\u04d7\u043b\u0435\u04ab\u04ab\u04d7\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u0412\u0441\u044f\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043a\u043e\u0441\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0432\u0442\u0430 \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0438\u044f\u043d\u0430 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430\u00bb).\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u0442\u044f\u0436\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \n\u0412 \u0447\u0443\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0442\u044f\u0436\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043c\u044b\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430. \u0418\u043c \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0430\u0444\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0441\u044b \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0434\u043b\u0435\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u044b \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0442\u044f\u0436\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0436\u0430 \u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0445\u0430\u043c. \u0424\u043e\u0440\u043c\u044b \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0442\u044f\u0436\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0436\u0430 \u044d\u0442\u0438\u0445 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u0433\u0443\u0442 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u0442\u044c:\n\n \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0442\u044f\u0436\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e-\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0443, \u0432\u044b\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0443\u044e \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f: \u043c\u0430\u043d(\u04d1\u043d) \u2014(\u00ab\u043c\u043e\u0439\u00bb), \u0445\u0430\u043c(\u04d1\u043d)\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0439\u00bb), \u043f\u0438\u0440\u04d7\u043d\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u043d\u0430\u0448\u00bb), \u0445\u0430\u043c\u04d1\u0440(\u04d1\u043d)\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u043d\u0430\u0448 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0439\u00bb); \u0441\u0430\u043d(\u04d1\u043d)\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0439\u00bb), \u0441\u0438\u0440\u04d7\u043d\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u0432\u0430\u0448\u00bb), \u0445\u04d1\u0432\u04d1(\u0440\u04d1)\u043d \u2014(\u00ab\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0439 [\u0434\u043b\u044f 2-\u0433\u043e \u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430])\u00bb; \u0443\u043d(\u04d1\u043d)\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u0435\u0433\u043e\u00bb), \u0445\u04d1\u0439\u04d7\u043d/\u0445\u04d1\u0439\u0441\u0435\u043d\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0439 [\u0434\u043b\u044f 3-\u0433\u043e \u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430]\u00bb), \u0432\u04d7\u0441\u0435\u043d\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u0438\u0445\u00bb).\n \u0441\u0443\u0431\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e-\u043f\u0440\u0438\u0442\u044f\u0436\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441 \u0434\u043e\u0431\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0430\u0444\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0441\u0430 -\u043d\u0438 \u0438 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u043c \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0443\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0434\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f: \u043c\u0430\u043d\u04d1\u043d\u043d\u0438, \u0445\u0430\u043c\u04d1\u043d\u043d\u0438, \u043f\u0438\u0440\u04d7\u043d\u043d\u0438, \u0445\u0430\u043c\u04d1\u0440\u04d1\u043d\u043d\u0438, \u0441\u0430\u043d\u04d1\u043d\u043d\u0438, \u0441\u0438\u0440\u04d7\u043d\u043d\u0438, \u0445\u04d1\u0432\u04d1\u043d\u043d\u0438, \u0445\u04d1\u0432\u04d1\u0440\u04d1\u043d\u043d\u0438, \u0443\u043d\u04d1\u043d\u043d\u0438, \u0445\u04d1\u0439\u04d7\u043d\u043d\u0438, \u0445\u04d1\u0439\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438, \u0432\u04d7\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440: \u043c\u0430\u043d\u04d1\u043d \u0430\u043d\u043d\u0435\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u043c\u043e\u044f \u043c\u0430\u043c\u0430\u00bb); \u0441\u0438\u0440\u04d7\u043d\u043d\u0438 \u043f\u0435\u043a\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u043a\u0430\u043a \u0443 \u0432\u0430\u0441\u00bb).\n\n\u0412\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \n\u0423 (\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445) \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u0444\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0441\u044b \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043b\u0438\u0431\u043e \u0441 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438, \u043b\u0438\u0431\u043e \u0441 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0433\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438; \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440: \u0445\u0430\u043c \u00ab\u044f \u0441\u0430\u043c\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0445\u0430\u043c\u04d1\u0440 \u00ab\u043c\u044b \u0441\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00bb, \u0445\u04d1\u0439 \u00ab\u043e\u043d \u0441\u0430\u043c\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0445\u04d1\u0439\u0441\u0435\u043c \u00ab\u043e\u043d\u0438 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00bb. \u041b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u043d\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043d\u044f\u0442\u0438\u044f \u00ab\u0441\u0430\u043c\u00bb \u0438 \u00ab\u0441\u0435\u0431\u044f\u00bb.\n\n\u0412 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0443\u043f\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e \u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0438 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043b\u0435\u0436\u0430\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e, \u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0443\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430. \u041d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440: \u0445\u0430\u043c \u043a\u0430\u043b\u04d1\u043f \u00ab(\u044f \u0441\u0430\u043c \u0441\u043a\u0430\u0436\u0443\u00bb), \u0445\u04d1\u0432 \u0442\u0443 (\u00ab\u0441\u0430\u043c \u0441\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0439\u00bb), \u0445\u0430\u043c\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u0440 (\u00ab\u0434\u0430\u0439 \u043c\u043d\u0435 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043c\u0443\u00bb), \u0445\u04d1\u0439\u04d7\u043d\u0447\u0435 (\u00ab\u0443 \u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0433\u043e [\u043d\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f]\u00bb), \u0445\u04d1\u0439\u04d7\u043d\u0447\u0435\u043d \u044b\u0439\u0442 (\u00ab\u0441\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0438 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0433\u043e\u00bb).\n\n\u0427\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \n\u0418\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435, \u043f\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0434\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435, \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435, \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435. \u041a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u044e\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0438 \u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043a\u0443\u044e \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0443, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0432\u0443\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0430. \u041d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440: \u0442\u04d1\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0442\u04d1 (\u00ab\u0447\u0435\u0442\u044b\u0440\u0435\u00bb) \u0438 \u0442\u04d1\u0432\u0430\u0442\u04d1 \u043a\u0443\u0448\u0430\u043a \u04ab\u0443\u0440\u0438 (\u00ab\u0447\u0435\u0442\u044b\u0440\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u0451\u043d\u043a\u0430\u00bb).\n\n\u0427\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0436\u0430\u043c.\n\n\u0421\u0447\u0451\u0442 \u0438\u0434\u0451\u0442 \u0432 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0436\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0434\u043a\u0435, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0438 \u0432 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c: 1926\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0438\u043d \u0442\u0435 \u0442\u04d1\u0445\u04d1\u0440 \u04ab\u04d7\u0440 \u04ab\u0438\u0440\u04d7\u043c \u0443\u043b\u0442\u0442\u04d1.\n\n \u041f\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0434\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0430\u0444\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0441\u0430 -\u043c\u04d7\u0448 \u043a \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e:\n \u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u044b: \u00ab\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u043a\u043a\u04d7\u043c\u04d7\u0448(\u04d7); \u00ab\u0434\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u044b\u0439\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0443\u043d\u043d\u04d1\u043c\u04d7\u0448(\u04d7).\n 2. \u0421\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0430\u0444\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0441\u0430 -\u04d1\u043d(-\u04d7\u043d) \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0430\u0444\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0441\u0430 1-\u0433\u043e \u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 -\u0441\u04d1\u043c\u04d1\u0440(-\u0441\u04d7\u043c\u04d7\u0440), 2-\u0433\u043e \u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 -\u0441\u04d1\u0440(-\u0441\u04d7\u0440), 3-\u0433\u043e \u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 -\u0448(\u04d7) , \u043a \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e.\n \u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u044b: \u00ab\u0432\u043f\u044f\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0438\u043b\u043b\u04d7\u043a\u04d7\u043d; \u00ab(\u043c\u044b) \u0432\u0434\u0432\u043e\u0451\u043c\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u043a\u0441\u04d7\u043c\u04d7\u0440; \u00ab(\u0432\u044b) \u0432\u0434\u0432\u043e\u0451\u043c\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u043a\u0441\u04d7\u0440; \u00ab(\u0432\u044b) \u0434\u0432\u043e\u0435, \u043e\u0431\u0435\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u043a\u043a\u04d7\u0448\u04d7; \u00ab\u0434\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0443\u043d\u043d\u04d1\u0448(\u04d7).\n 3. \u0420\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u043e \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0430\u043c \u0438 \u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0447\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441 \u043c\u0438\u04ab\u0435\u0448\u0435\u0440? (\u00ab\u043f\u043e \u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0443?\u00bb). \u041e\u043d\u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043e\u0442 \u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u044b \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0449\u044c\u044e \u0430\u0444\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0441\u0430 -\u0448\u0430\u0440(-\u0448\u0435\u0440).\n \u041d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440: \u0438\u043a\u0448\u0435\u0440 \u0442\u04d1\u0440\u04d1\u0440\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u044c\u0442\u0435 \u043f\u043e \u0434\u0432\u043e\u0435\u00bb), \u0423\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0447\u0435 \u04ab\u04d7\u0440\u0448\u0435\u0440 \u0445\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440 \u04ab\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0442\u044c, \u04aa\u0443\u0440\u0442\u0441\u0435\u043c \u04ab\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u04f3\u043a\u0435\u04ab\u04ab\u04d7 \u0448\u0435\u0432\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0435\u043c (\u0413. \u0410\u0439\u0445\u0438)\u00a0\u2014 (\u00ab\u041d\u0430 \u0443\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430\u0445 \u043f\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0435 \u0444\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0435\u0439 \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u0436\u0434\u043e\u0439, \u041f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0438\u0445 \u043e\u0442\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0441\u043a \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u043e\u043c\u0430\u00bb).\n 4. \u0414\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0451\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 (\u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c) \u043f\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0434\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e (\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c):\n \u043f\u04d7\u0440\u0440\u0435 \u0438\u043a\u043a\u04d7\u043c\u04d7\u0448 (\u00ab\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430 \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f\u00bb), \u0438\u043a\u043a\u04d7 \u04ab\u0438\u0447\u0447\u04d7\u043c\u04d7\u0448 (\u00ab\u0434\u0432\u0435 \u0441\u0435\u0434\u044c\u043c\u044b\u0445\u00bb).\n\n\u041a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0434\u043b\u0435\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \n\u0412 \u0447\u0443\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0438 \u0432\u043e \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0442\u044e\u0440\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u0445, \u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0434\u043b\u0435\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0430\u044f \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043c\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0438 \u043b\u0438\u0446\u043e \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f.\n\n* \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0447\u0438 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0435\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440: \u042b\u0432\u04d1\u043b\u04d1\u043c\u00a0\u2014 \u044b\u0432\u04d1\u043b\u0443\u00a0\u2014 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(1766\u20141781, \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0436\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043d).\n \u0415\u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0440 \u0432 \u042f\u043c\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0435 (\u043d\u044b\u043d\u0435 \u041a\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0438\u0441\u0435\u043f\u043f).\n\n \u0412 \u041e\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043d\u0431\u0430\u0443\u043c\u0435\n \u0414\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0446 \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0430 III (1758\u20141762)\n \u041e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u043c (1755\u20141761, \u0441\u043e\u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e \u0441 \u041f. \u042e. \u041f\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c; \u0441\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u043c \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043c \u2014 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442 \u0411. \u0424. 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\u0412\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0425\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0432 \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0435\u043f\u0435 (\u0411\u0440\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c, \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f).\n \u041d\u0430 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u044f\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n (\u043e\u0431\u043b.)\n (\u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440.)\n (\u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440.)\n\n\u0421\u0441\u044b\u043b\u043a\u0438 \n\n \u0420\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0434\u0438 \u0410\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043e\n \u041f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442 \u0410\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043e \u0420\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0434\u0438 \u0432 \u0413\u0430\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0434\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0446\u0435\n\n\u0410\u0440", "3th game of the season, Marshall caught 11 passes for 91 yards and two touchdowns, as part of a 24\u201317 home victory over the Kansas City Chiefs. The 91 yards gave him over 1,000 receiving yards for the second consecutive season. Marshall had his second career multi-touchdown game as well; the first also occurred in a home victory over the Chiefs in the 13th game of the prior season. That game was also where Marshall eclipsed 1,000 receiving yards for a season for the first time in his career.\n\nMarshall finished the season ranked third among NFL wide receivers in receptions (104), seventh in receiving yards (1,265), fifth in receiving yards per game (84.3), seventh in yards after the catch (419), third in catches that led to first downs (65) and first in number of times targeted for the second consecutive season (181). The 104 catches were a career-high for Marshall and also made him only the ninth player in NFL history (second Broncos player) to have at least 100 receptions in back-to-back seasons. He finished first in fan voting for AFC wide receivers in the 2009 Pro Bowl. He received 18 more votes than Randy Moss to earn the top spot. Four wide receivers are chosen to play in the game. Fan voting accounts for one-third of the total voting (players and coaches account for the other two-thirds). He was officially picked to play in his first Pro Bowl when selections were announced on December 16, 2008. Marshall was chosen as a starter.\n\n2009 season\n\nMarshall had hip surgery on March 31, 2009, to repair an aggravated hip that bothered him during the 2008 season. He returned in time for training camp in late-July; however, he didn't always fully commit to practicing. This led the Broncos to suspend him for the last two games of the preseason (he didn't play in the first two preseason contests) for conduct detrimental to the team.\n\nIn a 26\u20136 Thanksgiving home victory over the New York Giants, Marshall recorded six catches (including two one-handed grabs) for 86 yards. His performance earned him the Pudding Pie Award, which is given to the game's MVP by the NFL Network.\n\nOn December 13, 2009, Marshall broke Terrell Owens' record for receptions in a game with 21, as part of a 28\u201316 road loss to the Indianapolis Colts. Owens said, \"No more deserving of a guy than he is. He's just been a hard worker....I wish him well. He's going to have a great career.\" Marshall became the first player since 1960 to record eight career games of at least 10 catches in his first four seasons. During the game against the Colts, he also had two touchdowns and a career-high 200 receiving yards. Marshall's performance earned him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors for the second time in his career.\n\nOn December 27, 2009, in a 30\u201327 road loss to the Philadelphia Eagles, Marshall caught his 100th pass of the season. He became only the fifth player in NFL history (first Broncos player) to do so in three consecutive seasons (previously Jerry Rice, Herman Moore, Marvin Harrison, concurrently Wes Welker, and subsequently Antonio Brown). Marshall was named to his second consecutive Pro Bowl when rosters were announced on December 29.\n\nMarshall was benched for the team's final regular season game by head coach Josh McDaniels for failing to arrive at a physical therapy session on time. The Broncos lost the regular season finale in Denver, 44\u201324, to the Kansas City Chiefs on January 3, 2010. They missed the playoffs for the fourth straight year. Marshall ended the season tied for third among NFL wide receivers in catches (101), tied for seventh in receiving touchdowns (10), seventh in yards after the catch (527), and fifth in number of times targeted (154).\n\nMiami Dolphins\n\n2010 season\n\nOn April 14, 2010, Marshall was traded from the Denver Broncos to the Miami Dolphins for a second round pick in the 2010 NFL Draft and a second round pick in the 2011 NFL Draft. On the same day, the Dolphins and Marshall agreed to a four-year, $47.5 million extension.\n\nMarshall finished the season with 86 receptions for 1,014 yards and three touchdowns. His streak of three straight years with 100 or more receptions came to an end, but he did extend his streak of 1,000 receiving yards to four straight years. His best performances of the season occurred in Week 3 home against the New York Jets (10 receptions for 166 yards and 1 touchdown), Week 6 away against the Green Bay Packers (10 catches for 125 yards), Week 15 home against the Buffalo Bills (11 receptions for 105 yards and 1 touchdown) and Week 16 home against the Detroit Lions (10 receptions for 100 yards). He was ranked 61st by his fellow on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2011.\n\n2011 season\n\nIn the season, Marshall had five games with over 100 receiving yards. On the year, he caught 81 passes for 1,214 yards and six touchdowns. It was his second straight season catching 80 or more passes. In the Pro Bowl, Marshall set a Pro Bowl record by catching six passes for 176 yards and four touchdowns. He was named the game's MVP.\n\nChicago Bears\n\n2012 season\n\nMarshall was traded to the Chicago Bears on March 13, 2012, for one third round draft pick in 2012 and a future one in 2013, reuniting him with former Bronco teammate Jay Cutler leading to a career year for Marshall. In his Bears debut against the Indianapolis Colts, Marshall caught 9 passes for 119 yards, which was the twentieth time he surpassed one hundred yards in his career. He also caught a 3-yard touchdown pass, as the Bears would go on to win 41\u201321. After the Bears win over the Detroit Lions in Week 7, Marshall was fined $10,500 for wearing orange cleats. In Week 12 against the Minnesota Vikings, Marshall recorded 12 catches for 92 yards, and passed the 1,000 yards receiving mark in a season for the sixth time in his career, making Marshall the first Bears receiver to accomplish the feat since Marty Booker in 2002. Two weeks later against the Vikings, Marshall recorded ten catches for 160 yards, passing Booker's single season reception mark with a total of 101 receptions. In Week 16 against the Arizona Cardinals, Marshall broke Marcus Robinson's single-season franchise record for receiving yards set in 1999. On December 26, Marshall was named to the 2013 Pro Bowl, making him the second Bears receiver to be named to the game since Dick Gordon in 1971, with the first being Booker in 2002. However, Marshall did not play in the game due to having an arthroscopic procedure on his hip, and was replaced by Larry Fitzgerald. Marshall finished the season with 118 receptions, 89 catches more than the next Bears receiver Earl Bennett, tying the New England Patriots receiver Wes Welker for second, behind Detroit Lions' Calvin Johnson, and third in receiving yards with 1,508, behind Houston's Andre Johnson. He was ranked 27th by his fellow on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2013.\n\n2013 season\n\nMarshall opened the 2013 season with eight receptions for 104 receiving yards against the Cincinnati Bengals. He caught the late go-ahead touchdown pass in the fourth quarter of the 24\u201321 victory. In Week 2, against the Minnesota Vikings, he had seven receptions for 113 receiving yards and one touchdown in the 31\u201330 victory. In Week 6 against the New York Giants, Marshall stated he will wear green cleats to support his mental illness foundation and promote Mental Health Awareness Week; Marshall was expected to be fined, so he additionally said, \"I'm going to get fined, and I'm going to match that, and we want to partner with a cancer-care [charity].\" Marshall was eventually fined $10,500 by the league. In Week 17, Marshall torched the Green Bay Packers by providing an early fourth quarter touchdown from quarterback Jay Cutler. Despite the effort, Marshall and the Bears lost the game 33\u201328, coming up short and missing the playoffs with a record of 8\u20138. Marshall ended the 2013 season with 100 receptions for 1,295 yards and a career-high 12 touchdown receptions, which is the third-highest in franchise history, behind Ken Kavanaugh and Dick Gordon's 13 in 1947 and 1970, respectively, and the most by a Bears player since Curtis Conway's 12 in 1995. It was also Marshall's fifth season with 100 or more receptions, which tied him with Wes Welker and Andre Johnson for the most in league history. Also, Marshall became the first player in Bears history to record multiple 100-reception seasons. He was ranked 36th by his fellow on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2014.\n\n2014 season\n\nOn May 19, 2014, Marshall signed a four-year, $39.3 million contract. The deal contained $22.3 million guaranteed, including a $7.5 million signing bonus. Another $700,000 was available through a 2017 escalator based on a Bears Super Bowl appearance in any of the first three seasons. Marshall was eligible for an annual $200,000 workout bonus throughout the contract's life. 2015: $7.5 million, 2016: $7.9 million, 2017: $8.3 million, 2018: Free Agent. In Week 2, against the San Francisco 49ers, he had five receptions for 48 yards and three touchdowns in the 28\u201320 victory on NBC Sunday Night Football. In Week 6, against the Atlanta Falcons, he had six receptions for 113 yards in the 27\u201313 victory. In Week 10, against the Green Bay Packers, he had eight receptions for 112 yards and one touchdown in the 55\u201314 loss on NBC Sunday Night Football. In Week 11, against the Minnesota Vikings, he had seven receptions for 90 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns in the 21\u201313 victory. During Week 14 against the Dallas Cowboys, Marshall was kneed in the back by Barry Church, suffering two broken ribs and a collapsed lung. Marshall left the field via ambulance. On December 5, he was ruled out for the rest of the season. Overall, he finished the 2014 season with 61 receptions for 721 yards and eight touchdowns. He was ranked 57th by his fellow on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2015.\n\nNew York Jets\n\n2015 season\n\nThe Bears traded Marshall and a seventh round-selection in the 2015 NFL Draft to the New York Jets in exchange for their fifth-round draft selection (Adrian Amos) on March 10, 2015. At the time, Marshall said that the Jets would be the last team that he plays for, and that he would retire if cut. \"I'm not playing for another team. Four is all I need.\n\nFrom Week 2 to Week 5, Marshall had gained over 100 yards in four straight games. In Week 3, Marshall surpassed the 10,000 receiving yards mark in his career. Starting in Week 9, Marshall recorded six consecutive games with a receiving touchdown. In Week 12, against the Miami Dolphins, he had nine receptions for 131 receiving yards and two touchdowns in the 38\u201320 victory. In Week 13, against the New York Giants, his 131-yard game gave him his eighth 1,000 receiving yard season of his career. Marshall became the first player in NFL history to have a 1,000-receiving yard season with four different teams. In Week 16, Marshall recorded 115 yards and two touchdowns in the 26\u201320 overtime victory over the New England Patriots. He finished the 2015 regular season with eight receptions for 126 receiving yards and a touchdown against the Buffalo Bills in Week 17.\n\nMarshall finished the season with 109 receptions on 174 targets for 1,502 yards and 14 touchdowns. Marshall's season was historic in terms for the Jets franchise. He set new single-season records for receiving yards and receptions while tying the record for receiving touchdowns with Art Powell and Don Maynard. Marshall finished in the top-five among NFL wide receivers in targets, receptions, receiving yards, and touchdowns in 2015. He was named to his sixth Pro Bowl and was ranked 25th by his fellow on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2016.\n\n2016 season\n\nMarshall's 2016 season became less productive than the previous year due to mostly dropped balls, constant rotation at the quarterback position, and locker room controversy with teammate Sheldon Richardson. He started in 15 games and finished the season with 788 receiving yards and three touchdowns.\n\nAfter the 2016 season ended, Marshall was reported to be released by the Jets in late February. The Jets released Marshall in order to fully transition into a rebuilding stage.\n\nNew York Giants\nMarshall signed a two-year, $12 million contract with the New York Giants. Like his tenure with the Jets, Marshall again put a timeline on his retirement, saying he would retire once his contract with the Giants was over\n\nOn September 10, 2017, in the Giants' season opening 19\u20133 loss to the Dallas Cowboys on NBC Sunday Night Football, Marshall had one reception for ten yards in his Giants' debut.\n\nOn October 8, 2017, Marshall was carted off the field after hurting his ankle in the Giants' 27\u201322 Week 5 loss to the Los Angeles Chargers. The following day, Marshall announced in an Instagram post that he would undergo season-ending surgery. He was placed on injured reserve on October 10, 2017. He finished the 2017 season with 18 catches for 154 yards and zero touchdowns.\n\nOn April 19, 2018, Marshall was released by the Giants and was considered a bust by fans and the New York sports media.\n\nSeattle Seahawks\n\nMarshall signed a one-year contract with the Seattle Seahawks worth up to $2 million with incentives on May 29, 2018.\n\nIn Week 1, Marshall caught a touchdown from quarterback Russell Wilson in a loss to the Denver Broncos. This would prove to be the last touchdown of his career. After playing in six games, he was released by the Seahawks.\n\nNew Orleans Saints\nMarshall was signed by the New Orleans Saints on November 12, 2018. He was released on December 13, 2018, after not appearing in any games.\n\nNFL career statistics\n\nRegular season\n\nTelevision football analyst\n\nMarshall has been a co-host on Inside the NFL since 2014 when he was still an active player in the league.\nOn August 20, 2020, Marshall joined the cast of the Fox Sports talk show, First Things First. He remained a co-host of the show until his contract expired in August 2021. In August 2021 he chose to not renew his contract with Fox and to leave his position to pursue other professional opportunities. In 2016, he was a Nominee for the Emmy Awards Outstanding Sports Personality, Studio and Sports Event Analyst.\n\nPersonal life\nMarshall has been nicknamed \"The Beast\" during his NFL career. Marshall enjoys restoring vintage automobiles. He is a member of the Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity (initiated into the Lambda Omega Chapter) and does charity work with them. He is involved in an ongoing effort to rebuild Larimer Park in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He is married to Michi Nogami and they have three children.\n\nBorderline personality disorder\n\nOn July 31, 2011, Marshall announced at a press conference that he had been diagnosed with borderline personality disorder (BPD) and that he hopes to spread awareness and understanding about the illness. Marshall said his entire professional career and adult personal life has been marred with symptoms of BPD, but only recently through treatment has he learned to consciously and effectively deal with the resulting problems of his actions that have been influenced by BPD. Marshall cited a recent study that suggests at least 35% of male prison inmates nationally, and 25% of female inmates, have been diagnosed with BPD. He said he hopes to help reduce the stigma of BPD, and encourage and lead others with the disorder to receive proper care. On October 10, 2013, Marshall donned a pair of bright green Nike cleats in support of Mental Illness Awareness Week. Marshall pledged to donate any fine he incurred from the NFL to charity, an estimated $5,250.\n\nIn March 2018, Marshall partnered with the University of Michigan, the rapper Logic, Glenn Close, his wife Michi and the Steven Schwartzberg Foundation in launching a campaign titled Who Can Relate, a national mental health awareness campaign. Marshall has also founded the mental health awareness organization, Project 375. This initiative is focused on ending the stigma and stereotypes associated with mental illness. Project 375 hosts trainings for different communities across the nation in order to educate others on identifying the signs of mental illness.\n\nLegal troubles\nAccording to Orlando-Orange County public records (case 48-2004-MM-012392-O), on Halloween 2004, while a student at UCF, Marshall was arrested in Orlando on charges of assault on a law enforcement officer, refusal to obey, disorderly conduct, and resisting an officer.\n\nOn January 1, 2007, Marshall was present at The Shelter, a nightclub in Denver, Colorado, along with teammates J", " March 31, 2023 when parent company Insight officially retired the brand.\n Tweeter Went bankrupt in 2008; original company remains as a shell company.\n Ultimate Electronics\n United Audio Centers\n The Warehouse\n The Wiz\n\nFive-and-dime; variety stores \n\n Ben Franklin (company)\n Caldor\n Danners 5 & 10\n E. J. Korvette\n F. W. Woolworth Company successor corporation is Foot Locker Inc.\n Fred's\n G. C. Murphy\n GEM\n Gemco\n H. L. Green\n Hills\n Hudson Brothers'\n J.G. McCrory\n Modell's Shopper's World\n J.J. Newberry\n Jamesway\n King's Department Stores\n Kuhn's Big K acquired by Walmart in 1981\n MacFrugals merged into Big Lots!\n McLellan's\n Neisner's\n Otasco Arkansas, Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas\n Richman Gordman business model was overhauled and name shortened to Gordmans in the late 1990s\n Rodgers Oregon\n S. Klein\n S. H. Kress\n S. S. Kresge sold all original S.S. Kresge stores, renamed Kmart in 1977\n Shopper's City\n Sky City\n Sprouse-Reitz\n TG&Y\n Times Square Stores\n Two Guys\n W.T. Grant went bankrupt in 1976; more a small scale department store than a 5 and 10 variety store\n Woolco big box store version of Woolworth \u2013 owned by F.W. Woolworth\n Zody's\n\nFurniture stores \n\n Art Van Furniture Founded in 1959 in Warren, MI, and operated over 300 stores and outlets in 7 states. On March 5, 2020, Art Van Furniture announced it would liquidate all of their company owned stores and file for chapter 11 bankruptcy.\n Barker Bros. Los Angeles-based furniture store chain which was at one time the largest furniture store chain on the west coast for nearly a century before it filed for bankruptcy in 1992\n Bombay Company U.S. stores\n Castro Convertibles primarily Northeast and Southeast U.S.\n Fradkin Brothers Furniture Baltimore County, Maryland\n Georg Jensen Inc. (New York, NY) (1935-1968)\n Harden Furniture was in business for 175 years before ceasing operations\n Heilig-Meyers\n Levitz Furniture was in business for nearly 100 years before liquidating in bankruptcy in early 2008\n Linens 'n Things\n\n Mattress Barn Florida\n Rhodes Furniture\n The Room Store\n Seaman's Furniture merged into Levitz Furniture in 2005\n Sleepy'smerged into Mattress Firm in 2016\n Wickes Furniture went bankrupt February 3, 2008\n\nGrocery stores and supermarkets\n\nA\u2013M\n\n 365 by Whole Foods Market convert to regular Whole Foods stores in 2019 after Amazon acquired Whole Foods\n A&P also known as The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company; filed for bankruptcy for the second time in July 2015 and closed its last store in November 2015\n ABC Markets\n ABCO Foods- former Arizona division of Alpha Beta spun off in 1984; stores closed by 2003\n AJ Bayless- Arizona; stores sold to Bashas\u2019 in 1993\n Alpha Beta converted to Ralphs or Food 4 Less in 1994\n Big Bear Stores Columbus, Ohio based chain; stores closed or sold to Kroger by 2004. Unrelated chain in San Diego with same name sold to Fleming Companies and Albertsons in 1994\n BI-LO \u2013 dissolved in 2021\n Bohack\n Bottom Dollar Food acquired by Aldi 2015\n Boys Markets converted to Ralphs or Food 4 Less in 1994\n Bruno's\n Buehler Foods operated as Buehler's Buy-Low\n Buttrey Food & Drug Montana, Wyoming, North Dakota; sold to Albertsons in 1998\n Cala Foods and Bell Markets rebranded as DeLano's IGA; others sold to other retailers\n Carter's Foods\n Chatham Supermarkets chain headquartered in Southeastern Michigan founded by Royal Supermarkets in the mid-1950s, bankrupt in 1987, acquired by Kroger after defunct\n Clemens Markets suburban Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; acquired by Giant in 2006\n Colonial Stores\n Big Star Markets\n Dahl's Foods Des Moines, Iowa-based chain; acquired by Associated Wholesale Grocers after bankruptcy and rebranded as Price Chopper and Cash Saver in 2015\n Delchamps\n Dick's Supermarket Southwestern Wisconsin; acquired by Piggly Wiggly in 2006\n Dominick's Chicagoland; operated by Safeway from 1998 until the last closures in January 2014; some locations acquired by Jewel, Whole Foods Market, Mariano's Fresh Market, and Heinen's Fine Foods\n Eagle Food Centers- Midwest chain; ceased operations by 2003\n Earth Fare as of 2021, 19 stores reopened\n Eisner Food Stores downstate Illinois chain acquired by Jewel Food Stores, stores converted to the Jewel name by 1985\n Family MartFlorida-based Family Mart division of A&P was closed in 1999\n Farmer Jack Metro Detroit; acquired by A&P in 1989, closed July 7, 2007, then liquidated\n Fazio's originally was Fisher Foods; in California, first known as Fazio's Shopping Bag and then just Fazio's\n Finast (also known as First National Stores) purchased by Ahold; rebranded Edwards\n Fisher Foods was named Fazio's after a merger in 1965\n Food Fair later Pantry Pride\n Fresh & Easy California, Nevada, Arizona; American subsidiary of British retailer Tesco\n Furrs Supermarkets New Mexico/West Texas; went bankrupt in 2001.\n Genuardi's defunct as of 2012 as a chain; 2015 all locations\n Giant Ralphs big box format; Southern California\n Giant Open Air merged with Farm Fresh Food & Pharmacy\n Grand Union New Jersey- and New York-area chain; bankrupt; bought and became Grand Union Family Markets in Upstate New York and Vermont; purchased by Tops Friendly Markets in 2012, converting them to the Tops banner in 2013\n Haggen west coast regional chain, acquired by Albertsons\n Hills Supermarkets\n Hinky Dinky Nebraska chain acquired by Nash Finch in 2000\n Hughes Marketsa Southern California-based supermarket chain that was first acquired by QFC in 1996 and then merger into Ralphs the following year when the parent companies of both Hughes and Ralphs were simultaneously acquired by Fred Meyer\n Jewel T founded by the Jewel Companies as their discount chain, but was sold to Save-A-Lot in 1984 when Jewel was acquired by American Stores\n Jitney Jungle\n Kash n' Karry became Sweetbay Supermarket\n Kessel Food Market \u2014 Michigan chain sold to Kroger\n Kohl's Food Stores Wisconsin chain acquired by A&P and closed by 2003\n Laneco Eastern Pennsylvania/Western New Jersey; closed in 2001\n Loblaws Northeastern Ohio, Northwestern Pennsylvania and Western New York. Stores in California sold in 1976.\n Market Basket (California) Former Kroger associated chain that operated in Southern California from 1930 to 1982. Not related to similar named chains in Texas, Louisiana, or New England.\n Mars (supermarket)Maryland grocery chain which operated from 1943 to 2016.\n Marsh Supermarkets Indiana and Ohio chain that was liquidated in 2017\n\nN\u2013Z\n\n National Tea\n O'Malia's Food Markets Central Indiana chain that was liquidated in 2017\n Omni Superstore Dominick's big-box format\n Pantry Pride\n Pathmark\n Pay'n Takit acquired by Safeway\n Penn Dutch \u2013 south Florida chain that shut liquidated in 2019\n Penn Fruit\n Pick-N-Pay Supermarkets \u2014 Cleveland area chain acquired by Finast\n Purity Supreme Boston area\n QFI\n Quality Markets owned by Penn Traffic, Western New York; acquired by Tops Friendly Markets\n Rainbow Foods Twin Cities chain owned by Fleming Companies, then Roundy's. Roundy's exited Minnesota in 2014.\n Red Food Chattanooga, Tennessee, area; acquired by Bi-Lo Stores\n Red Owl Upper Midwest; acquired by Supervalu in 1988\n Sage's Sage's Complete Markets based in San Bernardino, California, chain that was liquidated in 1973.\n Sav-A-Center A&P in the New Orleans, Louisiana, region\n Schwegmann Brothers Giant Supermarkets New Orleans, Louisiana; acquired by National Tea\n Seaway Food Town Northwest Ohio chain sold to Spartan Stores in 2000; remaining stores closed or sold by 2003\n Seessel's Supermarkets Memphis chain acquired by Schnucks\n Shopping Bag Food Stores Southern California chain that was founded in 1930 and later acquired by Vons and then Fazio's before it was rebranded and later sold to Albertsons in 1978\n Skaggs-Alpha Beta\n Sunflower Market SuperValu-owned natural foods market; closed in 2008; never affiliated with the southwestern US chain of the same name\n Super Duper\n Super Fresh\n Super Saver Foods\n Twin Valu \u2013 hypermarket launched by SuperValu (owner of Cub Foods and ShopKo) in Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio in 1989 and Euclid, Ohio (1990); closed March 1995\n Ukrop's Richmond, Virginia chain acquired by Ahold and converted to Martin's in 2010; notable for pioneering ready-to-eat foods in the 1980s\n Victory Supermarkets Greater Boston chain sold to Hannaford\n Waldbaum's New York metropolitan area (liquidated in 2015)\n Weingarten's Houston area, Arkansas, Louisiana; sold to Safeway in 1983\n White Hen Pantry merged with 7-Eleven in mid-2007\n Wild Oats Markets\n\nHome decor and craft stores \n\n A.C. Moore\n Bombay Company\n Frank's Nursery & Crafts\n Hancock Fabrics bankrupt 2016; intellectual property acquired by Michaels\n Leewards\n Old America bankrupt 1999 and liquidated remaining stores\n Pier 1 Imports permanently closed all 540 of its stores in 2020\n Waccamaw's Homeplace/Waccamaw Pottery\n Wicks 'N' Sticks\n\nHome improvement \n\n Builder's Emporium\n Builder's Square subsidiary of Kmart; sold to Hechinger\n Channel Home Centers\n Contractor Supply\n Eagle Hardware & Garden bought by Lowe's in 1999\n Ernst Home Centers Seattle, Washington\n EXPO Design Center\n Forest City became Handy Andy\n Furrow Building Materials\n Gamble-Skogmo bought by Our Own Hardware in 1986\n Handy Andy Home Improvement Center\n Handy Dan\n Hechinger\n Home Quarters Warehouse (HQ)\n HomeBase\n Hugh M. Woods Building Materials\n Knox Lumber\n Lechters Housewares a kitchenware and home decor store\n Lumberjack Building Materials\n Orchard Supply Hardware closed by Lowe's in 2018\n Pay 'N Pak\n Payless Cashways included Furrows & Payless; all assets liquidated as of November 2001\n Pergament Home Centers\n Rickel\n Scotty's Builders Supply\n Somerville Lumber\n Yardbirds Home Center\n\nMusic, booksellers, and video stores (records, tapes, books, CDs, DVDs, etc.)\n\nA\u2013M\n\n B. Dalton closed in 2010\n Blockbuster Music sold to Wherehouse Music in 1998; some locations converted to Wherehouse Music; majority were closed\n Blockbuster Video sold to Dish Network in 2011; all company-owned stores were closed January 12, 2014, but 1 franchise store remains open in Bend, Oregon.\n Bookstop\n Borders Books filed for bankruptcy in 2011; some locations purchased by Books-A-Million; borders.com website acquired by Barnes & Noble Booksellers\n Camelot Music converted to FYE stores\n CD World converted to FYE\n Coconuts Music converted to FYE\n Crown Books founded by Robert Haft in 1977; liquidated in 2001 after second bankruptcy\n Disc Jockey converted to FYE\n Encore Books permanently closed in 1999\n Family Christian Stores filed for bankruptcy in April 2015, forced to liquidate all stores in 2017\n Harmony House Michigan\n Hastings Entertainment filed for bankruptcy in June 2016. Remaining stores closed October 31, 2016\n Hollywood Video ceased operations in May 2010\n Incredible Universe Several stores bought by Frys\n J&R New York City; closed their music store at the beginning of 2014\n Kim's Video and Music\n King Karol New York City\n Kroch's and Brentano's Chicago-based bookstore chain; filed for bankruptcy in 1995\n Licorice Pizza Southern California chain that was started in Long Beach by James Greenwood in 1969, acquired by Record Bar in 1985, acquired by Musicland in 1986, and rebranded Sam Goody. In November 2021, director Paul Thomas Anderson released a movie with the same name loosely based on this chain.\n Media Play closed and dissolved in 2006; a media superstore (books, music, and video) concept created by Musicland in 1992\n Movie Gallery operated stores under the Hollywood Video, Movie Gallery, and Game Crazy brands; liquidated and closed in 2010\n MovieStop (purchased by Hastings Entertainment shortly before bankruptcy)\n Music Plus Southern California-based chain that was acquired by Blockbuster and converted\n Musicland founded in Minneapolis in 1955, acquired by American Can in 1977; Musicland Group acquired Sam Goody in 1978 while keeping brand separate until 1997 when the Musicland Group decided to rebrand all existing Musicland stores as Sam Goody; Musicland Group acquired by Best Buy in 2001 and eventually sold to Trans World Entertainment\n\nN\u2013Z\n\n National Record Mart a Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania-based company that went bankrupt in 2002\n Planet Music converted to FYE\n Record Bar malls; acquired by Blockbuster in 1993 and converted\n Record Town store name changed to FYE by parent company Trans World Entertainment\n Record World company also operated The Record Shops at TSS; was purchased by W.H. Smith after declaring bankruptcy in 1992; rebranded The Wall the following year\n Sam Goody most locations converted to FYE, but two locations continue to operate as Sam Goody\n Saturday Matinee converted to FYE\n Sound Warehouse Dallas, Texas based chain; acquired by Blockbuster in 1992 and all stores converted to Blockbuster Music.\n Spec's Music Florida-based chain; last store closed in 2013\n Strawberries Music converted to FYE\n Streetside Records converted to FYE\n Suncoast Motion Picture Company converted to FYE, though three continue to operate as Suncoast Motion Picture Company.\n Tape World a store concept created by Trans World Entertainment in 1979 but later replaced by its f.y.e. store concept\n Tower Records founded in 1960 in Sacramento, California; all retail stores were liquidated in 2006 and the name was purchased for use as an online-only retailer\n Turtle's Records & Tapes Atlanta, Georgia based chain with most stores located in Georgia and Florida; acquired by Blockbuster in 1993 and converted\n Virgin Megastores all Megastores in the United States were closed in 2009 and the remaining airport stores closed a few years later\n Waldenbooks in 2011 the chain was liquidated after parent Borders filed for bankruptcy in 2011\n Wallichs Music City the largest music retailer on the West Coast during the 1950s and 1960s; founded by Glenn Wallich, founder of Capitol Records; had stores in California and briefly in Arizona before it went bankrupt in 1977\n West Coast Video permanently closed in 2009\n Wherehouse Music filed for bankruptcy in 2003; Trans World took control of 111 stores and liquidated nearly a third of them\n\nJewelers \n Bailey Banks & Biddle (1832-2020)\n Crescent/Friedman's Jewelers\n J. E. Caldwell & Co. (1839-2009)\n Georg Jensen Inc. (New York, NY) (Fifth Ave., Manhattan)(1935-1968)\n\nOffice-supply stores \n J. K. Gill Company Pacific Northwest; stationery, office supplies, books; all stores closed by 1999\n Office Warehouse a Virginia-based office supply chain that was acquired and absorbed by OfficeMax in 1992\n\nPet stores \n Petland Discounts permanently closed in 2019.\n\nToy stores \n\n All Wound Up acquired by Borders in 1999 and closed in 2001\n Child World (also known as Children's Palace) liquidated in 1992\n Circus Worldacquired by Melville in 1990 and converted to KB Toys\n Disney Store The Disney Store closed by the end of January 19, 2022 as the retail moves to Target stores. \n F.A.O. Schwarz sold to Toys 'R Us after bankruptcy in 2009; all stores closed except original NYC flagship store, which closed in 2015. The chain was bought out by ThreeSixty group and opened two new locations in Rockefeller Center, and LaGuardia airport, with plans to open up to 30 more in the future.\n KB Toys liquidated February 9, 2009, which closed all of the remaining stores; sold to Toys \"R\" Us and then to Strategic Marks, LLC; although it planned to re", " \u0441 \u044d\u0442\u0438\u043c, \u0441 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u044c\u044e \u043e\u0431\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0431\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0438 \u0442\u043e\u0440\u0433\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043c\u0430\u044f\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0430 \u0410\u043f\u0448\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c 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one soldier wounded was reduced by half in February 1943, and removed altogether later in the year. The massacre is commemorated by the October in Kragujevac Memorial Park and the co-located 21 October Museum, and has been the subject of several poems and feature films. The anniversary of the massacre is commemorated annually in Serbia as the Day of Remembrance of the Serbian Victims of World War II.\n\nBackground\n\nEncirclement and invasion of Yugoslavia\nFollowing the 1938 between Nazi Germany and Austria, Yugoslavia came to share its northwestern border with Germany and fell under increasing pressure as its neighbours aligned themselves with the Axis powers. In April 1939, Italy opened a second frontier with Yugoslavia when it invaded and occupied neighbouring Albania. At the outbreak of World War II, the Yugoslav government declared its neutrality. Between September and November 1940, Hungary and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact, aligning themselves with the Axis, and Italy invaded Greece. Yugoslavia was by then almost completely surrounded by the Axis powers and their satellites, and its neutral stance toward the war became strained. In late February 1941, Bulgaria joined the pact. The following day, German troops entered Bulgaria from Romania, closing the ring around Yugoslavia. Intending to secure his southern flank for the impending attack on the Soviet Union, German dictator Adolf Hitler began placing heavy pressure on Yugoslavia to join the Axis. On 25 March 1941, after some delay, the Yugoslav government conditionally signed the pact. Two days later, a group of pro-Western, Serbian nationalist Royal Yugoslav Air Force officers deposed the country's regent, Prince Paul, in a bloodless coup d'\u00e9tat. They placed his teenage nephew, Peter, on the throne and brought to power a \"government of national unity\" led by the head of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force, General Du\u0161an Simovi\u0107. The coup enraged Hitler, who immediately ordered the country's invasion, which commenced on 6 April 1941.\n\nYugoslavia was quickly overwhelmed by the combined strength of the Axis powers and surrendered in less than two weeks. The government and royal family went into exile, and the country was occupied and dismembered by its neighbours. The German-occupied territory of Serbia was limited to the pre-Balkan War borders of the Kingdom of Serbia and was directly occupied by the Germans for the key rail and riverine transport routes that passed through it, as well as its valuable resources, particularly non-ferrous metals. The occupied territory covered about and had a population of 3.8 million. Hitler had briefly considered erasing all existence of a Serbian state, but this was quickly abandoned and the Germans began searching for a Serb suitable to lead a puppet government in Belgrade. They initially settled on Milan A\u0107imovi\u0107, a staunch anti-communist who served as Yugoslavia's minister of internal affairs in late 1939 and early 1940.\n\nOccupation and resistance\n\nTwo resistance movements emerged following the invasion: the communist-led, multi-ethnic Partisans, and the royalist, Serbian nationalist Chetniks, although during 1941, within the occupied territory, even the Partisans consisted almost entirely of Serbs. The Partisans were led by the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, Josip Broz Tito; the Chetniks were led by Colonel Dra\u017ea Mihailovi\u0107, an officer in the interwar Royal Yugoslav Army. The two movements had widely divergent goals. Whereas the Partisans sought to turn Yugoslavia into a communist state under Tito's leadership, the Chetniks sought a return to the pre-war , whereby the Yugoslav monarchy\u2014and, by extension, Serb political hegemony\u2014would be restored. Communist resistance commenced in early July, shortly after the invasion of the Soviet Union, targeting both the Germans and the puppet authorities. By late August 1941, the Partisans and Chetniks were carrying out joint attacks against the Germans. The Partisans were well organised and many of their commanders had ample military experience, having fought in the Spanish Civil War. Within several months of the invasion, they had 8,000 fighters spread across 21 detachments in Serbia alone. Many Chetniks were either veterans of the Balkan Wars and World War I or former members of the Royal Yugoslav Army. They boasted around 20,000 fighters in the German-occupied territory of Serbia at the time of the massacre.\n\nOn 29 August, the Germans replaced A\u0107imovi\u0107 with another fervent anti-communist, the former Minister of the Army and Navy and Chief of the General Staff, General Milan Nedi\u0107, who formed a new puppet government. In September, the Nedi\u0107 government was permitted to form the Serbian Volunteer Command (; SDK), an auxiliary paramilitary formation to help quell anti-German resistance. In effect, the SDK was the military arm of the fascist Yugoslav National Movement (, Zbor), led by Dimitrije Ljoti\u0107. It was originally intended to have a strength of 3,000\u20134,000 troops, but this number eventually rose to 12,000. It was headed by Kosta Mu\u0161icki, a former colonel in the Royal Yugoslav Army, whom Nedi\u0107 appointed on 6 October 1941. In the early stages of the occupation, the SDK formed the bulk of Nedi\u0107's forces, which numbered around 20,000 men by late 1941.\n\nPrelude\n\nAnti-German uprising\n\nNedi\u0107's inability to crush the Partisans and Chetniks prompted the military commander in Serbia to request German reinforcements from other parts of the continent. In mid-September, they transferred the 125th Infantry Regiment from Greece and the 342nd Infantry Division from France to help put down the uprising in Serbia. On 16 September, Hitler issued Directive No. 312 to Generalfeldmarschall (field marshal) Wilhelm List, the Wehrmacht commander in Southeast Europe, ordering him to suppress all resistance in that part of the continent. That same day, the Supreme Command of the Armed Forces (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht; OKW) issued Hitler's order on the suppression of \"Communist Armed Resistance Movements in the Occupied Areas\", signed by Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Keitel. This decree specified that all attacks against the Germans on the Eastern Front were to be \"regarded as being of communist origin\", and that 100 hostages were to be shot for every German soldier killed and 50 were to be shot for every German soldier wounded. It was intended to apply to all of Eastern Europe, though an identical policy had already been implemented in Serbia as early as 28 April 1941, aimed at deterring guerrilla attacks. Attacks against the Germans increased in the first half of the year and Serbia once again became a war zone. German troops fanned through the countryside burning villages, taking hostages and establishing concentration camps. The first mass executions of hostages commenced in July.\n\nThe strengthening of Germany's military presence in Serbia resulted in a new wave of mass executions and war crimes. The commanders who bore the most responsibility for these atrocities were primarily of Austrian origin and had served in the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I. Most were ardently anti-Serb, a prejudice that the historian Stevan K. Pavlowitch links to the Nazis' wider anti-Slavic racism. On 19 September, (lieutenant general) Franz B\u00f6hme was appointed as Plenipotentiary Commanding General in Serbia, with direct responsibility for quelling the revolt, bringing with him the staff of XVIII Mountain Corps. He was allocated additional forces to assist him in doing so, reinforcing the three German occupation divisions already in the territory. These divisions were the 704th Infantry Division, 714th Infantry Division and 717th infantry divisions. B\u00f6hme boasted a profound hatred of Serbs and encouraged his predominantly Austrian-born troops to exact \"vengeance\" against them. His primary grievances were the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and subsequent Austro-Hungarian military defeats at the hands of the Royal Serbian Army, which he thought could only be rectified by the reprisal shooting of Serbian civilians. \"Your objective\", B\u00f6hme declared, \"is to be achieved in a land where, in 1914, streams of German blood flowed because of the treachery of the Serbs, men and women. You are the avengers of those dead.\"\n\nClashes at Gornji Milanovac\n\nSurrender of the 6th Company\nBy late September 1941, the town of Gornji Milanovac had effectively been cut off from the rest of German-occupied Serbia by the frequent disruption of road and rail transport leading to and from it. On 29 September, elements of the Takovo Chetnik and \u010ca\u010dak Partisan detachments attacked Gornji Milanovac, which was defended by the 6th Company of the 920th (local defence) Battalion. The 6th Company's garrison was based out of a local school. The guerrillas did not expect to capture the garrison, but undertook the attack in order to generate new recruits from the surrounding area. The local Chetnik commander, Zvonimir Vu\u010dkovi\u0107, became aware of the Partisan plans and decided to join in the attack to avoid the significant loss of prestige that would result from allowing the Partisans to attack alone. The insurgents launched a morning attack against the school. Although they were successful in overrunning the sentry posts, the Germans' heavy machine guns soon stopped the assault. In 90 minutes of fighting, ten Germans were killed and 26 wounded. The two insurgent groups judged that continuing the assault would be too costly and Vu\u010dkovi\u0107 suggested negotiating with the Germans.\n\nKnowing the Germans would be far more likely to carry out negotiations with royalists than with communists, the Partisans allowed the Chetniks to conduct the negotiating in order to lure the garrison out of the town. A Chetnik envoy delivered an ultimatum to the garrison, demanding that it surrender to the guerrillas. The ultimatum was rejected. Thirty minutes later, a second Chetnik envoy appeared, guaranteeing the 6th Company unmolested passage to \u010ca\u010dak on the condition that it left Gornji Milanovac the same day. He further requested that the town and its inhabitants be spared from any possible reprisals. The commander of the 6th Company agreed and evacuated the garrison. Around outside Gornji Milanovac, the 6th Company was surrounded by the guerrillas and forced to surrender.\n\nIII. Battalion's punitive expedition\n\nThe 6th Company's disappearance caused unease in the German ranks. A reconnaissance flight was dispatched to locate it, to no avail. The occupational authorities were unaware of the 6th Company's fate until a German officer escaped and informed them of what had transpired. He reported that the German prisoners were being humanely treated, but when B\u00f6hme became aware of the situation, he decided that retaliation was needed. He ordered the III. Battalion of the 749th Infantry Regiment to burn down Gornji Milanovac and take hostages in order to expedite the recovery of the captured German troops.\n\nThe III. Battalion started its advance on 5 October, fighting its way along the road to Gornji Milanovac and sustaining casualties in the process. Upon entering Gornji Milanovac, it gathered between 120 and 170 male hostages, among them a Chetnik commander who had been scheduled to meet his superiors the following day. Hauptmann (Captain) Fiedler, the III. Battalion's commanding officer, hoped to use this man to contact the Chetnik command and organize a prisoner exchange. Fearing that such an action would jeopardize the recovery of the German prisoners, Fiedler decided not to raze Gornji Milanovac.\n\nAround this time, Fiedler received an SOS signal from nearby Rudnik, where another German unit was involved in heavy fighting with the guerrillas. Fiedler decided to redirect the III. Battalion to Rudnik to relieve the unit. Assuming he would have to pass through Gornji Milanovac on his way back, he decided to postpone the taking of hostages in Gornji Milanovac and the razing of the town until his return from Rudnik. Contrary to Fiedler's expectations, the battalion was ordered back to Kragujevac immediately after relieving the unit at Rudnik, and was thus unable to raze Gornji Milanovac. B\u00f6hme was furious, and on 15 October, he sent the III. Battalion back to Gornji Milanovac to carry out his original orders. The battalion returned to Gornji Milanovac the same day, but now only forty people could be found to be taken as hostages. The town was then razed. This time, no attempt to exchange the hostages was made.\n\nKraljevo massacre\n\nOn 15\u201316 October, ten German soldiers were killed and 14 wounded during a joint Partisan-Chetnik attack on Kraljevo, a city about south of Belgrade and southeast of Gornji Milanovac. On 15 October, troops of the 717th Infantry Division shot 300 civilians from Kraljevo in reprisal. These reprisal killings continued over the following days, and by 17 or 20 October, German troops had rounded up and shot 1,736 men and 19 \"communist\" women from the city and its outskirts, despite attempts by local collaborationists to mitigate the punishment. These executions were personally supervised by the commander of the 717th Infantry Division, (brigadier general) Paul Hoffman.\n\nTimeline\n\nRound-up\nKragujevac is an industrial city in Central Serbia, about south of Belgrade, and east of Gornji Milanovac. It had a population of more than 40,000 in 1941, and was the headquarters of a German military district. The city was also home to Yugoslavia's largest armaments factory, which had between 7,000 and 8,000 workers before the invasion.\n\nA report was written by the military district commander in Kragujevac, Otto von Bischofhausen, immediately after the massacre. This report was addressed to B\u00f6hme, and was later tendered in evidence at the Subsequent Nuremberg trials. According to von Bischofhausen, in the late evening of 18 October, all male Jews in Kragujevac, along with some communists, were arrested according to lists, totalling 70 persons. As this constituted far too few hostages to meet the quota of 2,300, it was proposed to collect the balance by arrests on the streets, squares and houses of Kragujevac, in an operation to be conducted by the III. Battalion of the 749th Infantry Regiment and the I. Battalion of the 724th Infantry Regiment, part of the 704th Infantry Division. In response to this proposal, von Bischofhausen claimed that he suggested to the garrison commander, Major Paul K\u00f6nig, that instead of using the population of Kragujevac, the required hostages be gathered from surrounding villages which were known to be \"completely strewn with communists\". According to von Bischofhausen's account, this suggestion was initially accepted by K\u00f6nig, and on 19 October, the III. Battalion \"mopped up\" the villages of Me\u010dkovac and Mar\u0161i\u0107 and the I. Battalion conducted a similar operation in the villages of Gro\u0161nica and Milatovac. A total of 422 men were shot in these four villages, without any German losses.\n\nOn the evening of 19 October, von Bischofhausen again met with K\u00f6nig and was told that the original proposal was to be implemented the following day in order to collect the 2,300 hostages. The following evening, the male Jews and communists, who had been held without food since their arrest, were shot by German troops at the barracks and courtyard where they were being held. Simultaneously, males between the ages of 16 and 60 were arrested within Kragujevac itself. They were detained in the barracks of a former motorised battalion at Stanovija Field. Over 7,000 hostages were assembled. German troops and ethnic German units from the Banat were involved in the round-up, as was the 5th Regiment of the SDK, under the command of Marisav Petrovi\u0107. According to von Bischofhausen, K\u00f6nig permitted several classes of males to be excluded from the round-up, including those with a special pass issued by von Bischofhausen's district headquarters, members of a vital profession or trade, and those who were members of Ljoti\u0107's movement. When too few adult males could be located, high school students were also rounded up. Also seized were priests and monks from the city's churches. Each hostage was registered and his belongings noted meticulously.\n\nExecutions\n\nThe hostages were held overnight on a public plaza in the town. In his version of events, von Bischofhausen claimed that he made objections to K\u00f6nig, but the latter insisted that his orders, which had been issued by the commander of the 749th Infantry Regiment, were to be carried out. Shortly before the executions commenced, Ljoti\u0107 obtained approval for two Zbor officials to scrutinise the hostages. Over 3,000 individuals, those identified as being \"genuine nationalists\" and \"real patriots\", were excluded from the execution lists as a result of Ljoti\u0107's intervention. Those who were not extracted from the hostage pool were accused of being communists or spreading \"communist propaganda\". The Zbor officials told them they were not \"worth saving\" because they had \"infected the younger generation with their leftist ideas.\" The Germans considered Zbor'''s involvement to be a \"nuisance\". According to the social scientist Jovan Byford, it was never intended or likely to reduce the overall number of hostages killed in reprisal, and served only to ensure the exclusion of those that were deemed by Zbor to be worth saving.\n\nOn the morning of 21 October, the assembled men and boys were marched to a field outside the town. Over a period of seven hours, they were lined up in groups of 50 to 120 and shot with heavy machine guns. \"Go ahead and shoot\", said an elderly teacher, \"I am conducting my class\". He was shot together with his students. As they faced the firing squad, many hostages sang the patriotic song \"Hey, Slavs\", which became Yugoslavia's national anthem after the war. One German soldier was shot for refusing to participate in the killings. A German report stated: \"The executions in Kragujevac occurred although there had been no attacks on members of the Wehrmacht in this city, for the reason that not enough hostages could be found elsewhere.\" Even some German informants were inadvertently killed. \"Clearly\", the Holocaust historian Mark Levene writes, \"Germans in uniform were not that particular about whom they shot in reprisal, especially in the Balkans, where the populace were deemed subhuman.\"\n\nVictims of the mass executions included Serbs, Jews, Romani people, Muslims, Macedonians, Slovenes and members of other nationalities. Following the massacre, the Wehrmacht held a military parade through the city centre. On 31 October, B\u00f6hme sent a", " low institutional stability in African countries was the colonial partitioning of African borders, leading to political violence and ethnic conflict. Additionally, weak enforcement in Africa often stems from the creation of \u201cwindow-dressing\u201d institutions, where superficial democratic policies are implemented to feign democracy.However, these policies are rarely enforced. \n\nDouglass North provides the argument that institutional change is incremental and is a result of \u201cpath-dependency\u201d, which means that seemingly insignificant historical events can have major impacts on the formation of eventual institutions. These arguments follow William Brian Arthur\u2019s theories on path-dependency where he states that market lock-in to a subpar technology is determined by \u201csmall-event history\u201d. Thus, the colonial history in Africa becomes relevant as the decisions of European colonizers have impacted contemporary African economic and political structures. As a result, African institutions were impacted as well. Collectively, these theories from Levitsky and Murillo, North, and Arthur work to explain how colonialism led to the development and persistence of suboptimal African institutions.\n\nReorganization of borders\n\nDefining borders \nThroughout the era of European colonization, those in power routinely partitioned land masses and created borders that are still in place today. It has been estimated that Britain and France traced almost 40% of the entire length of today's international boundaries. Sometimes boundaries were naturally occurring, like rivers or mountains, but other times these borders were artificially created and agreed upon by colonial powers. The Berlin Conference of 1884 systemized European colonization in Africa and is frequently acknowledged as the genesis of the Scramble for Africa. The Conference implemented the Principle of Effective Occupation in Africa which allowed European states with even the most tenuous connection to an African region to claim dominion over its land, resources, and people. In effect, it allowed for the arbitrary construction of sovereign borders in a territory where they had never previously existed.\n\nJeffrey Herbst has written extensively on the impact of state organization in Africa. He notes, because the borders were artificially created, they generally do not conform to \u201ctypical demographic, ethnographic, and topographic boundaries.\u201d Instead, they were manufactured by colonialists to advance their political goals. This led to large scale issues, like the division of ethnic groups; and small scale issues, such as families\u2019 homes being separated from their farms.\n\nWilliam F. S. Miles of Northeastern University, argues that this perfunctory division of the entire continent created expansive ungoverned borderlands. These borderlands persist today and are havens for crimes like human trafficking and arms smuggling.\n\nModern preservation of the colonially defined borders \nHerbst notes a modern paradox regarding the colonial borders in Africa: while they are arbitrary there is a consensus among African leaders that they must be maintained. Organization of African Unity in 1963 cemented colonial boundaries permanently by proclaiming that any changes made were illegitimate. This, in effect, avoided readdressing the basic injustice of colonial partition, while also reducing the likelihood of inter-state warfare as territorial boundaries were considered immutable by the international community.\n\nModern national boundaries are thus remarkably invariable, though the stability of the nation states has not followed in suit. Some African states are plagued by internal issues such as inability to effectively collect taxes and weak national identities. Lacking any external threats to their sovereignty, these countries have failed to consolidate power, leading to weak or failed states.\n\nThough the colonial boundaries sometimes caused internal strife and hardship, some present day leaders benefit from the desirable borders their former colonial overlords drew. For example, Nigeria's inheritance of an outlet to the sea \u2014 and the trading opportunities a port affords \u2014 gives the nation a distinct economic advantage over its neighbor, Niger. Effectively, the early carving of colonial space turned naturally occurring factor endowments into state controlled assets.\n\nDiffering colonial investments\nWhen European colonials entered a region, they invariably brought new resources and capital management. Different investment strategies were employed, which included focuses on health, infrastructure, or education. All colonial investments have had persistent effects on postcolonial societies, but certain types of spending have proven to be more beneficial than others. French economist \u00c9lise Huillery conducted research to determine specifically what types of public spending were associated with high levels of current development. Her findings were twofold. First, Huillery observes that the nature of colonial investments can directly influence current levels of performance. Increased spending in education led to higher school attendance; additional doctors and medical facilities decreased preventable illnesses in children; and a colonial focus on infrastructure translated into more modernized infrastructure today. Adding to this, Huillery also learned that early colonial investments instituted a pattern of continued spending that directly influenced the quality and quantity of public goods available today.\n\nLand, property rights, and labour\n\nLand and property rights \nAccording to Mahmood Mamdani, prior to colonization, indigenous societies did not necessarily consider land private property. Alternatively, land was a communal resource that everyone could utilize. Once natives began interacting with colonial settlers, a long history of land abuse followed. Extreme examples of this include Trail of Tears, a series of forced relocations of Native Americans following the Indian Removal Act of 1830, and the apartheid system in South Africa. Australian anthropologist Patrick Wolfe points out that in these instances, natives were not only driven off land, but the land was then transferred to private ownership. He believes that the \u201cfrenzy for native land\u201d was due to economic immigrants that belonged to the ranks of Europe's landless.\n\nMaking seemingly contradictory argument, Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson view strong property rights and ownership as an essential component of institutions that produce higher per capita income. They expand on this by saying property rights give individuals the incentive to invest, rather than stockpile, their assets. While this may appear to further encourage colonialists to exert their rights through exploitative behaviors, instead it offers protection to native populations and respects their customary ownership laws. Looking broadly at the European colonial experience, Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson explain that exploitation of natives transpired when stable property rights intentionally did not exist. These rights were never implemented in order to facilitate the predatory extraction of resources from indigenous populations. Bringing the colonial experience to the present that, they maintain that broad property rights set the stage for the effective institutions that are fundamental to strong democratic societies. An example of Acemoglu, Robinson and Johnson hypothesis is in the work of La Porta, et al. In a study of the legal systems in various countries, La Porta, et al. found that in those places that were colonized by the United Kingdom and kept its common-law system, the protection of property right is stronger compared to the countries that kept the French civil law.\n\nIn the case of India, Abhijit Banerjee and Lakshmi Iyer found divergent legacies of the British land tenure system in India. The areas where the property rights over the land were given to landlords registered lower productivity and agricultural investments in post-Colonial years compared to areas where land tenure was dominated by cultivators. The former areas also have lower levels of investment in health and education.\n\nLabour exploitation \nProminent Guyanese scholar and political activist Walter Rodney wrote at length about the economic exploitation of Africa by the colonial powers. In particular, he saw labourers as an especially abused group. While a capitalist system almost always employs some form of wage labour, the dynamic between labourers and colonial powers left the way open for extreme misconduct. According to Rodney, African workers were more exploited than Europeans because the colonial system produced a complete monopoly on political power and left the working class small and incapable of collective action. Combined with deep-seated racism, native workers were presented with impossible circumstances. The racism and superiority felt by the colonizers enabled them to justify the systematic underpayment of Africans even when they were working alongside European workers. Colonialists further defended their disparate incomes by claiming a higher cost of living. Rodney challenged this pretext and asserted the European quality of life and cost of living were only possible because of the exploitation of the colonies and African living standards were intentionally depressed in order to maximize revenue. In its wake, Rodney argues colonialism left Africa vastly underdeveloped and without a path forward.\n\nSocietal consequences of colonialism\n\nEthnic identity\nThe colonial changes to ethnic identity have been explored from the political, sociological, and psychological perspectives. In his book The Wretched of the Earth, French Afro-Caribbean psychiatrist and revolutionary Frantz Fanon claims the colonized must \u201cask themselves the question constantly: \u2018who am I?\u2019\" Fanon uses this question to express his frustrations with fundamentally dehumanizing character of colonialism. Colonialism in all forms, was rarely an act of simple political control. Fanon argues the very act of colonial domination has the power to warp the personal and ethnic identities of natives because it operates under the assumption of perceived superiority. Natives are thus entirely divorced from their ethnic identities, which has been replaced by a desire to emulate their oppressors.\n\nEthnic manipulation manifested itself beyond the personal and internal spheres. Scott Straus from the University of Wisconsin describes the ethnic identities that partially contributed to the Rwandan genocide. In April 1994, following the assassination of Rwanda's President Juv\u00e9nal Habyarimana, Hutus of Rwanda turned on their Tutsi neighbors and slaughtered between 500,000 and 800,000 people in just 100 days. While politically this situation was incredibly complex, the influence ethnicity had on the violence cannot be ignored. Before the German colonization of Rwanda, the identities of Hutu and Tutsi were not fixed. Germany ruled Rwanda through the Tutsi dominated monarchy and the Belgians continued this following their takeover. Belgian rule reinforced the difference between Tutsi and Hutu. Tutsis were deemed superior and were propped up as a ruling minority supported by the Belgians, while the Hutu were systematically repressed. The country's power later dramatically shifted following the so-called Hutu Revolution, during which Rwanda gained independence from their colonizers and formed a new Hutu-dominated government. Deep-seated ethnic tensions did not leave with the Belgians. Instead, the new government reinforced the cleavage.\n\nReligious changes\nReligion was one of the key parts of colony societies that were changed and manipulated. Ghana was one of the key countries that this impacted by British colonial rule. Jedwarb, Meier zu Selhausen, and Moradi (2022) were huge believers that the introduction of Christianity was one of the main reasons that Ghana still struggles to balance two societies in the modern day. \"By 1932 the number of missions had expanded to 1,882 with 340,000 followers.\" At the time this was 9% of the population now in 2020 reportedly \"The Christian share has since grown to 80%.\" Christianity unsettled the traditional African religious beliefs as well as the entire economic and political stability. This occurred not just specifically in Ghana but also in all over colony countries. Congo, one of the worst affected countries, had rules inflicted upon them like banning the practice of non-European religions.Oliver(1952) and Cleall (2009) argued that missionaries, used to teach the native people, were introduced \"with little to no information on local circumstances, crossing political boundaries and whose objective was to save souls no matter the cost.\u201d This caused significant damage both short term but especially long term with countries unable to cope with managing the different religions which consequently caused civil wars and infighting.\n\nCivil society\nJoel Migdal of the University of Washington believes weak postcolonial states have issues rooted in civil society. Rather than seeing the state as a singular dominant entity, Migdal describes \u201cweblike societies\u201d composed of social organizations. These organizations are a melange of ethnic, cultural, local, and familial groups and they form the basis of our society. The state is simply one actor in a much larger framework. Strong states are able to effectively navigate the intricate societal framework and exert social control over people's behavior. Weak states, on the other hand, are lost amongst the fractionalized authority of a complex society.\n\nMigdal expands his theory of state-society relations by examining Sierra Leone. At the time of Migdal's publication (1988), the country's leader, President Joseph Saidu Momoh, was widely viewed as weak and ineffective. Just three years later, the country erupted into civil war, which continued for nearly 11 years. The basis for this tumultuous time, in Migdal's estimation, was the fragmented social control implemented by British colonizers. Using the typical British system of indirect rule, colonizers empowered local chiefs to mediate British rule in the region, and in turn, the chiefs exercised social control. After achieving independence from Great Britain, the chiefs remained deeply entrenched and did not allow for the necessary consolidation of power needed to build a strong state. Migdal remarked, \u201cEven with all the resources at their disposal, even with the ability to eliminate any single strongman, state leaders found themselves severely limited.\u201d It is necessary for the state and society to form a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship in order for each to thrive. The peculiar nature of postcolonial politics makes this increasingly difficult.\n\nLinguistic discrimination \n\nIn settler colonies, indigenous languages were often lost either as indigenous populations were decimated by war and disease, or as aboriginal tribes mixed with colonists. On the other hand, in exploitation colonies such as India, colonial languages were usually only taught to a small local elite. The linguistic differences between the local elite and other locals exacerbated class stratification, and also increased inequality in access to education, industry and civic society in postcolonial states.\n\nSport \n\nVarious traditional games that were played in different countries were overtaken by Western sports during the colonial era. This effect was notable in British colonies, as the British invented many of what later became the world's most popular sports during the colonial era, and propagated these sports in part because they allowed for the perpetuation of class and racial divides beneficial to them, and due to the belief that they would help spread Britain's cilivising values. Towards the end of the colonial era, colonisers' sports often played a significant role in the colonies' independence movements, as sport became an avenue for the colonised peoples to work together and prove their equality. After the colonial era, Western sports often became an important part of nation-building and international relations for former colonies; for example, cricket played a significant role in bringing Indian people together and allowed India to do \"cricket diplomacy\" with Pakistan, a country which it has had significant tensions with. Western sport has also played a role in fighting racism, as when South Africa was banned from most international sports during the apartheid era.\n\nEcological impacts of colonialism\n\nEuropean colonialism spread contagious diseases between Europeans and subjugated peoples.\n\nCountering disease\n\nThe Spanish Crown organised a mission (the Balmis expedition) to transport the smallpox vaccine and establish mass vaccination programs in colonies in 1803. By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans. Under the direction of Mountstuart Elphinstone a program was launched to increase smallpox vaccination in India.\n\nFrom the beginning of the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a necessity for all colonial powers. The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk. The biggest population increases in human history occurred during the 20th century due to the decreasing mortality rate in many countries due to medical advances.\n\nColonial policies contributing to indigenous deaths from disease\n\nJohn S. Milloy published evidence indicating that Canadian authorities had intentionally concealed information on the spread of disease in his book A National Crime: The Canadian Government and the Residential School System, 1879 to 1986 (1999). According to Milloy, the Government of Canada was aware of the origins of many diseases but maintained a secretive policy. Medical professionals had knowledge of this policy, and further, knew it was causing a higher death rate among indigenous people, yet the policy continued.\n\nEvidence suggests, government policy was not to treat natives infected with tuberculosis or smallpox, and native children infected with smallpox and tuberculosis were deliberately sent back to their homes and into native villages by residential school administrators. Within the residential schools, there was no segregation of sick students from healthy students, and students infected with deadly illnesses were frequently admitted to the schools, where infections spread among the healthy students and resulted in deaths; death rates were at least 24% and as high as 69%.\n\nTuberculosis was the leading cause of death in Europe and North America in the 19th century, accounting for about 40% of working-class deaths in cities, and by 1918 one in six deaths in France were still caused by tuberculosis. European governments, and medical professionals in Canada, were well aware that tuberculosis and smallpox were highly contagious, and that deaths could be prevented by taking measures to quarantine patients and inhibit the spread of the disease. They failed to do this, however, and imposed laws that in fact ensured that these deadly diseases spread quickly among the indigenous population. Despite the high death rate among students from contagious disease, in 1920 the Canadian government made attendance at residential schools mandatory for native children, threatening non-compliant parents with fines and imprisonment. John S. Milloy argued that these policies regarding disease were not conventional genocide, but rather policies of neglect aimed at assimilating natives.\n\nSome historians, such as Roland Chrisjohn, director of Native Studies at St. Thomas University, have argued that some European colonists, having discovered that indigenous populations were not immune to certain diseases, deliberately spread diseases to gain military advantages and subjugate local peoples. In his book The Circle Game: Shadows and Substance in the Indian Residential School Experience in Canada, Chrisjohn argues that the Canadian government followed a deliberate policy amounting to genocide against native populations. During the siege of British-held Fort Pitt in Pontiac's War, the fort's commander, Simeon Ecuyer and his subordinate William Trent distributed blankets infected with smallpox to a Lenape delegation outside the fort. During the conflict, Colonel Henry Bouquet discussed plans to deliberately infect hostile Native American tribes with his superior, General Sir Jeffery Amherst, who wrote back approvingly of Bouquet's suggestion. Historians have been divided on the effectiveness of this particular incident in causing a smallpox outbreak among Native Americans in the region, though it has been recognized as one of the first instances of biological warfare. During the 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, some scholars argued that the U.S. Army intentionally spread smallpox to Native American tribes, with scholar Ann F. Ramenofsky stating that \"in the nineteenth century, the U.S. Army sent contaminated blankets to Native Americans, especially Plains groups, to control the Indian problem.\"\n\nHistoric debates surrounding colonialism\nBartolom\u00e9 de Las Casas (1484\u20131566) was the first Protector of the Indians appointed by the Spanish Crown. During his time in the Spanish West Indies, he witnessed many of the atrocities committed by Spanish colonists against the natives. After this experience, he reformed his view on colonialism and determined the Spanish people would suffer divine punishment if the gross mistreatment in the Indies continued. De Las Casas detailed his opinion in his book The Destruction of the Indies: A Brief Account (1552).\n\nDuring the sixteenth century, Spanish priest and philosopher Francisco Suarez (1548\u20131617) expressed his objections to colonialism in his work De Bello et de Indis (On War and the Indies). 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\u041d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043c \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0443\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430 // \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430: \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u044b \u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438 / \u041f\u043e\u0434 \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0421.\u00a0\u042e.\u00a0\u041c\u0430\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430, \u041b.\u00a0\u0415.\u00a0\u0413\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430, \u0410.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430. \u0421. 102\u2014106. \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430: \u041a\u043d\u0438\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u043c \u00ab\u041b\u0438\u0431\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043c\u00bb.\n \u0413\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0444\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0434 \u041b. \u041d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043c: \u041f\u044f\u0442\u044c \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0435\u0439 \u043a \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b. \u0413\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0433\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0446 \u0422. \u0438 \u0412\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0443\u0431\u0430 \u041c.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u041f\u0415\u0420 \u0421\u042d, 2008. ISBN 978-5-9292-0164-6\n \u0417\u0430\u0439\u0446\u0435\u0432 \u0410. \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043c \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0445 \u00ab\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0438\u00bb (1920\u20141930-\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u044b). \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0437\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 2011. \u2116\u00a0108\n \n \u0418\u043b\u044c\u044f\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u0424. \u041d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 // \u0421\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u043c\u0438\u0440. \u041c\u044e\u043d\u0445\u0435\u043d. 1990. \u041d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044c-\u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044c. \u2116\u00a06 (60). \u0421. 78\u201489.\n \u0418\u043b\u044c\u044f\u0441\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u0424.\u00a0\u041d. \u0446\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e? // \u0412\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a. 1997. \u0422\u043e\u043c.67. \u2116\u00a09. \u0421. 808\u2014814.\n \u041a\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0440\u0438 \u042d. \u041d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043c / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b. \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0445\u0430\u0442\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0410.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u041f\u0431.: \u0410\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0439\u044f, 2010. ISBN 978-5-91419-400-7\n \u041a\u0438\u0440\u0447\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u0412. \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u044f \u041e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 (\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0435\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435 XIX\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435 XX\u00a0\u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430) / \u041c.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u041a\u0438\u0440\u0447\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432.\u00a0\u2014 Saarbr\u00fccken: Lambert Academic Publishing, 2011.\u00a0\u2014 383 \u0441.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-3-8433-2382-6\n \u041a\u0438\u0440\u0447\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u0412. \u041d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f, \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442: \u0435\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043c\u044b \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u0425\u0425 \u2212 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0435 XXI\u00a0\u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 / \u041c.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u041a\u0438\u0440\u0447\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432.\u00a0\u2014 Saarbr\u00fccken: Lambert Academic Publishing, 2011.\u00a0\u2014 507 \u0441.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-3-8454-2790-4\n \u041a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u044f\u043d\u043a\u043e \u041c.\u00a0\u0418., \u0410\u0440\u0435\u0448\u0438\u0434\u0437\u0435 \u041b.\u00a0\u0413. \u042f\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043c (\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430)\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u041c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, 2012.\u00a0\u2014 408 \u0441.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-5-7133-1416-3\n \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0442\u044c\u0435\u0432 \u041a. \u041a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u0434\u0435\u0430\u043b \u0438 \u043f\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430\n \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0442\u044c\u0435\u0432 \u041a. \u041d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043e\u0440\u0443\u0434\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0446\u0438\u0438\n \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0442\u044c\u0435\u0432 \u041a. \u041f\u043b\u043e\u0434\u044b \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0435\n \n \n \u041c\u0438\u0444\u044b \u0438 \u0437\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0438\u0437\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0430. \u041c., 2010.\n \n \n \u041e\u0440\u0443\u044d\u043b\u043b \u0414\u0436. \u0417\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u043e \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435.", "\nStan Douglas was born in 1960 in Vancouver, where he currently lives and works. Educated at the Emily Carr University of Art and Design in Vancouver, Douglas has exhibited widely since his first solo show in 1981. Among numerous group exhibitions, Douglas was included in the 1995 Carnegie International, the 1995 Whitney Biennial, the 1997 Skulptur Projekte M\u00fcnster and Documenta X in Kassel. In 2007, Douglas was the recipient of the inaugural Hnatyshyn Foundation Visual Arts Award, a $25,000 prize for excellence in Canadian visual arts presented by Gerda Hnatyshyn president and chair of the board of The Hnatyshyn Foundation. In 2008 he was awarded the Bell Award in Video Art. Douglas is represented by David Zwirner, New York and Victoria Miro Gallery, London. A survey of his recent work, Stan Douglas: Mise en sc\u00e8ne, traveled Europe from 2013 until the end of 2015. Between 2004 and 2006 he was a professor at Universit\u00e4t der K\u00fcnste Berlin and since 2009 has been a member of the Core Faculty in the Graduate Art Department of Art Center College of Design.\n\nThemes\n\nModernism\n\nDouglas' work reflects the technical and social aspects of mass media, and since the late 1980s has been influenced by the work of Samuel Beckett. Also of concern is both modernism as a theoretical concept and modernity as it has affected North American urbanism since World War II. In using what art historian Hal Foster describes as the \"outmoded genre\" of cinema, Douglas' interest in \"failed utopias and obsolete technologies\" allows for the creation of a \"new medium out of the remnants of old forms.\" Douglas' preoccupation with failed utopias and the obsolete is not about a redemption of \"these past events, but [a way] to reconsider them: to understand why these utopian moments did not fulfill themselves, what larger forces kept a local moment a minor moment: and what was valuable there \u2014 what might still be useful today.\"\n\nPolitics and race\n\nDouglas' work only touches on race directly in a few instances, such as the short video I'm Not Gary (1991). This interpretation of race is important, as the brief narrative involves a white man mistaking a black man for a different black man named Gary, for writer Lisa Coulthard, this is part of a larger investigation of racism as part of imperialism and cultural invisibility. For Coulthard, the lack of mention of race in works that feature only white performers troubles any racial reading of Douglas' work.\n In a great deal of Douglas' works, class rather than race is the key element. Having grown up in a largely white middle-class neighbourhood in Vancouver, race was only an issue of invisibility rather than civil rights for Douglas.\n\nJazz and blues\nAlthough race as a theme is often not a central or obvious concern of Douglas, his own identity as a Black-Canadian is often addressed through his use of music and in particular, musical idioms associated with African-American culture, such as blues and jazz. In particular, Douglas points to the cultural prejudices which associate the \"primitive\" with black music, while the European musical tradition is positioned as \"high culture\". This binary between primitive and civilized is further complicated when considering jazz and its position as both \"race music\" but also highly cultured and in particular the European embracing of jazz as high art.\n\nAn early work, Deux Devises (1983), presents a projection of text, the lyrics of 19th century composer Charles Gounod's song \"O ma belle, ma rebelle.\" A recording of Robert Johnson's \"Preaching Blues\" is played, with accompanying images of Douglas phonetically mouthing the words to the song, out of sync with the recording. The pairing of the safe salon music of Gounod, and the raw sounds of Johnson, points to the typical prejudice which validates and promotes the supposed seriousness of European music. Where Johnson's words are anguished, Gounod's are safe and comfortable.\n\nDouglas' use of jazz is a more direct response to complex attitudes towards African-American music. Exhibited for the first time at documenta 9 in 1992, Hors-champs (meaning \"off-screen\") is a video installation that addresses the political context of free jazz in the 1960s, as an extension of black consciousness and is one of his few works to directly address race.\n\nFour American musicians, George E. Lewis (trombone), Douglas Ewart (saxophone), Kent Carter (bass) and Oliver Johnson (drums) who lived in France during the free jazz period in the 1960s, improvise Albert Ayler's 1965 composition \"Spirits Rejoice.\". Free jazz often found a larger audience in Europe and was associated with politics and in particular in France where it was utilized by the French Communist Party during May 1968.\n\nThe music is in four parts, a gospel melody, an attenuated call and response, a heraldic fanfare and \"La Marseillaise.\" Shot in the style of 1960s French television program and using period technology, the work is projected onto a screen, verso and recto. On one side is the \"broadcast\" version, a montage taken from two cameras, what would be chosen to be transmitted to the home audience. The other side shows the raw footage, the images not meant for public viewing, what was edited out. The two sides of the screen present a complete document of the performance, one in which the viewer must negotiate, depicting the \"authorized\" version but also the conditions of its production. What is being emphasized is a contrast between the banality of television and the radical programming that was featured at the time.\n\nLuanda-Kinshasa runs for more than six hours. Its title points directly to the origins and history of jazz in Africa. Marking the first time the artist has filmed on location in New York, however, the setting is a reimagined Manhattan milieu in the 1970s, namely the CBS 30th Street Studio. Featuring a band of professional musicians improvising together, Luanda-Kinshasa is the documentation of a fictitious recording at the famed studio. Although Douglas plants subtle period details in clothes, wall posters and cigarette brands, all attention is on the band \u2014 which includes among its 10 instrumentalists the Senegalese drummer Abdou Mboup, the Indian tabla player Nitin Mitta, and the American drummer Kimberly Thompson \u2014 and on the music being made.\n\nCinema\n\nAs a Vancouver artist getting his start in the 1980s and using lens-based media, Stan Douglas is often associated with the Vancouver School of photoconceptualism. His use of video and film, in addition to photography, as well as his specific interests in cinematic history, forms and spatial concerns set him apart from peers such as Jeff Wall.\n\nDouglas has reworked films such as Alfred Hitchcock's Marnie (1964), Dario Argento's Suspiria (1977) and Orson Welles's Journey into Fear (1943) exploring \"the parameters, functions and limits of cinematic adaptation.\" His works reference the originals but also distance the newer works through manipulation of the texts, often employing loops and editing techniques to \"defamiliarize\" the originals\n\nSubject to a Film: Marnie is a re-creation of the robbery scene from Hitchcock's 1964 film. In his 1995 Art in America review Tom Eccles describes the work as \"creating the effect of a recurring nightmare\" as the titular character, rather than escaping is \"caught in the film loop, forever trapped within the confines of the office.\" Douglas updates the office\n\nwith computers replacing typewriters and carpet for '50s linoleum. This version is shot in black and white, which gives it the feel of a recollected experience, and Douglas has slowed the action, bringing Marnie's inherent voyeurism into focus. One can almost sense the craning neck of the filmmaker. Marnie's well-rehearsed actions of walking to the washroom, returning to the desk and turning the safe's combination dial are carefully played out \u2013 but as her gloved hand runs through the combination, the film cuts back to the opening shot, panning out to a general view of the office where the workers once again prepare to leave for the day.\n\nInconsolable Memories (2005) is based on Tomas Gutierrez Alea's film Memorias del subdesarrollo (Memories of Underdevelopment) from 1968, updated to include references to the Mariel boatlift of 1980. Douglas's installation consists of a 16mm projection with a photographic series of contemporary Havana, Cuba. The film is looped and when presented as an installation the film and photographs create a sense of repetition, a common feature of Douglas' work. Rather than strictly working from Alea's film in the manner Douglas worked from Hitchcock's Marnie, Inconsolable Memories plays with the layers of its various sources (Cuba in the 1960s, the 1980s and the present). Some of the photographs reference the locations used in the original Alea film tying together the themes of history and memory. At issue is the utopian promise of the Cuban revolution and its decline, and as well, the parallel Cold War events of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 (examined in Alea's film) and the boatlift of 1980.\n\nSamuel Beckett\n\nDouglas has long been interested in the work of Samuel Beckett. In 1988 he curated Samuel Beckett: Teleplays, eight Beckett works for film and television. In 1991, Douglas produced Monodramas a series of short videos for television broadcasting, based on his studies of Beckett's teleplays. Developed for television, these 30- to 60-second video works were broadcast nightly in British Columbia in 1992 for three weeks. The short narratives \"mimic television's editing techniques\" and when the videos were aired during the regular commercial breaks, viewers called the station to ask what was being sold. Douglas' first project for television, Television Spots (1987\u201388) consisted of twelve were broadcast in Saskatoon and Ottawa during regular programming and featured short, banal scenes in open-ended narratives. An early video work, Mime (the second part of Deux Devises, 1983) consisted of a close-up of Douglas' mouth in the shape of phonemes, which are then edited to sync up with the song \"Preachin' Blues\" by Robert Johnson. Douglas was not aware of Beckett's own work Not I, a disembodied mouth in a black screen. In a lecture given at YYZ Artists' Outlet in Toronto, Douglas commented that the choice of a blues song was\n\na fairly personal one, derived in a way from my experience of being black in a predominantly white culture, having very little contact with black American culture, but at the same time being expected to represent that to people-both to people who were antagonistically racist and to liberal types. So what you have is my image not quite synching up or relating to a very archetypal black figure, Robert Johnson.\n\nDouglas began to study Beckett's works and his next video work Panoramic Rotunda (1985) came from misremembering a line from Beckett's Fizzle No. 7. The repetition and seemingly endless loops of the same narrative in Win, Place or Show recalls Beckett's use of repetition to point to but also undermine the \"sameness\" of reality. The absurdity of the forever repeating narrative, of the two protagonists in an endless loop, always the same words but from different points of reference is an allusion to Vladimir and Estragon in Waiting for Godot.\n\nWorks\n\nEarly works 1983\u20131991\n\nStan Douglas' works from the 1980s are concerned with obsolete media and their aesthetics. Lost time is a continuous element in his works. The installation Overture (1986) uses footage of a train journey through the Rocky Mountains shot between 1899 and 1901. The soundtrack consists of Vancouver writer Gerald Creede reading Douglas's reworking of various sentences taken from the opening section of Marcel Proust's A la recherche de temps perdu. For writer Peter Culley, writing about two of Douglas' works in 1986,\n\nDouglas situates Overture in the historical moment that the beginnings of film share with the end of the novel, when Proust's faith in the tantalizing structures of his great predecessors, Balzac and Wagner, was being undermined by the perceptive discontinuities that film helped to bring about.\n\nIn Onomatopoeia (1985\u20131986), a screen hangs over spot-lit upright player piano. The piano plays bars from Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 32, Opus 111. Triggered by punctuations on the piano scroll, images of an empty textile factory are projected above the piano. The perforated scrolls that were used to programme weaving into fabric patterns, echo the player piano scrolls. The images are of a textile mill near the artist's home and specifically that section of the mill employing the punch cards that determine the different patterns of weave design. The punch cards are part of the same type of technology as the player piano, which to Culley \"sets up a simultaneity of subject which the work immediately begins to subvert; image and music constantly move in and out of precise synchronization, keeping the audience at a constant level of anxious anticipation.\"\n\nDouglas's Monodramas are ten 30- to 60-second videos from 1991, conceived as interventions into commercial television, broadcast nightly in British Columbia for three weeks in 1992. These short narratives, set in bleak suburban locations, mimic television's editing techniques, with plots dealing often mundane situations and with a slight twist at the end. The segment \"I'm Not Gary\" is set in a nondescript industrial strip. A white man passes a second man who is black, calling out to him \"Gary?\" and is visibly irritated at not being acknowledged. Finally, the second man turns to him, replying, \"I'm not Gary.\" For writer Lisa Coulthard, race is the interpretive framework, because for the white man in the video, \"his interlocutor is simply a black man, interchangeable with any other for example and clearly interchangeable with Gary.\"\n\nInstallations\nA key element in a number of Douglas' installations is the use of time and in particular, an investigation into slowed-down time or stillness. His 1995 installation Der Sandmann, based on E.T.A. Hoffmann's original 1816 short story and Sigmund Freud's 1919 essay \"The Uncanny\", consists of a double projection where the film is literally split down the middle and reassembled so the two sides are slightly out of sync. This creates a \"temporal gap\", disrupting the sense of unity so crucial to modernism, so that \"everything is deferred and delayed.\"\n\nDouglas' 1998 installation Win, Place or Show is shot in the style of the late-1960s CBC drama The Client, noted for its gritty style, long takes and lack of establishing shots. Set in 1950s Vancouver in the Strathcona redevelopment, the installation explores the modernist notion of urban renewal with the demolition of existing architecture in favour of grids of apartment blocks. Two men share a dormitory room on a rainy day off from their blue-collar jobs. The conversation flares up during a discussion of the day's horse races and the 6 minute filmed loop is repeated from different angles on a split screen, each cycle presenting ever-changing configurations of point-of-view. The takes are edited together in real time by a computer during the exhibition, generating an almost endless series of montages.\n\nHis 2014 interactive installation, Circa 1948 was co-produced by the National Film Board of Canada, and premiered in April at the Tribeca Film Festival's Storyscapes section. Douglas also created the stage play Helen Lawrence, which shares graphics, story and characters with Circa 1948.\n\nVenice Biennale\nThe National Gallery of Canada chose Douglas to represent Canada in the 2021 Venice Biennale. Douglas has exhibited at the Venice Biennale previously, most recently in 2019 where he debuted the work the two-channel video installation Doppelg\u00e4nger (2019), \"set in an alternate present in which a solitary astronaut and her other-world counterpart each arrives 'home' to find that everything is the reverse of what she once knew. Enacted simultaneously on two screens, the work's structure suggested the possibility of coexisting experiences and realities.\" The jury, including National Gallery director Sasha Suda and chief curator Kitty Scott, picked Douglas citing \"the relevance of his work to the global debates taking place in Venice.\"\n\nCatalogues\n Douglas, Stan and Philip Monk. Stan Douglas. Cologne: Friedrich Christian Flick Collection and DuMont, 2006. \n Douglas, Stan and Michael Turner. Journey into fear. London: Serpentine Gallery, 2002. \n Douglas, Stan and Reid Shier, ed. Stan Douglas: Every Building on 100 West Hastings. Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press, Contemporary Art Gallery, 2002. \n Douglas, Stan, Boris Groys, Isabel Z\u00fcrcher, Peter Pakesch and Terence Dick. Stan Douglas: Le D\u00e9troit. Basel: Kunsthalle Basel, 2001. \n Douglas, Stan. Stan Douglas. Toronto: Macdonald Stewart Art Centre, 1994. \n Douglas, Stan and Christine VanAssche. Stan Douglas. Paris: Centre Georges Pompidou, 1993. \n Fischer, Barbara and Stan Douglas. Perspective 87: Stan Douglas. Toronto: Art Gallery of Ontario, 1987.\n\nSolo exhibitions\nSerpentine Gallery, London (2002)\nKestner Gesellschaft, Hanover (2004)\nStudio Museum in Harlem, New York (2005)\nStaatsgalerie Stuttgart and W\u00fcrttembergischer Kunstverein, Stuttgart (2007)\nThe Power Plant, Toronto (2011)\nMinneapolis Institute of Arts, Minnesota (2012)\nFruitmarket Gallery, Edinburgh (2014\u20132015)\nIrish Museum of Modern Art, Dublin (2015)\n\nAwards\n2007: Hnatyshyn Foundation Visual Arts Award\n2008: Bell Award in Video Art\n2012: Infinity Award for Art from the International Center of Photography, New York\n2013: Scotiabank Photography Award\n2016: Hasselblad Award\n2019: Audain Prize for the Visual Arts\n\nPermanent collections\n\nArt Gallery of Ontario, Toronto\nCentre Georges Pompidou, Paris\nIsrael Museum, Jerusalem\nMuseum", "C \u2013 Uyghur, Korea, Japan, Vietnam (Hmong from Lao Cai Province, Kinh from Hanoi, C\u1edd Lao)\nA1 [TMRCA 12,800 (95% CI 6,500 <-> 22,700) ybp]\nA1* \u2013 Japan, Korea\nA1a [TMRCA 7,500 (95% CI 4,500 <-> 11,800) ybp]\nA1a* \u2013 Japan (Aichi), Sarikoli (Tashkurgan), USA, England\nA1a1 [TMRCA 5,000 (95% CI 2,200 <-> 9,800) ybp]\nA1a1* \u2013 Buryat, Altai Kizhi\nA1a1a \u2013 Buryat, Mongol (Inner Mongolia) [TMRCA 1,050 (95% CI 75 <-> 5,500) ybp]\nA1a2 \u2013 Russia (Bashkortostan, Velikij Novgorod), Iran (Turkmen) [TMRCA 1,950 (95% CI 100 <-> 10,500) ybp]\nA1a3 \u2013 Greece (Ioannina), United States (West Virginia) [TMRCA 1,150 (95% CI 75 <-> 6,000) ybp]\nA2 \u2013 Ache, Waiwai, Zoro, Surui, Waiapi, Poturujara, Kayapo, Katuena, Guarani, Arsario, Cayapa, Dogrib, ancient Canada, USA (Pennsylvania, California), Mexico (Zapotec), Cuba, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Argentina [TMRCA 10,600 (95% CI 9,600 <-> 11,700) ybp]\nA2a \u2013 Eskimo (Greenland, Chukotka), Chukchi\nA2a1 \u2013 Inuit (Canada), Selkup\nA2a2 \u2013 Eskimo (Chukotka), Chukchi\nA2a3 \u2013 Eskimo (Greenland, Canada, Chukotka), Chukchi\nA2a4 \u2013 USA (New Mexico, Arizona), Mexico (Chihuahua)\nA2a5 \u2013 Apache, USA (California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas), Canada (Cree, Shuswap)\nA2b \u2013 Chukchi\nA2b1 \u2013 Chukchi, Koryak, Eskimo (Chukotka, Canada, Greenland)\nA2c\nA2d \u2013 USA (Mexican, Hispanic)\nA2d1 \u2013 USA (Mexican)\nA2d1a \u2013 USA (Hispanic)\nA2d2 \u2013 USA (Hispanic)\nA2e'ao\nA2e\nA2ao\nA2ao1\nA2f\nA2f1 \u2013 Newfoundland\nA2f1a \u2013 Canada, USA (Native American)\nA2f2 \u2013 USA (Mexican, Hispanic), Mexico\nA2f3 \u2013 USA (Mexican, Hispanic)\nA2g \u2013 USA (Mexican, Hispanic), Mexico, Iberian Peninsula\nA2g1 \u2013 USA (Mexican, Hispanic), Latin America\nA2h \u2013 Colombia (Cocama of Amazonas, Arhuaco), Yanomama, Kogui\nA2h1 \u2013 USA (Mexican, Hispanic), Mexico, Latin America\nA2i \u2013 USA (Hispanic, etc.), Canada (Ojibwa, Prince Edward Island, Pabos in Quebec)\nA2j \u2013 USA (Hispanic)\nA2j1 \u2013 USA (Hispanic)\nA2k \u2013 USA (Puerto Rico)\nA2k1 \u2013 Ecuador, Wayuu, Mexico\nA2k1a \u2013 Venezuela, Colombia (Pasto of Putumayo), USA (Hispanic)\nA2l'm'n'o'ai'aj\nA2l\nA2m\nA2n \u2013 Canada\nA2o\nA2ai\nA2aj\nA2p'am\nA2p\nA2p1\nA2p2\nA2am \u2013 USA (Puerto Rico, Hispanic), Venezuela. One ancient DNA found in Cura\u00e7ao, in a Dabajuroid (Caquetio) site dating 1160-1500 CE.\nA2q\nA2q1\nA2r \u2013 USA (Hispanic, Mexican), Cuba\nA2r1 \u2013 Mexico, USA (Mexican)\nA2s\nA2t \u2013 USA (Mexican)\nA2u\nA2u1\nA2u2\nA2v\nA2v1 \u2013 USA (Mexican, Hispanic), Mexico (La Mixteca)\nA2v1a \u2013 Guatemala, USA (Mexican)\nA2v1b \u2013 Mexico\nA2w \u2013 Colombia (Kogi, Guambiano of Putumayo), Arsario, USA (Mexican, Hispanic)\nA2w1 \u2013 Mexico, Cayman Islands, Guatemala (La Tinta), Panama (Guaymi), Colombia\nA2x\nA2y\nA2z \u2013 USA (Hispanic, Puerto Rico)\nA2aa\nA2ab\nA2ac\nA2ac1\nA2ad\nA2ad1\nA2ad2\nA2ae\nA2af\nA2af1\nA2af1a\nA2af1a1\nA2af1a2\nA2af1b\nA2af1b1\nA2af1b1a\nA2af1b1b\nA2af1b2\nA2af2\nA2ag\nA2ah\nA2ak\nA2al\nA2an\nA2ap\nA2aq\nA6 [TMRCA 12,000 (95% CI 8,600 <-> 16,100) ybp]\nA6* \u2013 Deng, Korea\nA6a \u2013 China [TMRCA 9,600 (95% CI 5,500 <-> 15,500) ybp]\nA6a* \u2013 Han Chinese (Wuhan, etc.)\nA6a1 \u2013 Tujia\nA6b \u2013 Tibet [TMRCA 5,000 (95% CI 2,700 <-> 8,300) ybp]\nA6b* \u2013 Tibet (Chamdo, Ladakh)\nA6b1 \u2013 Tibet (Sherpa)\nA6c \u2013 Tibet (Lhoba, Monpa)\nA12'23 \u2013 Austria, Romania, Poland, Russia, possibly found among Udmurts and Komis\nA12 \u2013 Czech Republic, Germany [TMRCA 11,800 (95% CI 6,500 <-> 19,700) ybp]\nA12a \u2013 Ireland, UK, New Zealand, USA, Nenets, Selkup [TMRCA 4,700 (95% CI 2,700 <-> 7,600) ybp]\nA12a* \u2013 Mansi, Yakut (Vilyuy River basin), Kyrgyz (Kyrgyzstan)\nA12a1 \u2013 Kyordyughen Site (Ymyiakhtakh Culture, Yakutia), Hungary (Debrecen) [TMRCA 2,800 (95% CI 1,450 <-> 4,900) ybp]\nA12a2 \u2013 Evenk (Krasnoyarsk Krai, Stony Tunguska River basin) [TMRCA 1,250 (95% CI 100 <-> 6,600) ybp]\nA12b \u2013 Buryat, Karos-Eperjessz\u00f6g (Hungarian conqueror period) [TMRCA 3,000 (95% CI 425 <-> 10,700) ybp]\nA23 \u2013 Mongol (Inner Mongolia), Buryat, Ket, Qashqai (Iran), ancient Scythian (Chylenski) [TMRCA 6,200 (95% CI 3,300 <-> 10,600) ybp]\nA13'14 \u2013 Russia (Buryat, Khamnigan), China (Shiyan, Tu, Uyghur, etc.), Ladakh, Thailand, Vietnam (Mang), Korea, Japan, Paraguay (Alto Parana), Ireland\nA13\nA13a - Thailand (Khon Mueang from Chiang Rai Province and Lampang Province), China\nA13b\nA13b1 - Uyghur, Taiwan\nA13b2 - China (Lahu, etc.), Thailand (Red Lahu from Mae Hong Son Province), Vietnam (Ph\u00f9 L\u00e1)\nA13b2a - China (Naxi), Thailand (Lisu from Mae Hong Son Province)\nA14 \u2013 Russia (Altai Kizhi, etc.), Kyrgyz (Artux), Uyghur, China, Han Chinese (Denver), Taiwan, Thailand (Lawa from Chiang Mai Province, Mon from Lopburi Province), Vietnam (Pa Then)\nA15 \u2013 Uyghur\nA15a \u2013 China (Han in Beijing, Lanzhou, etc.), Tibet (Tingri), Uyghur, Japan\nA15b \u2013 China, Japan (Ehime)\nA15c \u2013 China\nA15c1 \u2013 Naxi, Tibet (Sherpa), Nepal (Sherpa)\nA16 \u2013 Buryat, Uyghur, Turk\nA17 \u2013 China (Han from Beijing, Lanzhou, etc.), Miao, Yi, Tibet (Lhoba, Monpa, Tingri), Ladakh, Kyrgyz (Tashkurgan), Thailand (Lawa from Chiang Mai Province and Mae Hong Son Province, Blang from Chiang Rai Province, Mon from Ratchaburi Province), Vietnam (Ph\u00f9 L\u00e1, H\u00e0 Nh\u00ec)\nA18 \u2013 Japan, China (Han from Fujian, Han from Beijing, Han from Lanzhou), Romania\nA19 \u2013 China (Han from Beijing, etc.)\nA20 \u2013 Japan, Han Chinese (Denver)\nA21 \u2013 Tibet (Sherpa, Deng, etc.), Jammu and Kashmir\nA22 \u2013 China, Han Chinese (Denver)\nA24 \u2013 China (Han in Beijing), Turkey, Czech Republic (West Bohemia)\nA25 \u2013 Japan (Chiba), China, Yakut (Vilyuy River basin)\nA26 \u2013 Denmark\nA3 \u2013 Japan (Tokyo, etc.), Korea [TMRCA 6,800 (95% CI 3,200 <-> 12,600) ybp]\nA3a \u2013 Japan (Aichi, etc.) [TMRCA 4,300 (95% CI 1,400 <-> 9,800) ybp]\nA7 [TMRCA 8,800 (95% CI 5,400 <-> 13,500) ybp]\nA7* \u2013 China\nA7a \u2013 Tibet [TMRCA 7,000 (95% CI 3,900 <-> 11,700) ybp]\nA7a* \u2013 Lhoba\nA7a1 \u2013 Lhoba\nA7a2 \u2013 Lhoba, Monpa\nA7b \u2013 Japan (Tokyo, etc.) [TMRCA 6,300 (95% CI 2,100 <-> 14,700) ybp]\nA9\nA11 \u2013 Nepal, Korea, Russia [TMRCA 14,500 (95% CI 9,700 <-> 20,800) ybp]\nA11a \u2013 Tibet (Lhasa, Nyingchi, Tingri, Sherpa, Lhoba, etc.), Ladakh\nA11b \u2013 Tibet (Tingri, Chamdo, etc.), Naxi, Han (Yunnan)\nA5 \u2013 China (incl. Hong Kong), Japan [TMRCA 16,200 (95% CI 11,100 <-> 22,800) ybp]\nA5a \u2013 Japan (Tokyo, Aichi, etc.), Korea, China [TMRCA 5,500 (95% CI 3,800 <-> 7,600) ybp]\nA5a1 - Korea\nA5a1a \u2013 Japan (Tokyo, etc.), Korea\nA5a1a1 \u2013 Japan (Tokyo, Chiba, Aichi, etc.), Korea\nA5a1a1a \u2013 Japan (Tokyo, etc.)\nA5a1a1b \u2013 Japan (Tokyo, Chiba, etc.), Korea\nA5a1a2 \u2013 Japan, Korea\nA5a1a2a \u2013 Japan (Aichi)\nA5a1b \u2013 Japan (Tokyo, Aichi)\nA5a2 \u2013 Japan (Tokyo, Aichi, etc.)\nA5a3\nA5a3* \u2013 Korea, USA (African American)\nA5a3a\nA5a3a* \u2013 Japan (Tokyo)\nA5a3a1 \u2013 Japan (Tokyo, Aichi, etc.)\nA5a4 \u2013 Japan\nA5a5 \u2013 Japan, South Korea (Seoul), Uyghur\nA5b \u2013 China (Tujia, Hui, etc.) [TMRCA 12,800 ybp (95% CI 8,400 <-> 18,800) ybp]\nA5b1 \u2013 China (Han from Beijing, etc.), Japan, Korea, Uyghur, Thailand, Vietnam (Tay), Singapore [TMRCA 8,600 (95% CI 6,600 <-> 11,100) ybp]\nA5b1* \u2013 Uyghur\nA5b1a \u2013 Japan (Tokyo, etc.), Korea [TMRCA 6,700 (95% CI 3,700 <-> 11,300) ybp]\nA5b1b \u2013 China (Han from Fujian, Miao, etc.), Uyghur, Korea [TMRCA 7,300 (95% CI 5,600 <-> 9,400) ybp]\nA5b1b* \u2013 Han Chinese\nA5b1b1\nA5b1b1* \u2013 Miao\nA5b1b1a \u2013 China\nA5b1b1b \u2013 China\nA5b1b2 \u2013 Uyghur\nA5b1c \u2013 Han Chinese (Denver) [TMRCA 7,600 (95% CI 3,100 <-> 15,500) ybp]\nA5b1c1 \u2013 Taiwan (Hakka, Bunun, Paiwan) [TMRCA 5,400 (95% CI 1,800 <-> 12,600) ybp]\nA5b1d [TMRCA 7,300 (95% CI 3,700 <-> 13,000) ybp] \nA5b1d* \u2013 China\nA5b1d1 \u2013 Siamese (Central Thailand), Tay (Vietnam)\nA5b2 \u2013 China (Tujia, etc.)\nA5c \u2013 Japan (Aichi, etc.), Korea, Khamnigan, Buryat, Barghut [TMRCA 8,200 (95% CI 4,800 <-> 13,000) ybp]\nA5c1 \u2013 Japan (Tokyo, Chiba, Aichi, etc.)\nA8 \u2013 Uyghur [TMRCA 14,000 (95% CI 9,500 <-> 19,800) ybp]\nA8a \u2013 Okunev culture, Ket, Selkup, Pakistan, Poland, Italy [TMRCA 11,000 (95% CI 8,000 <-> 14,800) ybp]\nA8a* \u2013 Han Chinese (Guizhou), Korean\nA8a1 \u2013 Hungary, Albania [TMRCA 5,500 (95% CI 3,000 <-> 9,200) ybp]\nA8a1* - Uyghur, Poland (Podhale), USA (Louisiana)\nA8a1a - Yakut, Uyghur, Buryat\nA8a2\nA8a2a \u2013 Kets (Kellog, etc.), Tofalar (Alygdzher) [TMRCA 2,200 (95% CI 125 <-> 12,000) ybp]\nA8a2b - Tuvan (Bay-Tal), Poland\nA8b \u2013 Koryak [TMRCA 1,050 (95% CI 75 <-> 5,600) ybp]\nA10 \u2013 China (Uyghur), Afghanistan (Hazara, Uzbek), Russia (Mansi, Volga Tatars, etc.), France, Canada, New York [TMRCA 9,200 (95% CI 4,900 <-> 15,600) ybp]\n\nPopular culture\nThe mummy \"Juanita\" of Peru, also called the \"Ice Maiden\", has been shown to belong to mitochondrial haplogroup A.\n\nIn his popular book The Seven Daughters of Eve, Bryan Sykes named the originator of this mtDNA haplogroup Aiyana.\n\nEva Longoria, an American actress of Mexican descent, belongs to Haplogroup A2.\n\nSee also\n\nGenealogical DNA test\nGenetic genealogy\nHuman mitochondrial genetics\nPopulation genetics\nIndigenous Amerindian genetics\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nGeneral\nIan Logan's Mitochondrial DNA Site\nMannis van Oven's Phylotree\nHaplogroup A\nBeringian Standstill and Spread of Native American Founders (PLoS)\nSpread of Haplogroup A, from National Geographic\nAiyana\nA10 Ancient DNA \u2013 Ancient Chum", " \u0438 \u0434\u0440.\u2014 \u0423\u043b\u0430\u043d-\u0423\u0434\u044d: \u0417\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u041f\u043e\u0434\u043b\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0440\u044c\u0435, 2020.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438 \n \u0417\u0443\u0439\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e \u041d. \u0410., \u041d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0412. \u041f., \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041a \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0436\u0451\u043b\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0443\u0441\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430 (Citellus fulvus) \u0432 \u0417\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0422\u0443\u0440\u043a\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 // \u0418\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0410\u041d \u0422\u0443\u0440\u043a\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u0421\u0420.- \u0410\u0448\u0445\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0434, 1963, \u2116\u00a06.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041a\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430 (Naja naja oxiana) \u0432 \u0417\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0422\u0443\u0440\u043a\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 // \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430.- 1963, \u2116\u00a05.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b \u043a \u0431\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u0430\u043c\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044f // \u0421\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0412\u041d\u0418\u0418\u0416\u041f.- \u0412\u044b\u043f. 10.- \u041a\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432, 1964.- \u0421. 72-77.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0417\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0434\u0443\u043f\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0436\u044c\u0435 \u041a\u0430\u043c\u0447\u0430\u0442\u043a\u0438 // \u041e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f.- 1963, \u0432\u044b\u043f. 6.- \u0421. 483.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041a \u0431\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0442\u0438\u0445\u043e\u043e\u043a\u0435\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0430 // \u041e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f.- 1965, \u0432\u044b\u043f. 7.- \u0421. 272\u2014275.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0417\u0430\u044f\u0446-\u0431\u0435\u043b\u044f\u043a \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0436\u044c\u0435 \u041a\u0430\u043c\u0447\u0430\u0442\u043a\u0438 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 1965, \u2116\u00a010.- \u0421. 23-24.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u044c \u041a\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 1967, \u2116\u00a01.- \u0421. 3-4.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0430 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 1967, \u2116\u00a012.- \u0421. 38.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0412\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0447\u0430 \u0432 \u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b\u043d\u0435 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 1967, \u2116\u00a01.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041a\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 1968, \u2116\u00a03.- \u0421. 14-15 (\u0432\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u00ab\u0417\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420\u00bb).\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041e\u0442\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 1968, \u2116\u00a011.- \u0421. 20-21.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041a\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a // \u0417\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430.\u2014 \u041c., 1969.\u2014 \u0421. 90-94.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043a\u0435\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043a \u0432 \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0435 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 1969, \u2116\u00a03.- \u0421.20-21.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041f\u043e\u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 1970, \u2116\u00a02.- \u0421. 23.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0414\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0447\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 1970, \u2116\u00a01.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b \u043a \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0431\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044f // \u0421\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u00ab\u042d\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0435\u043c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0417\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f\u00bb. \u0422\u0440\u0443\u0434\u044b \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430.- \u0432\u044b\u043f. 6.- \u0423\u043b\u0430\u043d-\u0423\u0434\u044d, 1970.- \u0421. 7-32.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0431\u0443\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435 // \u0442\u0430\u043c \u0436\u0435.- \u0421. 65-68.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0420\u043e\u0441\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0445\u0430 \u0432 \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0435 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 1970, \u2116\u00a07.- \u0421. 21.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041a \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0431\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044f // \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b \u043a \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0449\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e \u043f\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044e.- \u041a\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432: \u0426\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437, 1971.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0418\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0443\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439 // \u0442\u0430\u043c \u0436\u0435.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0420\u043e\u043b\u044c \u043a\u0443\u0445\u0442\u044b \u0432 \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0438 \u0442\u0430\u0439\u0433\u0438 // \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430.- 1971, \u2116\u00a010-11.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0423\u0431\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0449\u0430 \u0431\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 1975, \u2116\u00a01.- \u0421. 26-27.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041e \u0433\u043d\u0435\u0437\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0431\u0440\u044e\u0445\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0445\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043e-\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0436\u044c\u0435 \u0411\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0430\u043b\u0430 // \u0411\u044e\u043b\u043b. \u041c\u041e\u0418\u041f.- 1976, \u0432\u044b\u043f. 6.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b \u043a \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0431\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0432\u0435\u0434\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043e-\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0436\u044c\u0435 \u0411\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0430\u043b\u0430 // \u0411\u044e\u043b\u043b. \u041c\u041e\u0418\u041f, \u043e\u0442\u0434. \u0431\u0438\u043e\u043b.- \u0422. 83 (3), \u0432\u044b\u043f. 6.- 1978.- \u0421. 57-66. ISSN 0027-1403\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0425\u0438\u0449\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0439 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 1978, \u2116\u00a03.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041a \u0438\u0437\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0444\u0430\u0443\u043d\u044b \u0431\u043b\u043e\u0445 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0438, \u0431\u0443\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044f // \u0421\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441 \u0441\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043e-\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f\u00bb. \u0422\u0440\u0443\u0434\u044b \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430.- \u0432\u044b\u043f. 7.- \u0423\u043b\u0430\u043d-\u0423\u0434\u044d, 1978.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041a \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u044b\u0448\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0433\u0440\u044b\u0437\u0443\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 // \u0442\u0430\u043c \u0436\u0435.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044b \u0438\u0437\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0441 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043c\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f // \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u044b \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f. \u0422\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0441\u044b \u0434\u043e\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u043a \u0440\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0449\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e 10-13 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 1979\u00a0\u0433.- \u0422. 4. \u041f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0430\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u044b \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438.- \u0418\u0440\u043a\u0443\u0442\u0441\u043a, 1979.- \u0421. 59-60.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u043e\u0442\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u044f\u0445 \u0438\u0437\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0431\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439 // \u0412\u0441\u0435\u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0449\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u00ab\u042d\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b \u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0445\u0438\u0449\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043c\u043b\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445\u00bb \u0432 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u0435 1977 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0435.- \u041c., 1979.- \u0421. 294\u2014295.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041c\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0431\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439 // \u0411\u044e\u043b\u043b. \u041c\u041e\u0418\u041f, \u043e\u0442\u0434. \u0431\u0438\u043e\u043b.- \u0442. 85, \u0432\u044b\u043f. 5- 1980.- \u0421. 10-23. ISSN 0027-1403\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041b\u0438\u0441\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 1980, \u2116\u00a09.- \u0421. 20.\n \u0411\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0435\u0432 \u041d. \u041d., \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c., \u0428\u0438\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u041b. \u041c. \u0418\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043c\u043b\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445. \u0425\u0438\u0449\u043d\u044b\u0435 // \u0412\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u044b \u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438. \u0418\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043c\u043b\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445.- \u041c.: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430, 1980.- \u0421. 77-94.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041e\u043f\u044b\u0442 \u0443\u0447\u0451\u0442\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043c\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0437\u044b \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0432 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435 // \u041e\u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0441\u0443\u0440\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0432 \u0420\u0421\u0424\u0421\u0420. \u0422\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0441\u044b \u0434\u043e\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0449\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f 20-24 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f 1981\u00a0\u0433.- \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u044f\u0440\u0441\u043a, 1981.- \u0421. 61-62.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0411\u0443\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0432\u0435\u0434\u044c \u0432 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430.- 1983.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0414\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430.- 1984, \u2116\u00a04.- \u0421. 10-11.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041d\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043f\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044f // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430.- 1984, \u2116\u00a06.- \u0421. 2-3.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0417\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u044b\u0448\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0433\u0440\u044b\u0437\u0443\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u044f\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0436\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 // \u041c\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u043b\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u0435\u0440\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0439.- \u041c., 1984.- \u0421. 109\u2014112.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041c\u0435\u0434\u0432\u0435\u0434\u044c \u0432 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430.- 1985, \u2116\u00a012.- \u0421. 12-14.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0412\u043e\u043b\u043a \u0432 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430.- 1986, \u2116\u00a04.- \u0421. 9.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0437 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430.- 1986, \u2116\u00a010.- \u0421. 32.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0443\u00a0\u2014 70 \u043b\u0435\u0442 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430.- 1986, \u2116\u00a01.- \u0421. 3-5.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0422\u0430\u0451\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0431\u0443\u0434\u043d\u0438 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 1987, \u2116\u00a010.- \u0421. 24-25.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041c\u043b\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 // \u0424\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u0444\u0430\u0443\u043d\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420. \u0424\u0430\u0443\u043d\u0430 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430.- \u041c., 1988.- \u0421. 34-41.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0417\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0433 // \u0411\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0430.- \u0432\u044b\u043f. 1.- \u0418\u0440\u043a\u0443\u0442\u0441\u043a, 1988.- \u0421. 255\u2014273.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041f\u043e\u0434\u043b\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0440\u044c\u0435 // Aqua.- 1989, \u2116\u00a01.- \u0421. 64-67.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0411\u0435\u0441\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0445\u043b\u0435\u0431\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430.- 1989, \u2116\u00a01.- \u0421. 18-19.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0424\u0430\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0432\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0430. \u0417\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430.- 1990, \u2116\u00a06.- \u0421. 38-41.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041b\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u043a\u0438 \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430.- 1990, \u2116\u00a012.- \u0421. 12-13.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041f\u043e\u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0431\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430.- 1991, \u2116\u00a05.- \u0421. 12-14; 1991, \u2116\u00a06.- \u0421. 20-21.\n \u0410\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d \u0410. \u0410., \u0414\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0436\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432 \u0415. \u0410., \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a. \u0417\u043e\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043b. \u0423\u0447\u0451\u0442 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0438. \u0423\u0447\u0451\u0442 \u043c\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043c\u043b\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 // \u0417\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438. \u0421\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u00ab\u041b\u0435\u0442\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044b\u00bb \u0437\u0430 1991/92 \u0433\u0433.- \u041c.: \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0430\u0433\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0438\u0441, 1994.- \u0421. 25-30.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041c\u0435\u0434\u0432\u0435\u0434\u044c \u0432 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435: \u0433\u043e\u0434 \u043d\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430.- 1995, \u2116\u00a01.- \u0421. 18-19.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a // \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430.- 1995, \u2116\u00a08.- \u0421. 45-59.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0421\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0432 \u0443\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u044f\u0445 \u0441\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0437\u0438\u043c\u044b // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430.- 1996, \u2116\u00a05.- \u0421. 43.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c., \u0413\u0443\u0441\u0435\u0432 \u041e. \u041a. \u00ab\u0427\u0430\u0448\u0443 \u044d\u0442\u0443 \u043c\u0438\u043c\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0441\u0438\u00bb. \u0415\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043b\u0438 \u0431\u0443\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0443 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432? // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 1998, \u2116\u00a04.- \u0421. 12-14.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0438\u0437\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044f // \u0417\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u043e. \u041d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0438.- 1999, \u0432\u044b\u043f. 4.- \u0421. 127\u2014138.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a // \u0417\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438. \u0417\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0421\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0438.\u2014 \u0422. 1.\u2014 \u041c., 1999.\u2014 \u0421. 171-188.\n \u041c\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0432 \u0412. \u0413., \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u042e. \u041c., \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0432 \u0410. \u0421., \u0414\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0410. \u0410., \u0421\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0446\u044b\u043d \u0410. \u0410., \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041a \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043c\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0446\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044f // \u0411\u0438\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0443\u0440\u0441\u044b \u0423\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u0435\u0440\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0439. \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438 30-31 \u044f\u043d\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044f 2001\u00a0\u0433.- \u041e\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433, 2001.- \u0421. 287\u2014289.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0431\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044f // \u0421\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u00ab\u041c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0433 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043e-\u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f\u00bb. \u0422\u0440\u0443\u0434\u044b \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u00ab\u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00bb.- 2002, \u0432\u044b\u043f. 8.- \u0421. 164\u2014171.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0437\u0438\u043c\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043c\u043b\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 // \u0442\u0430\u043c \u0436\u0435.- \u0421. 171\u2014191.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041c\u0435\u0434\u0432\u0435\u0434\u044c \u0432 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 2005, \u2116\u00a02.- \u0421. 12-13.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0420\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044b \u043c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434 1996\u20142006\u00a0\u0433\u0433. // \u0421\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u044b \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0445\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0442\u0430\u00bb. \u0422\u0440\u0443\u0434\u044b \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u00ab\u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00bb.- 2006, \u2116\u00a09.- \u0421. 147\u2014170.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041d\u0435\u0440\u043f\u0430 \u0443 \u0431\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0432 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 2008, \u2116\u00a02.- \u0421. 19.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041c\u0435\u0434\u0432\u0435\u0434\u044c \u0432 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435: \u0432\u0441\u043f\u044b\u0448\u043a\u0430 \u0430\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 2010, \u2116\u00a07.- \u0421. 6-8.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u044b // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.- 2010, \u2116\u00a010.- \u0421. 12-15.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438 \n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041f\u043e \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044f // \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0434\u0430 \u0411\u0443\u0440\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0438.- 1970, 19 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0432 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0435 // \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0434\u0430 \u0411\u0443\u0440\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0438.- 1974, \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044c.\n \n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0442\u044e\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044c // \u042e\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442.- 1983, \u2116\u00a011.- \u0421. 14-15.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041e\u0442\u043a\u0443\u0434\u0430 \u0438\u0434\u0451\u0442 \u043c\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c? // \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0434\u0430.- 1985, \u2116\u00a017, 9 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044f.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041d\u0430\u0448\u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0437\u044c\u044f // \u042e\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442.- 198?, \u2116 ?.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0412 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043b\u0435\u0441\u0430\u0445 \u041f\u043e\u0434\u043b\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0440\u044c\u044f // \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0434\u0430 \u0411\u0443\u0440\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0438.- 1988, \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044c.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0443\u0440\u043a\u0430 // \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0411\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0430\u043b.- 1972, 11 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u0438\u0437\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044f // \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0411\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0430\u043b.- 1972, 24 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043c \u043c\u0430\u0445\u043e\u043c \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0443\u0434\u044c\u0431\u0430 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0443\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 // \u0417\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430.- 1998, \u2116\u00a04 (\u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442).\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u041e\u0437\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432 // \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0434\u0430 \u0411\u0443\u0440\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0438.- 1975, 13 \u043c\u0430\u044f.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0414\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b-\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0431\u043e\u0439\u043d\u0438\u043a // \u042e\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442.- 1999, \u0438\u044e\u043d\u044c.\n\n\u041f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438 \n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u042d\u0442\u043e \u0442\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043c\u043d\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u043d\u0443\u0436\u043d\u043e // \u041e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u044c\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.\u2014 \u2116\u00a02.\u2014 2004.\u2014 \u0421. 16\u201418.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0421\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0432 \u043c\u043e\u0435\u0439 \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0438 // \u041e\u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044b.\u2014 \u2116\u00a03.\u2014 2001.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043d \u0415. \u041c. \u0422\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0446\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0442\u0440\u0438 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435 (\u0438\u0437 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0438) // \u0412\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0430.\u2014 \u2116\u00a03\u20144 (20\u201421).\u2014 \u0418\u0440\u043a\u0443\u0442\u0441\u043a, 1999.\u2014 \u0421. 48.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440", "\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u044b 50 \u0413\u0446 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0437\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043d \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0446\u0435\u043f\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u044f\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u0434\u043e 100\u00a0\u043a\u043c.\n\n \u0422\u043e\u043a \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u043a, (\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u044b \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0432 \u0434\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u043a\u0413\u0446), \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044f\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u043c\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0438\u0437\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0433\u043d\u0438\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d \u0438 \u0441\u043a\u0438\u043d-\u044d\u0444\u0444\u0435\u043a\u0442. \u041a\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0435\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u044b \u0438\u0437\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u043e\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0439 \u0441 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u043f\u0438, \u0442\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0443\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0437\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0445\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u043a \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0447\u0451\u0442\u0443 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0446\u0435\u043f\u0435\u0439 (\u0441\u043c. \u0414\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043b\u0438\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0421\u0412\u0427-\u0434\u0438\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0437\u043e\u043d).\n\n \u041f\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u043a\u00a0\u2014 \u044d\u0442\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u043a, \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434 \u043e\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e \u043e\u0442 \u043d\u0443\u043b\u044f.\n\n \u041e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u043a\u00a0\u2014 \u044d\u0442\u043e \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u043a, \u043d\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f.\n\n\u0412\u0438\u0445\u0440\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u043a\u0438 \n\n\u0412\u0438\u0445\u0440\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u043a\u0438 (\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0438 \u0424\u0443\u043a\u043e)\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0437\u0430\u043c\u043a\u043d\u0443\u0442\u044b\u0435 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u043a\u0438 \u0432 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0430\u0433\u043d\u0438\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0430\u00bb, \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0432\u0438\u0445\u0440\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u043a\u0438 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0438\u043d\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0442\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438. \u0427\u0435\u043c \u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0435 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\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0430\u0431\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0435, \u043f\u043e \u0443\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430, \u0432 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0439 \u00ab\u0431\u0435\u0433\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043e\u0442 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0444\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u043e \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u201e\u044f\u201c \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u0431\u0435\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d \u043a \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0430\u044e", " instead of perivenous demyelination.\n\nThere are three phases for how an unknown underlying condition may cause damage in MS:\n An unknown soluble factor (produced by CD8+ T-cells or CD20+ B-cells), creates a toxic environment that activates microglia.\n MRI-abnormal areas with hidden damage appear in the brain and spine (NAWM, NAGM, DAWM). Some clusters of activated microglia, axonal transection and myelin degeneration are present.\n Leaks in the blood\u2013brain barrier appear and immune cells infiltrate, causing demyelination. and axon destruction.\n\nMultiple sclerosis differs from other idiopathic inflammatory demyelinating diseases in its confluent subpial cortical lesions. These types of lesions are the most specific finding for MS, being exclusively present in MS patients, though currently they can only be detected at autopsy.\n\nMost MS findings take place inside the white matter, and lesions appear mainly in a periventricular distribution (clustered around the ventricles of the brain). Apart from white matter demyelination, the cortex and deep gray matter (GM) nuclei can be affected, together with diffuse injury of the NAWM. GM atrophy is independent of classical MS lesions and is associated with physical disability, fatigue, and cognitive impairment in MS\n\nAt least five characteristics are present in CNS tissues of MS patients: Inflammation beyond classical white matter lesions, intrathecal Ig production with oligoclonal bands, an environment fostering immune cell persistence, and a disruption of the blood\u2013brain barrier outside of active lesions. The scars that give the name to the condition are produced by astrocytes healing old lesions. MS is active even during remission periods.\n\nMeningeal tertiary lymphoid-like structures\n\nFollicle-like aggregates in the meninges are formed only in secondary progressive MS. and correlate with the degree of subpial cortical demyelination and brain atrophy, suggesting that they might contribute to cortical pathology in SPMS\n\nThese ectopic lymphoid follicles are composed mainly of EBV infected B-cells.\n\nDemyelination patterns\n\nFour different damage patterns have been identified in patient's brain tissues. The original report suggests that there may be several types of MS with different immune causes, and that MS may be a family of several diseases. Though originally a biopsy was required to classify the lesions of a patient, since 2012 it is possible to classify them by a blood test looking for antibodies against 7 lipids, three of which are cholesterol derivatives Cholesterol crystals are believed to both impair myelin repair and aggravate inflammation.\n\nIt is believed that they may correlate with differences in disease type and prognosis, and perhaps with different responses to treatment. In any case, understanding lesion patterns can provide information about differences in disease between individuals and enable doctors to make more effective treatment decisions.\n\nAccording to one of the researchers involved in the original research, \"Two patterns (I and II) showed close similarities to T-cell-mediated or T-cell plus antibody-mediated autoimmune encephalomyelitis, respectively. The other patterns (III and IV) were highly suggestive of a primary oligodendrocyte dystrophy, reminiscent of virus- or toxin-induced demyelination rather than autoimmunity.\"\n\nThe four identified patterns are:\n\n Pattern I The scar presents T-cells and macrophages around blood vessels, with preservation of oligodendrocytes, but no signs of complement system activation.\n\n Pattern II The scar presents T-cells and macrophages around blood vessels, with preservation of oligodendrocytes, as before, but also signs of complement system activation can be found. This pattern has been considered similar to damage seen in NMO, though AQP4 damage does not appear in pattern II MS lesions Nevertheless, pattern II has been reported to respond to plasmapheresis, which points to something pathogenic into the blood serum.\n\nThe complement system infiltration in these cases convert this pattern into a candidate for research into autoimmune connections like anti-Kir4.1, anti-Anoctamin-2 or anti-MOG mediated MS About the last possibility, research has found antiMOG antibodies in some pattern-II MS patients.\n\nPattern II pathogenic T cells has been shown to be different from others The functional characterization shows that T cells releasing Th2 cytokines and helping B cells dominate the T-cell infiltrate in pattern II brain lesions.\n\n Pattern III The scars are diffuse with inflammation, distal oligodendrogliopathy, microglial activation and loss of myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG). It is considered atypical and an overlap between MS and Balo concentric sclerosis. The scars do not surround the blood vessels, and a rim of preserved myelin appears around the vessels. There is evidence of partial remyelinization and oligodendrocyte apoptosis. At first, some researchers thought it was an early stage of the evolution of the other patterns. Recently, it is thought that it represents ischaemia-like injury with absence of oligoclonal bands in the CSF, related to the pathogenesis of Balo concentric sclerosis.\n\n Pattern IV The scar presents sharp borders and oligodendrocyte degeneration, with a rim of normal-appearing white matter. There is a lack of oligodendrocytes in the center of the scar. There is no complement activation or MAG loss.\n\nThese differences are noticeable only in early lesions and the heterogeneity was controversial for some time because some research groups thought that these four patterns could be a consequence of the age of the lesions. Nevertheless, after some debate among research groups, the four patterns model is accepted and the exceptional case found by Prineas has been classified as NMO\n\nFor some investigation teams this means that MS is an immunopathogenetically heterogeneous disease. The latter hypothesis is further corroborated by a recent study that demonstrated significant differences in routine cerebrospinal fluid findings between patients with pattern I lesions and patients with non-pattern I lesions, including a lack of CSF-restricted oligoclonal bands, in most pattern II and III patients. Finally, some previously diagnosed with pattern II MS were later found to have in fact MOG-IgG-related encephalomyelitis, suggesting that both the current clinicoradiological diagnostic criteria for MS and the histopathological criteria for MS may be insufficiently specific. This was already indicated by previous studies that found a relatively high rate of false diagnoses of MS among patients with AQP4-IgG-positive neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders or MOG encephalomyelitis.\nCurrently antibodies to lipids and peptides in sera, detected by microarrays, can be used as markers of the pathological subtype given by brain biopsy.\n\nAnother development in this area is the finding that some lesions present mitochondrial defects that could distinguish types of lesions.\n\nPhysiology of MS\n\nIn multiple sclerosis, inflammation, demyelination, and neurodegeneration are observed together. Some clinical trials have shown that the inflammation produces both the relapses and the demyelination, and that neurodegeneration (axonal transection) is independent from inflammation, produces the accumulative disability, and advances even when inflammation and demyelination are delayed. It seems that neurodegeneration is produced by damaged mitochondria, which in turn comes from activated microglia.\n\nCurrently it is unknown what the primary cause of MS is; if MS is a heterogeneous disease, the lesion development process would not be unique. In particular, some PPMS patients having a special clinical course named rapidly progressive multiple sclerosis could have a special genetic cause and a different development process.\n\nSeveral types of damage appear in the brain: normal appearing white matter (NAWM) and characteristic lesions. Changes in NAWM include axonal injury without demyelination, low-grade inflammation, and microglial and astrocytic activation\n\nMS lesion development \n\nMS lesions develop inside NAWM areas. Their shape is influenced by their activity\n\nThe most accepted sequence of events is first NAWM appearance, then the so-called pre-active lesions, with activated microglia, and finally the BBB breakdown, which enables the entry of T-cells to the CNS. This marks the beginning of an autoimmune attack which destroys myelin in active lesions. When the attack is resolved, a characteristic glial scar is formed by astrocytes.\n\nCurrent models can be divided into two categories: inside-out and outside-in. In the former, it is hypothesized that a problem in CNS cells produces an immune response that destroys myelin and subsequently breaks the BBB. In latter, an external factor produces BBB leaks, enters the CNS, and destroys myelin and axons. Whatever the underlying condition for MS is, it appears that damage is triggered by an unknown soluble factor in the CSF, potentially produced in meningeal areas; this factor can diffuse into the cortical parenchyma and destroy myelin either directly or indirectly through microglia activation.\n\nThe evolution of a preactive lesion is related to microglia reactivity. Increased expression of pro-inflammatory cell surface markers have been observed in NAWM and \"initial\" lesions, corresponding to a so-called loss of homeostatic microglial equilibrium.\n\nSome authors report active lesion formation before BBB breakdown; others point to adipsin as a factor of the breakdown.\n\nMS lesions are driven mainly by T-cells. It has been found recently that B-cells are also involved.\n\nBlood\u2013brain barrier disruption\n\nThe blood\u2013brain barrier (BBB) is a protective barrier that denies the entrance of foreign material into the nervous system. BBB disruption is the moment in which penetration of the barrier by lymphocytes occur and has been considered one of the early problems in MS lesions.\n\nThe BBB is composed of endothelial cells which line the blood vessel walls of the central nervous system. Compared to normal endothelial cells, the cells lining the BBB are connected by occludin and claudin which form tight junctions in order to create a barrier to keep out larger molecules such as proteins. In order to pass through, molecules must be taken in by transport proteins or an alteration in the BBB permeability must occur, such as interactions with associated adaptor proteins like ZO-1, ZO-2 and ZO-3.\n\nThe BBB is compromised due to active recruitment of lymphocytes and monocytes and their migration across the barrier. Release of chemokines allow for the activation of adhesion molecules on the lymphocytes and monocytes, resulting in an interaction with the endothelial cells of the BBB which then activate the expression of matrix metalloproteinases to degrade the barrier. This results in disruption of the BBB, causing an increase in barrier permeability due to the degradation of tight junctions which maintain barrier integrity. Inducing the formation of tight junctions can restore BBB integrity and reduces its permeability, which can be used to reduce the damage caused by lymphocyte and monocyte migration across the barrier as restored integrity would restrict their movement.\n\nAfter barrier breakdown symptoms may appear, such as swelling. Activation of macrophages and lymphocytes and their migration across the barrier may result in direct attacks on myelin sheaths within the central nervous system, leading to the characteristic demyelination event observed in MS. After demyelination has occurred, the degraded myelin sheath components, such as myelin basic proteins and Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoproteins, are then used as identifying factors to facilitate further immune activity upon myelin sheaths. Further activation of cytokines is also induced by macrophage and lymphocyte activity, promoting inflammatory activity as well continued activation of proteins such as matrix metalloproteinases, which have detrimental effect on BBB integrity.\n\nRecently it has been found that BBB damage happens even in non-enhancing lesions. MS has an important vascular component.\n\nPostmortem BBB study\n\nPostmortem studies of the BBB, especially the vascular endothelium, show immunological abnormalities. Microvessels in periplaque areas coexpressed HLA-DR and VCAM-1, some others HLA-DR and urokinase plasminogen activator receptor, and others HLA-DR and ICAM-1.\n\nIn vivo BBB \nThe damaged white matter is known as \"Normal-appearing white matter\" (NAWM) and is where lesions appear. These lesions form in NAWM before blood\u2013brain barrier breakdown.\n\nBBB can be broken centripetally (the most normal) or centrifugally. Several possible biochemical disrupters were proposed. Some hypotheses about how the BBB is compromised revolve around the presence of compounds in the blood that could interact with vessels only in the NAWM areas. The permeability of two cytokines, Interleukin 15 and LPS, may be involved in BBB breakdown. Breakdown is responsible for monocyte infiltration and inflammation in the brain. Monocyte migration and LFA-1-mediated attachment to brain microvascular endothelia is regulated by SDF-1alpha through Lyn kinase.\n\nUsing iron nanoparticles, involvement of macrophages in BBB breakdown can be detected. A special role is played by Matrix metalloproteinases. These increase BBB T-cell permeability, specially in the case of MMP-9 and are supposedly related to the mechanism of action of interferons.\n\nWhether BBB dysfunction is the cause or the consequence of MS is disputed, because activated T-Cells can cross a healthy BBB when they express adhesion proteins. Apart from that, activated T-Cells can cross a healthy BBB when they express adhesion proteins. (Adhesion molecules could also play a role in inflammation) In particular, one of these adhesion proteins involved is ALCAM (Activated Leukocyte Cell Adhesion Molecule, also called CD166), and is under study as therapeutic target. Another protein involved is CXCL12, which is found also in brain biopsies of inflammatory elements, and which could be related to the behavior of CXCL13 under methylprednisolone therapy. Some molecular biochemical models for relapses have been proposed.\n\nNormally, gadolinium enhancement is used to show BBB disruption on MRIs. Abnormal tight junctions are present in both SPMS and PPMS. They appear in active white matter lesions and in gray matter in SPMS. They persist in inactive lesions, particularly in PPMS.\n\nA uric acid deficiency was implicated in this process. Uric acid added in physiological concentrations (i.e. achieving normal concentrations) is therapeutic in MS by preventing BBB breakdown through inactivation of peroxynitrite. The low level of uric acid found in people with MS is manifestedly causative rather than a tissue damage consequence in the white matter lesions, but not in the grey matter lesions. Uric acid levels are lower during relapses.\n\nProposed causes\n\nIt is not known what causes MS. Several problems appear together with the white matter lesions, like cortical lesions and normal-appearing tissues. Several theories have been proposed to explain it.\n\nSome areas that appear normal under normal MRI look abnormal under special MRI, like magnetisation transfer MTR-MRI. These are called Normal Appearing White Matter (NAWM) and Normal Appearing Grey Matter (NAGM). The cause why the normal appearing areas appear in the brain is unknown, but seems clear that they appear mainly in the ventricles and that they predict the course of the disease.\n\nGiven that MS lesions begin inside the NAWM areas, these areas are expected to be produced by the same underlying condition that produces the lesions, and therefore the ultimate MS underlying condition, whatever it is. Historically, several theories about how these areas appear have been presented:\n\nAutoimmune theories\n\nThe search for an auto-antigen has taken a long time, but at least there is one reported. It is the enzyme GDP-L-fucose synthase.\n\nThis theory in part could also explain why some patients report amelioration under dietary treatment.\n\nHERVs\n\nHuman endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) have been reported in MS for several years.\nIn fact, one of the families, Human Endogenous Retrovirus-W was first discovered while studying MS patients.\n\nRecent research as of 2019 point to one of the HERV-W viruses (pHEV-W), and specifically one of the proteins of the viral capsid that has been found to activate microglia in vitro. Activated microglia in turn produces demyelination. Some interactions between the Epstein-Barr virus and the HERVs could be the trigger of the MS microglia reactions. Supporting this study, a monoclonal antibody against the viral capside (Temelimab) has shown good results in trials in phase IIb.\n\nBlood flow related theories\n Venous pathology has been associated with MS for more than a century. Pathologist Georg Eduard Rindfleisch noted in 1863 that the inflammation-associated lesions were distributed around veins. Some other authors like Tracy Putnam pointed to venous obstructions.\n Mechanical flow: Later the focus moved to softer hemodynamic abnormalities, which were showing precede changes in sub-cortical gray matter and in substantia nigra. However, such reports of a \"hemodynamic cause of MS\" are not universal, and possibly not even common. At this time the evidence is largely anecdotal and some MS patients have no blood flow issues. Possibly vascular problems may be an aggravating factor, like many others in MS. Indeed, the research, by demonstrating patients with no hemodynamic problems actually prove that this is not the only cause of MS.\n Endothelium: Other theories point to a possible primary endothelial dysfunction. The importance of vascular misbehaviour in MS pathogenesis has also been independently confirmed by seven-tesla MRI. It is reported that a number of studies have provided evidence of vascular occlusion in MS, which suggest the possibility of a primary vascular injury in MS lesions or at least that they are occasionally correlated.\n Venous insufficiency: Some morphologically special medullar lesions (wedge-shaped) have also been linked to venous insufficiency.\n BBB infection: It has also been pointed out that some infectious agents with positive correlation to MS, specially Chlamydia pneumoniae, can cause problems in veins and arteries walls\n CCSVI: The term \"chronic cerebrospinal venous insufficiency\" was coined in 2008 by Paolo Zamboni, who described it in patients with multiple sclerosis. Instead of intracranial venous problems he described extracranial blockages, and he stated that the location of those obstructions seemed to influence the clinical course of the disease. According to Zamboni, CCSVI had a high sensitivity and specificity differentiating healthy individuals from those with multiple sclerosis. Zamboni's results were criticized as some of his studies were not blinded and they need to be verified by further studies. the theory is considered at least defensible\n A more detailed evidence of a correlation between the place and type of venous malformations imaged and the reported symptoms of multiple sclerosis in the same patients was published in 2010.\n Haemodynamic problems have been found in the blood flow of MS patients using Doppler, initially using transcranial color-coded duplex sonography (TCCS), pointing to a relationship with a vascular disease called chronic cerebro-spinal venous insufficiency (CCSVI). In 2010 there were conflicting results when evaluating the relationship between MS and CCSVI. but is important to note that positives have appeared among the blinded studies.\n CSF flow: Other theories focus in the possible role of cerebrospinal fluid flow impairment. This theory could be partially consistent with the previous one. Currently a small trial with 8 participants has been performed\n\nCSF composition: Kir4.1 and Anoctamin-2\n\nWhatever the underlying primary condition is, it is expected to be a soluble factor in the CSF, maybe an unknown cytokine or ceramide, or a combination of them. Also B-cells and microglia could be involved. In particular, it is known that B-cells of MS patients secrete an unknown toxin against oligodendrocytes\n\nIt has been reported several times that CSF of some MS patients can damage myelin in culture and mice and ceramides have been recently brought into the stage. Whatever the problem is, it produces apoptosis of neurons respecting astrocytes\n\nIn 2012 it was reported that a subset of MS patients have a seropositive anti-Kir4.1 status, which can represent up to a 47% of the MS cases, and the study has been reproduced by at least two other groups.\n\nIn 2016 a similar association was reported for anti-Anoctamin-2\n\nIf the existence of any of these subsets of MS is confirmed, the situation would be similar to what happened for Devic Disease and Aquaporin-4. MS could be considered a heterogeneous condition or a new medical entity will be defined for these cases.\n\nPrimary neuro-degeneration theories\nSome authors propose a primary neurodegenerative factor. Maybe the strongest argument supporting this theory comes from the comparison with NMO. Though autoimmune dem", "In 1893, he related another story to W.H. Cameron of the San Francisco Chronicle, in which he claimed that the story of his life was a romance. Born in Virginia [sic] in 1842 of a good family, he went to Heidelberg to study medicine. At the same time, his brother attended West Point for a military education. When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Frank returned to his old home in Virginia [sic] and entered the Confederate Army as a bugler while his brother joined the Union forces.\n\nLeslie also claimed that he served as a scout for the U.S. Army in Texas, Oklahoma, and the Dakotas during the 1870s, but no documentation has been found.\n\nSan Francisco \n\nLeslie was first recorded in San Francisco in 1878 where he was employed as a barkeeper in Thomas Boland's saloon at 311 Pine Street. He lived in San Francisco at 732 Howard Street. In 1879 he was a \"bookkeeper,\" which may have been a typo for \"barkeeper,\" since he worked at Kerr & Jurado's Saloon & Billiard Room. The next year he was again listed as a barkeeper in the same establishment and was living at 746 Folsom Street. In mid-1880, he moved to Tombstone, Arizona.\n\nTombstone, Arizona \n\nLeslie arrived in Tombstone, in July 1880 dressed in the buckskin attire of a scout. He was tall and weighed about . When he arrived in Tombstone, he traded his frontier clothing for gentleman's attire like that worn in San Francisco. He complemented his city dress with a fringed buckskin vest that furthered his reputation as \"Buckskin Frank\" Leslie. In Tombstone, he entered a partnershp with William H. Knapp, and opened the Cosmopolitan Saloon next door to the Cosmopolitan Hotel at 409 Allen Street.\n\nKills Mike Killeen \n\nLeslie was attracted to a chambermaid at the Cosmopolitan Hotel named Mary Jane \"May\" Killeen. He attended her wedding to Mike Killeen on April 13, 1880, in Tombstone, and was one of the two witnesses listed on the marriage record. Mike Killeen was jealous of the relationship between May and Leslie.\n\nLate in the evening of June 22, 1880, Leslie had his arm around May as they sat on the front porch of the Cosmopolitan Hotel. George M. Perine, a friend of Leslie, saw her husband approaching, and warned Leslie, but not before Killeen fired his gun twice. The bullets grazed Leslie's head, and stunned him. Killeen attacked Leslie, and began clubbing him with his revolver when Killeen was shot, and mortally wounded. Before he died five days later, on June 28, he told E.T. Packwood that Perine had shot him. Both Leslie and Perine were charged with murder, but Leslie claimed he had fired in self-defense, and that Perine had not fired his weapon. The court accepted Leslie's explanation, and dismissed charges against both men.\n\nMarries Mary Killeen \n\nEight days after her husband's death, Mary Killeen married Leslie. For the second time (within 84 days), 13 year-old Louisa E. Bilicke served as the bride's maid of honor. The Tombstone Epitaph reported:\n\nConfronts with James Young \n\nJames Young had two encounters with Buckskin Frank Leslie and Leslie backed down both times. Young was an early arrival in Tombstone, Arizona and had worked in the Contention mine, and staked a claim nearby. When he found that Leslie had jumped his claim, Young approached him with a shotgun, and beckoned him to go back to town quickly. Leslie shrugged it off, and explained that he had heard that some others were about to jump Young's claim, and he had gone there to help him stand them off. When the news about the stand-off went around town, James Young's prestige rose, and Frank Leslie's faltered some. Later, when Leslie met Young in a store, unarmed and with his back turned, Leslie pulled his gun out of its holster, and was about to use it. The woman store-owner screamed and jumped between the two men. Again, Buckskin shrugged it off, and said he was just checking his six-gun to see that it was in good working order.\n\nKills Billy Claiborne \n\nA major fire swept Tombstone on May 26, 1882, which destroyed Knapp & Leslie's Cosmopolitan Saloon. The partners decided against rebuilding, and Leslie took a job tending bar at the Oriental Saloon, one of the few buildings still standing.\n\nLeslie was tending bar at the Oriental on November 14, 1882, when Billy Claiborne, who was very drunk, began using insulting and abusive language. Leslie asked Claiborne to leave, but Claiborne continued his foul and abusive speech. Leslie grabbed Claiborne by his coat collar, and escorted him out. Leslie later testified, \"He used very hard language, and as he started away from me, shook a finger at me and said, 'That's all right Leslie, I'll get even on you.' \"\n\nWithin a few minutes, two men told Leslie there was a man waiting outside to shoot him. When Leslie stepped outside, he saw \"a foot of rifle barrel protruding from the end of the fruit stand.\" He tried to talk Claiborne out of shooting, but Claiborne raised his rifle, and fired the weapon, missing Leslie. Leslie returned fire, hitting Claiborne in the chest. \"I saw him double up and had my pistol cocked and aimed at him again... I advanced upon him, but did not shoot, when he said, 'Don't shoot again, I am killed.' \"\n\nLeslie had planned that day to travel to the Dragoon Mountains with George W. Parsons, but the trip was cancelled. Parsons described Claiborne's death, writing that \"Frank didn't lose the light of his cigarette during the encounter. Wonderfully cool man.\" The coroner's inquest concluded that Leslie shot Claiborne in self-defense, which \"in the opinion of the jury, was justifiable.\"\n\nThe Magnolia Ranch\n\nAt the end of 1882, Milton E. Joyce sold his share in the Oriental Saloon, and he and Leslie entered a partnership to build a ranch near Arizona's Swisshelm Mountains. The \"Magnolia\" was located from Tombstone in a very desolate section of southeastern Arizona. Milt Joyce sold Leslie his share of the ranch in 1885.\n\nBecomes cavalry scout \n\nFrom May 20 to June 21, 1885, Leslie became a scout for the 4th Cavalry. In 1886, he applied for a job as a customs inspector, and continued some work as a scout. In the April, 1886 the San Francisco Chronicle reported:\n\nDivorce \n\nMary Jane \"May\" Leslie filed a divorce complaint, and alleged that Leslie had had sex with \"Miss Birdie Woods\" between July 4\u20136, 1886. She also charged that Leslie had choked and beaten her on March 9, 1887. The divorce was granted on June 3, 1887. Judge William H. Barnes ordered Leslie to pay her $650 in cash and to convey title to a one-fourth interest in the Magnolia Ranch, including 13 horses and 150 cattle. Leslie was also ordered to pay all legal fees.\n\nMurders Mollie Edwards \n\nAfter his divorce, Mollie Edwards joined Leslie at his ranch as his \"wife,\" but that relationship ended on July 10, 1889 when Leslie returned to his ranch drunk. He found Mollie Edwards sitting and talking with James Neil. The Tombstone Daily Epitaph reported:\n\nNeil was badly wounded and was brought back to Tombstone where he was treated by one of the foremost surgeons in treating a gunshot wound in the United States, Dr. George E. Goodfellow on July 12, 1889. Leslie was arrested the same day and put in jail. After a two-day preliminary hearing, Leslie was ordered held without bail until his trial in Tucson. Four days after killing Edwards, the coroner's jury reported:\n\nLeslie plead guilty \"to murder in the first degree\" on January 6, 1890, The Sacramento Daily Record-Union reported:\n\nSentenced to life \n\nLeslie was sentenced to life in prison. Sheriff John Slaughter delivered him to the Yuma Territorial Prison on January 9, 1890, where he became convict number 632. The Mohave Miner, on January 18, 1890, reported \"The eleven convicts who were brought here from Tombstone yesterday, arrived in an intoxicated condition. One of the number, a life prisoner, Frank Leslie, was so drunk that he could scarcely walk.\"\n\nLeslie was in prison less than three months when he joined five other convicts in an unsuccessful escape attempt. Leslie was sent to solitary confinement for his part in the escape attempt. When he was released from solitary confinement, he became a model prisoner, and worked as a pharmacist in the prison infirmary. W.H. Cameron, a reporter for the San Francisco Chronicle, interviewed Leslie in late 1893.\n\nPardoned by Arizona Governor\n\nAfter reading the story in the San Francisco Chronicle, a 36-year-old San Francisco divorcee named Belle Stowell began writing Leslie. The Tombstone Prospector (June 29, 1896) reported \"It is probable that Frank Leslie, who was sentenced from this county to Yuma for life for murder, is likely soon to be a free man, as the Gazette states that executive clemency is likely to be extended in his behalf by Gov. Franklin.\" On November 17, 1896, Governor Benjamin J. Franklin of the Territory of Arizona granted Leslie a full and unconditional pardon. Leslie quickly left the state, going to Los Angeles, where he checked into the Natick House.\n\nLater life\n\nMarries Belle Stowell \n\nLeslie later took a train to Stockton, California, and on December 1, 1896, Belle Stowell, went to the San Joaquin County Clerk's office, and obtained a marriage license. Leslie identified himself as \"Nashville Franklyn Leslie, native of Virginia [sic], age 55,\" and stated that he was a \"resident of San Carlos, Territory of Arizona.\" His bride described herself as \"Mrs. Belle Stowell, native of Warren County, Illinois, age 39, resident of Warren Co., Illinois.\" The Stockton Daily Independent reported that \"their wedding trip was to be to China, the start to be made by the next steamer,\" but they never made it to China. Four months later, the San Francisco Call, reported that \"Mrs. Leslie is at present in this state, but it is said that her husband cannot be located... It is not known whether they have separated or not, but it is believed that they have.\" The marriage was not legally ended until March 19, 1903, when it was reported Belle was granted the divorce from Leslie \u201cfor failure to provide.\"\n\nFort Worth \n\nIn April 1897, Leslie arrived in Fort Worth, where he joined an Arizona friend named John Ralph \"Jack\" Dean. Leslie worked for Dean as a bartender in the Delaware Cafe. On January 17, 1898, the newspaper reported that he and a group of men formed \"the charter of the Copper River Gold Mining and Prospect Company of Fort Worth was sent to Austin in charge of F.A. Mason, Capt. N.F. Leslie and Silas L. King today. This is the company which has been formed there to prospect in the Alaskan gold fields.\" Leslie apparently never went to Alaska, for in early April 1898 he was in Mexico. He was reported to be with \"Doctor George Goodfellow and Tom Selby of San Francisco, at Hermosillo preparing for a trip to the interior.\"\n\nPossible service in Spanish\u2013American War \nLeslie apparently didn't stay in Mexico long. He claimed that he enlisted, fought, and was wounded in the Spanish\u2013American War. The San Francisco Call later published a lengthy story written by Leslie in which he claimed that \"when Roosevelt commenced his recruitment I enlisted in one of the first companies formed in Arizona, and after arriving in Cuba was transferred by my own request to Lawtons's command and remained with him until the end of Spain's dominion in the western hemisphere. At the end of the War I returned to Arizona.\"\n\nMining in Mexico \nIf Leslie actually served in the Spanish\u2013American War, he later traveled to Tombstone early in August, 1898, serving as a guide for a geological survey party looking for coal deposits. An Arizona paper reported that \"since leaving Arizona Leslie has been in Cuba and returned wounded. After recovery he joined this surveying party and it is expected they will be engaged hereabouts for several months.\" The geological survey party was led by Professor Edwin Theodore Dumble. According to one Arizona newspaper \"Prof. Dumble and his right hand man, Capt. Frank Leslie, have been in Nogales several days making arrangements for a month's stay in the field.\" Leslie was in the vicinity of Guaymas, Sonora, Mexico, during the late summer of 1899 when he had a close call. According to one report, \"Captain Frank Leslie, well known all over Arizona, was held up by Yaquis and robbed. They took all his arms, mount etc., and turned him loose.\"\n\nLeslie briefly returned to San Francisco but in 1900, he went to Mexico to work for the Mulatos Mining Company. Leslie wrote about the mining company's activities for a Nogales newspaper on March 14, 1902.\n\nReturn to San Francisco \n\nLeslie was one of four well-dressed men, along with Harry Walters, T. Estrau and T.E. Gaitwere, who in November 1900, attempted to fleece J.P. Reynolds, a Nevada mining-man. The would-be victim sensed that the men were trying to defraud him, and got away before losing any money. \"As Reynolds did not suffer from his experience with the bunko men, the officers were unable to hold them on any other charge except vagrancy.\" Leslie and the other men were arrested and charged with vagrancy at the city prison.\n\nIn another incident in December 1902, Leslie asked George V. Fause of Humboldt County for directions to a park in San Francisco. He befriended Fause and led him to a room in a lodging house on the southwest corner of Bush and Kearney Street, where Leslie and other men got Fause to give them a check for $675, which they promptly cashed at the Anglo-California Bank. When Fause left the place he ran into two policemen and told them of the fraud. The officers went back to the house as one of the men came out the front door. \"When he saw the officers he started to run, but was soon overtaken and conveyed to the City Prison. He gave his name as Frank Leslie and his occupation as a horseman. Leslie was booked on a charge of grand Larceny by trick and device.\"\n\nOn November 25, 1902, Leslie was in San Francisco when his pistol fell out of his pocket, discharged, and wounded him. According to the San Francisco Chronicle:\n\nHomestead claim filed in Seattle\n\nOn March 13, 1913, while living in Seattle, Leslie filed a homestead for property on Orcas Island. The homestead was contested a year later as Leslie \"failed to reside, or attempted to cultivate the land.\" Leslie had boarded with John Dean and his wife. They looked for him and John reported Leslie had gone to Mexico City for mining business. The homestead claim was canceled on February 14, 1914.\n\nMarriage and death \n\nLeslie married Elnora \"Nora\" Cast in Napa, California on November 6, 1913. When he was married, Leslie reported his occupation as miner. At age 74 on May 20, 1916, Leslie was in Seattle where he was interviewed by a reporter from the Seattle Daily Times about a trip he was planning to Mexico.\nLeslie was living in Sausalito, California, on Water Street on January 27, 1920. He was 77 years old and single. No public records of him have been found after this date, and it is not known when he died. His last wife, Elinora, died in Omak, Washington in 1932; Leslie was not listed as a survivor.\n\nPhotographs of Buckskin Frank Leslie \n\nThe most produced photograph of Buckskin Frank Leslie is the one taken at the Yuma Territorial Prison in November 1893, at the request of a San Francisco Chronicle reporter, for an interview. During the 1880s, there was also a photograph taken in a studio setting by a photographer, that depicts a well-dressed Frank Leslie. In December 2017, a previously unpublished photograph of Buckskin Frank Leslie was discovered, which depicts Leslie circa 1915, when he was in his seventies, and wearing his famous buckskin jacket. In that photograph, Frank Leslie was no longer sporting his sweeping moustache. The back of the photograph was inscribed \"Nashville Frank Leslie\".\n\nTelevision portrayal\nThe actor Anthony Caruso played Leslie in the 1958 episode, \"The Gunsmith,\" of the syndicated television anthology series, Death Valley Days, hosted by Stanley Andrews. Robert Fuller, prior to Laramie, was cast as gunsmith Alex. In the story line, Leslie comes to town to see his old flame Mary (Anita Gordon), Alex's fianc\u00e9 who wants nothing to do with Leslie.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography \n Chaput, Don. \"Buckskin Frank\" Leslie, Tucson, AZ: Westernlore Press, 1999. \n DeMattos, Jack. \"Gunfighters of the Real West: Buckskin Frank Leslie,\" Real West, September 1981.\n DeMattos, Jack. Buckskin Frank Leslie Revealed, Wild West History Association Journal (Vol. VIII, No. 3) June, 2015.\n DeMattos, Jack and Parsons, Chuck. They Called Him Buckskin Frank: The Life and Adventures of Nashville Franklyn Leslie, Denton, TX: University of North Texas Press, 2018. \n Leslie, Nashville Franklyn. \"Personal Experiences With the Late General Lawton Told by Captain N. 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\u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0433\u043d\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u044b. \u0422\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f \u043a \u043e\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043c\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0431\u043e\u0433\u0430\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u043c, \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0435\u0451 \u043c\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043c \u0438 \u0414\u0438\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0438. \u0425\u043e\u0442\u044f \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0418\u0437\u0430\u0431\u0435\u043b\u043b\u044b \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438, \u043d\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0435\u0451 \u043e\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0431\u043e\u0433\u0430\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0443\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0436\u0430\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438.\n\n\u0423 \u041c\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u043e\u043f\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441 \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u0449\u0438\u043c\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0443 \u042d\u0434\u0443\u0430\u0440\u0434\u043e\u043c II, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u0432 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 1327 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0451\u043d \u0432 \u0437\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043a \u0411\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u0413\u043b\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0438\u0440\u0435, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0443 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0445\u0438, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0434\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0435 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444 \u041c\u0430\u0440 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0433\u043d\u0443\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0438 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0443\u0442\u044c \u0435\u043c\u0443 \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c. \u0411\u044b\u043b\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u043e \u0435\u0449\u0451 \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0443\u043c \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0441 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u044c\u044e \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u0412 \u0438\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0435 \u042d\u0434\u0443\u0430\u0440\u0434 II \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0447\u0451\u043d. \u041d\u043e\u0447\u044c\u044e 23 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 1327 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u042d\u0434\u0443\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0443 III \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0438\u043b\u0438, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0442\u0435\u0446 \u0443\u043c\u0435\u0440 \u0434\u0432\u0443\u043c\u044f", " agreed, but nothing was done to improve its efficiency. Krylov's planned departure for the Far East forced the NTC to hasten official approval of the draft design. Their presentation on ended in an embarrassment: the NTC intended to award the contract for one of two new ships to Baltic Works, but did not even inform its master builder Sergey Ratnik about the project's existence. Ratnik, who had built two of the Borodino-class ships, believed that the new design was inferior to its predecessors. It had no displacement reserve compared to the allowed for the Borodino class and the British standard of at least 4% of displacement. The NTC overruled his objections and approved the design for construction. At the end of July, Ratnik appealed to the NTC again, arguing that the mechanisms and systems overlooked by the designers would add to the ship's weight. The NTC dismissed his complaint and proceeded with the flawed design. In line with Russian practice of the period, it was a collective work signed off by a ring of designers and bureaucrats. No one dared to take the lead and assume full responsibility. In August the NTC finalized the design with only marginal improvements. On the Ministry of the Navy awarded construction contracts to the Galernyi Island Shipyard (Andrei Pervozvanny) and the Baltic Works (Imperator Pavel I) in Saint Petersburg.\n\nConstruction\nActual work on Andrei Pervozvanny commenced on and construction began on Imperator Pavel I on . Coal-firing boilers and steam engines were ordered from the Franco-Russian Works. In an inexplicable twist of the NTC bureaucracy, engines for the two sister ships were ordered to different specifications. In line with Russian tradition Andrei Pervozvanny was formally laid down in May 1905, after more than a year of construction work. The ceremony coincided with the beginning of a six-month hiatus (May\u2013October 1905) caused by the 1905 Russian Revolution. Baltic Works cancelled the laying-down ceremony of Imperator Pavel I altogether: officially, Pavel was laid down and launched on the same date, .\n\nConstruction proceeded at a slow pace, frequently interrupted by redesign proposals, change orders, rework and inevitable delays. After the completion of Andrei Pervozvanny its builders identified seventeen distinct stages of its design. The sinking of the battleship Petropavlovsk in April 1904, which was blamed on a detonation of its stored naval mines or the forward 12-inch magazine, or both, compelled the NTC to reconsider the use of mines. Russian battleships carried their own stock of naval mines to protect themselves at anchorage, even when accompanied by minelayers and destroyers. The NTC banned mines from battleships on . In December 1904 the NTC also agreed to strip the new battleships of their stern torpedo tubes, but kept the bow and broadside tubes. In mid-1905 the torpedo armament was reduced to only two broadside tubes.\n\nThe NTC flooded Skvortsov in 1905 with a chain of conflicting and poorly formulated change orders influenced by war-time experience. The war demonstrated the uselessness of keeping small-calibre guns on capital ships; in the NTC replaced the guns with more 75\u00a0mm guns in an upper-deck casemate. The 75\u00a0mm guns were replaced with guns on , a few days after the Battle of Tsushima. More thorough analysis of the battle revealed that earlier Russian ships relied too much on unarmoured plating to preserve stability and that splinters from shells that penetrated the unarmoured sides could damage or disable important equipment like ammunition hoists and boiler exhausts. The additional armour required to cover the entire side of the design boosted its displacement to as of late 1905. In May 1906, the NTC decided to save weight by replacing the central 8-inch turret with three 8-inch guns in casemates. It also eliminated openings in the sides of the hull such as gun embrasures and portholes, believing that they were a flooding danger if damaged or if the ship had a list. This caused major problems with ventilation and adversely affecting their habitability, while the 120-millimetre guns had to be moved to positions above the central casemate.\n\nAssessment of the damage incurred in the Battle of the Yellow Sea led the NTC to another incorrect conclusion. The NTC tacticians noted that a single hit on the mast of Tsesarevich had nearly knocked it down; a fallen mast would have probably disabled its secondary-gun turrets. Lattice masts, introduced with the American s, seemed to be a robust solution and the Andrei Pervozvanny-class ships became the only Russian battleships fitted with them. They proved to be unstable and prone to vibration in service and the signal positions in them were regularly enveloped by funnel gases. Despite those drawbacks, the captain of Andrei Pervozvanny fiercely defended them and objected to all alternatives proposed by the NTC. On the day when Austria-Hungary declared war against Russia, the captain of Imperator Pavel I, who held an opposite opinion, volunteered to replace the masts in three days. Fleet commander Admiral Nikolai von Essen concurred, and by the middle of August 1914, the old lattice masts were largely gone. Both ships retained the lower baskets of their masts, cut at different heights.\n\nDescription\nThe Andrei Pervozvanny-class ships were long at the waterline and long overall. They had a beam of and a draught of at deep load. The ships displaced at normal load and at deep load. Their hull was subdivided by 17 transverse watertight bulkheads and the engine rooms were divided by a centreline longitudinal bulkhead. They had a double bottom and a metacentric height of . The ships' crew consisted of 31 officers and 924 crewmen.\n\nThe ships had two 4-cylinder vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving a propeller, using steam provided by twenty-five Belleville boilers at a working pressure of . The engines had a total designed output of . During the ships' sea trials, they produced and gave the sisters a top speed of . The ships carried a maximum load of of coal that gave at a speed of . Electricity was provided by six steam-driven dynamos.\n\nArmament\nThe main armament consisted of four Model 1895 40-caliber guns mounted in twin-gun turrets fore and aft. These guns had a maximum elevation of 35\u00b0 and could depress to -5\u00b0. Eighty rounds per gun were carried and they could fire about one round per minute. The guns could be loaded at any angle between +5\u00b0 and -3\u00b0. They fired a M1911 armour-piercing (AP) shell at a muzzle velocity of . At maximum elevation the guns had a range of .\n\nEight of the fourteen 50-caliber Model 1905 guns were mounted in four twin-gun turrets at the corners of the superstructure while six were mounted in casemates in the superstructure. The turret-mounted guns had a rate of fire of two rounds per minute and a maximum elevation of +25\u00b0 while the casemate guns were faster at 2.8 rounds per minute, but could only elevate to +19\u00b0. Each gun was provided with 128 rounds. Their M1913 shells weighed and were fired at a muzzle velocity of to a range of at an elevation of +15\u00b010'.\n\nFor close-range defence against torpedo boats, the ships carried twelve guns mounted in casemates above the eight-inch guns in the superstructure. The corner guns were positioned to give them a clear field of fire over the eight-inch gun turrets. They had a rate of fire of 10 rounds per minute and the ships carried a total of 2,628 rounds (219 per gun) for them. While their maximum elevation was +23\u00b0, they had a range of at +18\u00b0 using their AP shell.\n\nTwo underwater torpedo tubes were mounted, one on each side, and they were provided with six spare torpedoes. The ships would have used M1908 torpedoes that had three range/speed settings: at , at , or at .\n\nProtection\nThe sides of the hull were completely protected by Krupp cemented armour. The main waterline belt had a thickness of abreast the engine and boiler rooms and tapered to a thickness of at the lower edge. Abreast the main gun magazines the belt was in thickness and extended to the bow using plates with a thickness of . Aft of the rear magazine the belt used and plates to the stern. The belt was high, of which was underwater. The upper strake of armour had a maximum thickness of 5 inches amidships and it was high. It extended to the ends of the ship in plates 4 and thick.\n\nThe front and sides of the main-gun turrets were 8 inches thick and their roofs were thick. Their barbettes ranged from 4 to 5 inches in thickness. The armour plates on the front and sides of the secondary-gun turrets were 6 and 5 inches thick, respectively, and their roofs were 2.5 inches thick. The barbettes for the secondary turrets were protected by armour 4 inches thick. Protection for the single 8-inch guns consisted of 5-inch armour plates on the sides of the casemate while the transverse bulkheads protecting the guns ranged from 4 (on the centreline) to 5 inches in thickness. The gun shields for the single guns were thick. Armour plates protecting the 120\u00a0mm guns were thick. A centreline bulkhead divided the casemate and the armour protecting the funnel uptakes ranged in thickness from . The greatest thickness of deck armour was .\n\nShips\n\nService histories\n\nThe sisters conducted their sea trials in September\u2013October 1910. They turned out very \"wet\" ships even in calm seas because the protruding bow ram forced the bow wave up and over the forecastle. On one high-speed voyage to Reval (modern Tallinn), Estonia, in October during Force 3\u20134 weather, Imperator Pavel Is captain reported that the forecastle was covered by \"a mass of water, in the form of a solid, unbroken rain of spray, flooding not only the upper deck, but also the 12- and 8-inch turrets, the lower bridge, conning tower and it even struck the 120\u00a0mm casemate deck\". Ivan Bubnov recommended fitting Andreis ram with a scoop-shaped fairing, which was intended to decrease bow-wave height from to and eliminate flooding, but the NTC shelved the proposal. The powerplants of both ships performed well at the speed trials, but post-trial examination of Imperator Pavel I revealed unacceptable defects of its boilers, engine cylinders and crankshaft bearings. The NTC had no funds to replace the defective boilers and postponed the repairs until the following year, but this did not happen as the navy committed all available financing to the dreadnought program. Andrei Pervozvanny and Imperator Pavel I were not properly completed until late 1912.\n\nThey saw very limited seagoing service in 1910 through 1912; their few voyages within Baltic waters were trials, rather than active duty. Their combat readiness was crippled by shortage of personnel. Absence of proper portholes and the limited capacity of the electrical ventilation fans made living conditions unbearable, thus commissioned officers evaded transfer to the \"ugly sisters\" at all costs. The NTC seriously considered cutting portholes through the armour, but found it too expensive to be done. The ratings sabotaged the system by jamming the fan switches in \"on\" position, which caused frequent electrical failures. The Navy \"fixed the problem\" by building steel lockers around the switches but could not contain the discontent of the sailors.\n\nOn officers of Imperator Pavel I received first warnings of a conspiracy among the ratings, who allegedly planned an open mutiny on the night of July 24\u201325. In the few days preceding the strike the sailors openly disobeyed and taunted their officers, but refrained from violence. Only a minority of the ratings (around 160) subscribed to the mutiny; the majority remained loyal and kept the officers informed. On July 24 the ringleaders were arrested, more arrests followed throughout July and August. 53 sailors of Imperator Pavel I were sentenced to terms ranging from six months to sixteen years. Attempts to spread the mutiny to Andrei Pervozvanny were foiled at the very beginning. The sisters made a port visit to Copenhagen, Denmark, in September 1912. A year later they made port visits to Portland, England, Cherbourg Naval Base, France, and Stavanger, Norway, in September 1913. At this time the ships still harbored active Bolshevik militants, notably the future Red Army commander Pavel Dybenko, the future chief of the Soviet Black Sea Fleet and naval historian Nikolay Izmaylov and the future chief of the Soviet Navy Ivan Sladkov. Andrei Pervozvanny ran aground on Osmussaar Island off the Estonian coast on and was under repair for several months afterwards.\n\nWorld War I\nDuring June\u2013July 1914 the ships represented the Empire in joint naval reviews with friendly British, French and Dutch ships in the Gulf of Finland. Sweden had not yet declared its neutrality, and, on , Imperator Pavel I, the predreadnoughts and Tsesarevich and the armoured cruiser sailed out to Stockholm to intimidate the Swedes. The diplomats called the fleet back, and Imperator Pavel I missed her chance to engage a weak German scouting flotilla operating in the same area. In August\u2013September the battleships actively sailed north of the Gulf of Riga, but failed to intercept the German cruisers Augsburg and Bl\u00fccher that were operating in the area.\n\nThe torpedoing of the armoured cruiser by the German submarine on effectively confined both Andrei Pervozvanny-class ships to harbour for the rest of the war. All battleships were ordered to return to safety of Finnish bases and stay there until the Navy could cope with the submarine threat. Slava and Tsesarevich returned to action in the Battle of the Gulf of Riga in 1915, but Imperator Pavel I remained moored in Helsingfors. Andrei Pervozvanny was mobilized for active operations twice, in April and November 1916. The first operation, a raid on a German convoy near the Swedish coast, was a moderate success; the second ended in a humiliating retreat after Rurik struck a mine laid by the German submarine UC 27. In October 1916 the crew of Imperator Pavel I, demoralized by boredom and Bolshevik propaganda, refused to obey orders and demanded better rations and easing of service. The Navy preferred to appease the sailors, and the ringleaders escaped punishment. In late 1916, the ships were fitted with four 3-inch Lender anti-aircraft guns.\n\nRevolution\n\nDuring the outbreak of the February Revolution of 1917, both battleships were moored in Helsinki. The ratings, demoralized by idle life and revolutionary propaganda, had already been organized for a mutiny by a well-entrenched core of conspirators. The exact history of the fleet revolt has been sanitized by Soviet historiography in the wake of the Kronstadt rebellion. It is known that the revolt of was coordinated from Imperator Pavel I. Sailors of Imperator Pavel I took control of the ship, killed the officers who stood in their way and signalled instructions to other ships. The two battleships accounted for the majority of casualties of this day. The captain of Imperator Pavel I did not even try to subdue the sailors and save his officers; he survived the mutiny and was killed by the Cheka in 1921. The captain of Andrei Pervozvanny opposed the revolt and emigrated overseas. The commander of the battleship squadron refused to confront the sailors and was killed on shore.\n\nThe ratings almost completely subscribed to communism, 520 sailors of Imperator Pavel I were carrying Bolshevik party cards by the end of April. On , the ship was renamed Respublika. The ship provided quarters to civilian Bolshevik functionaries who felt unsafe among the ethnic Finns of Helsinki. The disorganized crew declared allegiance to the Russian Provisional Government and even sailed out for a gunnery practice on orders from Alexander Kerensky. In August 1917 Respublika escorted Slava to her last station at Moon Sound. The latter was scuttled during Operation Albion, but neither Respublika nor Andrei Pervozvanny was sent to support her.\n\nThe Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of 1917 required the Soviets to evacuate their naval base at Helsinki in March 1918 or have their ships interned by newly independent Finland even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over. The sisters led the second group of ships on 5 April and reached Kronstadt five days later in what became known as the \"Ice Voyage\". Respublika was hulked in September 1918 and saw no further activity. Andrei Pervozvanny, now commanded by Lev Galler, although neglected by its revolutionary crew, remained in active service. On June 13\u201315, together with the dreadnought , the ship bombarded Fort Krasnaya Gorka whose garrison had mutinied against the Bolsheviks. She fired 170 main-gun shells and 408 eight-inch shells and the garrison surrendered on June 17 when Leon Trotsky promised them their lives, only to subsequently order them machine-gunned. Two months later, on the night of August 16/17, 1919, British Coastal Motor Boats attacked ships in Kronstadt harbour with torpedoes. One hit Andrei Pervozvannys armour belt, killing one sailor and flooding an isolated watertight compartment. Repairs continued slowly until the Kronstadt Rebellion of 1921 and completely stopped after its suppression due to a lack of resources. The sisters were sent to the breaker's yard in November\u2013December 1923.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n \n Gutthridge, Leonard. F. (2006). Mutiny: A History of Naval Insurrection. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. .\n \n \n Melnikov, Rafail. M. (2003). Lineyny korabl \"Andrey Pervozvanny\" (1906\u20131925) (\u041b\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043b\u044c \"\u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0435\u0439 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439\" (1906\u20131925)). Saint Petersburg: Korabli i srazheniya. (in Russian) (no ISBN)\n Melnikov, Rafail. M. (2005). Lineyny korabl \"Imperator Pavel I\" (1906\u20131925) (\u041b\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043b\u044c \"\u0418\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u041f\u0430\u0432\u0435\u043b", " political alliance and held that their pact was an exclusively military endeavor. Now integrated into the Red Army, the Makhnovists secured and expanded their territory with the capture of Orikhiv, Polohy, Bakhmut, Berdiansk and Volnovakha.\n\nHowever, the implementation of Bolshevik rule in Ukraine was soon followed by repression. As the Bolsheviks favored the proletariat over the peasantry, on 13 April, the Ukrainian Soviet government implemented food requisitioning in order to supply its urban centers, shooting any peasants that resisted, which caused a resurgence of peasant revolts in Ukraine. The Cheka also carried out its Red Terror in the areas captured by the Bolsheviks, with residents of Katerynoslav reporting arbitrary political persecution and increased economic hardship. Regiments of the Red Army even began to committ robberies against the local population and carried out a number of antisemitic pogroms, as part of a rising wave of violence against Ukrainian Jews that was perpetrated by the Reds, Whites and nationalists alike. In comparison to the surrounding states, the Makhnovshchina \"represented a relatively peaceful model\", given the ethnically diverse makeup of the Makhnovists, who severely punished acts of antisemitism.\n\nThe Bolsheviks' implementation of bureaucratic collectivism and their authoritarianism brought them into opposition with the Makhnovshchina, which still upheld soviet democracy and libertarian socialism. In May 1919, tensions between the two were exacerbated when Nykyfor Hryhoriv led an anti-Bolshevik uprising in right-bank Ukraine, during which his green army carried out a series of antisemitic pogroms and anti-communist purges. The Makhnovists decided to take up arms against Hryhoriv and maintain their alliance with the Bolsheviks, hoping that talks between the two parties would result in the official extension of autonomy to the territory of the Makhnovshchina. But tensions between the two parties only increased with time, eventually resulting in the Makhnovists completely breaking from their Bolshevik commanders.\n\nRetreat to the west (June\u2013October 1919)\nWhen the Military Revolutionary Council called an extraordinary Regional Congress, it was considered to be an act of treason by the Bolshevik government, which ordered the Congress be prohibited and that any of its participants be executed by firing squad. The Bolsheviks subsequently attacked the Makhnovshchina, killing a number of the Makhnovist general staff and forcing the insurgents to flee, which began a period of guerrilla warfare in the region. By June 1919, the autonomy of the Makhnovshchina had been suppressed by the successive Red Terror and White Terror.\n\nIt was at this time that the White movement broke through the Soviet lines in Donbas, with the Kuban Cossacks under Andrei Shkuro leading an attack against Huliaipole, capturing the town from the Makhnovists. As the Red Army had also declared war against the Makhnovshchina, labelling Huliaipole as a \"paradise on earth for cowards and good-for-nothings,\" the local insurgents were left without Bolshevik support and many peasants were forced to defend the town themselves, armed only with farming tools and a few rifles. The Cossacks massacred the peasant rebels and raped 800 of the town's women, before restoring the property rights of the former landowners, causing a mass exodus of the town's peasantry.\n\nThe Makhnovists fled to right-bank Ukraine and linked up with Nykyfor Hryhoriv's green army. But after revelations of the otaman having committed antisemitic pogroms, the Makhnovists assassinated Hryhoriv and began rebuilding their forces to take on the Whites. By September 1919, the Makhnovshchina had been pushed back as far as Uman, the last stronghold of the Ukrainian People's Republic. In order for their wounded to be tended to, the Makhnovists formed a temporary alliance with the Directorate, before turning back around and leading an attack against the General Command of the Armed Forces of South Russia. After the Battle of Peregonovka, the tide turned against the Whites as the Makhnovists pushed them back into Katerynoslav, which was brought back under the control of the Makhnovshchina on 11 November 1919.\n\nApex (October 1919 \u2013 January 1920)\n\nThe Makhnovist advance brought with it a second period of reconstruction, during which a system of libertarian socialism was once again implemented throughout the territory of the Makhnovshchina, with all enterprises being directly transferred to workers' control. Wherever the insurgents captured, the locals were invited to elect their own trade union delegates and Soviets, which would then convoke a regional congress that would form the decision-making body for the region. \n\nRegional workers' conferences were subsequently held in Oleksandrivsk between 27 October and 2 November, bringing together 180 peasant delegates, 20 worker delegates and 100 delegates from left-wing political organizations and insurgent units. Volin, the chair of the congress, proposed that they adopt the anarchist thesis of establishing \"free soviets\", outside of political party control, throughout the Makhnovist territory. This proposal was objected to by 11 delegates from the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionary Party, who still desired the reestablishment of the Constituent Assembly and walked out of the congress. Further objections were made by a Bolshevik delegate, who rejected calls for anarchy.\n\nBy December 1919, the Makhnovshchina was struck by an outbreak of epidemic typhus, which incapacitated the Makhnovist forces, allowing the White movement to briefly recapture Katerynoslav and the Red Army to invade the region.\n\nRed Terror (January\u2013October 1920)\n\nBy the end of January 1920, the territory of the Makhnovshchina had been overrun by the Red Army. The Cheka set about disarming the local populace, taking villagers hostage while their troops set about searching homes, killing the hostages if they found any unreported weaponry. Petro Grigorenko would later state that \"there was no end of bloodshed\", drawing attention to reports of one massacre in the Makhnovist town of Novospasivka, where the Cheka had \"shot down one in every two able-bodied men\". In what Alexandre Skirda described as an act of \"outright genocide\", an estimated 200,000 Ukrainian peasants were killed during the Red Terror.\n\nThe Bolshevik government implemented war communism in Ukraine, introducing a strict system of rationing and food requisitioning, which confiscated agricultural produce and livestock from the peasantry, and even forbade them from fishing, hunting or collecting lumber. The attacks against the Ukrainian peasantry were justified under the policy of Dekulakization, despite the fact that, by this point in time, only 0.5% of the peasantry owned more than 10 hectares of land. The sovkhozes also collapsed, with the number of state-owned farms halving and their land area reducing to a third, over the course of 1920. Even the soviet historian noted that to most of the Ukrainian peasantry: \"the Soviet economy was a new and abhorrent form of rule [...] which in reality had merely set the State in the place of the former big landowner.\" The implementation of war communism thus resulted in a resurgence of peasant revolts. Before the fall of 1920, over 1,000 Bolshevik victualers had been killed by the Ukrainian peasantry. \n\nThe Makhnovists themselves began to wage a campaign of guerrilla warfare against the Bolsheviks, launching a series of attacks against small Red detachments and infrastructure. In the areas which they captured, they abolished war communism and redistributed requisitioned food back to the peasantry, forcing many Bolsheviks in the area back underground.\n\nStarobilsk peace (October\u2013November 1920)\n\nFollowing a successful White offensive into Northern Taurida, the Makhnovists and Bolsheviks once again formed an alliance. The conditions of the Political Agreement between the two parties stated that: all anarchist political prisoners were to be released and political repression against the anarchist movement ceased; anarchists were to be extended a number of civil liberties including freedom of speech, freedom of the press and freedom of association, excluding any anti-Soviet agitation; and anarchists were to be allowed to freely participate in elections to the Soviets and the upcoming Fifth All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets. \n\nA fourth clause of the political pact would have extended full autonomy to the Makhnovshchina, allowing them to establish institutions of workers' self-management and self-government in south-eastern Ukraine, under a federative agreement with the Ukrainian SSR. But this clause was disputed by the Bolshevik delegation, who feared this would limit their access to the Ukrainian rail network and turn the Makhnovshchina into a \"magnet for all dissidents and refugees from Bolshevik-held territory.\" The issue was postponed indefinitely.\n\nBut now that Ukrainian anarchists were once again free to operate, they quickly pushed the Russian Army out of Huliaipole and Makhnovshchina control was once again reestablished. Having once again regained control of their home territory, the Makhnovists drew up a program to reorganize the economy and society along anarchist lines. By mid-November, the free soviets were being reconstituted, libertarian schools were established and theater shows were put on daily. According to the Polish anarchist Casimir Teslar, the scars of war ran deep throughout the region. He reported seeing abandoned trenches, demolished houses and a strong presence of insurgent detachments, detailing that even the local children were playing wargames based on recent events.\n\nDefeat (November 1920 \u2013 August 1921)\nAfter Semen Karetnyk's detachment assisted in the siege of Perekop, which had forced the Army of Wrangel to evacuate from Crimea, the Bolsheviks turned against the Makhnovshchina on 26 November 1920. Many prominent Ukrainian anarchists were arrested and shot, while the Makhnovist capital of Huliaipole was itself captured by the Red Army. The Cheka also intensified the Red Terror in Ukraine, ordering the Southern Front to search and disarm peasants, and to shoot any that resisted. They also purged the district of any suspected Makhnovists, arresting the entire revolutionary committee in Polohy and executing a number of its members for allegedly collaborating with the Makhnovists during the Ukrainian War of Independence in 1918. In the place of the liquidated free soviets, the Bolsheviks established committees of Poor Peasants to take over local administration of Ukrainian villages.\n\nHoping to keep the Makhnovshchina safe from reprisals, the Insurgent Army retreated into right-bank Ukraine then moved on north, passing through Poltava, Chernihiv and Belgorod, before returning to Katerynoslav in February 1921. Once again on their home turf, they aimed to spread the Makhnovshchina to new territories and to establish reliable insurgent bases throughout Ukraine. However, the Bolshevik government's implementation of the New Economic Policy resulted in many Ukrainian peasants losing their will to fight, leading to a series of military defeats and the dwindling of insurgent forces. On 28 August 1921, Nestor Makhno's forces fled to Romania, leaving the country entirely under control of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.\n\nPolitics \n\nThe political system established by the Makhnovshchina was variously described as a \"people's commune\" or an \"anarchist republic\", one based on the theories of anarcho-communism and built on a network of trade unions, factory committees, peasant committees and popular assemblies. The assemblies were used by the local citizens as a form of referendums, where decisions were made through direct democracy, and became the basis for civil law. The vast majority of the Makhnovshchina's decisions were made independently, through a system of local self-governance at the village and district level. Networks of \"free soviets\" acted as institutions of participatory democracy, where issues would be discussed and dealt with directly.\n\nLocal self-government\nThe free soviets were conceived of as the basic form of organization in the Makhnovshchina. These soviets acted independently from any Central Authority, excluding all political parties from participation, and met to self-manage the activities of workers and peasants through participatory democracy. The soviets acted as the local organs of self-governance and federated together up to the regional and national levels, resulting in the relatively horizontal organization of the soviets. However, the conditions of the war meant that the Soviet model could only be implemented at scale during \"periods of relative peace and territorial stability\", as the populace was largely concerned with securing food or staying safe from the advancing armies.\n\nRegional congress and executive\n\nThe Regional Congress of Peasants, Workers and Insurgents represented the \"highest form of democratic authority\" within the political system of the Makhnovshchina. They brought together delegates from the region's peasantry, industrial workers and insurgent soldiers, which would discuss the issues at hand and take their decisions back with them to local popular assemblies. Four Congresses were held over the course of 1919, while one was banned by the Bolsheviks and another was unable to convene due to renewed conflict with the Red Army.\n\nThe Military Revolutionary Council (VRS) acted as the executive in the interim between sittings of the Regional Congresses. Its powers covered both military and civil matters in the region, although it was also subject to instant recall at the will of the Regional Congress and its activities were limited to those explicitly outlined by the Congresses themselves. At each Regional Congress, the VRS was to provide detailed reports of its activities and subjected itself to reorganization. When it came to the decisions of local soviets and assemblies, the VRS presented itself as a solely advisory board, with no power over the local bodies of self-government.\n\nArmed forces\nThe Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine (RIAU), commanded by Bat'ko Nestor Makhno, constituted the principal armed force of the Makhnovshchina. Composed largely of peasant partisans and generally supported by the wider peasantry, the RIAU was able to capture large amounts of territory throughout southern Ukraine. Within this area, the RIAU's Draft Declaration stated that its aim was to \"serve and protect\" the social revolution in Ukraine, but also that it would not impose its own ideals upon the Ukrainian people. Nominally overseen by the civilian VRS, the RIAU played a purely military role, with Makhno himself functioning as little more than a military strategist and advisor. According to the Soviet historian , \"neither the overall command of the army nor Makhno himself truly ran the movement; they merely reflected the aspirations of the mass, acting as its ideological and technical agents.\"\n\nCivil liberties \nCivil liberties were first introduced to southern and eastern Ukraine following the February Revolution, but were suspended with the outbreak of the Ukrainian War of Independence, when the territory fell under the sequential control of the Ukrainian State, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and South Russia. Following the defeat of the White movement in October 1919 and the subsequent extension of the Makhnovshchina throughout the area, freedom of speech, freedom of the press and freedom of association were all reintroduced.\n\nThe implementation of freedom of the press resulted in the appearance of a number of newspapers in the territory, including the official organs of several political organizations. These included the Socialist Revolutionary Party's People's Power (Narodovlastie), the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries' Banner of Revolt (Znamya Vosstanya), the Bolsheviks' Star (Zvezda), the Mensheviks' Workers' Gazette (Rabochaia Gazeta), the Ukrainian Anarchist Confederation's Nabat and the Insurgent Army's own Road to Freedom.\n\nEconomy \n\nWorkers and peasants of Ukraine saw the October Revolution, which had promised \"Factories to the Workers; Land to the Peasants!\", as the beginning of workers' control of the industrial economy and land redistribution to the peasantry. In the territory controlled by the Makhnovshchina, a system of market socialism was implemented, to the particular benefit of the peasantry and workers that produced consumer goods, while social welfare was introduced through the redistribution of income and wealth.\n\nAgricultural communes \nFor the first year of the Russian Revolution, an energized Ukrainian peasantry carried out a campaign of expropriations against the pomeshchiks and kulaks, redistributing land to those that worked it and creating an agrarian socialist economy. In the wake of the Kornilov affair, the revolutionary defense committee in Huliaipole sanctioned the disarmament and dispossession of the local bourgeoisie, bringing all private enterprise in the area under workers' control. Peasants took control of the farms they worked and large estates were collectivized, creating agrarian communes that were settled by previously landless peasant families and individuals, with each commune counting around 200 members.\n\nThe first commune, named after Rosa Luxemburg, was highly successful. Though only a few members actually considered themselves anarchists, the peasants operated the communes on the basis of full social equality, including gender equality. They accepted Kropotkin's principle of mutual aid (\"from each according to their ability, to each according to their need\") as their fundamental tenet. Land was held in common, with shared meals also being eaten in communal kitchens, though members who wished to cook separately or to take food from the kitchen and eat it in their own quarters were allowed to do so. The work was collectively self-managed, with work programs being voluntarily agreed upon through consensus decision-making at general assemblies, and those who were unable to work could notify their neighbors in order for a replacement to be found. Many commune members considered communal life to be the \"highest form of social justice\", with some former landowners even voluntarily adopting the new lifestyle.\n\nThe father of Victor Kravchenko was one of the promoters of a commune called the \"Tocsin\", which counted 100 families on an estate made up of 200 hectares of wheat fields and orchards. The estate had been divided up and supplied by the local soviet, with many former industrial workers flocking to the new commune due to the promise of \"well-being for everybody\", while others were driven to communal life by their own ideological commitments. Some peasants even made fun of the urban communists that had joined the commune, although Kravchenko insisted that \"such teasing was without malice\", as the peasants still undertook to help the unskilled industrial laborers. However, this commune eventually dissolved, \"with commune workers quitting one after another\".\n\nIndustry \nWhile the Makhnovshchina was a primarily agrarian society, efforts were also made to organize the industrial economies in the cities which the Makhnovists briefly occupied, despite the pervasive lack of understanding that the (largely peasant) insurgents had for large-scale industry. 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\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u0412\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0425\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0443\u0437\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430.\n\n30 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f 2013 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0443\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0435\u043d\u044b \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u0438 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0420\u0438\u0434\u0434\u0435\u0440; \u0441\u0451\u043b\u0430 \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0435, \u0412\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0425\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0443\u0437\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430, \u0411\u0443\u0442\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e, \u041f\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0435, \u041a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430, \u041b\u0438\u0432\u0438\u043d\u043e, \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0442\u044b \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043b\u0435\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0437, \u0414\u043e\u043c \u043e\u0442\u0434\u044b\u0445\u0430 \u00ab\u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00bb, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0451\u043b\u043e\u043a-\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0423\u043b\u044c\u0431\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0451\u043b\u043e\u043a \u0423\u043b\u044c\u0431\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0432 \u0430\u0434\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0440\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0420\u0438\u0434\u0434\u0435\u0440.\n\n\u0413\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044b \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \n \u0429\u0435\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0439\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447;\n \u0421\u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0434 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (10.2006\u00a0\u2014 09.2007);\n \u0422\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u041d\u0443\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043d \u0425\u0430\u0439\u0434\u0443\u043b\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447;\n \u0421\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0432, \u0415\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043a \u0411\u0438\u0434\u0430\u0445\u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (07.2009\u00a0\u2014 11.2009);\n \u041a\u0430\u0432\u0440\u0438\u0433\u0438\u043d \u0414\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u042e\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (11.2009\u00a0\u2014 05.2011);\n \u0421\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0435\u0432 \u041c\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0435\u043a \u041a\u0430\u0434\u044b\u043b\u0433\u0443\u043c\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (05.2011\u00a0\u2014 07.2013);\n \u041c\u0443\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0416\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442 \u0425\u0430\u0439\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (07.2013\u00a0\u2014 09.2020);\n \u0413\u043e\u0440\u044c\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0414\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0410\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (09.2020\u00a0\u2014 04.2023).\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \n\n\u041d\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e 2023 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u0440\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0430\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0430 52 068 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a:\n\n \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435\u00a0\u2014 38 417 \u0447\u0435\u043b. (73,78\u00a0%)\n \u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\u0438\u00a0\u2014 10 723 \u0447\u0435\u043b. (20,59\u00a0%)\n \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0446\u044b\u00a0\u2014 811 \u0447\u0435\u043b. (1,56\u00a0%)\n \u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u00a0\u2014 515 \u0447\u0435\u043b. (0,99\u00a0%)\n \u0443\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0446\u044b\u00a0\u2014 513 \u0447\u0435\u043b. (0,99\u00a0%)\n \u0447\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0446\u044b\u00a0\u2014 156 \u0447\u0435\u043b. (0,30\u00a0%)\n \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0441\u044b\u00a0\u2014 150 \u0447\u0435\u043b. (0,29\u00a0%)\n \u0430\u0437\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0430\u0439\u0434\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0446\u044b\u00a0\u2014 120 \u0447\u0435\u043b. (0,23\u00a0%)\n \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435\u00a0\u2014 663 \u0447\u0435\u043b. (1,27\u00a0%)\n \u0412\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e\u00a0\u2014 52 068 \u0447\u0435\u043b. (100,00\u00a0%)\n\n\u0418\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043b\u044e\u0434\u0438 \n\n \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0439\u043c\u0430\u043d \u0420\u0443\u0434\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0444 \u0410\u043d\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (1887-1942\u0433\u0433.) \u2013 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0441 1905 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0438\u0437 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0432 \u041a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0435, \u0443\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0420\u0438\u0434\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0435\u043c (1921-1926 \u0433\u0433.).\n \u0411\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0448\u043e\u0432 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0410\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 28 \u043c\u0430\u044f 1967, \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a, \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u041a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c, \u041a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0421\u0421\u0420, \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420) \u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043d\u0449\u0438\u043a, \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438.\n \u0420\u0435\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0451\u043c \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1992) - \u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u043e\u0435\u0446 \u0441\u043c\u0435\u0448\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432 (\u041c\u041c\u0410)\n \u0411\u043e\u0431\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0412\u044f\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432 \u0418\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (1957\u20142012)\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0446, \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442, \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440. \u0410\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0438 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043f\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d \u0432 \u0436\u0430\u043d\u0440\u0435 \u00ab\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0448\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043e\u043d\u00bb.\n \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0438\u043d\u0430, \u042d\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0414\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0430 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1994)\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u0432\u0443\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0427\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0410\u0437\u0438\u0438, \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0451\u0440 \u0410\u0437\u0438\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440 \u043f\u043e \u043b\u0451\u0433\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0435, \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u041e\u0418-2016.\n \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0443\u0448\u0438\u043d, \u041a\u043b\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0421\u0435\u043c\u0451\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1947)\u00a0\u2014 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d \u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u041a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438, \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0451\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442, \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a.\n \u041f\u043e\u043b\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d, \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0435\u0439 \u042e\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1987)\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u0432\u0443\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0451\u0440 \u0427\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u041c\u0438\u0440\u0430 '13, \u0447\u0435\u0442\u044b\u0440\u0451\u0445\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0410\u0437\u0438\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440 2011 \u043f\u043e \u043b\u044b\u0436\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0433\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430\u043c.\n \u041f\u043e\u043b\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d, \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u043b \u041d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1939) \u2014 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a \u0438 \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\n \u0422\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0430, \u0410\u043d\u043d\u0430 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0430 (1923\u20141996)\u00a0\u2014 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0422\u0440\u0443\u0434\u0430.\n \u0422\u043e\u0445\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432, \u0422\u0443\u043b\u0435\u0433\u0435\u043d (1921\u20141942)\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0430\u0440\u043c\u0435\u0435\u0446, \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430.\n \u0422\u0440\u0443\u0448-\u0428\u0443\u0448\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430, \u041a\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0434\u0438\u044f \u0413\u0430\u0432\u0440\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0430 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1951)\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u0447\u0451\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0420\u0438\u0434\u0434\u0435\u0440\u00bb.\n \u0424\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d, \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1959)\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0435\u0439 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (1924\u20141989)\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0438 \u0435\u0444\u0440\u0435\u0439\u0442\u043e\u0440, \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430.\n \u0420\u0430\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0431\u0430\u0439 \u0422\u044e\u043b\u0435\u0431\u0430\u0435\u0432 (1910\u20141992) \u2014 \u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u0432 1940\u20141945 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445 \u2014 1-\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044c \u041a\u044b\u0437\u044b\u043b-\u041e\u0440\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u041a\u041f\u0421\u0421.\n \u041d\u0435\u043c\u0446\u0435\u0432, \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u043b \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1956\u0433.) \u2014 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u041a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430, \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043a \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a, \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442, \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u043a\u0440\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0434, \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0451\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0420\u0438\u0434\u0434\u0435\u0440.\n\n\u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438\u043d\u0444\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n\u0412 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0440\u043d\u043e-\u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0436, 2 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0442\u0435\u0445\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0449\u0430, 10 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0448\u043a\u043e\u043b, \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0438 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0448\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044b, 19 \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0432, \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441 \u0438 \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430, \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043e\u043d, \u0431\u0438\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0438, \u043f\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0438 \u0438 \u0434\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0446 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b.\n\n\u0414\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u044b \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043e-\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0439 \u0438 \u0410\u043b\u0442\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0430\u0434.\n\n\u042d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043a\u0430 \n\u0420\u0438\u0434\u0434\u0435\u0440\u00a0\u2014 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0431\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 (\u0446\u0438\u043d\u043a, \u0441\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0446, \u0434\u0440\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u044b). \u0413\u0440\u0430\u0434\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u041e\u041e \u00ab\u041a\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0438\u043d\u043a\u00bb \u0420\u0438\u0434\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0413\u041e\u041a (\u0432\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0431\u044f 3 \u0440\u0443\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430, \u0441\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0446\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0438 \u0446\u0438\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0434\u044b, \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0433\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0444\u0430\u0431\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0443 \u0438 \u0440\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0442\u043d\u043e-\u043c\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0434). \u042d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0420\u0438\u0434\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0422\u042d\u0426 \u0438 \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u043a\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0434\u043e\u043c \u0413\u042d\u0421.\n\n\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 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\u0411\u0414\u0413.\n\u041a\u043e\u0448\u043a\u0438 \u0441\u043f\u044f\u0442 \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e 16 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0441\u0443\u0442\u043a\u0438. \u0416\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0444\u044b \u0441\u043f\u044f\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044f\u0445, \u0437\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0448\u0435\u044e \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u043d\u043e\u0433, \u043b\u044c\u0432\u044b \u043b\u0435\u0436\u0430\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043f\u0438\u043d\u0435, \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043b\u0430\u043f\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u0434\u0438, \u043a\u0440\u044b\u0441\u044b \u0443\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0431\u043e\u043a, \u0430 \u0445\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0447\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043a \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435. \u0422\u0430\u043a \u0436\u0435 \u0441\u043f\u044f\u0442 \u0438 \u043b\u0438\u0441\u044b. \u041b\u0435\u0442\u0443\u0447\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u044b\u0448\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u044b\u043f\u0430\u044e\u0442, \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0432\u043d\u0438\u0437 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439.\n\n\u0425\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0436\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435, \u0432\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u044f\u0449\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0446, \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043f\u0430\u0445 \u0438 \u0440\u044b\u0431, \u0442\u043e\u0436\u0435 \u0441\u043f\u044f\u0442, \u0445\u043e\u0442\u044f \u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043e\u043d\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0441 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043d\u043e\u0447\u0438.\n\n\u041d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0435 \u0441\u043f\u044f\u0442 \u0432\u043e\u0432\u0441\u0435.\n\n\u0414\u044b\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043e \u0441\u043d\u0435 \n\u0414\u044b\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043e \u0441\u043d\u0435 \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0438 \u0441 \u0444\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043d\u0430.\n\n\u0421\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0442\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u044c \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u0441\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0440\u0435\u0431\u0451\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u0434\u044b\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u0421\u043e\u043d \u0440\u0435\u0431\u0451\u043d\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u044d\u0442\u043e \u0442\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043e\u0442\u0447\u0451\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0432\u043e, \u0430 \u0432 \u0440\u044f\u0434\u0435 \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u044d\u0442\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432\u044b\u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0438\u0441\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0441\u043d\u0430.\n\n\u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0444\u0430\u043a\u0442\u044b \n \u0421 2008 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0438\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0435 \u041c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d\u044b \u0441\u043d\u0430 () \u0435\u0436\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e \u0432 \u043f\u044f\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0443 \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430 \u043e\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0441\u043d\u0430.\n \u0412 2015 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0443\u0447\u0451\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u044f\u0441\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0438, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0441\u043e\u043d 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\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043c \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0437 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044f\u043b\u0438, \u043d\u0430\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043e \u043b\u044e\u0434\u0438 \u0443\u0441\u0432\u0430\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044e: \u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0443\u0447\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432, \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 12-\u0447\u0430\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0440\u044b\u0432\u0430, \u0430 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043d\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043d\u0430.\n \u0410\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442 \u041a\u0435\u043a\u0443\u043b\u0435 \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u043b \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0441\u043d\u0430 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0443\u043b\u0443 \u0431\u0435\u043d\u0437\u043e\u043b\u0430.\n \u0421\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043c\u0438\u0444, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0414.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u041c\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0435\u0432 \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u043b \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0432\u043e \u0441\u043d\u0435, \u0445\u043e\u0442\u044f \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043c \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u043e\u043d\u0430 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b.\n\n\u0421\u043c. \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \n\n \u0411\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0435\n \u0411\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430\n \u0413\u0438\u043f\u043d\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f\n \u0419\u043e\u0433\u0430-\u043d\u0438\u0434\u0440\u0430\n\n \u041c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043e\u043d\n \u041e\u043b\u0435\u0430\u043c\u0438\u0434\n \u041f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0444\u0430\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u043d\n \u0421\u043e\u043c\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f\n\n \u0421\u043e\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0444\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044f\n \u0425\u0440\u0430\u043f\n \u042d\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f\n Power nap\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430\n\n\u041d\u0430 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435 \n \u0410\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c. \u041e \u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u0445 / \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432. \u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d. \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043c. \u041e.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u0427\u0443\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 // AKADHMEIA: \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b \u0438 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u043e \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0430. \u0412\u044b\u043f.6. \u0421\u0431. \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0439.", " were strange for Fiorentina, who vacillated between high finishes and relegation battles. Fiorentina also bought two interesting players, El Puntero Ram\u00f3n D\u00edaz and, most significantly, the young Roberto Baggio.\n\nIn 1990, Fiorentina fought to avoid relegation right up until the final day of the season, but did reach the UEFA Cup final, where they again faced Juventus. The Turin team won the trophy, but Fiorentina's tifosi once again had real cause for complaint: the second leg of the final was played in Avellino (Fiorentina's home ground was suspended), a city with many Juventus fans, and emerging star Roberto Baggio was sold to the rival team on the day of the final. Pontello, suffering from economic difficulties, was selling all the players and was forced to leave the club after serious riots in Florence's streets. The club was then acquired by the famous filmmaker Mario Cecchi Gori.\n\nCecchi Gori era: from Champions League to bankruptcy\n\nThe first season under Cecchi Gori's ownership was one of stabilisation, after which the new chairman started to sign some good players like Brian Laudrup, Stefan Effenberg, Francesco Baiano and, most importantly, Gabriel Batistuta, who became an iconic player for the team during the 1990s. In 1993, however, Cecchi Gori died and was succeeded as chairman by his son, Vittorio. Despite a good start to the season, Cecchi Gori fired the coach, Luigi Radice, after a defeat against Atalanta, and replaced him with Aldo Agroppi. The results were dreadful: Fiorentina fell into the bottom half of the standings and were relegated on the last day of the season.\n\nClaudio Ranieri was brought in as coach for the 1993\u201394 season, and that year, Fiorentina dominated Serie B, Italy's second division. Upon their return to Serie A, Ranieri put together a good team centred around new top scorer Batistuta, signing the young talent Rui Costa from Benfica and the new world champion Brazilian defender M\u00e1rcio Santos. The former became an idol to Fiorentina fans, while the second disappointed and was sold after only a season. The Viola finished the season in tenth place.\n\nThe following season, Cecchi Gori bought other important players, namely Swedish midfielder Stefan Schwarz. The club again proved its mettle in cup competitions, winning the Coppa Italia against Atalanta and finishing joint-third in Serie A. In the summer, Fiorentina became the first non-national champions to win the Supercoppa Italiana, defeating Milan 2\u20131 at the San Siro.\n\nFiorentina's 1996\u201397 season was disappointing in the league, but they did reach the Cup Winners' Cup semi-final by beating Gloria Bistri\u021ba, Sparta Prague and Benfica. The team lost the semi-final to the eventual winner of the competition, Barcelona (away 1\u20131; home 0\u20132). The season's main signings were Lu\u00eds Oliveira and Andrei Kanchelskis, the latter of whom suffered from many injuries.\n\nAt the end of the season, Ranieri left Fiorentina for Valencia in Spain, with Cecchi Gori appointing Alberto Malesani as his replacement. Fiorentina played well but struggled against smaller teams, although they did manage to qualify for the UEFA Cup. Malesani left Fiorentina after only a season and was succeeded by Giovanni Trapattoni. With Trapattoni's expert guidance and Batistuta's goals, Fiorentina challenged for the title in 1998\u201399 but finished the season in third, earning them qualification for the Champions League. The following year was disappointing in Serie A, but Viola played some historical matches in the Champions League, beating Arsenal 1\u20130 at the old Wembley Stadium and Manchester United 2\u20130 in Florence. They were ultimately eliminated in the second group stage.\n\nAt the end of the season, Trapattoni left the club and was replaced by Turkish coach Fatih Terim. More significantly, however, Batistuta was sold to Roma, who eventually won the title the following year. Fiorentina played well in 2000\u201301 and stayed in the top half of Serie A, despite the resignation of Terim and the arrival of Roberto Mancini. They also won the Coppa Italia for the sixth and last time.\n\nThe year 2001 heralded major changes for Fiorentina, as the terrible state of the club's finances was revealed: they were unable to pay wages and had debts of around US$50 million. The club's owner, Vittorio Cecchi Gori, was able to raise some more money, but this soon proved to be insufficient to sustain the club. Fiorentina were relegated at the end of the 2001\u201302 season and went into judicially-controlled administration in June 2002. This form of bankruptcy (sports companies cannot exactly fail in this way in Italy, but they can suffer a similar procedure) meant that the club was refused a place in Serie B for the 2002\u201303 season, and as a result effectively ceased to exist.\n\nDella Valle era: from fourth tier to Europe (2000s and 2010s)\nThe club was promptly re-established in August 2002 as Associazione Calcio Fiorentina e Florentia Viola with shoe and leather entrepreneur Diego Della Valle as new owner and the club was admitted into Serie C2, the fourth tier of Italian football. The only player to remain at the club in its new incarnation was Angelo Di Livio, whose commitment to the club's cause further endeared him to the fans. Helped by Di Livio and 30-goal striker Christian Rigan\u00f2, the club won its Serie C2 group with considerable ease, which would normally have led to a promotion to Serie C1. Due to the bizarre Caso Catania (Catania Case), the club skipped Serie C1 and was admitted into Serie B, something that was only made possible by the Italian Football Federation (FIGC)'s decision to resolve the Catania situation by increasing the number of teams in Serie B from 20 to 24 and promoting Fiorentina for \"sports merits\". In the 2003 off-season, the club also bought back the right to use the Fiorentina name and the famous shirt design, and re-incorporated itself as ACF Fiorentina. The club finished the 2003\u201304 season in sixth place and won the playoff against Perugia to return to top-flight football.\n\nIn their first season back in Serie A, the club struggled to avoid relegation, only securing survival on the last day of the season on head-to-head record against Bologna and Parma. In 2005, Della Valle decided to appoint Pantaleo Corvino as new sports director, followed by the appointment of Cesare Prandelli as head coach in the following season. The club made several signings during the summer transfer market, most notably Luca Toni and S\u00e9bastien Frey. This drastic move earned them a fourth-place finish with 74 points and a Champions League qualifying round ticket. Toni scored 31 goals in 38 appearances, the first player to pass the 30-goal mark since Antonio Valentin Angelillo in the 1958\u201359 season, for which he was awarded the European Golden Boot. On 14 July 2006, Fiorentina were relegated to Serie B due to their involvement in the Calciopoli scandal and given a 12-point penalty. The team was reinstated to the Serie A on appeal, but with a 19-point penalty for the 2006\u201307 season. The team's 2006\u201307 Champions League place was also revoked. After the start of the season, Fiorentina's penalisation was reduced from 19 points to 15 on appeal to the Italian courts. In spite of this penalty, they managed to secure a place in the UEFA Cup.\n\nDespite Toni's departure to Bayern Munich, Fiorentina had a strong start to the 2007\u201308 season and were tipped by Italy national team head coach Marcello Lippi, among others, as a surprise challenger for the scudetto, and although this form tailed off towards the middle of the season, the Viola managed to qualify for the Champions League. In Europe, the club reached the semi-final of the UEFA Cup, where they were ultimately defeated by Rangers on penalties. The 2008\u201309 season continued this success, a fourth-place finish assuring Fiorentina's spot in 2010's Champions League playoffs. Their European campaign was also similar to that of the previous run, relegated to the 2008\u201309 UEFA Cup and were eliminated by Ajax in the end.\n\nIn the 2009\u201310 season, Fiorentina started their domestic campaign strongly before steadily losing momentum and slipped to mid-table positions at the latter half of the season. In Europe, the team proved to be a surprise dark horse: after losing their first away fixture against Lyon, they staged a comeback with a five-match streak by winning all their remaining matches (including defeating Liverpool home and away). The Viola qualified as group champions, but eventually succumbed to Bayern Munich due to the away goals rule. This was controversial due to a mistaken refereeing decision by Tom Henning \u00d8vreb\u00f8, who allowed a clearly offside goal for Bayern in the first leg. Bayern eventually finished the tournament as runners-up, making a deep run all the way to the final. The incident called into attention the possible implementation of video replays in football. Despite a good European run and reaching the semi-finals in the Coppa Italia, Fiorentina failed to qualify for Europe.\n\nDuring this period, on 24 September 2009, Andrea Della Valle resigned from his position as chairman of Fiorentina, and announced all duties would be temporarily transferred to Mario Cognini, Fiorentina's vice-president until a permanent position could be filled.\n\nIn June 2010, the Viola bid farewell to long-time manager Cesare Prandelli, by then the longest-serving coach in the team's history, who was departing to coach the Italy national team. Catania manager Sini\u0161a Mihajlovi\u0107 was appointed to replace him. The club spent much of the early 2010\u201311 season in last place, but their form improved and Fiorentina ultimately finished ninth. Following a 1\u20130 defeat to Chievo in November 2011, Mihajlovi\u0107 was sacked and replaced by Delio Rossi. After a brief period of improvements, the Viola were again fighting relegation, prompting the sacking of Sporting Director Pantaleo Corvino in early 2012 following a 0\u20135 home defeat to Juventus. Their bid for survival was kept alive by a number of upset victories away from home, notably at Roma and Milan. During a home game against Novara, trailing 0\u20132 within half an hour, manager Rossi decided to substitute midfielder Adem Ljaji\u0107 early. Ljaji\u0107 sarcastically applauded him in frustration, whereupon Rossi retaliated by physical assaulting his player, an action that ultimately prompted his termination by the club. His replacement, caretaker manager Vincenzo Guerini, then guided the team away from the relegation zone to a 13th-place finish to end the turbulent year.\n\nTo engineer a resurrection of the club after the disappointing season, the Della Valle family invested heavily in the middle of 2012, buying 17 new players and appointing Vincenzo Montella as head coach. The team began the season well, finishing the calendar year in joint third place and eventually finishing the 2012\u201313 season in fourth, enough for a position in the 2013\u201314 Europa League.\n\nThe club lost fan favourite Stevan Joveti\u0107 during the middle of 2013, selling him to English Premier League club Manchester City for a \u20ac30\u00a0million transfer fee. They also sold Adem Ljaji\u0107 to Roma and Alessio Cerci to Torino, using the funds to bring in Mario G\u00f3mez, Josip Ili\u010di\u0107 and Ante Rebi\u0107, among others. During the season, Fiorentina topped their Europa League group, moving on to the round of 32 to face Danish side Esbjerg fB, which Fiorentina defeated 4\u20132 on aggregate. In the following round of 16, however, they then lost to Italian rivals Juventus 2\u20131 on aggregate, ousting Fiorentina from the competition. At the end of the season, the team finished fourth again in the league, and also finishing the year as Coppa Italia runners-up after losing 3\u20131 to Napoli in the final.\n\nIn 2014\u201315, during the 2015 winter transfer window, the team club sold star winger Juan Cuadrado to Chelsea for \u20ac30\u00a0million but were able to secure the loan of Mohamed Salah in exchange, who was a revelation in the second half of the season. Their 2014\u201315 Europa League campaign saw them progress to the semi-finals, where they were knocked-out by Spanish side Sevilla, the eventual champions. In the 2014\u201315 domestic season, Fiorentina once again finished fourth, thus qualifying for the 2015\u201316 Europa League. In June 2015, Vincenzo Montella was sacked as manager after the club grew impatient with the coaches inability to prove his commitment to the club, and was replaced by Paulo Sousa, who lasted until June 2017 and the appointment of Stefano Pioli. Club captain Davide Astori died suddenly at the age of 31 in March 2018. Astori had suffered a cardiac arrest while in a hotel room before an away game. The club subsequently retired Astori's kit number, 13. Fiorentina suffered during the 2018\u201319 Serie A campaign and ended the season on a 14 match winless streak, finishing in 16th place with only 41 points, 3 points from the relegation zone. On 9 April 2019, Pioli resigned as manager and was replaced by Montella.\n\nCommisso era\nOn 6 June 2019, the club was sold to Italian-American billionaire Rocco Commisso for around 160 million euros. The sale marked the end of the Della Valle family's seventeen-year association with the club. Vincenzo Montella was confirmed as coach for the first season of the new era despite the team's poor end to the previous campaign, which saw them finish only three points clear of the relegation zone. Fiorentina continued their struggles from the previous year, spending the majority of the season in lower midtable. Montella was sacked on 21 December after a 7 match winless run which left the club in 15th place, and was replaced by Giuseppe Iachini.\nIn November 2020 Cesare Prandelli returned to Fiorentina, replacing Giuseppe Iachini as coach.\n\nPlayers\n\nCurrent squad\n\nOther players under contract\n\nOut on loan\n\nFiorentina Youth\nACF Fiorentina Youth Sector\n\nNotable players\n\nRetired numbers\n\n 13 Davide Astori, defender (2015\u201318)\u00a0\u2013 posthumous honour\n\nManagement staff\n\nManagerial history\nFiorentina have had many managers and head coaches throughout their history. Below is a chronological list from the club's foundation in 1926 to the present day.\n\nColours and badge\n\nBadge\n\nThe official emblem of the city of Florence, a red fleur-de-lis on a white field, has been pivotal in the all-round symbolism of the club.\n\nOver the course of the club's history, they have had several badge changes, all of which incorporated Florence's fleur-de-lis in some way. The first one was nothing more than the city's coat of arms, a white shield with the red fleur-de-lis inside. It was soon changed to a very stylised fleur-de-lis, always red, and sometimes even without the white field. The most common symbol, adopted for about 20 years, had been a white lozenge with the flower inside. During the season they were Italian champions, the lozenge disappeared and the flower was overlapped with the scudetto.\n\nThe logo introduced by owner Flavio Pontello in 1980 was particularly distinct, consisting of one-half of the city of Florence's emblem and one-half of the letter \"F\", for Fiorentina. People disliked it when it was introduced, believing it was a commercial decision and, above all, because the symbol bore more of a resemblance to a halberd than a fleur-de-lis.\n\nUntil the 2022\u201323 season, when the club unveiled a new, stylistically simplified badge, the logo was a kite shaped double lozenge bordered in gold. The outer lozenge had a purple background with the letters \"AC\" in white and the letter \"F\" in red, standing for the club's name. The inner lozenge was white with a gold border and the red Giglio of Florence. This logo had been in use from 1992 to 2002, but after the financial crisis and resurrection of the club the new one couldn't use the same logo. Florence's comune instead granted Florentia Viola use of the stylised coat of arms used in other city documents. Diego Della Valle acquired the current logo the following year in a judicial auction for a fee of \u20ac2.5\u00a0million, making it the most expensive logo in Italian football.\n\nKit and colours\n\nWhen Fiorentina was founded in 1926, the players wore red and white halved shirts derived from the colour of the city emblem. The more well-known and highly distinctive purple kit was adopted in 1928 and has been used ever since, giving rise to the nickname La Viola (\"The Purple (team)\"). Tradition has it that Fiorentina got their purple kit by mistake after an accident washing the old red and white coloured kits in the river.\n\nThe away kit has always been predominantly white, sometimes with purple and red elements, sometimes all-white. The shorts had been purple when the home kit was with white shorts. Fiorentina's third kit was first worn in the 1995\u201396 season and it was all-red with purple borders and two lilies on the shoulders. The red shirt has been the most worn 3rd shirt by Fiorentina, although they also wore rare yellow shirts ('97\u2013'98, '99\u2013'00 and '10\u2013'11) and a sterling version, mostly in the Coppa Italia, in 2000\u201301.\n\nFor the 2017\u201318 season and the first time in its history, the club used five kits during the season, composing of one home kit (all-purple) and four away kits, each one representing one historic quartiere of the city of Florence: all-blue (Santa Croce), all-white (Santo Spirito), all-green (San Giovanni) and all-red (Santa Maria Novella).\n\nAnthem\n\"Canzone Viola\" (Purple Song) is the title of the Fiorentina'a song, nowadays better known as \"Oh Fiorentina\". It is the oldest official football anthem in Italy and one of the oldest in the world. Dated 1930 and born only four years after the creation of the club, the song was written by a 12-year-old child, Enzo Marcacci, and musically arranged by maestro Marco Vinicio. 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\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0441\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445\u0441\u044f, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043f\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0438\u0445 \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432. \u0420\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043f \u0432\u044b\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043b\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0438 \u044d\u0444\u0444\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e \u0431\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e. \u0420\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043f \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438 OCP \u043f\u043e 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\u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u043d\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0435, \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u00abShow Me Your Spine\u00bb \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b PTP. PTP \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043d\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043b\u0433\u0438\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u043c, \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0438\u043c \u0438\u0437 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b \u00abMinistry\u00bb \u0438 \u00abSkinny Puppy\u00bb. \u041e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e \u044d\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u043d\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0435 \u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u0442\u044c \u0443\u0441\u043b\u044b\u0448\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0432 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435. \u0412 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u0447\u0451\u0442\u0435 \u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043b\u0438\u0448\u044c \u0432 2004 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043d\u0430 \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u043c\u0435 \u00abSide Trax\u00bb.\n\n \u041d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u044b \u0438 \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \nBAFTA, 1989 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n\u041d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (2)\n \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0438\u0437\u0443\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u044d\u0444\u0444\u0435\u043a\u0442\u044b\n \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u0440\u0438\u043c\n\n\u041e\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0440, 1988 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n\u041f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c (1):\n \u041d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0430 \u0437\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u044b\u0435 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0437\u0430 \u043c\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0436 \u0437\u0432\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 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\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u044b, \u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u0442\u0451\u043f\u043b\u044b\u0435 \u0447\u0443\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u043a \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u043c\u0443\u0436\u0443 \u0434\u0430\u0436\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0448\u0435\u0434\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0433\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0438, \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0447\u0443\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0439 \u0432\u0438\u043d\u044b.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u044b \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438 \u041f\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u041a\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0438 \u0415\u0433\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u043d \n\u0414\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0443\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430, \u043d\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0439\u0434\u044f \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0443\u0436, \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u043d\u0443\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0443 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0434\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0443\u0436\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0436\u0451\u0441\u0442\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430. \u0414\u0430\u0436\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0438 \u043e\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0435 \u0441\u043c\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430, \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u043e\u0442 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f. \u0411\u0443\u0434\u0443\u0447\u0438 \u0432\u044b\u043d\u0443\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0432\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0435\u0431\u044f \u0434\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0448\u043d\u0438\u043c \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043c \u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0439 (\u0443 \u041f\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442 \u0438 \u0441\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u043c\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0448\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0430 3 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430), \u041a\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0438 \u0430\u043c\u0431\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0437 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0439, \u0441\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0432 \u0438\u0445 \u0443\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0448\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043b\u044e\u0434\u044c\u043c\u0438. \u042d\u0442\u043e \u0443 \u043d\u0435\u0451 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c, \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442 \u041f\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0430\u0434\u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c, \u0441\u0430\u043c \u041f\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u0440\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0447\u043d\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0443\u0436. \u041d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0435\u0451 \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f\u043c\u0438, \u043e\u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0441\u0435\u043c \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u043e\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0434\u043e\u043c\u0435, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u0443\u0436\u0435 \u0434\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f.\n\n\u0416\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u041f\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0434\u0430\u0451\u0442 \u043e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0451\u043c\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0434\u043e\u043c\u0443, \u043d\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0435\u0433\u043e \u00ab\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043a\u043e\u0439\u00bb, \u0430 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u0443 \u041a\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u044e \u043d\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u00ab\u0433\u043d\u0438\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0442\u0438\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438", " from the abrupt transition of the steep rocky shore at Point Mugu in the Santa Monica Mountains on the south to the Ventura River on the north. Prominent on the southeastern horizon are Conejo Mountain and Boney Peak.\n\nThe Oxnard Plain contains a considerable petroleum reserve with several active oil fields \u2013 the Oxnard Oil Field, east of Oxnard, the West Montalvo Oil Field, along the coast south of the outlet of the Santa Clara River, and the Santa Clara Avenue Oil Field north of U.S. Highway 101 near El Rio. There are also several smaller abandoned oil fields. Oil facilities are interspersed with agricultural land uses both east and west of Oxnard.\n\nHistory\n\nPrehistory and indigenous peoples\nHuman settlement at over 5000 B.C.E. has been documented in nearby coastal sites. These prehistoric sites may contain middens, milling stone sites, large villages, cemeteries, and tool making sites. The diversity of natural resources along with the temperate climate with a long growing season produced a lengthy archaeological record of human activity along the coast. Calleguas Creek and the Santa Clara River were populated with many Native American villages as evidenced by archaeological sites such as the Calleguas Creek Site that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976. Several sites have also been documented at Mugu Lagoon. The numerous archaeological sites in the adjacent Santa Monica Mountains also demonstrate the long history of human habitation. Many of the sites are located adjacent to permanent water sources as the presence or absence of water is a crucial predictor of site location in Southern California. Many of the archaeological sites on the plain have been disturbed by erosion, farming, gophers, bulldozers, and other cultural and natural sources of disturbance.\n\nSpanish period (1782 to 1822)\n\nSpanish explorers made sailing expeditions along the coast of southern California between the mid-1500s and mid-1700s. In the 18th century, Spain began the colonization and inland exploration of Alta California. They established a tripartite system consisting of missions, presidios, and pueblos. Mission San Buenaventura was founded in 1782 next to the Ventura River, upcoast from the Santa Clara River. The Oxnard plain was used for grazing herds of livestock which required thousands of acres. The traditional way of life of the Chumash people became increasingly unstable and unsustainable on the Oxnard Plain with the introduction of these animals. They also experienced further disruptive contacts through the increasing number of Europeans and Americans that visited the California coast looking for pelts from fur-bearing animals such as sea otters, and trade in hides and tallow beginning in the 1790s. The destruction wrought by the livestock and shortages of wild plants that they used for food may have made the missions appear to be the only viable alternative to a disintegrating way of life. At its peak in 1816, the mission had over 41,000 animals including 23,400 cattle, 12,144 sheep. The 4,493 horses constituted one of the largest stables of horses of the California mission sites. The Chumash culture, including political and social relationships between communities, trade, and inter-village marriage patterns, could not be sustained as more and more Indians abandoned their traditional way of life and entered the mission. The severe decrease in the Chumash population was in response to a complex set of social, economic, and demographic factors.\n\nMexican period (1822-1848)\n\nMexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821. With the secularization of the missions by the Mexican government in June 1836, their lands were granted as rewards for loyal service or in response to petitions by individuals. Most of the arable land was divided up into large ranchos by 1846. This opened up the Oxnard Plain to further settlement by Europeans. Control of the area was transferred to the United States under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 and California became the 31st state in the Union in 1850. Many Mexican residents and residents who had immigrated from European countries became U.S. citizens.\n\nInitial European migration\n\nMany of the Spanish and Mexican rancho families benefited when the cattle market peaked between 1848 and 1855 due to the California Gold Rush. Cattle ranching declined drastically when a drought hit the area in 1863.\n\nJames Saviers bought property in Rancho Colonia in 1862. He was a blacksmith and farmer who grew and sold eucalyptus trees used to protect crops from the seasonal Santa Ana winds that originated inland and brought strong, hot, extremely dry winds to the treeless plain. Settlers Gottfried Maulhardt and Christian Borchard along with Christian's son, John Edward, and nephew, Caspar began farming with of wheat and barley in 1867. New markets for the grain opened up when a shipping wharf was first constructed in 1871 at Hueneme. Irish immigrant Dominick McGrath arrived in 1874 with his wife and children to begin farming on the plain. Johnnas Diedrich, with his bride, Matilda, began a new life of farming in 1882 having come from Hanover, Germany. New Jerusalem was founded in 1875 along the south bank of the Santa Clara River. The community, eventually renamed El Rio, was along the route between Ventura and Hueneme. Lima beans became the dominant crop as they could be grown with very little maintenance. Farmers were actively growing trial fields of sugar beets in 1897.\n\nCity development and growth\nIn 1887, as the railroad was constructed from Los Angeles to the town of San Buenaventura, the Montalvo station was established on the plain on the north side of the river. In 1898 the Montalvo Cutoff brought the railroad across the Santa Clara River at El Rio and then due south to where the town of Oxnard was being established. The Oxnard Brothers built the American Beet Sugar Company factory on land in the middle portion of the plain that they bought from James Saviers. He became a judge and an honorary justice of the peace: Saviers Road was named after him in the new city of Oxnard that arose around the factory. The railroad continued with tracks heading east out of Oxnard and eventually being extended to Santa Susana in Simi Valley. Traffic on the coast railroad line was rerouted through Oxnard in 1904 with the completion of the Santa Susana Tunnel as this became the most direct route between Los Angeles and San Francisco.\n\nAgriculture as an industry, as differentiated from family farming, began with the access to the railroad network. In 1903, this transition in agriculture labor practices found Japanese and Mexican sugar beet workers and labor contractors united in protest as the growers, backed by financiers, slashed the wage rate by 50 percent and sought to eliminate independent labor agents. The workers formed the Japanese Mexican Labor Association to press their concerns. While one ethnic group can often be pitted against another to undermine labor solidarity, the Oxnard Strike of 1903 unified them, as their efforts brought the industry to a standstill until their demands were met.\n\nIn 1911, J. Smeaton Chase noted the \"prosperous fields of beans and beets\" as he descended from the Santa Monica Mountains onto the Oxnard Plain during his horseback journey from Mexico to Oregon. In his book about the journey, he describes the \"sleepy little coast village of Hueneme\" as a \"ghost of a once flourishing town\" due to the establishment of a beet sugar factory. The once busy port had drastically declined as passenger and freight traffic shifted to the railroad.\n\nPostwar and modern development\n\nAlthough agriculture has long been important to the economy on the Oxnard Plain, the booming growth in the 1960s of the cities located on the plain expanding by building housing, highways, and associated infrastructure over the rich agricultural land. Several methods were tried to encourage the building in compact, connected ways and reduce urban sprawl into the agricultural lands. \"Guidelines for orderly development\" were adopted in 1969 by the County of Ventura to encourage urban development to be located within incorporated cities whenever or wherever practical. Eventually greenbelt agreements were established between cities to further define the areas of growth. A growth control ordinance was adopted by the city of Ventura in 1995. \"Save Open-space and Agricultural Resources\" (SOAR) was the name given to these plans that would limit housing and commercial development on farmland surrounding the cities. Jean Harris and other activists pressured the Oxnard city council to present a measure to the voters. Oxnard, Camarillo and Ventura County SOAR initiatives were overwhelmingly approved by voters in 1998. Under SOAR, the farmland and open space outside each city's urban growth boundary could not be rezoned without voter approval through 2020. The City of Ventura SOAR regulations expire at the end of 2030.\n\nBallot initiatives in 2016 proposed to extend the growth control ordinance for another 30 years. As measures to renew SOAR were placed on the ballot county-wide in 2016, an alternative proposal was put forth by the agricultural interests.\n\n, farmland values in California were at historic highs and the agricultural industry was optimistic and even confident about the future. Pesticide use is an issue in the interface between agriculture and residential areas along with public uses such as schools.\n\nWhile the vast fields of fertile soil were appreciated for the agricultural bounty that could be produced, the sand dunes and wetlands along the coast line were considered useless except as places to dispose of solid and liquid waste. This at least dates back to 1898 when the beet sugar factory sent the wastewater discharge through a pipe to Ormond Beach. Various other areas near the coast were used for dumping trash and oil-waste, much of the time with local government encouragement and supervision. The Halaco Engineering Co., a metal recycling facility at the Ormond Beach wetlands, deposited process wastes and wastewater from the smelter from 1965 until 2004 on what was allegedly a former open dump operated by the City of Oxnard until 1962. The waste pile contains an estimated and the facility has been designated a Superfund site. Other large, polluting industries were cited at Ormond Beach wetlands before environmental concerns highlighted the importance of restoring the area to serve as a dynamic habitat for a wide array of native plants and animals.\n\nOver the years, many communities have attempted to control the Santa Clara River by establishing dumps along the banks to create levees that would keep the river from flooding adjacent lands during occasional years with heavy winter rains. Three dump sites about upstream from the mouth of the river came under the control of the Ventura Regional Sanitation District by 1988. They continued to use the sites until they were closed in 1996.\n\nMunicipal wastewater treatment facilities, industrial dischargers, and power generating stations are point source dischargers along the coast of the Oxnard plain. Water quality at the numerous beaches has been very good with a few exceptions. Two power generating stations were built in the 1960s to take advantage of the ocean for cooling. Reliant Energy purchased the Mandalay Generating Station from Southern California Edison in 1998. The Oxnard City council tried to prevent a third plant from being built in 2012. After years of legal tussles, the McGrath Peaker Plant was built by Edison next to the power plant at Mandalay.\n\nGeography\nThis plain is bounded by the Santa Monica Mountains, the Santa Susana Mountains, the Topatopa Mountains to the north, the Santa Clara River Valley to the northeast and the Santa Barbara Channel to the south and west. The topography of the plain is relatively level. It has been formed chiefly by the deposition of sediments from Santa Clara River Valley and the watershed of Calleguas Creek before they flow into the Pacific Ocean. The alluvial deposits from these rivers are generally a few hundred feet () thick and lie over Pleistocene and Pliocene sedimentary rocks. The Santa Clara River is one of the largest river systems along the coast of Southern California and only one of two remaining river systems in the region that remain in their natural states and not channelized by concrete.\nPrior to the agricultural expansion, installation of drainage systems, and other disturbances, this broad, flat, coastal area contained a series of marshes, salt flats, sloughs, and lagoons. Historically, Calleguas Creek flood flows spread across the floodplain and the deposited sediment created the rich agricultural lands of the Oxnard Plain. With year-round agriculture in the floodplain, concrete channels and dirt levees have been built to contain the flow. This has delivered increased sediment to Mugu Lagoon and flooding during extreme rain events. The is among the longest stretches of continuous, linear beaches in the state. With the Port of Hueneme, Channel Islands Harbor, and Ventura Harbor along with a number of breakwaters, jetties and groins, this is one of the most engineered coastlines in the state with complicated coastal geography.\n\nGroundwater\n\nSaltwater intrusion from the ocean has occurred in the southern Oxnard Plain due to the overdraft of groundwater. The Santa Clara Irrigating Company was formed in 1870 and drew water from the Santa Clara River, using a ditch system to irrigate the grain crops. Early settlers began pumping soon afterwards to support farming activities with what at first was a more reliable source. In the modern era, much of the groundwater has been rendered useless for agricultural or potable uses by salt-water intrusion. Unlike coastal Los Angeles and Orange County, Ventura County has no barrier in place to prevent the ocean water from intruding into the inland aquifers.\n\nThe Sustainable Groundwater Management Act signed into California law in 2014 created a framework for sustainable, local groundwater management for the first time in California history. In response, the Ventura County Board of Supervisors passed an emergency ordinance that halted well-drilling in the Oxnard Plain. Groundwater levels experienced a decrease during the 2012\u20132013 drought.\n\nCalleguas Municipal Water District\nCalleguas Municipal Water District, a water wholesaler, serves about 75 percent of Ventura County's population. Calleguas ships state water from the Delta to Oxnard, Port Hueneme, and Camarillo on the Oxnard Plain and Moorpark, Thousand Oaks, Simi Valley and unincorporated areas in the east county. These areas also use groundwater and surface water supplies but these sources have increased in salinity. The source of the salts is a combination of agricultural, industrial, and residential activities in conjunction with salts in the imported water. The United Water Conservation District funded a detailed feasibility study in 2014 and found that the impaired groundwater in the south Oxnard Plain is suitable for treatment by reverse osmosis at an acceptable recovery range of 72 to 80 percent. Many local agencies, particularly those in the Calleguas Creek Watershed, have built or are putting in desalters to treat salty groundwater. The treated water can be used for drinking supplies which will make the region less dependent on imported state water. The remaining salt concentrate will be sent out to sea through the Calleguas Regional Salinity Management Project. This $220 million pipeline project started in 2003 and stretches from the marine outfall into Simi Valley. That pipeline services desalters in Simi Valley, Moorpark and the Camrosa Water District in the Santa Rosa Valley.\n\nCamarillo and Santa Rosa Valley\nThe city of Camarillo water system serves about two-thirds of its residents. It imports about 60 percent of its water from the state water project through the Calleguas Municipal Water District and 40 percent is pumped from three wells. The North Pleasant Valley Desalter Project is a $66.3 million project to treat brackish well water. The project began construction in September, 2019. The city held a ribbon cutting ceremony in November 2021 as the plant began to operate. After extensive testing and adjustments, the plant started producing water for the city in January 2023.\n\nThe Camrosa Water District serves nearly 30,000 people in Camarillo and the Santa Rosa Valley along with agricultural customers. The district, which covers is headquartered in Camarillo. Camrosa completed the Round Mountain Water Treatment Plant, a desalting facility, in 2015. It cleans up brackish groundwater and produces of drinking water a year. The facility was the first paying customer for the Calleguas Regional Salinity Management Project.\n\nOxnard\nIn 2008, the city started up a desalination plant near the Oxnard Transit Center that treats the brackish groundwater from nearby wells. The water supply in the Oxnard Plain has been expanded by a $71 million Advanced Water Purification Facility (AWPF) built by the city of Oxnard. The plant scrubs treated sewage water to super-clean levels that can be used on crops, by industrial customers, and for water landscaping. The water can also be injected into the ground from where it can be pumped out months later for use in the drinking supply. When the final permits were in place, the AWPF began providing water to a lake at the River Ridge Golf Course in 2015. Water from the lake is used to irrigate the golf course. Gradually, pipelines begin serving city parks, street medians, and all the landscaping in new developments including two along the Santa Clara River: RiverPark, a community of 1,800 homes and Wagon Wheel with 1,500 apartments and condos. The water is also provided to industrial customers and farmers near the plant. Initially pipelines needed to reach additional farmers served by the Pleasant Valley County Water District with were not finished until 2016 but the district was able to temporarily use the brine line to get the water to the farmers during the drought.\n\nUnited Water Conservation District\nFormed in 1950, the United Water Conservation District battles groundwater overdraft through a combination of aquifer recharge and providing alternative surface water supplies. The District encompasses about and owns Lake Piru and key facilities along the Santa Clara River that are used to manage groundwater supplies. The United Water Conservation District provides wholesale water delivery through three pipelines to various portions of the Oxnard Plain. One is the Oxnard/Hueneme system which serves the City of Oxnard, the Port Hueneme Water Agency (City of Port Hueneme, Channel Islands Beach CSD) and the Naval Base Ventura County (Point Mugu and the Construction Battalion Center). A second pipeline serves agricultural uses in the Oxnard Plain. The third system supplies water to the Pleasant Valley area located between Oxnard and Camarillo. United rates for non-agricultural uses are at least three times more than agricultural users are charged as required by the state water code.\n\nThe Vern Freeman Diversion Dam, built by United Water in 1991 on the Santa Clara river, channels water to shallow basins designed to replenish the aquifer. 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\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \n \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0430\u043b\n \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043b\u043e\u0440\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \n\u041a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0438\n\n\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n \u041c\u0438\u043b\u044e\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u041f. \u041d. \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u044f // \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u041f\u0431., 1910.\n \u0414\u0430\u0432\u044b\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u042e. \u041d. \u0423\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043d\u044f\u0442\u0438\u044f \u00ab\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f\u00bb // \u041a\u0443\u0434\u0430 \u0438\u0434\u0451\u0442 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f? \u0410\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u044b \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u044f. 1 : \u041c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0438\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0443\u043c 17\u201419 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f 1993\u00a0\u0433. / \u041f\u043e\u0434 \u043e\u0431\u0449. \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0422.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u0417\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439, \u041b.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u0410\u0440\u0443\u0442\u044e\u043d\u044f\u043d.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043f\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0441, 1994.\u00a0\u2014 C. 244\u2014245.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 5-85235-109-1\n .\n\n\u0421\u0441\u044b\u043b\u043a\u0438 \n\n \u0412\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u00ab\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u0432 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435\n \u0413\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0448\u0438 \u0410. \u0424\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438\n \u0422\u0440\u043e\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u041b. \u041e\u0431 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438\n \u0424\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0413. \u0422\u0440\u0430\u0433\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438\n \u0423\u0432\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u041f. \u0411. \u0414\u0435\u0442\u0438 \u0425\u0430\u043e\u0441\u0430: \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0435\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438\n \u0420\u0435\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438 \u0410. \u041f\u043e\u043b\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0430. \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u00ab\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u0438 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445.\n \u0411\u0435\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430 \u0418. \u0421\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u041b. \u0424\u0435\u0439\u0445\u0442\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0433\u0435\u0440\u0430 //\u041d\u0413\n \u0418.\u00a0\u0421.\u00a0\u041a\u043e\u043d. \u0420\u0430\u0437\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0431 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438 // \u00ab\u041d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u00bb, 1968, \u2116\u00a01.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 173\u2014197\n \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043c. \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438. \u0421\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0411.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u0423\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439.\n \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0435\u0440 \u0412. \u0414\u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u043f\u0441\u0435\u0432\u0434\u043e-\u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 (1969, \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b. \u0432 1970 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u043f\u0441\u0435\u0432\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043c\u043e\u043c \u0410\u043b\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0432).\u00a0\u2014 \u0412 \u043a\u043d.: \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0435\u0440 \u0412. \u041a\u0440\u043e\u0442 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u0412\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f, 2009.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 211\u2212252.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-5-9691-0427-3 (\u044d\u043b.\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0442).\n \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441 \u0422\u0430\u0440\u043d. \u041f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442 \u041f.\u00a0\u0411.\u00a0\u0421\u0442\u0440\u0443\u0432\u0435 \u0432 \u0441\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0430\u0445 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438.\n \u041f\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446 \u0413. \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f, \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044b \u0438 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f, 21 \u0438\u044e\u043d\u044f 2001\u00a0\u0433.\n \u0421\u043b\u044e\u0441\u0430\u0440 \u0412. H. \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u043a\u0442 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 // \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f: \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u044b \u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438: \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0432: \u0432 3 \u0442. / \u043e\u0442\u0432. \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0418.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u041e\u0441\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439.\u00a0\u2014 \u0423\u043b\u0430\u043d-\u0423\u0434\u044d: \u0418\u0437\u0434-\u0432\u043e \u0411\u0443\u0440\u044f\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430, 2012.\u00a0\u2014 \u0422. 1.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 181\u2014189.\n \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0430-\u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u043e \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435 \u00ab\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u0432 \u00ab\u0413\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043c \u043f\u043e-\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u00bb \u043d\u0430 \u042d\u0445\u043e \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u044b (30 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430 2008)\n \u0424\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0410. \u0410. \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u043f\u0442 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0441\u043c\u044b\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b // \u041b\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0441.\u00a0", " in December 1908, the aircraft was powered by a 7-cylinder R.E.P. engine driving a four-bladed paddle-type propeller. The aircraft was first flown at Issy-les-Moulineaux on 23 January 1909, but although the aircraft handled well, the engine proved extremely unreliable and, at the suggestion of his mechanic Ferdinand Collin, Bl\u00e9riot made contact with Alessandro Anzani, a famous motorcycle racer whose successes were due to the engines that he made, and who had recently entered the field of aero-engine manufacture. On 27 May 1909, a Anzani 3-cylinder fan-configuration (semi-radial) engine was fitted. The propeller was also replaced with a Chauvi\u00e8re Int\u00e9grale two-bladed scimitar propeller made from laminated walnut wood. This propeller design was a major advance in French aircraft technology and was the first European propeller to rival the efficiency of the propellers used by the Wright Brothers.\n\nDuring early July, Bl\u00e9riot was occupied with flight trials of a new aircraft, the two-seater Type XII, but resumed flying the Type XI on 18 July. By then, the small cabane fin had been removed and the wingspan increased by . On 26 June, he managed a flight lasting 36 minutes 55 seconds, and on 13 July, Bl\u00e9riot won the Aero Club de France's first Prix du Voyage with a flight between Etampes and Orl\u00e9ans.\n\nThe Channel crossing\n\nThe Bl\u00e9riot XI gained lasting fame on 25 July 1909, when Bl\u00e9riot crossed the English Channel from Calais to Dover, winning a \u00a31,000 (equivalent to \u00a3115,000 in 2018) prize awarded by the Daily Mail. For several days, high winds had grounded Bl\u00e9riot and his rivals: Hubert Latham, who flew an Antoinette monoplane, and Count de Lambert, who brought two Wright biplanes. On 25 July, when the wind had dropped in the morning and the skies had cleared, Bl\u00e9riot took off at sunrise. Flying without the aid of a compass, he deviated to the east of his intended course, but, nonetheless, spotted the English coast to his left. Battling turbulent wind conditions, Bl\u00e9riot made a heavy \"pancake\" landing, nearly collapsing the undercarriage and shattering one blade of the propeller, but he was unhurt. The flight had taken 36.5 minutes and made Bl\u00e9riot a celebrity, instantly resulting in many orders for copies of his aircraft.\n\nThe aircraft, which never flew again, was hurriedly repaired and put on display at Selfridges department store in London. It was later displayed outside the offices of the French newspaper Le Matin and eventually bought by the Musee des Arts et Metiers in Paris.\n\nSubsequent history\n\nAfter the successful crossing of the English Channel there was a great demand for Bl\u00e9riot XIs. By the end of September 1909, orders had been received for 103 aircraft. After an accident at an aviation meeting in Istanbul in December 1909, Bl\u00e9riot gave up competition flying, and the company's entries for competitions were flown by other pilots, including Alfred Leblanc, who had managed the logistics of the cross-channel flight, and subsequently bought the first production Type XI, going on to become one of the chief instructors at the flying schools established by Bl\u00e9riot.\n\nIn February 1912 the future of the Type XI was threatened by the French army placing a ban on the use of all monoplanes. This was the result of a series of accidents in which Bl\u00e9riot aircraft had suffered wing failure in flight. The first of these incidents had occurred on 4 January 1910, killing L\u00e9on Delagrange, and was generally attributed to the fact that Delagrange had fitted an over-powerful engine, so overstressing the airframe. A similar accident had killed Peruvian pilot Jorge Chavez at the end of 1910 at the end of the first flight over the Alps, and in response to this the wing spars of the Bl\u00e9riot had been strengthened. A later accident prompted further strengthening of the spars. Bl\u00e9riot produced a report for the French government which came to the conclusion that the problem was not the strength of the wing spars but a failure to take into account the amount of downward force to which aircraft wings could be subjected, and that the problem could be solved by increasing the strength of the upper bracing wires. This analysis was accepted, and Bl\u00e9riot's prompt and thorough response to the problem enhanced rather than damaged his reputation.\n\nFurther development\nThe Type XI remained in production until the outbreak of the First World War, and a number of variations were produced. Various types of engine were fitted, including the 120\u00b0 Y-configuration, \"full radial\" three-cylinder Anzani (the restored example at Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome still flies with this) and the and , seven cylinder Gnome rotary engines. Both single and two-seat versions were built, and there were variations in wingspan and fuselage length. In later aircraft the tip elevators were replaced by a more conventional trailing edge elevator, the tailwheel was replaced by a skid, and the former \"house-roof\" five-member dorsal cabane being replaced by a simpler, four-sided pyramidally framed unit similar to the ventral arrangement for the later rotary-powered versions. Bl\u00e9riot marketed the aircraft in four categories: trainers, sport or touring models, military aircraft, and racing or exhibition aircraft.\n\nCivil use\nThe Type XI took part in many competitions and races. In August 1910 Leblanc won the Circuit de l'Est race, and another Bl\u00e9riot flown by \u00c9mile Aubrun was the only other aircraft to finish the course. In October 1910, Claude Grahame-White won the second competition for the Gordon Bennett Trophy flying a Type XI fitted with a Gnome, beating a similar aircraft flown by Leblanc, which force-landed on the last lap. During the race Leblanc had established a new world speed record. In 1911, Andre Beaumont won the Circuit of Europe in a Type XI and another, flown by Roland Garros, came second.\n\nLouis Bl\u00e9riot established his first flying school at Etampes near Rouen in 1909. Another was started at Pau, where the climate made year-round flying more practical, in early 1910 and in September 1910 a third was established at Hendon Aerodrome near London. A considerable number of pilots were trained: by 1914 nearly 1,000 pilots had gained their Aero Club de France license at the Bl\u00e9riot schools, around half the total number of licences issued. Flight training was offered free to those who had bought a Bl\u00e9riot aircraft: for others it initially cost 2,000 francs, this being reduced to 800 francs in 1912. A gifted pupil favoured by good weather could gain his license in as little as eight days, although for some it took as long as six weeks. There were no dual control aircraft in these early days, training simply consisting of basic instruction on the use of the controls followed by solo taxying exercises, progressing to short straight-line flights and then to circuits. To gain a license, a pilot had to make three circular flights of more than 5\u00a0km (3\u00a0mi), landing within of a designated point.\n\nMilitary use \nThe first Bl\u00e9riot XIs entered military service in Italy and France in 1910, and a year later some were used by Italy in North Africa (the first use of heavier than air aircraft in a war) and in Mexico. The British Royal Flying Corps received its first Bl\u00e9riots in 1912. During the early stages of World War I eight French, six British and six Italian squadrons operated various military versions of the aircraft, mainly for observation duties but also as trainers, and in the case of single-seaters as light bombers with a bomb load of up to 25\u00a0kg.\n\nFamous Bl\u00e9riot Monoplane pilots\n\nOskar Bider \u2013 Swiss aviator who flew over the Pyrenees and the Alps in 1913.\n Baron Carl Cederstr\u00f6m, who made the first flight of a heavier-than-air craft in Norway on 14 October 1910. He made a flight of 23 minutes and reached a height of 300 metres (983.9\u00a0feet).\nJorge Chavez \u2013 French-Peruvian aviator who crossed the Alps in 1910, but crashed on arrival and was killed.\nJean Conneau (Andr\u00e9 Beaumont) In 1911 won the Paris-Rome race, the Circuit d'Europe (Tour of Europe) on 7 July and the Daily Mail Circuit of Britain Race on 26 July 1911.\nAntal L\u00e1nyi (Austro-Hungarian Monarchy) On 28 August 1911 Antal L\u00e1nyi successfully flew over the Lake Balaton (biggest lake of Europe) from Badacsony to Fony\u00f3d with a Bl\u00e9riot XI airplane.\nDenys Corbett-Wilson \u2013 Anglo-Irish aviator who made the first successful flight from Britain to Ireland in April 1912.\nLeon Delagrange \u2013 One of the first people to fly an aircraft in France, killed on 4 January 1910 flying a Bl\u00e9riot XI when a wing failed.\nCarlo Piazza \u2013 On 22/23 October 1911, Captain Piazza of the Italian Royal Army Air Services conducted the first aerial reconnaissance flight, between Tripoli and Ain Zara during the Italo-Turkish War.\nJohn Domenjoz (1886\u20131952) \u2013 Performed aerobatics in South, Central and North America in 1914\u20131918. His Gnome rotary-powered Bl\u00e9riot-XI is displayed at the National Air & Space Museum, Washington.\nRoland Garros \u2013 Won second place in the 1911 Circuit of Europe race, and set two world altitude records in 1912 in an adapted Type XI, flying to on 6 September 1912\nClaude Grahame-White Won the 1910 Gordon Bennett Trophy race, held in New York, flying a Bl\u00e9riot\nEug\u00e8ne Gilbert \u2013 Went to the Bl\u00e9riot school in 1910 after having built his own small unsuccessful aircraft in 1909. During a flight across the Pyrenees Mountains in the 1911 Paris to Madrid air race he and his Bl\u00e9riot XI were attacked by a large eagle, which Gilbert drove off by firing a pistol.\nTryggve Gran \u2013 Norwegian aviator, first to cross the North Sea from Scotland to Norway, on 30 July 1914. The flight set a record for the longest flight over open water, a distance of taking 4 hours and 10 minutes.\nMaurice Guillaux \u2013 French aviator, visited Australia April\u2013October 1914. Flew Australia's first air mail and air freight from Melbourne to Sydney, 16\u201318 July 1914.\nGustav Hamel \u2013 Flew the world's first regular airmail service between Hendon and Windsor in September 1911.\nVasily Kamensky \u2013 a famous Russian Futurist poet, one of the pioneering aviators of Russia.\nJan Ka\u0161par \u2013 Czech aviator, first person to fly in Czech lands on 16 April 1910.\nHubert Le Blon \u2013 A former racing car driver who took up aviation and designed his own monoplane. On 2 April 1910, flying a Bleriot XI, he became the second (after Delagrange) fatality in the type after crashing in San Sebastian, Spain.\nAlfred Leblanc \u2013 Broke the flight airspeed record on 29 October 1910 while flying a Bl\u00e9riot XI. His speed was calculated at 68.20\u00a0mph (109.76\u00a0km/h): on 11 April 1911 he raised the record to 111.8\u00a0km/h\nBernetta Miller \u2013 Fifth licensed woman pilot in the U.S. Chosen as pilot to demonstrate the Moisant-Bleriot monoplane to the U.S. Army in 1912.\nJan Olieslagers (1883\u20131942) \u2013 Lieutenant in the Belgian Army during the First World War.\nEarle Ovington \u2013 First airmail pilot in the United States, used a Bl\u00e9riot XI to carry a sack of mail from Garden City, New York to Mineola, NY\nAdolphe P\u00e9goud \u2013 First man to demonstrate the full aerobatic potential of the Bl\u00e9riot XI, flying a loop with it in 1913. Together with John Domenjoz and Edmond Perreyon, he successfully created what is considered the first air show.\nHarriet Quimby \u2013 First licensed female pilot in the United States; first female to fly the English Channel solo. Died on 1 July 1912 when she and her passenger were ejected from her new Bl\u00e9riot XI-2.\nRene Simon \u2013 In February 1911 the Mexican government engaged Rene Simon, a member of an aerial circus touring the southwestern United States, to reconnoiter rebel positions near the border city of Juarez.\nEmile Tadd\u00e9oli \u2013 Swiss aviator who first flew on 22 March 1910, in his newly bought Bl\u00e9riot XI, and flew about during the next five years, using various aircraft, among them the Bl\u00e9riot XI, Morane-Borel monoplane, Dufaux 4, Dufaux 5 and SIAI S.13 seaplane.\nAhmet Ali \u00c7elikten \u2013 Ottoman-born Turkish fighter pilot who was the first black pilot in aviation history.\n\nVariants\nBl\u00e9riot XI (REP)\n1908, the first Type XI, powered by a REP engine, displayed at the 1908 Paris Salon Exposition, first flown at Issy on 18 January 1909.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI (Anzani)\n1909, the first aircraft re-engined with a Anzani engine and with wings enlarged from . Fitted with a flotation bag for Bl\u00e9riot's cross channel flight.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI Militaire\nMilitary single-seater, powered by a Gnome engine.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI Artillerie\nVery similar to the Militaire version, but with a fuselage divided into two sections so that it could be folded for transport.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI-1 Artillerie\nSingle-seat er powered by a Gnome 7 Omega, with collapsible fuselage for transportation.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI E1\nSingle-seat training version.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI Type Ecole\n A trainer with considerable wing dihedral looped cane tailskid, tip elevators and other modifications.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI R1 Pinguin\nRouleur or ground training aircraft, fitted with clipped wings and a wide-track undercarriage with a pair of forward-projecting skids to prevent nose-overs. Some examples were fitted with a Anzani engine and others with old Gnome engines that were no longer producing their full power output.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI (1912)\nFrom March 1912 with two-piece elevators and high fuselage skid.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI (1913)\nAs for Bl\u00e9riot XI (1912) with landing gear re-inforcements removed, powered by a Clerget 7Y\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI Parasol\naka Brevet-gourin, modified by Lieutenant Gouin and Henri Chazal with a parasol wing and split airbrake/rudder.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XIbis\nIn January 1910 the bis introduced more conventional tail feathers and elliptical elevators with a half-cowled Gnome engine.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI-2 Tandem\nStandard tandem 2-seat touring, reconnaissance, training model, powered by a Gnome 7 Gamma rotary piston engine.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI-2 bis \"c\u00f4te-\u00e0-c\u00f4te\"\nFebruary 1910 2-seat model, with side-by-side seating and a non-lifting triangular tailplane with semi-elliptical trailing-edge elevators, with several variations such as floats extended nose, modified tail-skid and other changes. (Length , Wingspan \n\nBl\u00e9riot XI-2 Hydroaeroplane\n Two-seater floatplane with wingspan of powered by a Rh\u00f4ne engine. First flown with an extended rudder with a float on the bottom: this was later replaced by a standard rudder and a float fitted under the rear fuselage.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI-2 Artillerie\nMilitary Two-seater powered by a Gnome 7 Gamma, with modified rudder and undercarriage. Two aircraft or versions of the same aircraft with differing elevators.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI-2 G\u00e9nie\nMilitary version designed for easy transport, powered by a Gnome 7 Gamma, it could be broken down/reassembled in 25 minutes.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI-2 Vision totale\nAn XI-2 modified with a parasol wing in July 1914, also known as XI Brevet-Gouin.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI-2 Hauteur\nPowered by an Gnome rotary piston engine and used by Roland Garros in altitude record flights in August 1912 and March 1913.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI-2 BG\nTwo-seat high-wing parasol model.\n\nBl\u00e9riot XI-3 Concours Militaire\nTandem 3-seat model, powered by a twin-row 14-cylinder, Gnome 14 Gamma-Gamma rotary engine. Span , length \n\nThulin A\nLicence-built in Sweden\n\nMilitary operators\n\nArgentine Air Force\n\nAustralian Flying Corps\nCentral Flying School AFC at Point Cook, Victoria\n\nBelgian Air Component\n\nBolivian Air Force\n\nBrazilian Air Force\n\nBulgarian Air Force\n\nChilean Air Force\n\nRoyal Danish Air Force\n\nFrench Navy\n\nHellenic Air Force\n\nGuatemalan Air Force\n\nCorpo Aeronautico Militare\n\nImperial Japanese Army Air Service\n\nMexican Air Force\n Norwegian Army Air Service. One only: Tryggve Gran's\n Royal New Zealand Air Force. One XI 2 Monoplane was in service from 1913 to 1914. The aircraft was named \"Britiania\", it was New Zealand's first military aircraft; \n\nRomanian Air Corps\n\nImperial Russian Air Service\n\n Serbia\nSerbian Air Force and Air Defense\n\nSwedish Air Force\nSwedish Navy\n\nSwiss Air Force\n\nOttoman Aviation squadrons\n\nRoyal Flying Corps\nNo. 2 Squadron RFC\nNo. 3 Squadron RFC\nNo. 4 Squadron RFC\nNo. 5 Squadron RFC\nNo. 6 Squadron RFC\nNo. 9 Squadron RFC", "ration Court (1912\u20131927), Legal Aid Office (1919\u20131944), Profiteering Prevention Court (1921\u20131922), Land and Valuation Court (1922\u20131956, 1976\u20131979), Court Reporting Branch (1944\u20131964).\n\nDuring the early 20th century, industrial relations dominated proceedings at Queen's Square. Two landmark decisions were handed down by the Courts while in the buildings: in 1927 the basic living wage was approved; in 1921 a case for equal pay for women was presented and rejected, to be granted only in 1973.\n\nIn 1975, the Department of Public Works began extensive conservation works on the buildings. During these works, one of the first Permanent Conservation Orders, under the 1977 Heritage Act, was given to the Barracks in 1981. The conservation works were completed in 1984 and the Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences opened a museum of Sydney. This museum operated until 1990 when ownership was transferred to the Historic Houses Trust of NSW (now Sydney Living Museums). The museum underwent refurbishment and further conservation works were undertaken, becoming a museum of the site, dedicated to interpreting how the site has developed, been used by multiple occupants and the physical evidence of their presence. During 2019 Hyde Park Barracks was closed while a new exhibition space was developed. The exhibition space has a diminished focus on the significant role of Lachlan Macquarie. The site reopened in 2019.\n\nThe Friends of the Historic Houses Trust have been responsible for fundraising through interpretive tours and events to acquire the Neville Locker collection of convict artefacts for Hyde Park Barracks.\n\nThe Mint\n\nGovernor Macquarie signed an agreement with Garnham Blaxcell, Alexander Riley and D'Arcy Wentworth to build a new convict hospital in November 1810. In return, the three gentlemen received the monopoly on the purchase of spirits for three years. As a result, the building became known as the Rum Hospital.\n\nWhile the architect is unknown, the inspiration for the form of the buildings is thought to have come from Macquarie's time in India, especially the Madras Government House. The Hospital, however, is constructed to the standard institutional army plan of the time \u2013 as seen at Victoria Barracks. The Hospital was originally constructed with three wings, the northern wing is now part of Parliament House, the central wing has been demolished and the southern wing became the Mint.\n\nThe Legislative Council of New South Wales had begun petitioning the British Government for the establishment of a Mint in 1851. The gold rush had brought in to circulation large amounts of unrefined gold that was threatening the official currency. The British Government finally approved the establishment of a Mint in 1853, sending equipment and twenty staff. The Mint began operation on 14 May 1855. Now known simply as The Mint, its official title was the Royal Mint, Sydney Branch. The first five years of operation saw exports of gold fall sharply as over one million pounds worth of gold was converted into sovereign and half sovereign coins each year. In 1868, Sydney's coins were recognised as legal tender in all British colonies, but it was not until February 1886 that they were accepted in Britain. The coins were identical to those produced in Britain, except for a small mint mark. Federation encouraged the consolidation of minting activities in Canberra, Melbourne and , the facilities in Sydney deteriorated to such an extent that the Mint was closed in January 1927, due to ageing equipment and unprofitability.\n\nOn the departure of the Mint a series of government departments sought office space in the buildings. Similar to the Barracks next door, with no security of tenure there was little incentive to maintain the buildings and, instead fibro buildings filled all available spaces to meet the requirements of the Family Endowment Department (1927\u20131940), State Headquarters of National Emergency Service (1940\u20131950s), Housing Commission of NSW (mid 1940s) and the Land Tax Office (mid 1940s). The Court Reporting Branch, District Courts and Parliamentary Library moved in during the 1950s. Fibro-lined courtrooms were created within the former Coining Factory for use by them.\n\nIn the 1930s, with increasing use of the motor car, and demand for parking spaces, the Mint's Macquarie Street gates were removed, a common fate for the gates of public buildings at the time. They were eventually acquired by Barker College at Hornsby in 1937 following the efforts of its Council Chairman, Sir John Butters. This was not the first time a school had acquired significant city gates: St. Joseph's College at Hunters Hill had bought the Sydney Town Hall gates and fencing when they became redundant with construction of Town Hall Railway Station. Restoration of the buildings, announced in 1975, were undertaken in 1977-79, with the intended purpose of utilising at least the Mint as a Museum. In 1982 the Mint opened as a branch of the Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences.\n\nIn 1998, ownership of the site was transferred to the Historic Houses Trust, who continued to operate a small museum, plus a cafe. In 2004 restoration and construction was undertaken to enable the HHT to use the site as a Head Office. The former Coining Factory was sympathetically remodelled into offices and the Superintendent's Office to hold the Caroline Simpson Library and Research Collection. A new theatrette and foyer were also added. The work was overseen by architect Richard Francis-Jones, of FJMT Architects; Clive Lucas Stapleton and Partners as conservation architects and Godden Mackay Logan as archaeologists. In July 2016 the Mint celebrated its 200th anniversary of continuous civic function with a symposium \"A future for the past\" as part of a programme of events.\n\nDescription \nThe Hyde Park Barracks are located in Queen's Square on the corner of Macquarie Street and Prince Albert Road, Sydney. The complex is bounded by high walls on the south and western sides. The northern and eastern boundaries are marked by ranges of structures. Located in the middle of the enclosure is the Principal Barracks or Dormitory Block. Near the north eastern and north western corners of the Dormitory Block are two weeping lillypillys (Waterhousia floribunda). The remainder of the gravelled courtyard is interspersed with sandstone pathways to facilitate disabled access. The major elements, namely the Dormitory Block, Northern Perimeter and Eastern Perimeter structures are discussed separately below in more detail.\n\nPrincipal Barracks/Dormitory Block\nThe main building is a three-storey sandstock brick, gabled former convict barracks of Georgian style. It has sandstone foundations, sills and string courses, while the pedimented gable is decorated by a shaped stone panel containing an early colonial clock. The clock is surmounted by a crown and inscribed \"L.Macquarie Esq., Governor 1817\". The pedimented temple form of the front is divided horizontally by a string course at the first and attic floors, and vertically by simple piers or pilasters, finished by Greenway's distinctive \"double string course\" beneath the eaves; relieving arches implying an arcade to the basement storey; shallow overhanging domes to the roof ventilator, lodges and corner pavilions; shaped blocking courses of the cornices of the pavilions and circular niches.\n\nThe facade is simple but elegant and divided by brick pilasters and arched recesses to the ground floor. The central door has a semi-circular fanlight above, while the windows, 24 panes to ground and first floors and 16 panes to the second floor have flat lintels.\n\nDuring the late 1980s, concerted efforts were made to return the Barracks to their appearance . External doorways made to access the now demolished court buildings have been carefully in-filled and it is now difficult to determine where some of these openings were. The stone string courses and sills are replacements, as is the shingling on the roof. By necessity, new joinery for doors and windows was constructed.\n\nInternally, partitions have been removed, again in an attempt to reveal Greenway's original design. The floor plan of all three levels is essentially identical, consisting of four rooms opening off two corridors forming a cross, the two rooms to the west being slightly smaller. Two stairwells provide access between the levels, the first in the north eastern corner and the second, also abutting the northern wall, in the hallway crossing the Barracks north/south.\n\nRestoration works were unable to remove all evidence relating to District Court, some fireplaces, doorways and transom lights are now \"unusually placed\". The door joinery shows evidence of the successive adaptations to the building during its use as a Court. The skirtings, architraves, doors and windows represent two periods - \u20131887 and . The upper flights of the staircases are thought to be original, the lower flights being interspersed with Victorian repairs. The internal structure of the staircases has been augmented to ensure visitor safety.\n\nBased on a paterae block (an ornamental device) and mortice openings in the floor, uncovered during conservation works, together with documentary evidence, one room has been fitted with hammock frames. Given the evidence, it is thought this mirrors the sleeping arrangements during the convict era. The frames have a rough adzed appearance and consist of half-round architraves, skirtings and plain paterae blocks.\n\nPaint and plaster wall finishes have been incorporated into the aesthetic, including signage, which remains exposed. The removal of later false ceilings and linings in some sections has revealed earlier finishes, including the original roof structure on the second level. In others, parts of the later ceilings have been used to conceal track hangers and display partitions. Track hung spotlights and recessed down-lights have been introduced to illuminate the museum displays.\n\nPerimeter Wall and Outbuildings (Barracks Square)\nThe northern boundary of the Barracks site is lined with six structures of both one and two storeys. Constructed of brick, those of two storeys have had the second storey rendered in imitation of ashlar and painted off-white. In the north western corner, the original cell block remains, as does the Superintendent's Apartment midway along the boundary. In the eastern corner remnants of the original corner pavilion is visible from outside the Barracks Square. The north western corner pavilion, originally used as a cell block, has been substantially altered during its use by the District Court. Further alterations were undertaken to convert the cell block and part of the structure to the east into a cafe. Sections of the ground floor are open to visitors. A wooden platform has been constructed to allow the exposed archaeological features to be viewed. The interior walls have had various layers of paint and plaster removed in sections, so as to display the multiple renovations the interior underwent. The effect created is that of partially completed restoration - a work in progress.\n\nThe Southern Perimeter is marked by a wall constructed of stone from the Gladesville Mental Hospital c.1963. It follows the northern extent of Greenway's original structure, which was demolished in 1909. The wall is also marked by the Australian Monument to the Great Irish Famine. The Monument consists of a plaque on the wall and a metal table, set with a dinner plate, protruding at a 45-degree angle from the wall. The memorial was opened by Governor-General of Australia, Sir William Deane on 28 August 1999.\n\nThe Eastern Perimeter is marked by a conglomerate of three buildings, the northern two are of two storeys, while a small southern section has just one level. Central to the structures is a set of external stairs, which dominate the western facade. The stairs lead to a balcony running the length of the buildings, which provides access to the series of unconnected first floor rooms. On the ground floor, public toilets are provided in the southern section, while the remainder of the building provides office space to the Museum.\n\nThe Western section consists of a wall with a central set of gates, flanked by a lodge on each side. The southern lodge was altered during the realignment of Prince Albert Road. The northern lodge is accessible by visitors, having a wooden platform to protect the exposed archaeological deposits. A fireplace is evident in the northern wall. The interior walls also display the various internal treatments, the plaster having been removed to expose the brick construction.\n\nArchaeology\nFormal archaeological investigations began at the Hyde Park Barracks during the 1980s restoration work. Originally Carol Powell, who was employed to research the archival material, was also asked to catalogue artefacts exposed by the conservation works. It quickly became apparent that the magnitude and preservation of the archaeological deposits required more attention and Wendy Thorp was employed in September 1980.\n\nThorp excavated a series of test-trenches before recommending a larger scale program was needed. Patricia Burritt completed what was known as the Stage II excavations. Trenches were located to over all aspects of the Barracks. Small scale trenches were excavated near the entrance to the Dormitory Block and in the northern perimeter buildings, formerly the bakery. A large open-area was excavated in the courtyard east of the Dormitory Block. Extensive excavations were also undertaken in the underfloor spaces between levels one and two and levels two and three. The last of these excavations exposed a remarkable artefact collection of paper and fabric, items not commonly preserved in archaeological deposits. In 2006 a publication was released by the Historic Houses Trust that interprets these artefacts.\n\nConcealed for up to 160 years in the cavities between floorboards and ceilings, the assemblage is a unique archaeological record of institutional confinement, especially of women. The underfloor assemblage dates to the period 1848 to 1886, during which a female Immigration Depot and a Government Asylum for Infirm and Destitute Women occupied the second and third floors of the Barracks.\n\nSince the completion of the 1980s restoration works any disturbance of the ground has been preceded by archaeological excavation, seeing a number of smaller excavations carried out for the laying of pipes etc. and the construction of the Australian Monument to the Great Irish Famine. There remains the potential for further archaeological materials to be uncovered.\n\nMuseum \nIn 1994, Hyde Park Barracks underwent conservation and adaptation work by award-winning architects Tonkin Zulaikha Greer and conservation architects Clive Lucas Stapleton and Partners. The completed project won the Australian Institute of Architects national Lachlan Macquarie Award in 1992. Now, the newly installed Hyde Park Barracks is a museum operated by the Historic Houses Trust of New South Wales. Tourists who visit the building discover the daily lives of convicts and other occupants through exhibitions on Sydney's male convict labour force, Australia's convict system, an innovative soundscape, excavated artefacts, exposed layers of building fabric and the complex's rooms and spaces.\n\nIn June 2015, Mark Speakman, the then Minister for the Environment of New South Wales announced Unlocking Heritage, a two-year program aimed at giving children the opportunity to experience Sydney's living museums. This program will allow students to wear convict clothing and sleep in the Barrack's hammocks. A million dollars has been allocated for this program. Museum director Mark Goggin thinks that children will learn more about history if they can experience it hands-on, '\"Particularly for the kids to wear the convict shirts, eat the gruel, sleep over with their mates in hammocks and imagining what life was like 200 years ago.\"' The program is starting out with children and hoping to expand to adult participation.\n\nHeritage listing\n\nWorld Heritage List \nIn July 2010, at the 34th session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, the Hyde Park Barracks and ten other Australian sites with a significant association with convict transportation were inscribed as a group on the World Heritage List as the Australian Convict Sites. The listing explains that the 11 sites present \"the best surviving examples of large-scale convict transportation and the colonial expansion of European powers through the presence and labour of convicts\". Of the 11 sites the Old Great North Road, Old Government House at Parramatta and Cockatoo Island are also within the Sydney region.\n\nAustralian National Heritage List\nThe site was placed on the National Heritage List on 1 August 2007. It was recognised:\n\n as a turning point in the management of convicts in the colony, as the government could now exercise more effective control over convicts, \n for its links with Governor Macquarie and his role in developing the colony's infrastructure, and \n as a demonstration of the skill of its architect, Francis Greenway.\n\nNew South Wales State Heritage List\nThe primary significance of Hyde Park Barracks is its unique evidence of the convict period of Australian history, particularly in its demonstration of the accommodation and living conditions of male convicts in NSW 1819\u20131848. They also provide evidence of the conditions experienced by immigrant groups between 1848 and 1887. The site is important for its significant archaeological record, both excavated and unexcavated, relating to the convict and immigrant periods of occupation. The barracks is one of the finest surviving works by Francis Greenway, the essence of his design persisting through various adaptations. They provide major evidence of Governor Macquarie's vision for Sydney and the relationship with The Domain, the Mint, St James' Church and Hyde Park demonstrate patterns of early 19th century planning in NSW.\n\nHyde Park Barracks, Sydney (inclusive of the Sydney Mint), was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999 having satisfied the following criteria.\n\nThe place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.\n\nThere is a diversity of structures which document the evolution of the Hyde Park Barracks complex from the late Georgian era to modern times: from the era of convict cell blocks and enclosed penal institutions, through to judicial courts and offices and present-day museum. It contains two fig trees on Macquarie Street which are symbolic of a number of significant town planning schemes throughout the 19th century, such as the creation of Chancery Square, (now known as Queen's Square). Within the complex are structures associated with the first purpose-built government institution for the housing of convicts. It is associated with the development of the legal system in NSW being the location of the first meeting in 1830 of the bench of magistrates for the Court of General Sessions and the first location of the Metropolitan District Court established under the District Courts Act, 1958. It is associated with other historic landmarks in the area such as the former Rum Hospital, St James' Church, Hyde Park, the Domain, St Mary's Cathedral and Macquarie Street.\n\nThe place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.\n\nIt contains elements such as the perimeter walls, parts of the two gate lodges, one former pavilion and parts of another, some external and probably internal walls on the northern range of buildings which", " \u00ab\u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0410\u043a\u0441\u0430\u044f\u00bb (\u0420\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432-\u043d\u0430-\u0414\u043e\u043d\u0443). \u0421 1987 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 (\u0432 15 \u043b\u0435\u0442) \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420, \u0441 1989 (\u0432 17 \u043b\u0435\u0442)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420. \u0414\u0435\u0431\u044e\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u0432 1991 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043d\u0430 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b \u0432 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435 19 \u043b\u0435\u0442, \u0441\u044b\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0432 \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0447\u0435\u0439 \u0432 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435.\n\n\u0421 1989 \u043f\u043e 1992 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u044b \u0414\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c\u043e-\u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430.\n\n\u0421 1991 \u043f\u043e 2004 \u0433\u043e\u0434 \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420, \u0421\u041d\u0413 \u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 (\u0437\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0430\u0434\u044b-2000, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0443\u044e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0438\u0437-\u0437\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u044b\u0432\u0430 \u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u043a\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0430), \u0441\u044b\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0447\u0435\u0439 \u0437\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0432 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 (106), \u0437\u0430\u0431\u0438\u0432 \u0432 \u043d\u0438\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043e\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0432 (\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 1245) \u0438 \u0441\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0432 \u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 (\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 847). \u0417\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0449\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0440\u0451\u0445 \u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0445 (1992, 1996, 2004), \u0434\u0432\u0443\u0445 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0445 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 (1998, 2002) \u0438 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u0438 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0445 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b (1991, 1993, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2003). \u041a\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 2002 (\u041a\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0439), \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b 2003 (\u0413\u0440\u0435\u0446\u0438\u044f), \u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0445 2004 (\u0413\u0440\u0435\u0446\u0438\u044f). \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0439 (1 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 2006) \u0432 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0435 2007 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0443\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b.\n\n\u0412 1995 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0435\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0438\u0432 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044e \u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b \u043f\u043e \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u00ab\u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440 \u043f\u043e \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0443\u00bb.\n\n\u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 XX \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 (\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441 \u0447\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0433\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0442\u044b \u00ab\u0421\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442-\u042d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u00bb, \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044c 1999), \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 (2002\u20142004).\n\n\u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0432 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435 \u0432 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 (\u0440\u0435\u0439\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0433 \u0410\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u00ab\u0412\u0435\u0441\u044c \u0421\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u00bb, \u0438\u044e\u043d\u044c 2020).\n\n\u041e\u0434\u043d\u0430 \u0438\u0437 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430. \u0414\u043b\u044f \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e (192 \u0441\u043c) \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0443\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e, \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e, \u0433\u0438\u0431\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e, \u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0438 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0434\u043a\u0438. \u041f\u043e\u0442\u0440\u044f\u0441\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043c \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0441\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0435 \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e \u0443\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0448\u043d\u043e \u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u043b\u044e\u0431\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u043e\u0442 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0433\u0440\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0439. \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0438\u0437 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b \u0432 \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 NBA (1997), \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0438\u0437 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0447\u0430\u0445 \u0417\u0432\u0451\u0437\u0434 \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 NBA (2001). \u0421\u044b\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0430 4 \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0447\u0430 \u0437\u0430 \u043c\u0443\u0436\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0443 \u00ab\u0411\u0438\u0437\u043e\u043d\u044b\u00bb (\u041c\u044b\u0442\u0438\u0449\u0438) \u0432 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 (1999), \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0438, \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442, \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0449\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439, \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0432 \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u0445 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u043c\u0443\u0436\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434.\n\n\u0412 2001 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\u0411\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d \u0433\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442 \u0441 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u043e\u0439 \u0414\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c\u043e-\u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044e \u043e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u00ab\u0417\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433\u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434 \u041e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u043c\u00bb (2007). \u0412 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u0435 2006 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u043c\u043a\u0430\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f 100-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 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\u0440\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c \u043e\u0442\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0430. \u0412 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0435 2013/2014 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0414\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u044e\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438 (EYBL). \u0412 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0435 2015/2016 \u0447\u0435\u0442\u044b\u0440\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u044b \u0423\u041e\u0420 \u0413\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0445 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438, \u0437\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0432\u0430\u0432 \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u0437\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 (\u0434\u0435\u0432\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0438 1999 \u0438 2000) \u0438 \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u0430 (\u0434\u0435\u0432\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0438 2002 \u0438 2003), \u0430 \u0423\u041e\u0420 \u0413\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0443 \u043e\u0442 \u0420\u0424\u0411\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0448\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0435 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438.\n\n\u041a\u0430\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0432 \u0412\u041d\u0411\u0410 \n7 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 (1997, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005), 220 \u0438\u0433\u0440, 2215 \u043e\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0438\u0437 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b \u0432 \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u041d\u0411\u0410 (\u042e\u0442\u0430 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0437, 1997), \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0434\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0442\u0430 \u0412\u041d\u0411\u0410 \u0432 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435 16 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 (\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u043c \u0434\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0442\u043e\u043c \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0412\u041d\u0411\u0410, \u044f\u043d\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044c 1997).\n\n\u0412 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0435 \u0412\u041d\u0411\u0410 1997\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0432 \u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435 \u043f\u043e \u0431\u043b\u043e\u043a-\u0448\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043c (2,25 \u0437\u0430 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0443 \u0432 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u043c).\n\n\u0423\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0434 \u0412\u041d\u0411\u0410 \u043f\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443 \u0437\u0430\u0431\u0438\u0442\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u0440\u0451\u0445\u043e\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0437\u0430 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0443 (7 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0437 9 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432, 22 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f 1997 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430).\n\n\u0412 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0435 \u0412\u041d\u0411\u0410 2001\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0430 Bud Light Shooting Champion, \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0432 \u043b\u0438\u0433\u0435 \u043f\u043e \u0448\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0444\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0430\u043c (93,1\u00a0%).\n\n\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0430 \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0447\u0435 \u0412\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u0417\u0432\u0451\u0437\u0434 (WNBA All-Star Game) \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u041d\u0411\u0410 (\u041c\u0430\u0439\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0421\u043e\u043b, \u0421\u0428\u0410, 2001). \u0412\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0437\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0443 \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438 (10 \u043e\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0432, 7 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432, 2 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0438 \u0438 4 \u0431\u043b\u043e\u043a-\u0448\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0437\u0430 25 \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0443\u0442). \u041e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0430 WNBA All-Star Game \u043f\u043e \u0431\u043b\u043e\u043a-\u0448\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043c\u00a0\u2014 4.\n\n\u041f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0412\u041d\u0411\u0410 2001 (\u041c\u0430\u0439\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0421\u043e\u043b).\n\n\u0424\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0412\u041d\u0411\u0410 2004 (\u041d\u044c\u044e-\u0419\u043e\u0440\u043a \u041b\u0438\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0438). \u0417\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0432 \u041b\u0438\u0433\u0435 \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0443 \u0448\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0444\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432 (92,5\u00a0%), \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0443 \u0442\u0440\u0451\u0445\u043e\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 (46,1\u00a0%) \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430\u043c \u0432 \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u0435 (6,3 \u0437\u0430 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0443), \u0447\u0435\u0442\u0432\u0451\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e \u0431\u043b\u043e\u043a-\u0448\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043c (1,7 \u0437\u0430 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0443).\n\n\u041f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0412\u041d\u0411\u0410 2005 (\u041d\u044c\u044e-\u0419\u043e\u0440\u043a \u041b\u0438\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0438).\n\n\u0412 \u0430\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0443\u0430 \u00ab\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0443\u0433\u0440\u043e\u0437\u044b\u00bb \u0415\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 (\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432 \u0412\u041d\u0411\u0410 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u00abSuperNova\u00bb \u0438 \u00abRussian Queen\u00bb) \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0432 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u041d\u0411\u0410, \u0438\u043c\u0435\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c \u0437\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0440\u0443 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 200 \u0442\u0440\u0451\u0445\u043e\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439, 200 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0445\u0432\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, 300 \u0431\u043b\u043e\u043a-\u0448\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0438 400 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447.\n\n\u041c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0430\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0440\u0430 \n\n\u0412 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420, \u0421\u041d\u0413, \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 (105 \u0438\u0433\u0440, \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 1379 \u043e\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 847 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432):\n\n\u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u043d\u044b (1992), \u0431\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0437\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0451\u0440 \u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440 \u0432 \u0410\u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0445 (2004), \u0434\u0432\u0443\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b (1991 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u0438 2003 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438), \u0434\u0432\u0443\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432\u0438\u0446\u0435-\u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 (1998 \u0438 2002), \u0432\u0438\u0446\u0435-\u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b (2001\u00a0\u0433.), \u0431\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0437\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0451\u0440 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b (1995). \u0411\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0437\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0451\u0440 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b 1988 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0432 (\u0420\u0443\u043c\u044b\u043d\u0438\u044f), \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b 1990 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u044e\u043d\u0438\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 (\u0418\u0441\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f). \u041a\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u0432 \u041a\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0435 (2002), \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b \u0432 \u0413\u0440\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0438 (2003) \u0438 \u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u0432 \u0410\u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0445 (2004).\n\n\u0412 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434 (22 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0430, \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 1000 \u0438\u0433\u0440, \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 12000 \u043e\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 6000 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432):\n\n\u0427\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438 (2003, \u0423\u0413\u041c\u041a), \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435 \u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 (1995, 1996, 1997 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u0426\u0421\u041a\u0410 \u0438 2002, 2003, 2009 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u0423\u0413\u041c\u041a), \u0434\u0432\u0443\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432\u0438\u0446\u0435-\u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 (1998, \u0426\u0421\u041a\u0410 \u0438 2005, \u0414\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c\u043e \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430), \u0434\u0432\u0443\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0437\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0451\u0440 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 (2011, \u041d\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0430), \u0434\u0432\u0443\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0418\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043b\u044f \u0438 \u0434\u0432\u0443\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u041a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u0418\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043b\u044f (1993, 1994), \u0432\u0438\u0446\u0435-\u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u0422\u0443\u0440\u0446\u0438\u0438 (2000), \u0431\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0437\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0451\u0440 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434 (\u041a\u0443\u0431\u043e\u043a \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, 1995, \u0426\u0421\u041a\u0410), \u043f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u041a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0442\u0438 (1997, \u0426\u0421\u041a\u0410), \u043f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0421\u0443\u043f\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u0418\u0441\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 (2007, \u0420\u043e\u0441 \u041a\u0430\u0441\u0430\u0440\u0435\u0441 \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0438\u044f), \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u0418\u0441\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0418\u0441\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 (2008, \u0420\u043e\u0441 \u041a\u0430\u0441\u0430\u0440\u0435\u0441 \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0438\u044f), \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 (2009, \u0423\u0413\u041c\u041a \u0415\u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433).\n\n MVP \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u0432 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 (1998).\n \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b 1998 (European Player of the Year, \u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441 Gadzetto Della Sport).\n \u0427\u043b\u0435\u043d \u0441\u0438\u043c\u0432\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 (Top Five) \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u0432 \u041a\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0435 (2002).\n \u0427\u043b\u0435\u043d \u0441\u0438\u043c\u0432\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b (Top Five) \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b \u0432 \u0413\u0440\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0438 (2003).\n MVP \u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0447\u0435\u0442\u044b\u0440\u0451\u0445 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438 (2003), \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438 (2003), \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u041a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b (1997).\n\n\u0421\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430: \u0446\u0438\u0444\u0440\u044b, \u0444\u0430\u043a\u0442\u044b, \u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0434\u044b, \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \n \u0410\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0443\u0430: \u0444\u043e\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434/\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\n \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0442: 192 \u0441\u043c\n \u0412\u0435\u0441: 84 \u043a\u0433\n \u041e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435: \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0413\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044f \u0424\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u041a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b (\u041c\u0413\u0410\u0424\u041a \u041c\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430, 1996), \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440-\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043f\u043e \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0443.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0430\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0440\u0430 (22 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0430) \n \u041b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0434\u044b \u0437\u0430 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0443: 48 \u043e\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0438 32 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430 (\u0426\u0421\u041a\u0410, \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438, \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044c 1999).\n \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430\u043c \u0438 \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u0432 \u0410\u0442\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0435 (1996).\n \u041e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0430 \u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0430\u0434 \u043f\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0435\u00a0\u2014 37 \u043e\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432 \u042f\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0438.\n \u041e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0430 WNBA \u043f\u043e \u0442\u0440\u0451\u0445\u043e\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c (7 \u0438\u0437 9 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432 New York Liberty \u0432 Madison Square Garden 22 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f 1997).\n Bud Light Shooting Champion\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0432 WNBA \u043f\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0448\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0444\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432 (93,1\u00a0%) \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0435 2001.\n \u041e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0430 WNBA All-Star Game \u043f\u043e \u0431\u043b\u043e\u043a-\u0448\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043c\u00a0\u2014 4 (2001 WNBA All-Star Game, \u041e\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u043e, 16 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f 2001).\n \u041e\u0441\u0435\u043d\u044c\u044e 1999 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0441\u044b\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0430 4 \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0447\u0430 \u0437\u0430 \u043c\u0443\u0436\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0443 \u00ab\u0411\u0438\u0437\u043e\u043d\u044b\u00bb (\u041c\u044b\u0442\u0438\u0449\u0438) \u0432 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0443 (6,5 \u043e\u0447\u043a\u0430, 6,25 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0438 2,75 \u0431\u043b\u043e\u043a-\u0448\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u043c \u0437\u0430 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0443).\n\n\u0422\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438 \u0430\u0434\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0430\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0440\u0430 \n\u0412 2013 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0432 \u0423\u041e\u0420 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u0410.\u00a0\u042f.\u00a0\u0413\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c \u043e\u0442\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0430.\n\n\u0412 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0435 2013/2014 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0414\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u044e\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438 (EYBL).\n\n\u0412 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0435 2014/2015 \u0442\u0440\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u044b \u0423\u041e\u0420 \u0413\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0434\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0434\u043e \u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438, \u0438\u0442\u043e\u0433\u00a0\u2014 3 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u0430 (\u0434\u0435\u0432\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0438 1999, 2000, 2001), \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430 \u0434\u0435\u0432\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043a 1998 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0437\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043b\u0438.\n\n\u0412 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0435 2015/2016 \u0447\u0435\u0442\u044b\u0440\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u044b \u0423\u041e\u0420 \u0413\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0445 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438, \u0437\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0432\u0430\u0432 \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u0437\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 (\u0434\u0435\u0432\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0438 1999 \u0438 2000) \u0438 \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u0430 (\u0434\u0435\u0432\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0438 2002 \u0438 2003), \u0430 \u0423\u041e\u0420 \u0413\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0443 \u043e\u0442 \u0420\u0424\u0411\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0448\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0435 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438.\n\n\u0412 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0435 2016/2017 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430 \u0423\u041e\u0420 \u0413\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 (\u0434\u0435\u0432\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0438 2000), \u0438\u0442\u043e\u0433\u00a0\u2014 1 \u0437\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043e. \u0422\u0440\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0446\u044b \u0423\u041e\u0420 \u0413\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e (\u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u041a\u043e\u0436\u0443\u0445\u0430\u0440\u044c, \u041e\u043b\u0435\u0441\u044f \u0421\u0430\u0444\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430, \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0427\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d) \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 U19 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 U19.\n\n\u0412 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0435 2017/2018 \u0447\u0435\u0442\u044b\u0440\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u044b \u0423\u041e\u0420 \u0413\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0434\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0434\u043e \u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0445 (\u0434\u0435\u0432\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0438 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005), \u0438\u0442\u043e\u0433\u00a0\u2014 4 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u0430.\n\n\u0412 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0435 2018/2019 \u0442\u0440\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u044b \u0423\u041e\u0420 \u0413\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438 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\u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044c 2010\n \u00ab\u041e\u0442 \u043f\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0430\u0439\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0441\u043f\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0430\u00bb, \u0433\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u00ab\u0421\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442-\u042d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u00bb, \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c 2011\n\n\u0411\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420\n\u0411\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438\n\u0417\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0430 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420\n\u0417\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430 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\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438. \u0412\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e\u00a0\u2014 2026 \u0447\u0435\u043b.\n \u041f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438 \u0442\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0446\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0434\u043e \u0441\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u0440 \u043d\u0435\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b.\n \u0418\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432 \u0434\u0432\u0443\u0445 \u0430\u0440\u043c\u0438\u044f\u0445\u00a0\u2014 648 \u0443\u0431\u0438\u0442\u044b\u0445, 2828 \u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u043d\u044b\u0445, 21 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438. \u0412\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e\u00a0\u2014 3497 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a.\n \u041f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0438 5709 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a, \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445 1801 \u0443\u0431\u0438\u0442\u044b\u0445 (\u0432 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435\u00a0\u2014 46 \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432) \u0438 735 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438 (\u0432 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435\u00a0\u2014 7 \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432). \u0411\u044b\u043b\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u044f\u043d\u043e \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u043e\u0440\u0443\u0434\u0438\u044f.\n\n\u041e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e \u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u044c, \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u043f\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043a \u0415.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0422\u0430\u0440\u043b\u0435: \u00ab\u041f\u043e \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043c \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c, \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u044f\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0410\u043b\u044c\u043c\u044b 4300, \u043f\u043e \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u043c\u00a0\u2014 4500 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a. \u041f\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0438\u043c \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0447\u0451\u0442\u0430\u043c, \u043d\u0430\u0448\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u044f\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u0431\u0438\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0410\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435 145 \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0438 5600 \u043d\u0438\u0436\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0447\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u00bb.\n\n\u042d\u0442\u0438 \u0446\u0438\u0444\u0440\u044b \u0441\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0443\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441 \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u042d\u043c\u0438\u043b\u044c \u0414\u044d\u043d\u0438\u044d\u043b\u044c\u0441: \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0443\u043c 3000 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0430\u043d \u0438 1300 \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u043e\u0432, \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0443\u0447\u0451\u0442\u0430 \u0442\u0443\u0440\u043e\u043a, \u0430 \u0443\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 3700.\n\n\u041f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u044c \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430 \n\u0412 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0438 \u0441 \u0442\u0435\u043f\u043b\u044b\u043c \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043c \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0443\u0431\u0438\u0442\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u043d\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0431\u0438\u0442\u0432\u044b, \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043c \u043d\u0438\u0436\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0447\u0438\u043d\u044b \u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0432 \u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043c\u043e\u0433\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0445 \u0441 \u0437\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u043e 50\u201360 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a. \u0427\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438 \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0438\u043b \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0432\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435. \u0412 \u0445\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0439\u0434\u0435\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0435 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0441\u043e\u043b\u0434\u0430\u0442 \u043e\u0431\u0435\u0438\u0445 \u0430\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0439. \u041a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0431\u0438\u0449\u0435 \u0438 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u044b, \u043d\u043e \u0432\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044b. \u0412 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f", " visited Colombia (GH2) in 2012; United States (Dan Gheesling of BB10/BB14) visited Canada (BB1 and the BB2 Jury) in 2013; Canada (Emmett Blois of BB1) visited South Africa (BBM3) in 2014; and Spain (Paula Gonzalez of GH 15) visited Mexico (BBM4) in 2015.\n\nA similar event took place between the United States and Canada in 2014 wherein Rachel Reilly (from BB12/BB13) made a video chat to Canada (BB2). Rachel Reilly also appeared on Big Brother Canadas side show, which airs after the eviction episode.\n\nHousemates competing in another country \nThere were occasions that a former housemate from one franchise participated and competed in a different franchise: Daniela Martins of France (SS3) competed in Portugal (SS1); Daniel Mkongo of France (SS5) competed in Italy (GF12); Brigitte Nielsen of Denmark (BB VIP) competed in the United Kingdom (CBB3); Jade Goody of the United Kingdom (BB3, BB Panto, and CBB5) competed in India (BB2); Sava Radovi\u0107 of Germany (BB4) competed in the Balkan States (VB1); Nikola Nasteski of the Balkan States (VB4) competed in Bulgaria (BB All-Stars 1); \u017darko Stojanovi\u0107 of France (SS5) competed in the Balkan States (VB VIP5); \u017deljko Stojanovi\u0107 of France (SS5) competed in the Balkan States (VB VIP5); Kelly Baron of Brazil (BBB13) competed in Portugal (BB VIP); Lucy Diakovska of Bulgaria (VIP B4) competed in Germany (PBB1); Leila Ben Khalifa of Italy (GF6) competed in France (SS8); Priya Malik of Australia (BB11) competed in India (BB9); Tim Dormer of Australia (BB10) and Nikki Grahame of the United Kingdom (BB7, UBB) competed in Canada (BB4) after beating Jase Wirey of the United States (BB5, BB7) and Veronica Graf of Italy (GF13) in a public vote; Leonel Estevao-Luto of Africa (BB4) competed in Angola & Mozambique (BB3); Frankie Grande of the United States (BB16) competed in the United Kingdom (CBB18); Fanny Rodrigues of Portugal (SS2) competed in France (SS10); and Tucha Anita of Angola (BB3); Amor Romeira of Spain (GH9) competed in Portugal (SS6) and Alain Rochette of Spain (GH17) competed in France (SS11); Despite being American, Brandi Glanville competed first in the United Kingdom (CBB20) then later competed in first Celebrity series in the United States (CBB1); A\u00edda Nizar of Spain (GH5 and GHVIP5) competed in Italy (GF15); Ivana Icardi of Argentina (GH9) competed in Italy (GF16); Gianmarco Onestini of Italy (GF16) competed in Spain (GHVIP7).\n\nMultiple-franchise competitions\n\nEurovision Song Contest\n\nSpecial editions\n\nCelebrity and VIP Big Brother \n\nThe Big Brother format has been adopted in some countries; the housemates are local celebrities, and the shows are called Celebrity Big Brother or Big Brother VIP. In some countries, the prize money normally awarded to the winning housemate is donated to a charity, and all celebrities are paid to appear in the show as long as they do not voluntarily leave before their eviction or the end of the series. The rest of the rules are nearly the same as those of the original version.\n\nVariations \nThe 2006 Netherlands series was entitled Hotel Big Brother. This variation introduced a group of celebrity hoteliers and a Big Boss, who run a hotel and collect money for charity without nominations, evictions or a winner.\n\nAnother variation appeared in the UK in early 2008, entitled Big Brother: Celebrity Hijack. Instead of being housemates the celebrities became Big Brother himself, creating tasks and holding nominations with the help of Big Brother. The housemates were considered by the producers \"Britain's most exceptional and extraordinary\" 18- to 21-year-olds. The prize for the winner of the series was \u00a350,000.\n\nIn 2009, VIP Brother 3 Bulgaria introduced the concept of celebrities competing for charitable causes, which changed each week. Housemates were sometimes allowed to leave the house to raise money for the charity. Ten out of Thirteen seasons of Bigg Boss (the Indian version of Big Brother) have been celebrity-only seasons. The 10th season of Big Boss had celebrities put up against commoners, where a commoner ultimately won.\n\nAmerican format \n \nThe US and Canadian versions of Big Brother differ from most global versions of the series. The US series began in 2000 with the original Dutch format\u2014i.e., housemates, or HouseGuests, as they are styled in the US, nominating each other for eviction and the public voting on evictions and the eventual winner. But due to both poor ratings and the concurrent popularity of Survivor, a gameplay-oriented format was introduced in the second season, with HouseGuests allowed to strategize, politic and collude to survive eviction, with the entire nomination and eviction process being determined by the HouseGuest themselves.\n\nEach week the HouseGuests compete in several competitions in order to win power and safety inside the house, before voting off one of the HouseGuests during the eviction. The main elements of the format are as follows:\nHead of Household (HoH): At the start of each week in the house, the HouseGuests compete for the title of Head of Household, often shortened to simply HoH. The Head of Household for each week is given luxuries such as their own personal bedroom and the use of an MP3 player but is responsible for nominating two of their fellow HouseGuests for eviction. The Head of Household would not be able to compete in the following week's Head of Household competition; this excludes the final Head of Household competition of the season.\nPower of Veto (PoV): After the nominees are determined, the Power of Veto competition is played, with the winner receiving the Power of Veto. If a HouseGuest chooses to exercise the Power of Veto, the Head of Household is responsible for naming a replacement nominee. The holder of the Power of Veto is saved from being nominated as the replacement nominee. Only six of the HouseGuests compete for the Power of Veto each week; the Head of Household and both nominations compete, as well as three others selected by a random draw. The PoV was introduced in the third American season\nEviction: On eviction night, all HouseGuests must vote to evict one of the nominees, with the exception of the nominees and the Head of Household. The eviction vote is by secret ballot, with HouseGuests casting their votes orally in the Diary Room. In the event of a tied vote, the Head of Household will cast a tie-breaking vote publicly. The nominee with the majority of the votes is evicted from the house.\n\nBefore the sixteenth US season, HouseGuests competed in a Have/Have-Not challenge similar to the shopping tasks on Big Brother UK and other international editions. The winners become Haves and enjoy a full pantry of food, while Have-Nots, will be left with a staple diet of \"slop\" (fortified oatmeal), sleep in designated uncomfortable beds and take cold showers. In later seasons, the Haves & Have-Nots are determined either by the HoH themself or by the results of the HoH Competition.\n\nWhen only two contestants remain, a jury formed of the most recently evicted HouseGuests (generally seven or nine) votes which of the two finalists wins the grand prize. Beginning in the fourth (2003) US season, jury members were sequestered off-site so that they would not be privy to the day-to-day goings-on in the house. (Celebrity Big Brother US does not sequester its jury members\u2014all evicted celebrity HouseGuests vote on the winner.). The final Head of Household competition is split into three parts; the winners of the first two rounds compete in the third and final round. Once only two HouseGuests remain, the members of the jury cast their votes for who should win the series.\n\nIn addition, US and Canadian Big Brother do not air a live launch show, as is customary in international editions\u2014by the time the network show and live online feeds begin airing, it is not uncommon for at least one HouseGuest to already have been evicted. Also, the North American editions currently air only three times a week, compared with daily or six days a week for the recently rebooted UK franchise. As a result, the TV episodes focus primarily on the main events regarding the gameplay and house politics versus the day-to-day goings-on in the house; to see the latter, watching the live feeds is necessary.\n\nIn 2013, English-speaking Canada introduced its own version of the show on the cable channel Slice; the series moved to Global TV for its third (2015) season. The show followed the US format but with more elaborate twists and greater viewer participation in the game. Secret tasks were introduced, usually presented by the show's mascot, \"Marsha the Moose\"; also, as in most global franchises, Big Brother was a distinct character who interacted with the HouseGuests. The French Canadian version mostly followed the US/Anglophone Canadian format, but the public could evict a housemate on some occasions and decided the winner.\n\nThe 2020 revival of the Big Brother Australia series adopted a slightly altered version of the American format (having previously used the international format) while pre-recording the series months in advance. A \"Nomination Challenge\" is held to determine who holds the power to nominate for that round, with the winner naming three Nominations for Eviction. During each eviction, all Housemates (excluding the Nominating Housemate) vote to evict. There is no rule prohibiting individuals holding Nomination Power in consecutively between weeks and no Power of Veto is held. Additionally, the Australian public still decided the winner between the final 3.\n\nBig Brother Brasil combines the US/Canada and international formats. Brazil votes on evictions and the winner, but housemates compete for HoH, Power of Immunity, and Power of Veto; there is also a weekly shopping competition. HoH nominates one housemate for eviction, while the rest of the house nominates a second housemate. The winner of the Power of Immunity competition gets to choose someone to be safe from nomination.\n\nThe pilot for Big Brother China, which premiered exclusively online in 2015, had housemates voting on evictions but the public voting for the winner. A similar format was used for Big Brother: Over the Top, an online-only spin-off of the US series that ran in 2016.\n\nThe nineteenth series of Big Brother UK saw the adaption of the \"Game Changer\" competition which is very similar to the Power of Veto competition. The winner of this competition has the opportunity to save a nominee from eviction. Like the PoV, there are six people that play in the \"Game Changer\" competition. The process of how the contestants are chosen is different as the people who have been nominated play in the competition along with the richest housemate. If there are empty left in the competition, then the richest housemate hand picks who will playing in that weeks \"Game Changer\" competition. The winner of the competition, like the PoV, has the option to save housemate from eviction for the week or not use the power at all. Unlike the PoV however, if the winner does save someone then no replacement nominee was named leaving the remaining nominees up for eviction and facing the public vote.\n\nOther editions \nThe Big Brother format has been otherwise modified in some countries:\n Big Brother: All-Stars (Belgium, 21 days; Bulgaria: Season 1\u20135, 27\u201329 days; United States, 72 days; United Kingdom, 18 days; French Canada, 64 days; Africa, 91 days; Spain, 56 days; Portugal Secret Story: Season 1\u20134, 22\u201350 days): Previous housemates from previous seasons compete. Belgium was the first country to have an All-Stars season (2003). Bulgaria was the first country to complete 3 All-Stars seasons (2014). Portugal was the first country to complete 4 All-Stars seasons (2015). Portugal was the first country to complete 5 All-Stars seasons (2017). Portugal was the first country to complete 6 All-Stars seasons (2018).\n Big Brother: Reality All-Stars (Sweden, 6 days; Denmark, 32 days; Spain, 56 days): Contestants from different reality shows, including Big Brother, compete.\n Big Brother: You Decide / Big Brother: Back in the House / Big Brother: Try Out (Poland: Season 1\u20132, 7\u201313 days; Norway, 9 days; Serbia, 7 days): Housemates, new or old, compete for a spot in the next regular season without nominations or evictions.\n Teen Big Brother (United Kingdom, 10 days; Philippines: Season 1\u20134, 42\u201391 days): Teenagers 13 and older compete.\n Big Brother: All In (Philippines: Season 11, 13): A mix of teenagers, regular adults, and celebrities compete in one season. A variation, Big Brother: Lucky 7 and Big Brother: Otso, has three to four batches of housemates stay inside until a number for each batch is left and is joined by other members of other batches to form one new batch.\n Secret Story (France, Lithuania, Portugal, Netherlands, Peru, Albania and Spain): Each housemate has a secret.\n Big Brother Panto (United Kingdom, 11 days): Housemates from the previous series spent time in the Big Brother House to perform a pantomime at the series' end.\n Big Brother \u2013 The Village (Germany: Season 6, 363 days): The village had a class system of bosses, assistants and servants, living in separate houses, who competed in mixed teams; winning bosses could promote employees, while losing bosses became servants. Cash prizes were awarded weekly in an ongoing contest.\n Big Brother Family (Bulgaria: 81 days): Whole families entered the house with their spouses, children and relatives. They received a salary for their stay and the winning family received a cash prize, a car and an apartment.\n\nThere are also \"test runs\", with a group of celebrities (or journalists) living in the house for several days to test it. There are occasions where people who have auditioned for the show are also put in the house, most notably in the British edition, where many housemates claim to have met before. These series have been televised in Argentina, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Mexico, the Pacific region, the Philippines and Spain. In some cases, it is not broadcast, but in others, such as the US edition, it is used as a promotional tool.\n\nVersions \nAs of , Big Brother has produced 508 winners in over 63 franchises.\n\n: Currently airing (8)\n An upcoming season (13)\n Status unknown (16)\n No longer airing (32)\n\nBig Brother: The Game\nOn 5 May 2020, Endemol Shine Group announced that an official Big Brother mobile game named Big Brother: The Game was being developed by Irish gaming company 9th Impact, with a worldwide release expected later that year. The game uses the US format, with competitions determining the Head of Household and Power of Veto holders, with an eviction cycle occurring each day. Players must form alliances with one another to stay in the game and advance to the next tier. Other users may spectate other games, but outside interference is strictly forbidden. Players were able to win up to $1,000,000 in prizes.\n\nA trial season took place in the Republic of Ireland during the summer of 2020. The player Aoife Cheung won a \u20ac5000 prize after surviving four evictions. The game was officially launched on 15 October 2020 worldwide for both iOS, Android devices and PC platforms.\n\nThe first season concluded on 29 July 2021 and was won by Amy Elizabeth, a 31-year-old special education teacher from Delaware who won a grand prize of $33,270.\n\nOn March 7, 2023, a third season of the game was announced to launch later that year on mobile and PC platforms, including Steam. The grand prize was stated to be for up to $1,000,000, with new features being added in response to fan feedback. However, no global third season took place, with a special UK and Ireland-only version launching to coincide with the show returning to ITV2 and ITVX, in an official partnership with the broadcaster. This version featured overhauled graphics, with Banijay announcing that previous games had reached 500K players.\n\nControversies\n\nLegal \nIn April 2000, Castaway, an independent production company, filed a lawsuit against John de Mol and Endemol for stealing the concepts of their own show called Survive!, a reality television show where contestants are placed on a deserted island and have to take care of themselves alone. These contestants were also filmed by cameras around them. The court later dismissed the lawsuit filed by Castaway against de Mol and Endemol. The Survive! reality television format was later turned into Survivor.\n\nIn 2000, the estate of George Orwell sued CBS Television and Endemol for copyright and trademark infringement, claiming that the program infringed on the Orwell novel 1984 and its trademarks. After a series of court rulings adverse to the defendants (CBS and Endemol), the case was settled for an undisclosed amount of money on the evening of the trial.\n\nSexual assault \nThere have been three documented occurrences of possible rape happening during the show. In Big Brother South Africa, a male housemate was accused of assaulting a fellow housemate while she was asleep. The pair were filmed kissing and cuddling in bed before the cameras moved away and the male housemate reportedly claimed to housemates the next day that he had intercourse with the contestant. However, the female housemate was apparently shocked by the claims and informed female housemates that she had not consented to have sex with him (under South African law, this act would be constituted as rape). 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\u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0432\u043b\u0438\u0442\u044b \u0432 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0435\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043a.\n\n\u0412 \u0431\u043e\u044f\u0445 \u0413\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u0443\u0431\u0438\u0442\u043e \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e 300 \u0433\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u041f\u043e \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0413\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0433\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0430\u043c\u0438-\u044d\u043c\u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0413\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0438, \u0432\u043e\u0448\u0435\u0434\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0438\u0430\u0439\u043d\u0435\u043d \u0421. \u0412. \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435 XVII \u2013 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435 XIX \u0432.: \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0445\u0438 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438. \u2013 \u0421\u041f\u0431.: \u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0421\u041f\u0431\u0413\u042d\u0423, 2020. \u2013 314 \u0441. \u2014 ISBN 978-5-7310-5206-1.\n \n \n \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u044f. 1700\u20141918. \u0421\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a. / \u0421\u043e\u0441\u0442. \u0410. \u041c. \u0412\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447, \u0410. \u041f. \u041a\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432. \u2014 \u041c.: \u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u00ab\u041d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0445\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u00bb, 2005. \u2014 448 \u0441.\n\n\u0421\u0441\u044b\u043b\u043a\u0438 \n\n \n \u0424\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c \u00ab\u0421\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0433\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0420\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041e\u0440\u043a\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u00bb, \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c Earlymusic-2013, \u0421\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0442-\u041f\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\n \n \u0411\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u041b. \u0412. \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u044f \u0432 XVIII\u2014XIX \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0445\n \u041c.\u0411\u044b\u043a\u043e\u0432. \u042f \u0431\u044b \u0432 \u0433\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u044e \u043f\u043e\u0448\u0451\u043b\n \u0411\u0438\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0433\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0439. \u0427\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c 1 / \u0411\u0438\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0413\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0439 - http://btgv.ru/history/great-war/\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439-\u0440\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0436/1915/\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0432\u0430-\u0433\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0439/\n \u0411\u0438\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0433\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0439. \u0427\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c 2 / \u0411\u0438\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0413\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0439 - http://btgv.ru/history/great-war/\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439-\u0440\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0436/1915/battle-guards-2/\n", "Race-course\" he gives a length of 80\u00a0miles, \u00a0km, whereas the spit measures \u00a0km today.)\n\nIn the following chapter of his book, Pliny refers to the same island as Achillea and introduces two further names for it: Leuce or Macaron (from Greek [\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c3\u03bf\u03c2] \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd \"island of the blest\"). The \"present day\" measures, he gives at this point, seem to account for an identification of Achillea or Leuce with today's Snake Island. Pliny's contemporary Pomponius Mela () tells that Achilles was buried on an island named Achillea, situated between the Borysthenes and the Ister, adding to the geographical confusion. Ruins of a square temple, measuring 30 meters to a side, possibly that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered by Captain Kritzikly () in 1823 on Snake Island. A second exploration in 1840 showed that the construction of a lighthouse had destroyed all traces of this temple. A fifth century BC black-glazed lekythos inscription, found on the island in 1840, reads: \"Glaukos, son of Poseidon, dedicated me to Achilles, lord of Leuke.\" In another inscription from the fifth or fourth century BC, a statue is dedicated to Achilles, lord of Leuke, by a citizen of Olbia, while in a further dedication, the city of Olbia confirms its continuous maintenance of the island's cult, again suggesting its quality as a place of a supra-regional hero veneration.\n\nThe heroic cult dedicated to Achilles on Leuce seems to go back to an account from the lost epic Aethiopis according to which, after his untimely death, Thetis had snatched her son from the funeral pyre and removed him to a mythical (Le\u00fak\u0113 N\u00easos \"White Island\"). Already in the fifth century BC, Pindar had mentioned a cult of Achilles on a \"bright island\" (\u03c6\u03b1\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u03ac \u03bd\u1fb6\u03c3\u03bf\u03c2, phaenn\u00e1 n\u00e2sos) of the Black Sea, while in another of his works, Pindar would retell the story of the immortalized Achilles living on a geographically indefinite Island of the Blest together with other heroes such as his father Peleus and Cadmus. Well known is the connection of these mythological Fortunate Isles (\u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bd\u1fc6\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9, mak\u00e1r\u00f4n n\u00easoi) or the Homeric Elysium with the stream Oceanus which according to Greek mythology surrounds the inhabited world, which should have accounted for the identification of the northern strands of the Euxine with it. Guy Hedreen has found further evidence for this connection of Achilles with the northern margin of the inhabited world in a poem by Alcaeus, speaking of \"Achilles lord of Scythia\" and the opposition of North and South, as evoked by Achilles' fight against the Aethiopian prince Memnon, who in his turn would be removed to his homeland by his mother Eos after his death.\n\nThe Periplus of the Euxine Sea () gives the following details:\n\nThe Greek geographer Dionysius Periegetes, who likely lived during the first century CE, wrote that the island was called Leuce \"because the wild animals which live there are white. It is said that there, in Leuce island, reside the souls of Achilles and other heroes, and that they wander through the uninhabited valleys of this island; this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves through their virtues, because through virtue they had acquired everlasting honour\". Similarly, others relate the island's name to its white cliffs, snakes or birds dwelling there. Pausanias has been told that the island is \"covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame. In this island there is also Achilles' temple and his statue\". Leuce had also a reputation as a place of healing. Pausanias reports that the Delphic Pythia sent a lord of Croton to be cured of a chest wound. Ammianus Marcellinus attributes the healing to waters (aquae) on the island.\n\nStrabo mentioned that the cape of the Racecourse of Achilles was sacred to Achilles and although it was treeless, was called Alsos (\u1f04\u03bb\u03c3\u03bf\u03c2). Alsos in Greek means \"grove\".\n\nA number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters were dedicated to Achilles. Herodotus, Pliny the Elder and Strabo reported on the existence of a town Ach\u00edlleion (\u1f08\u03c7\u03af\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd), built by settlers from Mytilene in the sixth century BC, close to the hero's presumed burial mound in the Troad. Later attestations point to an Ach\u00edlleion in Messenia (according to Stephanus Byzantinus) and an Ach\u00edlleios (\u1f08\u03c7\u03af\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2) in Laconia. Nicolae Densu\u015fianu recognized a connection to Achilles in the names of Aquileia and of the northern arm of the Danube delta, called Chilia (presumably from an older Achileii), though his conclusion, that Leuce had sovereign rights over the Black Sea, evokes modern rather than archaic sea-law.\n\nThe kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, Neoptolemus. Alexander the Great, son of the Epirote princess Olympias, could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor. He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at Achilleion while passing Troy. In AD 216 the Roman Emperor Caracalla, while on his way to war against Parthia, emulated Alexander by holding games around Achilles' tumulus.\n\nReception during antiquity\n\nIn Greek tragedy \n\nThe Greek tragedian Aeschylus wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title Achilleis by modern scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of Hector and eventual death when an arrow shot by Paris and guided by Apollo punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the Achilleis and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first part of the Achilleis trilogy, The Myrmidons, focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon; only a few lines survive today. In Plato's Symposium, Phaedrus points out that Aeschylus portrayed Achilles as the lover and Patroclus as the beloved; Phaedrus argues that this is incorrect because Achilles, being the younger and more beautiful of the two, was the beloved, who loved his lover so much that he chose to die to avenge him.\n\nThe tragedian Sophocles also wrote The Lovers of Achilles, a play with Achilles as the main character. Only a few fragments survive.\n\nTowards the end of the 5th century BC, a more negative view of Achilles emerges in Greek drama; Euripides refers to Achilles in a bitter or ironic tone in Hecuba, Electra, and Iphigenia in Aulis.\n\nIn Greek philosophy\n\nZeno\nThe philosopher Zeno of Elea centred one of his paradoxes on an imaginary footrace between \"swift-footed\" Achilles and a tortoise, by which he attempted to show that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start, and therefore that motion and change were impossible. As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions.\n\nPlato\nIn Hippias Minor, a Socratic dialogue attributed to Plato, an arrogant man named Hippias argues with Socrates. The two get into a discussion about lying. They decide that a person who is intentionally false must be \"better\" than a person who is unintentionally false, on the basis that someone who lies intentionally must understand the subject about which they are lying. Socrates uses various analogies, discussing athletics and the sciences to prove his point. The two also reference Homer extensively. Socrates and Hippias agree that Odysseus, who concocted a number of lies throughout the Odyssey and other stories in the Trojan War Cycle, was false intentionally. Achilles, like Odysseus, told numerous falsehoods. Hippias believes that Achilles was a generally honest man, while Socrates believes that Achilles lied for his own benefit. The two argue over whether it is better to lie on purpose or by accident. Socrates eventually abandons Homeric arguments and makes sports analogies to drive home the point: someone who does wrong on purpose is a better person than someone who does wrong unintentionally.\n\nIn Roman and medieval literature \nThe Romans, who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy, took a highly negative view of Achilles. Virgil refers to Achilles as a savage and a merciless butcher of men, while Horace portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children. Other writers, such as Catullus, Propertius, and Ovid, represent a second strand of disparagement, with an emphasis on Achilles' erotic career. This strand continues in Latin accounts of the Trojan War by writers such as Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius and in Beno\u00eet de Sainte-Maure's and Guido delle Colonne's Historia destructionis Troiae, which remained the most widely read and retold versions of the Matter of Troy until the 17th century.\n\nAchilles was described by the Byzantine chronicler Leo the Deacon, not as Hellene, but as Scythian, while according to the Byzantine author John Malalas, his army was made up of a tribe previously known as Myrmidons and later as Bulgars.\n\nIn modern literature and arts\n\nLiterature\n Achilles appears in Dante's Inferno (composed 1308\u20131320). He is seen in Hell's second circle, that of lust.\n Achilles is portrayed as a former hero who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in William Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida (1602). Despicably, he has his Myrmidons murder the unarmed Hector, and then gets them to announce that Achilles himself has slain Hector, as if it had been in a fair fight (Act 5.9.5-14).\n The French dramatist Thomas Corneille wrote a tragedy La Mort d'Achille (1673).\n Achilles is the subject of the poem Achilleis (1799), a fragment by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.\n In 1899, the Polish playwright, painter and poet Stanis\u0142aw Wyspia\u0144ski published a national drama, based on Polish history, named Achilles.\n In 1921, Edward Shanks published The Island of Youth and Other Poems, concerned among others with Achilles.\n The 1983 novel Kassandra by Christa Wolf also treats the death of Achilles.\n H.D.'s 1961 long poem Helen in Egypt features Achilles prominently as a figure whose irrational hatred of Helen traumatizes her, the bulk of the poem's plot being about her recovery.\n Akhilles is killed by a poisoned Kentaur arrow shot by Kassandra in Marion Zimmer Bradley's novel The Firebrand (1987).\n Achilles is one of various 'narrators' in Colleen McCullough's novel The Song of Troy (1998).\n The Death of Achilles (\u0421\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0442\u044c \u0410\u0445\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0430, 1998) is an historical detective novel by Russian writer Boris Akunin that alludes to various figures and motifs from the Iliad.\n The character Achilles in Ender's Shadow (1999), by Orson Scott Card, shares his namesake's cunning mind and ruthless attitude.\n Achilles is one of the main characters in Dan Simmons's novels Ilium (2003) and Olympos (2005).\n Achilles is a major supporting character in David Gemmell's Troy series of books (2005\u20132007).\n Achilles is the main character in David Malouf's novel Ransom (2009).\n The ghost of Achilles appears in Rick Riordan's The Last Olympian (2009). He warns Percy Jackson about the Curse of Achilles and its side effects.\n Achilles is a main character in Terence Hawkins' 2009 novel The Rage of Achilles.\n Achilles is a major character in Madeline Miller's debut novel, The Song of Achilles (2011), which won the 2012 Orange Prize for Fiction. The novel explores the relationship between Patroclus and Achilles from boyhood to the fateful events of the Iliad.\n Achilles appears in the light novel series Fate/Apocrypha (2012\u20132014) as the Rider of Red.\n Achilles is a main character in Pat Barker's 2018 novel The Silence of the Girls, much of which is narrated by his slave Briseis.\nAchilles is the main character of Wrath Goddess Sing, a 2022 novel by Maya Deane, depicted as a transgender woman and daughter of Athena.\n\nVisual arts \n Achilles with the Daughters of Lycomedes is a subject treated in paintings by Anthony van Dyck (before 1618; Museo del Prado, Madrid) and Nicolas Poussin (; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) among others.\n Peter Paul Rubens has authored a series of works on the life of Achilles, comprising the titles: Thetis dipping the infant Achilles into the river Styx, Achilles educated by the centaur Chiron, Achilles recognized among the daughters of Lycomedes, The wrath of Achilles, The death of Hector, Thetis receiving the arms of Achilles from Vulcanus, The death of Achilles (Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam), and Briseis restored to Achilles (Detroit Institute of Arts; all \u20131635)\n Pieter van Lint, \"Achilles Discovered among the Daughters of Lycomedes\", 1645, at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem\n Dying Achilles is a sculpture created by Christophe Veyrier (; Victoria and Albert Museum, London).\n The Rage of Achilles is a fresco by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1757, Villa Valmarana Ai Nani, Vicenza).\n Eug\u00e8ne Delacroix painted a version of The Education of Achilles for the ceiling of the Paris Palais Bourbon (1833\u20131847), one of the seats of the French Parliament.\n created a statue group Achilles and Penthesilea (1895; Vienna).\n Achilleus (1908) is a lithography by Max Slevogt.\n\nMusic \nAchilles has been frequently the subject of operas, ballets and related genres.\n Operas titled Deidamia were composed by Francesco Cavalli (1644) and George Frideric Handel (1739).\n Achille et Polyx\u00e8ne (Paris 1687) is an opera begun by Jean-Baptiste Lully and finished by Pascal Collasse.\n Achille et D\u00e9idamie (Paris 1735) is an opera composed by Andr\u00e9 Campra.\n Achilles (London 1733) is a ballad opera, written by John Gay, parodied by Thomas Arne as Achilles in petticoats in 1773.\n Achille in Sciro is a libretto by Metastasio, composed by Domenico Sarro for the inauguration of the Teatro di San Carlo (Naples, 4 November 1737). An even earlier composition is from Antonio Caldara (Vienna 1736). Later operas on the same libretto were composed by Leonardo Leo (Turin 1739), Niccol\u00f2 Jommelli (Vienna 1749 and Rome 1772), Giuseppe Sarti (Copenhagen 1759 and Florence 1779), Johann Adolph Hasse (Naples 1759), Giovanni Paisiello (St. Petersburg 1772), Giuseppe Gazzaniga (Palermo 1781) and many others. It has also been set to music as Il Trionfo della gloria.\n Achille (Vienna 1801) is an opera by Ferdinando Pa\u00ebr on a libretto by Giovanni de Gamerra.\n Achille \u00e0 Scyros (Paris 1804) is a ballet by Pierre Gardel, composed by Luigi Cherubini.\n Achilles, oder Das zerst\u00f6rte Troja (\"Achilles, or Troy Destroyed\", Bonn 1885) is an oratorio by the German composer Max Bruch.\n Achilles auf Skyros (Stuttgart 1926) is a ballet by the Austrian-British composer and musicologist Egon Wellesz.\n Achilles' Wrath is a concert piece by Sean O'Loughlin.\n Temporary Like Achilles is a track on the 1966 double-album Blonde on Blonde by Bob Dylan\n Achilles Last Stand is a track on the 1976 Led Zeppelin album Presence.\n Achilles, Agony and Ecstasy in Eight Parts is the first song on the 1992 Manowar album The Triumph of Steel.\n Achilles Come Down is a song on the 2017 Gang of Youths album Go Farther in Lightness.\n\nFilm and television\nIn films Achilles has been portrayed in the following films and television series:\n The 1924 film Helena by Carlo Aldini\n The 1954 film Ulysses by Piero Lulli\n The 1956 film Helen of Troy by Stanley Baker\n The 1961 film The Trojan Horse by Arturo Dominici\n The 1962 film The Fury of Achilles by Gordon Mitchell\n The 1997 television miniseries The Odyssey by Richard Trewett\n The 2003 television miniseries Helen of Troy by Joe Montana\n The 2004 film Troy by Brad Pitt\n The 2018 TV series Troy: Fall of a City by David Gyasi\n\nArchitecture\n\n In 1890, Elisabeth of Bavaria, Empress of Austria, had a summer palace built in Corfu. The building is named the Achilleion, after Achilles. Its paintings and statuary depict scenes from the Trojan War, with particular focus on Achilles.\n The Wellington Monument is a statue representing Achilles erected in 1822 as a memorial to Arthur Wellesley, the first duke of Wellington, and his victories in the Peninsular War and the latter stages of the Napoleonic Wars.\n\nNamesakes \n The name of Achilles has been used for at least nine Royal Navy warships since 1744 \u2013 both as and with the French spelling . A 60-gun ship of that name served at the Battle of Belleisle in 1761 while a 74-gun ship served at the Battle of Trafalgar. Other battle honours include Walcheren 1809. An armored cruiser of that name served in the Royal Navy during the First World War.\n was a which served with the Royal New Zealand Navy in World War II. It became famous for its part in the Battle of the River Plate, alongside and . In addition to earning the battle honour 'River Plate', HMNZ", " studies and the historicity of Jesus.\n\nA former Baptist minister, Price was a fellow of the Jesus Project, a group of 150 individuals who studied the historicity of Jesus and the Gospels, the organizer of a Web community for those interested in the history of Christianity, and a member of the advisory board of the Secular Student Alliance. He is a religious skeptic, especially of orthodox Christian beliefs, occasionally describing himself as a Christian atheist. Price eventually moved to a maximalist (or rather minimalist, by analogy with biblical minimalism) position in favor of the Christ myth theory, believing Jesus did not exist in Roman Galilee.\n\nPrice is also a writer, editor, and critic in the field of speculative fiction. He has written about the Cthulhu Mythos, a shared universe created by the writer H. P. Lovecraft. Price was appointed executor of Lin Carter's literary estate. In 2020, an inflammatory introduction he wrote to Lin Carter's Flashing Swords! 6 anthology caused multiple authors to withdraw their work in protest. He co-wrote a book on the rock band Rush with his wife, Carol Selby Price, Mystic Rhythms: The Philosophical Vision of Rush (1999).\n\nPrice is currently the editor of the Journal of Higher Criticism.\n\nBackground\nPrice was born in Jackson, Mississippi, in 1954 and moved to New Jersey in 1964. He received a Master of Theological Studies in New Testament from Gordon\u2013Conwell Theological Seminary in 1978. At Drew University, he was awarded one Ph.D. in Systematic Theology in 1981 and another in New Testament in 1991. Price was pastor of the First Baptist Church in Montclair, New Jersey. He has served as Professor of Religion at Mount Olive College. He additionally did some work at minor institutions, including professorships at nonaccredited schools Johnnie Colemon Theological Seminary and the Center for Inquiry Institute.\n\nChrist myth theory\nPrice challenges biblical literalism and argues for a more skeptical and humanistic approach to Christianity. Price questioned the historicity of Jesus in a series of books, including Deconstructing Jesus (2000), The Incredible Shrinking Son of Man (2003), Jesus Is Dead (2007), and The Christ-Myth Theory and Its Problems (2012), as well as in Jesus at the Vanishing Point, a contribution to The Historical Jesus: Five Views (2009).\n\nMethodology\nPrice uses critical-historical methods, but also uses \"history-of-religions parallel[s],\" or the \"Principle of Analogy,\" to show similarities between Gospel narratives and non-Christian Middle Eastern myths. Price criticizes some of the criteria of critical Bible research, such as the criterion of dissimilarity and the criterion of embarrassment. Price further notes that \"consensus is no criterion\" for the historicity of Jesus. In Jesus at the Vanishing Point, Price acknowledges that he stands against the majority view of scholars, but cautions against attempting to settle the issue by appeal to the majority.\n\nKey arguments for the Christ myth theory\nIn Jesus at the Vanishing Point (2010), Price gives three key points for the traditional Christ myth theory, which originated with Bruno Bauer and the Dutch Radical School:\n There is no mention of a miracle-working Jesus in secular sources; Price asserts that Eusebius fabricated the Testimonium Flavianum.\n The epistles, written earlier than the gospels, provide no evidence of a recent historical Jesus; all that can be taken from the epistles, Price argues, is that a Jesus Christ, son of God, lived in a heavenly realm, there died as a sacrifice for human sin, was raised by God, and enthroned in heaven.\n The Jesus narrative is paralleled in Middle Eastern myths about dying and rising gods; Price names Baal, Osiris, Attis, Adonis, and Dumuzi/Tammuz as examples, all of which, he writes, survived into the Hellenistic and Roman periods and thereby influenced Early Christianity. Price alleges that Christian apologists have tried to downplay these parallels.\n\nIn The Christ-Myth Theory and Its Problems (2011), Price maintains that the Christ myth theory is the most likely explanation for the origin of Christianity, giving another overview of arguments:\n \"almost every story in the Gospels (and Acts) can be plausibly argued to be borrowed from the Greek Old Testament, Homer, or Euripides.\"\n \"every detail of the narrated life of Jesus fits the outlines of the Mythic Hero archetype present in all cultures.\"\n \"the epistles, regardless of their dates as earlier or later than the gospels, seem to enshrine a different vein of early Christian faith which lacked an earthly Jesus, a Christianity that understood \"Jesus\" as an honorific throne-name bestowed on a spiritual savior who had been ambushed and killed by the Archons who rule the universe before he rose triumphant over them [...] Christianity eventually rewrote Jesus into an historical incarnation who suffered at the hands of earthly institutions of religion and government.\"\n\nJesus-agnosticism\nPrice argues that if critical methodology is applied with ruthless consistency, one is left in complete agnosticism regarding Jesus's historicity. Price is quoted saying, \"There might have been a historical Jesus, but unless someone discovers his diary or his skeleton, we'll never know.\" He also similarly declared in a 1997 public debate:\n\nPrice notes that historians of classical antiquity approached mythical figures such as Heracles by rejecting supernatural tales while doggedly assuming that \"a genuine historical figure\" could be identified at the root of the legend. He describes this general approach as Euhemerism, and argues that most historical Jesus research today is also Euhemerist. Price argues that Jesus is like other ancient mythic figures, in that no mundane, secular information seems to have survived. Accordingly, Jesus also should be regarded as a mythic figure, but Price admits to some uncertainty in this regard. He writes at the conclusion of his 2000 book Deconstructing Jesus: \"There may have been a real figure there, but there is simply no longer any way of being sure.\"\n\nMythological origins\nPrice believes that Christianity is a historicized synthesis of mainly Egyptian, Jewish, and Greek mythologies, viewing Jesus of Nazareth as an invented figure conforming to the Rank-Raglan mythotype.\n\nPrice argues that the early Christians adopted the model for the figure of Jesus from the popular Mediterranean dying-rising saviour myths of the time, such as that of Dionysus. He argues that the comparisons were known at the time, as early church father Justin Martyr had admitted the similarities. Price suggests that Christianity simply adopted themes from the dying-rising god stories of the day and supplemented them with themes (escaping crosses, empty tombs, children being persecuted by tyrants, etc.) from contemporaneous popular stories in order to come up with the narratives about Christ.\n\nGospels as midrash\nPrice asserts that there was an almost complete fleshing out of the details of the gospels by a midrashic rewriting of the Septuagint, Josephus, Homer, and Euripides' The Bacchae. According to Price, \"virtually every story in the gospels and Acts can be shown to be very likely a Christian rewrite of material\" from those sources and \"virtually every case of New Testament narrative\" can be traced back to a literary prototype, so that there is \"virtually nothing left.\"\n\nInfluences of Greek Cynicism\nPrice does not see in the Q document a reliable source for the historical Jesus, simply because Q shows everywhere a Cynic flavor, representing a school of thought rather than necessarily the teaching of a single person. Price acknowledges that outside the New Testament there are a small number of ancient sources (Tacitus, for example) who would testify that Jesus was a person who really lived. However, Price points out that, even assuming the authenticity of these references, they relate more to the claims of the Christians who lived at that time on Jesus, and do not prove that Jesus was a contemporary of the writers of antiquity.\n\nHistoricising the myth\nCiting accounts that have Jesus being crucified under Alexander Jannaeus (83 BCE) or in his 50s by Herod Agrippa I under the rule of Claudius Caesar (41\u201354 CE), Price argues that these \"varying dates are the residue of various attempts to anchor an originally mythic or legendary Jesus in more or less recent history.\"\n\nPrice also propounds the belief that the town of Nazareth did not exist during the first half of the first century CE, and is a pseudo-historical invention. Price and Bart Ehrman disputed this issue in the dueling works Did Jesus Exist? and Price's Bart Ehrman and the Quest of Historical Jesus of Nazareth: An Evaluation of Ehrman's Did Jesus Exist?\n\nH. P. Lovecraft scholarship\n\nPrice has been a figure in H. P. Lovecraft scholarship and fandom for many years. He is the editor of the journal Crypt of Cthulhu. (published by Necronomicon Press) and of a series of Cthulhu Mythos anthologies. In essays that introduce the anthologies and the individual stories, Price traces the origins of Lovecraft's entities, motifs, and literary style. The Cthulhu Cycle, for example, saw the origins of Cthulhu the octopoid entity in Alfred, Lord Tennyson's \"The Kraken\" (1830) and particular passages from Lord Dunsany, while The Dunwich Cycle points to the influence of Arthur Machen on Lovecraft's \"The Dunwich Horror.\"\n\nPrice's religious background often informs his Mythos criticism, seeing gnostic themes in Lovecraft's fictional god Azathoth and interpreting \"The Shadow Over Innsmouth\" as a kind of initiation ritual.\n\nPrice was in charge of the majority of the early Cthulhu anthologies by Chaosium; his first book published by Chaosium was The Hastur Cycle (1993), a short story anthology about a single element of Lovecraftian stories, and following this was Mysteries of the Worm (1993), a collection Cthulhu Mythos fiction by Robert Bloch.\n\nOther works\nIn 2010 Price became one of three new hosts on Point of Inquiry (the Center for Inquiry's podcast), following the retirement of host D. J. Grothe from the show. Having appeared on the show twice before as a guest (see external links below), he hosted until 2012. Price hosted The Bible Geek, a podcast where Price answered listeners' questions. The most recent show was in June 2019. Price was a regular guest on an interview podcast about religion, \"MythVision Podcast.\"\n\nIn 2005, Price appeared in Brian Flemming's documentary film The God Who Wasn't There, is the subject of the documentary \"The Gospel According to Price\" by writer/director Joseph Nanni, and appears in the films of Jozef K. Richards in the documentary, Batman & Jesus, and comedy series, Holy Shit.\n\nIn 2020, Price was in the process of bringing back a fantasy adventure anthology series called Flashing Swords!, which was popular in the late 1970s. In the introduction to the sixth volume, he had made several statements that readers and other collaborating authors felt were transphobic, misogynistic, and racist. Several authors, in response, had their names and works retracted from the volume.\n\nDebates \nIn 1999, Price debated William Lane Craig, arguing against the historicity of Jesus' resurrection. In 2010, he debated James White, arguing against the reliability of the Bible. In 2010, Price debated Douglas Jacoby, on Jesus: Man, Myth, or Messiah? In 2016, he debated New Testament scholar Bart Ehrman on the historicity of Jesus. Although they disagreed, Ehrman considered Price one of the more esteemed proponents of mythicism as Price had the relevant credentials and study, compared to other mythicists whose expertise stemmed from other disciplines.\n\nPublications\n\nBooks on religion\n The Widow Traditions in Luke-Acts: A Feminist-Critical Scrutiny Society of Biblical Literature. (1997).\n Mystic Rhythms: The Philosophical Vision of Rush Borgo Press. . with Carol Selby Price (1998)\n Deconstructing Jesus Prometheus Books. . (2000).\n The Incredible Shrinking Son of Man: How Reliable is the Gospel Tradition? Prometheus Books. . (2003)\n The Empty Tomb: Jesus Beyond The Grave Prometheus Books. edited with Jeffery Jay Lowder (2005) with the following articles: \"Introduction: The Second Life of Jesus,\" \"Apocryphal Apparitions: 1 Corinthians 15:3\u201311 as a Post Pauline Interpretation\" and \"By This Time He Stinketh: The Attempts of William Lane Craig to Exhume Jesus.\"\n The Da Vinci Fraud: Why the Truth Is Stranger than Fiction Prometheus Books. . (2005).\n The Reason Driven Life: What Am I Here on Earth For? Prometheus Books. . (2006).\n The Pre-Nicene New Testament: Fifty-four Formative Texts Signature Books . (2006)\n The Paperback Apocalypse: How the Christian Church was Left Behind Prometheus Books. . (2007).\n Jesus is Dead American Atheist Press . (2007).\n Top Secret: The Truth Behind Today's Pop Mysticisms Prometheus Books. (2008)\n Beyond Born Again: Towards Evangelical Maturity Wildside Press. (2008).\n Inerrant the Wind: The Evangelical Crisis of Biblical Authority Prometheus Books. (2008).\n The Case Against The Case For Christ: A New Testament Scholar Refutes the Reverend Lee Strobel, American Atheist Press. (2010)\n Jesus Christ Superstar: The Making of a Modern Gospel. eBookIt (2011)\n Paul: The Lost Epistles eBookIt.com (2011)\n The Christ-Myth Theory and Its Problems American Atheist Press. (2011)\n The Amazing Colossal Apostle: The Search for the Historical Paul Signature Books (2012)\n Bart Ehrman and the Quest of Historical Jesus of Nazareth: An Evaluation of Ehrman's Did Jesus Exist? edited with Frank R. Zindler the following articles, \"Introduction: Surprised by Myth\" and \"Bart Ehrman: Paradigm Policeman.\" American Atheist Press 2013 (2013)\n The Needletoe Letters, eBookIt (2012)\n Killing History: Jesus In The No-Spin Zone, Prometheus Books, (2014)\n When Gospels Collide, GCRR Press, (2021) \n (With John W. Loftus) Varieties of Jesus Mythicism: Did He Even Exist?, Hypatia Press, (2021)\n Judaizing Jesus: How New Testament Scholars Created the Ecumenical Golem, Pitchstone Publishing, , (2021)\n Merely Christianity: A Systemic Critique of Theology, Pitchstone Publishing, , (2022)\n\nChapters and articles on religion\n \"The Evolution of the Pauline Canon\", in Hervormde Teologiese Studies, Number 1&2 June 1997, 36\u201367\n Chapter: \"Jesus: Myth and Method\" in The Christian delusion edited by John W. Loftus, Amherst, NY Prometheus Books 2010 \n Foreword to Beyond the Crusades, American Atheist Press (2016) by Michael B. Paulkovich \n Apocryphal Apparitions: 1 Corinthians 15:3\u201311 as a Post-Pauline Interpolation, Journal of Higher Criticism 2/2 (Fall 1995), 69\u201399\n Robert Eisenman's James the Brother of Jesus: A Higher-Critical Evaluation, Journal of Higher Criticism 4/2 (Fall 1997)\n\nCthulhu Mythos (as editor or author)\n Acolytes of Cthulhu\n The Antarktos Cycle: Horror and Wonder at the Ends of the Earth\n The Azathoth Cycle: The Blind Idiot God\n Beyond the Mountains of Madness (featuring short stories inspired by Lovecraft's At the Mountains of Madness, plus one Weird Tales story that probably inspired Lovecraft)\n Black Forbidden Things\n Blasphemies & Revelations Mythos Books. . (2008).\n The Book of Eibon\n The Book of Iod (stories by Henry Kuttner)\n The Cthulhu Cycle: Thirteen Tentacles of Terror\n Dark Wisdom: New Tales of the Old Ones (stories by Gary Myers)\n The Dunwich Cycle: Where the Old Gods Wait\n The Exham Cycle\n The Hastur Cycle\n The Horror of It All: Encrusted Gems from the \"Crypt of Cthulhu\"\n H.P. Lovecraft and the Cthulhu Mythos\n The Innsmouth Cycle: The Taint of the Deep Ones\n The Ithaqua Cycle: The Wind-Walker of the Icy Wastes\n Lin Carter: A Look Behind His Imaginary Worlds\n Lin Carter's Anton Zarnak, Supernatural Sleuth\n Lin Carter's Flashing Swords! 6\n Lin Carter's Flashing Swords! 7\n Lovecraft: A Look Behind the Cthulhu Mythos (with Lin Carter) Borgo Pr; Rev Sub edition (1997) \n The Mighty Warriors (2018)\n Mysteries of the Worm (stories by Robert Bloch)\n Nameless Cults: The Cthulhu Mythos Fiction of Robert E. Howard\n The Necronomicon\n The New Lovecraft Circle\n The Nyarlathotep Cycle: The God of a Thousand Forms\n Secret Asia's Blackest Heart: A Horror Anthology\n Shards of Darkness (stories by Edward P. Berglund)\n The Shub-Niggurath Cycle: Tales of the Black Goat with a Thousand Young\n The Sword of Thongor\n The Taint of Lovecraft (stories by Stanley Sargeant)\n Tales of the Lovecraft Mythos\n Tales Out of Dunwich\n Tales Out of Innsmouth: New Stories of the Children of Dagon\n Thongor Conquers the Underground World\n Tindalos Cycle\n The Tsathoggua Cycle: Terror Tales of the Toad God\n Worlds of Cthulhu\n The Xothic Legend Cycle: The Complete Mythos Fiction of Lin Carter\n The Yig Cycle \n The Yith Cycle: Lovecraftian Tales of the Great Race and Time Travel\n The Yog Sothoth Cycle\n\nMagazines\n Editor of Midnight Shambler, Eldritch Tales, and Crypt of", " Americans for military attack and similarly disastrous events. Late in the 20th century, the term and practice of civil defense fell into disuse. Emergency management and homeland security replaced them.\n\nHistory\n\nPre\u2013World War\nThere is little known history of civil defense in the United States before the twentieth century. Since ancient times, cities typically built walls and moats to protect from invasion and commissioned patrols and watches to keep an eye out for danger, but such activities have not traditionally been encompassed by the term \"civil defense.\" The US has a particular lack of early civil defense efforts because it was seldom threatened with a significant attack. Nonetheless, there are some early examples of what would today be considered civil defense. For example, as early as 1692, the village of Bedford, New York, kept on staff a drummer, whose responsibility was to sound the town drum in the event of a Native American attack\u2014a very early precursor to the wailing sirens of the Cold War.\n\nWorld War I \nCivil defense truly began to come of age, both worldwide and in the United States, during the first World War\u2014although it was usually referred to as \"civilian defense\". This was the first major total war, which required the involvement and support of the general population. Strategic bombing during World War I brought bombing raids by dirigibles and airplanes, with thousands of injuries and deaths. Attacks on non-combat ships, like the Lusitania, presented another threat to non combatants. The British responded with an organized effort which was soon copied in the US. This was formalized with the creation of the Council of National Defense on August 29, 1916. Civil defense responsibilities at the federal level were vested in this council, with subsidiary councils at the state and local levels providing additional support\u2014a multi-level structure which was to remain throughout the history of United States civil defense.\n\nAs the United States had little threat of a direct attack on its shores, the organization instead \"maintained anti-saboteur vigilance, encouraged men to join the armed forces, facilitated the implementation of the draft, participated in Liberty Bond drives, and helped to maintain the morale of the soldiers.\" This freedom to focus beyond air raid attacks gave United States civil defense a much broader scope than elsewhere. With the end of military conflict, the activities of the Council of National Defense were suspended. Thus, World War I marked the first time that organized civil defense was practised on a large scale in the United States. Although civil defense had not yet reached the scale and significance it soon would, many of the basic features were set in place.\n\nWorld War II\n\nWorld War II, which the United States entered after the attack on Pearl Harbor, was characterized by a significantly greater use of civil defense. Even before the attack, the Council of National Defense was reactivated by President Roosevelt and created the Division of State and Local Cooperation to further assist the Council's efforts. Thus, the civil defense of World War II began very much as a continuation of that of World War I. Very soon, however, the idea of local and state councils bearing a significant burden became viewed as untenable and more responsibility was vested at the federal level with the creation of the Office of Civilian Defense (OCD) within the Office of Emergency Planning (OEP) in the Executive Office of the President (EOP) on May 20, 1941. The OCD was originally headed by New York Mayor Fiorello La Guardia and was charged with promoting protective measures and elevating national morale.\n\nThese organizations and others worked together to mobilize the civilian population in response to the threat. The Civil Air Patrol (CAP), which was created just days before the attack on Pearl Harbor, commissioned civilian pilots to patrol the coast and borders and engage in search and rescue missions as needed. The Civil Defense Corps, run by the OCD, organized approximately 10 million volunteers who trained to fight fires, decontaminate after chemical weapon attacks, provide first aid, and other duties. A Ground Observer Corps watched for enemy aircraft.\n\nThese efforts did not replace the kinds of civil defense that took place during World War I. Indeed, World War II saw an even greater use of rationing, recycling, and anti-saboteur vigilance than was seen in World War I. As the threat of air raids or invasions in the United States seemed less likely during the war, the focus on the Civil Defense Corps, air raid drills, and patrols of the border declined but the other efforts continued. Unlike the end of World War I, the US did not dismiss all its civil defense efforts as soon as World War II ended. Instead, they continued after the end of the war and served as the foundation of civil defense in the Cold War.\n\nCold War\n\nThe new dimensions of nuclear war terrified the world and the American people. The sheer power of nuclear weapons and the perceived likelihood of such an attack on the United States precipitated a greater response than had yet been required of civil defense. Civil defense, something previously considered an important and common-sense step, also became divisive and controversial in the charged atmosphere of the Cold War. In 1950, the National Security Resources Board created a 162-page document outlining a model civil defense structure for the US. Called the \"Blue Book\" by civil defense professionals in reference to its solid blue cover, it was the template for legislation and organization that occurred over the next 40 years. Despite a general agreement on the importance of civil defense, Congress never came close to meeting the budget requests of federal civil defense agencies. Throughout the Cold War, civil defense was characterized by fits and starts. Indeed, the responsibilities were passed through a myriad of agencies, and specific programs were often boosted and scrapped in a similar manner to US ballistic missile defense (BMD) systems with which it was seen as complementary.\n\nIn declassified US war game analyses of the early 1960s, it was estimated that approximately 27 million US citizens would have been saved with civil defense education in the event of a Soviet pre-emptive strike. At the time however the cost of a full-scale civil defense program was, in cost-benefit analysis, deemed less effective than a BMD system, and as the adversary was increasing their nuclear stockpile, both programs would yield diminishing returns.\n\nEducational efforts\n\nOne aspect of the Cold War civil defense program was the educational effort made or promoted by the government. One primary way in which they did this was the publication and production of federally funded films that were distributed to the mass public. In Duck and Cover, Bert the Turtle advocated that children \"duck and cover\" when they \"see the flash\". In this film, children are instructed to \"kneel with their backs facing the windows, eyes shut, their hands clasped behind their backs.\" Duck and Cover also reached audiences through printed media and radio waves. This included a 14-minute radio adaptation, a 16-page coloring booklet, and a nationwide newspaper serialization. The image of Bert the Turtle was often seen as a way to defuse tensions related to nuclear weapons. The creators of the cartoon \"were forced to pick their way delicately through overly glib depictions of nuclear war on one hand, and terrifying descriptions prescribing hysteria and panic on the other.\" Thus, children were able to adapt to a world of panic and come to terms with the existence of the bomb while also learning how to prepare for the possibility of nuclear disaster.\n\nAnother educational program, produced by the Federal Civil Defense Administration, was Survival Under Atomic Attack. Produced in both film and print, Survival gave Americans information on how to prepare themselves and their homes in the case of a nuclear attack. The film showed citizens how the whole family can get involved in final moments of preparation if they were to hear the warning sirens that alerted them of an incoming attack. Along with popularity of the film, over a million copies of the Survival booklet sold within its first year of publication in 1951. Audiences of both the film and print sources learned specific skills on how to ensure their safety in the case of emergency. This included preparing a first aid kit, storing plenty of water and canned goods, stocking up on batteries for radios and flashlights, and equipping a fallout shelter that they could access easily and safely.\n\n\"Alert America\" also sought to teach the American public how to prepare for instances of emergency and the threat of atomic attack. Created in December 1951, the \"Alert America\" program consisted of three convoys with ten thirty-two-foot trailer trucks that traveled 36,000 miles throughout the nation's 82 major cities and attracted 1.1 million people. While displaying products and information to educate people on the affects and preparedness associated with nuclear weapons, the \"Alert America\" program also showed federally supported films such as Duck and Cover, Survival Under Atomic Attack, and Our Cities Must Fight.\n\nEducational efforts also targeted women in the form of campaigns such as \"Grandma's Pantry\". Supported by the National Grocer's Association, various pharmaceutical houses, and the American National Dietetic Association, \"Grandma's Pantry\" educated women on national guidelines for how, when properly prepared, a home could withstand a nuclear holocaust. Avoiding the scare tactics that were primarily used by other forms of civil defense education, \"Grandma's Pantry\" instead attempted a supposedly \"softer\" and so-called \"feminine\" approach to emergency preparedness by fusing female domesticity with paramilitary education. Through this, women were encouraged to \"make ready for the possibility of nuclear war\" by warning them against \"the possibility of damaged water systems, broken sewer lines, mounting heaps of garbage, and a lack of food and fresh water after an attack\", all of which were duties that typically aligned with prescribed gender roles given to women during the postwar era. Thus, civil defense education attempted to seemingly blend into already established societal norms.\n\nCivil defense educational efforts also included training in practical life skills lessons that they could implement in the case of nuclear war. Home economics courses in grade schools trained students on how to build and maintain fallout shelters, the basics of food preparation and storage, safety and sanitation, child care, and how to care for the sick and injured. These lessons transferred to real life expectations, where even adults were continuously instructed on how to manage homes, perform gendered assigned roles, and prepare their families for the case of nuclear attacks. Such examples were found in literature and educational films which taught women the values and skills of home nursing and first aid that would protect and save the lives of their family members. Women were also taught to be the ones to dominate kitchen work during the first few days within shelters if there was an emergency, only to be relieved by teenagers and young children who were only expected to volunteer when needed.\n\nEvacuation plans\nAt the dawn of the nuclear age, evacuation was opposed by the federal government. The Federal Civil Defense Administration produced a short movie called Our Cities Must Fight. It argued that in the event of a nuclear war, people need to stay in cities to help repair the infrastructure and man the recovering industries. \"Nuclear radiation,\" it advised, \"would only stay in the air a day or two.\" Despite this early opposition, evacuation plans were soon created. One city at the forefront of such efforts was Portland, Oregon. In 1955, their city government completed \"Operation Greenlight\"\u2014a drill to evacuate the city center. Hospital patients were packed into semi-trucks, pedestrians were picked up by passing motorists, and the city's construction equipment and emergency vehicles were rushed out to \"dispersal points.\" The entire city center was evacuated in 19\u00a0minutes. On December 8, 1957, CBS Television aired a dramatization of how a well prepared city might respond to an imminent nuclear attack. The show, A Day Called 'X', produced \"in co-operation with the Federal Civil Defense Administration,\" was shot in Portland, using city officials and ordinary citizens instead of professional actors. It was narrated by Glenn Ford.\n\nSuch plans were plausible in the early days of the Cold War, when an attack would have come from strategic bombers, which would have allowed a warning of many hours, not to mention the high possibility of interception by anti-air systems and fighters. However, the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles in the late 1950s made this goal less realistic. Despite that, civil defense officials still worked to prepare evacuation plans. In 1983, President Ronald Reagan announced the Crisis Relocation Program. The White House suggested that the $10 billion, five-year program could allow the evacuation of targeted urban centers to rural \"host areas\" and thus save 80% of the population. The plan allowed up to three days for the evacuation to be completed, believing that a nuclear war would not come in a surprise attack but rather as the culmination of a crisis period of rising tensions. However, the plan has been criticized by academics and organizations like the Federation of American Scientists for failing to take into account disruptions to healthcare infrastructure preventing the effective treatment of the wounded, disruption to the food supply, ecological devastation (including nuclear winter), and social unrest following an attack. Because of these shortcomings, Stanford University physician and professor Herbert L. Abrams estimated that no more than 60 million people (25% of the population) would survive if the program was executed as designed.\n\nEnsuring continuity of government\nGovernments made efforts to exist even after an apocalyptic nuclear attack, something called continuity of government. Many city halls built Emergency Operation Centers in their basements.\n\nFallout shelters\nPresident Kennedy launched an ambitious effort to install fallout shelters throughout the United States. These shelters would not protect against the blast and heat effects of nuclear weapons, but would provide some protection against the radiation effects that would last for weeks and even affect areas distant from a nuclear explosion. As such, some of them were even located on the upper floors of skyscrapers.\n\nCD officials encouraged people to build in the suburbs away from key targets and to be conscientious of the needs of a nuclear age when building houses and other structures.\n\nCONELRAD \nIn order for most of these preparations to be effective, there had to be some degree of warning. The United States embarked on creating systems at both the local and national levels to allow the communication of emergencies.\n\nIn 1951, President Harry S. Truman established the CONELRAD (Control of Electromagnetic Radiation) Plan. Under the system, a few primary stations would be alerted of an emergency and would broadcast an alert. All broadcast stations throughout the country would be constantly listening to an upstream station and repeat the message, thus passing it from station to station. After broadcasting the message, all radio communications would cease except for two designated lower power AM frequencies (640 and 1240 kHz). This was designed to prevent enemy planes from using transmitters as navigation aids for direction finding. The later threat of ICBMs (which used internal guidance) made this obsolete, and CONELRAD was replaced in 1963.\n\nOperation Alert and opposition to civil defense drills\nIn 1954, the United States government began an annual national civil defense exercise called \"Operation Alert\". The exercise extended over several weeks to months, and would culminate in a one-day public drill simulating a nuclear attack. The aim of the annual exercise was to evaluate emergency preparedness in the face of a nuclear attack, determine government continuation readiness, and identify problems that might occur during an alert.\n\nOperation Alert was actively protested by the Catholic Worker Movement, Ralph DiGia, Dorothy Day and others in New York City when held on June 15, 1955. Protesters objected to the notion that a nuclear war was survivable, and answered with the assertion that the only way to survive a nuclear war was for one not to happen at all. 29 were arrested in City Hall Park and jailed for refusing to take shelter during a drill. Protests, initially small and isolated, continued and grew throughout the 1950s. Opposition to the drills increased; young mothers with children joined the protests in 1960. Civil Defense Operation Alert drills were stopped after the 1961 protest.\n\nEmergency Broadcast System \n\nIn 1963, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) created the Emergency Broadcast System to replace CONELRAD. The EBS served as the primary alert system through the Cold War ICBM era and well into the 1990s. In addition to these, air raid sirens such as the Thunderbolt siren pictured to the right, would sound an alert.\n\nPost\u2013Cold War\nSince the end of the Cold War, civil defense has fallen into disuse within the United States. Gradually, the focus on nuclear war shifted to an \"all-hazards\" approach of comprehensive emergency management. Natural disasters and the emergence of new threats such as terrorism have focused attention away from traditional civil defense into new forms of civil protection such as emergency management and homeland security. In 2006, the old triangle logo was finally retired, replaced with a new logo featuring a stylized EM (for emergency management). The new logo was announced by the Federal Emergency Management Agency; however, a depiction of the old CD logo (without the red CD letters) can be seen above the eagle's head in the FEMA seal. The name and logo, however, continue to be used by Hawaii State Civil Defense Hawaii State Civil Defense and Guam Homeland Security/Office of Civil Defense Guam Homeland Security | Office of Civil Defense. The Republic of the Philippines has an Office of Civil Defense that uses a similar logo.\n\nPast and present civil defense agencies\nAfter the September 11, 2001, attacks, US civil defense planning was conducted within the cabinet-level Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Between 1979 and 2001, the duties of civil defense were served by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Originally an independent agency, FEMA was absorbed into DHS in 2003. Before the creation of FEMA in 1979 the responsibility for civil defense in the United States was shared between a wide variety of short-lived and frequently changing departments, agencies, and organizations. Some of the notable national pre-FEMA organizations in the US included:\n Council of National Defense\n Joint Task Force - Civil Support\n Office of Emergency Planning (OEP) in the Executive Office of the President (EOP)\n Office of Civil Defense (OCD) in the Office of Emergency Planning\n Civil Air Patrol\n National Security Resources Board (NSRB), both as an independent agency and as an office within the Executive Office of the President\n Office of Defense Mobilization in the Executive Office of the President\n Office of Defense and Civilian Mobilization in the Executive Office of the President\n Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization in the Executive Office of the President\n Office of Emergency Planning in the Executive Office of the President\n Office of Emergency Preparedness in the Executive Office of the President\n Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA), both as an independent agency and as a board within the Executive Office of the President\n State defense forces of individual US states\n United States Coast Guard Auxiliary\n\nSee also \n American Civil Defense Association\n Blast shelter\n NYPD Auxiliary Police\n State defense force\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nWorld War II civil defense\n Louis L. Snyder, editor. Handbook of Civil Protection. 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\u0443\u0433\u043e\u043b \u0412\u0430\u0439\u043d\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0430. \u0423\u0433\u043e\u043b \u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0443 \u043d\u0435\u0439\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u044c \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u043b\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0433\u043d\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0437\u0430\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e:\n\n\u0420\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435\n\n\u0421\u043b\u0430\u0431\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0430\u0434 \n", " char *name )\n{\n STUDENT *student;\n\n if ( ! ( student = calloc( 1, sizeof ( STUDENT ) ) ) )\n {\n fprintf(stderr,\n \"ERROR in %s/%s/%d: calloc() returned empty.\\n\",\n ,\n ,\n );\n exit( 1 );\n }\n\n /* Execute the constructor of the PERSON superclass. */\n /* ------------------------------------------------- */\n student->person = person_new( name );\n return student;\n}\n\nHere is a driver program for demonstration:\n\n/* student_dvr.c */\n/* ------------- */\n#include \n#include \"student.h\"\n\nint main( void )\n{\n STUDENT *student = student_new( \"The Student\" );\n student->grade = grade_new( 'a' );\n\n printf( \"%s: Numeric grade = %d\\n\",\n /* Whereas a subset exists, inheritance does not. */\n student->person->name,\n /* Functional programming is executing functions just-in-time (JIT) */\n grade_numeric( student->grade->letter ) );\n\n\treturn 0;\n}\n\nHere is a makefile to compile everything:\n\n# makefile\n# --------\nall: student_dvr\n\nclean:\n rm student_dvr *.o\n\nstudent_dvr: student_dvr.c grade.o student.o person.o\n gcc student_dvr.c grade.o student.o person.o -o student_dvr\n\ngrade.o: grade.c grade.h\n gcc -c grade.c\n\nstudent.o: student.c student.h\n gcc -c student.c\n\nperson.o: person.c person.h\n gcc -c person.c\n\nThe formal strategy to build object-oriented objects is to:\n Identify the objects. Most likely these will be nouns.\n Identify each object's attributes. What helps to describe the object?\n Identify each object's actions. Most likely these will be verbs.\n Identify the relationships from object to object. Most likely these will be verbs.\n\nFor example:\n A person is a human identified by a name.\n A grade is an achievement identified by a letter.\n A student is a person who earns a grade.\n\nSyntax and semantics\nThe syntax of a programming language is a list of production rules which govern its form. A programming language's form is the correct placement of its declarations, expressions, and statements. Complementing the syntax of a language are its semantics. The semantics describe the meanings attached to various syntactic constructs. A syntactic construct may need a semantic description because a form may have an invalid interpretation. Also, different languages might have the same syntax; however, their behaviors may be different.\n\nThe syntax of a language is formally described by listing the production rules. Whereas the syntax of a natural language is extremely complicated, a subset of the English language can have this production rule listing:\n a sentence is made up of a noun-phrase followed by a verb-phrase;\n a noun-phrase is made up of an article followed by an adjective followed by a noun;\n a verb-phrase is made up of a verb followed by a noun-phrase;\n an article is 'the';\n an adjective is 'big' or\n an adjective is 'small';\n a noun is 'cat' or\n a noun is 'mouse';\n a verb is 'eats';\nThe words in bold-face are known as \"non-terminals\". The words in 'single quotes' are known as \"terminals\".\n\nFrom this production rule listing, complete sentences may be formed using a series of replacements. The process is to replace non-terminals with either a valid non-terminal or a valid terminal. The replacement process repeats until only terminals remain. One valid sentence is:\n sentence\n noun-phrase verb-phrase\n article adjective noun verb-phrase\n the adjective noun verb-phrase\n the big noun verb-phrase\n the big cat verb-phrase\n the big cat verb noun-phrase\n the big cat eats noun-phrase\n the big cat eats article adjective noun\n the big cat eats the adjective noun\n the big cat eats the small noun\n the big cat eats the small mouse\n\nHowever, another combination results in an invalid sentence:\n the small mouse eats the big cat\nTherefore, a semantic is necessary to correctly describe the meaning of an eat activity.\n\nOne production rule listing method is called the Backus\u2013Naur form (BNF). BNF describes the syntax of a language and itself has a syntax. This recursive definition is an example of a meta-language. The syntax of BNF includes:\n ::= which translates to is made up of a[n] when a non-terminal is to its right. It translates to is when a terminal is to its right.\n | which translates to or.\n < and > which surround non-terminals.\n\nUsing BNF, a subset of the English language can have this production rule listing:\n ::= \n ::=
\n ::= \n
::= the\n ::= big | small\n ::= cat | mouse\n ::= eats\n\nUsing BNF, a signed-integer has the production rule listing:\n ::= \n ::= + | -\n ::= | \n ::= 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9\n\nNotice the recursive production rule:\n ::= | \nThis allows for an infinite number of possibilities. Therefore, a semantic is necessary to describe a limitation of the number of digits.\n\nNotice the leading zero possibility in the production rules:\n ::= | \n ::= 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9\nTherefore, a semantic is necessary to describe that leading zeros need to be ignored.\n\nTwo formal methods are available to describe semantics. They are denotational semantics and axiomatic semantics.\n\nSoftware engineering and computer programming\n\nSoftware engineering is a variety of techniques to produce quality software. Computer programming is the process of writing or editing source code. In a formal environment, a systems analyst will gather information from managers about all the organization's processes to automate. This professional then prepares a detailed plan for the new or modified system. The plan is analogous to an architect's blueprint.\n\nPerformance objectives\nThe systems analyst has the objective to deliver the right information to the right person at the right time. The critical factors to achieve this objective are:\n The quality of the output. Is the output useful for decision-making?\n The accuracy of the output. Does it reflect the true situation?\n The format of the output. Is the output easily understood?\n The speed of the output. Time-sensitive information is important when communicating with the customer in real time.\n\nCost objectives\nAchieving performance objectives should be balanced with all of the costs, including:\n Development costs.\n Uniqueness costs. A reusable system may be expensive. However, it might be preferred over a limited-use system.\n Hardware costs.\n Operating costs.\n\nApplying a systems development process will mitigate the axiom: the later in the process an error is detected, the more expensive it is to correct.\n\nWaterfall model\nThe waterfall model is an implementation of a systems development process. As the waterfall label implies, the basic phases overlap each other:\n The investigation phase is to understand the underlying problem.\n The analysis phase is to understand the possible solutions.\n The design phase is to plan the best solution.\n The implementation phase is to program the best solution.\n The maintenance phase lasts throughout the life of the system. Changes to the system after it's deployed may be necessary. Faults may exist, including specification faults, design faults, or coding faults. Improvements may be necessary. Adaption may be necessary to react to a changing environment.\n\nComputer programmer\nA computer programmer is a specialist responsible for writing or modifying the source code to implement the detailed plan. A programming team is likely to be needed because most systems are too large to be completed by a single programmer. However, adding programmers to a project may not shorten the completion time. Instead, it may lower the quality of the system. To be effective, program modules need to be defined and distributed to team members. Also, team members must interact with one another in a meaningful and effective way.\n\nComputer programmers may be programming in the small: programming within a single module. Chances are a module will execute modules located in other source code files. Therefore, computer programmers may be programming in the large: programming modules so they will effectively couple with each other. Programming-in-the-large includes contributing to the application programming interface (API).\n\nProgram modules\nModular programming is a technique to refine imperative language programs. Refined programs may reduce the software size, separate responsibilities, and thereby mitigate software aging. A program module is a sequence of statements that are bounded within a block and together identified by a name. Modules have a function, context, and logic:\n\n The function of a module is what it does.\n The context of a module are the elements being performed upon.\n The logic of a module is how it performs the function.\n\nThe module's name should be derived first by its function, then by its context. Its logic should not be part of the name. For example, function compute_square_root( x ) or function compute_square_root_integer( i : integer ) are appropriate module names. However, function compute_square_root_by_division( x ) is not.\n\nThe degree of interaction within a module is its level of cohesion. Cohesion is a judgment of the relationship between a module's name and its function. The degree of interaction between modules is the level of coupling. Coupling is a judgement of the relationship between a module's context and the elements being performed upon.\n\nCohesion\nThe levels of cohesion from worst to best are:\n\n Coincidental Cohesion: A module has coincidental cohesion if it performs multiple functions, and the functions are completely unrelated. For example, function read_sales_record_print_next_line_convert_to_float(). Coincidental cohesion occurs in practice if management enforces silly rules. For example, \"Every module will have between 35 and 50 executable statements.\"\n Logical Cohesion: A module has logical cohesion if it has available a series of functions, but only one of them is executed. For example, function perform_arithmetic( perform_addition, a, b ).\n Temporal Cohesion: A module has temporal cohesion if it performs functions related to time. One example, function initialize_variables_and_open_files(). Another example, stage_one(), stage_two(), ...\n Procedural Cohesion: A module has procedural cohesion if it performs multiple loosely related functions. For example, function read_part_number_update_employee_record().\n Communicational Cohesion: A module has communicational cohesion if it performs multiple closely related functions. For example, function read_part_number_update_sales_record().\n Informational Cohesion: A module has informational cohesion if it performs multiple functions, but each function has its own entry and exit points. Moreover, the functions share the same data structure. Object-oriented classes work at this level.\n Functional Cohesion: a module has functional cohesion if it achieves a single goal working only on local variables. Moreover, it may be reusable in other contexts.\n\nCoupling\nThe levels of coupling from worst to best are:\n\n Content Coupling: A module has content coupling if it modifies a local variable of another function. COBOL used to do this with the alter verb.\n Common Coupling: A module has common coupling if it modifies a global variable.\n Control Coupling: A module has control coupling if another module can modify its control flow. For example, perform_arithmetic( perform_addition, a, b ). Instead, control should be on the makeup of the returned object.\n Stamp Coupling: A module has stamp coupling if an element of a data structure passed as a parameter is modified. Object-oriented classes work at this level.\n Data Coupling: A module has data coupling if all of its input parameters are needed and none of them are modified. Moreover, the result of the function is returned as a single object.\n\nData flow analysis\n\nData flow analysis is a design method used to achieve modules of functional cohesion and data coupling. The input to the method is a data-flow diagram. A data-flow diagram is a set of ovals representing modules. Each module's name is displayed inside its oval. Modules may be at the executable level or the function level.\n\nThe diagram also has arrows connecting modules to each other. Arrows pointing into modules represent a set of inputs. Each module should have only one arrow pointing out from it to represent its single output object. (Optionally, an additional exception arrow points out.) A daisy chain of ovals will convey an entire algorithm. The input modules should start the diagram. The input modules should connect to the transform modules. The transform modules should connect to the output modules.\n\nFunctional categories\n\nComputer programs may be categorized along functional lines. The main functional categories are application software and system software. System software includes the operating system, which couples computer hardware with application software. The purpose of the operating system is to provide an environment where application software executes in a convenient and efficient manner. Both application software and system software execute utility programs. At the hardware level, a microcode program controls the circuits throughout the central processing unit.\n\nApplication software\n\nApplication software is the key to unlocking the potential of the computer system. Enterprise application software bundles accounting, personnel, customer, and vendor applications. Examples include enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, and supply chain management software.\n\nEnterprise applications may be developed in-house as a one-of-a-kind proprietary software. Alternatively, they may be purchased as off-the-shelf software. Purchased software may be modified to provide custom software. If the application is customized, then either the company's resources are used or the resources are outsourced. Outsourced software development may be from the original software vendor or a third-party developer.\n\nThe potential advantages of in-house software are features and reports may be developed exactly to specification. Management may also be involved in the development process and offer a level of control. Management may decide to counteract a competitor's new initiative or implement a customer or vendor requirement. A merger or acquisition may necessitate enterprise software changes. The potential disadvantages of in-house software are time and resource costs may be extensive. Furthermore, risks concerning features and performance may be looming.\n\nThe potential advantages of off-the-shelf software are upfront costs are identifiable, the basic needs should be fulfilled, and its performance and reliability have a track record. The potential disadvantages of off-the-shelf software are it may have unnecessary features that confuse end users, it may lack features the enterprise needs, and the data flow may not match the enterprise's work processes.\n\nOne approach to economically obtaining a customized enterprise application is through an application service provider. Specialty companies provide hardware, custom software, and end-user support. They may speed the development of new applications because they possess skilled information system staff. The biggest advantage is it frees in-house resources from staffing and managing complex computer projects. Many application service providers target small, fast-growing companies with limited information system resources. On the other hand, larger companies with major systems will likely have their technical infrastructure in place. One risk is having to trust an external organization with sensitive information. Another risk is having to trust the provider's infrastructure reliability.\n\nOperating system\n\nAn operating system is the low-level software that supports a computer's basic functions, such as scheduling processes and controlling peripherals.\n\nIn the 1950s, the programmer, who was also the operator, would write a program and run it. After the program finished executing, the output may have been printed, or it may have been punched onto paper tape or cards for later processing. More often than not the program did not work. The programmer then looked at the console lights and fiddled with the console switches. If less fortunate, a memory printout was made for further study. In the 1960s, programmers reduced the amount of wasted time by automating the operator's job. A program called an operating system was kept in the computer at all times.\n\nThe term operating system may refer to two levels of software. The operating system may refer to the kernel program that manages the processes, memory, and devices. More broadly, the operating system may refer to the entire package of the central software. The package includes a kernel program, command-line interpreter, graphical user interface, utility programs, and editor.\n\nKernel Program\n\nThe kernel's main purpose is to manage the limited resources of a computer:\n The kernel program should perform process scheduling. The kernel creates a process control block when a program is selected for execution. However, an executing program gets exclusive access to the central processing unit only for a time slice. To provide each user with the appearance of continuous access, the kernel quickly preempts each process control block to execute another one. The goal for system developers is to minimize dispatch latency.\n\n The kernel program should perform memory management.\n When the kernel initially loads an executable into memory, it divides the address space logically into regions. The kernel maintains a master-region table and many per-process-region (pregion) tables\u2014one for each running process. These tables constitute the virtual address space. The master-region table is used to determine where its contents are located in physical memory. The pregion tables allow each process to have its own program (text) pregion, data pregion, and stack pregion.\nThe program pregion stores machine instructions. Since machine instructions do not change, the program pregion may be shared by many processes of the same executable.\n To save time and memory, the kernel may load only blocks of execution instructions from the disk drive, not the entire execution file completely.\nThe kernel is responsible for translating virtual addresses into physical addresses. The kernel may request data from the memory controller and, instead, receive a page fault. If so, the kernel accesses the memory management unit to populate the physical data region and translate the address. \n The kernel allocates memory from the heap upon request by a process. When the process is finished with the memory, the process may request for it to be freed. If the process exits without requesting all allocated memory to be freed, then the kernel performs garbage collection to free the memory.\n The kernel also ensures that a process only accesses its own memory, and not that of the kernel or other processes.\n The kernel program should perform file system management. The kernel has instructions to create, retrieve, update, and delete files.\n The kernel program should perform device management. The kernel provides programs to standardize and simplify the interface to the mouse, keyboard, disk drives, printers, and other devices. Moreover, the kernel should arbitrate access to a device if two processes request it at the same time.\n The kernel program should perform network management. The kernel transmits and receives packets on behalf of processes. One key service is to find an efficient route to the target system.\n The kernel program should provide system level functions for programmers to use.\n Programmers access files through a relatively simple interface that in turn executes a relatively complicated low-level I/O interface. The low-level interface includes file creation, file descriptors, file seeking, physical reading, and physical writing.\n Programmers create processes through a relatively simple interface that in turn executes a relatively complicated low-level interface.\n Programmers perform date/time arithmetic through a relatively simple interface that in turn executes a relatively complicated low-level time interface.\n The kernel program should provide a communication channel between executing processes. 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(\u2116\u00a087), \u00ab\u041e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043f\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044e \u0438 \u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\u00bb 1949\u00a0\u0433. (\u2116\u00a098), \u00ab\u041e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0443\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043e\u0431\u044f\u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u0435\u00bb 1930\u00a0\u0433. (\u2116\u00a029), \u00ab\u041e\u0431 \u0443\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0443\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u0430\u00bb 1957\u00a0\u0433. (\u2116\u00a0105), \u00ab\u041e \u0434\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u0430 \u0438 \u0437\u0430\u043d\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u00bb 1958\u00a0\u0433. (\u2116\u00a0111), \u00ab\u041e \u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438\u00bb 1951\u00a0\u0433. (\u2116\u00a0100), \u00ab\u041e \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0443\u00bb 1973\u00a0\u0433. 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\u043f\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043f\u043e\u043a, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0436, \u0438\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u043e\u0440\u0433\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0439 \u0441 \u0442\u043e\u0440\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0432 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432 \u0438\u0445 \u0431\u0435\u0437\u043d\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u041d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u044f\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u0435\u0433\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u043a \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043c \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0441\u043d\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b, \u0441\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0436 \u0432 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u044f\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0432 \u0443\u0440\u0435\u0433\u0443\u043b\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u0430 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0441\u043d\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438.\n\n\u041f\u0438\u043a\u0435\u0442\u044b.\n\n\u041f\u0438\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e \u043e\u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0437\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043a. \u041b\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0451\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432\u043d\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u0435\u0442 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430, \u0447\u0442\u043e\u0431\u044b \u0437\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u043a \u043d\u0435\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435\u0435 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0437\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434 \u043a \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0447\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0443 \u043b\u0438\u0446, \u043d\u0435 \u0436\u0435\u043b\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437. \u0412\u043e \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0431\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0430, \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0449\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0439, \u043b\u0438\u0431\u043e \u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0438\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0430. \u041d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440, \u0432 \u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043c \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0431\u044b\u0442\u044c \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0441\u043c\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0438\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f (\u043f\u0438\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0451\u043c\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u044f\u043c\u0443\u044e \u043d\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u0447\u0451\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0441\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044e \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f, \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440., \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0435 \u0441 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u044c\u044e \u0441\u0440\u044b\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0438 \u0441\u044b\u0440\u044c\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0435, \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0442\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438", " - were prior to World War I and following German reunification.\n\nThe Weimar Republic contained significant irredentist elements which frequently formed part of the governing coalitions. The Treaty of Locarno settled Germany's western boundaries (accepting among others the definitive loss of Alsace-Lorraine) but regarding the eastern boundaries with Czechoslovakia and the Second Polish Republic it only contained a provision that any revision of borders would occur non-violently. There was never a renunciation on the part of the German government prior to World War II of any claim to territory to the east of its internationally recognized borders. The foreign ministers of Germany and France who are credited with the success of the treaty negotiations, Aristide Briand and Gustav Stresemann, were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts. The Territory of the Saar Basin was put under a League of Nations mandate but was de facto a French protectorate. In 1935 (two years after Hitler had been appointed chancellor) a previously agreed to referendum was held, transferring sovereignty over the Saar Area to Germany. The reference to \"1937 borders\" (:de:Deutsches Reich in den Grenzen vom 31. Dezember 1937) was used after the war to allow for the inclusion of the Saar Area into this concept of \"Germany\" while at the same time excluding the territorial developments of 1938 and early 1939 (see below), which were widely seen as the illegitimate result of German aggression and Anglo-French appeasement after the war.\n\nA main point of Nazi ideology was to reunify all Germans either born or living outside of Germany to create an \"all-German Reich\". These beliefs ultimately resulted in the Munich Agreement, which ceded to Germany areas of Czechoslovakia that were mainly inhabited by Sudeten Germans, and the Anschluss, which ceded the entire country of Austria to Germany; both events occurred in 1938. Later (but still prior to the outbreak of general war in Europe) the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was formed which included a Czech ethnic majority and a German speaking minority among other ethnic groups. Among the Origins of World War II in Europe was the German irredentist demand to the Polish corridor an ethnically diverse but predominantly Polish area that separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany and was the only access to the sea for the Second Polish Republic. Another point of contention in the interwar German-Polish relationship was the status of the Free City of Danzig which had an ethnic German majority population but had become a League of Nations backed City State following World War I due to its strategic importance.\n\nDuring German partition both states initially claimed their intention was an eventual German reunification, but East Germany eventually abandoned this claim. The German Basic Law contained both an exhortation towards reunification and a provision (Article 23) concerning the \"joining of other German areas\" to the area of validity of the Basic Law. Article 23 was struck from the Basic Law in the course of reunification and has since been replaced with an unrelated provision concerning the European Union. The German Democratic Republic was relatively quick to officially endorse the Oder Neisse line as its new eastern border, signing the Treaty of Zgorzelec in 1950. However, there remained irredentist sentiment regarding territory east of the new border among the populous of both German states. Most of the West German public and political class refused to accept the loss of the eastern territories in the early years of the postwar era as evidenced by a list of potential car license plates for cities in the GDR, in areas lost due to World War II and even in areas like the former Free City of Danzig. The government of Willy Brandt (governed 1969-1974) made efforts to de facto recognize the postwar status quo in exchange for political rapprochement in the course of Ostpolitik, accepting among other things the entry of both East and West Germany into the United Nations in 1973. Willy Brandt was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize for his reconciliation efforts. However, the slim majority his social-liberal coalition had won in the 1969 German federal election had dwindled by 1972 because several members of the Social Democratic Party and the Free Democratic Party had switched parties due to their disagreement with Ostpolitik. After surprisingly surviving the 1972 constructive vote of no confidence, the government was reelected in a landslide in the 1972 German federal election which was held a year early in light of events. While the CDU/CSU government of Helmut Kohl which came into office in 1982 did not reverse Ostpolitik, the treaties accepting the postwar borders had been carefully worded so as to preserve the option of some different \"final settlement\" in the course of a peace treaty or following a possible German reunification. Thus the question of German claims to territory outside the two German states became acute again in the course of the negotiations that ultimately led to the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany or \"two plus four agreement\" and the final official renunciation of all German claims to any territory beyond the borders it achieved on October 3, 1990. Since then irredentist claims have been limited to a tiny far right minority and have had no major influence on national politics. However, in the course of the Kaliningrad question there were negotiations between Germany and Russia as to whether sovereignty should be transferred to Germany.\n\nGreece\n\nFollowing the Greek War of Independence in 1821\u20131832, Greece began to contest areas inhabited by Greeks, primarily against the Ottoman Empire. The Megali Idea (Great Idea) envisioned Greek incorporation of Greek-inhabited lands, but also historical lands in Asia Minor corresponding with the predominantly Greek and Orthodox Byzantine Empire and the dominions of the ancient Greeks.\n\nThe Greek quest began with the acquisition of Thessaly through the Convention of Constantinople in 1881, a failed war against Turkey in 1897 and the Balkan Wars (Macedonia, Epirus, some Aegean Islands). After World War I, Greece acquired Western Thrace from Bulgaria as per the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine, but also Ionia/Smyrna and Eastern Thrace (excluding Constantinople) from the Ottoman Empire as ordained in the Treaty of S\u00e8vres. Subsequently, Greece launched an unsuccessful campaign to further their gains in Asia Minor, but were halted by the Turkish War of Independence. The events culminated into the Great Fire of Smyrna, Population exchange between Greece and Turkey, and Treaty of Lausanne which returned Eastern Thrace and Ionia to the newfound Republic of Turkey. The events are known as the \"Asia Minor Catastrophe\" to Greeks. The Ionian Islands were ceded by Britain in 1864, and the Dodecanese by Italy in 1947.\n\nAnother concern of the Greeks is the incorporation of Cyprus which was ceded by the Ottomans to the British. As a result of the Cyprus Emergency the island gained independence as the Republic of Cyprus in 1960. The failed incorporation by Greece through coup d'\u00e9tat and the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 led to the formation of the mostly unrecognized Northern Cyprus and has culminated into the present-day Cyprus issue.\n\nHungary\n\nThe restoration of the borders of Hungary to their state prior to World War I, in order to unite all ethnic Hungarians within the same country once again.\n\nHungarian irredentism or Greater Hungary are irredentist and revisionist political ideas concerning redemption of territories of the historical Kingdom of Hungary. The idea is associated with Hungarian revisionism, targeting at least to regain control over Hungarian-populated areas in Hungary's neighbouring countries. Hungarian historians did not use the term Greater Hungary, because the \"Historic Hungary\" is the established term for the Kingdom of Hungary before 1920.\n\nThe Treaty of Trianon defined the borders of the new independent Hungary and, compared against the claims of the pre-war Kingdom, new Hungary had approximately 72% less land stake and about two-thirds fewer inhabitants, almost 5 million of these being of Hungarian ethnicity. However, only 54% of the inhabitants of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary were Hungarians before World War I. Following the treaty's instatement, Hungarian leaders became inclined towards revoking some of its terms. This political aim gained greater attention and was a serious national concern up through the second World War. Irredentism in the 1930s led Hungary to form an alliance with Nazi Germany. Eva S. Balogh states: \"Hungary's participation in World War II resulted from a desire to revise the Treaty of Trianon so as to recover territories lost after World War I. This revisionism was the basis for Hungary's interwar foreign policy.\"\n\nBetween November 1938 and April 1941, Hungary took full advantage of German patronage and, in four different stages, approximately doubled her size. Ethnically, these acquisitions were a mixed bag, some were populated mostly by Hungarians, while others, such as the remainder of Carpathian Ruthenia, were almost wholly non-Hungarian in composition. However, regarding partitioned Transylvania, the population was mixed, near equal between Hungarians and non-Hungarians.\n \nHungary began with the First Vienna Award in 1938 (redeeming southern Slovakia from Czechoslovakia with mainly Hungarians) and the Second Vienna Award in 1940 (Northern Transylvania). Through military campaigns it gained the remainder of Carpathian Ruthenia in 1939. In 1941 it added the Yugoslav parts of Ba\u010dka, Baranja, Me\u0111imurje, and Prekmurje.\n\nAfter defeat in 1945, the borders of Hungary as defined by the Treaty of Trianon were restored, except for three Hungarian villages that were transferred to Czechoslovakia. These villages are today administratively a part of Bratislava.\n\nItaly\n\nItalian irredentism was a political movement during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Italy with irredentist goals which promoted the unification of geographic areas in which indigenous peoples were considered to be ethnic Italians. At the beginning, the movement promoted the annexation to Italy of territories where Italians formed the absolute majority of the population, but retained by the Austrian Empire after the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866. During World War I the main \"irredent lands\" (terre irredente) were considered to be the provinces of Trento and Trieste and, in a narrow sense, irredentists referred to the Italian patriots living in these two areas.\n\nItalian irredentism was not a formal organization but rather an opinion movement, advocated by several different groups, claiming that Italy had to reach its \"natural borders\" or unify territories inhabited by Italians. Similar nationalistic ideas were common in Europe in the late 19th century. This idea of Italia irredenta is not to be confused with the Risorgimento, the historical events that led to irredentism, nor with nationalism or Imperial Italy, the political philosophy that took the idea further under fascism. \n\nThe term was later expanded to also include multilingual and multiethnic areas, where Italians were a relative majority or a substantial minority, within the northern Italian region encompassed by the Alps, with German, Italian, Slovene, Croatian, Ladin and Istro-Romanian population, such as South Tyrol, Istria, Gorizia and Gradisca and part of Dalmatia. The claims were further extended also to the city of Fiume, Corsica, the island of Malta, the County of Nice and Italian Switzerland.\n\nAfter the end of World War I, the Italian irredentist movement was hegemonised, manipulated and distorted by fascism, which made it an instrument of nationalist propaganda, placed at the center of a policy, conditioned by belated imperial ambitions, which took the form of \"forced Italianizations\" , in the aspiration for the birth of a Great Italy and a vast Italian Empire. After World War II, Italian irredentism disappeared along with the defeated Fascists and the Monarchy of the House of Savoy. After the Treaty of Paris (1947) and the Treaty of Osimo (1975), all territorial claims were abandoned by the Italian Republic (see Foreign relations of Italy). The Italian irredentist movement thus vanished from Italian politics.\n\nLithuania\n\nEthnographic Lithuania is a nationalist concept that defines Lithuanian territories as a significant part of the territories that belonged to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Lithuanians as all people living on them, regardless of whether those people contemporarily or currently speak the Lithuanian language and considered themselves Lithuanian. According to the supporters of the ethnographic Lithuania, Lithuanian Poles and Northwestern Belarusians were \"slavicized Lithuanians\" who needed to be re-Lithuanized. They argued that an individual cannot decide on his ethnicity and nationality, which are decided not by language but ancestry.\n\nNorth Macedonia\n\nSome Macedonian nationalists promoted the irredentist concept of a United Macedonia () among ethnic Macedonian nationalists, which involves territorial claims on the northern province of Macedonia in Greece, but also in Blagoevgrad Province (\"Pirin Macedonia\") in Bulgaria, Albania, and Serbia. The United Macedonia concept aims to unify the transnational region of Macedonia in the Balkans (which they claim as their homeland and which they assert was wrongfully divided under the Treaty of Bucharest in 1913), into a single state under their domination, with Thessaloniki (Solun in the Slavic languages) as its capital.\n\nNorway\nThe Kingdom of Norway had several territorial disputes throughout its history, mainly regarding islands and sea boundaries in the Arctic Ocean. The Old Kingdom of Norway, which was the Norwegian territories at its maximum extent, included Iceland, the settleable areas of Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and the Northern Isles and Hebrides (today part of Scotland). Under Danish sovereignty since they established a hegemonic position in the Kalmar Union, the territories were considered as Norwegian colonies. When in the Treaty of Kiel in 1814, Norway's territories were transferred from Denmark to Sweden, the territories of Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands were maintained by Denmark.\n\nIn 1919, the foreign minister of Norway, Nils Claus Ihlen, declared that the Norwegians would not object to a claim of Denmark to the whole island of Greenland, which at the time was mostly occupied by Danish colonies, with a few Norwegian settlements in the eastern part of the island. The claim was formally declared in 1921, but the Norwegian government rejected Denmark's claim and later stated that parts of eastern Greenland belonged to Norway. A dispute between the two countries was not settled until 1933, by the Permanent Court of International Justice. The court concluded that Denmark had sovereignty of the whole island of Greenland, ending Norwegian control over Erik the Red's Land. Norway formerly included the provinces J\u00e4mtland, H\u00e4rjedalen, Idre-S\u00e4rna (lost since the Second Treaty of Br\u00f6msebro), and Bohusl\u00e4n (lost since the Treaty of Roskilde), which were ceded to Sweden after Danish defeats in wars such as the Thirty Years' War and Second Northern War.\n\nPoland\n\nKresy (\"Borderlands\") are the eastern lands that formerly belonged to Poland and held a sizable amount of Polish population. In 1921, during the Polish-Soviet war, Polish troops crossed the Curzon Line that had been declared as the eastern polish border by an international commission, and in the Kiev offensive (1920) conquered territories, now today inside the borders of Ukraine and Belarus, which were claimed to have been taken from Poland during the Partitions of Poland, and also seized 7 percent of Lithuania's territory. The new polish territories east of the Curzon line were taken back by the Soviet Union in 1939 under the Molotov\u2013Ribbentrop Pact after the Soviet-German invasion of Poland, and include major cities, like Lviv (Lw\u00f3w) (nowadays Ukraine), Vilnius (Wilno) (today the capital of Lithuania), and Hrodna (Grodno) (Belarus), which all had majority Polish population. Even though Kresy, or the Eastern Borderlands, are no longer Polish territories, the area is still inhabited by a significant Polish minority, and the memory of the Polish Kresy is still cultivated. The attachment to the \"myth of Kresy\", the vision of the region as a peaceful, idyllic, rural land, has been criticized in Polish discourse.\n\nIn January, February and March 2012, the Centre for Public Opinion Research conducted a survey, asking Poles about their ties to the Kresy. It turned out that almost 15% of the population of Poland (4.3\u20134.6 million people) declared that they had either been born in the Kresy, or had a parent or a grandparent who came from that region. Numerous treasures of Polish culture remain and there are numerous Kresy-oriented organizations. There are Polish sports clubs (Pogo\u0144 Lw\u00f3w, and formerly FK Polonia Vilnius), newspapers (Gazeta Lwowska, Kurier Wile\u0144ski), radio stations (in Lviv and Vilnius), numerous theatres, schools, choirs and folk ensembles. Poles living in Kresy are helped by Fundacja Pomoc Polakom na Wschodzie, a Polish government-sponsored organization, as well as other organizations, such as The Association of Help of Poles in the East Kresy (see also Karta Polaka). Money is frequently collected to help those Poles who live in the Kresy, and there are several annual events, such as a Christmas Package for a Polish Veteran in Kresy, and Summer with Poland, sponsored by the Association \"Polish Community\", in which Polish children from Kresy are invited to visit Poland. Polish language handbooks and films, as well as medicines and clothes are collected and sent to Kresy. Books are most often sent to Polish schools which exist there\u2014for example, in December 2010, The University of Wroc\u0142aw organized an event called Become a Polish Santa Claus and Give a Book to a Polish Child in Kresy. Polish churches and cemeteries (such as Cemetery of the Defenders of Lw\u00f3w) are renovated with money from Poland.\n\nPortugal\n\nPortugal does not recognize Spanish sovereignty over the territory of Olivenza, ceded to Spain during the Napoleonic Wars.\n\nRomania\n\nRomanian nationalists lay claims to Greater Romania, but especially to Moldova, most of the territory which was part of the country between 1918 and 1940. Moldovan was the Soviet name for the Romanian language. There is some (but not universal) support by Moldovans for a peaceful and voluntary reunion with Romania, not least because (having joined the European Union), the economy has burgeoned and Romanian citizens have gained freedom of movement in Europe. Also, Russian irredentism over Transnistria has caused alarm and resentment.\n\nRussia\n\nThe annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation in 2014 was based on a claim of protecting ethnic Russians residing there. Crimea was part of the Russian Empire from 1783 to 1917, after which it enjoyed a few years of autonomy until it was made part of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (which was a part of the Soviet Union) from 1921 to 1954 and then transferred to Soviet Ukraine (which also was a part of", "\u0440\u0430\u043a \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043b \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0412\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0443.\n\n\u0412 2012\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u044b \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430, \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u0432 51,73\u00a0% \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043b \u041c\u0443\u0445\u0430\u043c\u043c\u0435\u0434 \u041c\u0443\u0440\u0441\u0438. 21 \u0438\u044e\u043d\u044f 2012\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043e\u043d \u0432\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0438\u043b \u0432 \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430.\n\u0412 \u043d\u043e\u0447\u044c \u0441 3 \u043d\u0430 4 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f 2013\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041c\u0443\u0445\u0430\u043c\u043c\u0435\u0434 \u041c\u0443\u0440\u0441\u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0433\u043d\u0443\u0442 \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u043a\u0435 \u0430\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438. \u0412 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u0435\u0434\u0448\u0438\u0445 26\u201428 \u043c\u0430\u044f 2014\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0410\u0431\u0434\u0443\u043b-\u0424\u0430\u0442\u0442\u0430\u0445 \u0410\u0441-\u0421\u0438\u0441\u0438.\n\n\u041a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u043f\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f: \u0411\u0440\u0430\u0442\u044c\u044f-\u043c\u0443\u0441\u0443\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0435 (\u0437\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0430; 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\u0437\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0446\u0438\u0438. \u041f\u0440\u0438 \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u041d\u0430\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0432 1798\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0415\u0433\u0438\u043f\u0442\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 3 \u043c\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430. \u0412 1939\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0415\u0433\u0438\u043f\u0442\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u043b\u043e 16,5\u00a0\u043c\u043b\u043d \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043e \u0432\u0434\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0438 \u0432 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u043a\u0438 \u041d\u0438\u043b (\u0432 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u041a\u0430\u0438\u0440\u0435 \u0438 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0438\u0438), \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0432\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0438 \u0421\u0443\u044d\u0446\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430. \u041e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e 90\u00a0% \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0438\u0441\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0430, \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0445\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430, \u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0443\u044e \u043e\u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u044c \u043a\u043e\u043f\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438. \u041d\u0430\u0440\u044f\u0434\u0443 \u0441 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438\u043e\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0434\u043b\u0435\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e, \u0435\u0433\u0438\u043f\u0442\u044f\u043d\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0433\u0443\u0442 \u0431\u044b\u0442\u044c \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0435\u0445, \u043a\u0442\u043e \u0436\u0438\u0432\u0451\u0442 \u0432 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u0438 \u0444\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0432, \u0444\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0438", " humans leave on walls. Here he found the entire range of the human condition in a single motif, without any cultural, racial, political, geographical, or stylistic, limitations. Dogan\u00e7ay got to the heart of his exploration when he said:\n\nWalls are the mirror of society.\n\nDogancay's consequential execution, his radical thematic self-limitation and obsession with capturing what interested him most is comparable to other \"documentarians\" such as August Sander (portraits) and Karl Blossfeldt (plants). His pictures are not snapshots but elaborate segmentations of surfaces, subtle studies of materials, colors, structures and light, sometimes resembling monochromies in their radical reductionism. Over time, this project gained importance as well as content; after four decades it encompasses about 30'000 images from more than 100 countries across five continents. In 1982, images from the archive were exhibited as a one-man exhibition at the Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris; it later traveled to the Palais des Beaux-Arts, Brussels, and the Mus\u00e9e d'Art Contemporain, Montreal.\n\nPainting and collage\n\nWith posters and objects gathered from walls forming the main ingredient for his work, Dogan\u00e7ay's preferred medium has been predominantly 'collage' and to some extent 'fumage'. Dogan\u00e7ay re-creates the look of urban billboards, graffiti-covered wall surfaces, as well as broken or neglected entrances, such as windows and doors, in different series. The only masters with whom he compares himself are Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns from the last heroic period of art, of which he was a part. Dogancay, however, has always preferred to reproduce fragments of wall surface in their mutual relations just as he found them, and with minimal adjustment of color or position, rather than to up-end them or combine them casually as in the Rauschenberg manner.\n\nIn large measure his practice has been one of simulation in the spirit of record-keeping, carried out with the collector's rather than the scavenger's eye. In many cases, his paintings evoke the decay and destruction of the city, the alienated feeling that urban life is in ruins and out of control, and cannot be integrated again. Pictorial fragments are often detached from their original context and rearranged in new, sometimes inscrutable combinations. His complex and uniformly experimental painterly oeuvre ranges from photographic realism to abstraction, from pop art to material image/montage/collage.\n\nIn the 1970s and 1980s, he gained fame with his interpretation of urban walls in his signature ribbons series, which consist of clean paper strips and their calligraphy-like shadows. These contrast with his collaged billboard works, such as the Cones Series, Doors Series or Alexander's Walls. These brightly intense, curvilinear ribbon forms seem to burst forth from flat, solid-colored backgrounds. The graceful ribbonlike shapes take on a three-dimensional quality, especially as suggested by the implied shadows. This series later gave rise to alucobond\u2013aluminum composite shadow sculptures and the series known as Aubusson Tapestries.\n\nTamarind lithography \n\nIn 1969, Henry Geldzahler, then head of 20th Century Art Department at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, secured a fellowship for Dogancay at the Tamarind Lithography Workshop in Los Angeles. The workshop, founded by June Wayne, was a ten-year project, attended by approximately seventy artists \u2013 among them were Ed Ruscha, Jim Dine, Josef Albers and Louise Nevelson \u2013 between 1960 and 1970, conceived to promote lithography in the USA. Dogancay created sixteen lithographs, including a suite of eleven impressions titled Walls V. These marked a turning point in his career as they are essentially a dialogue with flatness. At the workshop, in part because of the medium, he was obliged to relinquish his casual approach, inspired by his raw subject matter, in favor of organizing his work graphically. This imposed discipline helped him to create arresting new effects that led to more defined flat areas and brighter colors within the images. Dogancay created a new resolution between subject and method, and was a profound influence on his future evolution as an artist. A canon of high-colored tonality and visual impact has remained for him the essence of urban contradiction which he wants to share with viewers of his works.\n\nAubusson Tapestry\n\nIn Paris, Dogancay was introduced to Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Picaud, owner of L'Atelier Raymond Picaud in Aubusson, France. Fascinated by Dogan\u00e7ay's Ribbons series and believing they would be ideal tapestry subjects, he invited Dogan\u00e7ay to submit several tapestry cartoons. In the words of Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Picaud, \"the art of tapestry has found its leader for the 21st century in Burhan Dogan\u00e7ay\". The first three Dogan\u00e7ay tapestries woven in 1984 were an immediate critical success.\n\nArt market\n\nIn November 2009, one of Dogan\u00e7ay's paintings, Mavi Senfoni (Symphony in Blue), was sold in auction to Murat \u00dclker for US$1,700,000. This collage relates to an impressive cycle of works within the Dogan\u00e7ay oeuvre, called Cones series, that evolved as a development of his iconic Breakthrough and Ribbon series and as an exhilarating exploration of the urban space. Together with its two sister works, Magnificent Era (collection of Istanbul Modern) and Mimar Sinan (private collection), Symphony in Blue is one of the largest and most expressive works in which Dogan\u00e7ay enters into a dialogue with the history of Turkey. It was executed in 1987 for the first International Istanbul Biennial. Istanbul Modern commissioned composer Kamran Ince to set Mavi Senfoni to music. The solo piano piece was premiered by Huseyin Sermet on 26 June 2012.\n\nIn May 2015, Dogancay's painting Mavi G\u00fczel (Blue Beauty) from the Ribbon Series sold for TL 1,050,000 (US$390\u2019000) at Antik AS in Istanbul\n\nDo\u011fan\u00e7ay Museum \nThe Do\u011fan\u00e7ay Museum is exclusively dedicated to the work of Burhan Do\u011fan\u00e7ay, and to a minor extent also to the art of his father, Adil. It provides a retrospective survey of the artist's various creative phases from his student days up to his death, with about 100 works on display. Established in 2004, the Do\u011fan\u00e7ay Museum in Istanbul's Beyo\u011flu district is being considered to be Turkey's first contemporary art museum.\n\nDo\u011fan\u00e7ay's works are in the collections of many museums around the world including New York's MoMA, Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum as well as National Gallery of Art in Washington, MUMOK in Vienna, Mus\u00e9e National d'Art Moderne in Paris, Istanbul Modern in Istanbul, The Israel Museum in Jerusalem and The State Russian Museum in St. Petersburg.\n\nWorks in public collections (selection)\n\n 1964: Billboard, New York, The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum\n 1964: Yankees and Beatles, London, Tate Modern\n 1965: Eddie, Vienna, Albertina\n 1966: Peace of Mind, Mannheim, Kunsthalle\n 1966: Diner's Window, Dallas, Dallas Museum of Art\n 1966: J. Payn Window, Minneapolis, Walker Art Center\n 1969: New York Puzzle, Stuttgart, Staatsgalerie\n 1969: untitled, Washington, National Gallery of Art\n 1969: Walls V, New York, MoMA\n 1969: untitled, Cambridge/MA, Harvard Art Museums\n 1974: Red and Black Composition No. 5, New York, The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum\n 1975: White Cone & Shadow, Basel, Kunstmuseum\n 1977: Heart No. 26, Saint-Paul de Vence, Fondation Maeght\n 1979: Lofty Ribbons, London, British Museum\n 1980s: Whispering Wall III, London, V&A Museum\n 1980s: #150, Vienna, MAK\n 1980: Long Lost Ribbons, Vienna, mumok stiftung ludwig\n 1980: untitled, Bruxelles, Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium\n 1982: Ribbon Mania, New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art\n 1987: Magnificent Era, Istanbul, Istanbul Modern\n 1987: Symphony in Blue, Istanbul, Yildiz Holding (Murat \u00dclker)\n 1989: Kinder, Hannover, Sprengel Museum\n 1989: Neruda, Stockholm, Moderna Museet\n 1989: Versace Man, Los Angeles, Los Angeles County Museum\n 1992: I Am Really Old, Salzburg, Museum oder Moderne\n 1995: Tit Steaks, Ann Arbor/MI, University of Michigan Museum of Art\n 1997: Garden of Eden, Munich, Pinakothek der Moderne\n 1997: Push Love, Saint Louis, Saint Louis Art Museum\n 1998: Two Fine Red Lines, Vienna, Albertina\n 2002: Red Ada, Geneva, Mus\u00e9e d'art et d'histoire (MAH)\n 2002: Throw FD, Pittsburgh, Carnegie Museum of Art\n 2008: Peace Partners, Cleveland, Cleveland Museum of Art\n 2009: Rising Star, Boston, Museum of Fine Arts Boston\n 2011: The Days of the Fez, Vienna, Albertina\n\nAwards \n 2005 \u2013 Contribution to the Arts Award given by the International Contemporary Art Exposition, \u0130stanbul\n 2005 \u2013 Art Honor Award given by the Art Forum Plastic Arts Fair, Ankara\n 2004 \u2013 Honorary doctorate from Hacettepe University, Ankara\n 2004 \u2013 Painter of the Year Award given by Sanat Kurumu, Ankara\n 1995 \u2013 National Medal for the Arts for Lifetime Achievement & Cultural Contribution given by the President of the Republic of Turkey\n 1992 \u2013 Medal of Appreciation given by the Ministry of Culture of Russia\n 1984 \u2013 Enka Arts & Science Award, \u0130stanbul\n 1969 \u2013 Tamarind Lithography Workshop Fellowship, Los Angeles\n 1964 \u2013 Certificate of Appreciation by the City of New York\n\nExhibitions\n\nSolo exhibitions (selection)\n1976: Istanbul: Galeri Baraz. Burhan Dogan\u00e7ay\n1977: Zurich: Kunstsalon Wolfsberg. Acrylmalereien und Gouachen 1966\u20131976 \n1982: Paris: Centre Georges Pompidou. Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ... \n1983: Montreal: Mus\u00e9e d'art contemporain de Montr\u00e9al\n1983: Antwerp: International Cultural Center\n1989: Tokyo: The Seibu Museum of Art\u2013Yurakucho Art Forum. Dogan\u00e7ay\n1992: St. Petersburg: Russian Museum. Walls and Doors 1990\u201391\n1993: Istanbul: Atat\u00fcrk Cultural Center. Walls 1990\u201393 (Organized by Yah\u015fi Baraz)\n2000: New York: The Brooklyn Historical Society. Bridge of Dreams. \n2001: Istanbul: Dolmabah\u00e7e Cultural Center. Dogan\u00e7ay: A Retrospective (Organized by Dr. Nejat F. Eczac\u0131ba\u015f\u0131 Foundation)\n2001: Athens, Ohio: Kennedy Museum of Art\u2013Ohio University. Dogan\u00e7ay\u2013Wall Paintings from the Museum Collection\n2003: Siegen: Siegerlandmuseum. Walls of the World\n2012: Istanbul: Istanbul Modern. Fifty Years of Urban Walls: A Burhan Dogancay Retrospective\n2014: Istanbul: Dogan\u00e7ay Museum. Picture the World: Burhan Dogan\u00e7ay as Photographer\n2016: Ankara: CER Modern. Picture the World: Burhan Dogan\u00e7ay as Photographer\n2016: Essen: Museum Folkwang. New to the collection: Burhan Dogancay\n2016: Taipei: Taiwan National Museum of History. Picture the World: Burhan Dogan\u00e7ay as Photographer\n2017: Vienna: Albertina. Burhan Dogan\u00e7ay (works on paper)\n2018: Leverkusen: Museum Morsbroich. Zeichen an der Wand\n\nGroup exhibitions (selection)\n1972: New York: Pace Gallery. Printmakers at Pace\n1977: New York: Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. From the American Collection\n1983: Washington: National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution\n1987: Istanbul: 1st International Istanbul Biennial\n1999: New York: The Museum of the City of New York, The New York Century: World Capital, Home Town, 1900\u20132000\n2006: Fredonia, N.Y.: Rockefeller Arts Center Art Gallery. Connoisseurship\n2009: Salzburg: Museum der Moderne. SPOTLIGHT\n2009: Biel/Bienne: CentrePasquArt. Collage\u2013D\u00e9collage: Dogan\u00e7ay\u2013Villegl\u00e9\n2009: Berlin: Martin-Gropius-Bau. Istanbul Next Wave\n2010: London: British Museum. Modern Turkish Art at the British Museum\n2010: Minneapolis, MN: Walker Art Center, Perlman Gallery. 50/50: Audience and Experts Curate the Paper Collection\n2012: Vienna: Belvedere, Orangerie. Kokoschka sucht einen Rahmen\n2012: Maastricht: Bonnefantenmuseum. Different Impressions, Changing Traditions\n2013: Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Uncontainable Portraits\n2013: Doha: Bahrain National Museum. Istanbul Modern-Bahrain\n2013: Grenoble: Mus\u00e9e de Grenoble-Biblioth\u00e8que Teisseire-Malherbe. Les Mots dans l'Art\n2013: Zurich: Museum Haus Konstruktiv. Hotspot Istanbul\n2013: Minneapolis: Weisman Art Museum. Reviewing The Real\n2013: New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Fifty Years of Collecting Islamic Art\n2014: Boston: Museum of Fine Arts. National Pride (and Prejudice)\n2015: Stockholm: Moderna Museet. A Larger World\n2015: Leverkusen: Museum Morsbroich. Eddie Murphy und die Milk-Brothers\n2016: Los Angeles: LACMA. Islamic Art Now, Part 2\n2016: Istanbul: Elgiz Museum. Faces & Masks\n2016: Purchase/NY: Neuberger Museum of Art. Post No Bills: Public Walls as Studio and Source\n2017: Minneapolis: Weisman Art Museum. Prince from Minneapolis\n2017: Wolfsburg: Kunstmuseum Wolfsburg. Im K\u00e4fig der Freiheit\n2017: Saint-Paul-de-Vence: Fondation Maeght. Is this how men live?\n2018: Ankara: Evliyagil Museum. Icons of Thinking: Images and Texts\n2019: Vienna: Albertina. Warhol to Richter\n2019: Istanbul: Istanbul Modern. The Event of a Thread: Global Narratives in Textiles\n2019: Wolfsburg: Kunstmuseum Wolfsburg. Now is the Time\n2019: Geneva: MAMCO Mus\u00e9e d'art moderne et contemporain. Collection(s)\n2020: London: Tate Modern. Materials and Objects: Collage\n2021: London: British Museum. Reflections: Contemporary Art of the Middle East and North Africa\n2021: Zurich: Museum Haus Konstruktiv. Works on Paper from the Collection\n2021: Ann Arbor/MI: University of Michigan Museum of Art. You Are Here\n\nReferences \n\n Emslander, Fritz, Dogramaci, Burcu, \"Burhan Do\u011fan\u00e7ay Zeichen an der Wand\", Wien, VfmK, 2018, \n Schr\u00f6der, Klaus-Albrecht, Lahner, Elsy, \"Burhan Dogancay\", Wien, Hirmer Verlag, 2017, 978-3777428871\n K\u00f6b, Eldelbert, Zuckriegel, Margit, Kushner, Marilyn, et al., \"Picture the World \u2013 Burhan Dogancay As Photographer\", Istanbul, Dogancay Museum Publications, 2014, 978-6056504303\n Calikogu, Levent, Giboire, Clive, Taylor, Brandon, Vine, Richard, Fifty Years of Urban Walls: A Burhan Dogan\u00e7ay Retrospective, Munich, Prestel, 2012, .\n Piguet, Philippe, Denaro, Dolores, Collage-D\u00e9collage:Dogancay-Villegl\u00e9, N\u00fcrnberg, Verlag f\u00fcr Moderne Kunst, 2009, .\n Taylor, Brandon, Urban Walls \u2013 A Generation of Collage in Europe and America, New York, Hudson Hills Press, 2008, .\n Blanchebarbe, Ursula, Walls of the World, Bielefeld, Kerber Verlag, 2003, \n Budak, Emel, Burhan Dogancay: A Retrospective, Istanbul, Duran Editions, 2001, \n Vine, Richard, Burhan Dogan\u00e7ay: Works on Paper 1950 -2000, New York: Hudson Hills Press, 2003, \n Lopate, Phillip, Bridge of Dreams, New York, Hudson Hills Press, 1999, \n Moyer, Roy, Rigaud, Jacques, Messer, Thomas M., Dogan\u00e7ay, New York, Hudson Hills Press, 1986,\n\nExternal links \nBurhan Do\u011fan\u00e7ay's Official Website\nThe Do\u011fan\u00e7ay Museum's Official Website\nBurhan Dogan\u00e7ay photographs and sketchbooks at the New-York Historical Society\n\n1929 births\n2013 deaths\nPainters from New York City\nTurkish artists\nTurkish painters\nTurkish photographers\nAmerican people of Turkish descent\nAlumni of the Acad\u00e9mie de la Grande Chaumi\u00e8re\nAnkara University Faculty of Law alumni\nTurkish men's footballers\nMen's association football forwards\nGen\u00e7lerbirli\u011fi S", " the existence of an object is proved although no explicit example is constructed. ZFC, however, is still formalized in classical logic. The axiom of choice has also been thoroughly studied in the context of constructive mathematics, where non-classical logic is employed. The status of the axiom of choice varies between different varieties of constructive mathematics.\n\nIn Martin-L\u00f6f type theory and higher-order Heyting arithmetic, the appropriate statement of the axiom of choice is (depending on approach) included as an axiom or provable as a theorem. Errett Bishop argued that the axiom of choice was constructively acceptable, saying\n\nIn constructive set theory, however, Diaconescu's theorem shows that the axiom of choice implies the law of excluded middle (unlike in Martin-L\u00f6f type theory, where it does not). Thus the axiom of choice is not generally available in constructive set theory. A cause for this difference is that the axiom of choice in type theory does not have the extensionality properties that the axiom of choice in constructive set theory does.\n\nSome results in constructive set theory use the axiom of countable choice or the axiom of dependent choice, which do not imply the law of the excluded middle in constructive set theory. Although the axiom of countable choice in particular is commonly used in constructive mathematics, its use has also been questioned.\n\nIndependence\n\nIn 1938, Kurt G\u00f6del showed that the negation of the axiom of choice is not a theorem of ZF by constructing an inner model (the constructible universe) which satisfies ZFC and thus showing that ZFC is consistent if ZF itself is consistent. In 1963, Paul Cohen employed the technique of forcing, developed for this purpose, to show that, assuming ZF is consistent, the axiom of choice itself is not a theorem of ZF. He did this by constructing a much more complex model which satisfies ZF\u00acC (ZF with the negation of AC added as axiom) and thus showing that ZF\u00acC is consistent.\n\nTogether these results establish that the axiom of choice is logically independent of ZF. The assumption that ZF is consistent is harmless because adding another axiom to an already inconsistent system cannot make the situation worse. Because of independence, the decision whether to use the axiom of choice (or its negation) in a proof cannot be made by appeal to other axioms of set theory. The decision must be made on other grounds.\n\nOne argument given in favor of using the axiom of choice is that it is convenient to use it because it allows one to prove some simplifying propositions that otherwise could not be proved. Many theorems which are provable using choice are of an elegant general character: the cardinalities of any two sets are comparable, every nontrivial ring with unity has a maximal ideal, every vector space has a basis, every connected graph has a spanning tree, and every product of compact spaces is compact, among many others. Without the axiom of choice, these theorems may not hold for mathematical objects of large cardinality.\n\nThe proof of the independence result also shows that a wide class of mathematical statements, including all statements that can be phrased in the language of Peano arithmetic, are provable in ZF if and only if they are provable in ZFC. Statements in this class include the statement that P = NP, the Riemann hypothesis, and many other unsolved mathematical problems. When one attempts to solve problems in this class, it makes no difference whether ZF or ZFC is employed if the only question is the existence of a proof. It is possible, however, that there is a shorter proof of a theorem from ZFC than from ZF.\n\nThe axiom of choice is not the only significant statement which is independent of ZF. For example, the generalized continuum hypothesis (GCH) is not only independent of ZF, but also independent of ZFC. However, ZF plus GCH implies AC, making GCH a strictly stronger claim than AC, even though they are both independent of ZF.\n\nStronger axioms\nThe axiom of constructibility and the generalized continuum hypothesis each imply the axiom of choice and so are strictly stronger than it. In class theories such as Von Neumann\u2013Bernays\u2013G\u00f6del set theory and Morse\u2013Kelley set theory, there is an axiom called the axiom of global choice that is stronger than the axiom of choice for sets because it also applies to proper classes. The axiom of global choice follows from the axiom of limitation of size. Tarski's axiom, which is used in Tarski\u2013Grothendieck set theory and states (in the vernacular) that every set belongs to Grothendieck universe, is stronger than the axiom of choice.\n\nEquivalents\nThere are important statements that, assuming the axioms of ZF but neither AC nor \u00acAC, are equivalent to the axiom of choice. The most important among them are Zorn's lemma and the well-ordering theorem. In fact, Zermelo initially introduced the axiom of choice in order to formalize his proof of the well-ordering theorem.\n\nSet theory\nTarski's theorem about choice: For every infinite set A, there is a bijective map between the sets A and A\u00d7A.\nTrichotomy: If two sets are given, then either they have the same cardinality, or one has a smaller cardinality than the other.\nGiven two non-empty sets, one has a surjection to the other.\nEvery surjective function has a right inverse.\nThe Cartesian product of any family of nonempty sets is nonempty. In other words, every family of nonempty sets has a choice function (i.e. a function which maps each of the nonempty sets to one of its elements).\nK\u00f6nig's theorem: Colloquially, the sum of a sequence of cardinals is strictly less than the product of a sequence of larger cardinals. (The reason for the term \"colloquially\" is that the sum or product of a \"sequence\" of cardinals cannot itself be defined without some aspect of the axiom of choice.)\nWell-ordering theorem: Every set can be well-ordered. Consequently, every cardinal has an initial ordinal.\nEvery element of a partially ordered set S is the minimal element of a well-ordered subset having no strict upper bound in S.\nZorn's lemma: Every non-empty partially ordered set in which every chain (i.e., totally ordered subset) has an upper bound contains at least one maximal element.\nHausdorff maximal principle: Every partially ordered set has a maximal chain. Equivalently, in any partially ordered set, every chain can be extended to a maximal chain.\nTukey's lemma: Every non-empty collection of finite character has a maximal element with respect to inclusion.\nAntichain principle: Every partially ordered set has a maximal antichain. Equivalently, in any partially ordered set, every antichain can be extended to a maximal antichain. \nAbstract algebra\nEvery vector space has a basis (i.e., a linearly independent spanning subset). In other words, vector spaces are equivalent to free modules.\nKrull's theorem: Every unital ring (other than the trivial ring) contains a maximal ideal. Equivalently, in any nontrivial unital ring, every ideal can be extended to a maximal ideal.\nFor every non-empty set S there is a binary operation defined on S that gives it a group structure. (A cancellative binary operation is enough, see group structure and the axiom of choice.)\nEvery free abelian group is projective.\nBaer's criterion: Every divisible abelian group is injective.\nEvery set is a projective object in the category Set of sets.\nFunctional analysis\nThe closed unit ball of the dual of a normed vector space over the reals has an extreme point.\nPoint-set topology\nThe Cartesian product of any family of connected topological spaces is connected.\nTychonoff's theorem: The Cartesian product of any family of compact topological spaces is compact.\nIn the product topology, the closure of a product of subsets is equal to the product of the closures.\nMathematical logic\nIf S is a set of sentences of first-order logic and B is a consistent subset of S, then B is included in a set that is maximal among consistent subsets of S. The special case where S is the set of all first-order sentences in a given signature is weaker, equivalent to the Boolean prime ideal theorem; see the section \"Weaker forms\" below.\nAlgebraic topology\nEvery connected graph has a spanning tree. Equivalently, every nonempty graph has a spanning forest.\n\nCategory theory\nThere are several results in category theory which invoke the axiom of choice for their proof. These results might be weaker than, equivalent to, or stronger than the axiom of choice, depending on the strength of the technical foundations. For example, if one defines categories in terms of sets, that is, as sets of objects and morphisms (usually called a small category), or even locally small categories, whose hom-objects are sets, then there is no category of all sets, and so it is difficult for a category-theoretic formulation to apply to all sets. On the other hand, other foundational descriptions of category theory are considerably stronger, and an identical category-theoretic statement of choice may be stronger than the standard formulation, \u00e0 la class theory, mentioned above.\n\nExamples of category-theoretic statements which require choice include:\nEvery small category has a skeleton.\nIf two small categories are weakly equivalent, then they are equivalent.\nEvery continuous functor on a small-complete category which satisfies the appropriate solution set condition has a left-adjoint (the Freyd adjoint functor theorem).\n\nWeaker forms\nThere are several weaker statements that are not equivalent to the axiom of choice, but are closely related. One example is the axiom of dependent choice (DC). A still weaker example is the axiom of countable choice (AC\u03c9 or CC), which states that a choice function exists for any countable set of nonempty sets. These axioms are sufficient for many proofs in elementary mathematical analysis, and are consistent with some principles, such as the Lebesgue measurability of all sets of reals, that are disprovable from the full axiom of choice.\n\nGiven an ordinal parameter \u03b1 \u2265 \u03c9+2 \u2014 for every set S with rank less than \u03b1, S is well-orderable.\nGiven an ordinal parameter \u03b1 \u2265 1 \u2014 for every set S with Hartogs number less than \u03c9\u03b1, S is well-orderable.\nAs the ordinal parameter is increased, these approximate the full axiom of choice more and more closely.\n\nOther choice axioms weaker than axiom of choice include the Boolean prime ideal theorem and the axiom of uniformization. The former is equivalent in ZF to Tarski's 1930 ultrafilter lemma: every filter is a subset of some ultrafilter.\n\nResults requiring AC (or weaker forms) but weaker than it\nOne of the most interesting aspects of the axiom of choice is the large number of places in mathematics that it shows up. Here are some statements that require the axiom of choice in the sense that they are not provable from ZF but are provable from ZFC (ZF plus AC). Equivalently, these statements are true in all models of ZFC but false in some models of ZF.\n\nSet theory\nThe ultrafilter lemma (with ZF) can be used to prove the Axiom of choice for finite sets: Given and a collection of non-empty sets, their product is not empty.\nThe union of any countable family of countable sets is countable (this requires countable choice but not the full axiom of choice).\nIf the set A is infinite, then there exists an injection from the natural numbers N to A (see Dedekind infinite).\nEight definitions of a finite set are equivalent.\nEvery infinite game in which is a Borel subset of Baire space is determined.\nMeasure theory\nThe Vitali theorem on the existence of non-measurable sets, which states that there exists a subset of the real numbers that is not Lebesgue measurable.\nThere exist Lebesgue-measurable subsets of the real numbers that are not Borel sets. That is, the Borel \u03c3-algebra on the real numbers (which is generated by all real intervals) is distinct from the Lebesgue-measure \u03c3-algebra on the real numbers.\nThe Hausdorff paradox.\nThe Banach\u2013Tarski paradox.\nAlgebra\nEvery field has an algebraic closure.\nEvery field extension has a transcendence basis.\nEvery infinite-dimensional vector space contains an infinite linearly independent subset (this requires dependent choice, but not the full axiom of choice).\nStone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras needs the Boolean prime ideal theorem.\nThe Nielsen\u2013Schreier theorem, that every subgroup of a free group is free.\nThe additive groups of R and C are isomorphic.\nFunctional analysis\nThe Hahn\u2013Banach theorem in functional analysis, allowing the extension of linear functionals\nThe theorem that every Hilbert space has an orthonormal basis.\nThe Banach\u2013Alaoglu theorem about compactness of sets of functionals.\nThe Baire category theorem about complete metric spaces, and its consequences, such as the open mapping theorem and the closed graph theorem.\nOn every infinite-dimensional topological vector space there is a discontinuous linear map.\nGeneral topology\nA uniform space is compact if and only if it is complete and totally bounded.\nEvery Tychonoff space has a Stone\u2013\u010cech compactification.\nMathematical logic\nG\u00f6del's completeness theorem for first-order logic: every consistent set of first-order sentences has a completion. That is, every consistent set of first-order sentences can be extended to a maximal consistent set.\nThe compactness theorem: If is a set of first-order (or alternatively, zero-order) sentences such that every finite subset of has a model, then has a model.\n\nPossibly equivalent implications of AC\nThere are several historically important set-theoretic statements implied by AC whose equivalence to AC is open. The partition principle, which was formulated before AC itself, was cited by Zermelo as a justification for believing AC. In 1906, Russell declared PP to be equivalent, but whether the partition principle implies AC is still the oldest open problem in set theory, and the equivalences of the other statements are similarly hard old open problems. In every known model of ZF where choice fails, these statements fail too, but it is unknown if they can hold without choice.\n\nSet theory\nPartition principle: if there is a surjection from A to B, there is an injection from B to A. Equivalently, every partition P of a set S is less than or equal to S in size.\nConverse Schr\u00f6der\u2013Bernstein theorem: if two sets have surjections to each other, they are equinumerous.\nWeak partition principle: if there is a injection and a surjection from A to B, then A and B are equinumerous. Equivalently, a partition of a set S cannot be strictly larger than S. If WPP holds, this already implies the existence of a non-measurable set. Each of the previous three statements is implied by the preceding one, but it is unknown if any of these implications can be reversed.\nThere is no infinite decreasing sequence of cardinals. The equivalence was conjectured by Schoenflies in 1905.\nAbstract algebra\nHahn embedding theorem: Every ordered abelian group G order-embeds as a subgroup of the additive group endowed with a lexicographical order, where \u03a9 is the set of Archimedean equivalence classes of G. This equivalence was conjectured by Hahn in 1907.\n\nStronger forms of the negation of AC\nIf we abbreviate by BP the claim that every set of real numbers has the property of Baire, then BP is stronger than \u00acAC, which asserts the nonexistence of any choice function on perhaps only a single set of nonempty sets. Strengthened negations may be compatible with weakened forms of AC. For example, ZF + DC + BP is consistent, if ZF is.\n\nIt is also consistent with ZF + DC that every set of reals is Lebesgue measurable; however, this consistency result, due to Robert M. Solovay, cannot be proved in ZFC itself, but requires a mild large cardinal assumption (the existence of an inaccessible cardinal). The much stronger axiom of determinacy, or AD, implies that every set of reals is Lebesgue measurable, has the property of Baire, and has the perfect set property (all three of these results are refuted by AC itself). ZF + DC + AD is consistent provided that a sufficiently strong large cardinal axiom is consistent (the existence of infinitely many Woodin cardinals).\n\nQuine's system of axiomatic set theory, New Foundations (NF), takes its name from the title (\"New Foundations for Mathematical Logic\") of the 1937 article which introduced it. In the NF axiomatic system, the axiom of choice can be disproved.\n\nStatements consistent with the negation of AC\nThere are models of Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory in which the axiom of choice is false. We shall abbreviate \"Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory plus the negation of the axiom of choice\" by ZF\u00acC. For certain models of ZF\u00acC, it is possible to prove the negation of some standard facts.\nAny model of ZF\u00acC is also a model of ZF, so for each of the following statements, there exists a model of ZF in which that statement is true.\n\nThere is a set that can be partitioned into strictly more equivalence classes than the original set has elements, and a function whose domain is strictly smaller than its range. In fact, this is the case in all known models.\nThere is a function f from the real numbers to the real numbers such that f is not continuous at a, but f is sequentially continuous at a, i.e., for any sequence {xn} converging to a, limn f(xn)=f(a).\nThere is an infinite set of real numbers without a countably infinite subset.\nThe real numbers are a countable union of countable sets. This does not imply that the real numbers are countable: As pointed out above, to show that a countable union of countable sets is itself countable requires the Axiom of countable choice.\nThere is a field with no algebraic closure.\nIn all models of ZF\u00acC there is a vector space with no basis.\nThere is a vector space with two bases of different cardinalities.\nThere is a free complete boolean algebra on countably many generators.\nThere is a set that cannot be linearly ordered.\nThere exists a model of ZF\u00acC in which every set in Rn is measurable. Thus it is possible to exclude counterintuitive results like the Banach\u2013Tarski paradox which are provable in ZFC. Furthermore, this is possible whilst assuming the Axiom of dependent choice, which is weaker than AC but sufficient to develop most of real analysis.\nIn all models of ZF\u00acC, the generalized continuum hypothesis does not hold.\n\nFor proofs, see .\n\nAdditionally, by imposing definability conditions on sets (in the sense of descriptive set theory) one can often prove restricted versions of the axiom of choice from axioms incompatible with general choice. This appears, for example, in the Moschovakis coding lemma.\n\nAxiom of choice in type theory \n\nIn type theory, a different kind of statement is known as the axiom of choice. This form begins with two types, \u03c3 and \u03c4, and a relation R between objects of type \u03c3 and objects of type \u03c4. The axiom of choice states that if for each x of type \u03c3 there exists", " Rhett Fisher (2023) Extreme Music\n \"Break Down My Life\" Rhett Fisher (2023) Extreme Music\n \"365\" by Salasnich feat Rhett Fisher (2023) Place Called Home\n \"ENEA\" by Chris River feat Rhett Fisher (2023) Enforce the Sound\n \"T.O.K.Y.O.\" by PKCZ (2022) LDH JAPAN\n \"BANG!\" by J-JUN Kim Jae-joong (2022) First JB music\n \"Gemini\" by Damian Breath feat Rhett Fisher (2022) Enforce The Sound\n \"Devil Eyes\" by Damian Breath feat Rhett Fisher (2022) Enforce The Sound\n \"Would I Lie to You\" by The Regos feat Rhett Fisher (2022) Enforce The Sound\n \"SUMMERTIME\" by Genki Iwahashi (2022) Rookie\n \"Knew Me\" by Melanie Injeyan (2022)\n \"Number One Guy\" by Rhett Fisher (2022) Voyant\n \"Everything I Overcome\" by Rhett Fisher (2022) Voyant\n \"Fearless\" by Rhett Fisher (2022) Voyant\n \"Love Myself\" by Rhapsody (2022) Dreamusic\n \"You Know What It's Like\" by Salasnich feat Rhett Fisher (2022) Storm Music\n \"Futures Past\" by Damian Breath feat Rhett Fisher (2022) Enforce the Sound\n \"ANO SORA WO HARASU TAMAENO LIST\" by Rhapsody (2022) Dreamusic\n \"CHIISANA KAMISAMA\" by Pink Flag (2022) Dreamusic\n \"NIJI WO OIKAKENAIKA\" by Rhapsody (2022) Dreamusic\n \"Kenkon Itteki\" by Haru No Jyujika (2022) Dreamusic\n \"Dai Ni Shou\" by Pink Flag (2022) Dreamusic\n \"I Believe\" by Sing 4 Rhaspody (2022) Dreamusic\n \"Fist to the Sky\" (2022) Sounds of Red Bull\n \"Tropical\" by Chris River feat Rhett Fisher (2022) Enforce the Sound\n \"Skyline\" by Damian Breath feat Rhett Fisher (2021) Enforce the Sound\n \"Lie To Me\" by David Lenders feat Rhett Fisher (2021) Blanco y Negro Records\n \"Feeling Like Myself\" (2021) Extreme Music\n \"Love Me Better\" by Shayla Souliere (2021)\n \"Follow The Light\" by Shayla Souliere (2021)\n \"Unsend\" by Shayla Souliere (2021)\n \"All I See Is You\" by Chris River & Pards feat Rhett Fisher (2021) Enforce the Sound\n \"I'll Never Back Down\" feat. Malcom Rapwell (2021) Extreme Music\n \"With Me All Along\" by Rhett Fisher (2021) Extreme Music\n \"Drink You Up\" by Rhett Fisher (2021) Extreme Music\n \"Boys\" by Rhett Fisher (2021) Extreme Music\n \"Kiss and Tell\" by Salasnich feat Rhett Fisher (2021) Soave Records\n \"Heart Of Stone\" by Dankann feat Rhett Fisher (2021) Enforce the Sound\n \"I'm On Top\" by Rhett Fisher (2021) Juice Music\n \"Outta My Head\" by Rhett Fisher (2021) Voyant\n \"Hold On\" by Rhett Fisher (2021) Voyant APM Music\n \"My Christmas Wish\" by Rhett Fisher (2020) Extreme Music\n \"Christmas in Your Eyes\" by Rhett Fisher (2020) Extreme Music\n \"Never Been Better\" by Rhett Fisher (2021) Extreme Music\n \"Shake It Loose\" by Rhett Fisher (2020) Extreme Music\n \"Electric Vibes\" by Rhett Fisher (2020) Extreme Music\n \"Good Life\" by Rhett Fisher (2020) Extreme Music\n \"Wild Fight\" by Lead (2020) Pony Canyon\n \"Flashback\" by Chris River & Pards feat Rhett Fisher (2020) Enforce the Sound\n \"Back To Life\" by Project Dirty (2020) Project Dirty\n \"Dimensions\" by Chris River & Pards feat Rhett Fisher (2020) Enforce the Sound\n \"Undone\" by Tori Marshall (2020) \n \"Be\" by Tori Marshall (2020) \n \"Games\" by Heather Cole (2020) \n \"Sleep Alone\" by Mango Passion feat Rhett Fisher (2020) \n \"Do You Cry\" by Mark Dright feat Rhett Fisher (2020) Wikolia Music\n \"Nights Like These\" by Will Jay (2019) Notting Hill Music\n \"Lobby\" by Alexis Lynn feat. Malaynah (2019)\n \"Started Here and Now\" by Rhett Fisher (2019) Extreme Music\n \"Buckle Up\" by Klave feat. Rhett Fisher, (2019) TGR Music Group, distributed by Sony Music Entertainment Sweden AB\n \"K.O.T.B.\" by Ksuke (2019) Warner Music Japan\n \"Over Getting Over You\" by Annie LeBlanc (2019)\n \"Exhibition\" (original title: Take Me Back) by LEAD (2019) FujiPacific Music\n \"Nothing's Gonna Hold Us Back\" by Oovee feat. Rhett Fisher, (2018) Universal Music Italia\n \"Yakusoku No Basho\" by Fearless (2018) Moving Factory\n \"Talking To Myself\" by Salasnich & Rhett Fisher feat. Rhett Fisher, (2018) EGOMusic\n \"Summer Dreams\" by Salasnich feat. Rhett Fisher, (2018) EGOMusic\n \"Radiant\" by TANGRAM (2018) Banana Culture\n \"Be Free\" by Stage Rockers feat. Rhett Fisher (2018) NoDefinition\n \"Getaway\" by Asher Angel (2018) Disney\n \"Madness\" by Chantelle Paige (2018) Revealed Recordings\n \"Insomnia\" by Zigmeister feat. Rhett Fisher (2018) Space Born\n \"Summer Dreams\" by Salasnich & Rhett Fisher feat. Rhett Fisher, (2018) EGOMusic\n \"In My DNA\" by Rhett Fisher (2017) Extreme Music\n \"No Pressure\" by Rhett Fisher (2017) Extreme Music\n \"Hooked On You\" by Rhett Fisher (2017) Extreme Music\n \"Please Don't Love Me\" by Rhett Fisher (2017) Extreme Music\n \"MAD\" by Rhett Fisher (2017) Pendustry Music\n \"Summertime\" by Rhett Fisher (2017) Pendustry Music\n \"Where The Stars Go\" by Alex Milani feat. Rhett Fisher, (2017) Executiva Music\n \"Gasoline\" by Tommy Fredvang (2016) daWorks\n \"All Alone\" by Flatdisk feat. Rhett Fisher, (2016) Flamingo Recordings\n \"Get Down\" by Oovee feat. Rhett Fisher, (2016) Universal Music Italia\n \"Tell Me No Lies\" by Max Zotti & Luca Guerrieri feat. Rhett Fisher, (2016) D:vision Records\n \"Let It Go\" by Delayers feat. Rhett Fisher, (2016) Universal Music Italia\n \"Don't Kill the Night\" by Oovee & Flatdisk feat. Rhett Fisher, (2015) Universal Music Italia\n \"Let It Snow Let It Snow Let It Snow\" by Francfranc feat. Rhett Fisher, (2015) Frog Music\n \"Not That Smart\" by Heather Cole and Rayvon Owen, (2015)\n \"Dirty Blonde\" by Diamante, (2015) Diamond Certified Records/XLP\n \"No Sexin' on the Beach\" by Diamante, (2015) Diamond Certified Records/XLP\n \"Just in Time\" by Project Dirty (2015)\n \"Firecracker\" by Skylar Stecker, (2015) CherryTree/Interscope Records\n \"Rooftop\" by Skylar Stecker, (2015) CherryTree/Interscope Records\n \"Boom Boom (feat. Sean Kingston)\" by Dyllan Murray, (2014) Wild Oak Entertainment\n \"Trophy Girl\" by Dyllan Murray, (2014) Wild Oak Entertainment\n \"Wake Up The Night\" by Project Dirty, (2014)\n \"Bite Your Kiss\" by Diamante, (2014) Diamond Certified Records/XLP\n \"Skywalker\" by Project Dirty, (2014)\n \"Blue Fire\" by Project Dirty, (2014)\n \"Can't Stop Us\" by Project Dirty, (2014)\n \"Raise the Bar\" by Project Dirty, (2014)\n \"End of the World\" by Project Dirty, (2014)\n \"A Little Too Late\" by Project Dirty, (2014)\n \"Cut Me Like A Knife\" by Project Dirty, (2014)\n \"HD Love\" by Project Dirty, (2014)\n \"Strobe Hearts\" by Project Dirty, (2014)\n \"Eye of the Storm\" by Project Dirty, (2014)\n \"Little Bit Too Much\" by Skylar Stecker, (2013)\n \"On The Record\" by Cimorelli, (2013)\n \"Replay\" by Kira Kosarin, (2013)\n \"Name in the Sky\" by Project Dirty, (2013)\n \"Melt The Dance Floor\" by J Rome, (2013) Hollywood/Disney Records\n \"Get You Off\" by My Crazy Girlfriend, (2012) \n \"Boomerang\" by Skee-lo (2012) Skee-lo Music/Whatevoak Ent.\n \"Knockout\" by Project Dirty (2012)\n \"True Lies\" by Project Dirty (2012)\n \"Wallpaper\" by Project Dirty (2012)\n \"Soundtrack 4 Life\" by Project Dirty (2012)\n \"Last Night\" by Project Dirty (2012)\n \"Night Drive\" by Project Dirty (2012)\n \"Frozen\" by Project Dirty (2012)\n \"Escape\" by Project Dirty (2012)\n \"Radio Love Song\" by Project Dirty (2012)\n \"Crash\" by Project Dirty (2012)\n \"Hit List\" by Olivia Faye (2012)\n \"The Night Is Young\" by Brooklyn Haley (2012) Parimore Music\n \"Boomerang\" by Brooklyn Haley (2012) Parimore Music\n \"Leave Me My Pen\" by Tino Coury, Album: Page One (2011) Eleventh Records\n \"RollerCoaster\" by Project Dirty (2011)\n \"RollerCoaster Remix\" by Project Dirty (2011)\n \"Holding On\" by Project Dirty (2011)\n \"Addicted\" by Project Dirty (2011)\n \"Black and Blue\" by Project Dirty (2011)\n \"4th of July by Project Dirty (2011)\n \"The Fall\" by Project Dirty (2011)\n \"S.E.X.\" by Project Dirty (2011)\n \"Upside Down\" by Project Dirty (2011)\n \"Poisonous\" by Project Dirty (2011)\n \"All Systems Go\" by Project Dirty (2011)\n \"Senses\" by Anoop Desai, Album: All Is Fair (2010)\n \"Because of You\" by Tim, Album: New Beginnings (2010) Sony Music\n \"Liquid\" by Tim, Album: New Beginnings (2010) Sony Music\n \"One Night\" by Brandon Rogers, Album: Automatic (2008) Authentik Artists\n \"Call Me Back\" by Brandon Rogers, Album: Automatic (2008) Authentik Artists\n \"Here I Am\" by Manic Mind (2007) Free Music\n \"On The Wall\" by Manic Mind (2007) Free Music\n \"Mercy\" by Manic Mind (2007) Free Music\n \"No Tomorrow\" by Manic Mind (2007) Free Music\n \"Kerosine Girl\" by Manic Mind (2007) Free Music\n \"Dirty Star\" by Manic Mind (2007) Free Music\n \"Closer\" by Manic Mind (2007) Free Music\n \"Surrender\" by Manic Mind (2007) Free Music\n \"Autumn's Song\" by Manic Mind (2007) Free Music\n \"Blind Alibi\" by Manic Mind (2007) Free Music\n \"When Tears Collide\" by Manic Mind (2007) Free Music\n \"Dissolve\" by Manic Mind (2007) Free Music\n \"Changes\" by Manic Mind (2007) Free Music\n \"All She Wanted\" by Manic Mind (2007) Free Music\n\nFilmography\n\nFilm\n Nightingale: A Melody of Life (2021)... (lyricist)/(playback singer)\n Revenge of the Bimbot Zombie Killers (2014)... Jedediah\n Boomerang (2012)... himself\n Cup O' Joe (2004) .... Craig Jones\n Micro Mini Kids (2001) (V) .... Spike\n\nTelevision\n Flashing Lives\n Welcome to LA (2011) ... Brian Minks\n In the Moment (2010) ... Promoter\n Maybe It's Me\n The Fever Episode (2002) .... Prince William\n The Mini-Jerry Episode (2001) .... Prince William\n Power Rangers Time Force\n Time for Lightspeed (2001) .... Ryan Mitchell/Titanium Ranger\n Power Rangers Lightspeed Rescue (2000) TV Series .... Ryan Mitchell/Titanium Ranger\n The Fate of Lightspeed: Part 2 (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger\n The Fate of Lightspeed: Part 1 (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger\n Rise of the Super Demons (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger (credit only)\n Wrath of the Queen (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger (credit only)\n In the Limelight (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger (credit only)\n Web War (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger (credit only)\n Neptune's Daughter (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger (credit only)\n Olympius Unbound (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger (credit only)\n Sorcerer of the Sands (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger\n The Last Ranger (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger (credit only)\n Trakeena's Revenge: Part 2 (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger (credit only)\n Ocean Blue (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger (credit only)\n The Great Egg Caper (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger (credit only)\n The Mighty Mega Battles (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger (credit only)\n In the Freeze Zone (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger\n As Time Runs Out (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger\n Yesterday Again (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger (credit only)\n The Chosen Path (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger (credit only)\n The Fifth Crystal (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger (credit only)\n The Omega Project (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger (credit only)\n The Queen's Return (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger\n A Face from the Past (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger\n Olympius Ascends (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger\n The Cobra Strikes (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger\n Strength of the Sun (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger\n Curse of the Cobra (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger\n Ryan's Destiny (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger\n Truth Discovered (2000) ... Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger\n From Deep in the Shadows (2000) ... Titanium Ranger\n\nVideo games\nPower Rangers Lightspeed Rescue (2000) .... Titanium Ranger\n\nMusic Department\n Nightingale: A Melody of Life (2021)... (lyricist)/(playback singer)\n\nAs himself\n Power Rangers (2014) Seasons 8-12: Pure Titanium (video documentary short) \n That Hashtag Show (2014) (TV series)\n The Power Rangers Lightspeed Rescue Cast Takes a Quiz on Their Season (2014)\n Power Rangers Lightspeed Rescue Cast Interview (Power Morphicon 2014) (2014)\n That Hashtag Show Goes to Power Morphicon 2014 (2014) \n SoCal Beat\n Time Warner Cable (2014) .... singer of \"Project Dirty\"\n Call It a Show\n Talk Show (2013) .... House Band\n\nArchive footage\n Power Rangers Dino Thunder (TV series) \n Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger\n Legacy of Power (2004) - Ryan Mitchell / Titanium Ranger\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n1980 births\nLiving people\nAmerican male television actors\nMale", "-time organizer and member of the Jesse James Gang. With the split of SDS in 1969, she joined Weather Underground.\n\nOughton died in the Greenwich Village townhouse explosion in Greenwich Village when a nail bomb she was constructing with Terry Robbins detonated. The bomb was to be used that evening at a dance for noncommissioned officers and their dates at the Fort Dix, New Jersey Army base, to \"bring the [Vietnam] war home\".\n\nEarly life and education\nOughton was born and raised in Dwight, Illinois, the eldest of four daughters. She played the piano and the flute as a child, and enjoyed the operas and plays that her parents took her to see in Chicago.\n\nAs a child, Oughton's father taught her to handle a shotgun to be used during the pheasant season with her father at the family's shooting preserve and sometimes in the surrounding countryside of Dwight. Oughton learned to ride horses and had been a 4-H member.\n\nHer mother was Jane Boyce Oughton, and her father was James Henry Oughton, Jr., vice-president of the family bank and owner of a successful restaurant. James Oughton was a member of the Republican Party and was elected to the Illinois General Assembly, serving from 1964 to 1966. One of her paternal great-grandfathers was the founder of Dwight's Keeley Institute for Alcoholics, and another great-grandfather, William D. Boyce, founded the Boy Scouts of America. Her sisters are Carol Oughton Biondi, philanthropist and wife of Hollywood executive Frank Biondi; the late Pamela Oughton Armstrong; and Debra.\n\nDiana Oughton left Dwight at the age of 14 to finish her high school education at the Madeira School in McLean, Virginia. In her senior year at Madeira, she was accepted by all of the Seven Sisters colleges.\n\nOughton graduated from high school in 1959, entering Bryn Mawr College as a German-language major. Oughton supported her Republican family's political values by opposing federal banking regulations, social security, and anything associated with big government.\n\nWhen she was 19, Oughton went to West Germany under a program sponsored by Wayne State University to spend her junior year of college at the University of Munich. She rented a room from Gerhard Weber, the former rector of the university. Oughton became friends with some of the German students, including Peter, with whom she had conversations late into the night. In the family-authorized biography Diana: The Making of a Terrorist, author Thomas Powers noted Diana's recollection of a conversation with Peter that resonated with her: \"He said...Hurrah for Socialism!\"\n\nAfter her study abroad, Oughton returned to Bryn Mawr for her senior year. During this time, Oughton and many other students read and were influenced by the book Black Like Me. The author John Howard Griffin gave an account of what he encountered going to the Southern United States, disguised as an African American. The book had a profound effect on Oughton, prompting her to volunteer in 1962 to tutor African-American children in an impoverished section of Philadelphia.\n\nOughton once told her sister Carol how amazed she was that there were seventh graders she was tutoring who could not read.\n\nGuatemala\nAfter receiving her B.A. degree from Bryn Mawr in 1963, Oughton spent the next two years in Guatemala with the American Friends Service Committee program (AFSC). Nearly half the women from Oughton's college senior class had gone on to graduate school. Oughton was assigned to Chichicastenango, at that time an isolated indigenous market town. Oughton went to Guatemala as a liberal, believing that the problems could be identified and solutions devised and carried out. Eventually, she became a radical and began to feel an urgency to change everything at once. While there, Oughton worked with young adults and older indigenous people to teach them to read. She helped local Catholic priests implement nutritional programs and edited a left-wing Guatemalan newspaper. Oughton lived in a small house with a dirt floor and a little outhouse. During this time, the questions with which she had struggled with came to a head. Oughton questioned what to do about poverty, social injustice, and revolution in the world. Oughton came to the conclusion that no matter how many hours were spent working to feed and educate, there would always be more people than jobs to earn wages, inadequate food supplies, and never enough shelter to protect people from the elements.\n\nAccording to Thomas Powers, the author of Diana: The Making of a Terrorist, the more Oughton learned about the hard life of rural Guatemala, the more she reflected on the affluence of the United States. In Chichicastenango, Americans seemed an alien presence; the fact of their wealth was almost an insult to the impoverished Indians. In her mind, confusion emerged that lasted the rest of her life: She had rejected affluence (at first almost unconsciously) to work among the poor, but poverty, clearly, was nothing to be envied. She hated poverty as well as affluence. Oughton left Chichicastenango with a new view of the problems that undeveloped countries like Guatemala faced when in struggle with the United States.\n\nThose who knew Oughton recognized this period as the major turning point in her life; according to Powers, Oughton came to feel something close to a sense of shame at being American. In Fugitive Days, Bill Ayers writes that Oughton \"had had an abundance of experience in Guatemala, a torrent, almost more than she could endure. She now sometimes suffered the full flood of her experiences.\" Oughton became much more aware of the United States' impact on foreign countries, and she did not return to Philadelphia as the same Midwest Republican. Oughton's friends from college noticed upon her return to the United States how she had matured, displaying sadness regarding the poverty she encountered in Guatemala in the previous two years.\n\nChildren's Community School\nIn 1966, Oughton left Philadelphia for Ann Arbor, Michigan to enroll in the University of Michigan Graduate School of Education, seeking her Master of Arts degree in teaching. In Michigan, she began to work part-time at the Children's Community School (CCS), a project established by Toby Hendon and based on the Summerhill method of education. Children were allowed to do what they liked when they liked, on the premise that both teaching and learning were most successful when most spontaneous. The CCS mission was to treat the children with love and understanding, in hopes that violent thoughts would not consume the child's personality. The school also tried to establish complete equality between white and black students and to involve parents in the running of the school, so that it might be a community in the largest sense of the word.\n\nLater in 1966, Oughton dropped almost all of her other commitments to work full-time at CCS. She designed a fund-raising button with a smiling face and the words \"Children Are Only Newer People\". At CCS, Oughton met teacher Bill Ayers. The two fell in love and soon began living together. In 1968, the school ran into severe problems, such as the fact that few students learned to read, and lost its funding, so Oughton and Ayers sought to become active elsewhere in the community.\n\nSDS and the Jesse James Gang\nAyers and Oughton were involved with Students for a Democratic Society while working at CCS, but it was not until after the closure of the school that they became involved as full-time organizers. Their lives became consumed by meetings, organizing, and planning actions.\n\nIt was during this time that Ayers and Oughton met Terry Robbins. In March 1968, Oughton helped create a women's liberation group. The group met every week or so, wherever the women could find room. Most of the talk seemed to center on the subordinate role of women in the radical movement and on the sexual oppression of women by the \"macho\" tendency of males to regard sex as conquest. During these meetings, Oughton often discussed the role that women played in the SDS, which was a combination of being a sexual object, an office clerk, and a housekeeper.\n\nLater in 1968, Oughton told a friend that Ayers had slept with other women while she was away for five days. She told the friend she tried to convince herself that it didn't matter, but it did.\n\nAlso in 1968, Oughton and Ayers became part of the Jesse James Gang, which banded together with about 40 others against the moderates. The Jesse James Gang replaced the University of Michigan SDS chapter, and Robbins, Oughton, and Ayers worked in partnership with Jim Mellen from the Revolutionary Youth Movement Group. The Vietnam War entered its third year in the middle of 1968. The early student movement had taken their moral stance from the teachings of Albert Camus, who taught that thinking men have the responsibility to find a way in the world to be neither a victim or the executioner. Four events in 1968 turned the American student movement into self-proclaimed Marxist\u2013Leninist revolutionaries: the Viet Cong's Tet Offensive, the student sit-in at Columbia University, the near-revolution in France, and the Democratic National Convention in Chicago. Each event helped change the way American radicals viewed their own situations.\n\nBy the end of 1968, the revolutionaries were tired of waiting for change and no longer had allegiance to or trust in America's democracy. One of the few actions by the Jesse James Gang occurred on the University of Michigan campus while Robben Fleming, the university president, was speaking to a group of students inside a school building. Oughton spoke outside with a portable address system while the Jesse James Gang handed out sliced pieces of bread, shouting \"Here's the bread. Get the baloney inside.\"\n\nThe 1968 annual national SDS convention was held at Michigan State University. Oughton and Ayers were participants sponsored by Eric Chester, who was a Voice-SDS leader in Ann Arbor. The gang insisted that action was the only thing likely to create a situation in which radical solutions to American problems would be considered. The Gang offered a tight, validating community within which members could express their rage and frustration about the status quo and their empathy for suffering.\n\nWeatherman\nWith the split of SDS in 1969, Oughton and Ayers joined the Weatherman faction. Oughton found it difficult to get along with her father; she saw her parents' lives in Dwight, Illinois as complacent and secure, and lives in the impoverished sections of Chicago and Detroit as chaotic. At this time, SDS protests became more violent and radical. Oughton and Ayers had been drifting apart since December 1968. Monogamy, according to Ayers, interfered with his political work. Oughton replaced her friends, and she abandoned teaching for politics. Merrill Rosenberg told Oughton \"Revolution means violence and risk, or it is only talk. The Weathermen's arguments pointed to their conclusion that the time was now to fight.\"\n\nIn August 1969, Oughton participated in an SDS delegation that traveled to Cuba for the third meeting between Vietnamese and American delegates. The Vietnamese called the meeting to discuss progress taken in the peace movement as the war in Vietnam was entering its final stages. Oughton was impressed by Cuba's progress in literacy and medical treatment. The pace of movement toward action within the Weathermen picked up soon after their return from Cuba.\n\nOughton and 75 other Weatherwomen drove to Pittsburgh on September 3, 1969 after attending a caucus in Cleveland to take part in what the Weathermen Group called a practice run of the Days of Rage. On the morning of September 4, 20 Weatherwomen entered the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) office and held the office workers captive until the Weatherwomen had run off copies of a leaflet to be handed out to student sympathizers. One of the Weatherwomen told Miss Dodd, who worked in the AFSC office: \"We thought until now you were on our side. Now we know you are a member of the enemy.\" A short time later, all 75 Weatherwomen appeared at South Hills High School in Pittsburgh to participate in a \"jailbreak\". The women spray painted anti-war slogans \"Ho lives\" and \"Free Huey\" on the school's main entrance doors, and handed out leaflets, urging high school students to \"bring the war home,\" and asking students to leave the school campus. Some Weatherwomen made speeches in the school's playground about racism, imperialism, and the SDS national action plans. Oughton was able to escape from the Pittsburgh police, but 26 others, including Cathy Wilkerson and Jane Spielman, were arrested at the school. The students at the high school had no idea who the Weatherwomen were or why the women chose their school.\n\nPart of this move toward greater violence was seen during the Days of Rage in Chicago, which took place October 8\u201311, 1969. One purpose of the Days of Rage was to create an image of strength and determination that would win converts to revolutionary violence. Weathermen gathered at Grant Park around a fire made from nearby park benches. They listened to leaders' speeches about Che Guevara and the world revolution. The last speech spurred the group to head for the Drake Hotel, where federal judge Julius Hoffman resided. He was the presiding judge at the Chicago 8 trial. Weathermen took their helmets, clubs, and chains, entered the streets, and smashed car windshields and store windows. Oughton was one of those arrested on October 9 in Chicago when police spied her keeping an eye out for other Weathermen who might turn up. Her bail was set at $5,000, which her father came up from Dwight to pay. Until Oughton's arrest, her family did not know who the Weathermen were. After she was released, Mr. Oughton dropped his daughter off at a church where she was meeting with other Weathermen; shortly afterward, police raided the church and arrested 43 members of the group. Oughton managed to escape by jumping from a ground floor window.\n\nAfter the Days of Rage, the group became increasingly violent. Oughton returned home for a short visit around Christmas Day 1969. She seemed pleased to receive some clothing items and other gifts from her family. Although she appeared thin and fatigued, her family did not press her to stay. Oughton left her parents' home for the last time to go to Flint, Michigan for the December 27 \"War Council\" meeting. Oughton made the decision at the meeting to go underground. In her book Flying Close to the Sun, former Weatherman member Cathy Wilkerson describes meeting with Terry Robbins, also a member of the Jesse James Gang, who told her about a small, semi-clandestine group in New York to which he belonged. He explained briefly that the group had already been active: a firebomb had been thrown at the home of Judge Murtagh, then presiding over the trial of the Panther 21. When Wilkerson joined the collective, the members were in need of a place to stay. Wilkerson's father had a townhouse in New York and was to be away for a couple of weeks. Robbins wondered whether Wilkerson could get the keys. She did so, and the group arrived at 18 West 11th Street to decide their next move.\n\nJonah Raskin, whose wife Eleanor Raskin was part of the Weather Underground organization, and who was a courier for the Underground, recalls the last time he spoke with the members of the collective in New York: \"I had talked to them not long before the townhouse blew up and they seemed to have lost touch with reality- and were incapable of making sensible decisions about almost everything.\"\n\nTownhouse explosion\n\nOn March 2, 1970, in Keene, New Hampshire, a Weatherman purchased two 50-pound cases of dynamite from the New England Explosives Corporation. Sometime that week, the dynamite was moved from Keene to Greenwich Village, where it was taken to the house at 18 West Eleventh Street. Oughton left Detroit and joined the group at the house. Oughton and Robbins were in the basement assembling a nail bomb when it detonated. Cathy Wilkerson, who was in the townhouse at the time, describes her experience during the explosion, \"the idea that Terry and Diana were both in the subbasement overwhelmed everything else. As I forced my attention there and to them, my lungs expanded instantaneously to draw in air and dust so I could call out.\"\n\nWilkerson and Kathy Boudin, another Weatherman in the townhouse at the time, were the only two to escape. When they ran out into the street, someone asked if there was anyone else in the house. Thinking that Ted Gold, the other Weatherman in the townhouse, had gone to the store, Wilkerson replied that there was no one left inside, as she was sure that Robbins and Oughton were dead.\n\nFour days after the explosion, detectives found some of Oughton's remains near a workbench in the rubble-filled basement of the devastated townhouse. At the end of another week, a detective discovered the tip of the little finger from the right hand. A print taken by a police department expert was matched later that day with a set of Oughton's prints in the Washington files of the FBI. The prints they had on file were from Oughton's arrest in Chicago on October 9, 1969 during the Days of Rage.\n\nIt took four days to find Oughton's remains, not only because of the amount of destruction the bomb had caused\u2014the townhouse was destroyed\u2014but also because of the dynamite found in the wreckage. While searching through the rubble, detectives found four lead pipes, each in diameter and packed with dynamite. The street was cleared, the bomb-removal truck was summoned, and the search continued with considerable caution. Before the day was over, detectives found four cartons containing 57 sticks of dynamite, 30 blasting caps, and some cheap alarm clocks with holes drilled in their faces for wires. It was understood later that the bombs were to be detonated at a non-commissioned officers' dance at Fort Dix.\n\nThe doctor who examined Oughton's remains said that she had been standing within a foot or two of the bomb when it exploded. It may, in fact, have gone off in her hands. Ayers has raised the possibility that Oughton may have intentionally detonated the explosion, and it has been reported that a vicious argument occurred throughout the previous day and night in which Boudin favored using antipersonnel bombs and that Oughton had misgivings.\n\nWhen Brian Flanagan reflects on his time as part of the Weather Underground Organization, he said \"I was regretful over about 5 percent of what we did...I think 95 percent of what we did was great, and we'd do it again. 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\u043a\u0442\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0441\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e, \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0449\u0451\u043d.\n\n \u0412 361\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443, \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b \u0440\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u0437\u043e\u0448\u0451\u043b \u042e\u043b\u0438\u0430\u043d (361\u2014363\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u044b), \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0445\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u00ab\u043e\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c\u00bb (Apostata), \u0437\u0430 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0443\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u043a 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\u0421\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u044b\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0441\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0441 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0443\u0432\u0448\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0441\u044f \u0438\u0437 \u0438\u0437\u0433\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e \u0442\u0435 \u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0433\u043b\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0435\u043b\u043e \u043a \u0434\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0442\u044f\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0438 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0443\u0432\u0448\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0441\u044f \u0438 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0441\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0442\u044f\u043d \u0432 \u043e\u0442\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438\u043e\u0437\u043d\u043e-\u044d\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0443.\n\n\u0421\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e \u0418\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0444\u0443 \u0424\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0438\u044e, \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u044b\u0432 \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u0435\u0432\u0440\u0435\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u0438", " play-off semi-final defeat by Morecambe. He became a regular starter during 2007\u201308 under the management of Colin Walker, and during 2008\u201309 assumed the captaincy from Mark Greaves. In this season, he was named Clubman of the Year and led the team to the 2009 FA Trophy Final, in which York were beaten 2\u20130 by Stevenage Borough. Parslow was replaced as captain by Michael Ingham during 2009\u201310, and was an unused substitute in York's 3\u20131 defeat by Oxford United in the 2010 Conference Premier play-off final. He won his second Clubman of the Year award in 2010\u201311, having appeared in all of York's matches that season.\n\nParslow was a member of the York team that won the 2012 FA Trophy Final and 2012 Conference Premier play-off final in 2011\u201312, with victory in the latter seeing the club promoted into League Two after eight years out of the Football League. He missed only one match in 2012\u201313, in which he won the Clubman of the Year award for an unprecedented third time. Parslow was out injured for most of 2013\u201314, and was on loan with Conference Premier club Grimsby Town during 2014\u201315, playing in their penalty shoot-out defeat in the 2015 Conference Premier play-off final. He signed for Cheltenham Town of the National League in 2015, and was part of the team that earned promotion into League Two by winning the divisional title in 2015\u201316. He returned to York, initially on loan, in 2017 and helped them win in the 2017 FA Trophy Final. Parslow retired from playing in 2019 because of a head injury.\n\nClub career\n\nCardiff City\nParslow started his career with Cardiff City's youth system in 1998. Having progressed through the club's centre of excellence he earned a three-year scholarship in May 2002, which turned into a one-year professional contract on its conclusion. He made an appearance for Cardiff in a 1\u20130 defeat by Bangor City in the FAW Premier Cup on 25 January 2005 and was included in the first-team squad for the 2005\u201306 season. Parslow went on trial with League One club Swansea City in March 2006, before returning to Cardiff the following month after nothing materialised. After making no appearances he was released by Cardiff on 22 May 2006.\n\nYork City\n\nParslow was signed by Conference National club York City on 18 August 2006 following a successful trial. He made his debut as a 67th-minute substitute for James Dudgeon in York's 3\u20130 away defeat by Crawley Town on 9 September 2006. At different points during 2006\u201307 Parslow lost his place in the team to David McGurk, Jason Goodliffe and J\u00e1nos Kov\u00e1cs, but started York's last seven fixtures, including both legs of the 2\u20131 aggregate defeat by Morecambe in the play-off semi-final. Having finished 2006\u201307 with 26 appearances for York, the club exercised their option to extend his contract for 2007\u201308 in May 2007.\n\nParslow missed the start of 2007\u201308 with an ankle injury, making his first appearance in York's third match, a 1\u20131 draw away to Exeter City on 20 August 2007. He went nearly three months without starting a match when being named in the starting XI as part of a three-man central defence for York's 2\u20131 win away to Weymouth on 24 November 2007 in Colin Walker's first match as caretaker manager. He established himself in the team under Walker, starting all of York's remaining matches in 2007\u201308. Parslow scored his first career goal with the only goal in a 1\u20130 away win over Rushden & Diamonds in the fourth round of the FA Trophy on 23 February 2008, which came from a diving header eight\u00a0yards out in the 16th minute. He made 40 appearances and scored two goals in 2007\u201308, before York exercised their option for Parslow's contract to be extended for 2008\u201309 in April 2008.\n\nHe signed a new contract with York in September 2008 that contracted him to the club until June 2010. He took over the captaincy when club captain Mark Greaves and vice-captain McGurk were out of the team, starting on 27 January 2009 for a 1\u20131 draw away to Altrincham. Having \"led by example\" after attaining the captaincy, he was voted by supporters as York's Clubman of the Year for 2008\u201309, being presented the award before their penultimate home match against Eastbourne Borough on 18 April 2009. He started in the 2009 FA Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium on 9 May 2009, which York lost 2\u20130 to Stevenage Borough. Ahead of the Trophy final, he was rested for the final league match away to Lewes on 26 April 2009; this was the only match he missed in 2008\u201309, which he finished with 57 appearances.\n\nParslow and McGurk were appointed as club captains for 2009\u201310, although Parslow would continue to wear the armband in matches. He signed a new contract with York in January 2010 to tie him to the club until June 2012. He played in the team as a centre-back and right-back before losing his place to Ben Purkiss after picking up a foot injury in York's 2\u20131 away defeat to Forest Green Rovers on 6 March 2010, with the captain's armband being handed to Michael Ingham. He made his return in York's 1\u20130 away defeat by Stevenage in the last league match of 2009\u201310 on 24 April 2010, but was dropped to the bench for the play-off semi-final 1\u20130 victory at home to Luton Town. Parslow appeared as a 90-minute substitute in the second leg 1\u20130 away win, with the tie ending 2\u20130 on aggregate. However, he was an unused substitute for the 3\u20131 defeat by Oxford United at Wembley Stadium in the 2010 Conference Premier play-off final. He made 41 appearances for York in 2009\u201310.\n\nParslow had been playing mostly at right-back in 2010\u201311 before losing his place to Liam Darville in January 2011, but retained his place in the team by playing at centre-back in York's 4\u20130 victory over league leaders AFC Wimbledon on 1 February 2011 with McGurk suspended. Parslow scored his only goal of 2010\u201311 in this match after scoring the opening goal with a header from a free kick taken by Ashley Chambers. Having played at right-back the following match, he returned to playing at centre-back after McGurk's injury in York's 0\u20130 draw away to Altrincham on 22 February 2011. Parslow formed a central defensive partnership with Chris Smith, and manager Gary Mills praised him by calling him \"outstanding\". He had played in all of York's matches in 2010\u201311 before suffering a head injury following a clash of heads with Matthew Barnes-Homer in a 1\u20130 home win against Luton on 19 April 2011, which led to him missing the remainder of the campaign. Following the end of 2010\u201311, during which he made 47 appearances and scored one goal, he was named York's Clubman of the Year for a second time.\n\nParslow started 2011\u201312 out of the team, with McGurk and Smith preferred in central defence. He appeared twice at right-back in the first two months of the season when Lanre Oyebanjo was absent, before falling behind Jon Challinor and Jamal Fyfield for a place in defence. Parslow was used mostly as a substitute from then before a run starting in central defence in late December 2011, before losing his place after the signing of Chris Doig in February 2012. He was restored to the starting line-up in early March 2012 due to other defenders being unavailable, before Doig once again took his place in the team. He returned to the starting line-up in early April 2012 due to Smith's absence and started 10 of York's last 11 fixtures of the season. Parslow won the 2012 FA Trophy Final with York at Wembley Stadium on 12 May 2012, in which they beat Newport County 2\u20130. Eight days later, he played in the 2\u20131 victory over Luton in the 2012 Conference Premier play-off final at Wembley Stadium, seeing the club return into the Football League after an eight-year absence with promotion into League Two. He completed 2011\u201312 with 38 appearances for York, after which he signed a new one-year contract with an option to extend in June 2012.\n\nParslow started York's first competitive fixture since promotion away to League One team Doncaster Rovers in the first round of the League Cup in the opening match of 2012\u201313 on 11 August 2012, which the team lost 4\u20132 in a penalty shoot-out following a 1\u20131 draw after extra time. He then played in York's first League Two fixture, a 3\u20131 home defeat by Wycombe Wanderers on 18 August 2012. His only goal of 2012\u201313 was the opener in York's first victory of the season, a 3\u20131 away win against Barnet on 25 August 2012, with a 20-yard volley into the bottom left corner. Parslow played at right-back, left-back and defensive midfield throughout the season, and played in the latter position in the end of season run-in to form part of a midfield trio also including Tom Platt and Adam Reed that helped York avoid relegation. He became the first York player to be named Clubman of the Year on three occasions, having been presented the award before York's final home match of the season against Southend United on 20 April 2013. Parslow missed only one match for York in 2012\u201313, making 50 appearances and scoring one goal, and signed a new two-year contract with the club in May 2013.\n\nParslow started 2013\u201314 in and out of the team, but when returning to the starting line-up for a 2\u20131 home defeat to Mansfield Town on 14 September 2013 was handed the captain's armband in the absence of Smith. He established himself in the centre of defence alongside McGurk, and retained the armband when Smith was recalled into the team. However, he sustained knee ligament damage when colliding into advertising hoardings as he sliced an attempted clearance during York's 2\u20131 defeat away to Southend on 23 November 2013. The injury ruled him out for the rest of the season, in which he had made 16 appearances. In his absence, York reached the play-offs with a seventh-place finish in League Two, although they were beaten 1\u20130 on aggregate by Fleetwood Town in the semi-final.\n\nParslow returned to fitness ahead of 2014\u201315, but having failed to regain his place in the team signed for Conference Premier club Grimsby Town on a one-month loan on 18 September 2014. He debuted two days later in their 1\u20130 away win over Kidderminster, and made seven appearances for Grimsby before the loan expired on 20 October 2014. Having been an unused substitute for three matches after returning to York, Parslow rejoined Grimsby on loan until 4 January 2015 on 7 November 2014, and made his second debut for the club a day later in a 3\u20131 home defeat to Oxford in the FA Cup first round. The loan was extended until the end of the season during January 2015. He came on as a 74th-minute substitute for Gregor Robertson in the 2015 Conference Premier play-off final against Bristol Rovers at Wembley on 17 May 2015; following a 1\u20131 draw after extra time, Grimsby lost 5\u20133 in a penalty shoot-out. Parslow had made 23 appearances in his second loan spell at Grimsby, and after returning to York was released after nine years at the club.\n\nCheltenham Town\nAfter a successful trial, Parslow signed for newly relegated National League club Cheltenham Town on a one-year contract on 29 July 2015. He made his debut when starting a 1\u20131 away draw with Lincoln City on 8 August 2015, Cheltenham's first match of 2015\u201316, and established himself at centre-back, forming a partnership with Aaron Downes. Parslow scored his first goal for Cheltenham on 31 August 2015, with a volley in the 59th minute of a 2\u20131 home victory over Wrexham. He stood in as Cheltenham's vice-captain after a season-ending injury to the captain Downes in January 2016,. after which he was partnered at centre-back with a number of players, including Cameron Burgess and Asa Hall. According to Oli Fell of the Gloucestershire Echo, it was after Downes' injury that Parslow \"really came into his own and stepped up\", and surmised that Parslow was \"perhaps the most crucial component of the side all season\". He finished 2015\u201316 with 50 appearances and two goals, and appeared in nearly every minute of Cheltenham's 46 league matches. Cheltenham won promotion back into League Two at the first attempt, winning the National League title with 101 points. Parslow was named the Cheltenham Players' Player of the Year, and was included in the National League Team of the Year. He signed a new contract with the club in May 2016.\n\nReturn to York City\n\nOn 12 January 2017, Parslow rejoined York City, now in the National League, on loan for the rest of 2016\u201317. On 21 May 2017, he started as York beat Macclesfield Town 3\u20132 at Wembley Stadium in the 2017 FA Trophy Final. He was released by Cheltenham at the end of 2016\u201317.\n\nParslow re-signed for York City permanently on 30 June 2017 on a one-year contract. He left the club at the end of the 2018\u201319 season after rejecting an invite to return for pre-season training. He retired from playing in July 2019 because of a head injury.\n\nInternational career\nParslow was capped once by Wales at under-17 level, appearing as a second-half substitute in a 1\u20130 defeat by Germany on 13 February 2002. He made his under-19 debut after starting a 2\u20131 defeat by Portugal on 22 September 2003. He played two more matches for the under-19s to finish his career at that level with three caps. Parslow later represented the under-21 team and made his debut in a 0\u20130 draw with Latvia in August 2004. He was part of the team that lost 2\u20130 away against England on 8 October 2004. Parslow was capped four times by Wales at under-21 level.\n\nHe was called up by the Wales semi-pro team for the Four Nations Tournament in May 2007. Parslow's debut came as a 59th-minute substitute for Gethin Jones in their opening match, a 1\u20130 win over the hosts Scotland on 22 May 2007. He started the 1\u20131 draw with the Republic of Ireland on 25 May 2007, and was a 79th-minute substitute for Jones in the championship decider against England, which finished in a 3\u20130 defeat on 27 May. Parslow captained the semi-pro team for the first time in their 2\u20131 away defeat to England in the 2007\u20132009 International Challenge Trophy on 20 February 2008. He retained the armband for the 2008 Four Nations Tournament, starting all of Wales three matches as they finished in second place in the four-team group. His career with the semi-pro team finished with eight caps.\n\nStyle of play\nParslow primarily played as a centre-back, and stated that he was most comfortable playing this position. A utility player, his intelligence and commitment allowed him to play a number of positions, including right-back, left-back and defensive midfield.\n\nPersonal life\nParslow was born in Hengoed, Gwent. He completed a five-year degree in sports science at Manchester Metropolitan University in July 2012. He married Emma in June 2014.\n\nCareer statistics\n\nHonours\nYork City\nFA Trophy: 2011\u201312, 2016\u201317; runner-up: 2008\u201309\nConference Premier play-offs: 2012\n\nCheltenham Town\nNational League: 2015\u201316\n\nIndividual\nYork City Clubman of the Year: 2008\u201309, 2010\u201311, 2012\u201313\nCheltenham Town Players' Player of the Year: 2015\u201316\nNational League Team of the Year: 2015\u201316\n\nReferences\n\n1985 births\nLiving people\nPeople from Hengoed\nSportspeople from Caerphilly County Borough\nWelsh men's footballers\nWales men's youth international footballers\nWales men's under-21 international footballers\nWales men's semi-pro international", " \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u041e\u043c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043b\u0451\u0442\u043d\u043e-\u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0436 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\u0418\u043b-2.\n\n\u0412 \u043c\u0430\u0435 1944\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041a\u0412\u041b\u041f \u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0443\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0432 \u041c\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0412\u043e\u0434\u044b, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u044d\u0442\u0443 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0443, \u0430 \u0441 1947\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u044d\u043a\u0438\u043f\u0430\u0436\u0435\u0439 \u0413\u0412\u0424 \u043d\u0430 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0451\u0442 \u0418\u043b-12.\n\n\u0412 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0436\u0435 1947\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u041a\u0412\u041b\u041f \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0432 \u0428\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0443 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u043b\u0451\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0438 (\u0428\u0412\u041b\u041f), \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0430\u0437\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u0411\u0443\u0433\u0443\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043b\u0430\u043d \u041e\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 (\u0411\u041b\u0423\u0413\u0410), \u0430 \u0432 1950\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a. \n\n\u0412 1955\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u043b\u0451\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0451\u0442\u044b \u0418\u043b-14, \u0430 \u0432 1958\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0451\u0442\u044b \u0441 \u0433\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0431\u0438\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0433\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u0410\u043d-10 \u0438 \u0418\u043b-18. \u0412 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0435 1960-\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0428\u0412\u041b\u041f \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0451\u0442\u0430 \u0422\u0443-104.\n\n\u0412 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u0435 1955 \u0432 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0428\u0412\u041b\u041f \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u044d\u043a\u0438\u043f\u0430\u0436\u0435\u0439, \u043a\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0438\u0437 \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438. \u0410 \u0441 1957\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u044d\u043a\u0438\u043f\u0430\u0436\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0437 \u0440\u044f\u0434\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d. \u041f\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0442\u044b, \u0431\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438, \u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0438\u0437 \u0413\u0414\u0420 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u0430\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0418\u043b-14, \u043d\u0430 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0436\u0435 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0451\u0442\u0435 \u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u043b\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c \u044d\u043a\u0438\u043f\u0430\u0436\u0438 \u0438\u0437 \u0411\u043e\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0438, \u0420\u0443\u043c\u044b\u043d\u0438\u0438, \u0412\u0435\u043d\u0433\u0440\u0438\u0438. \u0410 \u043a\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u043e\u0442\u0440\u044f\u0434 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0442\u0443\u0440\u0431\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0418\u043b-18 \u0438 \u0410\u043d-10, \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u043e\u0431\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0438\u0437 \u0413\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0438, \u041c\u0430\u043b\u0438, \u0413\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d \u0410\u0437\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0410\u0444\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0438.\n\n\u0421 1962 \u043f\u043e 1972\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434 \u0432 \u0428\u0412\u041b\u041f \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0451\u0442\u044b \u0422\u0443-124, \u0422\u0443-134, \u0422\u0443-154, \u0410\u043d-24.\n\n\u0421\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442 \u0422\u0443-134 \u0428\u0412\u041b\u041f (\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0440 \u2014 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d \u0410\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0422\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0430\u043d, \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0428\u0412\u041b\u041f), \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0442 \u0410. \u0415. \u042f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439, \u0448\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d-\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0410. \u0410. \u0421\u0442\u0435\u0448\u043a\u0438\u043d, \u0431\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043a-\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0413. \u0421. \u0413\u0430\u043b\u043a\u0438\u043d) \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0441\u044a\u0435\u043c\u043a\u0430\u0445 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u00ab\u041d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043e\u044f\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0432 \u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438\u00bb \u043b\u0435\u0442\u043e\u043c 1973 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044f\u0445 \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u0421\u043e\u043b\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0422\u0430\u0448\u043b\u0430 \u0438 \u0432 \u0430\u044d\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0443 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a-\u0426\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439.\n\n\u0412 1973\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0437\u0430 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u0443\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0445\u0438 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0443\u0448\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0430, \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434 \u0432 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 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\u0420\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0451\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0440\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u043c \u0440\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0449\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u0412.\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u0420\u0436\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0424\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043e\u0442 23.10.92 \u2116\u00a01931-\u0440 \u00ab\u041e \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0449\u0430 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438\u00bb (\u0423\u0412\u0410\u0423 \u0413\u0410), \u0438 \u043b\u0435\u0442\u043e\u043c 1993\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0451\u043d \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0440 \u043a\u0443\u0440\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u043b\u0451\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u043b\u0443\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0443\u0448\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0432\u00bb.\n\n\u0412 \u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0435\u043c \u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0449\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0441 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0438\u043c \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043d\u0435\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0440\u044b\u0432\u043d\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0440\u044f\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c:\n\n 1994 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u0438\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u043e \u0423\u0412\u0414 (\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0442\u0447\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432);\n 1995 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0443\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f;\n 1996 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0430\u0444\u0435\u0434\u0440\u0430;\n 1998 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a \u0438\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432-\u043f\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432;\n 1998 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0430 \u0430\u0441\u043f\u0438\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430;\n 1998 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a \u0438\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u043e \u0423\u0412\u0414;\n 2000 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u0431\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f;\n 2000 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u043f\u0430\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0434\u0436\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432;\n 2003 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a \u0431\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 (\u043e\u0442\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f);\n 2017 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a \u043f\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432-\u0431\u0430\u043a\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0440\u043e\u0432.\n\u0412 2009 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0449\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u2014 \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043b\u0451\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0449\u0435 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u0421\u0430\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043b\u0451\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0449\u0435 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u041e\u043c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043b\u0451\u0442\u043d\u043e-\u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0436 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u0410.\u0412. \u041b\u044f\u043f\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e.\n\n8 \u043c\u0430\u044f 2011 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u044f\u043c \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043c \u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0449\u0430, \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043c \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u041e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b. \n\n8 \u043c\u0430\u044f 2012 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0435\u0440\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0449\u0430 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0442\u043e\u0440\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0443-\u0433\u0435\u0440\u043e\u044e, \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0443 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0438 \u042f\u043a-18.\n\n\u0412 2013 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043d \u0425\u0440\u0430\u043c \u0432\u043e \u0438\u043c\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u044f \u0420\u0430\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0436\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u0435 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0411.\u00a0\u041f.\u00a0\u0411\u0443\u0433\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430.\n\n\u041f\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u0438\u044e \u043d\u0430 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c 2013 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0449\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0443\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c 1030 \u043a\u0443\u0440\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432-\u043f\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432. \u0412 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0436\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0449\u0435\u043c \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043e 137 \u043f\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432.\n\n22 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 2017 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u0411. \u041f. \u0411\u0443\u0433\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043b \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438\u043c \u0421\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u0421 1 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 2023 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u043d\u0451\u0442 \u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0438\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u043e \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u043b\u0443\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0431\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c.\n\n\u0420\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \n\n \u0422\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u2014 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a \u041a\u0412\u041b\u041f \u2014 \u0428\u0412\u041b\u041f, 1943\u20141953 \u0433\u0433.\n \u0428\u0443\u0431\u0438\u043d \u041a\u0443\u0437\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (1901\u20141966), \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0428\u0412\u041b\u041f, 1953\u20141961 \u0433\u0433. \n \u0411\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u043b \u0410\u0444\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0441\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (1922\u20141996), \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0428\u0412\u041b\u041f, 1961\u00ad\u20141964 \u0433\u0433. \n \u041e\u0445\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (1922\u20141997), \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0422\u0440\u0443\u0434\u0430, \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0428\u0412\u041b\u041f, 1965\u20141974 \u0433\u0433. \n \u0422\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0430\u043d \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d \u0410\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (1923\u20141998), \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0428\u0412\u041b\u041f, 1974\u20141977 \u0433\u0433. \n \u041c\u0443\u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u041f\u0430\u0432\u0435\u043b \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (1928\u20142001), \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0428\u0412\u041b\u041f / \u0426\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0413\u0410 \u0421\u042d\u0412, 1977\u20141986 \u0433\u0433.\n \u0420\u0436\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0412\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u0440. 1936), \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0426\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0413\u0410 \u0421\u042d\u0412 / \u0440\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0423\u0412\u0410\u0423 \u0413\u0410(\u0418), 1986\u20142006 \u0433\u0433.\n \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0439 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u0440. 1959), \u0440\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0423\u0412\u0410\u0423 \u0413\u0410(\u0418) / \u0423\u0418 \u0413\u0410, 2006\u20142019 \u0433\u0433. \n \u0410\u0444\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0439 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u0440. 1956), \u0440\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0423\u0418 \u0413\u0410, 2019\u2014 \u043f\u043e \u043d. \u0432.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u0423\u0418 \u0413\u0410 \n\n \u0420\u044f\u0431\u0443\u0445\u0438\u043d \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0439 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u0434\u043e 2022)\n \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0435\u0439 \u042e\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u0441 25.02.2022 \u043f\u043e \u043d. \u0432.)\n\n\u0418\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \n\n \u042f\u043a\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d \u0424\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u2014 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u043b\u0451\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c-\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c, \u0434\u0438\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0442\u0447\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0431\u044b \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0428\u0412\u041b\u041f. \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434 \u0432\u044b\u0445\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0438\u044e \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0432 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438. \n \u041a\u043b\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u043b \u0413\u0430\u0432\u0440\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u2014 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u043b\u0451\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c-\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c.\n \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0439 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u2014 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c.\n \u041f\u0430\u0432\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d \u0414\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u2014 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0434\u0438\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0442\u0447\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0432 \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0431\u0435 \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f.\n \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0439 \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0435\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u2014 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u043b\u0451\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c-\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c.\n \u0421\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0430\u043d\u044f\u043d \u041d\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043e\u043d \u0413\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u2014 \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0438\u043b \u041a\u0412\u041b\u041f, \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u043b\u0451\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c-\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c.\n \u0422\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043d \u0413\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0435\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u2014 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u043b\u0451\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c-\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c.\n \u0411\u0430\u0436\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u2014 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c \u043a\u0430\u0444\u0435\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u0443\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0446\u0438\u043f\u043b\u0438\u043d.\n \u041a\u0443\u0437\u044c\u043c\u0438\u043d \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0421\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440 \u043f\u043e \u043b\u0435\u0433\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0435, \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440 \u0420\u0421\u0424\u0421\u0420, \u0434\u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u043a\u0430\u0444\u0435\u0434\u0440\u044b \u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f.\n\u041e\u0445\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u2014 \u043f\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0442-\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440, \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0442-\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0438 \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u043b\u0451\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435, \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0423\u0428\u0412\u041b\u041f (1965\u20141974).\n\u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u2014 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043a\u0430\u0444\u0435\u0434\u0440\u044b \u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b \u0438 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0430.\n\u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043d \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d \u0424\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u2014 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u043b\u0451\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c-\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0432 1950-\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445.\n\n\u0418\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \n\u041a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f: \u0412\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0449\u0430 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438\n\n \u0413\u0440\u044f\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0439 \u0413\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u2014 \u0431\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0451\u0442\u0430 \u00ab\u0422\u0443-104\u00bb, \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430 (1973). \u041e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0438\u043b \u0432 1962 \u0433.\n \u041c\u0443\u0441\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u0422\u0430\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0442 \u0410\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0433\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0434\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u0441\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0432\u0442. \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0424\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 (1994), \u041d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u041a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430 (1995).\n\u041a\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u041d\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0430 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0430 \u2014 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 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\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0432\u0437\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0431\u0435\u0433\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 Airbus 350-900 \u0430/\u043a \u0410\u044d\u0440\u043e\u0444\u043b\u043e\u0442. \u0423\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0435\u043d \u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u0430.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u044b \n\u041e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 (1973);\n\u041e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d \u0414\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0431\u044b \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432 (1985);\n\u041e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d \u00ab\u0421\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u00bb (1986, \u041a\u0443\u0431\u0430).\n\n\u041a\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0444\u044b \n\n \u041a\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0430 \u0418\u043b-18 \u0432 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0435;\n \u041a\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0430 \u0410\u043d-10 1962 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0435;\n 20 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 1989 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043b\u0451\u0442\u0435 \u043a \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0443 \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043f\u0435\u043b \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0443 \u0418\u043b-76 \u0426\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0413\u0410 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d \u0421\u042d\u0412, \u043f\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0431\u043b\u043e 10 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u044d\u043a\u0438\u043f\u0430\u0436\u0430 \u0438 5 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\u0421\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b \u043e\u0431 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0449\u0430 \u0441 1993 \u043f\u043e 2003 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u044b / \u0421\u043e\u0441\u0442. \u0410.\u00a0\u0413.\u00a0\u0410\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0430, \u041a.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u0421\u0443\u0441\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a: \u0423\u0412\u0410\u0423 \u0413\u0410, 2004. \n\u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u2014 \u0421\u0438\u043c\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u044d\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f: \u0432 2 \u0442. / \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442. \u0412. \u041d. \u0415\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432. \u2014 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a : \u0421\u0438\u043c\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u0430, 2004. \u2014 590 \u0441. \u2014 2500 \u044d\u043a\u0437. \u2014 ISBN 5-8426-0035-8.\n\u00ab\u0423\u0447\u0435\u0431\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430. \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00bb / \u041e. \u041c. \u0420\u0435\u043f\u044c\u0435\u0432. \u2014 \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043b", " \u043d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u043e\u043d \u043e\u0442\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043e \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0445 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043e 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\u0421\u0438\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u041f\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0440\u044b \u0410\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0435. \u041c\u0430\u043b\u043e \u043a\u0442\u043e \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043b \u0433\u043d\u043e\u043c\u044c\u0438\u0445 \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0449\u0438\u043d; \u0442\u0435 \u0436\u0435, \u043a\u0442\u043e \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043b, \u043d\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u043c\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0438 \u043e\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0438\u0445 \u043e\u0442 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u044b\u0445 \u0433\u043d\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0432-\u043c\u0443\u0436\u0447\u0438\u043d.\n \u0425\u043e\u0431\u0431\u0438\u0442\u044b ()\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044c\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0431\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0447\u0443\u0442\u044c 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At the same time there was a lack of enthusiasm in the country sector for Nashville-produced music. What resulted was a crossbred genre known as country rock.\n\nFourth generation (1970s\u20131980s) music included outlaw country with roots in the Bakersfield sound, and country pop with roots in the countrypolitan, folk music and soft rock. Between 1972 and 1975 singer/guitarist John Denver released a series of hugely successful songs blending country and folk-rock musical styles. By the mid-1970s, Texas country and Tejano music gained popularity with performers like Freddie Fender. During the early 1980s country artists continued to see their records perform well on the pop charts. In 1980 a style of \"neocountry disco music\" was popularized. During the mid-1980s a group of new artists began to emerge who rejected the more polished country-pop sound that had been prominent on radio and the charts in favor of more traditional \"back-to-basics\" production.\n\nDuring the fifth generation (1990s), neotraditionalists and stadium country acts prospered.\n\nThe sixth generation (2000s\u2013present) has seen a certain amount of diversification in regard to country music styles. It has also, however, seen a shift into patriotism and conservative politics since 9/11, though such themes are less prevalent in more modern trends. The influence of rock music in country has become more overt during the late 2000s and early 2010s. Most of the best-selling country songs of this era were those by Lady A, Florida Georgia Line, Carrie Underwood, and Taylor Swift. Hip hop also made its mark on country music with the emergence of country rap.\n\nHistory\n\nFirst generation (1920s)\n\nThe first commercial recordings of what was considered instrumental music in the traditional country style were \"Arkansas Traveler\" and \"Turkey in the Straw\" by fiddlers Henry Gilliland & A.C. (Eck) Robertson on June 30, 1922, for Victor Records and released in April 1923. Columbia Records began issuing records with \"hillbilly\" music (series 15000D \"Old Familiar Tunes\") as early as 1924.\n\nThe first commercial recording of what is widely considered to be the first country song featuring vocals and lyrics was Fiddlin' John Carson with \"Little Log Cabin in the Lane\" for Okeh Records on June 14, 1923.\n\nVernon Dalhart was the first country singer to have a nationwide hit in May 1924 with \"Wreck of the Old 97\". The flip side of the record was \"Lonesome Road Blues\", which also became very popular. In April 1924, \"Aunt\" Samantha Bumgarner and Eva Davis became the first female musicians to record and release country songs. Many of the early country musicians, such as the yodeler Cliff Carlisle, recorded blues songs into the 1930s. Other important early recording artists were Riley Puckett, Don Richardson, Fiddlin' John Carson, Uncle Dave Macon, Al Hopkins, Ernest V. Stoneman, Blind Alfred Reed, Charlie Poole and the North Carolina Ramblers and the Skillet Lickers. The steel guitar entered country music as early as 1922, when Jimmie Tarlton met famed Hawaiian guitarist Frank Ferera on the West Coast.\n\nJimmie Rodgers and the Carter Family are widely considered to be important early country musicians. From Scott County, Virginia, the Carters had learned sight reading of hymnals and sheet music using solfege. Their songs were first captured at a historic recording session in Bristol, Tennessee, on August 1, 1927, where Ralph Peer was the talent scout and sound recordist. A scene in the movie O Brother, Where Art Thou? depicts a similar occurrence in the same timeframe.\n\nRodgers fused hillbilly country, gospel, jazz, blues, pop, cowboy, and folk, and many of his best songs were his compositions, including \"Blue Yodel\", which sold over a million records and established Rodgers as the premier singer of early country music. Beginning in 1927, and for the next 17 years, the Carters recorded some 300 old-time ballads, traditional tunes, country songs and gospel hymns, all representative of America's southeastern folklore and heritage. Maybelle Carter went on to continue the family tradition with her daughters as The Carter Sisters; her daughter June would marry (in succession) Carl Smith, Rip Nix and Johnny Cash, having children with each who would also become country singers.\n\nSecond generation (1930s\u20131940s)\n\nRecord sales declined during the Great Depression, but radio became a popular source of entertainment, and \"barn dance\" shows featuring country music were started by radio stations all over the South, as far north as Chicago, and as far west as California.\n\nThe most important was the Grand Ole Opry, aired starting in 1925 by WSM in Nashville and continuing to the present day. Some of the early stars on the Opry were Uncle Dave Macon, Roy Acuff and African American harmonica player DeFord Bailey. WSM's 50,000-watt signal (in 1934) could often be heard across the country. Many musicians performed and recorded songs in any number of styles. Moon Mullican, for example, played western swing but also recorded songs that can be called rockabilly. Between 1947 and 1949, country crooner Eddy Arnold placed eight songs in the top 10. From 1945 to 1955 Jenny Lou Carson was one of the most prolific songwriters in country music.\n\nSinging cowboys and western swing\n\nIn the 1930s and 1940s, cowboy songs, or western music, which had been recorded since the 1920s, were popularized by films made in Hollywood. Some of the popular singing cowboys from the era were Gene Autry, the Sons of the Pioneers, and Roy Rogers. Country music and western music were frequently played together on the same radio stations, hence the term country and western music, despite country and western being two distinct genres.\n\nCowgirls contributed to the sound in various family groups. Patsy Montana opened the door for female artists with her history-making song \"I Want To Be a Cowboy's Sweetheart\". This would begin a movement toward opportunities for women to have successful solo careers. Bob Wills was another country musician from the Lower Great Plains who had become very popular as the leader of a \"hot string band,\" and who also appeared in Hollywood westerns. His mix of country and jazz, which started out as dance hall music, would become known as western swing. Cliff Bruner, Moon Mullican, Milton Brown and Adolph Hofner were other early western swing pioneers. Spade Cooley and Tex Williams also had very popular bands and appeared in films. At its height, western swing rivaled the popularity of big band swing music.\n\nChanging instrumentation\nDrums were scorned by early country musicians as being \"too loud\" and \"not pure\", but by 1935 western swing big band leader Bob Wills had added drums to the Texas Playboys. In the mid-1940s, the Grand Ole Opry did not want the Playboys' drummer to appear on stage. Although drums were commonly used by rockabilly groups by 1955, the less-conservative-than-the-Grand-Ole-Opry Louisiana Hayride kept its infrequently used drummer back stage as late as 1956. By the early 1960s, however, it was rare for a country band not to have a drummer. Bob Wills was one of the first country musicians known to have added an electric guitar to his band, in 1938. A decade later (1948) Arthur Smith achieved top 10 US country chart success with his MGM Records recording of \"Guitar Boogie\", which crossed over to the US pop chart, introducing many people to the potential of the electric guitar. For several decades Nashville session players preferred the warm tones of the Gibson and Gretsch archtop electrics, but a \"hot\" Fender style, using guitars which became available beginning in the early 1950s, eventually prevailed as the signature guitar sound of country.\n\nHillbilly boogie\nCountry musicians began recording boogie in 1939, shortly after it had been played at Carnegie Hall, when Johnny Barfield recorded \"Boogie Woogie\". The trickle of what was initially called hillbilly boogie, or okie boogie (later to be renamed country boogie), became a flood beginning in late 1945. One notable release from this period was the Delmore Brothers' \"Freight Train Boogie\", considered to be part of the combined evolution of country music and blues towards rockabilly. In 1948, Arthur \"Guitar Boogie\" Smith achieved top ten US country chart success with his MGM Records recordings of \"Guitar Boogie\" and \"Banjo Boogie\", with the former crossing over to the US pop charts. Other country boogie artists included Moon Mullican, Merrill Moore and Tennessee Ernie Ford. The hillbilly boogie period lasted into the 1950s and remains one of many subgenres of country into the 21st century.\n\nBluegrass, folk and gospel\n\nBy the end of World War II, \"mountaineer\" string band music known as bluegrass had emerged when Bill Monroe joined with Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs, introduced by Roy Acuff at the Grand Ole Opry. That was the ordination of bluegrass music and how Bill Monroe came to be known as the \"Father of Bluegrass.\" Gospel music, too, remained a popular component of bluegrass and other sorts of country music. Red Foley, the biggest country star following World War II, had one of the first million-selling gospel hits (\"Peace in the Valley\") and also sang boogie, blues and rockabilly. In the post-war period, country music was called \"folk\" in the trades, and \"hillbilly\" within the industry. In 1944, Billboard replaced the term \"hillbilly\" with \"folk songs and blues,\" and switched to \"country and western\" in 1949.\n\nHonky tonk\n\nAnother type of stripped down and raw music with a variety of moods and a basic ensemble of guitar, bass, dobro or steel guitar (and later) drums became popular, especially among rural residents in the three states of Texhomex, those being Texas, Oklahoma, and New Mexico. It became known as honky tonk and had its roots in western swing and the ranchera music of Mexico and the border states, particularly New Mexico and Texas, together with the blues of the American South. Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys personified this music which has been described as \"a little bit of this, and a little bit of that, a little bit of black and a little bit of white\u00a0... just loud enough to keep you from thinking too much and to go right on ordering the whiskey.\" East Texan Al Dexter had a hit with \"Honky Tonk Blues\", and seven years later \"Pistol Packin' Mama\". These \"honky tonk\" songs were associated with barrooms, and was performed by the likes of Ernest Tubb, Kitty Wells (the first major female country solo singer), Ted Daffan, Floyd Tillman, the Maddox Brothers and Rose, Lefty Frizzell and Hank Williams; the music of these artists would later be called \"traditional\" country. Williams' influence in particular would prove to be enormous, inspiring many of the pioneers of rock and roll, such as Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, Chuck Berry and Ike Turner, while providing a framework for emerging honky tonk talents like George Jones. Webb Pierce was the top-charting country artist of the 1950s, with 13 of his singles spending 113 weeks at number one. He charted 48 singles during the decade; 31 reached the top ten and 26 reached the top four.\n\nThird generation (1950s\u20131960s)\n\nBy the early 1950s, a blend of western swing, country boogie, and honky tonk was played by most country bands, a mixture which followed in the footsteps of Gene Autry, Lydia Mendoza, Roy Rogers, and Patsy Montana. Western music, influenced by the cowboy ballads, New Mexico, Texas country and Tejano music rhythms of the Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico, reached its peak in popularity in the late 1950s, most notably with the song \"El Paso\", first recorded by Marty Robbins in September 1959. Western music's influence would continue to grow within the country music sphere, western musicians like Michael Martin Murphey, New Mexico music artists Al Hurricane and Antonia Apodaca, Tejano music performer Little Joe, and even folk revivalist John Denver, all first rose to prominence during this time. This western music influence largely kept the music of the folk revival and folk rock from influencing the country music genre much, despite the similarity in instrumentation and origins (see, for instance, the Byrds' negative reception during their appearance on the Grand Ole Opry). The main concern was largely political: most folk revival was largely driven by progressive activists, a stark contrast to the culturally conservative audiences of country music. John Denver was perhaps the only musician to have major success in both the country and folk revival genres throughout his career, later only a handful of artists like Burl Ives and Canadian musician Gordon Lightfoot successfully made the crossover to country after folk revival fell out of fashion. During the mid-1950s a new style of country music became popular, eventually to be referred to as rockabilly.\n\nIn 1953, the first all-country radio station was established in Lubbock, Texas. The music of the 1960s and 1970s targeted the American working class, and truckers in particular. As country radio became more popular, trucking songs like the 1963 hit song Six Days on the Road by Dave Dudley began to make up their own subgenre of country. These revamped songs sought to portray American truckers as a \"new folk hero\", marking a significant shift in sound from earlier country music. The song was written by actual truckers and contained numerous references to the trucker culture of the time like \"ICC\" for Interstate Commerce Commission and \"little white pills\" as a reference to amphetamines. Starday Records in Nashville followed up on Dudley's initial success with the release of Give Me 40 Acres by the Willis Brothers.\n\nRockabilly\n\nRockabilly was most popular with country fans in the 1950s; one of the first rock and roll superstars was former western yodeler Bill Haley, who repurposed his Four Aces of Western Swing into a rockabilly band in the early 1950s and renamed it the Comets. Bill Haley & His Comets are credited with two of the first successful rock and roll records, \"Crazy Man, Crazy\" of 1953 and \"Rock Around the Clock\" in 1954.\n\n1956 could be called the year of rockabilly in country music. Rockabilly was an early form of rock and roll, an upbeat combination of blues and country music. The number two, three and four songs on Billboard's charts for that year were Elvis Presley, \"Heartbreak Hotel\"; Johnny Cash, \"I Walk the Line\"; and Carl Perkins, \"Blue Suede Shoes\". Reflecting this success, George Jones released a rockabilly record that year under the pseudonym \"Thumper Jones\", wanting to capitalize on the popularity of rockabilly without alienating his traditional country base. Cash and Presley placed songs in the top 5 in 1958 with No. 3 \"Guess Things Happen That Way/Come In, Stranger\" by Cash, and No. 5 by Presley \"Don't/I Beg of You.\" Presley acknowledged the influence of rhythm and blues artists and his style, saying \"The colored folk been singin' and playin' it just the way I'm doin' it now, man for more years than I know.\" Within a few years, many rockabilly musicians returned to a more mainstream style or had defined their own unique style.\n\nCountry music gained national television exposure through Ozark Jubilee on ABC-TV and radio from 1955 to 1960 from Springfield, Missouri. The program showcased top stars including several rockabilly artists, some from the Ozarks. As Webb Pierce put it in 1956, \"Once upon a time, it was almost impossible to sell country music in a place like New York City. Nowadays, television takes us everywhere, and country music records and sheet music sell as well in large cities as anywhere else.\"\n \nThe Country Music Association was founded in 1958, in part because numerous country musicians were appalled by the increased influence of rock and roll on country music.\n\nThe Nashville and countrypolitan sounds\n\nBeginning in the mid-1950s, and reaching its peak during the early 1960s, the Nashville sound turned country music into a multimillion-dollar industry centered in Nashville, Tennessee. Under the direction of producers such as Chet Atkins, Bill Porter, Paul Cohen, Owen Bradley, Bob Ferguson, and later Billy Sherrill, the sound brought country music to a diverse audience and helped revive country as it emerged from a commercially fallow period. This subgenre was notable for borrowing from 1950s pop stylings: a prominent and smooth vocal, backed by a string section (violins and other orchestral strings) and vocal chorus. Instrumental soloing was de-emphasized in favor of trademark \"licks\". Leading artists in this genre included Jim Reeves, Skeeter Davis, Connie Smith, the Browns, Patsy Cline, and Eddy Arnold. The \"slip note\" piano style of session musician Floyd Cramer was an important component of this style. The Nashville Sound collapsed in mainstream popularity in 1964, a victim of both the British Invasion and the deaths of Reeves and Cline in separate airplane crashes. By the mid-1960s, the genre had developed into countrypolitan. Countrypolitan was aimed straight at mainstream markets, and it sold well throughout the later 1960s into the early 1970s. Top artists included Tammy Wynette, Lynn Anderson and Charlie Rich, as well as such former \"hard country\" artists as Ray Price and Marty Robbins. Despite the appeal of the Nashville sound, many traditional country artists emerged during this period and dominated the genre: Loretta Lynn, Merle Haggard, Buck", ", NASCAR revealed the Car of Tomorrow, also referred to as the \"Car of the Future\" during its development, after a five-year design program sparked mainly by the death of Dale Earnhardt Sr. in a final-lap crash during the 2001 Daytona 500. During the prior season, three drivers (Adam Petty, Kenny Irwin Jr. and Tony Roper) had perished in on-track accidents. The then-current cars were based on a design by Holman Moody first used for the 1966 Ford Fairlane. The primary design considerations for the new car were \"safety innovations, performance and competition, and cost efficiency for teams.\"\n\nThe CoT incorporated several safety improvements in comparison to the older car. The driver's seat was moved four inches toward the center, and the roll cage shifted three inches to the rear, while the car was designed two inches taller and four inches wider. Larger crumple zones, designed to absorb impact energy, and impact absorbing foam were built into the car on both sides. Replacing the front valance was an adjustable splitter, a piece of fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP, \"fiberglass\") used on the bottom front of the car to produce downforce. The car's exhaust exits on the right (passenger) side, which diverts heat from the driver. The fuel cell was strengthened using thicker material, with a smaller capacity , down from , which as of 2007 had become standard in all cars.\n\nNASCAR officials initially claimed the car was less dependent on aerodynamics, comparing its performance to the trucks of the Craftsman Truck Series. It initially featured a detached wing, which had not been used since the Dodge Charger Daytona and Plymouth Superbird in 1970, in place of a rear spoiler. The windshield was more upright to prevent collapse in the event of a rollover, with the added effect of increased drag. The radiator air intake was placed below the front bumper of the car, to reduce overheating caused by debris-clogged grilles. The front bumper itself was more box-like and the front airdam was gapped, as opposed to being a flush piece on the older cars, to reduce aerodynamics and slow down the cars.\n\nAll cars were required to fit the same set of templates (with minor differences between the makes), using a laser inspection system (LIS) device nicknamed \"the claw\" that was designed to fit over the new cars. In the first two races at Bristol and Martinsville Speedway, the garages were opened one day early and the inspections took up to 10 hours so that everyone (teams, officials, etc.) could get a better grip on the new unified template. NASCAR's old rules had a different set of templates for each manufacturer (Ford, Chevrolet, Dodge, and Toyota). During the CoT era, NASCAR attempted to eliminate \"gray area\" and ambiguity within the rule book, and frequently adjusted the rules to ensure that different car manufacturers have relatively equal cars; one such instance of rule book changes against gray areas occurred after the 2008 Sprint All-Star Challenge, in which Sam Hornish, Jr. ran a car with skewed setup to finish second in the Showdown and advance to the All-Star Race, as well in 2012 after Hendrick Motorsports' teams ran with skewed sway bars to win five races during the spring portion of the season. With the transition to the Generation 6 car, the claw continues to be used along with manufacturer-specific templates until 2018, when both was replaced by the laser-based Optical Scanning System (OSS).\n\nOn January 15, 2010, Cup Series director John Darby informed teams that NASCAR would transition back to the spoiler, to increase downforce and prevent airborne accidents the rear wing was believed to cause.\n\nCar models\n\n \nAlthough initially branded as the Monte Carlo SS (the same as the Generation 4 model), Chevrolet's Car of Tomorrow debuted as the Impala SS (later the Impala). After using the Charger name on the old car since 2005, Dodge utilized the Avenger name on the CoT, coinciding with the model's reintroduction into the production market. However, for 2008 the Charger name returned for use on the CoT. Ford continued to use the Fusion model while Toyota continued to use the Camry.\n\nDimensions\nThis chart lists the CoT's dimensions compared with the dimensions of their production car counterparts.\n\n*Weight displays the curb weight of the least expensive trim level available for model year 2008 unless otherwise specified. The Holden Commodore listed is a 2012 VE model with a V8 and manual transmission (which road-cars were imported for the US market). The VF Commodore debuted for the 2014 model year in early 2013 as the Chevrolet SS.\n\nTesting\nThe Car of Tomorrow was first tested in December 2005 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. Next it tested at the 2.5-mile Daytona International Speedway, then on NASCAR's two shortest tracks, Bristol (0.533\u00a0mi) and Martinsville (0.526\u00a0mi.), the 1.5-mile Charlotte Motor Speedway, the 2.66 mile Talladega Superspeedway, and 2.0-mile Michigan International Speedway. Former NASCAR driver, and former Cup Series pace car driver and Director of Cost Research Brett Bodine also tested the prototype car against cars prepared by current NASCAR teams.\n\nDrivers tested the CoT concurrently with the old car at some NASCAR tests and at special NASCAR-authorized sessions. Other testing sessions occurred at the half-mile Greenville-Pickens Speedway, Caraway Speedway in Asheboro, NC, and the one-mile North Carolina Speedway (now Rockingham Speedway), none of which were Cup Series tracks at the time (North Carolina Speedway was a regular venue until 2005), and therefore did not fall under NASCAR's restrictions.\n\nImplementation\n\nThe Car of Tomorrow was first raced at the 2007 Food City 500 at Bristol Motor Speedway, the season's fifth race. The tracks that saw the CoT twice in 2007 besides Bristol and Martinsville International Speedway were Phoenix Raceway, Richmond Raceway, Dover International Speedway, and New Hampshire Motor Speedway. Other than Talladega (for the fall event), Darlington Raceway and the road course races at Sonoma Raceway and Watkins Glen (N.Y.) International ran the CoT once each in 2007.\n\nOriginal implementation plans called for the CoT to be used at 26 events in 2008, starting with both races at Daytona, including the season-opening Daytona 500 and related events (Budweiser Shootout and Gatorade Duels), the spring race at Talladega and Michigan, both races at Auto Club Speedway, Pocono Raceway and the event at Indianapolis Motor Speedway. Based on the success of the February 28 test at Bristol, NASCAR considered requiring the CoT for the full schedule in 2008 in order to avoid applying two sets of rules (as supported by a survey of NASCAR owners, with 80% favoring the switch), adding all three events (including the all-star event) at Charlotte Motor Speedway, as well as both races at Atlanta and Texas Motor Speedway, and single races at Chicagoland Speedway, Kansas Speedway, Las Vegas Motor Speedway and Homestead-Miami Speedway one year earlier than scheduled. This was confirmed on Tuesday, May 22, 2007, by NASCAR. Had NASCAR continued with the original schedule of implication, the other tracks would have been added in 2009. Apparently 2008 was not going to be when the CoT would make its debut. It was initially going to debut in mid to late 2005, and possibly 2004 according to NASCAR's R&D at the time. But the tests with this version plus negative driver comments led to the creation of the splitter and the wing, thus delaying implementation until 2007.\n\nDebut\nOn March 25, 2007, the CoT debuted in its first NASCAR-sanctioned race. Kyle Busch won the race, the first win for the Chevrolet Impala since Wendell Scott's historic race in 1963.\n\nReactions to the CoT's performance were mixed. Dale Earnhardt Jr., after finishing 7th, said, \"It wasn't a disaster like everybody anticipated. It worked out, I reckon. Racing was about the same.\" Drivers were also impressed with the car's ability to bump other competitors without causing a spin (bumper heights were equalized due to street car development, and nose-to-rear bumper contact caused spins that pre-1988 cars would not cause), and NASCAR officials were pleased with the improvements in safety.\n\nSeveral drivers and pundits expressed distaste for the car and what they perceived as a less exciting style of racing created by it. Kyle Busch, despite winning at Bristol, commented that \"they suck\" during his victory lane interview. Retired driver and TV analyst Rusty Wallace stated on ESPN that the car created a boring, single-file racing environment with little of the passing, action, or crashing that has made NASCAR popular, though after NASCAR announced the CoT would run the full schedule, he stated that it was \"one of the best decisions NASCAR had ever made.\" Drivers who placed well at Bristol, Jeff Gordon and Jeff Burton, claimed that the car allowed the use of a second passing lane not usually present at Bristol.\n\nA major problem with the car's initial race was its front splitter. One car's splitter running into the tire of another car beside it sometimes punctured the second car's tire. There were no problems with the splitter causing tire failure at the car's second race.\n\nAnother major problem was that the safety foam used in the side of the car would catch fire, engulfing the driver's cockpit with smoke. NASCAR decided to make modifications before the April 21 Subway Fresh Fit 500 in Avondale, Arizona. An additional side effect of the foam occurred during side-impacts, as Brian Vickers experienced at Watkins Glen, when the foam would be sheared out of the car leaving debris on the racetrack.\n\nDuring the 2007 UAW-Ford 500, the CoT's debut on a superspeedway track at Talladega, NASCAR assigned a restrictor plate to allow the engines to run at around 8,800 RPM due to the less aerodynamic design of the CoT. The previous generation car's engine would normally run around 7,000 RPM with a plate. This was the most open restrictor plate (in terms of air flow) to race at Talladega since 1988.\n\nHistory, criticisms, and redesigns of the COT\n\nFirst generation body (Generation 5)\n\nCriticisms of the CoT began with its first tests, with the magazine Speedway Illustrated noting the car's poor performance in traffic (February 2006 issue). The Winston-Salem Journal also noted extensive criticism of the project during 2006 testing, with drivers becoming more vocal by July 2007 and most fans rejecting the model, citing the falsity of many of its technical claims; one angle of criticism was the differing philosophies of NASCAR officials Gary Nelson and John Darby, with Darby a particularly ardent supporter of the CoT based on a misreading of the sport's competition packages. Jeff Gordon and Matt Kenseth were pointedly critical of the car's poor performance in traffic, with Gordon stating after the 2007 New England 300, \"I'd like to know who it was who said this car would reduce the aero push because I could have told you from when I first drove this car that it would be worse.\" Kyle Busch, who won the very first race with the car at Bristol in 2007, proclaimed that the car \"sucks\" afterward and expanded on this criticism at Dover in 2008 in noting how the CoT was \"hitting a wall of air\" in the wake of a leading car, thus neutralizing ability to close up on leaders.\n\nOn April 4, 2008, while in a qualifying run for the 2008 Samsung 500 at Texas Motor Speedway, Michael McDowell's right-front sway bar broke, and he proceeded to lose control of his car and proceeded to strike the wall outside of Turn 1 head-on at 185 MPH. Michael's car subsequently barrel-rolled eight times as fire came from the engine compartment and came to a stop at the exit of Turn 2. McDowell emerged from the Toyota unharmed. The car, along with the SAFER barrier on the track wall, was praised for its safety, as the speed upon impact of the crash was about 30 miles an hour more than Dale Earnhardt's fatal accident.\n\nIn the 2008 Brickyard 400, the longest run under green flag conditions was 12 laps due to extreme wear on right-side tires, especially the right rear. The CoT, in its first use at Indianapolis Motor Speedway, created no improvement of the conditions on the track, which is well known for its rough surface. The lack of downforce on the car and its higher center of gravity created conditions that made it very hard on the right side tires. During the race, the tires used on the cars generally lasted no more than 10 laps at a time.\n\nIt has been claimed that the bulky rear wing that was affixed to the rear of the car from 2007 to early 2010 increased the severity of many on-track incidents by causing cars to flip over or go airborne at high speeds.\n\n On the final lap of the 2009 Aaron's 499 at Talladega, leader Carl Edwards attempted to block Brad Keselowski in order to prevent Keselowski from passing; when Keselowski didn't give, Edwards was turned into the air and Edwards's car bounced off of the hood of Ryan Newman's car and flipped into the catch fence, then came to a rest in the middle of the track further down. Edwards was uninjured, but the crash was compared to an accident at Talladega in 1987 where Bobby Allison went airborne and hit the catch fence in a similar location. Allison's crash (coming at speeds 20 MPH faster than Edwards' crash) ripped out a 100-foot section of the catch fence, while Edwards' crash only bent the support poles. Seven spectators were injured in Edwards' accident from debris. The aftermath of the accident spawned questions about the aerodynamic features of the CoT, the nature of pack racing with restrictor plates, and the safety features of Talladega Superspeedway. Video replay showed that despite deploying, the car's roof flaps did nothing to stop the car from flipping\u00a0\u2013 a common failing of the devices dating to their very first month in use\u00a0\u2013 and the second hit from Newman flipped the car higher.\n In the 2009 AMP Energy 500 \u2013 the fall race at Talladega, Ryan Newman was spun backwards at high speed in a late race crash, and then flipped backwards (landing upside down on Kevin Harvick's hood) and ended up on his roof. Mark Martin also barrel rolled in a crash during the same race, but instead of lifting in the air like Newman, his car was hit from behind, causing the weight of the car to shift to one side and pull the car onto its roof, rolling once.\n At the 2010 Kobalt Tools 500 at Atlanta\u00a0\u2013 the second to last race to use the rear wing\u00a0\u2013 Carl Edwards made deliberate contact with Brad Keselowski (in retaliation for several events including the Talladega race the prior season), causing Keselowski to turn backwards and once more flip over despite the roof flaps being deployed. Keselowski flipped over once and crashed on his side door. Edwards was parked for the rest of the race and put on three-race probation.\n\nThese three accidents \u2013 as well as the general consensus that the wing made the car look like a sports car rather than a stock car \u2013 were factors in NASCAR's eventual decision, in February 2010, to replace the wing with a more traditional rear spoiler starting at Martinsville in late March. Denny Hamlin won the first race with the new/old spoiler, beating out Jeff Gordon and Matt Kenseth.\n\nFor the 2011 season, the car's splitter and nose configuration were redesigned: the splitter's braces were removed, and the splitter was made nonadjustable. The nose as a whole was given a cleaner, rounder look that resembled that of NASCAR's previous model (now dubbed the fourth-generation car) and manufacturers were given free rein to construct the lower grille area to reflect that of their NASCAR models' production-car counterparts. In the past, all cars were required to run the same exact grille arrangement, allowing for very little, if any, real differentiation between them.\n\nThe first racing with the redesigned car was the 2011 Daytona 500 and its supporting races (Budweiser Shootout and Gatorade Duels), all held on brand new pavement for Daytona International Speedway. The Daytona 500 broke long-standing records for leaders and lead changes, as 22 drivers changed the lead 74 times. It also saw a first time winner, rookie Trevor Bayne, go to victory lane. But the story of the new car was a phenomenon of lock-bumper superdrafts \u2013 two cars would literally lock together and push into a clear lead, with speeds up to 10 MPH faster than with a conventional draft (on numerous occasions 2-car superdrafts topped 206 MPH); this phenomenon had debuted at Talladega Superspeedway in the spring of 2008 when Denny Hamlin discovered he could push Kevin Harvick all the way around the track during practice, resulting in a lap time about a half a second faster than the rest of the field. Hamlin used the move multiple times in that race to get the lead, and by the next spring the technique was used by the majority of the field throughout the entire race. The phenomenon also led to a new level of \"team\" racing reminiscent of the team orders ethos common to Formula One; drivers would communicate with each other over radio to coordinate \"swaps\" instead of actually fighting for position. This was present in the 2011 Aaron's 499 at Talladega, leading to a three-wide finish with three drafting teams contending for the win: Clint Bowyer (pushed by Kevin Harvick), Jeff Gordon (who was being pushed by Mark Martin, but separated before the finish line), and winner Jimmie Johnson (pushed by Dale Earnhardt Jr.), who won by two-thousandths of a second over Bowyer. A fourth drafting team, consisting of Roush-Fenway teammates Carl Edwards and Greg Biffle (Biffle was pushing), squeezed in between the Bowyer/Harvick tandem and the wall, but only finishing 6th (Edwards) and 7th (Biffle).\n\nDale Earnhardt Jr. and veteran drivers such as Richard Petty and David Pearson were sharply critical of this new style of racing, especially in the wake of a race", "mer created the world's first \"psychological clinic\" at the University of Pennsylvania in 1896, including the first journal of clinical psychology and the first clinical hospital school in 1907.\n\nWitmer contributed to numerous branches of psychology including school psychology. He contributed to the field of special education.\n\nLittle is known about Witmer's life. He is described as an introverted and private person.\n\nEarly life\n\nWitmer was born in Philadelphia on June 28, 1867. He was born David L. Witmer Jr., but at age 50 he changed his name to Lightner. Witmer was born to a devout Catholic mother and father: David Lightner, a Germantown pharmacist who graduated from a Philadelphia College in 1862; and Katherine Huchel, about whom little is known. He was the eldest of four children, followed by Albert Ferree, Lilly Evelyn and Paul DeLancey. Later in life Witmer became a faculty member at the University of Pennsylvania. Ferree obtained his physiology doctorate from the University of Pennsylvania, Lilly Evelyn received her bacteriology medical degree in Berlin, and Paul DeLancey obtained a doctoral degree in Pharmacy. By the end of 1905, Witmer and his siblings had all become doctors in a range of disciplines.\n\nEducation\n\nAs a young man, Witmer wanted a better future and a better world after the social problems he saw as a result of the Civil War. In 1880, Witmer and his brother Ferree enrolled in the Prep School \u201cEpiscopal Academy of Philadelphia\u201d, one of the best schools in America at the time.\n\nWitmer showed his intelligence and reasoning ability at Prep School. Witmer and two other boys were told to build a canoe, each having everything they needed to complete their task. His two schoolmates were arguing over who would build the canoe first, but Witmer thought and told the other children, \"I wish to finish last as I will learn from others' mistakes and build the best canoe.\"\n\nHe graduated with high honors at age 17.\n\nIn 1884, Witmer enrolled at the University of Pennsylvania to study art, but after a couple of years he transferred to the Finance and Economy department where he obtained a Bachelor's degree in 1888 aged 20. During his freshman year, he was chosen as the class president and earned a reputation as an outstanding student. After a stint as a teacher, Witmer decided to return to the University of Pennsylvania for his graduate studies in political science.\n\nRugby Academy\n\nDuring the fall of 1888, Witmer was offered a job as an instructor at Rugby Academy, a male secondary school. He taught History and English.\n\nWhile he was teaching at the academy, Witmer noticed that a 14-year-old student who wished to go to college had extreme difficulties in differentiating sounds, as well as other speech problems that might today be called dyslexia. Witmer decided to help him to correct his problem; the child progressed satisfactorily and was able to continue studying, eventually enrolling at the University of Pennsylvania. This success made Witmer believe that children with learning difficulties could satisfactorily engage in education with support, dedication and special education.\n\nThe following year, Witmer decided to attend graduate school at the University of Pennsylvania and was accepted into the Philosophy department. He intended to study law and to work towards an advanced degree in political science.\n\nCareer\n\nJames McKeen Cattell and the Experimental Psychological Lab\n\nWhile at Pennsylvania he was introduced to experimental psychologist James McKeen Cattell, who inspired him to begin studying in the emerging field of psychology. George Fullerton, a member of The University brought Cattell to join the faculty of the University. At this time, Cattell was known as one of the best-trained psychologists, educated by influential psychologist, Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt. Witmer accepted Fullerton's offer to become Cattell's assistant. He decided to resign from the Rugby Academy and attend graduate school at the University of Pennsylvania.\n\nWitmer and Cattell worked together to found an experimental psychology lab with the purpose of studying individual differences by examining a range of subjects. Witmer's main lab tasks were to gather data on individual differences in reaction times. Through these he gained knowledge of psychological experiments. While at the lab, Witmer published a manual that explained how experimental psychology should be properly conducted. Witmer intended to get his doctoral degree under Cattell's supervision, but Cattell suddenly left the university (effectively abandoning his students and laboratory), to obtain a higher paying position at Columbia University. Witmer also left in search of a new teacher.\n\nUnder Wundt's Supervision\n\nCattell helped Witmer to get a job as assistant to Wilhelm Wundt at the University of Leipzig in 1891, also taking classes with Oswald Kulpe and Ludwig Strumpel. Historians have found no letters written by him to colleagues while under Wundt's supervision. However, it is said that while Witmer was Wundt's assistant, they had several disagreements. One of those disputes was that Witmer desired to continue working on the study of reaction times he had previously started with Cattell, but Wundt insisted that they should study the aesthetic value of different visual forms, and other branches of psychology such as educational psychology and developmental psychology. Witmer obtained his PhD in 1892 from Wundt.\n\nReturn to Pennsylvania\n\nIn 1892, Witmer left Germany and returned to the University of Pennsylvania, becoming the Director of The Laboratory of Psychology. He was interested in teaching Child Psychology and taught several different courses. He also began conducting research on individual differences in sensory-perceptual variables and presented papers in experimental psychology. In 1896, he taught public school teachers at the University. During March of that year, a special case was brought before him: a 14-year-old student was having extreme difficulties learning to spell, yet was quite able and excelled in other subjects. This case offered a special challenge to Witmer, and was in line with his developing view that psychology should be of practical benefit. He soon began remedial work with the youth. Needing a workspace, Witmer established the first psychological clinic, at the University. During 1896, he presented a plan of organization for practical work in psychology to the American Psychological Association, in which he used and explained the term \"Clinical Psychology\" for the first time.\n\nIn 1902, he started advising graduate students and published a laboratory manual.\n\nHe married Emma Repplier, a prominent graduate from the Agnes Irwin School, in 1904. She was a writer who worked for the American Philosophical Society, to which both she and Witmer belonged.\n\nIn 1908, he established and staffed a small private residential school near Wallingford, Pennsylvania, an institution dedicated to the care and treatment of retarded and troubled children. Later, he established a similar, but larger facility in Devon, Pennsylvania.\n\nHe founded the world's first speech clinic in 1914.\n\nAmerican Psychological Association\n\nBy 1896, Witmer, G. Stanley Hall, William James and James McKeen Cattell decided to create a new association for psychology professionals, during a meeting of the American Psychological Association (APA). Witmer and other experimental colleagues proposed that the APA should accept only psychological papers, be separated from the American Philosophical Association, and have a better selection process for choosing new members. These proposals sparked a debate among APA members, because many of the current members did not want the field to separate from philosophy. Their proposals were rejected, so Witmer attempted to start an association with Hall, exclusively for experimental psychologists, but Hall refused. In 1904 Edward B. Titchener accepted Witmer's proposal to separate Psychology from Philosophy, and decided to abandon the APA society and help Witmer create an society solely for experimental psychologists called The Society of Experimental Psychologists (SEP).\n\nWitmer told Titchener that the association should be only for men, and that women should be excluded, because they were too emotional when discussing about scientific issues. He eventually changed his attitude, and decided to teach female students; accepted women to work at his clinic, and later appointed a woman to manage it.\n\nWitmer wrote and published articles to the APA. In one article, \"The Organization of Practical Work in Psychology\", he expressed his desire to assist children academically and described a plan for organized education. He proposed that schools should become more involved with their students' classes and grades, that schools should have better educational tools, and that faculty members should receive teaching reflecting psychological findings.\n\nFirst psychological clinic\n\nWitmer opened the first Psychological Clinic at the University of Pennsylvania in 1896, with the purpose of studying children who had either learning or behavior problems. Witmer's main participants were children who attended public schools from Philadelphia and surrounding areas, and who were brought to the clinic by their teachers or parents. Witmer's clinic was appreciated by many, as it proactively employed psychology. In the clinic, Witmer regularly dealt with issues such as speech difficulties, sleep disturbances, behavioral problems, hyperactivity and refusal to stay in school. Every child was given a complete mental and physical examination, which often ruled out physiological symptoms. His method of improving children with psychological problems involved breaking down information to a level that they could understand. He would focus on particular problems and work with the child in that area, often improving several areas at once.\n\nIn 1907 Witmer founded the journal The Psychological Clinic. In its first issue, he published the article \"Clinical Psychology\", which explained its definition in the following way:\n\nAlthough clinical psychology is clearly related to medicine, it is quite as closely related to sociology and pedagogy... An abundance of material for scientific study fails to be utilized, because the interest of psychologists is elsewhere engaged, and those in constant touch with the actual phenomena do not possess the training necessary to make the experience and observation of scientific value...I have borrowed the word \"clinical\" from medicine, because it is the term I can find to indicate the character of the method which I deem necessary for this work.\n\nWitmer's \"Clinical Psychology\" was published and got a lot of attention, because it dealt with the study of individual children. In his article, Witmer presented the idea that all kinds of children (smart or mentally retarded) could reach their full potential with help. He included definitions of retardation using two different terms: \"physiological retardation\" referred to individuals who had not acquired a normal development for their chronological ages, whereas the other term, \"pedagogical retardation\", referred to children who did not develop their full capacities when they reached adulthood.\n\nIn the first issue of The Psychological Clinic, he criticized some of his colleagues and their departments because they had rejected ideas he proposed to the American Psychological Association. In 1908, in a later issue of his journal, he criticized William James for what he felt was his unscientific attitude, calling James \"the spoiled child of American Psychology\".\n\nWitmer always defended his ideas and beliefs, even if it seemed that he did not care about other points of view. This and other disagreements caused Witmer to lose the friendship of his colleagues, who decided not to attend Witmer's meetings.\n\nWitmer also attacked Harvard University for using the theory of introspection and teaching psychology incorrectly, since Witmer also refused the idea theory introspection and did not care much for pure experimental psychology. He also criticized \"Intelligence Tests\" and encouraged his students not to trust them, because he thought those tests only gave a measure of the individual's efficiency, nothing else. He thought that people should not be referred to as normal or abnormal due to the results of such tests, as one could then say that an individual was \"normal\" or \"abnormal\", depending on if, for example, he or she knew how write and read properly.\n\nAnother of Witmer's studies involved apes. He compared them with children, and taught them how to articulate some elements of spoken language, but their efforts to learn were not successful. However, one day Witmer attended a performance, and noticed that a monkey was able to do some things human beings could do, such as reading and writing, after being instructed to do such things.\n\nWitmer's studies of individual behavior extended to gifted children. In 1900 in his The Restoration of Children of the Slums described Witmer's beliefs that criminal behavior was not hereditary. Instead, he thought criminal behavior was caused due to environmental facts.\n\nIn 1911 Witmer supported a bill in the state of Pennsylvania to sterilize severely retarded people, with the purpose of minimizing their offspring. In 1912 he traveled to Italy to study pedagogical methods with special children.\n\nClinical psychology\n\nIn his 1896 APA paper, cited to be the first instance of his use and explanation of the term \"Clinical Psychology,\" Witmer outlined four main goals for his new discipline. Firstly, it was to focus on the investigation of mental and intellectual disability using statistical and clinical methods. Secondly, clinical psychology as a discipline was to establish more psychological clinics and hospitals specifically for children suffering from intellectual disability or physical defects that impact academic progress. The discipline was to focus on providing opportunities for those in other disciplines, such as teaching, medicine and social work to observe and work with children with intellectual disability and normal children. Witmer's fourth goal was to train more psychologist to become expert in working with mentally and/or morally intellectual disabled clients. In this same paper, Witmer outlined the main concern of clinical psychology: that the discipline focus on active clinical intervention for the purpose of the restoration and treatment of mentally or intellectually disabled individuals. According to Witmer, for clinical psychology to actually be of any worth, it needed to help and improve clients' mental health and well-being.\n\nAs clinical psychology was the first discipline in psychology that attempted to apply the principles of scientific psychology to diagnostic and therapeutic treatment, it required its own techniques and procedures. Clinical psychology's original methodologies were highly practical and problem-oriented, and were developed solely by Witmer. His early work used a hands-on approach to observation and interviews, emphasizing one-on-one interaction between the client and the clinician.\n\nAdditionally, emphasis was placed on the ability of the clinician to be able to work with their clients in a professional, yet personal way. Witmer highlighted the concept of treating each client as an individual, and not simply as a physical manifestation of their problem or a phenomenon to be observed and explained. He emphasized examining each client's personal background history, as he believes it would allow clinicians to better and more fully understand their situation. He was one of the first psychologists to recognize that a client's problems could have environmental as well as hereditary factors, and because of this, he emphasized the importance that treatment should not end with returning the client into the environment from which their physical, mental, or moral problem originated unless something had been done to change it.\n\nAlthough the treatment programs Witmer created for clinical psychology were systematic, they were constantly revised and implemented new treatment methods as the client improved or problems arose. Treatment involved weekly visits to the clinic and would continue until either the problem was resolved, or the client, or the client's parent/guardian, decided to end it. Witmer's treatment programs were not limited to the clinic in which they took place; he emphasized the importance of ongoing remediation both in between treatment sessions and after treatment had officially ended. To this end Witmer made a point to provide direct advice and consultation to both the client and their caregivers on their living environment and other aspects of their lives in order to improve their problems or disabilities. Many of Witmer's original approaches still exist in modern-day clinical psychology.\n\nOther contributions\n\nWitmer was responsible for major advancements in the field of school psychology and was cited as the founder of this discipline. Witmer was the first psychologist to undertake and focus, on the treatment of those with mental, physical or moral handicaps with the goal of improving their deficits. He ensured that the treatment of children suffering from a deficit impairing their academic success would be a major focus of clinical psychology when he made one of the discipline's main goals the creation of psychological clinics and hospitals to treat impaired children.\n\nWitmer was the first psychologist to realize teachers' integral role and began offering classes at his clinic for teachers. He opened up his clinic to those in medicine and social work and gave them the opportunity to observe and work with normal and impaired children. This allowed those who interacted with children a chance to work with them in a therapeutic environment. By mixing normal and handicapped children, Witmer gave these professionals the chance to directly observe the differences between the two groups for themselves. He offered these professionals courses that demonstrated how to practically apply his clinical methods. This helped the other disciplines to see the importance of working with disabled children.\n\nFinal days\n\nBy 1917, Witmer joined the Red Cross. His main task was to help to rehabilitate homeless people who were war victims. When he went to the United States in 1920, his mother died, followed a few years later by Titchener, and he stopped publishing.\n\nBy 1930, the University of Pennsylvania presented him with a volume called Clinical Psychology: Studies in Honor of Lightner Witmer.\n\nOn July 19, 1956, at age 89, Witmer died at the hospital in Bryn Mawr from heart failure.\n\nLegacy\n\nWitmer gained little recognition outside of clinical psychology and is little talked about. Several factors are claimed to have contributed to this perception.\n\nOne had to do with Witmer's personality. Within his field he was vicious, argumentative and blunt, regardless of his opponent. Witmer's targets included the American Psychological Association, mon-experimentalists, psychology as a discipline, and his colleagues.\n\nA second factor was that many of his theories were not empirically testable. Although Witmer was a major advocate for scientific procedures, he often presented his theories as facts, rather than hypotheses. He then often failed to provide methods for testing his theories.\n\nMany of his principles, methods and ideas are basically congruent with later developments in his field, but were far from the mainstream when he offered them. At his official address in 1897, his ideas for clinical psychology produced only a few raised eyebrows.\n\nWitmer was highly critical of many popular trends in psychology and society during his career. For example, he directly opposed popular education methods of his time, which focused on mass instruction. Witmer argued that education required personalization and a focus on students as individuals. He was highly critical of intelligence tests, which he claimed measured efficiency, rather than intelligence. He saw intelligence as having both hereditary and environmental components.\n\nWorks\n\n The Association Value of Three-Place Consonant Syllables. Journal of Genetic Psychology 47 (1935): 337-360.\n Are We Educating the Rising Generation?\u201d Education Review. 37 (1909): 456-467.\n Children with mental Defects Distinguished from Mentally Defective Children.\u201d Psychological Clinic. 7 (1913): 173-181.\n Clinical Psychology.\u201d Psychological Clinic. 1 (1907): 1-9.\n Courses in Psychology for Normal Schools. Education Review 13 (1897): 45-57, 146-162.\n The Exceptional Child and the Training of Teachers for Exceptional Children. School & Society. 2 (19", " store is checked for consistency every time a new constraint is added to it. In principle, whenever the constraint store is unsatisfiable the algorithm could backtrack. However, checking unsatisfiability at each step would be inefficient. For this reason, an incomplete satisfiability checker may be used instead. In practice, satisfiability is checked using methods that simplify the constraint store, that is, rewrite it into an equivalent but simpler-to-solve form. These methods can sometimes but not always prove unsatisfiability of an unsatisfiable constraint store.\n\nThe interpreter has proved the goal when the current goal is empty and the constraint store is not detected unsatisfiable. The result of execution is the current set of (simplified) constraints. This set may include constraints such as that force variables to a specific value, but may also include constraints like that only bound variables without giving them a specific value.\n\nFormally, the semantics of constraint logic programming is defined in terms of derivations. A transition is a pair of pairs goal/store, noted . Such a pair states the possibility of going from state to state . Such a transition is possible in three possible cases:\n\n an element of is a constraint , and we have and ; in other words, a constraint can be moved from the goal to the constraint store\n an element of is a literal , there exists a clause that, rewritten using new variables, is , the set is with replaced by , and ; in other words, a literal can be replaced by the body of a fresh variant of a clause having the same predicate in the head, adding the body of the fresh variant and the above equalities of terms to the goal\n and are equivalent according to the specific constraint semantics\n\nA sequence of transitions is a derivation. A goal can be proved if there exists a derivation from to for some satisfiable constraint store . This semantics formalizes the possible evolutions of an interpreter that arbitrarily chooses the literal of the goal to process and the clause to replace literals. In other words, a goal is proved under this semantics if there exists a sequence of choices of literals and clauses, among the possibly many ones, that lead to an empty goal and satisfiable store.\n\nActual interpreters process the goal elements in a LIFO order: elements are added in the front and processed from the front. They also choose the clause of the second rule according to the order in which they are written, and rewrite the constraint store when it is modified.\n\nThe third possible kind of transition is a replacement of the constraint store with an equivalent one. This replacement is limited to those done by specific methods, such as constraint propagation. The semantics of constraint logic programming is parametric not only to the kind of constraints used but also to the method for rewriting the constraint store. The specific methods used in practice replace the constraint store with one that is simpler to solve. If the constraint store is unsatisfiable, this simplification may detect this unsatisfiability sometimes, but not always.\n\nThe result of evaluating a goal against a constraint logic program is defined if the goal is proved. In this case, there exists a derivation from the initial pair to a pair where the goal is empty. The constraint store of this second pair is considered the result of the evaluation. This is because the constraint store contains all constraints assumed satisfiable to prove the goal. In other words, the goal is proved for all variable evaluations that satisfy these constraints.\n\nThe pairwise equality of the arguments of two literals is often compactly denoted by : this is a shorthand for the constraints . A common variant of the semantics for constraint logic programming adds directly to the constraint store rather than to the goal.\n\nTerms and conditions\n\nDifferent definitions of terms are used, generating different kinds of constraint logic programming: over trees, reals, or finite domains. A kind of constraint that is always present is the equality of terms. Such constraints are necessary because the interpreter adds t1=t2 to the goal whenever a literal P(...t1...) is replaced with the body of a clause fresh variant whose head is P(...t2...).\n\nTree terms\n\nConstraint logic programming with tree terms emulates regular logic programming by storing substitutions as constraints in the constraint store. Terms are variables, constants, and function symbols applied to other terms. The only constraints considered are equalities and disequalities between terms. Equality is particularly important, as constraints like t1=t2 are often generated by the interpreter. Equality constraints on terms can be simplified, that is solved, via unification:\n\nA constraint t1=t2 can be simplified if both terms are function symbols applied to other terms. If the two function symbols are the same and the number of subterms is also the same, this constraint can be replaced with the pairwise equality of subterms. If the terms are composed of different function symbols or the same functor but on different number of terms, the constraint is unsatisfiable.\n\nIf one of the two terms is a variable, the only allowed value the variable can take is the other term. As a result, the other term can replace the variable in the current goal and constraint store, thus practically removing the variable from consideration. In the particular case of equality of a variable with itself, the constraint can be removed as always satisfied.\n\nIn this form of constraint satisfaction, variable values are terms.\n\nReals\n\nConstraint logic programming with real numbers uses real expressions as terms. When no function symbols are used, terms are expressions over reals, possibly including variables. In this case, each variable can only take a real number as a value.\n\nTo be precise, terms are expressions over variables and real constants. Equality between terms is a kind of constraint that is always present, as the interpreter generates equality of terms during execution. As an example, if the first literal of the current goal is A(X+1) and the interpreter has chosen a clause that is A(Y-1):-Y=1 after rewriting is variables, the constraints added to the current goal are X+1=Y-1 and . The rules of simplification used for function symbols are obviously not used: X+1=Y-1 is not unsatisfiable just because the first expression is built using + and the second using -.\n\nReals and function symbols can be combined, leading to terms that are expressions over reals and function symbols applied to other terms. Formally, variables and real constants are expressions, as any arithmetic operator over other expressions. Variables, constants (zero-arity-function symbols), and expressions are terms, as any function symbol applied to terms. In other words, terms are built over expressions, while expressions are built over numbers and variables. In this case, variables ranges over real numbers and terms. In other words, a variable can take a real number as a value, while another takes a term.\n\nEquality of two terms can be simplified using the rules for tree terms if none of the two terms is a real expression. For example, if the two terms have the same function symbol and number of subterms, their equality constraint can be replaced with the equality of subterms.\n\nFinite domains\n\nThe third class of constraints used in constraint logic programming is that of finite domains. Values of variables are in this case taken from a finite domain, often that of integer numbers. For each variable, a different domain can be specified: X::[1..5] for example means that the value of X is between 1 and 5. The domain of a variable can also be given by enumerating all values a variable can take; therefore, the above domain declaration can be also written X::[1,2,3,4,5]. This second way of specifying a domain allows for domains that are not composed of integers, such as X::[george,mary,john]. If the domain of a variable is not specified, it is assumed to be the set of integers representable in the language. A group of variables can be given the same domain using a declaration like [X,Y,Z]::[1..5].\n\nThe domain of a variable may be reduced during execution. Indeed, as the interpreter adds constraints to the constraint store, it performs constraint propagation to enforce a form of local consistency, and these operations may reduce the domain of variables. If the domain of a variable becomes empty, the constraint store is inconsistent, and the algorithm backtracks. If the domain of a variable becomes a singleton, the variable can be assigned the unique value in its domain. The forms of consistency typically enforced are arc consistency, hyper-arc consistency, and bound consistency. The current domain of a variable can be inspected using specific literals; for example, dom(X,D) finds out the current domain D of a variable X.\n\nAs for domains of reals, functors can be used with domains of integers. In this case, a term can be an expression over integers, a constant, or the application of a functor over other terms. A variable can take an arbitrary term as a value, if its domain has not been specified to be a set of integers or constants.\n\nThe constraint store\n\nThe constraint store contains the constraints that are currently assumed satisfiable. It can be considered what the current substitution is for regular logic programming. When only tree terms are allowed, the constraint store contains constraints in the form t1=t2; these constraints are simplified by unification, resulting in constraints of the form variable=term; such constraints are equivalent to a substitution.\n\nHowever, the constraint store may also contain constraints in the form t1!=t2, if the difference != between terms is allowed. When constraints over reals or finite domains are allowed, the constraint store may also contain domain-specific constraints like X+2=Y/2, etc.\n\nThe constraint store extends the concept of current substitution in two ways. First, it does not only contain the constraints derived from equating a literal with the head of a fresh variant of a clause, but also the constraints of the body of clauses. Second, it does not only contain constraints of the form variable=value but also constraints on the considered constraint language. While the result of a successful evaluation of a regular logic program is the final substitution, the result for a constraint logic program is the final constraint store, which may contain constraint of the form variable=value but in general may contain arbitrary constraints.\n\nDomain-specific constraints may come to the constraint store both from the body of a clauses and from equating a literal with a clause head: for example, if the interpreter rewrites the literal A(X+2) with a clause whose fresh variant head is A(Y/2), the constraint X+2=Y/2 is added to the constraint store. If a variable appears in a real or finite domain expression, it can only take a value in the reals or the finite domain. Such a variable cannot take a term made of a functor applied to other terms as a value. The constraint store is unsatisfiable if a variable is bound to take both a value of the specific domain and a functor applied to terms.\n\nAfter a constraint is added to the constraint store, some operations are performed on the constraint store. Which operations are performed depends on the considered domain and constraints. For example, unification is used for finite tree equalities, variable elimination for polynomial equations over reals, constraint propagation to enforce a form of local consistency for finite domains. These operations are aimed at making the constraint store simpler to be checked for satisfiability and solved.\n\nAs a result of these operations, the addition of new constraints may change the old ones. It is essential that the interpreter is able to undo these changes when it backtracks. The simplest case method is for the interpreter to save the complete state of the store every time it makes a choice (it chooses a clause to rewrite a goal). More efficient methods for allowing the constraint store to return to a previous state exist. In particular, one may just save the changes to the constraint store made between two points of choice, including the changes made to the old constraints. This can be done by simply saving the old value of the constraints that have been modified; this method is called trailing. A more advanced method is to save the changes that have been done on the modified constraints. For example, a linear constraint is changed by modifying its coefficient: saving the difference between the old and new coefficient allows reverting a change. This second method is called semantic backtracking,\nbecause the semantics of the change is saved rather than the old version of the constraints only.\n\nLabeling\n\nThe labeling literals are used on variables over finite domains to check satisfiability or partial satisfiability of the constraint store and to find a satisfying assignment. A labeling literal is of the form labeling([variables]), where the argument is a list of variables over finite domains. Whenever the interpreter evaluates such a literal, it performs a search over the domains of the variables of the list to find an assignment that satisfies all relevant constraints. Typically, this is done by a form of backtracking: variables are evaluated in order, trying all possible values for each of them, and backtracking when inconsistency is detected.\n\nThe first use of the labeling literal is to actual check satisfiability or partial satisfiability of the constraint store. When the interpreter adds a constraint to the constraint store, it only enforces a form of local consistency on it. This operation may not detect inconsistency even if the constraint store is unsatisfiable. A labeling literal over a set of variables enforces a satisfiability check of the constraints over these variables. As a result, using all variables mentioned in the constraint store results in checking satisfiability of the store.\n\nThe second use of the labeling literal is to actually determine an evaluation of the variables that satisfies the constraint store. Without the labeling literal, variables are assigned values only when the constraint store contains a constraint of the form X=value and when local consistency reduces the domain of a variable to a single value. A labeling literal over some variables forces these variables to be evaluated. In other words, after the labeling literal has been considered, all variables are assigned a value.\n\nTypically, constraint logic programs are written in such a way labeling literals are evaluated only after as many constraints as possible have been accumulated in the constraint store. This is because labeling literals enforce search, and search is more efficient if there are more constraints to be satisfied. A constraint satisfaction problem is typical solved by a constraint logic program having the following structure:\n\nWhen the interpreter evaluates the goal solve(args), it places the body of a fresh variant of the first clause in the current goal. Since the first goal is constraints(X'), the second clause is evaluated, and this operation moves all constraints in the current goal and eventually in the constraint store. The literal labeling(X') is then evaluated, forcing a search for a solution of the constraint store. Since the constraint store contains exactly the constraints of the original constraint satisfaction problem, this operation searches for a solution of the original problem.\n\nProgram reformulations\n\nA given constraint logic program may be reformulated to improve its efficiency. A first rule is that labeling literals should be placed after as much constraints on the labeled literals are accumulated in the constraint store. While in theory is equivalent to , the search that is performed when the interpreter encounters the labeling literal is on a constraint store that does not contain the constraint X>0. As a result, it may generate solutions, such as X=-1, that are later found out not to satisfy this constraint. On the other hand, in the second formulation the search is performed only when the constraint is already in the constraint store. As a result, search only returns solutions that are consistent with it, taking advantage of the fact that additional constraints reduce the search space.\n\nA second reformulation that can increase efficiency is to place constraints before literals in the body of clauses. Again, and are in principle equivalent. However, the first may require more computation. For example, if the constraint store contains the constraint X<-2, the interpreter recursively evaluates B(X) in the first case; if it succeeds, it then finds out that the constraint store is inconsistent when adding X>0. In the second case, when evaluating that clause, the interpreter first adds X>0 to the constraint store and then possibly evaluates B(X). Since the constraint store after the addition of X>0 turns out to be inconsistent, the recursive evaluation of B(X) is not performed at all.\n\nA third reformulation that can increase efficiency is the addition of redundant constraints. If the programmer knows (by whatever means) that the solution of a problem satisfies a specific constraint, they can include that constraint to cause inconsistency of the constraint store as soon as possible. For example, if it is known beforehand that the evaluation of B(X) will result in a positive value for X, the programmer may add X>0 before any occurrence of B(X). As an example, A(X,Y):-B(X),C(X) will fail on the goal A(-2,Z), but this is only found out during the evaluation of the subgoal B(X). On the other hand, if the above clause is replaced by , the interpreter backtracks as soon as the constraint X>0 is added to the constraint store, which happens before the evaluation of B(X) even starts.\n\nConstraint handling rules\n\nConstraint handling rules were initially defined as a stand-alone formalism for specifying constraint solvers, and were later embedded in logic programming. There are two kinds of constraint handling rules. The rules of the first kind specify that, under a given condition, a set of constraints is equivalent to another one. The rules of the second kind specify that, under a given condition, a set of constraints implies another one. In a constraint logic programming language supporting constraint handling rules, a programmer can use these rules to specify possible rewritings of the constraint store and possible additions of constraints to it. The following are example rules:\n\n A(X) <=> B(X) | C(X)\n A(X) ==> B(X) | C(X)\n\nThe first rule tells that, if B(X) is entailed by the store, the constraint A(X) can be rewritten as C(X). As an example, N*X>0 can be rewritten as X>0 if the store implies that N>0. The symbol <=> resembles equivalence in logic, and tells that the first constraint is equivalent to the latter. In practice, this implies that the first constraint can be replaced with the latter.\n\nThe second rule instead specifies that the latter constraint is a consequence of the first, if the constraint in the middle is entailed by the constraint store. As a result, if A(X) is in the constraint store and B(X) is entailed by the constraint store, then C(X) can be added to the store. Differently from the case of equivalence, this is an addition and not a replacement: the new constraint is added but the old one remains.\n\nEquivalence allows for simplifying the constraint store by replacing some constraints with simpler ones; in particular, if the third constraint in an equivalence rule is true, and the second constraint is entailed, the first constraint is removed from the constraint store. Inference allows for the addition of new constraints, which may lead to proving inconsistency of the constraint store, and may generally reduce the amount of search needed to establish its satisfiability.\n\nLogic programming clauses in conjunction with constraint handling rules can be used to specify a method for establishing the satisfiability of the constraint store. Different clauses are used to implement the different choices of the method; the constraint handling rules are used for rewriting the constraint store during execution. As an example, one can implement backtracking with unit propagation this way. Let holds(L) represents a propositional clause, in which the literals in the list L are in the same order as they are evaluated. The algorithm can be implemented using clauses for the choice of assigning a literal to true or false, and constraint handling rules to specify propagation. 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(\u00ab\u0421\u0443\u043c\u043c\u0430 \u0430\u0442\u0435\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438\u00bb, \u0430\u043b\u043b\u044e\u0437\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u00ab\u0421\u0443\u043c\u043c\u0443 \u0442\u0435\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438\u00bb \u0424\u043e\u043c\u044b \u0410\u043a\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e), \u0432\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0431\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b \u00ab\u0412\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u00bb, \u00ab\u0412\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u00bb \u0438 \u00ab\u041d\u0438\u0446\u0448\u0435\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u044b\u00bb. \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b \u043e\u043d \u0441\u043e\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043b \u0441\u0432\u043e\u044e \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043b\u044f\u0442\u0443\u044e \u0434\u043e\u043b\u044e\u00bb, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0432\u043b\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b \u00abCritique\u00bb. \u0415\u0433\u043e \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u043c \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u043f\u0446\u0438\u044f \u00ab\u0441\u0443\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430\u00bb (\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f, \u0441\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0435, \u043d\u0430\u043f\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u00ab\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0443\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u00bb) \u0434\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u0435\u0431\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0441 \u0416\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0414\u0435\u0440\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0430, \u0414\u0436\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0436\u0438\u043e \u0410\u0433\u0430\u043c\u0431\u0435\u043d\u043e\u043c, \u0416\u0430\u043d-\u041b\u044e\u043a\u043e\u043c \u041d\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0438 \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u043c\u0438.\n\n\u042d\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \n\u0412 1974 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043f\u043e \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0443 \u00ab\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0437\u0430\u00bb \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0441\u043d\u044f\u0442 \u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e-\u0431\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0433\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440\u0430 \u041f\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u041b\u043e\u043d\u0433\u0448\u0430\u043c\u043f\u0430 () \u00ab\u00bb ().\n\n\u0412 2004 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432 \u0421\u0428\u0410 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440\u043e\u043c \u042d\u043d\u0434\u0440\u044e \u041c\u0430\u043a\u042d\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043d\u0438 (Andrew Repasky McElhinney) \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0441\u043d\u044f\u0442 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c \u00ab\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0437\u0430 \u0416\u043e\u0440\u0436\u0430 \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u044f /Georges Bataille\u2019s Story of the Eye\u00bb (\u043e\u0431\u044b\u0447\u043d\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e Story of the Eye). \u041a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0442 \u043c\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0431\u044e\u0434\u0436\u0435\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c \u00ab\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c, \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u044b\u043c\u00bb. \u0416\u0430\u043d\u0440 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u043d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u043b\u0438 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0430\u0440\u0442-\u0445\u0430\u0443\u0441 \u0441 \u043f\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438. \u0421 \u0441\u044e\u0436\u0435\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c \u0438\u043c\u0435\u0435\u0442 \u043c\u0430\u043b\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e.\n\n\u0412 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0436\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440 \u041a\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0444 \u041e\u043d\u043e\u0440\u0435 (Christophe Honor\u00e9) \u0441\u043d\u044f\u043b \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c \u043f\u043e \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0443 \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u044f \u00ab\u041c\u043e\u044f \u043c\u0430\u0442\u044c\u00bb. \u041a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0442 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c, \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044b \u043f\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0438, \u00ab\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u044b\u043c\u00bb.\n\n\u0421\u043e\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \n\u0425\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\n \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0437\u0430 / Histoire de l'\u0153il (1928, \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 1991)\n \u041c\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043c \u042d\u0434\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0430 (\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u00abDivinus Deus\u00bb) / Madame Edwarda (1941, \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 1999)\n \u0410\u0431\u0431\u0430\u0442 \u0421. / L\u2019Abb\u00e9 C. (1950, \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 1999)\n \u041d\u0435\u0431\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0438\u043d\u044c / Le Bleu du ciel (1957, \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 1999)\n \u041d\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0435 / L\u2019Impossible (1962, \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 1999)\n \u041c\u043e\u044f \u043c\u0430\u0442\u044c (\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u00abDivinus Deus\u00bb) / Ma m\u00e8re (1966, \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 1999)\n \u042e\u043b\u0438\u044f / Julie (1971, \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 1999)\n Divinus Deus / Divinus Deus (1970\u20141988, \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 1999)\n\n\u0424\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b\n \u0412\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442 / L\u2019Exp\u00e9rience int\u00e9rieure (1943, \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 1998)\n \u041f\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043b\u044f\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \n \u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u0417\u043b\u043e / La Litt\u00e9rature et le Mal (1957, \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 1994)\n \u042d\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430 / L\u2019Erotisme (1957, \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 (2006)\n \u0422\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438\u0438 / Th\u00e9orie de la religion (1973, \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 2000, 2006)\n \u0413\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0446\u044b \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e / La Limite de l\u2019utile (1976, \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 2006)\n \u0421\u0443\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c / La Souverainet\u00e9 (1976, \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 2006)\n \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441 \u0416\u0438\u043b\u044f \u0434\u0435 \u0420\u0435 / Le Proc\u00e8s de Gilles de Rais (1965, \u0440\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 2008)\n\n\u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435 \n\n \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0439 \u0416. \u0421\u0430\u0434 \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u044b\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a. \u0421\u0443\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a \u0421\u0430\u0434\u0430 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0413. \u0413\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0430 // \u041c\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0438\u0437 \u0434\u0435 \u0421\u0430\u0434 \u0438 XX \u0432\u0435\u043a [: \u0441\u0431.].\u00a0\u2014 : \u041a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430, 1992.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 5-8334-0006-6 (\u00abAd Marginem\u00bb)\n \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0439 \u0416. \u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u0417\u043b\u043e [: \u0421\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u044d\u0441\u0441\u0435: \u00ab\u042d\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0411\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0435\u00bb, \u00ab\u0411\u043e\u0434\u043b\u0435\u0440\u00bb, \u00ab\u041c\u0438\u0448\u043b\u0435\u00bb, \u00ab\u0411\u043b\u0435\u0439\u043a\u00bb, \u00ab\u0421\u0430\u0434\u00bb, \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0442\u00bb, \u00ab\u041a\u0430\u0444\u043a\u0430\u00bb, \u00ab\u0416\u0430\u043d \u0416\u0435\u043d\u0435\u00bb ].\u00a0\u2014 : \u041c\u0413\u0423, 1994.\u00a0\u2014 168 \u0441.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 5-211-03159-8\n \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0439 \u0416. \u041d\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043a \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0437\u0438\u0438: \u041f\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0430 [: \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0431.: \u00ab\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0437\u0430\u00bb, \u00ab\u041d\u0435\u0431\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0438\u043d\u044c\u00bb, \u00ab\u042e\u043b\u0438\u044f\u00bb, \u00ab\u041d\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0435\u00bb, \u00ab\u0410\u0431\u0431\u0430\u0442 \u0421.\u00bb, \u00abDivinus Deus\u00bb ] / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0418. \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0431\u0443\u0442\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e, \u0415. \u0413\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0446\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439, \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442., \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0441\u043b.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. \u0417\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0438\u043d, \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0415. \u0413\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0446\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 : \u041b\u0430\u0434\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0440, 1999.\u00a0\u2014 614 \u0441.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 5-86218-340-X\n \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0439 \u0416. \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0437\u0430 // \u0410\u0440\u0430\u0433\u043e\u043d \u041b., \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0439 \u0416., \u041b\u0443\u0438\u0441 \u041f., \u0416\u0435\u043d\u0435 \u0416. \u0427\u0435\u0442\u044b\u0440\u0435 \u0448\u0430\u0433\u0430 \u0432 \u0431\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0443: \u0424\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u044b XX\u00a0\u0432. [:\u0441\u0431.] / \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432., \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442. \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0441\u043b. \u041c. \u041a\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0438 \u0412. \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u0430. \u0418\u0437\u0434. 2-\u0435, \u0438\u0441\u043f\u0440.\u00a0\u2014 : \u0413\u0443\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044f, 2002.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 5-93762-001-1\n \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0439 \u0416., \u041f\u0435\u043d\u044c\u043e, \u041a\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0442 / \u041b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0430. \u0421\u0430\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 [: \u0410\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f] / \u0421\u043e\u0441\u0442. \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0441\u043b. \u0421. \u0424\u043e\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044c: \u041c\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b, KOLONNA Publications, 2004.\u00a0\u2014 208 \u0441.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 5-98144-025-2. \u0412\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00a0\u2014 2010.\n \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0439 \u0416. \u041f\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043b\u044f\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c [: \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0431.: \u00ab\u0422\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438\u0438\u00bb, \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043b\u044f\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c: \u041e\u043f\u044b\u0442 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043a\u0438\u00bb, \u00ab\u0413\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0446\u044b \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e: \u041e\u0442\u0440\u044b\u0432\u043a\u0438 \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0435\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430 \u201e\u041f\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043b\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u201c\u00bb, \u00ab\u0421\u0443\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u00bb, \u00ab\u042d\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430\u00bb ] / \u0421\u043e\u0441\u0442., \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0441\u043b. \u0421. \u0417\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0438\u043d, \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0415. \u0413\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0446\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439.\u00a0\u2014 : \u041b\u0430\u0434\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0440, 2006.\u00a0\u2014 742 \u0441.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 5-86218-466-X\n \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0439 \u0416. \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u044d\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0430 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u0444\u0440. \u0411. \u0421\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u041a. \u0413\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0431\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0438 \u041e. \u0422\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0439.\u00a0\u2014 : \u041b\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0441, \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, 2007.\u00a0\u2014 200 \u0441.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 5-8163-0078-4, ISBN 978-5-8163-0078-0\n \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0439 \u0416. \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441 \u0416\u0438\u043b\u044f \u0434\u0435 \u0420\u0435 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446. \u0418.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u0411\u043e\u043b\u0434\u044b\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044c.: KOLONNA Publications, 2008.\u00a0\u2014 304 \u0441.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-5-98144-108-0\n \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0439 \u0414., \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0439 \u0416. \u0410\u043d\u0433\u0435\u043b\u044b \u0441 \u043f\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446. \u0438 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b. \u0412. \u041d\u0443\u0433\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0441\u043b. \u0415. \u0413\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0446\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439.\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044c.: KOLONNA Publications, 2010.\u00a0\u2014 210 \u0441.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-5-98144-135-6\n \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0439 \u0416. \u041e \u041d\u0438\u0446\u0448\u0435 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u0444\u0440. \u0410. \u0414. \u0411\u0430\u043a\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0432. \u2014 \u041c.: \u041a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0446\u0438\u044f, 2010. \u2014 336 \u0441. \u2014 ISBN 978-5-250-06074-5\n \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0439 \u0416. \u0421\u0443\u043c\u043c\u0430 \u0430\u0442\u0435\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438: \u0424\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043c\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430. \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u0444\u0440. / \u0421\u043e\u0441\u0442. \u0421.\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u0417\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0438\u043d.\u00a0\u2014 : \u041b\u0430\u0434\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0440, 2016.\u00a0\u2014 566 \u0441. ISBN 978-5-94451-052-5\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n \n \u0422\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f \u042d\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0430: \u0416\u043e\u0440\u0436 \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0439 \u0438 \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043c\u044b\u0441\u043b\u044c \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u044b XX \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 [: \u0421\u0431. \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0439 \u0410. \u0411\u0440\u0435\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0430, \u0416.\u00a0\u041f.\u00a0\u0421\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0430, \u0413. \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0435\u043b\u044f, \u041c. \u0411\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0448\u043e, \u0420. \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u0434\u0440., \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0431\u0440. \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0416. \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0430\u044f].\u00a0\u2014 : \u041c\u0438\u0444\u0440\u0438\u043b, 1994.\u00a0\u2014 346 \u0441.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 5-864", " required. A large propane tank, stashes of black powder used in staging gunfights, and a diesel fuel tank demanded the attention of firefighters and much of the scarce water supply. So much water was used in the attempt to prevent an explosion that the surrounding areas became flooded, further impeding the firefighters as they attempted to wade through the mud. After four hours of firefighting, the flames were extinguished. Damages were estimated to be around $10\u00a0million ($15\u00a0million in 2013), with 25\u00a0buildings destroyed and no human casualties.\n\nAfter 20 months of reconstruction, Old Tucson re-opened its doors on January 2, 1997. The sets that were lost were not recreated; instead, entirely new buildings were constructed, and the streets were widened. The Reno locomotive was cosmetically restored before the filming of Wild Wild West, in which it was featured as Union Pacific 119 in the scene at the driving of the final spike of the First Transcontinental Railroad, but was subsequently used in an explosion in the scene and is in need of additional restoration. The soundstage was not rebuilt. Film production at Old Tucson was seriously affected by the fire. In 2003, Old Tucson reduced its hours of operation, opening from 10am to 4pm. Focusing on seasonal events, Old Tucson hosts the popular Nightfall event for Halloween which runs through the month of October, Wednesday through Sunday nights.\n\nRecent history\n\nIn 2011, Old Tucson embarked on a project to build new movie-quality sets that fill out the park, and restore the pre-fire feel of close-together buildings, providing the look and depth of a genuine old west town circa 1865\u20131900. \u201cAfter the rebuild of Old Tucson following the 1995 fire, the town just didn\u2019t have the same look and feel,\u201d says Old Tucson CEO and General Manager Pete Mangelsdorf. \u201cWe started discussions with Bob Shelton several years ago to develop a plan to fill the empty space in Town Square with movie-quality sets that bring the magic back.\u201d\n\nThe Heritage Square Project, a 5,000-square-foot spread with three new streets lined with 12 new buildings, was completed in November 2011 at an estimated cost of $300,000. The design and construction of the new sets was led by Production Designer Gene Rudolf, credited with creating sets for movies including Young Guns II (1990), The Great Gatsby (1974), The Right Stuff (1983), Raging Bull (1980), Marathon Man (1976), and Three Days of the Condor (1975). The project added dressmaker shops, a general store and a blacksmith, and are part of \"living history\" presentations. One of the goals of the Heritage Project was to add \"more programs that have to do with the different cultural aspects, the Hispanic culture, the Chinese culture, the Native American culture,\" said Mangelsdorf. Along those lines, another new exhibit now open to the public features a Tohono O'odham village as it would have appeared in the 1860s. It includes traditional houses, a garden and other facets of village life.\n\nOn Tuesday, September 8, 2020, Old Tucson, the Western-themed attraction that was the filming location of more than 400 feature-films and TV shows, closed indefinitely, with its future to be determined by Pima County.\n\nThe decision to close the Arizona landmark \"was made with a heavy heart,\" according to Old Tucson general manager Terry Verhage, who said in a news release that the theme park would have remained in business \"if not for the COVID-19 pandemic.\"\n\n\u201cWe know how important Old Tucson is to our community, guests and employees,\u201d he said. \u201cWe did everything possible to keep our loyal fans safe when we were open, but the ongoing COVID-19 public health protocols and restrictions limited park attendance to the point where Old Tucson could no longer stay in business.\u201d\n\nPima County took over responsibility for the theme park on September 14, 2020, and \"will seek ideas from potential operators and lessors about what Old Tucson could be in the future,\" the news release said.\n\nOn August 24, 2021, the Reno locomotive was acquired by the revived Virginia and Truckee Railroad and was trucked off the property. She arrived in Virginia City, Nevada for the first time since 1938 two days later.\n\nWhile closed, Pima County Administrator said the county has invested over $1M on upgrading the site and repairing neglected items to prepare the facility for a new operator.\n\nOn April 5, 2022, Pima County selected American Heritage Railways (AHR) as the new operators of Old Tucson (aka Old Tucson Studios). It would be operated as Old Tucson Entertainment, LLC. The famous sister-site, Mescal Movie Set, was not part of the deal and will not be operated by the new AHR operators.\n\nThis historic movie location and theme park will reopen on Oct 6, 2022 with the popular \"Nightfall at Old Tucson\" event followed by a new Christmas-themed event called \"Yuletide at Old Tucson\" on Nov 25, 2022. John Harper serves as vice president and Chief Operating Officer of American Heritage Railways and will oversee the property's Executive Team, General Managers, and key employees. John has over 10 years in the historic preservation industry as well. They plan to utilize the facility not only as a theme-park but also reinstate its history as a filming location with the addition of sets, backdrops, sound stage, and pre and post-production facilities in 2023.\n\nIn July 2022, the Arizona State legislature passed the Arizona Film Tax Incentive bill which would encourage productions to return to facilities like Old Tucson. The passage of this bill is likely to increase film production at Old Tucson. As of Sept. 2022, they have been fielding offers for film and TV series to resume.\n\nMovies filmed at Old Tucson\nMany films, not all of them Westerns, were shot at Old Tucson Studios in whole or in part including the following:\n\n 1940: Arizona\n 1945: The Bells of St. Mary's\n 1947: The Last Round-up\n 1950: Winchester '73\n 1950: Broken Arrow\n 1951: The Last Outpost\n 1955: Strange Lady in Town\n 1955: Ten Wanted Men\n 1955: The Violent Men\n 1956: Backlash\n 1956: The Broken Star\n 1956: Walk the Proud Land\n 1957: 3:10 to Yuma\n 1957: Gunfight at the O.K. Corral\n 1957: The Guns of Fort Petticoat\n 1957: Carbine Webb and the Four Sisters\n 1957: Tale of Consequence\n 1958: Buchanan Rides Alone\n 1958: The Badlanders\n 1958: Gunsmoke in Tucson\n 1958: The Lone Ranger and the Lost City of Gold\n 1959: Last Train from Gun Hill\n 1959: Rio Bravo\n 1959: The Hangman\n 1960: Cimarron\n 1960: Heller in Pink Tights\n 1961: The Deadly Companions\n 1961: Sounds of Arizona\n 1961: A Thunder of Drums\n 1962: Young Guns of Texas\n 1963: McLintock!\n 1963: Lilies of the Field\n 1964: The Outrage\n 1965: Arizona Raiders\n 1965: The Great Sioux Massacre\n 1965: The Reward\n 1966: El Dorado\n 1966: Johnny Tiger\n 1966: Pistolero\n 1967: Hombre\n 1967: Return of the Gunfighter\n 1967: The Last Challenge\n 1967: The Way West\n 1967: A Time for Killing\n 1967: The Long Ride Home\n 1967: Rango\n 1968: The Mini-Skirt Mob\n 1969: Heaven with a Gun\n 1969: Lonesome Cowboys\n 1969: Young Billy Young\n 1969: Again a Love Story\n 1969: The Mountain Men\n 1969: Charro! \n 1969: Whatever Happened to Aunt Alice\n 1970: Dirty Dingus Magee\n 1970: C.C. & Company\n 1970: Monte Walsh\n 1970: Rio Lobo\n 1971: Wild Rovers\n 1971: The Animals\n 1971: Ballad of the Old West\n 1971: Bearcats!\n 1971: Dirty Little Billy\n 1971: Forgotten Man\n 1971: Gunfight at the OK Corral\n 1971: Moments of Destiny \u2013 The OK Corral\n 1971: Scandalous John\n 1971: Showdown at the O.K Corral\n 1971: A Ton of Grass Goes to Pot\n 1971: Yuma\n 1971: Death of a Gunfighter\n 1972: Joe Kidd\n 1972: Moonfire\n 1972: Rage\n 1972: Night of the Lepus\n 1972: Pocket Money\n 1972: The Legend of Nigger Charley\n 1972: The Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean\n 1973: Guns of a Stranger\n 1973: Boomtown Band and Cattle Company\n 1973: The Man Who Loved Cat Dancing\n 1973: Outlaw Legacy\n 1974: Death Wish\n 1974: A Knife for the Ladies\n 1974: The Trial of Billy Jack\n 1974: Abduction of St. Anne\n 1974: Backtrack\n 1974: The Gun and the Pulpit\n 1974: The Hanged Man\n 1974: Mark of Zorro\n 1974: Pray for the Wildcats\n 1974: Wish You Were Here\n 1975: Posse\n 1975: Go USA\n 1975: Katherine\n 1976: Hawmps!\n 1976: The Last Hard Men\n 1976: The Lizard\n 1976: The Quest\n 1976: Royce\n 1976: A Star is Born\n 1976: Tales of Nunundaga\n 1976: Wanted: The Sundance Woman\n 1976: The Outlaw Josey Wales\n 1977: Another Man, Another Woman\n 1977: Harlem Globetrotters\n 1977: The Incredible Rocky Mountain Race\n 1977: Stones\n 1978: The American Cowboy\n 1978: Wild and Wooly\n 1978: Go West Young Girl\n 1978: The Sacketts\n 1979: The Villain\n 1979: Authentic Life of Billy the Kid\n 1979: Buffalo Soldiers\n 1979: The Dooley Brothers\n 1979: Frisco Kid\n 1979: Hunter's Moon\n 1979: Japanese Quiz Show\n 1979: Wild Wild West Revisited\n 1979: The Gambler\n 1980: Tom Horn\n 1980: Death Valley\n 1980: High Noon part II: The Return of Will Kane\n 1980: More Wild, Wild West\n 1980: That's Incredible: Lost Dog\n 1981: Father Murphy\n 1981: The Cannonball Run\n 1980: American Frontier\n 1980: Ransom of Red Chief\n 1983: Calamity Jane\n 1983: Cannon Ball Run Part II\n 1983: I Married Wyatt Earp\n 1983: September Gun\n 1983: The Reflection Natas\n 1984: The Assumption\n 1984: Flashpoint\n 1984: Little Arliss\n 1984: Revenge of the Nerds\n 1985: The Ascension\n 1985: Centurion Odyssey\n 1985: Cowboy Up\n 1985: Dream West\n 1985: Go West-Sing West\n 1985: Jackals\n 1985: Le Grand Rallye\n 1986: Buckeye and Blue\n 1986: Here a Thief, There a Thief\n 1986: It's the Girl in the Red Truck\n 1986: Three Amigos\n 1986: Stagecoach (TV movie)\n 1987: Desperado #1\n 1987: Desperado #2\n 1987: Nobody Likes It Hot\n 1987: Poker Alice\n 1987: Walker\n 1987: The Quick and the Dead (TV movie)\n 1988: Ghost Town\n 1988: Once Upon a Texas Train\n 1988: Red River\n 1988: Return of the Desperado\n 1988: South of Reno\n 1988: Stones for Ibarra\n 1989: Desperado Badland Justice\n 1989: El Diablo\n 1989: Laughing Dead\n 1989: Law at Randado\n 1989: Third Degree Burn\n 1989: Gore Vidal's Billy the Kid\n 1990: Young Guns II\n 1990: The Highwaymen\n 1990: Two Fisted Tales\n 1990: The Legend of Grizzly Adams\n 1991: Four Eyes and Six Guns\n 1991: Gunsmoke III: To the Last Man\n 1991: Kid\n 1992: California Dreaming\n 1992: Ghosts of Ruby\n 1992: Legends of the West\n 1992: Newton's Apple\n 1992: Showdown\n 1992: Stay Tuned\n 1993: Nemesis (filmed scenes in 1992)\n 1993: Tombstone\n 1993: Geronimo\n 1993: Gunsmoke V: One Man's Justice\n 1993: Horse Opera\n 1993: Marshal Charley\n 1993: Music of the West\n 1993: Posse\n 1994: The Last Bounty Hunter\n 1994: The West\n 1994: Terminal Velocity\n 1994: Lightning Jack\n 1995: Hard Bounty\n 1995: The Quick and the Dead\n 1995: Legend\n 1995: Timemaster\n 1995: Under the Hula Moon\n 1997: Buffalo Soldiers\n 1997: Los Locos\n 2000: South of Heaven, West of Hell\n 2002: Legend of the Phantom Rider\n 2003: Ghost Rock\n 2003: Gunfight at the OK Corral\n 2004: Treasure of the Seven Mummies\n 2005: Miracle at Sage Creek\n 2005: Cutoff\n 2005: Dual\n 2005: Ghost Town\n 2005: Wild West Tech \u2013 Gang Technology\n 2006: The Dead Evil Seven Mummies\n 2006: Wild and the West\n 2007: Legend of Pearl Hart\n 2007: The Wild West\n 2008: Mad, Mad Wagon Party\n 2011: To Kill a Memory\n 2013: Hot Bath an\u2019 a Stiff Drink\n 2019: The Legend of 5 Mile Cave\nSome scenes from the 1994 arcade game Lethal Enforcers II: Gunfighters from Konami were also shot at Old Tucson Studios, along with The Last Bounty Hunter, Fast Draw Showdown, and Shootout at Old Tucson by American Laser Games.\n\nTelevision\nMany TV series and TV movies have had at least one episode filmed at Old Tucson in whole or in part including the following:\n\n 1958\u20131961: Wanted Dead or Alive\n 1959\u20131965: Rawhide\n 1962: Have Gun Will Travel\n 1963: Wagon Train\n 1966\u20131969: Death Valley Days\n 1966\u20131971: The High Chaparral\n 1966/1971\u201372: Bonanza\n 1967: Dundee and the Culhane\n 1971: Bearcats! (either the TV movie title that started the series or at least one episode)\n 1972\u20131974: Gunsmoke\n 1972\u20131975: Kung Fu\n 1974\u20131975: Petrocelli\n 1975\u20131976: The Young Pioneers\n 1977\u2013", "0\u00a0km Square Identification, when one or both of these are unambiguously understood; that is, when operating within a known regional or local area. For example:\n\n Full USNG: 18S UJ 23371 06519 (world-wide unique reference to 1 meter precision)\n Without Grid Zone Designation: UJ 2337 0651 (when regional area is understood; here to 10 meter precision)\n Without 100\u00a0km Square Identification: 233 065 (when local area is understood; here to 100 meter precision)\n\nThus in practical usage, USNG references are typically very succinct and compact, making them convenient (and less error prone) for communication.\n\nHistory \nRectangular, distance-based (Cartesian) coordinate systems have long been recognized for their practical utility for land measurement and geolocation over local areas. In the United States, the Public Land Survey System (PLSS), created in 1785 in order to survey land newly ceded to the nation, introduced a rectangular coordinate system to improve on the earlier metes-and-bounds survey basis used earlier in the original colonies. In the first half of the 20th century, State Plane Coordinate Systems (SPCS) brought the simplicity and convenience of Cartesian coordinates to state-level areas, providing high accuracy (low distortion) survey-grade coordinates for use primarily by state and local governments. (Both of these planar systems remain in use today for specialized purposes.)\n\nInternationally, during the period between World Wars I and II, several European nations mapped their territory with national-scale grid systems optimized for the geography of each country, such as the Ordnance Survey National Grid (British National Grid). Near the end of World War II, the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system extended this grid concept around the globe, dividing it into 60 zones of 6 degrees longitude each. Circa 1949, the US further refined UTM for ease of use (and combined it with the Universal Polar Stereographic system covering polar areas) to create the Military Grid Reference System (MGRS), which remains the geocoordinate standard used across the militaries of NATO counties.\n\nIn the 1990s, a US grass-roots citizen effort led to the Public X-Y Mapping Project, a not-for-profit organization created specifically to promote the acceptance of a national grid for the United States. The Public XY Mapping Project developed the idea, conducting informal tests and surveys to determine which coordinate reference system best met the requirements of national consistency and ease of human use. Based on its findings, a standard based on the MGRS was adopted and brought to the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) in 1998. After an iterative review process and public comment period, the USNG was adopted by the FGDC as standard FGDC-STD-011-2001 in December 2001.\n\nSince then, the USNG has seen gradual but steadily increasing adoption both in formal standards and in practical use and applications, in public safety and in other fields.\n\nAdvantages over latitude/longitude \nUsers encountering the USNG (or similar grid reference systems) sometimes question why they are used instead of latitude and longitude coordinates, with which they may be more familiar. Proponents note that, in contrast to latitude and longitude coordinates, the USNG provides:\n\n Coordinate units that represent actual distances on the ground\n Equal distance units in both east\u2013west and north\u2013south directions\n An intuitive sense of scale and distance, across a local area\n Simpler distance calculation (by Pythagorean Theorem, rather than spherical trigonometry)\n A single unambiguous representation instead of the three (3) formats of latitude and longitude, each in widespread use, and each having punctuation sub-variants:\n degrees-minutes-seconds (DMS): N 38\u00b053'23.3\", W 077\u00b002'11.6\"\n degrees-minutes-decimal minutes (DMM or DDM): 38\u00b053.388' N, 077\u00b002.193' W\n decimal degrees (DDD or DD): 38.88980\u00b0, -077.03654\u00b0\n\nThis format ambiguity has led to confusion with potentially serious consequences, particularly in emergency situations.\n\n References comprising only alphanumeric characters (letters and positive numbers). (Spaces have no significance but are allowed for readability.)\n No negative numbers, hemisphere indicators (+, -, N, S, E, W), decimal points (.), or special symbols (\u00b0, \u2032, \u2033, :).\n A familiar \"read right then up\" convention of XY Cartesian coordinates.\n An explicit convention for shortening references (at two levels) when the local or regional area is already unambiguously known.\n A reference to a definite grid square with variable, explicit precision (size), rather than to a point with (usually) unspecified precision implicit in number of decimal places.\n\nAll of the above also lead to USNG references being typically very succinct and compact, with flexibility to convey precise location information in a short sequence of characters that is easily relayed in writing or by voice.\n\nLimitations \n\nAs with any projection that seeks to represent the curved Earth as a flat surface, distortions and tradeoffs will inevitably occur. The USNG attempts to balance and minimize these, consistent with making the grid as useful as possible for its intended purpose of efficiently communicating practical locations. Since the UTM (the basis for USNG) is not a single projection, but rather a set of 6-degree longitudinal zones, there will necessarily be a local discontinuity along each of the 'seam' meridians between zones. However, every point continues to have a well-defined, unique geoaddress, and there are established conventions to minimize confusion near zone intersections. The six-degree zone width of UTM strikes a balance between the frequency of these discontinuities versus distortion of scale, which would increase unacceptably if the zones were made wider. (UTM further uses a 0.9996 scale factor at the central meridian, growing to 1.0000 at two meridians offset from the center, and increasing toward the zone boundaries, so as to minimize the overall effect of scale distortion across the zone breadth.) The USNG is not intended for surveying, for which a higher-precision (lower-distortion) coordinate system such as SPCS would be more appropriate. Also, since USNG north-south grid lines are (by design) a fixed distance from the zone central meridian, only the central meridian itself will be aligned with \"true north\". Other grid lines establish a local \"grid north\", which will differ from true north by a small amount. The amount of this deviation, which is indicated on USGS topographic maps, is typically much less than the magnetic declination (between true north and magnetic north), and is small enough that it can be disregarded in most land navigation situations.\n\nAdoption and current applications\n\nStandards \nSince its adoption as a national standard in 2001, the USNG has itself been incorporated into standards and operating procedures of other organizations:\n\n In 2011, the US Government's National Search and Rescue Committee (NSARC) released Version 1.0 of the Land Search and Rescue Addendum to the National Search and Rescue Supplement to the International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue Manual. This document specifies the US National Grid as the primary standard coordinate reference system to be used for all land-based search and rescue (SAR) activities in the US.\nIn 2015, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) issued FEMA Directive 092\u20135, \"Use of the United States National Grid (USNG)\":\n\n\"POLICY STATEMENT: FEMA will use the United States National Grid (USNG) as its standard geographic reference system for land-based operations and will encourage use of the USNG among whole community partners.\"\n\n A number of state and local Emergency Management agencies have also adopted the USNG for their operations.\nOther organizations including the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) have incorporated the USNG into specific standards issued by those organizations.\n\nGridded maps \nThe utility of almost every large or medium scale map (paper or electronic) can be greatly enhanced by having an overlaid coordinate grid. The USNG provides such a grid that is universal, interoperable, non-proprietary, works across all jurisdictions, and can readily be used with GPS receivers and other location service applications.\n\nIn addition to providing a convenient means to identify and communicate specific locations (points and areas), an overlaid USNG grid also provides an orientation, and\u2014because it is distance based\u2014a scale of distance that is present across the map.\n\nUSGS topographic maps have for decades been published with 1000-meter UTM tick marks in the map collar, and sometimes with full grid lines across the map. Recent editions of these maps (those referenced to the North American datum of 1983, or NAD83) are compatible with USNG, and current editions also contain a standard USNG information box in the collar which identifies the GZD(s) (Grid Zone Designator(s) and the 100\u00a0km Grid Square ID(s) covering the area of the particular map. USNG can now be found on various pre-printed and custom-printed maps available for purchase, or generated from various mapping software packages.\n\nSoftware applications \nA growing number of software applications incorporate or refer to the US National Grid. See the External Links section below for links to some of these, including The National Map (USGS). These applications include conventional mapping applications with overlaid USNG grid and/or coordinate readouts, and several 'you-are-here' mobile applications which give the user's current USNG coordinates, such as USNGapp.org and FindMeSAR.com.\n\nMission Manager, the most widely used incident management software tool for first responders, integrates the USNG in its functionality.\n\nSearch and rescue (SAR) \nAs noted above under Standards, since 2011 the USNG has been designated by the US Government's National Search and Rescue Committee (NSARC) as the primary coordinate reference system to be used for all land-based search and rescue (SAR) activities in the US. (Latitude and longitude [DMM variant] may be used as the secondary system for land responders; especially when coordinating with air and sea based responders who may use it as their primary system, and USNG as secondary.)\n\nThe National Association for Search and Rescue (NASAR) is moving its education and certification testing programming towards USNG. Other organizations such as the National Alliance for Public Safety GIS (NAPSG) also provide USNG SAR training.\n\nFEMA Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) task forces including Florida Task Force 4 (FL-TF4) and Iowa Task Force 1 (IA-TF1) have incorporated the USNG into their training and operations.\n\nEmergency Location Marker (ELM) \nResponders are often faced with significant geolocation issues when a responding to an emergency without a street address. This is particularly true in the recreational trail environment:\n\n 34% of U.S. response calls go to a location without a street address \u2013 recreational trails are a leading category.\n Trails with location signs typically employ an approach unique to that park or trail system, and\n Locally unique marking systems have no value to responders unless those locations are readily available via dispatch and response systems.\n\nIn response to these issues, in 2009, a project funded by the nonprofit SharedGeo and University of Minnesota/Minnesota Department of Transportation Local Operational Research Assistance (OPERA) grant program got underway which had the following objectives:\n\n Develop a standardized Emergency Location Marker (ELM) which can be used anywhere in the nation in a variety of scenarios,\n Align the marking system with established federal and state cartographic and signage standards,\n Ensure the format leverages GPS instead of requiring constant updating of Computer Aided Dispatch (CAD) systems,\n Use a consistent approach which over time will become instantly recognizable by the public, and\n Involve multiple stakeholders during development to ensure a \"Best Practices\" outcome.\n\nAfter three years of field research and vetting by multiple focus groups of trail users, responders, and geospatial experts, a design based on USNG was adopted.\n\nThis format, which can be used anywhere in the United States, was originally offered in three sizes to conform to federal, state and local signage standards:\n\n 6\" x 9\" (15 cm x 23 cm) -- for non-motorized trails\n 9\" x 12\" (23 cm x 30 cm) -- for motorized trails\n12\" x 12\" (30 cm x 30 cm) -- for trail heads and huts\n\nIn the years since introduction, the USNG ELM program now includes vertical ELM versions for breakaway scenarios (e.g. mountain bike trails), ELM information signs, ELM stickers to retrofit trail posts, and corresponding apps such as USNGapp.org.\n\nUSNG ELM implementations can be found in Minnesota, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Michigan, and other states.\n\nFirst responders \nThe USNG can increase the effectiveness of all types of emergency response, ranging from missing persons searches to off-road medical responses. In Lake County MN, with 900 miles of recreational trails, dispatchers and first responders have been provided the tools and training to use USNG as their primary means of geo-location. The goal of this education for responders and the public is to \"Take the 'Search' out of 'Search and Rescue.'\"\n\nIn addition to ELM signs, notices at trailheads encourage hikers and off-road vehicle operators to \"Download this USNG App\" on their cell phones. Trail maps including USNG grid lines allow responders to interpolate locations from 911 callers who give their coordinates from ELMs or GPS apps. Cell phones also provide responders the opportunity to counsel lost or injured persons to determine their location by downloading USNG apps on the spot. This saves time and effort for responders and patients alike who are not on roads or addressed locations. When multiple teams of responders are working in close vicinity, such as during woods searches for lost individuals, communicating with USNG allows them to truncate their coordinate string to eight digits, giving their location within 10 meters without the use of decimals, special symbols or unit descriptors, and intuitively estimate the distance and direction between teams for better coordination.\n\nEmergency management \nEmergency managers coordinate response to and recovery from all types of natural hazards and man-made threats. In large scale events, where responders may be imported from many jurisdictions, coordination of geo-location formats is mandatory. The USNG is used to reduce confusion and improve efficiency in response to wildfires, floods and hurricanes and other events.\n\nAs noted above, In 2015, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) issued FEMA Directive 092\u20135, \"Use of the United States National Grid (USNG)\":\"POLICY STATEMENT: FEMA will use the United States National Grid (USNG) as its standard geographic reference system for land-based operations and will encourage use of the USNG among whole community partners.\" \"Lessons learned from several large-scale disasters within the past three decades highlight the need for a common, geographic reference system in order to anticipate resource requirements, facilitate decision-making, and accurately deploy resources. ... Decision support tools that apply the USNG enable emergency managers to locate positions and identify areas of interest or operations where traditional references (i.e., landmarks or street signs) may be destroyed, damaged, or missing due to the effects of a disaster.\"The USNG is also seen as a tool for enhancing situational awareness and facilitating a common operating picture in emergency scenarios.\n\nThe Department of Defense also has recognized the role of the civil USNG standard for the Armed Forces in support of homeland security and homeland defense.\n\nAsset identification and mapping \nOrganizations such as public utilities, transportation departments, emergency responders, and others own or rely upon fixed, field-based assets which they need to track, inventory, maintain, and locate efficiently when needed.\u00a0 Examples include fire hydrants, overhead utility poles, storm drains, roadside signs, and many others.\n\nAssigning unique identifiers is a common method for identifying and referencing particular assets. \u00a0A strategically assigned asset identifier can include location information, thereby assuring both that the name is unique and that the location of the asset is always known. The USNG offers a method to locate any place or any object in the world with a brief alphanumeric code, which can be shortened depending on the known service area, and enhanced with a prefix code to identify the type of asset. Organizations have successfully fielded this type of USNG-based asset naming recently:\"The Mohawk Valley Water Authority serves 40,000 customers in the Greater Utica Area in Central New York. We have 700+ miles of pipe, 28 storage tanks, 21 pump stations, and numerous fire hydrants. We communicate hydrant status information internally and with many fire departments. We need to name these items meaningfully. We have tried several naming conventions\u2014both sequential and hierarchical\u2014with confusing and disappointing results. We converted to USNG asset naming and have used this successfully for over 4 years!\" -- Elisabetta T. DeGeronimo, Watershed/GIS Coordinator at Mohawk Valley Water Authority, Utica, New York \n\n--\n\n\"Hundreds of thousands of roadside assets\u2014culverts, drains, signs on ground mounts, signs on overhead support structures, signs on span wires, and guide rails\u2014are found along the routes maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation. In the past, the existence of these assets was only recorded in construction plans and the minds and memories of dedicated career staff. Our new asset naming convention, based upon the U.S. National Grid, benefits the entire department and particularly the field forces.\" -- Mary Susan Knauss, Senior Transportation Analyst, Office of Transportation Management, New York State Department of Transportation, Albany, New York These and other contributors at Florida State University and elsewhere have collaborated to produce a manual to guide GIS users and others through the practical steps of naming assets using the USNG.\n\nRecreation and other uses\nThere has been a concerted outreach to educate the public in the uses and advantages of USNG. Sharing USNG maps and apps with friends and families encourages them to keep each other informed of their locations when traveling off-road (i.e., in wilderness or on the water) for work or recreation. In addition, USNG can be used to mark and communicate locations in busy or remote urban areas, including where to meet friends in a wooded park, locating a car in a mall parking lot, or requesting help inside a large warehouse or business complex. One doesn't even need compass directions.\n\nScientific research fieldwork can also benefit.\n\nFuture direction and initiatives \nThe USNG has seen steady but gradually increasing adoption and use since the standard was approved in 2001. Formal adoption by other standards bodies has taken place, while practical adoption in actual use has been more uneven in achieving its full potential. 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\u043e\u0431\u044b\u0447\u0430\u0439.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0441\u0443\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0413\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043a\u043d\u0443\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0441 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043a\u043e\u043b\u043b\u0435\u0433\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0442\u0440\u0438\u0431\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0443 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0430 \u041e\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u044f. \u041e\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0438\u043b \u0432\u0435\u0442\u043e (\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044e) \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441 \u043e\u0431\u0441\u0443\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u0442\u0438\u044f", " \u2013 Ruth Turner, Director of Government Relations at 10 Downing Street, was arrested by police under the Honours (Prevention of Abuses) Act and also on suspicion of perverting the course of justice. She was later released on bail. She was the first salaried Government official to be arrested in the inquiry, which followed a search of 10 Downing Street's computer systems by an independent IT expert.\n \n 26 January 2007 \u2013 Prime Minister Tony Blair was questioned in Downing Street for a second time\u2014once again, as a witness and not under caution. At the request of police the 45-minute interview was not publicly revealed until 1 February 2007, for what they described as \"operational reasons\". A Metropolitan Police spokesperson stated that Blair was only being \"interviewed as a witness\" but declined to state whether the interview related to alleged breaches of the Honours (Prevention of Abuses) Act or alleged perversion of the course of justice. However, on 25 June 2007 Channel 4 news reported that the police had originally asked for an interview under caution, and that Blair had said that this would require him to resign as Prime Minister. The police had then re-considered and interviewed him as a witness, rather than suspect.\n \n 30 January 2007 \u2013 Lord Levy was arrested again on suspicion of conspiracy to pervert the course of justice, while still on bail from the previous arrest. He was subsequently bailed.\n \n 7 February 2007 \u2013 The Crown Prosecution Service confirmed that head teacher Des Smith will not face any charges.\n \n 20 February 2007 \u2013 On reporting to a police station under her bail terms, Ruth Turner was interviewed for a second time and re-bailed.\n \n 2 March 2007 \u2013 The Attorney General, Lord Goldsmith obtained an injunction to prevent the BBC from broadcasting a story about the investigation, relating to an email that the BBC had seen.\n \n 5 March 2007 \u2013 After a request to the Attorney General, the BBC was allowed to reveal that the email was sent by Number 10 aide Ruth Turner to Tony Blair's chief of staff, Jonathan Powell, and concerned Labour's chief fundraiser Lord Levy The BBC were still not allowed to reveal the contents of the email.\n \n 6 March 2007 \u2013 After both the police and the attorney general failed to obtain an injunction, The Guardian newspaper revealed that the police had shifted their focus from whether there was an effort to sell peerages to whether there has been a conspiracy to pervert the course of justice. It emerged that Turner and Levy had a meeting in 2006, an account of which was passed by her lawyers to the police, and the police were seeking clarification of whether Levy had asked Turner to \"shape\" the evidence she gave to Scotland Yard. On the same day, the Daily Telegraph newspaper revealed that Ruth Turner had not actually sent the email, because she feared it would be damaging if it fell into the wrong hands. Later in the day the BBC got the injunction against them lifted, and confirmed that their story was similar in substance to that published in The Guardian.\n \n 20 April 2007 \u2013 The police sent their file on the investigation to the Crown Prosecution Service.\n \n 5 June 2007 \u2013 Lord Levy and Ruth Turner were re-bailed in connection with the inquiry.\n \n 26 June 2007 \u2013 On the day before Tony Blair left office The Telegraph reports that American actress Courtney Coventry was flown into the UK at taxpayers expense to give evidence in the Cash for Honours investigation.\n \n 28 June 2007 \u2013 The day after Tony Blair left office as Prime Minister it was reported that the police had interviewed him a third time some time in early June, and again not under caution.\n \n 23 October 2007 \u2013 PASC questioned Assistant Commissioner Yates regarding the expenditure of the Metropolitan Police Commission during the Cash for Honours Investigation and the lack of subsequent charges.\n\nCrown Prosecution Service assessment\nThe Metropolitan Police team, investigating the affair and led by Assistant Commissioner John Yates handed its main file on the cash for peerages inquiry to the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) on Friday 20 April. Under English law, it is up to the CPS to decide whether to bring charges against any of the 136 people interviewed.\n\nOn 4 June 2007 the CPS asked the police to undertake further enquiries, following reports that the police were pressing for Tony Blair to be called as a prosecution witness in any trial.\n\nOn 7 July 2007 the CPS confirmed that they had all the information they needed from the police to decide whether to bring any charges, and it was confirmed that the new Attorney General, Baroness Scotland, would take no role in the case, to avoid the appearance of political influence.\n\nOn 20 July 2007 the BBC reported that the CPS would bring no charges. The CPS stated, in its reasoning for this decision, that \"If one person makes an offer, etc., in the hope or expectation of being granted an honour, or in the belief that it might put him/her in a more favourable position when nominations are subsequently being considered, that does not of itself constitute an offence. Conversely, if one person grants, etc., an honour to another in recognition of (in effect, as a reward for) the fact that that other has made a gift, etc., that does not of itself constitute an offence. For a case to proceed, the prosecution must have a realistic prospect of being able to prove that the two people agreed that the gift, etc., was in exchange for an honour,\" and that \"There is no direct evidence of any such agreement between any two people subject of this investigation\"\n\nConnection with education funding\nDesmond Smith was the subject of a Sunday Times investigation, which led to his resignation from the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust. At that time a Downing Street spokesman said \"It's nonsense to suggest that honours are awarded for giving money to an academy.\". This was later contradicted when it was confirmed that the \"citations\" explaining the case for putting Sir David Garrard and Barry Townsley in the House of Lords \"prominently\" featured their role in helping academy schools. Downing Street sources said the Prime Minister wanted their political support in the Lords for the controversial policy, adding that the Prime Minister felt that anyone who gave their time, commitment and money to establish an academy \u2013 to help children in previously failing schools \u2013 \"had a strong claim to be considered for an honour\". \"What we wanted was people with expertise in academies as working peers, taking the Labour whip, who could actively contribute with a massive amount of knowledge to the debate on education in the House of Lords.\"\n\nGarrard gave \u00a32.4\u00a0m for an academy in Bexley, south London. Townsley gave \u00a31.5\u00a0m for another in west London.\n\nPolitical reaction\nThere was widespread support for an enquiry and some calls to revise the process of party political funding.\n\nLabour Party\n\nTony Blair\nSpeaking at his monthly news briefing on 16 March 2006, Tony Blair confirmed his knowledge of the loans but denied any connection between the large loans from three private individuals and whether they were subsequently nominated for honours. Blair said all three men were known party donors and would have made excellent Labour \"working peers\". He suggested that further changes to the honours system might be needed.\n\nWhen questioned, the PM said he did not think Dromey had revealed details of his lack of involvement in the handling of the private loans to undermine or implicate either the PM or 10 Downing Street. Dromey's very public expression of concern \u2013 he toured various television channels to be interviewed on the matter \u2013 raised suspicion among some supporters of Blair that his actions were deliberately designed to embarrass the Prime Minister and consequently benefit Prime Minister in-waiting Chancellor Gordon Brown. Dromey denied this, saying he had been forced to go public when his persistent questioning failed to satisfactorily resolve the matter.\n\nThe police were reported as pressing for Blair to be called as a prosecution witness in any trial according to reports on 3 June 2007.\n\nCharles Clarke\nAlso on 16 March 2006 the then Home Secretary stated \"The treasurer should know about all the fundraising issues that arise.\"\n\nHowever, he later called into question Dromey's competence, saying he had \"serious questions about Jack Dromey's capacity\" as Labour treasurer and the fact Dromey did not know about the loans meant \"you have to wonder how well he was doing his work\" finally adding, \"I don't know why Jack behaved as he did.\" He rejected as \"nonsense\" a suggestion that the treasurer had spoken publicly about the loans to speed up the transition of power from Blair to Chancellor Gordon Brown.\n\nSir Jeremy Beecham\nSir Jeremy Beecham, chairman of Labour's governing body, the National Executive Committee (NEC), accused Charles Clarke of speaking out of turn and defended party treasurer Jack Dromey. He said the treasurer \"shouldn't be criticised\" and had \"acted perfectly properly\". It was \"absolutely clear that the reasons that NEC officers, including the elected party treasurer, did not know about the loans had nothing to do with any failings on their part\". He added: \"Jack Dromey has always carried out his responsibilities with great diligence and retained the absolute confidence of the NEC in ensuring that this issue is dealt with.\" In an interview on BBC2's Newsnight he said Clarke had not read the situation correctly. \"I don't know how closely Charles has been involved in all this. He's not been on the National Executive for a number of years. I wouldn't have said it in Charles Clarke's position.\"\n\nHarriet Harman\nIn a measure aimed to avoid any conflict of interest, Dromey's wife Harriet Harman \u2013 a minister in the Department for Constitutional Affairs \u2013 relinquished her responsibilities for overseeing electoral reform and House of Lords reform.\n\nDiane Abbott\nWriting of Dromey's reaction in The Times of 17 March 2006, left-wing Labour MP Diane Abbott said:\n\"But perhaps Mr Dromey is furious because he has seen things that have not yet been made public. Perhaps facts have finally been revealed to him about new Labour's inner circle and their adventures in influence-peddling and in the world of the super-rich that he really did not know before. And the enormity of what he has discovered may have made him determined that whoever else may be swept away in the ensuing scandal, it will not be him.\"\n\nClare Short\nFormer cabinet minister and Blair critic Clare Short described the issue with characteristic bluntness:\n\"What we're getting is a bubble of these clever people who've captured the state, don't need a party, don't need any members, don't have turbulent people having opinions, who then get money from rich people and run our state without consulting anyone else.\"\n\nIan McCartney\nThe Labour Party chairman Ian McCartney defended the loans with the BBC quoting him as saying:\n\"Bear in mind too that we fought the 2005 election in the face of a very heavily funded Conservative campaign \u2013 a large part of which was reportedly funded by loans, and targeted at individual Labour MPs.\"\n\nOn 31 March 2006 McCartney said the Conservative Party still looked like they had \"something to hide\" by not revealing the identity of their foreign lenders. \"We need to know who these people are, where they reside, where they pay tax, how much they lent and on what terms. \"It is not up to the Tories to claim that they did not breach the law. That's the job of the Electoral Commission. \"By failing to provide these details the Conservatives and David Cameron are fuelling suspicion that they have even more to hide.\"\n\nJohn Prescott\nJohn Prescott, the Deputy Prime Minister, told the BBC that he was \"not happy\" he found out about the millions loaned to the Labour Party by reading it in the papers but insisted the loans would later appear in the party's audited accounts. He refused to give a guarantee that Labour had not given peerages for loans, saying \"I am bound to say not all the information possibly is out yet and we are still looking at it.\"\n\nPrescott said he favoured a change to state funding but also said he would not rule out the suggestion that private loans should be capped: \"There's a kind of unhealthy approach to political financing in this country. What we need to do is have a healthy debate.\"\n\nPrescott himself became involved in accusations of influence peddling when newspapers suggested he had made planning decisions in favour of Minerva plc, a company chaired at various times by two of the lenders involved, Sir David Garrard and Andrew Rosenfeld. He told BBC One's The Politics Show he did not \"know anything\" about the firm or secret loans to the party.\n\nHe said he had received the planning requirements for a skyscraper in London and the Park Place shopping centre in Croydon but felt the decision could be made locally. \"I passed it over to Croydon and City of London Corporation. They made the decision, not me. It's quite untrue to say there was a deal or I made the decision.\"\n\nOf Garrard and Rosenfeld he said, \"I don't think I have ever met them. I don't know who the companies are and I certainly don't know if they were giving money to the Labour Party. I am not a great one for circulating among businessmen. I just do my damn job and therefore I resent it when these implications are made. I have not made any money from politics for God's sake. But I am here doing what I can best in public service. My reputation is important to me. My politics is important to me.\"\n\n\"I make my mistakes from time to time and we have to be answerable to you guys but not when it's a lie,\" he added.\n\nLord Falconer of Thoroton\nAmendments to the Electoral Administration Act to make it a legal requirement that loans to political parties are made public in a similar way to donations were to be urgently considered by Lord Falconer of Thoroton, then Lord Chancellor according to reports in March 2006.\n\nConservative Party\n\nDavid Cameron\n\"We've got to stop this perception that parties can somehow be bought by big donations either from very rich people, or trade unions, or businesses.\"\n\nThe Conservative Party admitted that it has engaged in similar borrowing (but did not reveal any links to nominations for peerages). Such loans have been reported in party accounts though the annual accounts are not yet published for the period covering the 2005 general election.\n\nDavid Cameron's proposals are:\nBan on all loans unless from financial institutions on fully commercial terms\n\u00a350,000 cap on donations\nTax relief on donations up to \u00a33,000\nState funding of \u00a31.20 per vote won at general elections for parties with MPs, plus annual payment equal to 60p per vote\nNew commission to handle honours\nGeneral election party funds limited to \u00a315\u00a0m\n\nThese proposals would also reduce the number of MPs from 650 to fewer than 600.\n\nFrancis Maude\nConservative Party chairman Francis Maude said he \"regretted\" accepting loans from abroad but insisted it had not broken the law. He said it had to pay back \u00a35m to lenders who wanted to remain anonymous including a number of foreign nationals.\n\n\"These loans represent a very small part of our financial backing \u2013 I wish we had not done so but we have and we have now set the record clear we have repaid those loans and the matter is perfectly clear,\" Mr Maude told BBC Radio 5 Live. \"It would clearly have been better if we had not as things turn out but that's the way it is.\" He insisted the Tories had done nothing wrong and that Labour had been \"much less transparent about this whole process than we have.\"\n\nHe said he was \"very proud\" of the people who lent money to the Tories and insisted they had not supported the party out of \"self-interest\" because, he argued, it had not stood much of a chance of gaining power in recent years.\n\nLiberal Democrats\n\nSir Menzies Campbell\nFormer Liberal Democrat leader Sir Menzies Campbell said that his party had not nominated anyone for a peerage who had loaned it large sums. He said the Lib Dems received loans from three people in the period before the 2005 General Election and had declared their names and the sums lent. He urged transparency on funding, and suggested a \u00a350,000 cap on donations by individuals and a reduction in maximum permitted party election spending from \u00a320\u00a0m to \u00a315\u00a0m:\n\n\"There should be no secret loans of any kind, and if the lord chancellor is proposing that in legislation currently before Parliament, that's something we will most certainly support.\"\n\nPrevious instances\nThe expression \"cash for peerages\" has a long history. Titles have constantly been granted to court favourites and allies. James I was more overt; he created the title of baronet and sold them for \u00a31,500 each to raise money for his war in Ireland.\n\nIn the 1920s David Lloyd George was involved in a barely concealed \"cash for patronage\" scandal managed by Maundy Gregory, which resulted in the 1925 Act which barred this (purchase of peerages had not previously been illegal).\n\nIn 1976 Harold Wilson's resignation honours list was similarly embroiled in what became known as the \"Lavender List\" (supposedly hand-written on lavender paper by Marcia Williams). This, though widely deemed to include some unsuitable and unsalubrious nominees, rewarded Wilson's friends and carried no suggestion of overt reward for money \u2013 given or loaned. Lord Kagan, ennobled in the Lavender List, was convicted of fraud in 1980 \u2013 for some years he had been funding Harold Wilson's Leader's office. Sir Eric Miller, knighted in the Lavender List, committed suicide in 1977 while under investigation for fraud; he too had helped fund Harold Wilson's Leader's office.\n\nIn the 1960s, Roy Thomson had some justifiable claim to a peerage as a Canadian and later British publisher. As even his company history observes, \"Roy had noted that all proprietors of newspapers seemed to become members of the House of Lords. He had also noted this was emphatically 'a good thing'\" and he showed himself ready to do whatever was required to achieve this goal, believing at first that it could be a simple open purchase but moving on to explicit lobbying of prime ministers. He contributed money to charitable bodies which were deemed to improve his chances. Eventually, having bought The Scotsman, The Sunday Times and later The Times, he became sufficiently important to Harold Wilson that he was given a hereditary peerage as Baron Thomson of Fleet.\n\nAs recently as 2004 the issue of large donations to a political party being linked to the award of a peerage arose when Paul Drayson donated \u00a3500,000 to the Labour Party. His company, Powderject (now part of Novartis), had also received a valuable government contract to make vaccines.\n\nSee also\nList of political scandals in the United Kingdom\nReform of the House", " ore smelting, were a common source of contamination in areas that were industrialized before about 1960. Coal naturally concentrates lead and zinc during its formation, as well as other heavy metals to a lesser degree. When the coal is burned, most of these metals become concentrated in the ash (the principal exception being mercury). Coal ash and slag may contain sufficient lead to qualify as a \"characteristic hazardous waste\", defined in the US as containing more than 5\u00a0mg/L of extractable lead using the TCLP procedure. In addition to lead, coal ash typically contains variable but significant concentrations of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs; e.g., benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, indeno(cd)pyrene, phenanthrene, anthracene, and others). These PAHs are known human carcinogens and the acceptable concentrations of them in soil are typically around 1\u00a0mg/kg. Coal ash and slag can be recognised by the presence of off-white grains in soil, gray heterogeneous soil, or (coal slag) bubbly, vesicular pebble-sized grains.\n\nTreated sewage sludge, known in the industry as biosolids, has become controversial as a \"fertilizer\". As it is the byproduct of sewage treatment, it generally contains more contaminants such as organisms, pesticides, and heavy metals than other soil.\n\nIn the European Union, the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive allows sewage sludge to be sprayed onto land. The volume is expected to double to 185,000 tons of dry solids in 2005. This has good agricultural properties due to the high nitrogen and phosphate content. In 1990/1991, 13% wet weight was sprayed onto 0.13% of the land; however, this is expected to rise 15 fold by 2005. Advocates say there is a need to control this so that pathogenic microorganisms do not get into water courses and to ensure that there is no accumulation of heavy metals in the top soil.\n\nPesticides and herbicides\n\nA pesticide is a substance used to kill a pest. A pesticide may be a chemical substance, biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest. Pests include insects, plant pathogens, weeds, mollusks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms) and microbes that compete with humans for food, destroy property, spread or are a vector for disease or cause a nuisance. Although there are benefits to the use of pesticides, there are also drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other organisms.\n\nHerbicides are used to kill weeds, especially on pavements and railways. They are similar to auxins and most are biodegradable by soil bacteria. However, one group derived from trinitrotoluene (2:4 D and 2:4:5 T) have the impurity dioxin, which is very toxic and causes fatality even in low concentrations. Another herbicide is Paraquat. It is highly toxic but it rapidly degrades in soil due to the action of bacteria and does not kill soil fauna.\n\nInsecticides are used to rid farms of pests which damage crops. The insects damage not only standing crops but also stored ones and in the tropics it is reckoned that one third of the total production is lost during food storage. As with fungicides, the first insecticides used in the nineteenth century were inorganic e.g. Paris Green and other compounds of arsenic. Nicotine has also been used since 1690.\n\nThere are now two main groups of synthetic insecticides \u2013\n\n1. Organochlorines include DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin and BHC. They are cheap to produce, potent and persistent. DDT was used on a massive scale from the 1930s, with a peak of 72,000 tonnes used 1970. Then usage fell as the harmful environmental effects were realized. It was found worldwide in fish and birds and was even discovered in the snow in the Antarctic. It is only slightly soluble in water but is very soluble in the bloodstream. It affects the nervous and endocrine systems and causes the eggshells of birds to lack calcium causing them to be easily breakable. It is thought to be responsible for the decline of the numbers of birds of prey like ospreys and peregrine falcons in the 1950s \u2013 they are now recovering. As well as increased concentration via the food chain, it is known to enter via permeable membranes, so fish get it through their gills. As it has low water solubility, it tends to stay at the water surface, so organisms that live there are most affected. DDT found in fish that formed part of the human food chain caused concern, but the levels found in the liver, kidney and brain tissues was less than 1 ppm and in fat was 10 ppm, which was below the level likely to cause harm. However, DDT was banned in the UK and the United States to stop the further buildup of it in the food chain. U.S. manufacturers continued to sell DDT to developing countries, who could not afford the expensive replacement chemicals and who did not have such stringent regulations governing the use of pesticides.\n\n2. Organophosphates, e.g. parathion, methyl parathion and about 40 other insecticides are available nationally. Parathion is highly toxic, methyl-parathion is less so and Malathion is generally considered safe as it has low toxicity and is rapidly broken down in the mammalian liver. This group works by preventing normal nerve transmission as cholinesterase is prevented from breaking down the transmitter substance acetylcholine, resulting in uncontrolled muscle movements.\n\nAgents of war \nThe disposal of munitions, and a lack of care in manufacture of munitions caused by the urgency of production, can contaminate soil for extended periods. There is little published evidence on this type of contamination largely because of restrictions placed by governments of many countries on the publication of material related to war effort. However, mustard gas stored during World War II has contaminated some sites for up to 50 years and the testing of Anthrax as a potential biological weapon contaminated the whole island of Gruinard.\n\nHuman health\n\nExposure pathways \nContaminated or polluted soil directly affects human health through direct contact with soil or via inhalation of soil contaminants that have vaporized; potentially greater threats are posed by the infiltration of soil contamination into groundwater aquifers used for human consumption, sometimes in areas apparently far removed from any apparent source of above-ground contamination. Toxic metals can also make their way up the food chain through plants that reside in soils containing high concentrations of heavy metals. This tends to result in the development of pollution-related diseases.\n\nMost exposure is accidental, and exposure can happen through:\n\n Ingesting dust or soil directly\n Ingesting food or vegetables grown in contaminated soil or with foods in contact with contaminants\n Skin contact with dust or soil\n Vapors from the soil\n Inhaling clouds of dust while working in soils or windy environments\n\nHowever, some studies estimate that 90% of exposure is through eating contaminated food.\n\nConsequences \nHealth consequences from exposure to soil contamination vary greatly depending on pollutant type, the pathway of attack, and the vulnerability of the exposed population. Researchers suggest that pesticides and heavy metals in soil may harm cardiovascular health, including inflammation and change in the body's internal clock. \n\nChronic exposure to chromium, lead , and other metals, petroleum, solvents, and many pesticide and herbicide formulations can be carcinogenic, can cause congenital disorders, or can cause other chronic health conditions. Industrial or man-made concentrations of naturally occurring substances, such as nitrate and ammonia associated with livestock manure from agricultural operations, have also been identified as health hazards in soil and groundwater.\n\nChronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with a higher incidence of leukemia. Mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce higher incidences of kidney damage and some irreversible diseases. PCBs and cyclodienes are linked to liver toxicity. Organophosphates and carbonates can cause a chain of responses leading to neuromuscular blockage. Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes, kidney changes, and depression of the central nervous system. There is an entire spectrum of further health effects such as headache, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other chemicals. At sufficient dosages a large number of soil contaminants can cause death by exposure via direct contact, inhalation or ingestion of contaminants in groundwater contaminated through soil.\n\nThe Scottish Government has commissioned the Institute of Occupational Medicine to undertake a review of methods to assess risk to human health from contaminated land. The overall aim of the project is to work up guidance that should be useful to Scottish Local Authorities in assessing whether sites represent a significant possibility of significant harm (SPOSH) to human health. It is envisaged that the output of the project will be a short document providing high level guidance on health risk assessment with reference to existing published guidance and methodologies that have been identified as being particularly relevant and helpful. The project will examine how policy guidelines have been developed for determining the acceptability of risks to human health and propose an approach for assessing what constitutes unacceptable risk in line with the criteria for SPOSH as defined in the legislation and the Scottish Statutory Guidance.\n\nEcosystem effects\n\nNot unexpectedly, soil contaminants can have significant deleterious consequences for ecosystems. There are radical soil chemistry changes which can arise from the presence of many hazardous chemicals even at low concentration of the contaminant species. These changes can manifest in the alteration of metabolism of endemic microorganisms and arthropods resident in a given soil environment. The result can be virtual eradication of some of the primary food chain, which in turn could have major consequences for predator or consumer species. Even if the chemical effect on lower life forms is small, the lower pyramid levels of the food chain may ingest alien chemicals, which normally become more concentrated for each consuming rung of the food chain. Many of these effects are now well known, such as the concentration of persistent DDT materials for avian consumers, leading to weakening of egg shells, increased chick mortality and potential extinction of species.\n\nEffects occur to agricultural lands which have certain types of soil contamination. Contaminants typically alter plant metabolism, often causing a reduction in crop yields. This has a secondary effect upon soil conservation, since the languishing crops cannot shield the Earth's soil from erosion. Some of these chemical contaminants have long half-lives and in other cases derivative chemicals are formed from decay of primary soil contaminants.\n\nPotential effects of contaminants to soil functions \nHeavy metals and other soil contaminants can adversely affect the activity, species composition and abundance of soil microorganisms, thereby threatening soil functions such as biochemical cycling of carbon and nitrogen. However, soil contaminants can also become less bioavailable by time, and microorganisms and ecosystems can adapt to altered conditions. Soil properties such as pH, organic matter content and texture are very important and modify mobility, bioavailability and toxicity of pollutants in contaminated soils. The same amount of contaminant can be toxic in one soil but totally harmless in another soil. This stresses the need for soil-specific risks assessment and measures.\n\nCleanup options\n\nCleanup or environmental remediation is analyzed by environmental scientists who utilize field measurement of soil chemicals and also apply computer models (GIS in Environmental Contamination) for analyzing transport and fate of soil chemicals. Various technologies have been developed for remediation of oil-contaminated soil and sediments There are several principal strategies for remediation:\n Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready pathways for human or sensitive ecosystem contact. This technique also applies to dredging of bay muds containing toxins.\n Aeration of soils at the contaminated site (with attendant risk of creating air pollution)\n Thermal remediation by introduction of heat to raise subsurface temperatures sufficiently high to volatilize chemical contaminants out of the soil for vapor extraction. Technologies include ISTD, electrical resistance heating (ERH), and ET-DSP.\n Bioremediation, involving microbial digestion of certain organic chemicals. Techniques used in bioremediation include landfarming, biostimulation and bioaugmentating soil biota with commercially available microflora.\n Extraction of groundwater or soil vapor with an active electromechanical system, with subsequent stripping of the contaminants from the extract.\n Containment of the soil contaminants (such as by capping or paving over in place).\n Phytoremediation, or using plants (such as willow) to extract heavy metals.\n Mycoremediation, or using fungus to metabolize contaminants and accumulate heavy metals.\n Remediation of oil contaminated sediments with self-collapsing air microbubbles.\nSurfactant leaching\nInterfacial solar evaporation to extract heavy metal ions from moist soil\n\nBy country\n\nVarious national standards for concentrations of particular contaminants include the United States EPA Region 9 Preliminary Remediation Goals (U.S. PRGs), the U.S. EPA Region 3 Risk Based Concentrations (U.S. EPA RBCs) and National Environment Protection Council of Australia Guideline on Investigation Levels in Soil and Groundwater.\n\nPeople's Republic of China\n\nThe immense and sustained growth of the People's Republic of China since the 1970s has exacted a price from the land in increased soil pollution. The Ministry of Ecology and Environment believes it to be a threat to the environment, to food safety and to sustainable agriculture. According to a scientific sampling, 150 million mu (100,000 square kilometres) of China's cultivated land have been polluted, with contaminated water being used to irrigate a further 32.5 million mu (21,670 square kilometres) and another 2 million mu (1,300 square kilometres) covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total, the area accounts for one-tenth of China's cultivatable land, and is mostly in economically developed areas. An estimated 12 million tonnes of grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of 20 billion yuan ($2.57 billion USD). Recent survey shows that 19% of the agricultural soils are contaminated which contains heavy metals and metalloids. And the rate of these heavy metals in the soil has been increased dramatically.\n\nEuropean Union \nAccording to the received data from Member states, in the European Union the number of estimated potential contaminated sites is more than 2.5 million and the identified contaminated sites around 342 thousand. Municipal and industrial wastes contribute most to soil contamination (38%), followed by the industrial/commercial sector (34%). Mineral oil and heavy metals are the main contaminants contributing around 60% to soil contamination. In terms of budget, the management of contaminated sites is estimated to cost around 6 billion Euros (\u20ac) annually.\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nGeneric guidance commonly used in the United Kingdom are the Soil Guideline Values published by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) and the Environment Agency. These are screening values that demonstrate the minimal acceptable level of a substance. Above this there can be no assurances in terms of significant risk of harm to human health. These have been derived using the Contaminated Land Exposure Assessment Model (CLEA UK). Certain input parameters such as Health Criteria Values, age and land use are fed into CLEA UK to obtain a probabilistic output.\n\nGuidance by the Inter Departmental Committee for the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land (ICRCL) has been formally withdrawn by DEFRA, for use as a prescriptive document to determine the potential need for remediation or further assessment.\n\nThe CLEA model published by DEFRA and the Environment Agency (EA) in March 2002 sets a framework for the appropriate assessment of risks to human health from contaminated land, as required by Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990. As part of this framework, generic Soil Guideline Values (SGVs) have currently been derived for ten contaminants to be used as \"intervention values\". These values should not be considered as remedial targets but values above which further detailed assessment should be considered; see Dutch standards.\n \nThree sets of CLEA SGVs have been produced for three different land uses, namely \n residential (with and without plant uptake)\n allotments\n commercial/industrial\n\nIt is intended that the SGVs replace the former ICRCL values. The CLEA SGVs relate to assessing chronic (long term) risks to human health and do not apply to the protection of ground workers during construction, or other potential receptors such as groundwater, buildings, plants or other ecosystems. The CLEA SGVs are not directly applicable to a site completely covered in hardstanding, as there is no direct exposure route to contaminated soils.\n \nTo date, the first ten of fifty-five contaminant SGVs have been published, for the following: arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, inorganic mercury, nickel, selenium ethyl benzene, phenol and toluene. Draft SGVs for benzene, naphthalene and xylene have been produced but their publication is on hold. Toxicological data (Tox) has been published for each of these contaminants as well as for benzo[a]pyrene, benzene, dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs, naphthalene, vinyl chloride, 1,1,2,2 tetrachloroethane and 1,1,1,2 tetrachloroethane, 1,1,1 trichloroethane, tetrachloroethene, carbon tetrachloride, 1,2-dichloroethane, trichloroethene and xylene. The SGVs for ethyl benzene, phenol and toluene are dependent on the soil organic matter (SOM) content (which can be calculated from the total organic carbon (TOC) content). As an initial screen the SGVs for 1% SOM are considered to be appropriate.\n\nCanada\nAs of February 2021, there are a total of 2,500 plus contaminated sites in Canada. One infamous contaminated sited is located near a nickel-copper smelting site in Sudbury, Ontario. A study investigating the heavy metal pollution in the vicinity of the smelter reveals that elevated levels of nickel and copper were found in the soil; values going as high as 5,104ppm Ni, and 2,892 ppm Cu within a 1.1\u00a0km range of the smelter location. Other metals were also found in the soil; such metals include iron, cobalt, and silver. Furthermore, upon examining the different vegetation surrounding the smelter it was evident that they too had been affected; the results show that the plants contained nickel, copper and aluminium as a result of soil contamination.\n\nIndia\nIn March 2009, the issue of uranium poisoning in Punjab attracted press coverage. It was alleged to be caused by fly ash ponds of thermal power stations, which reportedly lead to severe birth defects in children in the Faridkot and Bhatinda districts of Punjab. The news reports claimed the uranium levels were more than 60 times the maximum safe limit. In 2012, the Government of India confirmed that the ground water in Malwa belt of Punjab has uranium metal that is 50% above the trace limits set by the United Nations' World Health Organization (WHO). Scientific studies, based on over 1000 samples from various sampling points, could not trace the source to fly ash and any sources from thermal power plants or industry as originally alleged. The study also revealed that the uranium concentration in ground water of Malwa district is not 60", ". There are around 660 pupils and some 200 members of staff.\n\nSince the 1980s, the school has been one of Britain's most successful at producing top class rugby union players. During this period it schooled England international players Rob Andrew and Tony and Rory Underwood. The school has also produced Mathew Tait, Lee Dickson and Tim Visser, and appeared in three finals of the inter-school Daily Mail Cup. Former pupils in other fields include Edward Mellanby (the discoverer of Vitamin D); industrialist Percy Mills, The Lord Mills; fashion designer Giles Deacon and poet Craig Raine.\n\nHistory\nThe school can trace its origins to an endowment made by John I de Balliol, then Lord of Barnard Castle, in 1229. The school itself was established in 1883 when it occupied temporary premises in Middleton One Row, County Durham, whilst construction of the school was undertaken in Barnard Castle. Initially there were 25 boarders and 10-day pupils, but by the end of 1884, there were 76 boarders. Originally known as the North Eastern County School, the main school building was completed on 2 February 1886 and initially housed 116 boarders and 12-day pupils. The Bishop of Durham presided over the foundation ceremony. The building was designed by Clark & Moscrop of Darlington in the Jacobean style, and is a Grade II listed building built with local Yorkstone and Lakeland slate. The school was built for the trustees of Benjamin Flounders and the trustees of St. John's Hospital, Barnard Castle, who managed the Baliol endowment, and was overseen by a University of Durham committee. Flounders was a Quaker industrialist who had helped to fund the Stockton and Darlington Railway. The Flounders trustees financed the entirety of the construction of the school with a donation of \u00a331,000. A further \u00a320,000 was raised by subscription to cover initial running costs, \u00a310,000 of which came from St John's Hospital. The gift from St John's was conditional on the school being situated in Barnard Castle, and this determined its location.\n\nThe school's governance was inspired by the county school movement of Joseph Lloyd Brereton, who was largely inspired in turn by the example of Thomas Arnold, the headmaster of Rugby School. The object of the school was to provide a liberal education, with fees a fraction of those charged by public schools. Tolerance of non-conformist denominations such as Methodism and Roman Catholicism informed the school's ethos, and the school has always remained independent of the Church of England. Brereton's son became the first headmaster of the school. In contrast to the largely classical education offered by many of the public schools of the time, the school always maintained a focus on scientific and technological education. A strong sporting programme was believed to build character. Extensions over the next few years included a sanatorium in 1890 (now the music school) and a swimming-bath block in 1896. In 1900 a \u00a34,000 (\u00a3400,000 in 2010) science block was opened by Lord Barnard with Brooke Foss Westcott, Bishop of Durham in attendance. The building is now inhabited by Tees and Dale houses.\n\nThe school name was changed to Barnard Castle School in 1924, and it was by this time one of the largest public schools in the North of England. When Harold Birkbeck was appointed headmaster in 1935 there were 193 pupils. In 1942 the school was elected to the Headmaster's Conference, making it an \"official\" public school. Following the introduction of the Education Act 1944, from 1945 the school became a direct grant grammar school and the number of pupils enrolled at the school increased substantially. In April 1961 a \u00a365,000 (\u00a31.1 million in 2010) appeal was launched for funding to build new science blocks and a library building. By this time there were 470 boys at the school, more than half of whom progressed to universities or higher education. Birkbeck introduced squash to the school, and made it one of the best-known schools for the sport in the country in the 1960s and 1970s. The novelist Will Cohu described the school in 1974 as \"a rugged Victorian establishment in a brooding Jacobean-style building overlooking the Tees ... The school was popular with parents who were in the armed forces. It was cheap, did not have any reputation for abuse, and was strong on games\". The direct-grant revenue stream was abolished in 1975, making the school reliant upon independent funding. An appeal was launched that year to ensure the school's survival, with \u00a3109,000 (\u00a3750,000 in 2011) raised within nine months. The school's first computer was installed in January 1978.\n\nFrank Macnamara became headmaster in 1980, described as \"an affable enthusiast\" in The Guardian. Under his tenure the school would develop its reputation for fostering world-class rugby talent. For the duration of its existence (1980\u20131997) the school took part in the Assisted Places Scheme. Girls were first admitted to the Sixth Form in 1981, and the school has been fully co-educational since 1993. By 1992 there were around 610 pupils with an approximately 50:50 split between boarding and day pupils. From 1993, as the result of a HMC initiative, Eastern European children were awarded scholarships to study at the school; by 1995, 8 per cent of the school's intake came from overseas. Michael Featherstone, a former England hockey international, was appointed headmaster in 1997, and the school enjoyed considerable academic success during his tenure.\n\nSchool site\n\nOne of the North East's most famous schools, Barnard Castle is set in its own 50-acre grounds on the edge of town. It is located in Teesdale, and is within the North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Giles Deacon has said of the location that \"you could just walk out and you were in the middle of the Pennines\". The Bowes Museum is situated next to the school. The school caters for pupils aged 4 to 18, with pupils younger than 11 being taught in a separate on-site preparatory school (Prep School). The original building is now used mainly for accommodation and administration and is described as \"stately\" by The Independent. The school spire is known colloquially as \"The Pepperpot\". It also contains the dining hall and \"Main School\", public school slang for the school hall. All teaching is undertaken in purpose-built classrooms. The school site contains tennis/netball courts, squash courts, a large sports hall and an AstroTurf pitch. A total of \u00a33 million has been invested in the school's infrastructure since 2008, including a \u00a31.5 million Physics and ICT block, a new hall for the Prep School and a new sports pavilion containing a gym and a dance studio. The school has been used as a filming location for the television sketch show The Fast Show.\n\nChapel\nThe school's chapel was completed in 1911. It was designed by W. D. Caroe, and Nikolaus Pevsner described it as \"impressive\" both internally and externally. Somewhat unusually, it is oriented in a north\u2013south direction. A large proportion of the funding to build the chapel was provided by Lord Barnard, the local nobleman and a leading freemason (with the remainder made up from public subscription), and accordingly the foundation ceremony was performed in full masonic regalia. The Grade II* listed building contains a painting by Ary Scheffer and a Father Willis organ. It has stained glass windows commemorating John Balliol and Benjamin Flounders, the two founders of the school. A roll of honour in the chapel commemorates the 141 former pupils and 4 Masters who died in the First World War, the 55 former pupils who died in the Second World War and one who died in the Falklands War. There is a roll of honour in the main school building for the former pupils who died in the Second Boer War.\n\nBarnard Castle Preparatory School\nThe Prep School has access to all of the facilities of the senior school. It is situated in a separate area of the school grounds with its own organisation, staff and buildings. The school is sited around a main building called Westwick Lodge, \"a sprawling Victorian villa with the modern dormitories and classroom block hidden at the rear. It [has] a long, sloping front lawn, thickly planted with shrubberies ... Round the back [is] a playground and a muddy hill with a few trees\". Members of the Prep School are referred to throughout the school as \"Preppies\".\n\nThe school was founded in 1914 and was originally a girls' school, and independent from the County School. In 1989 there were just 65 pupils, all of them boys. By 2009 there were over 200 pupils, equally split between girls and boys. School on Saturdays was abolished at the Prep School in 1999.\n\nSchool life\n\nIntake\n40 per cent of senior school intake comes from the state sector, and over 50 per cent come from the on-site Prep School. 25 per cent of Sixth Form pupil intake is from state schools. Day pupils commute from a wide catchment area that is predominantly rural in nature. These settlements are as far afield as Hurworth and Stanhope as well as larger settlements such as Kirkby Stephen, Durham, Bishop Auckland, Richmond and Darlington. Pupils are from a range of professional, managerial and farming backgrounds. There are 200 boarding pupils, significant numbers of whom have parents who are members of HM Forces, and many families are linked to nearby Catterick Garrison, Europe's largest military base. 15 per cent of boarders have parents living overseas, particularly Hong Kong. An Open Day is held several times a year when the school welcomes prospective students and their families to tour the school.\n\nAcademic and routine\nEvery weekday (except for Wednesday) begins with a chapel service. School is held on Saturday mornings, with many sporting fixtures taking place on Saturday afternoons. There is an exeat weekend every term when pupils get respite from Saturday school. The Sunday chapel service is compulsory for boarding pupils. Homework, which is always referred to as \"prep\", (short for preparatory work) is set for every day with the exception of Sunday. During weekdays there is a mid-morning coffee break for all pupils when refreshments are provided, a tradition from when many day pupils would arrive at that time from outlying settlements. The school uniform is traditional, including a navy blue blazer and a tie. Merits are given as rewards for outstanding work. Punishments include weekday afternoon detention and Saturday afternoon detention. Corporal punishment had to be phased out by 1987 in line with state schools, as it received public funding. The headmaster is aided in his running of the school by the monitor (prefect) system. As well as the standard subjects, Latin, Classics, Ancient History, Greek, German and Spanish are taught. The school has a strong reputation for sciences. In 2011 the Independent Schools Inspectorate described the school's ethos as \"traditionally unpretentious\".\n\nPastoral\nPastoral care is provided through the house system. Each pupil is assigned to a house. Each house has its own accommodation in the school and its own set of tutors to look after members of the house. There are eight vertically integrated houses in total, each with its own colour and heraldic-like shield: The two boys' boarding houses are York (red) and Northumberland (pale blue). The three-day boys' houses are Tees (dark green) and Dale (burgundy), both formed by splitting Teesdale House, the first day boys' house, and finally Durham (gold), which was converted from boarding to day when the school expanded in the 1990s. The boarding girls belong to the original Sixth Form girls' house, Longfield (dark pink), and the new houses formed for day girls when the school became co-educational are Marwood (purple) and more recently Bowes (pale green). The school considered abolishing its boarding facilities when, like many boarding schools, it suffered a significant drop in numbers during the 1990s. However, numbers unexpectedly improved around the turn of the millennium, and this turnaround has often been attributed to the positive image that boarding received from the Harry Potter series. The school is interdenominational, whilst maintaining its foundation in Christian principles and values.\n\nGovernance\nThe school is a charitable trust governed by a number of foundation and four nominated governors, the latter with links to Durham and Newcastle Universities, Durham County Council / Barnard Castle Town Council and the Old Barnardians' Club. The school aims to offer the best independent education to children from the North East of England. According to information provided to the Charities Commission, the income of the school was \u00a38.7 million in the 2017-18-year, with the vast majority of the revenue coming from school fees. It has been a member of The Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference since 1944.\n\nExtracurricular activities\n\nThe houses form the basis for much competition within the school. The first competition in the school year is the House Singing Competition in which every member of the school takes part. Thereafter, throughout the school year, the houses compete against each other in a variety of academic, artistic, and sporting events. An extensive range of almost 100 after-school activities are offered throughout the year, such as The Duke of Edinburgh's Award scheme up to Gold level.\n\nSport\nRugby for boys and hockey for girls are the major sports during the Autumn term. In the Spring Term the boys play football, hockey and squash whilst the girls play netball and lacrosse. Both boys and girls take part in cross country running and swimming. During the Summer term, cricket is the most important sport for boys. Teams have toured Majorca and the Caribbean in recent years. Members of the 1st XI often gain representative honours for their counties and the North of England. The school was described by The Daily Telegraph as \"one of the premier cricketing schools of the north\". Girls focus on rounders in the summer whilst both girls and boys partake in tennis and athletics. Sports Day is a major fixture in the school calendar.\n\nBarnard Run\nThe Barnard Run is a school competition, consisting of a cross-country trial over a hilly course. It is the most important sporting event in the school year. The course has varied considerably over the years. It dates back to 1892 when Lord Barnard donated and presented the trophy. The race takes place annually at the end of the first half of the Spring Term. The girls' and younger boys' race is 2\u00be miles while the senior boys' is 4 miles.\n\nHistorically the Barnard Run was a seven-mile course which began at Towler Hill Farm, ran to Cotherstone suspension bridge, with an undetermined route back to the school. In 1898 a 4-mile junior Barnard Run was created for 11- to 14-year-olds. In 1904 it was decided that it would be easier for training purposes if the run began at the school, and a new course was developed.\n\nCCF\nThe Junior Officers' Training Corps was established at the school in 1909 following an invitation from Lord Haldane, then Secretary of State for War. By 1911 it had 103 cadets and 3 staff. In 1948 all OTCs were superseded by the Combined Cadet Force (CCF). As of 2012 it had almost 200 cadets and 10 staff, making it one of the largest contingents in the country. Facilities associated with the CCF include an armoury and an indoor shooting range. In 2012 the contingent won the Colts Canter competition, which saw it named the best force in the North of England.\n\nRugby union\nThe school has produced 38 U19 international rugby players, leading The Times to comment that it has \"a happy knack of producing some of England's finest rugby talents.\" The Observer commented on the rugby success in 2008, \"Someone should analyse what they put in the food\". The most prominent are Rob Andrew, brothers Rory Underwood and Tony Underwood, and Mathew Tait who have all played for England at international level. Former headmaster David Ewart explained the school's rugby ethos: \"We believe the game breeds important life skills in those who play it. It's a civilising game and you need to be a gentlemen on the pitch, as well as off.\" During the period 1970 to 1995 no other British school produced as many England international players. In 2012 Tim Visser described his former school's rugby programme as \"brilliant\".\n\nThe school is a prominent feeder institution for the Newcastle Falcons, with signings over the last decade including Lee Dickson, Tim Visser, Alex Tait, Ed Williamson and Rory Clegg. Recent signings to other premiership clubs include Calum Clark, Alex Gray and Ross Batty. Many Barnardians represent junior international sides, as well as the North of England, several northern county sides (such as Durham, Cumbria, Yorkshire and Cheshire) and the Independent Schools' Barbarians. The 1st VII have appeared in the final of the North of England Sevens and National Schools Sevens.\n\nThe School's 1st XV team reached the final of the national Daily Mail Cup for U18s three times in five seasons between 2002/03 and 2006/07. Nicknamed the Barney Army, the team lost to Oakham School, Colston's School and Warwick School respectively in the 2002, 2003 and 2007 finals. In 2007/2008, the 1st XV were beaten in the semi-finals 19-16 by St Benedict's School. The school reached the finals of the National Schools Sevens in 2002 and 2005.\n\nInternational rugby honours\nEngland caps\n Howard Marshall (1891\u20131893)\n James Hutchinson (1906)\n Tom Danby (1949)\n Rory Underwood (1984\u20131996)\n Rob Andrew (1985\u20131997)\n Tony Underwood (1992\u2013", "\u0435\u0442\u0432\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u044f\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0438\u0435, \u043e\u0442\u0442\u043e\u043f\u044b\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435\u0441\u044f.\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044f \u043e\u0447\u0435\u0440\u0451\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0435, \u043f\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0447\u0430\u0442\u043e-\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0435, \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0448\u043a\u0430\u0445, \u0441\u043e\u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0435\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c \u043c\u044f\u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0443\u0448\u0435\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441 \u0443\u0434\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438.\n\n\u0421\u043e\u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u0443\u0448\u0435\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044c. \u0426\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u044b \u043e\u0447\u0435\u0440\u0451\u0434\u043d\u043e, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u043c\u0443\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0447\u0430\u0442\u043e \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043c\u0443\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0447\u0430\u0442\u043e.\n\n\u0426\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043e\u043a \u0437\u0438\u0433\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0440\u0444\u043d\u044b\u0439. \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043b\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0440\u044f\u043c\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439, \u043e\u0431\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u044b \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u043e\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043d\u0443\u0442\u044b \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0434 \u0438 \u0434\u043e \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043b\u0435\u043f\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0438 (\u0432\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0432\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044b \u043a\u0440\u044b\u043b\u044c\u044f \u0438 \u043b\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0438).\n\n\u041e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0432\u0435\u043d\u0447\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0443, \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0451\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u044f, \u0447\u0430\u0449\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0438\u043d\u044f\u044f. \u0427\u0430\u0448\u0435\u0447\u043a\u0430 \u0434\u0432\u0443\u0433\u0443\u0431\u0430\u044f, \u043d\u0430\u0434\u0440\u0435\u0437 \u0433\u0443\u0431 \u0433\u043b\u0443\u0431\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0439, \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0433\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0442\u0438 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0448\u0435\u0447\u043a\u0438, \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0435 \u0435\u0451 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\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 , \u0438 ). \u041d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439\u0447\u0438\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043a \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u044f\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u0420\u0435\u0439\u043d\u0433\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0434 \u0444\u043e\u043d \u0417\u0435\u043d\u0433\u0431\u0443\u0448 \u0432\u044b\u0432\u0435\u043b \u0432 1930-\u0435 \u0433\u0433. \u0442\u0430\u043a \u043d\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0439 \u00ab\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0434\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043b\u044e\u043f\u0438\u043d\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0430 \u043b\u044e\u043f\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0441 \u043d\u0438\u0437\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u044f\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u044b\u0445 \u0430\u043b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432. \u0420\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044b \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0438 \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u044b \u043b\u0438\u0448\u044c \u0432 1942 \u0433. \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0432 \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0412\u0441\u0435\u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0432 1931 \u0433. \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0440\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u043c \u041d. \u041d. \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043d \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441-\u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u00ab\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0434\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043b\u044e\u043f\u0438\u043d\u0430\u00bb. \u041f\u043e \u043c\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u041d. \u0418. \u0412\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 (1932) \u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0431\u0435\u0437\u0430\u043b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0438\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043b\u044e\u043f\u0438\u043d\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u044d\u0442\u043e \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0438\u0435, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0441 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0430\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438.\n\n\u041a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \n\n\u0412 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442 \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430:\n \n Lupinus\n\n\u041f\u043e \u0438\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0431\u0430\u0437\u044b \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 The Plant List, \u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0432\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442 626 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432. \u041d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445:\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n \u0416\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u041f.\u00a0\u041c. \u041a \u043f\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 Lupinus Tourn.//\u0422\u0440. \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043b. \u0431\u043e\u0442., \u0433\u0435\u043d. \u0438 \u0441\u0435\u043b. 1929. \u0422. 21, \u0432\u044b\u043f.1. \u0421.16-294.\n \u041a\u0443\u0440\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00a0\u0411.\u00a0\u0421., \u041d\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u0421., \u0420\u044b\u0431\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0410. \u0438 \u0434\u0440. \u0418\u0437\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u043e\u0432 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043b\u044e\u043f\u0438\u043d\u0430: (\u041c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0443\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f). \u041b.: \u0412\u0418\u0420, 1990. 34 \u0441.\n \u041a\u0443\u0440\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00a0\u0411.\u00a0\u0421., \u0421\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0410.\u00a0\u041a.\u00a0\u0412\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0445 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u043b\u044e\u043f\u0438\u043d\u0430 (Lupinus L.)] //\u0421\u0431. \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447.\u0442\u0440. \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043b. \u0431\u043e\u0442.,\u0433\u0435\u043d. \u0438 \u0441\u0435\u043b. 1990. \u0422.135. \u0421.19-34.\n \u041a\u0443\u0440\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00a0\u0411.\u00a0\u0421. \u0438 \u0434\u0440. 1995. \u041b\u044e\u043f\u0438\u043d // \u0432 \u041a\u043d. \u0422\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u041e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u0413\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0444\u043e\u043d\u0434 \u0438 \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0437\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0431\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u00bb (\u041f\u043e\u0434 \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0411.\u00a0\u0421.\u00a0\u041a\u0443\u0440\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u0430 \u0438 \u0421.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u0420\u0435\u043f\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0430), \u0421\u041f\u0411, 430 \u0441\u0442\u0440.\n Kurlovich, B.S.(Ed.). 2002. Lupins. Geography, Classification, Genetic Resources and Breeding. \u00abIntan\u00bb, 468p.\n \u041c\u0430\u0439\u0441\u0443\u0440\u044f\u043d\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u0410., \u0410\u0442\u0430\u0431\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0410.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u041b\u044e\u043f\u0438\u043d. \u041c.: \u041a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441, 1974. 463 \u0441.\n \u041f\u043e\u0434\u0436\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u041a. \u0410\u0433\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0432\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043b\u044e\u043f\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0443\u044e \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0443\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u043d., \u0423\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0430\u0439, 1967.\n Gladstones, J.S. 1974. Lupinus of the Mediterranean region and Africa. Bull. West. Austr. Depart. of Agr. 1974. N 26. 48 p.\n\n\u0421\u0441\u044b\u043b\u043a\u0438 \n\n \u0412\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0445 \u043e\u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u043b\u044e\u043f\u0438\u043d\u0430 (L.albus, L.angustifolius, L.luteus\n \u041b\u044e\u043f\u0438\u043d", " participated in the unsuccessful defence of Singapore in early February 1942. Following the fall of Singapore the majority of the battalion's personnel were taken as prisoners of war. Many of these men died in captivity; the survivors were liberated in 1945 and returned to Australia where the battalion was disbanded.\n\nHistory\n\nFormation\nThe 2/18th Battalion was raised around Sydney, New South Wales, in June 1940, with its first subunits being formed on 13 July at Wallgrove Camp. Formed as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF) from volunteers for overseas service, the battalion's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Varley, a grazier from Inverell, New South Wales, and a World War I veteran who had previously commanded the 35th Battalion while serving in the Militia during the interwar years. The battalion concentrated at Wallgrove on 15 July, and a cadre of commissioned and senior non-commissioned officers (NCOs) who were selected from the Militia\u2014in many cases personally by Varley\u2014was established, while the remainder of the battalion's NCOs were appointed from recruits following their arrival.\n\nThe majority of the battalion's personnel arrived on 27 and 28 July. Coming from across the state of New South Wales, the men were drawn from places such as Tamworth, Newcastle, Wagga, Goulburn, and Liverpool, with roughly 60 percent coming from rural backgrounds. With an authorised strength of around 900 men, the battalion was organised around a battalion headquarters, with a regimental aid post, four rifle companies and a headquarters company consisting of various support platoons and sections including signals, mortars, transport (later carriers), pioneers, anti-aircraft and administration.\n\nAlong with the 2/19th and 2/20th Battalions, it was assigned to the 22nd Brigade, which formed part of the 8th Division. The colours chosen for the battalion's unit colour patch (UCP) were the same as those of the 18th Battalion, a unit which had served during World War I before being raised as a Militia formation in 1921. These colours were purple over green, in a diamond shape, although a border of gray in an oval shape was added to the UCP to distinguish the battalion from its Militia counterpart; the oval shape designated the battalion as part of the 8th Division.\n\nBasic training began at Wallgrove on 1 August, and was provided by experienced regular soldiers and personnel who had previously served in the Militia. In mid-August the battalion moved to Ingleburn, and by the end of the month individual training had been completed. Collective training followed, and on 5 October the battalion took part in a divisional march through Sydney. A further move came in November when the 2/18th was transported to Bathurst, where more complex exercises were undertaken, including at brigade and divisional levels.\n\nAlthough the fighting had not yet spread to the Pacific, by late 1940 there were growing concerns amongst the Allies about the possibility of a war with Japan. After a review of the defences around Singapore and Malaya, the British government requested Australian troops be sent to garrison the region. In October, the Australian government committed the 22nd Brigade and supporting elements. As a result, the 2/18th\u2014with a strength of 793 men\u2014subsequently embarked upon the RMS Queen Mary and left Sydney on 4 February 1941, bound for Singapore. The Australian government wished to send the brigade to the Middle East to join the 6th, 7th and 9th Divisions, so the deployment was only intended to be short, as the British government pledged to release an Indian division to replace the Australians in May. Consequently, the Australian forces were deployed having only been partially trained and equipped and while they were still in the process of being brought up to full strength.\n\nMalayan campaign\n\nThe men arrived in Singapore on 18 February 1941 and moved into barracks at Port Dickson, in the north of Malaya. While there, the battalion undertook further training to prepare it for jungle warfare, before moving to Seremban in March. Further drafts of reinforcements arrived during this time as the battalion was brought up to its wartime establishment. The rigours of jungle training and the tropical heat affected the men, and a number of personnel were hospitalised during this time with illnesses such as malaria, measles, mumps and serious tropical skin diseases. Some of these were repatriated back to Australia, and by the end of March, the 2/18th was still below its authorised establishment, with an actual strength of 898.\n\nAmidst growing concerns amongst Australian military commanders about Japanese intentions, the scheduled replacement of the 22nd Brigade was cancelled, and the 2/18th remained in Seremban until they were transported east to Jemaluang in August. The following month they were sent north to Mersing, which, situated on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, was considered a likely place for a Japanese landing as it offered a short route of advance towards Singapore. At Mersing, the battalion was set to work digging defensive positions and constructing wire obstacles, punctuated by familiarisation patrols and anti-aircraft, anti-gas and mortar training.\n\nThe battalion was placed on a war footing on 6 December as tensions in the region escalated. Two days later, the Japanese invasion of Malaya commenced; while the fighting raged elsewhere, the 2/18th remained unengaged around Mersing. On 26 December, a small group of 2/18th men were detached to an ad hoc British raiding force known as \"Roseforce\" to take part in a raid behind Japanese lines, ambushing a Japanese convoy. It was not until 3 January however that the battalion came into contact with the Japanese for the first time, with a patrol from the 2/18th capturing two Japanese airmen who had been shot down near the mouth of the Sekakap River. A fortnight later, Japanese advances along the peninsula to the west led to concerns about the coastal defences being outflanked and cut off. As result, on 17 January, the 2/18th was ordered to withdraw south to Jemaluang without having met the Japanese in battle. Following a landing around Mersing, the Japanese began to advance south towards Jemaluang in large numbers. In response, on 26 January the 2/18th Battalion, supported by two batteries of artillery from the 2/10th Field Regiment, was tasked with establishing an ambush near the Nithsdale Estate and the rubber plantation at Joo Lye.\n\nEstablishing themselves along the Mersing\u2013Jemaluang road, 'D' Company was deployed to the north on the western side of the road as the lookout force, while 'B' Company was positioned further to the south on the opposite side of the road. South of them, 'A' Company formed the blocking force, with their position stretched across the road oriented to the north. Behind them, 'C' Company was positioned in reserve, further south. The plan had been for the ambush to be sprung during the day, but the Japanese advance had proceeded more slowly than thought, and it was not until after dark that they entered the ambush site. In order to inflict as many casualties as possible, the Japanese force, which was estimated to be battalion-sized, was allowed to pass through 'D' and 'B' Companies. By 3:00\u00a0am they came up against 'A' Company's blocking position and the ambush was finally initiated. Devastating indirect fire from artillery and mortars inflicted heavy casualties on the Japanese; however, as the northernmost company\u2014'D'\u2014turned south to attack the Japanese from the rear, they came up against determined resistance from a force of Japanese that had managed to infiltrate the ambush site and dig in on a small feature to the east of the estate's pig farm, north of 'B' Company. This effectively cut them off from the rest of the battalion.\n\nFighting raged throughout the early morning as 'B' Company vainly attempted to assist the cut-off 'D' Company. Varley decided to launch a counterattack with 'A' Company, but at 8:00\u00a0am the order to withdraw came from brigade headquarters, cancelling the attack. Covered by the reserve company, 'A' and some of 'B' Company were able to break contact and fall back. 'D' Company, along with those of 'B' Company that were still isolated and in contact, had to be left to fight their way back to the battalion's lines. By the time they arrived, there were only enough men left to form one platoon. The 2/18th's losses in this action amounted to about 90 men killed, wounded or missing. Japanese losses are unknown, but are thought to be significant and they were unable to take Jemaluang for two more days.\n\nFighting in Singapore\n\nAfter the withdrawal from Nithsdale, the battalion fell back along the Jemaluang\u2013Kota Tinggi Road, before helping to cover the Allied withdrawal over the Johor\u2013Singapore Causeway to Singapore Island. No engagements were fought during this phase, but the 2/18th patrolled constantly and provided rearguard detachments. During this time, the battalion was briefly commanded by Major William Fraser, when Varley temporarily took over Eastforce, which consisted of the 22nd Brigade and a number of Indian and Malay formations, filling in for Brigadier Harold Burfield Taylor, who was temporarily detached to organise a force to cover the withdrawal. Following its arrival on the island, Varley returned to the battalion, which received a small number of reinforcements\u2014about 90 men\u2014and was allocated to the defence of the Western Area along with the rest of the 8th Division. Forming part of the 22nd Brigade's defensive line in the north-west sector, stretching from the Causeway to the Sungei Berih, the battalion was responsible for defending a frontage of . With a strength of 37 officers and 826 other ranks, the battalion occupied a position in the centre of the brigade that stretched from the 2/20th's position around Kranji to the 2/19th's around Sungei Sarimbun, north-east of the village of Ama Keng and Tengah Airfield.\n\nConsisting of \"tidal mud flats and mangrove swamps intersected with streams and inlets\", there had been no work done to prepare the area that the battalion was allocated to defend prior to its arrival due to political concerns about alarming the local population. The wide frontage stretched the 2/18th thin on the ground, with no depth and large gaps between positions that were separated in places by tidal waterways. Due to the thick vegetation along the shoreline, the battalion's positions had the added handicap of poor visibility of the water and limited fields of fire that, combined with their isolation, meant that they were unable to support each other. After occupying their positions on 1 February, the battalion worked to improve them as best they could, working under the cover of darkness so as to avoid Japanese artillery and air attacks.\n\nThe Japanese attack on the north-west coast came on the night of 8/9 February, beginning with a heavy artillery and aerial bombardment of the 22nd Brigade's positions throughout the day, followed by a waterborne assault across the Johore Strait, which began around 10:30\u00a0pm. Confronted by 16 battalions from the Japanese 5th and 18th Divisions, which concentrated upon the 2/18th's and 2/20th's positions, the 2/18th's two forward companies\u2014'A' and 'C'\u2014strongly resisted two frontal assaults during the day. Heavy casualties were inflicted on the Japanese over the course of several hours, but the defenders were eventually forced back by heavy indirect fire and overwhelming numbers. Exploiting the holes in the battalion's perimeter to avoid resistance, by 1:30\u00a0am on 9 February the Japanese had penetrated towards battalion headquarters near the Lim Chau Kang road, threatening to roll up the battalion's rear. Varley then ordered the forward companies to make a fighting withdrawal and fall back on battalion headquarters. Heavy fighting followed, during which the Australians suffered grave losses as groups became lost in the darkness in the thick country, before the battalion was able to re-establish itself around Ama Keng.\n\nThe 2/18th attempted to defend the Tengah Airfield, but by 1:00\u00a0pm on 9 February they had been reduced to only 330 men and were withdrawn back to the south-east of the airfield, occupying a position around Bulim along the Chu Kang Road, with the 2/29th Battalion on their left. Throughout the night of 9/10 February, minor clashes occurred as patrols were sent out to fend off Japanese probes. The battalion continued to hold the line until 6:00\u00a0am when, following receipt of orders to withdraw, it moved back to Keat Hong village to take up the role of brigade reserve. The carrier platoon covered the battalion's withdrawal, and amidst heavy artillery shelling, they ambushed two Japanese columns, each roughly company-sized, inflicting heavy casualties upon them with their Vickers machine-guns before breaking contact.\n\nAs a result of a misinterpretation of orders, the 22nd Brigade fell back towards Reformatory Road where the 2/18th took up positions to the west between the junctions of the Ulu Pandan and Bukit Timah Roads. When the brigade launched a counterattack later that day, the majority of the battalion was held back in reserve, after suffering many casualties. A single company, though, was detached at this time to an ad hoc formation dubbed \"X Battalion\", tasked with launching a counterattack. Meanwhile, the rest of the battalion moved back into the reserve position along the Bukit Panjang Road.\n\nThat evening the 2/18th occupied a position north of a feature dubbed \"127\", but early on the morning of 11 February they were moved back south of there to gain better fields of fire. Shortly after this, the 2/18th came under attack from front and rear after the Japanese managed to infiltrate behind their position, forcing the 2/18th to fall back further under the cover of the fire from the carriers once again. Later during 11 February, the 22nd Brigade headquarters, situated around Wai Soon Gardens, came under attack from a Japanese force moving south from Bukit Timah. In response, the 2/18th launched a counterattack across Reformatory Road with bayonets. At the same time, a section from the battalion's carrier platoon, under the command of Lieutenant Iven John Mackay, son of Lieutenant General Iven Giffard Mackay, conducted a daring attack that stopped the Japanese advance. Rolling up the axis of the road, firing machine-guns and hurling grenades, they advanced to the Bukit Timah Road before heading south to Holland Road and then returning to battalion headquarters.\n\nAfter this, the 22nd Brigade moved back towards the junction of Holland and Ulu Padan Roads. Moving while under heavy fire, the battalion established itself in its new position before 9:00\u00a0am, but in the confusion of the move, some men found themselves separated from the main body and cut off. In the afternoon, after the brigade position was reoriented to the west, the battalion was placed in reserve. The battalion's positions in the north, situated on the high ground, experienced heavy attack from Japanese aircraft and artillery, as the brigade\u2014supported by Australian and British artillery\u2014fought off two regiments from the Japanese 18th Division during the course of the night of 11/12 February.\n\nEarly the following morning, Varley was promoted to brigadier and took over as commander of the 22nd Brigade from Taylor, who was taken ill. In Varley's place, Major Charles O'Brien, who had previously been the battalion second-in-command, took over command of the battalion. After a brief lull in the fighting in the 22nd Brigade's sector, the Japanese 18th Division attacked again, attempting to take the brigade on its left flank. In response, the 2/18th was sent to retake some of the high ground south-east of the Ulu Pandan and Reformatory Roads late in the afternoon. Attacking with about 60 men, supported by three British armoured cars and artillery fire, they were unable to retake the position after the light failed. The Japanese then pressed heavily against the 22nd Brigade's position, and they were forced to give ground, falling back to the junction of Buona Vista and Holland Roads, by which time the 2/18th was down to only 250 men.\n\nOn 13 February, in an attempt to gain room for a possible counterattack, the Allied commander, Lieutenant General Arthur Percival, ordered a shortening of the Allied lines towards the south-east and the formation of a perimeter around Singapore city. As a part of this, the Australian forces were concentrated into a perimeter centred around Farrer and Holland Roads, about west of the city, tasked with defending the north-east sector of the defensive line. The 2/18th was positioned among the gravestones of Cemetery Hill, and apart from a few minor skirmishes and overflights by Japanese aircraft spotting for artillery, a period of respite followed in the Australian sector. The Japanese skirted the position, moving in an easterly direction towards the city, by way of gaps in the line which opened to the north and south of the Australians through positions held by British, Indian and Malay units.\n\nThe Japanese continued to advance into the outskirts of Singapore throughout 14 February. Threatened with being isolated, the Australians made plans to make a last stand. With the Japanese closing in, the island's civilian population began to suffer heavily as they were subjected to heavy artillery bombardment and aerial attacks from Japanese aircraft that were increasingly unopposed as anti-aircraft guns ran out of ammunition. Supplies of water and food also dwindled, and the water shortage was made worse by the loss of the island's reservoirs. Finally, in the morning of 15 February, after the Japanese had succeeded in infiltrating towards Mount Pleasant Ridge, Percival determined that a counterattack was not viable and instead decided to surrender the garrison. The battalion's final involvement in the fighting came that afternoon when 'A' and 'D' Companies were heavily shelled. A short time later, at 8:30\u00a0pm, the surrender came into effect and the men of the 2/18th received orders not to escape.\n\nPrisoners of War\n\nWhile the majority of the 2/18th obeyed the order not to escape following the surrender, a small number of men attempted to evade capture. Along with other members of the battalion who had found themselves cut off from the rest of the battalion earlier in the fighting, they attempted to make their way back to Allied lines via Sumatra. 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\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e 1980-\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043a \u043c\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0440\u044b\u0432\u0430. \u041e\u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0434\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u044b \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432 \u00ab\u0416\u0435\u043d\u0449\u0438\u043d\u044b, \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0448\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u00bb (1982) \u0438 \u00ab\u0423\u043a\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u0435\u0433\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043c\u00bb (1984) \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0443\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0435\u043d\u044b \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0401\u043c\u0438\u0443\u0440\u0438 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u041a\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0442\u044b \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e. \u041f\u043e\u0432\u0441\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u041e\u044d \u0432 \u042f\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0437\u0430 \u0440\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0436\u043e\u043c \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0438\u043c \u0432 1983\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u041e\u0441\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0433\u0438 \u0437\u0430 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043d\u0438\u0441\u044c, \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a!\u00bb, \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u041d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0442\u0430\u0434\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044e \u0432 1986\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u044b \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0432 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u00abEuropelia\u00bb \u0432 1989\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443. \u0412 1988\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u041e\u044d \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u043b \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432 \u0436\u044e\u0440\u0438 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0443\u0447\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u043c \u00ab\u0421\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0451\u0441\u044f\u00bb \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u042e\u043a\u0438\u043e \u041c\u0438\u0441\u0438\u043c\u044b.\n\n1990-\u0435 \n\u0412 1990\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u041e\u044d \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u043c \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0421\u044d\u044f \u0418\u0442\u043e, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u043d \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0443\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0435\u043d \u0437\u0430 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d \u00ab\u0420\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0438\u00bb (1989), \u0430 \u0432 1992\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437 \u043d\u0430 \u041d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0442\u0430\u0434\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044e. \u0412 1994\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u041e\u044d \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u041d\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u043e \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0435 \u00ab\u0437\u0430 \u0442\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043e\u043d \u0441 \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043b \u0432\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0430\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u0440, \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0438 \u043c\u0438\u0444, \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u044f\u044f\u0441\u044c, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0443 \u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044f\u0448\u043d\u0438\u0445 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\u00ab\u0424\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b 1860\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb, \u00ab\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f M/T \u0438 \u041b\u0435\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0447\u0443\u0434\u0430\u00bb \u0438 \u00ab\u041f\u0438\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u043b\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u043e\u043c\u0443\u00bb. \u041d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u0434\u043e\u043b\u0433\u043e \u0434\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u041d\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0437\u0430\u044f\u0432\u0438\u043b \u043e \u0442\u043e\u043c, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0441 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0442\u0440\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041f\u044b\u043b\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0437\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u00bb \u043e\u043d \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u044b, \u043d\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u0438\u0442 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0451 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e, \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043f\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043c \u0436\u0430\u043d\u0440\u0435. \u0412 1994\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u0410\u0441\u0430\u0445\u0438 \u0432 \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430\u00bb. \u0412 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0436\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u041e\u044d \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043e\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0443\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0435\u043c\u0443 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u041a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b, \u043c\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044f \u044d\u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043f\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043d\u0435\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438. \u0417\u0430 \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430\u0437\u043e\u043c \u043e\u0442 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430\u0437 \u043e\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u0442\u044c \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0432 1995\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432\u043e \u0424\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0444\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u0432 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u043c \u0428\u0438\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u044b\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u044f\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0438\u044f.\n\n\u0412 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0435 1996\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0441\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0438 \u043e\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u043a\u0430 \u0422\u043e\u0440\u0443 \u0422\u0430\u043a\u044d\u043c\u0438\u0446\u0443 \u041e\u044d \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043c\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0435\u043b \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0451 \u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043b \u0441\u043e\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e\u0431\u044b \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0432\u044f\u0449\u0451\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u0438 \u0443\u0448\u0435\u0434\u0448\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 (\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d \u00ab\u041a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0431\u0438\u0442\u00bb, 1999). \u0412 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0436\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041e\u044d \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0432 \u041f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0435 (\u0421\u0428\u0410), \u0430 \u0441 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 1999\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 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\u041a\u044d\u043d\u0434\u0437\u0430\u0431\u0443\u0440\u043e \u041e\u044d. \u0412 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041e\u044d \u0432\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044c \u043e\u0431\u044a\u044f\u0432\u0438\u043b \u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0441 \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0439 \u0436\u0435, \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u0430!\u00bb (2005).\n\n\u0421 \u0438\u044e\u043d\u044f \u043f\u043e \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044c 2006\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041e\u044d \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0432 \u0430\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041a\u043d\u0438\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0439 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\u043e\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u044d\u0441\u0441\u0435 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u044b.\n\n2007\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434 \u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043e\u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u041e\u044d: \u0441 \u043c\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0435 \u00ab\u0421\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0451\u00bb \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430, \u043e\u0437\u0430\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u00ab\u041d\u0430 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His family was lower-middle-class and struggled financially; Esther Scott worked as a clerk at J.\u00a0C.\u00a0Penney, among other jobs.\n\nScott graduated from North Kansas City High School in 1970. He attended community college and enlisted in the United States Navy in 1970. Scott was in the Navy for 29 months and served on the as a radarman.\n\nScott attended college on the G.I. Bill, and graduated from the University of Missouri\u2013Kansas City with a Bachelor of Science in business administration. He earned a juris doctor degree by working his way through Southern Methodist University. He was licensed by the Texas Bar to practice law on November 6, 1978.\n\nCareer \nScott made his first foray into business while working his way through college and law school, initially buying and reviving a failing doughnut shop (the Flavor Maid Do-Nut) by adding workplace delivery instead of relying on foot traffic. He later bought and revived another doughnut shop. After graduating from law school, Scott worked as an attorney at the law firm of Johnson & Swanson in Dallas, Texas.\n\nColumbia Hospital Corporation\nIn 1988, Scott and Richard Rainwater, a financier from Fort Worth, each put up $125,000 in working capital in their new company, Columbia Hospital Corporation; they borrowed the remaining money needed to purchase two struggling hospitals in El Paso for $60 million. Then they acquired a neighboring hospital and shut it down. Within a year, the remaining two were doing much better. By the end of 1989, Columbia Hospital Corporation owned four hospitals with a total of 833 beds.\n\nIn 1992, Columbia made a stock purchase of Basic American Medical, which owned eight hospitals, primarily in southwestern Florida. In September 1993, Columbia did another stock purchase, worth $3.4 billion, of Galen Healthcare, which had been spun off by Humana Inc. several months earlier. At the time, Galen had approximately 90 hospitals. After the purchase, Galen stockholders had 82% of the stock in the combined company, with Scott still running the company.\n\nColumbia/HCA\nIn April 1987, Scott made his first attempt to buy the Hospital Corporation of America (HCA). While still a partner at Johnson & Swanson, Scott formed the HCA Acquisition Company with two former executives of Republic Health Corporation, Charles Miller and Richard Ragsdale. With financing from Citicorp conditional on acquisition of HCA, the proposed holding company offered $3.85 billion for 80 million shares at $47 each, intending to assume an additional $1.2 billion in debt, for a total $5 billion deal. After HCA declined the offer, the bid was withdrawn.\n\nIn 1994, Columbia Hospital Corporation merged with HCA, \"forming the single largest for-profit health care company in the country.\" Scott became CEO of Columbia/HCA. According to The New York Times, \"[in] less than a decade, Mr. Scott had built a company he founded with two small hospitals in El Paso into the world's largest health care company \u2013 a $20 billion giant with about 350 hospitals, 550 home health care offices and scores of other medical businesses in 38 states.\"\n\nFraud investigation and settlement\nOn March 19, 1997, investigators from the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Internal Revenue Service and the Department of Health and Human Services served search warrants at Columbia/HCA facilities in El Paso and on dozens of doctors with suspected ties to the company. Eight days after the initial raid, Scott signed his last SEC report as a hospital executive. Four months later, the board of directors pressured him to resign as chairman and CEO. He was succeeded by Thomas F. Frist Jr. Scott was paid $9.88 million in a settlement, and left owning 10 million shares of stock then worth more than $350 million. The directors had been warned in the company's annual public reports to stockholders that incentives Columbia/HCA offered doctors could run afoul of a federal anti-kickback law passed in order to limit or eliminate instances of conflicts of interest in Medicare and Medicaid.\n\nDuring Scott's 2000 deposition, he pleaded the Fifth Amendment 75 times. In settlements reached in 2000 and 2002, Columbia/HCA pleaded guilty to 14 felonies and agreed to a $600+ million fine in what was at the time the largest health care fraud settlement in U.S. history. Columbia/HCA admitted systematically overcharging the government by claiming marketing costs as reimbursable, by striking illegal deals with home care agencies, and by filing false data about use of hospital space. It also admitted to fraudulently billing Medicare and other health programs by inflating the seriousness of diagnoses and to giving doctors partnerships in company hospitals as a kickback for the doctors referring patients to HCA. It filed false cost reports, fraudulently billing Medicare for home health care workers, and paid kickbacks in the sale of home health agencies and to doctors to refer patients. In addition, it gave doctors \"loans\" never intending to be repaid, free rent, free office furniture, and free drugs from hospital pharmacies.\n\nIn late 2002, HCA agreed to pay the United States government $631 million, plus interest, and $17.5 million to state Medicaid agencies, in addition to $250 million paid up to that point to resolve outstanding Medicare expense claims. In all, civil lawsuits cost HCA more than $2 billion to settle; at the time, this was the largest fraud settlement in U.S. history.\n\nVenture capitalist\nAfter leaving Columbia/HCA in 1997, Scott launched Richard L. Scott Investments, based in Naples, Florida (originally in Stamford, Connecticut), which has stakes in health care, manufacturing and technology companies. Between 1998 and 2001, he purchased 50% of CyberGuard Corporation for approximately $10 million. Among his investors was Metro Nashville finance director David Manning.\n\nIn 2006, CyberGuard was sold to Secure Computing for more than $300 million. In February 2005, Scott purchased Continental Structural Plastics, Inc. (CSP) in Detroit, Michigan. In July 2006, CSP purchased Budd Plastics from ThyssenKrupp, making CSP the largest industrial composites molder in North America.\n\nIn 2005\u20132006, Scott provided the initial round of funding of $3 million to Alijor.com (named for the first three letters of his two daughters' names), which offered hospitals, physicians, and other health care providers the opportunity to post information about their prices, hours, locations, insurance accepted, and personal backgrounds online. Scott co-founded the company with his daughter Allison.\n\nIn 2008, Alijor was sold to HealthGrades. In May 2008, Scott purchased Drives, one of the world's leading independent designers and manufacturers of heavy-duty drive chain-based products and assemblies for industrial and agricultural applications and precision-engineered augers for agricultural, material handling, construction and related applications. Scott reportedly has an interest in a chain of family fun centers/bowling alleys, S&S Family Entertainment, in Kentucky and Tennessee led by Larry Schmittou, a minor league baseball team owner.\n\nAmerica's Health Network (AHN)\nIn July 1997, Columbia/HCA Healthcare purchased a controlling interest in America's Health Network (AHN), the first 24-hour health care cable channel. They pulled out of the deal on the day of the closing because Scott and Vanderwater were terminated, causing the immediate layoffs of more than 250 people in Orlando. Later that same year, Scott became majority owner of AHN.\n\nIn 1998, Scott and Vandewater led a group of investors who gave AHN a major infusion of cash so that the company could continue to operate. By early 1999, the network was available in 9.5 million American homes.\n\nIn mid-1999 AHN merged with Fit TV, a subsidiary of Fox; the combination was renamed The Health Network. Later that year, in a deal between News Corp. and WebMD, the latter received half-ownership of The Health Network. WebMD planned to relaunch The Health Network as WebMD Television in the fall of 2000, with new programming, but that company announced cutbacks and restructuring in September 2000, and, in January 2001, News Corp. regained 100% ownership. In September 2001, Fox Cable Networks Group sold The Health Network to its main rival, the Discovery Health Channel, for $155 million in cash plus a 10% equity stake in Discovery Health.\n\nSolantic\n\nSolantic, based in Jacksonville, Florida, was co-founded in 2001 by Scott and Karen Bowling, a former television anchor Scott met after Columbia bought what is now Memorial Hospital in 1995.\n\nSolantic opened its first urgent care center in 2002. It provides urgent care services, immunizations, physicals, drug screening, and care for injured workers. The corporation attracts patients who do not have insurance, cannot get appointments with their primary care physicians, or do not have primary care physicians. Solantic is an alternative to the emergency department care that these types of patients often seek, or for not seeing a doctor at all. In 2006, Scott said that his plans for Solantic were to establish a national brand of medical clinics.\n\nIn August 2007, the company received a $40 million investment from a private equity firm and said that it expected to open 35 clinics by the end of 2009, with annual revenues of $100 million once all these clinics were open, compared to $20 million at the time. As of March 2009, Solantic had 24 centers, all in Florida.\n\nSolantic was the target of an employment discrimination suit that claimed that there had been a policy to not hire elderly or obese applicants, preferring \"mainstream\" candidates. It was settled for an undisclosed sum on May 23, 2007. Scott responded to Salon regarding the claims of discrimination pointing out that \"currently 53 percent of Solantic's employees are white, 20 percent black and 17 percent Hispanic.\"\n\nPharmaca\nIn 2003, Scott invested $5.5 million in Pharmaca Integrative Pharmacies, which operates drugstores/pharmacies in the Western United States that offer vitamins, herbal medicine, skin products, homeopathic medicines, and prescriptions.\n\nOther work\nIn the 1990s, Scott was a partner of George W. Bush as co-owner of the Texas Rangers.\n\nEarly political career\n\nConservatives for Patients' Rights\n\nIn February 2009, Scott founded Conservatives for Patients' Rights (CPR), which he said was intended to put pressure on Democrats to enact health care legislation based on free-market principles. As of March 2009, he had given about $5 million for a planned $20 million ad campaign by CPR.\n\nGovernor of Florida\n\nElections\n\n2010\n\nOn April 9, 2010, Scott announced his candidacy for the 2010 Republican Party nomination for governor of Florida. He ran against Democratic nominee Alex Sink.\n\nSusie Wiles, former communications chief to Jacksonville Mayor John Peyton, served as Scott's campaign manager, and Tony Fabrizio was his chief pollster. It was reported on May 7 that Scott's campaign had already spent $4.7 million on television and radio ads. His first video advertisement was released to YouTube on April 13.\n\nDuring the primary campaign, Scott's opponent, Bill McCollum, made an issue of Scott's role at Columbia/HCA. Scott countered that the FBI had never targeted him. Marc Caputo of the Miami Herald contended that a 1998 bill sponsored by McCollum would have made it more difficult to prosecute Medicare fraud cases, and was counter to his current views and allegations. Scott won the August primary with approximately 46.4% percent of the vote to McCollum's 43.4% By the date of the Tampa debate between Scott and Sink (October 25, 2010), Scott had spent $60 million of his own money on the campaign compared to Sink's reported $28 million. Scott campaigned as part of the Tea Party movement.\n\nThe Fort Myers News Press quoted Scott as saying he spent roughly $78 million of his own money on the campaign, although other figures indicate he spent slightly over $75 million. He won the general election, defeating Sink by around 68,000 votes, or 1.29%. He took office as the 45th governor of Florida on January 4, 2011.\n\n2014\n\nIn October 2011, Scott announced that he would run for reelection in 2014. His political funding committee, Let's Get to Work, had raised $28 million for his campaign as of May 2014.\n\nAs of early June 2014, Scott had spent almost $13 million since March on television advertisements attacking former governor Charlie Crist, who then appeared to be the likely Democratic nominee, and who was eventually nominated. The ads resulted in a tightening of the race, mainly due to a decline in Crist's favorability ratings, while Scott's favorability ratings did not increase.\n\nBy late September 2014, Scott's television ad spending had exceeded $35 million and in mid-October reached $56.5 million, compared to $26.5 million by Crist. On October 22 it was reported that Scott's total spending had exceeded $83 million and he announced that, having previously said he would not do so, he would invest his own money into the campaign, speculated to be as much as $22 million.\n\nCrist hoped to draw strong support from Florida's more than 1.6 million registered black voters, an effort that was challenging given his previous political career as a Republican. A September 2014 Quinnipiac University poll revealed his support among black voters was 72%, well below the 90% analysts believed he needed to defeat Scott.\n\nScott and Crist met in an October 15 debate held by the Florida Press Association at Broward College. Scott refused to take the stage for seven minutes because Crist had a small electric fan under his lectern. The incident was dubbed \"fangate\" by media sources such as Politico. On November 4, 2014, Scott and Carlos Lopez-Cantera won the general election against Crist and Annette Taddeo-Goldstein by 64,000 votes. The Libertarian candidates, Adrian Wyllie and Greg Roe, received 223,356 votes.\n\nTenure \n\nDuring Hurricane Irma, Scott led Florida through the largest mass evacuation in U.S. history. Unemployment, taxpayer debt, and crime declined statewide during his tenure. He signed a repeal of Florida's 1985 growth management laws, reduced funding for water management districts, reduced oversight at the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, and supported increased funding for Everglades restoration. Scott supported permanent tax cuts and \"focused on job numbers rather than on running state agencies or making sweeping policy changes\". \n\nScott had a 26 percent approval rating in December 2011, the lowest among U.S. governors, but it steadily increased during the rest of his governorship. It stood at 45 percent in August 2015, and at 57 percent in April 2017. In the aftermath of Hurricane Irma later that year, Scott's approval rating saw a high of 61 percent. Shortly before he left office, his ratings had fallen to 47 percent approving and 41 percent disapproving.\n\nDeath penalty\nIn 2013, Scott signed the Timely Justice Act (HB 7101) to overhaul the processes for capital punishment in Florida. The Supreme Court of the United States struck down part of this law in January 2016 in Hurst v. Florida, declaring, in an 8\u20131 decision, that a judge determining the aggravating facts to be used in considering a death sentence with only a non-binding recommendation from the jury based on a majority vote was insufficient and violated the Sixth Amendment guarantee of a jury trial.\n\nThe Florida Legislature passed a new statute to comply with Hurst v. Florida, changing the sentencing method to require a 10-juror supermajority for a sentence of death with a life sentence as the alternative. In October 2016 this new sentencing scheme was struck down by the Florida Supreme Court in a 5\u20132 ruling, which held that a death sentence must be issued by a unanimous jury. The Florida Supreme Court ruled the law \"cannot be applied to pending prosecutions\" which means that until the Florida legislature acts, there is no procedure or law allowing a prosecutor to seek the death penalty; but it leaves open the status of sentences passed under the twice-struck down provisions, also left open by the January 2016 United States Supreme Court Hurst decision. The Court granted Hurst a new sentencing hearing after the same Supreme Court decision.\n\nDuring Scott's tenure, Florida executed more inmates (28) than had been executed under any other governor in the state's history.\n\nDonald Trump \nIn the 2016 Republican primaries, Scott endorsed Trump after Trump won the Florida primary. Scott chaired a pro-Trump super PAC in the 2016 election. Unlike many other establishment Republicans, Scott praised Trump as tough on terrorism and as an outsider during the 2016 Republican convention.\n\nWhen Trump \"sparred with the Muslim father of a slain U.S. soldier\", Scott said \"I'm never going to agree with every candidate on what they're going to say\". When the Donald Trump Access Hollywood tape was publicized, in which Trump spoke of grabbing women \"by the pussy\", Scott rebuked Trump, saying, \"I'm not following politics closely right now, but this is terrible. 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\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u044b XX \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430.\n\n\u0412\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0430 2007 \u0433\u043e\u0434 \u0432 \u0410\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043e \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 140 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0437\u0451\u0440.\n\n\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0438\u044f \n\n\u0421\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0437\u0435\u0440\u0430, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043b\u0451\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0437\u0451\u0440, \u043e\u043f\u0438\u0440\u0430\u044f\u0441\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043e \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0435\u0435\u043c \u041a\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0446\u0435\u0439 \u0435\u0449\u0451 \u0432 1955\u20141957 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445, \u043d\u043e \u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0448\u043b\u043e \u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e, \u0432 1996 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443, \u0443\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u0422\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \n\n\u041c\u044b\u0441\u043b\u044c \u043e \u0442\u043e\u043c, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u0449\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0443 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0438\u0436\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0446\u044b \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0435 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043b\u044c\u0434\u0430, \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0430 \u0441 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0430 XIX \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430. \u041e\u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u041a\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0430, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0435\u0433\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0432 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u0449\u0435 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u044b\u0445, \u0445\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u0443 \u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u043d\u0435 \u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0431\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u044f\u044f \u043b\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0439\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0448\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441 \u0433\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u044d\u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u0432 \u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430\u0436\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0445, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445.\n\n\u0418\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f \u0438\u0437 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0443\u0436\u0435 \u0432 1950-\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445 \u043e\u043a\u0435\u0430\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0439 \u0417\u0443\u0431\u043e\u0432 \u0432\u0432\u0451\u043b \u043f\u043e\u043d\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u0449\u0438\u043d\u044b \u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430, \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0443 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0434\u043d\u0430 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0433\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043b\u044c\u0434\u0430 (\u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u043c \u0434\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438). \u041e\u043d \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u043c, \u043a\u0442\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043b \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043e \u0442\u043e\u043c, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u044b\u0447\u0430\u0439\u043d\u043e \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0442\u043e\u043b\u0449\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 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\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0427\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430.\n\n5 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044f 2012 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u043d\u0430 \u0433\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0435 3769,3 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432, \u0443\u0447\u0451\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0431\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0433\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043b\u0451\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0437\u0435\u0440\u0430.\n\n\u0421\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u044d\u0444\u0444\u0435\u043a\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0434\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0431\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0436\u0438\u0434\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430\u0436\u0438\u043d\u0435, \u0432 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u0447\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430 \u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0438\u0446\u044b \u0434\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0438\u0437 \u043e\u0437\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0443 \u043d\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0434\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0431\u043b\u0430\u0433\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0437\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0432 \u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430\u0436\u0438\u043d\u0435. \u041f\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043c, \u0432 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e", " coup, the Second Republic was dissolved and, after a nominal transition to civilian rule from a military junta, the Third Republic was established in 1962. The Constitutional Court, itself never formed because of the coup, was abolished while the power of judicial review was conferred on the Supreme Court. Nevertheless, the Supreme Court retained its deference towards the ruling dictator. In 1971, the Supreme Court resisted the oppressive rule of President Park Chung Hee and declared Article 2 of the National Compensation Act () unconstitutional, a statute that limited state liability for injured soldiers during service. President Park retaliated by refusing reappointment of Supreme Court Justices, which had been a formality. The Fourth and Fifth Republics would endow a new, differently-formed Constitutional Committee with the power of constitutional review but on the condition that a court first formally submit a request before the committee could hear a case. This extra procedural hurdle was meant to nullify the committee, since the Supreme Court would never authorize such requests, while allowing the Park Chung Hee regime to maintain the pretense that it granted the Committee full constitutional-review power. It effectively allowed the military junta to act with impunity. Following 1987 democratization, the Constitutional Court was restored in the Sixth Republic, with the power of constitutional review. To prevent the president from undermining the judiciary again, the 1987 constitutional amendment, which established the Sixth Republic, allows citizens to file a constitutional complaint directly with the Constitutional Court, even if courts refuse to do so.\n\nIn 2015, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ranked the South Korean ordinary judiciary to be one of the most efficient in terms of trial length and trial costs.\n\nComposition\n\nJustices \nThe composition and appointment of Supreme Court justices () are governed by a combination of constitutional provisions and statutory regulations. While the current Constitution of South Korea does not specify the precise number of Supreme Court justices, this matter is addressed by the Court Organization Act, a statute that outlines the structure of ordinary courts in the country.\n\nAs of 2022, Article 4(2) of the Court Organization Act establishes that the number of Supreme Court justices is set at 14. Notably, all Supreme Court justices are appointed by the President of South Korea, subject to the approval of the National Assembly, as stated in Article 104(2) of the Constitution. Additionally, Article 104(2) empowers the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court to recommend candidates for appointment to the position of Supreme Court justice.\n\nTo be eligible for appointment as a Supreme Court justice, individuals must meet certain criteria outlined in Article 42(1) of the Court Organization Act. First, they must be at least 45 years old. Second, they must qualify as an attorney at law. Lastly, candidates must have accumulated over 20 years of experience in legal practice or academia.\n\nThese provisions ensure that the Supreme Court of South Korea is composed of individuals with substantial expertise and experience in the field of law. The appointment process, involving the President and the National Assembly, as well as the Chief Justice's role in recommending candidates, aims to uphold the independence and integrity of the Supreme Court while maintaining the necessary checks and balances within the judicial system.\n\nCouncil of Supreme Court Justices \nAccording to Article 104(2) of the Constitution of South Korea, the appointment of lower ordinary court judges (), by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court requires the consent of the 'Council of Supreme Court Justices' (). This council consists of all Supreme Court justices, including the Chief Justice. The decision-making process of the council is governed by Article 16(1), (2), and (3) of the Court Organization Act.\n\nTo reach a decision, a simple majority vote among a quorum of two-thirds of all Supreme Court justices is required. In the event of a tie, the Chief Justice, serving as the permanent presiding chair of the council, has the authority to cast a tie-breaking vote. Article 17 of the Court Organization Act further empowers the council with additional supervisory functions concerning the Chief Justice's power of court administration.\n\nThese functions include the promulgation of interior procedural rules, the selection of judicial precedents for publication, and fiscal planning for all ordinary courts, including the Supreme Court itself. In essence, the Council of Supreme Court Justices serves as a mechanism for collective decision-making and oversight within the Supreme Court of South Korea, ensuring the fair and effective administration of justice while upholding the principles of transparency and accountability.\n\nChief Justice of the Supreme Court \n\nAccording to Article 104(1) of the Constitution of South Korea, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is appointed by the President of South Korea, subject to the approval of the National Assembly. The requirements for experience and age for the Chief Justice are the same as those stipulated for associate Supreme Court justices under Article 42(1) of the Court Organization Act.\n\nThe role of the Chief Justice extends beyond serving as the presiding member of en banc hearings (or Grand Bench, ), which are composed of more than two-thirds of all fourteen justices. In addition to this crucial responsibility, the Chief Justice has other significant functions.\n\nUnder Article 111(3) of the Constitution, the Chief Justice nominates candidates for three out of the nine Constitutional Court justices. This role emphasizes the Chief Justice's involvement in the selection process for the Constitutional Court. Furthermore, the Chief Justice serves as the chairperson of the Council of Supreme Court Justices, playing a pivotal role in leading and overseeing the activities of this council.\n\nMoreover, the Chief Justice appoints one of the associate Supreme Court justices to the position of Minister of National Court Administration (). This appointment involves selecting a justice to fulfill the administrative duties associated with managing the national court system. Additionally, with the consent of the Council of Supreme Court Justices, the Chief Justice appoints all lower court judges in ordinary courts, further emphasizing their influential role in shaping the judiciary.\n\nThese responsibilities collectively highlight the multifaceted nature of the Chief Justice's position within the South Korean judicial system, encompassing not only judicial leadership but also administrative and nominating functions that contribute to the overall functioning and integrity of the courts.\n\nTenure \nArticle 105(1), (2), and (4) of the Constitution, along with Article 45(4) of the Court Organization Act, outline the term of associate justices of the South Korean Supreme Court. Their term is initially set at six years and can be renewed until the mandatory retirement age of 70. However, in the current Sixth Republic, no justices have attempted to renew their term through reappointment. This is due to the potential risk to the judicial independence of the Court that may arise from such renewal attempts.\n\nDuring their term, as stated in Article 106(2) of the Constitution, justices cannot be removed from office except through impeachment or a sentence of imprisonment. Furthermore, engaging in any political party affiliations or activities is strictly prohibited under Article 43(1) and 49 of the Court Organization Act.\n\nA significant aspect of South Korean Supreme Court justices is that they can be compelled to retire against their will while serving their term if they are deemed to have severe mental or physical impairment. This retirement order (), is explicitly stipulated in Article 106(2) of the Constitution and Article 47 of the Court Organization Act. Similarly, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court has the authority to order the retirement of lower ordinary court judges if they are found to have impairments. This retirement order system represents a significant distinction between Supreme Court justices and Constitutional Court justices. The latter cannot be ordered to retire due to impairment, as there is no statutory provision establishing such a system in the Constitutional Court Act.\n\nCurrent justices\n\nOrganization\n\nResearch judges \nThe Research division of the Supreme Court (), comprises officials who provide support to the Supreme Court Justices. These officials, referred to as Research Judges (formerly known as Judicial Researchers or Research Judges), are governed by Article 24(3) of the Act.\n\nThere are two categories of Research Judges. The first category consists of lower ordinary court judges who are seconded to the Supreme Court by order of the Chief Justice. The second category, known as Judicial Researchers, comprises experts who are not lower ordinary court judges. Judicial Researchers are appointed for a maximum term of three years, while Research Judges are typically seconded to work in the Supreme Court for one to two years.\n\nThis system of Research Judges and Judicial Researchers is influenced by the German concept of \"Wissenschaftlichen Mitarbeiter\" (Research Associates). In Germany, Research Associates are lower court judges who are seconded to federal courts for up to five years, serving as judicial assistants to judges in the highest courts.\n\nAlthough the working terms for these research staff members are relatively short, they play a crucial role as core staff members in managing the entire judicial process of the Court. This is particularly important considering the high volume of cases appealed to the Court. As of April 2022, there are approximately 100 Research Judges and around 30 Judicial Researchers contributing to the operations of the Supreme Court in South Korea.\n\nNational Court Administration \nThe 'National Court Administration' (NCA, ), was established as an administrative body of the Supreme Court in accordance with Article 67 of the Court Organization Act. The NCA is responsible for overseeing and managing all administrative matters pertaining to the ordinary courts in South Korea, including the Supreme Court itself.\n\nThe head of the NCA, referred to as the 'Minister of NCA' (), is exclusively appointed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from among the associate Supreme Court justices. Similar to other Supreme Court justices, the Minister is regarded as holding the same level of authority as other ministers included in the State Council in the executive branch of the South Korean government.\n\nAdditionally, the Chief Justice typically appoints the Vice Minister of NCA, usually selecting a senior lower court judge for the position. The Vice Minister of NCA is treated at the same level as other vice-ministers within the government structure.\n\nThe NCA operates under the guidance and direction of the Chief Justice and implements decisions made by the Council of Supreme Court Justices. Its primary responsibilities include assisting the Chief Justice in matters related to human resources for lower ordinary court judges, planning fiscal budgets and managing expenditure issues for all ordinary courts, and conducting internal inspections to ensure anti-corruption and ethical standards are upheld.\n\nJudicial Research and Training Institute \n\nThe 'Judicial Research and Training Institute' (JRTI, ), is an institution primarily responsible for training and re-educating lower ordinary court Judges, as outlined in Article 72 of the Court Organization Act. However, its role has evolved over time.\n\nOriginally, the JRTI served as a nationwide two-year law school supported by the South Korean government. This was prior to South Korea adopting the American-style three-year law school system in 2008 (). Before the adoption of the American law school system, the JRTI played a vital role in training legal professionals in South Korea. Another pathway for legal professionals was recruitment by the South Korean Armed Forces as 'Judge Advocates' () within the military justice system.\n\nThe JRTI was initially modeled after the 'Legal Research and Training Institute' () in Japan, which trained judges, prosecutors, and attorneys-at-law simultaneously. In South Korea, candidates for the JRTI were selected through a nationwide jurisprudence exam known as the 'Judicial exam' (). These trainees underwent a two-year training program at the JRTI, where they received education and competed with one another. The career options available to them after graduation were influenced by their performance and records at the JRTI. Graduates with outstanding records typically pursued careers as judges and prosecutors, while those with lower records often chose to work as lawyers in various fields. This system partially reflected the civil law tradition of considering prosecutors as a de facto part of the judiciary as the deputy director (or vice-president) of the JRTI is appointed among prosecutors according to Article 74(1) of the Court Organization Act. Similar arrangements can be observed in institutions like the French National School for the Judiciary.\n\nWith the adoption of the American-style three-year law school system in South Korea, the JRTI's role as the exclusive professional school for law diminished. It transformed into an internal education institute for newly appointed judges and law clerks. Some senior judges also receive additional training at the JRTI for technical matters. Currently, all training functions for Prosecutors have been transferred to the 'Institute of Justice' () at the Ministry of Justice, signifying a change in the training structure for legal professionals in South Korea.\n\nJudicial Policy Research Institute \nThe 'Judicial Policy Research Institute' (JPRI, ), was established in 2014 under Article 76-2 of the Court Organization Act. It serves as a specialized body within the Supreme Court of South Korea, focusing on research related to policy issues concerning the judicial system. Additionally, the JPRI plays a role in educating the public on fundamental aspects of the functioning of ordinary courts.\n\nThe Institute primarily recruits research fellows and researchers from the pool of lower ordinary court judges, as outlined in the provisions of Article 76-4 of the Act. However, a significant number of researchers are also recruited externally from individuals who possess PhD degrees and have expertise relevant to the field of judicial policy research. This diverse recruitment strategy enhances the institute's ability to gather insights and perspectives from both within and outside the ordinary courts.\n\nCurrently, the JPRI is located in Goyang, Gyeonggi Province, providing a dedicated space for its research activities and initiatives.\n\nBuilding \n\nThe Supreme Court was located in Seosomun-dong of Jung-gu, Seoul until year 1995. Currently, it is located in Seocho, Seoul. The Supreme Court building in Seocho has 16 floors and two underground floors with total space around 66,500 square meters. This large size building was necessary to hold the Supreme Court, National Court Administration and law library all together. Main Center of the building is mainly used by the Supreme Court, while east Wing is maily used by National Court Administration. Other Wing is used by law library. At the center entrance of the building, three Korean words are engraved; meaning freedom, meaning equality, and meaning Justice. The Supreme Court usually does not hold open hearing session, though sessions for verdicts are regularly held on the second and last Thursday of a month.\n\nJurisdiction \nEmpowered by Article 101(2) and 110(2) of the Constitution, the Supreme Court of South Korea possesses comprehensive final appellate jurisdiction over all cases from ordinary courts and military courts. Additionally, it exercises the power of judicial review at the sub-statutory level, similar to other ordinary courts, as specified in Article 107(2) of the Constitution. Notably, the Supreme Court exclusively handles certain cases as single-tier trials, without the possibility of appeal.\n\nOne category of cases subject to single-tier trials in the Supreme Court pertains to disputes related to the election of the President of South Korea, National Assembly members, provincial-level local governors, and local parliament members. These cases are governed by Article 222 and 223 of the Public Official Election Act (), which designates the Supreme Court as the sole authority responsible for their adjudication.\n\nAnother example of single-tier trials at the Supreme Court involves cases concerning disciplinary actions against judges for misconduct. According to Article 27(2) of the Discipline of Judges Act (), such cases are exclusively heard by the Supreme Court.\n\nProcedure \nAs outlined in Article 7(1) of the Court Organization Act, the Supreme Court of South Korea carries out its final appellate jurisdiction through two distinct phases. The first phase is known as the 'Petty Bench,' which consists of a smaller panel within the Court. The Petty Bench is presided over by the most senior justice serving within that particular panel.\n\nThe second phase is referred to as the 'Grand Bench,' which operates as an en banc session of the Court. The Grand Bench is always presided over by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. During these sessions, all justices of the Supreme Court come together to deliberate on cases and make decisions.\n\nFour-Judge Panels and En Banc Hearings \nIn the initial phase of the procedure, a four-judge panel (or \"Petty Bench,\" ) examines how the appeal should be handled. If the four justices within the same panel reach a unanimous decision, the case is resolved within the panel. However, in cases where the panel fails to reach a unanimous decision or determines that the matter should be heard en banc (such as when changing a Supreme Court precedent or when addressing a significant constitutional issue at a sub-statutory level), the case is referred for an en banc hearing (or \"Grand Bench,\" ).\n\nGiven that the Court has three four-judge panels, only twelve out of the fourteen Supreme Court justices participate in the first phase of the procedure. The remaining two Supreme Court justices \u2014 the Chief Justice and the Minister of National Court Administration \u2014 hold administrative roles within the Court but are not assigned to any specific panel.\n\nIn the second phase, an en banc hearing ( \"Grand Bench,\" ), comprising more than two-thirds of all Supreme Court justices, examines cases forwarded by the four-judge panels. Decisions are made by a simple majority vote. However, if a majority opinion cannot be reached, the Court's decision is determined in accordance with Article 66 of the Act.\n\nIn either phase, the Supreme Court does not adjudicate facts but rather deliberates based on the evidence introduced in lower-court trials. Unlike the fact-finding nature of the lower courts, the Supreme Court only examines whether there are errors in the application of law and logic in the decisions of the lower courts regarding the specific case. Therefore, the role of the Supreme Court is to review the decisions of the lower courts and not to issue new judgments.\n\nThe Supreme Court primarily issues two types of rulings: affirming the lower court's decision () or remanding the case (). Remanding, in simple terms, refers to the act of overturning a lower court's decision and sending the case back for a retrial. In such cases, the lower court is bound by the legal principles highlighted by the Supreme Court. Unless new factual circumstances arise that challenge those legal principles, the lower court must render a decision as directed by the Supreme Court. Consequently, a \"verdict of acquittal with a remand for retrial\" is considered final, even though it necessitates a new trial at the lower court.\n\nPresiding Justice and Justice in charge \nIn South Korea, judicial panels include a 'presiding member' () and a 'member in charge' (). The presiding member serves as the official representative of the panel, while the member in charge oversees the proceedings and trial and prepares the draft judgment for the specific case at hand. This role of the member in charge bears similarities to that of the Judge-Rapporteur in the European Court of Justice.\n\nTypically, the member in charge is selected randomly by a computer system to ensure impartiality and avoid any suspicion of bias. On the other hand, the presiding member is chosen based on seniority through a bureaucratic process. It is important to note that the term 'presiding judge' () in South Korean courts often refers to a judge who is bureaucratically considered the 'head of the panel' rather than the individual who actively", " offspring, despite the fact that the gametes are found at the same time and in the same place, is due to a phenomenon known as gamete incompatibility, which is often found between marine invertebrates, and whose physiological causes are not fully understood.\n\nIn some Drosophila crosses, the swelling of the female's vagina has been noted following insemination. This has the effect of consequently preventing the fertilization of the ovule by sperm of a different species.\n\nIn plants the pollen grains of a species can germinate in the stigma and grow in the style of other species. However, the growth of the pollen tubes may be detained at some point between the stigma and the ovules, in such a way that fertilization does not take place. This mechanism of reproductive isolation is common in the angiosperms and is called cross-incompatibility or incongruence. A relationship exists between self-incompatibility and the phenomenon of cross-incompatibility. In general crosses between individuals of a self-compatible species (SC) with individuals of a self-incompatible (SI) species give hybrid offspring. On the other hand, a reciprocal cross (SI x SC) will not produce offspring, because the pollen tubes will not reach the ovules. This is known as unilateral incompatibility, which also occurs when two SC or two SI species are crossed.\n\nPost-zygotic isolation \nA number of mechanisms which act after fertilization preventing successful inter-population crossing are discussed below.\n\nZygote mortality and non-viability of hybrids \nA type of incompatibility that is found as often in plants as in animals occurs when the egg or ovule is fertilized but the zygote does not develop, or it develops and the resulting individual has a reduced viability. This is the case for crosses between species of the frog order, where widely differing results are observed depending upon the species involved. In some crosses there is no segmentation of the zygote (or it may be that the hybrid is extremely non-viable and changes occur from the first mitosis). In others, normal segmentation occurs in the blastula but gastrulation fails. Finally, in other crosses, the initial stages are normal but errors occur in the final phases of embryo development. This indicates differentiation of the embryo development genes (or gene complexes) in these species and these differences determine the non-viability of the hybrids.\n\nSimilar results are observed in mosquitoes of the genus Culex, but the differences are seen between reciprocal crosses, from which it is concluded that the same effect occurs in the interaction between the genes of the cell nucleus (inherited from both parents) as occurs in the genes of the cytoplasmic organelles which are inherited solely from the female progenitor through the cytoplasm of the ovule.\n\nIn Angiosperms, the successful development of the embryo depends on the normal functioning of its endosperm.\n\nThe failure of endosperm development and its subsequent abortion has been observed in many interploidal crosses (that is, those between populations with a particular degree of intra or interspecific ploidy), and in certain crosses in species with the same level of ploidy. The collapse of the endosperm, and the subsequent abortion of the hybrid embryo is one of the most common post-fertilization reproductive isolation mechanism found in angiosperms.\n\nHybrid sterility \n\nA hybrid may have normal viability but is typically deficient in terms of reproduction or is sterile. This is demonstrated by the mule and in many other well known hybrids. In all of these cases sterility is due to the interaction between the genes of the two species involved; to chromosomal imbalances due to the different number of chromosomes in the parent species; or to nucleus-cytoplasmic interactions such as in the case of Culex described above.\n\nHinnies and mules are hybrids resulting from a cross between a horse and a donkey or between a mare and a donkey, respectively. These animals are nearly always sterile due to the difference in the number of chromosomes between the two parent species. Both horses and donkeys belong to the genus Equus, but Equus caballus has 64\u00a0chromosomes, while Equus asinus only has 62. A cross will produce offspring (mule or hinny) with 63\u00a0chromosomes, that will not form pairs, which means that they do not divide in a balanced manner during meiosis. In the wild, the horses and donkeys ignore each other and do not cross. In order to obtain mules or hinnies it is necessary to train the progenitors to accept copulation between the species or create them through artificial insemination.\n\nThe sterility of many interspecific hybrids in angiosperms has been widely recognised and studied.\nInterspecific sterility of hybrids in plants has multiple possible causes. These may be genetic, related to the genomes, or the interaction between nuclear and cytoplasmic factors, as will be discussed in the corresponding section. Nevertheless, it is important to note that in plants, hybridization is a stimulus for the creation of new species \u2013 the contrary to the situation in animals.\nAlthough the hybrid may be sterile, it can continue to multiply in the wild by asexual reproduction, whether vegetative propagation or apomixis or the production of seeds.\nIndeed, interspecific hybridization can be associated with polyploidia and, in this way, the origin of new species that are called allopolyploids. Rosa canina, for example, is the result of multiple hybridizations. or there is a type of wheat that is an allohexaploid that contains the genomes of three different species.\n\nMultiple mechanisms \nIn general, the barriers that separate species do not consist of just one mechanism. The twin species of Drosophila, D. pseudoobscura and D. persimilis, are isolated from each other by habitat (persimilis generally lives in colder regions at higher altitudes), by the timing of the mating season (persimilis is generally more active in the morning and pseuoobscura at night) and by behavior during mating (the females of both species prefer the males of their respective species). In this way, although the distribution of these species overlaps in wide areas of the west of the United States of America, these isolation mechanisms are sufficient to keep the species separated. Such that, only a few fertile females have been found amongst the other species among the thousands that have been analyzed. However, when hybrids are produced between both species, the gene flow between the two will continue to be impeded as the hybrid males are sterile. Also, and in contrast with the great vigor shown by the sterile males, the descendants of the backcrosses of the hybrid females with the parent species are weak and notoriously non-viable. This last mechanism restricts even more the genetic interchange between the two species of fly in the wild.\n\nHybrid sex: Haldane's rule \nHaldane's rule states that when one of the two sexes is absent in interspecific hybrids between two specific species, then the sex that is not produced, is rare or is sterile is the heterozygous (or heterogametic) sex. In mammals, at least, there is growing evidence to suggest that this is due to high rates of mutation of the genes determining masculinity in the Y chromosome.\n\nIt has been suggested that Haldane's rule simply reflects the fact that the male sex is more sensitive than the female when the sex-determining genes are included in a hybrid genome. But there are also organisms in which the heterozygous sex is the female: birds and butterflies and the law is followed in these organisms. Therefore, it is not a problem related to sexual development, nor with the sex chromosomes. Haldane proposed that the stability of hybrid individual development requires the full gene complement of each parent species, so that the hybrid of the heterozygous sex is unbalanced (i.e. missing at least one chromosome from each of the parental species). For example, the hybrid male obtained by crossing D. melanogaster females with D. simulans males, which is non-viable, lacks the X chromosome of D. simulans.\n\nGenetics\n\nPre-copulatory mechanisms in animals \nThe genetics of ethological isolation barriers will be discussed first. Pre-copulatory isolation occurs when the genes necessary for the sexual reproduction of one species differ from the equivalent genes of another species, such that if a male of species A and a female of species B are placed together they are unable to copulate. Study of the genetics involved in this reproductive barrier tries to identify the genes that govern distinct sexual behaviors in the two species. The males of Drosophila melanogaster and those of D. simulans conduct an elaborate courtship with their respective females, which are different for each species, but the differences between the species are more quantitative than qualitative. In fact the simulans males are able to hybridize with the melanogaster females. Although there are lines of the latter species that can easily cross there are others that are hardly able to. Using this difference, it is possible to assess the minimum number of genes involved in pre-copulatory isolation between the melanogaster and simulans species and their chromosomal location.\n\nIn experiments, flies of the D. melanogaster line, which hybridizes readily with simulans, were crossed with another line that it does not hybridize with, or rarely. The females of the segregated populations obtained by this cross were placed next to simulans males and the percentage of hybridization was recorded, which is a measure of the degree of reproductive isolation. It was concluded from this experiment that 3 of the 8 chromosomes of the haploid complement of D. melanogaster carry at least one gene that affects isolation, such that substituting one chromosome from a line of low isolation with another of high isolation reduces the hybridization frequency. In addition, interactions between chromosomes are detected so that certain combinations of the chromosomes have a multiplying effect.\nCross incompatibility or incongruence in plants is also determined by major genes that are not associated at the self-incompatibility S locus.\n\nPost-copulation or fertilization mechanisms in animals \nReproductive isolation between species appears, in certain cases, a long time after fertilization and the formation of the zygote, as happens \u2013 for example \u2013 in the twin species Drosophila pavani and D. gaucha. The hybrids between both species are not sterile, in the sense that they produce viable gametes, ovules and spermatozoa. However, they cannot produce offspring as the sperm of the hybrid male do not survive in the semen receptors of the females, be they hybrids or from the parent lines. In the same way, the sperm of the males of the two parent species do not survive in the reproductive tract of the hybrid female. This type of post-copulatory isolation appears as the most efficient system for maintaining reproductive isolation in many species.\n\nThe development of a zygote into an adult is a complex and delicate process of interactions between genes and the environment that must be carried out precisely, and if there is any alteration in the usual process, caused by the absence of a necessary gene or the presence of a different one, it can arrest the normal development causing the non-viability of the hybrid or its sterility. It should be borne in mind that half of the chromosomes and genes of a hybrid are from one species and the other half come from the other. If the two species are genetically different, there is little possibility that the genes from both will act harmoniously in the hybrid. From this perspective, only a few genes would be required in order to bring about post copulatory isolation, as opposed to the situation described previously for pre-copulatory isolation.\n\nIn many species where pre-copulatory reproductive isolation does not exist, hybrids are produced but they are of only one sex. This is the case for the hybridization between females of Drosophila simulans and Drosophila melanogaster males: the hybridized females die early in their development so that only males are seen among the offspring. However, populations of D. simulans have been recorded with genes that permit the development of adult hybrid females, that is, the viability of the females is \"rescued\". It is assumed that the normal activity of these speciation genes is to \"inhibit\" the expression of the genes that allow the growth of the hybrid. There will also be regulator genes.\n\nA number of these genes have been found in the melanogaster species group. The first to be discovered was \"Lhr\" (Lethal hybrid rescue) located in Chromosome II of D. simulans. This dominant allele allows the development of hybrid females from the cross between simulans females and melanogaster males. A different gene, also located on Chromosome II of D. simulans is \"Shfr\" that also allows the development of female hybrids, its activity being dependent on the temperature at which development occurs. Other similar genes have been located in distinct populations of species of this group. In short, only a few genes are needed for an effective post copulatory isolation barrier mediated through the non-viability of the hybrids.\n\nAs important as identifying an isolation gene is knowing its function. The Hmr gene, linked to the X chromosome and implicated in the viability of male hybrids between D. melanogaster and D. simulans, is a gene from the proto-oncogene family myb, that codes for a transcriptional regulator. Two variants of this gene function perfectly well in each separate species, but in the hybrid they do not function correctly, possibly due to the different genetic background of each species. Examination of the allele sequence of the two species shows that change of direction substitutions are more abundant than synonymous substitutions, suggesting that this gene has been subject to intense natural selection.\n\nThe Dobzhansky\u2013Muller model proposes that reproductive incompatibilities between species are caused by the interaction of the genes of the respective species. It has been demonstrated recently that Lhr has functionally diverged in D. simulans and will interact with Hmr which, in turn, has functionally diverged in D. melanogaster to cause the lethality of the male hybrids. Lhr is located in a heterochromatic region of the genome and its sequence has diverged between these two species in a manner consistent with the mechanisms of positive selection. An important unanswered question is whether the genes detected correspond to old genes that initiated the speciation favoring hybrid non-viability, or are modern genes that have appeared post-speciation by mutation, that are not shared by the different populations and that suppress the effect of the primitive non-viability genes. The OdsH (abbreviation of Odysseus) gene causes partial sterility in the hybrid between Drosophila simulans and a related species, D. mauritiana, which is only encountered on Mauritius, and is of recent origin. This gene shows monophyly in both species and also has been subject to natural selection. It is thought that it is a gene that intervenes in the initial stages of speciation, while other genes that differentiate the two species show polyphyly. Odsh originated by duplication in the genome of Drosophila and has evolved at very high rates in D. mauritania, while its paralogue, unc-4, is nearly identical between the species of the group melanogaster. Seemingly, all these cases illustrate the manner in which speciation mechanisms originated in nature, therefore they are collectively known as \"speciation genes\", or possibly, gene sequences with a normal function within the populations of a species that diverge rapidly in response to positive selection thereby forming reproductive isolation barriers with other species. In general, all these genes have functions in the transcriptional regulation of other genes.\n\nThe Nup96 gene is another example of the evolution of the genes implicated in post-copulatory isolation. It regulates the production of one of the approximately 30 proteins required to form a nuclear pore. In each of the simulans groups of Drosophila the protein from this gene interacts with the protein from another, as yet undiscovered, gene on the X chromosome in order to form a functioning pore. However, in a hybrid the pore that is formed is defective and causes sterility. The differences in the sequences of Nup96 have been subject to adaptive selection, similar to the other examples of speciation genes described above.\n\nPost-copulatory isolation can also arise between chromosomally differentiated populations due to chromosomal translocations and inversions. If, for example, a reciprocal translocation is fixed in a population, the hybrid produced between this population and one that does not carry the translocation will not have a complete meiosis. This will result in the production of unequal gametes containing unequal numbers of chromosomes with a reduced fertility. In certain cases, complete translocations exist that involve more than two chromosomes, so that the meiosis of the hybrids is irregular and their fertility is zero or nearly zero. Inversions can also give rise to abnormal gametes in heterozygous individuals but this effect has little importance compared to translocations. An example of chromosomal changes causing sterility in hybrids comes from the study of Drosophila nasuta and D. albomicans which are twin species from the Indo-Pacific region. There is no sexual isolation between them and the F1 hybrid is fertile. However, the F2 hybrids are relatively infertile and leave few descendants which have a skewed ratio of the sexes. The reason is that the X chromosome of albomicans is translocated and linked to an autosome which causes abnormal meiosis in hybrids. Robertsonian translocations are variations in the numbers of chromosomes that arise from either: the fusion of two acrocentric chromosomes into a single chromosome with two arms, causing a reduction in the haploid number, or conversely; or the fission of one chromosome into two acrocentric chromosomes, in this case increasing the haploid number. The hybrids of two populations with differing numbers of chromosomes can experience a certain loss of fertility, and therefore a poor adaptation, because of irregular meiosis.\n\nIn plants \n\nA large variety of mechanisms have been demonstrated to reinforce reproductive isolation between closely related plant species that either historically lived or currently live in sympatry. This phenomenon is driven by strong selection against hybrids, typically resulting from instances in which hybrids suffer reduced fitness. Such negative fitness consequences have been proposed to be the result of negative epistasis in hybrid genomes and can also result from the effects of hybrid sterility. In such cases, selection gives rise to population-specific isolating mechanisms to prevent either fertilization by interspecific gametes or the development of hybrid embryos.\n\nBecause many sexually reproducing species of plants are exposed to a variety of interspecific gametes, natural selection has given rise to a variety of mechanisms to prevent the production of hybrids. These mechanisms can act at different stages in the developmental process and are typically divided into two categories, pre-fertilization and post-fertilization, indicating at which point the barrier acts to prevent either zygote formation or development. In the case of angiosperms and other pollinated species, pre-fertilization mechanisms can be further subdivided into two more categories, pre-pollination and post-pollination, the difference between the two being whether or not a pollen tube is formed. (Typically when pollen encounters a receptive stigma, a series of changes occur which ultimately lead to the growth of a pollen tube down the style, allowing for the formation of the zygote.) Empirical investigation has demonstrated that these barriers act at many different developmental stages and species can have none, one, or many barriers to hybridization with interspecifics.\n\nExamples of pre-fertilization mechanisms \n\nA well-documented example of a pre-fertilization isolating mechanism comes from study of Louisiana iris species. These iris species were fertilized with interspecific and conspecific pollen loads and it was demonstrated by measure of hybrid progeny success that differences in pollen-tube growth between interspecific and conspecific pollen led to a lower fertilization rate by interspecific pollen. This demonstrates how a specific point in the reproductive process is manipulated by a particular isolating mechanism to prevent hybrids.\n\nAnother well-documented example", " before a truce was agreed. Copenhagen is often considered to be Nelson's hardest-fought battle, surpassing even the heavy fighting at Trafalgar. It was during this battle that Lord Nelson was said to have \"put the telescope to the blind eye\" in order not to see Admiral Parker's signal to cease fire.\n\nThe Second Battle of Copenhagen (or the Bombardment of Copenhagen) (16 August \u2013 5 September 1807) was from a British point of view a preemptive attack on Copenhagen, targeting the civilian population to yet again seize the Dano-Norwegian fleet. But from a Danish point of view, the battle was a terror bombardment on their capital. Particularly notable was the use of incendiary Congreve rockets (containing phosphorus, which cannot be extinguished with water) that randomly hit the city. Few houses with straw roofs remained after the bombardment. The largest church, Vor frue kirke, was destroyed by the sea artillery. Several historians consider this battle the first terror attack against a major European city in modern times.\n\nThe British landed 30,000 men, they surrounded Copenhagen and the attack continued for the next three days, killing some 2,000 civilians and destroying most of the city. The devastation was so great because Copenhagen relied on an old defence-line whose limited range could not reach the British ships and their longer-range artillery.\n\nDespite the disasters of the early 19th century, Copenhagen experienced a period of intense cultural creativity known as the Danish Golden Age. Painting prospered under C.W. Eckersberg and his students while C.F. Hansen and Gottlieb Bindesb\u00f8ll brought a Neoclassical look to the city's architecture. In the early 1850s, the ramparts of the city were opened to allow new housing to be built around The Lakes () that bordered the old defences to the west. By the 1880s, the districts of N\u00f8rrebro and Vesterbro developed to accommodate those who came from the provinces to participate in the city's industrialization. This dramatic increase of space was long overdue, as not only were the old ramparts out of date as a defence system but bad sanitation in the old city had to be overcome. From 1886, the west rampart (Vestvolden) was flattened, allowing major extensions to the harbour leading to the establishment of the Freeport of Copenhagen 1892\u201394. Electricity came in 1892 with electric trams in 1897. The spread of housing to areas outside the old ramparts brought about a huge increase in the population. In 1840, Copenhagen was inhabited by approximately 120,000 people. By 1901, it had some 400,000 inhabitants.\n\n20th century\n\nBy the beginning of the 20th century, Copenhagen had become a thriving industrial and administrative city. With its new city hall and railway station, its centre was drawn towards the west. New housing developments grew up in Br\u00f8nsh\u00f8j and Valby while Frederiksberg became an enclave within the city of Copenhagen. The northern part of Amager and Valby were also incorporated into the City of Copenhagen in 1901\u201302.\n\nAs a result of Denmark's neutrality in the First World War, Copenhagen prospered from trade with both Britain and Germany while the city's defences were kept fully manned by some 40,000 soldiers for the duration of the war.\n\nIn the 1920s there were serious shortages of goods and housing. Plans were drawn up to demolish the old part of Christianshavn and to get rid of the worst of the city's slum areas. However, it was not until the 1930s that substantial housing developments ensued, with the demolition of one side of Christianhavn's Torvegade to build five large blocks of flats.\n\nWorld War II\n\nIn Denmark during World War II, Copenhagen was occupied by German troops along with the rest of the country from 9 April 1940 until 4 May 1945. German leader Adolf Hitler hoped that Denmark would be \"a model protectorate\" and initially the Nazi authorities sought to arrive at an understanding with the Danish government. The 1943 Danish parliamentary election was also allowed to take place, with only the Communist Party excluded. But in August 1943, after the government's collaboration with the occupation forces collapsed, several ships were sunk in Copenhagen Harbor by the Royal Danish Navy to prevent their use by the Germans. Around that time the Nazis started to arrest Jews, although most managed to escape to Sweden.\n\nIn 1945 Ole Lippman, leader of the Danish section of the Special Operations Executive, invited the British Royal Air Force to assist their operations by attacking Nazi headquarters in Copenhagen. Accordingly, air vice-marshal Sir Basil Embry drew up plans for a spectacular precision attack on the Sicherheitsdienst and Gestapo building, the former offices of the Shell Oil Company. Political prisoners were kept in the attic to prevent an air raid, so the RAF had to bomb the lower levels of the building.\n\nThe attack, known as \"Operation Carthage\", came on 22 March 1945, in three small waves. In the first wave, all six planes (carrying one bomb each) hit their target, but one of the aircraft crashed near Frederiksberg Girls School. Because of this crash, four of the planes in the two following waves assumed the school was the military target and aimed their bombs at the school, leading to the death of 123 civilians (of which 87 were schoolchildren). However, 18 of the 26 political prisoners in the Shell Building managed to escape while the Gestapo archives were completely destroyed.\n\nOn 8 May 1945 Copenhagen was officially liberated by British troops commanded by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery who supervised the surrender of 30,000 Germans situated around the capital.\n\nPost-war decades\nShortly after the end of the war, an innovative urban development project known as the Finger Plan was introduced in 1947, encouraging the creation of new housing and businesses interspersed with large green areas along five \"fingers\" stretching out from the city centre along the S-train routes. With the expansion of the welfare state and women entering the work force, schools, nurseries, sports facilities and hospitals were established across the city. As a result of student unrest in the late 1960s, the former B\u00e5dsmandsstr\u00e6de Barracks in Christianshavn was occupied, leading to the establishment of Freetown Christiania in September 1971.\n\nMotor traffic in the city grew significantly and in 1972 the trams were replaced by buses. From the 1960s, on the initiative of the young architect Jan Gehl, pedestrian streets and cycle tracks were created in the city centre. Activity in the port of Copenhagen declined with the closure of the Holmen Naval Base. Copenhagen Airport underwent considerable expansion, becoming a hub for the Nordic countries. In the 1990s, large-scale housing developments were realised in the harbour area and in the west of Amager. The national library's Black Diamond building on the waterfront was completed in 1999.\n\nGallery\n\n21st century\n\nSince the summer of 2000, Copenhagen and the Swedish city of Malm\u00f6 have been connected by the \u00d8resund Bridge, which carries rail and road traffic. As a result, Copenhagen has become the centre of a larger metropolitan area spanning both nations. The bridge has brought about considerable changes in the public transport system and has led to the extensive redevelopment of Amager. The city's service and trade sectors have developed while a number of banking and financial institutions have been established. Educational institutions have also gained importance, especially the University of Copenhagen with its 35,000 students. Another important development for the city has been the Copenhagen Metro, the railway system which opened in 2002 with additions until 2007, transporting some 54\u00a0million passengers by 2011.\n\nOn the cultural front, the Copenhagen Opera House, a gift to the city from the shipping magnate M\u00e6rsk Mc-Kinney M\u00f8ller on behalf of the A.P. M\u00f8ller foundation, was completed in 2004. In December 2009 Copenhagen gained international prominence when it hosted the worldwide climate meeting COP15.\n\nOn 3 July 2022, three people were killed in a shooting at Field's mall in Copenhagen. Police chief inspector S\u00f8ren Thomassen announced the arrest of a 22-year-old man and said that the police cannot rule out an act of terrorism.\n\nGeography\n\nCopenhagen is part of the \u00d8resund Region, which consists of Zealand, Lolland-Falster and Bornholm in Denmark and Scania in Sweden. It is located on the eastern shore of the island of Zealand, partly on the island of Amager and on a number of natural and artificial islets between the two. Copenhagen faces the \u00d8resund to the east, the strait of water that separates Denmark from Sweden, and which connects the North Sea with the Baltic Sea. The Swedish city of Malm\u00f6 and the town of Landskrona lie on the Swedish side of the sound directly across from Copenhagen. By road, Copenhagen is northwest of Malm\u00f6, Sweden, northeast of N\u00e6stved, northeast of Odense, east of Esbjerg and southeast of Aarhus by sea and road via Sj\u00e6llands Odde.\n\nThe city centre lies in the area originally defined by the old ramparts, which are still referred to as the Fortification Ring (F\u00e6stningsringen) and kept as a partial green band around it. Then come the late-19th- and early-20th-century residential neighbourhoods of \u00d8sterbro, N\u00f8rrebro, Vesterbro and Amagerbro. The outlying areas of Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vigerslev, Vanl\u00f8se, Br\u00f8nsh\u00f8j, Utterslev and Sundby followed from 1920 to 1960. They consist mainly of residential housing and apartments often enhanced with parks and greenery.\n\nTopography\nThe central area of the city consists of relatively low-lying flat ground formed by moraines from the last ice age while the hilly areas to the north and west frequently rise to above sea level. The slopes of Valby and Br\u00f8nsh\u00f8j reach heights of over , divided by valleys running from the northeast to the southwest. Close to the centre are the Copenhagen lakes of Sortedams S\u00f8, Peblinge S\u00f8 and Sankt J\u00f8rgens S\u00f8.\n\nCopenhagen rests on a subsoil of flint-layered limestone deposited in the Danian period some 60 to 66\u00a0million years ago. Some greensand from the Selandian is also present. There are a few faults in the area, the most important of which is the Carlsberg fault which runs northwest to southeast through the centre of the city. During the last ice age, glaciers eroded the surface leaving a layer of moraines up to thick.\n\nGeologically, Copenhagen lies in the northern part of Denmark where the land is rising because of post-glacial rebound.\n\nBeaches\n\nAmager Strandpark, which opened in 2005, is a long artificial island, with a total of of beaches. It is located just 15 minutes by bicycle or a few minutes by metro from the city centre. In Klampenborg, about from downtown Copenhagen, is Bellevue Beach. It is long and has both lifeguards and freshwater showers on the beach.\n\nThe beaches are supplemented by a system of Harbour Baths along the Copenhagen waterfront. The first and most popular of these is located at Islands Brygge, literally meaning Iceland's Quay, and has won international acclaim for its design.\n\nClimate\n\nCopenhagen is in the oceanic climate zone (K\u00f6ppen: Cfb). Its weather is subject to low-pressure systems from the Atlantic which result in unstable conditions throughout the year. Apart from slightly higher rainfall from July to September, precipitation is moderate. While snowfall occurs mainly from late December to early March, there can also be rain, with average temperatures around the freezing point.\n\nJune is the sunniest month of the year with an average of about eight hours of sunshine a day. July is the warmest month with an average daytime high of 21\u00a0\u00b0C. By contrast, the average hours of sunshine are less than two per day in November and only one and a half per day from December to February. In the spring, it gets warmer again with four to six hours of sunshine per day from March to May. February is the driest month of the year. Exceptional weather conditions can bring as much as 50\u00a0cm of snow to Copenhagen in a 24-hour period during the winter months while summer temperatures have been known to rise to heights of .\n\nBecause of Copenhagen's northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter. On the summer solstice, the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58, providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight. On the winter solstice, it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 1 minute of daylight. There is therefore a difference of 10 hours and 31 minutes in the length of days and nights between the summer and winter solstices.\n\nAdministration\n\nAccording to Statistics Denmark, the urban area of Copenhagen () consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Albertslund, Br\u00f8ndby, Gentofte, Gladsaxe, Glostrup, Herlev, Hvidovre, Lyngby-Taarb\u00e6k, R\u00f8dovre, T\u00e5rnby and Vallensb\u00e6k as well as parts of Ballerup, Rudersdal and Fures\u00f8 municipalities, along with the cities of Ish\u00f8j and Greve Strand. They are located in the Capital Region (). Municipalities are responsible for a wide variety of public services, which include land-use planning, environmental planning, public housing, management and maintenance of local roads, and social security. Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive.\n\nCopenhagen Municipality is by far the largest municipality, with the historic city at its core. The seat of Copenhagen's municipal council is the Copenhagen City Hall (), which is situated on City Hall Square. The second largest municipality is Frederiksberg, an enclave within Copenhagen Municipality.\n\nCopenhagen Municipality is divided into ten districts (bydele): Indre By, \u00d8sterbro, N\u00f8rrebro, Vesterbro/Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vanl\u00f8se, Br\u00f8nsh\u00f8j-Husum, Bispebjerg, Amager \u00d8st, and Amager Vest. Neighbourhoods of Copenhagen include Slotsholmen, Frederiksstaden, Islands Brygge, Holmen, Christiania, Carlsberg, Sluseholmen, Sydhavn, Amagerbro, \u00d8restad, Nordhavnen, Bellah\u00f8j, Br\u00f8nsh\u00f8j, Ryparken, and Vigerslev.\n\nLaw and order\nMost of Denmark's top legal courts and institutions are based in Copenhagen. A modern-style court of justice, Hof- og Stadsretten, was introduced in Denmark, specifically for Copenhagen, by Johann Friedrich Struensee in 1771. Now known as the City Court of Copenhagen (), it is the largest of the 24 city courts in Denmark with jurisdiction over the municipalities of Copenhagen, Drag\u00f8r and T\u00e5rnby. With its 42 judges, it has a Probate Division, an Enforcement Division and a Registration and Notorial Acts Division while bankruptcy is handled by the Maritime and Commercial Court of Copenhagen. Established in 1862, the Maritime and Commercial Court () also hears commercial cases including those relating to trade marks, marketing practices and competition for the whole of Denmark. Denmark's Supreme Court (), located in Christiansborg Palace on Prins J\u00f8rgens G\u00e5rd in the centre of Copenhagen, is the country's final court of appeal. Handling civil and criminal cases from the subordinate courts, it has two chambers which each hear all types of cases.\n\nThe Danish National Police and Copenhagen Police headquarters is situated in the Neoclassical-inspired Politig\u00e5rden building built in 1918\u20131924 under architects Hack Kampmann and Holger Alfred Jacobsen. The building also contains administration, management, emergency department and radio service offices.\n\nThe Copenhagen Fire Department forms the largest municipal fire brigade in Denmark with some 500 fire and ambulance personnel, 150 administration and service workers, and 35 workers in prevention. The brigade began as the Copenhagen Royal Fire Brigade on 9 July 1687 under King Christian V. After the passing of the Copenhagen Fire Act on 18 May 1868, on 1 August 1870 the Copenhagen Fire Brigade became a municipal institution in its own right. The fire department has its headquarters in the Copenhagen Central Fire Station which was designed by Ludvig Fenger in the Historicist style and inaugurated in 1892.\n\nEnvironmental planning \n\nCopenhagen is recognised as one of the most environmentally friendly cities in the world. As a result of its commitment to high environmental standards, Copenhagen has been praised for its green economy, ranked as the top green city for the second time in the 2014 Global Green Economy Index (GGEI). In 2001 a large offshore wind farm was built just off the coast of Copenhagen at Middelgrunden. It produces about 4% of the city's energy. Years of substantial investment in sewage treatment have improved water quality in the harbour to an extent that the inner harbour can be used for swimming with facilities at a number of locations.\n\nCopenhagen aims to be carbon-neutral by 2025. Commercial and residential buildings are to reduce electricity consumption by 20 per cent and 10 per cent respectively, and total heat consumption is to fall by 20 per cent by 2025. Renewable energy features such as solar panels are becoming increasingly common in the newest buildings in Copenhagen. District heating will be carbon-neutral by 2025, by waste incineration and biomass. New buildings must now be constructed according to Low Energy Class ratings and in 2020 near net-zero energy buildings. By 2025, 75% of trips should be made on foot, by bike, or by using public transit. The city plans that 20\u201330% of cars will run on electricity or biofuel by 2025. The investment is estimated at $472\u00a0million public funds and $4.78\u00a0billion private funds.\n\nThe city's urban planning authorities continue to take full account of these priorities. Special attention is given both to climate issues and efforts to ensure maximum application of low-energy standards. Priorities include sustainable drainage systems, recycling rainwater, green roofs and efficient waste management solutions. In city planning, streets and squares are to be designed to encourage cycling and walking rather than driving. Further, the city administration is working with smart city initiatives to improve how data and technology can be used to implement new solutions that support the transition toward a carbon-neutral economy. 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I, 952) \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0432 1557\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435 \u0441\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0440\u044b, \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u0446\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044c \u00abVaria doctorum piorumque virorum de corrupto Ecclesiae statu poemata\u00bb.\n\n\u0412 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\u043f\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437 \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b \u0425\u043e\u0440\u0445\u0435 \u041b\u0443\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0445\u0435\u0441\u0430, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0434\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0438\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0438 \u0410\u0440\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u044b, \u0430 \u043a \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u043f (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0445\u0435\u0441\u0443 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0434\u043b\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0442 \u0432\u043f\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0442\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437 \u0446\u0438\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u00ab\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0438\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0438\u00bb, \u0438\u0437 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e, \u0438 \u0432\u044b\u0440\u043e\u0441 \u0432\u0435\u0441\u044c \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d \u0423\u043c\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043e \u042d\u043a\u043e).\n\n\u042d\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \n\u0412 1986 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d \u0431\u044b\u043b \u044d\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d. \u0420\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u00ab\u0418\u043c\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0437\u044b\u00bb \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0416\u0430\u043d-\u0416\u0430\u043a \u0410\u043d\u043d\u043e. \u0420\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0412\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0433\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u0411\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u043b \u0428\u043e\u043d \u041a\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0438, \u0410\u0434\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0430\u043d \u0421\u043b\u0435\u0439\u0442\u0435\u0440. \u041d\u0435\u0441\u043c\u043e\u0442\u0440\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u044b \u0438 \u0443\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0445 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435, \u0441\u0430\u043c \u0423\u043c\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043e \u042d\u043a\u043e \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043d \u0432\u043e\u043f\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0439 \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u044d\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435. \u0421 \u0442\u0435\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u0440 \u043e\u043d \u043d\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443 \u043d\u0435 \u0434\u0430\u043b \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u044d\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044e \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439. \u041e\u0442\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043b \u043e\u043d \u0434\u0430\u0436\u0435 \u0421\u0442\u044d\u043d\u043b\u0438 \u041a\u0443\u0431\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0443, \u0445\u043e\u0442\u044f \u0432\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0436\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043b \u043e\u0431 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c.\n\n\u0412 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0435 2019 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438-\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u00ab\u0418\u043c\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0437\u044b\u00bb \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440\u0430 \u0414\u0436\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043c\u043e \u0411\u0430\u0442\u0442\u0438\u0430\u0442\u043e, \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0434\u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0430\u043b\u043e \u043e\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u0442 \u0441\u044e\u0436\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u0438, \u0432 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u0434\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u0432 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0432\u043e \u0444\u043b\u044d\u0448\u0431\u044d\u043a\u0430\u0445 \u044d\u043f\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0434\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0438\u0437 \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0438 \u0414\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0447\u0438\u043d\u043e.\n\n\u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434\u044b \n Il nome della rosa. Milano: Bompiani, 1980, 514 pp. ISBN 88-452-0705-6.\n Der Name der Rose / \u00dcbersetzung von Burkhart Kroeber, M\u00fcnchen: Hanser, 1982.\n The name of the Rose / Transl. by William Weaver. San Diego etc.: Harcourt, 1983.\n Il nome della rosa. Milano: Bompiani, 1989, 503 pp. ISBN 978-88-452-1066-2.\n \u0418\u043c\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0437\u044b / \u0420\u0443\u0441. \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 \u0415. \u041a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044e\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447. \u041c., 1989.\n Le Nom de la rose / Trad. Jean-No\u00ebl Schifano. Paris: Grasset, 1990. 552 p. ISBN 2-246-24514-1.\n Il nome della rosa / Prefazione di Jurij Lotman. Torino: Utet, 2007. 718 pp. ISBN 88-02-07492-5.\n Il nome della rosa. Prima edizione riveduta e corretta. Milano: Bompiani, 2013, 618 pp. ISBN 978-88-452-7348-3.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n \u041b\u043e\u0442\u043c\u0430\u043d\u00a0\u042e.\u00a0\u041c. \u0412\u044b\u0445\u043e\u0434 \u0438\u0437 \u043b\u0430\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0430. // \u042d\u043a\u043e \u0423. \u0418\u043c\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0437\u044b.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c., 1998.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 650\u2014669.\n \u041b\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f 23. \u041e\u0431\u0437\u043e\u0440 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0423. \u042d\u043a\u043e \u00ab\u0418\u043c\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0437\u044b\u00bb // \u0421\u0443\u0438\u043d\u0438 \u041c. \u041b\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0438\u0438. \u0412\u044b\u043f. 1. \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0445\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0444\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0438\u044f \u0417\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0410.\u00a0\u041a.\u00a0\u041b\u044f\u0432\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u0413\u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e-\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0442 \u042e. \u0410. \u0428\u0438\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430, 2001.\n \u041b\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f 24. \u00ab\u0418\u043c\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0437\u044b\u00bb \u0438 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440 \u043e\u0431 \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0430\u043b\u0438\u044f\u0445 // \u0421\u0443\u0438\u043d\u0438 \u041c. \u041b\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0438\u0438. \u0412\u044b\u043f. 1. \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0445\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0444\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0438\u044f \u0417\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0410.\u00a0\u041a.\u00a0\u041b\u044f\u0432\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u0413\u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e-\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0442 \u042e. \u0410. \u0428\u0438\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430, 2001.\n \u041b\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f 25. \u00ab\u0418\u043c\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0437\u044b\u00bb \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0437\u0433\u043b\u044f\u0434 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044c\u0435 // \u0421\u0443\u0438\u043d\u0438 \u041c. \u041b\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0438\u0438. \u0412\u044b\u043f. 1. \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0445\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0444\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0438\u044f \u0417\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0410.\u00a0\u041a.\u00a0\u041b\u044f\u0432\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u0413\u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e-\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0442 \u042e. \u0410. \u0428\u0438\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430, 2001.\n Haft A. The key to the name of", " named head of the Arab Socialist Ba\u2019ath Party, and is the current President of Syria (2000\u2013present).\n\nSyria has various ethnic and religious cleavages that divided but also instilled a sense of loyalty amongst certain parts of the country. The main minorities in Syria include the Alawites (12 percent), the Greek Orthodox Christians and other Christian sects (9 percent), the Kurds (9 percent), and the Druze (3 percent). The Sunni religious group is considered to be the majority amongst the Syrian population. The ethnic and religious diversity in Syria has caused an unequal distribution of power. The Sunni Muslims dominated politically and ensured that the Alawites were denied any political input. The Alawites \u2013 a minority \u2013 wanted to have an input in their country, causing them to claim the armed forces and the Ba\u2019ath Party. This created a secular and unstable Syria.\n\nThe lack of stability in the country originated from the formation of the Ba\u2019ath party in 1963. The Ba\u2019ath party was led by ex-peasant military officers who took power with a radical point of view creating quite a few oppositions such as the old oligarchs, the Muslim Brotherhood, and Nasserists. The Ba\u2019ath Party wanted to become \u201cthe most important and ultimately successful of the radical movements that arose in post-independence Syria\u201d, which meant that they were less likely to prevail if they mobilized from below, and more likely to succeed if they launched a \u201crevolution from above\u201d. When the Ba\u2019ath Party gained control of the economy, it also created instability between the government and the opposition.\n\nIn 1970, when Hafez al-Assad came to power, it was ensured that he would leave behind the radical Ba\u2019athist ideology that the leaders before him had held on to, leading him to opt for a more monarchical presidency. His presidency was the beginning of a fa\u00e7ade presidential republic. There were no real oppositions because he made sure to concentrate the power in his hands. Even if the opposition were to happen, Hafez had run a patronage-based community which allowed him to control any form of chaos that were to happen in Syria. The government used coercion to keep Syria stable and under control. There were various coercive tactics that were used such as the Massacre of the Muslim Brotherhood in Hama in 1982, and the \u2018incommunicado\u2019 detention centers and military prisons where they mistreated and dehumanized the prisoners. Hafez was sure to make an example out of those who opposed him to keep the control within the hands of his government.\n\nThe various ethnic and religious cleavages were used to maintain control over the party, military and police forces, and government institutions. Since Hafez and the armed forces were both Alawite, he was able to ensure loyalty. The loyalty that was given by the military and police forces allowed him to keep any opposition from rising against his government.\n\nAfter ensuring his authority, Hafez was able to begin his transition towards a market economy through institutionalizing a \u201csocial contract\u201d. The state would provide the people of Syria subsidized food and public employment with the exception of completely surrendering their political rights. To reinforce the economic liberalization, he would also go on to creating a cross-sectarian coalition between the Sunni bourgeoisie and the Alawite military elites \u2013 helping him gain power and instill a stable Syria. \n\nIn 2000, Hafez al-Assad died, and the power was passed on to his eldest son \u2013 Bashar al-Assad. He was not involved in political affairs and was not expected to fill his father's shoes, but he rose to the task and assured that his father's legacy would live on.\n\nEnvironmental issues prior to Syria's civil war\n\nWater mismanagement\n\nFive years of drought (2006-2011) \nIn the years of 2006-2011, Syria experienced five successive years of drought that created one of the biggest humanitarian crisis Syria has ever known. Although, the climate change has significantly impacted the drought in Syria, affecting the agriculture resources, the Assad government has demonstrated a long-term mismanagement and neglect of natural resources.\n\nIt is natural for droughts to occur in countries with semi-arid climate. Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Palestine were similarly affected by the drought in 2007-2008, but Syria was the only country in the region that experienced a humanitarian crisis. The region that was severely affected by the drought is the greater Fertile Crescent. Being the main source for agriculture and animal herding, the drought caused agricultural failures and livestock mortality. The lack of change in policy setting \u2013 agricultural policies \u2013 has been one of the perpetrators of this issue. Hafez al-Assad had instilled policies to improve Syria's agricultural production including the redistribution of land, and irrigation projects. The land redistribution exploited the limited land affecting the level of groundwater as a consequence causing water shortage in Syria.\n\nIn 2003, 25 percent of Syria's GDP came from agriculture. In fact, Syria's agriculture depended on their 6-month winter season where they accumulated their rainfall to grow the crops. In 2007 and 2008, Syria failed to produce wheat due to having had the driest winter on record causing the agricultural share to fall to 17 percent. Farmers and herders were producing zero or near-zero livestock (such as wheat, and rice), forcing them to begin importing products for the first time in 15 years. This caused prices of wheat and rice to drastically increase. In 2010, the drought completely demolished the environment causing malnutrition and nutrition related diseases among children of 6 to 12-months old were suffering from anemia in Raqqa. People began migrating towards the urban areas causing an 80 percent lack of enrolment in schools.\n\nThe drought caused such distress to the environment and the people of Syria that it is speculated to have been the reason behind the Arab Spring that occurred in 2011. The Assad government had an over-concentration of benefits of economic reform, patronage and it was assured that the opportunities landed in the hands of the President's family and elite groups causing a mismanagement of natural resources. This affected the agricultural sector causing the government to put an end to subsidies in 2008 and 2009. Tensions began rising when the people of Syria could no longer afford basic necessities such as food and gasoline.\n\nThe lack of water resources management during the drought caused the water quality to become poor and contaminated. The water shortage in rural parts of the country caused farmers to reuse untreated waste water to water their livestock resulting in the pollution of the groundwater and the surfaces. The health risks were undeniable as people were beginning to drink contaminated water and falling ill with diseases such as kidney stones and E-coli.\n\nThe severe drought caused an abnormal population growth amongst the urban area of Syria. Poor infrastructure, youth unemployment, and crime rates began rising due to the serge of migrants causing instability in Syria. In fact, it is estimated that 1.5 million people from the rural areas, and 1.2 million Iraqi refugees migrated. The four decades of the Assad government's authoritarian leadership and lack of policy change was the product of the uprising, leading up to the current Civil war.\n\nWaste mismanagement \nThe waste management in Syria prior to the war was already hazardous and weak. There are two types of Hazardous Waste Production in Syria such as Industrial Hazardous Waste and Medical Hazardous Waste. In 1997, 21,730 tonnes of industrial hazardous waste were collected from five of Syria's largest cities, and 470,000 tonnes of phosphogypsum were also produced. In 2000, 3,000 tonnes of medical hazardous waste were produced and it is estimated that annually by 2010, there will be an increase to 4,500 tonnes. To be more precise, 5 percent radioactive waste, 15 percent chemical waste, and 80 percent infectious waste composed the medical hazardous waste in Syria, and the lack of policy or government change perpetuated these issues. is relatively collected by municipalities or private companies but it was reported that approximately 80 per cent of domestic solid waste was disposed at open dump sites on the outskirts of town. The Assad government's long-term mismanagement of the waste produced dioxin and other gases causing air pollution in Damascus and Aleppo. In fact, whether the waste is hazardous or non-hazardous, it is not separated from domestic waste which began contaminating the water, the soil and of polluting the air. Medical hazardous waste is mismanaged as well. The medical centers in Syria do not have designated waste disposal causing the equipment at hospitals to get mixed and disposed with domestic waste. There are health risks implemented from the waste management of medical hazardous waste on health risks for health care workers, waste handlers, patients, and the rest of the Syrian population.\n\nMining pollution \nThe phosphate industry has had a negative impact on the environment. In fact, phosphate rocks have a high level of radio activity. The phosphate is exposed on the population and environment through mining and transportation of phosphate fertilizers. These fertilizers contain uranium. Also, the waste mismanagement of phosphogypsum is being dumped in undesignated areas, affecting the mining industry. When it evaporates in the air, it affects the environment, the workers, and the rest of the population.\n\nThe phosphate mines are situated near Palmyra and are transported and disposed of in an irresponsible manner. The waste from the mines is dumped near the Mediterranean Sea, and the pollution produced by the mining industry has contributed to the Mediterranean Sea's deteriorating state. The perpetuation of the Syria's pollution has not only affected Syria's environment, and its people, but has made its way into neighbouring regions. It has affected Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, West Bank and Gaza Strip, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Tunisia, and Turkey. The pollution that is inflicted on the Mediterranean Sea are land-based such as sewage and urban run-off, urban solid wastes, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), heavy metals, organohalogen compounds, radioactive substances, nutrients, suspended solids, and hazardous wastes.\n\nEffects of the Civil War\n\nDamage to oil production \nISIS has taken control of the oil refineries in Syria and has begun selling on the black market for less than oil would normally be sold. It has become an economic incentive to purchase oil from ISIS even if it means to fund a terrorist organization. Since September 2014, the United States, government of Syria, Russia, and other allies, have begun blowing up the oil refineries with airstrikes to cut off the source of funding of ISIS. Because of this ISIS has become desperate for oil. They began digging holes to find oil, and when found, lighting up the oil on fire to refine it. When the oil is released in the air, it releases hazardous substances such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and lead. These substances have long term negative effects such as respiratory disorders, livers problems, kidney disorders, and cancer. The short term effects can also affect soils, people and the wild life.\n\nDamage to industrial areas and infrastructure \nThe current Civil war has had negative repercussions on Syria's infrastructure and industrial areas such as Homs, Hama, Damascus, and Aleppo. Adraa, al-Sheikh Najjar, Hasya and Deir ez-Zor are industrial zones for which plans were established, but were interrupted by the outbreak of the civil war. The fight between ISIS and the Syrian Army over Aleppo has affected its infrastructure but also neighboring industrial zones such as al-Sheikh Najjar. Since the outbreak, 52 percent of Aleppo's infrastructure has been destroyed or damaged. ISIS was occupying Damascus affecting neighboring industrial city, Adraa which hosts heavy industry facilities such as cement factories, chemical plants, oil and gas storage and military production sites.\n\nToxicity of weapons \nThe toxicity of weapons such as mortar bombs, artillery shells, barrel bombs, aircraft bombs and missiles have taken a toll on the environment and the population's health. These weapons have ammunitions with common metal parts that contain lead, copper, mercury, antimony, and tungsten. Missiles and rockets contain solid or liquid propellants and nitroglycerin, nitroguanidine, nitrocellulose, 2,4-dinitrotoluene.\n\nDegradation of Soil and Vegetation \nVegetation degradation and soil erosion are among the greatest environmental impacts caused by the Syrian Civil War. The war has caused the displacement of 13 million people, 8 million being internally displaced. Many of the internally displaced refugees have sought to avoid the conflict by migrating to Syria's coastal region. The humid coastal region contains more than 90% of Syria's vegetation and is an important hotspot of biodiversity, carbon storage, timber and recreation in the country.\n\nVegetation Loss \nThe internal displacement has put immense pressure on the area's natural resources, causing the degradation of this vegetated area. The high rates of vegetation destruction can be attributed to several factors. First, much of the civil war has taken place in fossil fuel rich areas, creating a shortage of energy. The Syrian electricity network has also been a target during the conflict. By 2013, more than 30 power stations were inactive and 40 percent of the countries power lines had been attacked. Those living in the coastal area are forced to cut down timber as fuel for heating and electricity. Second, the high influx of refugees has created the need for more housing. This need has caused the expansion of urban areas, encroaching on the dense vegetation and causing degradation. Third, vegetation fires have been set to produce wood charcoal. The most intense vegetation loss has been in areas with dense vegetation cover.\n\nAs previously mentioned, much of the fighting has occurred near fossil fuel extraction sites, specifically oil refineries. Attacks on oil refineries can cause oil fires which release harmful chemicals into the air, such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The sulphur and nitrogen compounds are linked to acid rain which can have dire impacts on vegetation as well as cause soil acidification. PAHs persist in the environment for long periods of time and are known carcinogens. Syria also extracts heavy crude oil, which generally has a higher proportion of noxious substances, including heavy metals, making it especially dangerous when these substances seep into the soil. Syria has two oil refineries. The Syrian oil refinery in Homs has been under a large-scale attack for times since the beginning of 2012. Each attack has caused significant oil fires. In September 2014, the United States also targeted several oil installations in eastern and northern Syria, causing oil fires. There is the potential for these harmful substances to impact existing vegetation cover, either aerially or by changing the soil chemistry.\n\nSyria had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 3.64/10, ranking it 144th globally out of 172 countries.\n\nSoil Erosion \nSoil erosion occurs when wind and water remove soil from an area. If the topsoil and organic nutrients are removed, the land will become desert like and it will be difficult to support plant or animal life, in a process known as desertification. The soil resources in Syria's coastal region is very fertile, however vulnerable to erosion. The consistent droughts, relieved by occasional high intensity rain, create ideal conditions for erosion. The area also has steep slopes which further the erosion risk. Soil degradation poses a threat to land productivity as it loses the organic matter that allows plant material to thrive. This poses a risk, not only to Syria's biodiversity, but also to the potential rebound of the agricultural sector after the war.\n\nThe loss of vegetation cover in the coastal area is a factor that increases erosion. Plant roots help to keep the soil in place as well as shield it from heavy rainfall and high winds. Plants also absorb excess water, slowing runoff and reducing the risk of erosion. The rapid change in vegetation, caused by the influx of refugees, have created the conditions for increased erosion in the Syrian region.\n\n2015 Dust Storm \nIn 2015, an unprecedented dust storm hit Syria and Iraq. It is believed that this storm was caused by the increased erosion in Syria due to the civil war and the prolonged drought. Syria's drought, which may have inflamed the civil conflict, as well as the mismanagement of Syrian water resources, resulted in a water shortage in Syria's agricultural region. The Turkish removal of dams along the Euphrates River may have also contributed to the water shortage. This shortage forced approximately 1.5 million agricultural workers to abandon their farms and head to urban areas. Without irrigation to keep the vegetation alive, the crops failed. This reduction in vegetation made the soil vulnerable to erosion and allowed for it to be picked up on a massive scale, causing the dust storm. The intense bombing also stirred up soil, contributing to soil erosion by making the soil easier to transport by wind and water.\n\nWaste \nSolid waste management was already a problem prior to the Syrian Civil War, however the violent conditions have significantly worsened the situation. The conflict has caused a shutdown of government operated waste management services. This has led to uncontrolled burning and dumping. Both of these have the potential to pollute the environment with airborne toxins or through chemicals seeping into the soil and groundwater resources. As the war continues and poverty increases, more people are looking through the waste to find food, construction materials, or items that can be sold. Municipal, medical, and hazardous waste are being mixed because of this collapse, which makes handling the waste especially dangerous. The excess waste can also promote the spread of diseases and parasites throughout the country. People have started to create their own waste programs alongside those in place by the UNDP, ICRC, and the Syrian Arab Red Crescent.\n\nMinistry of Environmental Affairs \nThe Ministry of Environmental Affairs is led by State Minister Nazira Farah Sarkis. It was established in 1991, and is responsible for national policy making and for coordinating environmental activities and the adoption of environmental legislation and regulations. The Ministry of Environmental Affairs has made numerous efforts to reverse the environmental issues that were inflected prior to the war such as Law No. 50 created in 2002. It was the Environmental Protection Law which was to protect the environment sector such as forestry, agriculture, water, fisheries. However, the Assad government may have funded these plans too late for the Ministry of Environment to make major improvements. By the time they began their plans, the uprising had irrupted and not long after, the civil war.\n\nSustainable Development Plan \nBefore the UN Sustainable Development Plan was initiated, there were several conferences conducted working towards improving the environment in Syria. In 1992, within the Environment and Development Conference, there were conferences that were conducted. The Earth Summit for Environment and Development focused on combatting desertification, biodiversity, and climate change. 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\u0434\u043b\u044f Xbox\n GameSpy\n \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u20142003 \u0434\u043b\u044f Xbox\n \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u20142003\n Game Developers Choice\u00a0\u2014 2004\n \u0418\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\n \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0436 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u044b (HK-47)\n \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0439\n IGN\n \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0437\u0432\u0443\u043a (Xbox)\n \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0439 (PC)\n \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u20142003 \u0434\u043b\u044f Xbox\n \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u20142003 \u0434\u043b\u044f PC\n \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u20142003 \u0434\u043b\u044f Xbox\n \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u20142003 \u0434\u043b\u044f PC\n \u0418\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u20142003\n Gamespot\n \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430, \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e- \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435\n \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u20142003 \u0434\u043b\u044f Xbox\n \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u20142003\n Computer Gaming World\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\n PC Gamer\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\n Interactive Achievement Awards\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u044e\u0436\u0435\u0442/\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0436\u0438\n Official Xbox Magazine\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\n \u0418\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0430\u044f RPG (2003)\n \u0418\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u044e\u0436\u0435\u0442 (2003)\n \u0418\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0430\u043c\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f (2003)\n\n\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438\u0433\u0440\u044b \nStar Wars: Knights of the Old Republic II: The Sith Lords \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 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\u0421\u0438\u043a\u0432\u0435\u043b \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u043b \u0432 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u0435 2004 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0435 Xbox (\u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0437 14 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0446\u0435\u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0438) \u0438 \u0432 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0435 2005 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f PC. 21 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f 2015 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u0441\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044f \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 10 \u043b\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u044b, \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0437 \u0434\u043b\u044f Linux \u0438 MacOS.\n\nStar Wars: The Old Republic 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\u0441\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443 \u0436\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043c \u0438\u0437 \u0441\u0438\u043c\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0430. \u0415\u0449\u0451 \u0434\u043e \u0435\u0451 \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0438\u044f, \u0432 \u044f\u043d\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0435 2010\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0451\u043d \u0433\u0435\u0440\u0431 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0430. \u0412 2010\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043d \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0442\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u043b\u043e\u043a, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0432\u044f\u0449\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0443 \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u043c \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u043c \u0432\u043e\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044b. \u0412 2011\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0442 \u00ab\u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044b\u00bb \u0432\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043c\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0430, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0432\u044f\u0449\u0451\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u041c\u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0443.\n\n5 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 2013\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u044c \u043e 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2020\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 (\u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0435 1\u00a0% \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0435, \u0441\u043c. \u0432 \u0441\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0435 \u043a \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0435 \u00ab\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435\u00bb):\n\n\u041c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0443\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \n\u0421\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0443 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0443\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043a \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442:\n \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u043c\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043f\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442;\n \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u043c\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043f\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043a;\n \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e-\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u043c\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043f\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u0434\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043a (\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0430\u0434\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f);\n \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e-\u0441\u0447\u0451\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d \u043c\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043f\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f.\n\n \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u0435\u043f\u0443\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432\n \u0441 2009\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e 2013\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0413\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0415\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0438 \u0410\u044e\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\n \u0441 2013\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e 2016\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0428\u0430\u0440\u043f\u0443\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0421\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\n \u0441 2016\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0415\u0432\u043b\u043e\u0435\u0432 \u0423\u0441\u043c\u0430\u043d \u0421\u0443\u043b\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\n\n \u0413\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044b \u0430\u0434\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438\n \u0426\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u041c\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0444\u0430 \u0422\u0443\u0433\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (2001\u20142002)\n \u041c\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0422\u0443\u0433\u0430\u043d \u0410\u043b\u0430\u0443\u0434\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (2002)\n \u0410\u043b\u0438\u0445\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u041c\u0443\u0445\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0445\u0430\u043d \u0410\u0445\u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (2002\u20142008)\n \u041a\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0432 \u041c\u0443\u0445\u043c\u0430\u0434 \u041f\u0430\u0448\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (2008\u20142012)\n \u0414\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u0410\u0445\u043c\u0435\u0434 \u041c\u0443\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (2012\u20142014)\n \u0415\u0432\u043b\u043e\u0435\u0432 \u041c\u0443\u0445\u0430\u0436\u0438\u0440 \u041d\u0443\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (2014\u20142016)\n \u041c\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0428\u0430\u0440\u043f\u0443\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0421\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (2016\u20142018)\n \u042d\u0433\u0438\u0435\u0432 \u0421\u0443\u043b\u0435\u0439\u043c\u0430\u043d \u041c\u0430\u0433\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (2018\u20142019)\n \u0413\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u041c\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0430 \u0418\u0441\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u0441 2019)\n\n\u041f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0438 \u0438\u043d\u0444\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n \u041e\u0410\u041e \"\u0420\u041d \u00ab\u0418\u043d\u0433\u0443\u0448\u043d\u0435\u0444\u0442\u044c\u00bb\n \u041d\u0435\u0444\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434 \u00ab\u041c\u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043a\u2014\u0422\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0446\u043a\u00bb\n \u042d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f \u00ab\u041c\u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043a-3\u00bb \u043d\u0430 110/35/6 \u043a\u0412\n\n\u0422\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442 \n\u0422\u0440\u0438 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0440\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0431\u0443\u0441\u0430, \u043e\u0431\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0435 \u0413\u0423\u041f \u00ab\u0418\u043d\u0433\u0443\u0448\u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u00bb. \u041d\u043e \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0431\u0443\u0441\u044b, \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u044d\u0442\u0438\u0445 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0440\u0443\u0442\u0430\u0445, \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e (1-8) \u0440\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c. \u041f\u043e\u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432: \u041f\u0410\u0417-3205.\n\n\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438 \n \u0423\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0446\u044b\n\u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0435\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0435:\n \u0410\u0443\u0448\u0435\u0432, \u041c\u0443\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0435\u043a \u0418\u0437\u043c\u0430\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0435\u043f\u0443\u0442\u0430\u0442 \u0413\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0443\u043c\u044b \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u0447\u0435\u0442\u0432\u0451\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0437\u044b\u0432\u043e\u0432.\n \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u044f\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441 \u0415\u0444\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u044c\u044f\u043a-\u0443\u0431\u0438\u0439\u0446\u0430.\n \u0428\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432, \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0435\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u044d\u0440 \u041f\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0432 2004\u20142006\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445.\n\n \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0438 \u0431\u043e\u0451\u0432 \u0443 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0430 \u0432 1942\u20141943\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445\n \u0410\u0432\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0434\u044b\u043b\u044f\u043d, \u0422\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043a \u0410\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00a0\u2014 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430, \u0437\u0430 \u0443\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0448\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0431\u043e\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0445\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u0431\u043e\u0451\u0432 \u0431\u043b\u0438\u0437 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u0435 1942\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u041e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d\u043e\u043c \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0417\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438.\n \u041c\u043e\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d, \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u043b \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00a0\u2014 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430, \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a, \u043e\u0441\u0435\u043d\u044c\u044e-\u0437\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0439 1942\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0432 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0445\u0438\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c, \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u044f\u043b \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a \u0410\u043b\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0447\u0443\u0440\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0435 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0430.\n \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432, \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u042f\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00a0\u2014 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b \u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u044f \u0432 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0438 \u0437\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0431\u043e\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0437\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0435 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u0435 1942\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043c \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430 \u0438\u0437 \u0443\u043b\u0438\u0446 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430.\n \u041f\u044b\u0440\u044f\u0435\u0432, \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00a0\u2014 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430, \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u0435 1942\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0431\u0443\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0431\u043e\u044f\u0445 \u0443 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0451\u043b\u043a\u0430 \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043a\u0430 (\u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044f\u0448\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0435\u0440\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043a).\n \u042d\u0442\u0443\u0448, \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u0410\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e, \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0432 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(\u0417\u0440\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0449\u0435 \u043e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0442\u044f\u0436\u0451\u043b\u043e\u0435!!! \u041d\u0435 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0441\u043b\u0430\u0431\u044b\u0445 \u043d\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0432!!!)\n Gaza kindergarten graduation celebrates lynching of Jews, From Maariv, June 23, 2002\n \u041b\u0438\u043d\u0447 \u0432 \u0420\u0430\u043c\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0435: \u043c\u044b \u0435\u0449\u0451 \u0432\u0437\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043d\u0451\u043c \u043e\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438 // \u0410\u0440\u044d\u043b\u044c \u0421\u0435\u0433\u0430\u043b\u044c, 17.10.2010 \u041c\u0430\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0432\n\n2000\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434 \u0432 \u0418\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043b\u0435\n\u0418\u043d", " Kikai. Kikai started to take photographs in 1969. At that time (when somebody fresh out of university could expect to earn \u00a540,000 per month), a Hasselblad SLR camera normally cost \u00a5600,000; Kikai heard of an opportunity to buy one for \u00a5320,000 and mentioned this to Fukuda, who immediately lent him the money, with no interest, and no date or pressure for repayment. (The loan was eventually repaid.) This Hasselblad 500CM, with its 80\u00a0mm lens, was what Kikai used for his portraits thereafter.\n\nCareer\nKikai thought that work on a boat might be photogenic, but, having no experience, could not get a job on one. He was eventually accepted on a boat fishing for tuna when he displayed the scar from an unneeded appendectomy as evidence of one risk fewer that his presence might force the boat into port. He worked on the boat in the Pacific from 6 April until 9 November 1972, with a stop in Manzanillo (Mexico) for provisions. It was during this time that he took his first photographs to be published, in the May 1973 issue of Camera Mainichi. In 1973 he won a prize for his submission to the 14th exhibition of the Japan Advertising Photographers' Association. But Kikai decided that in order to be a photographer he needed darkroom skills, and he returned to Tokyo to work at Doi Technical Photo (1973\u201376). He became a freelance photographer in 1984, a year after his first solo exhibition and the same year as his second.\n\nLiving close to Asakusa (Tokyo), Kikai often went there on his days off, taking photographs of visitors. He stepped up his visits in 1985; a number of collections of his portraits taken there have been published.\n\nKikai's other long-term photographic projects are of working and residential neighborhoods in and near Tokyo, and of people and scenes in India and Turkey. All these are black and white. However, his occasional diversions included color photographs of the Got\u014d Islands and even of nudes.\n\nUnusually in Japan, where photographers tend to join or form groups, Kikai was never in any group, preferring to work by himself. When not setting out to take photographs, Kikai did not carry a camera with him. He left photographing his own family to his wife Noriko, and it is she who had the camera if they went on a trip together.\n\nIn the early part of his career, Kikai often had to earn money in other ways: after three years' work in the darkroom, he returned to manual labor.\n\nKikai taught for some time at Musashino Art University, but he was disappointed by the students' lack of sustained effort and therefore quit.\n\nKikai died of lymphoma on 19 October 2020.\n\nAsakusa portraits\nKikai had started his Asakusa series of square, monochrome portraits as early as 1973, but after this there was a hiatus until 1985, when he realized that an ideal backdrop would be the plain red walls of Sens\u014d-ji. At that time, the great majority of his Asakusa portraits adopted further constraints: the single subject stands directly in front of the camera (originally a Minolta Autocord TLR, later the Hasselblad), looking directly at it, and is shown from around the knees upwards. Kikai might wait at the temple for four or five hours, hoping to see somebody he wanted to photograph, and three or four days might pass without a single photograph; but he might photograph three people in a single day, and he photographed over six hundred people in this way. He believed that to have a plain backdrop and a direct confrontation with the subject allows the viewer to see the subject as a whole, and as somebody on whom time is marked, without any distracting or limiting specificity.\n\nThough Kikai started to photograph in Asakusa simply because it was near where he then lived, he continued because of the nature of the place and its visitors. Once a bustling and fashionable area, Asakusa long ago lost this status. If it were as popular and crowded as it was before the war, Kikai said, he would go somewhere else.\n\nPublished in 1987, \u014ctachi no sh\u014dz\u014d / Ecce Homo was the first collection of these portraits. It is a large-format book with portraits made in Asakusa in 1985 to '86. Kikai won the 1988 Newcomer's Award of the Photographic Society of Japan (PSJ) for this book and the third Ina Nobuo Award for the accompanying exhibition.\n\nIn 1995, a number of portraits from the series were shown together with the works of eleven other photographers in Tokyo/City of Photos, one of a pair of opening exhibitions for the purpose-made building of the Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography.\n\nYa-Chimata, a second collection of the portraits made in Asakusa, was published a year later.\n\nPersona (2003) is a further collection. A few are from Kikai's earliest work, but most postdate anything in the earlier books. Several of the subjects appear twice or more often, so the reader sees the effect of time. The book format is unusually large for a photograph collection in Japan, and the plates were printed via quadtone. The book won the 23rd Domon Ken Award and 2004 Annual Award of the PSJ. A smaller-format edition with additional photographs followed two years later.\n\nAsakusa Portraits (2008) is a large collection edited by the International Center of Photography (New York), published in conjunction with the ICP's exhibition of recent Japanese photography and art Heavy Light. Kikai's contribution to this exhibition was well received, and Asakusa Portraits won praise for its photography and also (from Paul Smith) for the vernacular fashion of those photographed.\n\nPortraits of spaces\nKikai said that people and scenery are two sides of the same coin. When tired of waiting (or photographing) in Asakusa, he would walk as far as 20\u00a0km looking for urban scenes of interest where he could make \"portraits of spaces\". A day's walk might take two or three hours for less than a single roll of 120 film. He generally photographed between 10\u00a0a.m. and 3\u00a0p.m., and avoided photographing when people were outside as their presence would transform the photographs into mere snapshots, easily understood; even without people, they are the images or reflections of life. Kikai might find a scene that he wanted to photograph and then wait there and only photograph it when something unexpected occurred in the frame. After development, he did not bother with contact prints, instead judging a photograph by the negative alone.\n\nSamples from this series appeared in various magazines from at least as early as 1976. Each photograph is simply captioned with the approximate address (in Japanese script) and year.\n\nT\u014dky\u014d meiro / Tokyo Labyrinth (1999) presents portraits of unpeopled spaces in Tokyo (and occasionally the adjacent town of Kawasaki). There are individual shopfronts, rows of shops and residential streets. Most of the buildings are unpretentious. Like the Asakusa series, these portraits are monochrome and square, taken via a standard lens on 120 film.\n\nT\u014dky\u014d mutan / Labyrinthos (2007)\u2014based on an essay/photograph series that ran in the monthly S\u014dshi () from March 2004 to July 2005 and then in the web series \"Tokyo Polka\"\u2014presents more of the same. Between a single nude in a shopfront display from 1978 and a very young boy photographed in December 2006 (the latter appearing to share the Sens\u014d-ji backdrop of Persona), are square monochrome views of Tokyo and Kawasaki, compositions that seem casual and rather disorderly, mostly of unpeopled scenes showing signs of intensive and recent use. The book also has Kikai's essays from \"Tokyo Polka\", essays that dwell on the inhabitants of Tokyo as observed during walks or on the train.\n\nTokyo View (2016) is a large-format collection, mostly of photographs that also appear in one or other of the earlier books (or T\u014dky\u014d p\u014dtoreito / Tokyo Portraits).\n\nIndia\nKikai said that going to India felt like a return to the Yamagata of his youth, and a release from life in Tokyo. His photography there was much less planned or formal than his portraits of people or places in Tokyo: after an early start with color 120 film, he used black and white 35\u00a0mm film in India\u2014and laughingly said that he would use 35\u00a0mm in Tokyo if the city were more interesting and did not make him feel unhappy.\n\nIndia, a large-format book published in 1992, presents photographs taken in India (and to a much lesser extent Bangladesh) over a period totalling rather more than a year and ranging from 1982 to 1990. It won high praise from the critic Kazuo Nishii, who commented that the India of Kikai's work seems perpetually overcast, and that in their ambiguity his photographs seem to benefit from the work done in the Asakusa portrait series. The book won Kikai the 1993 Society of Photography Award.\n\nShiawase / Shanti (2001) is a collection of photographs that concentrates on children, most of which were taken in Allahabad, Benares, Calcutta, Puri and Delhi in 2000. It won the Grand Prix of the second Photo City Sagamihara Festival.\n\nTurkey\nWanting to explore somewhere that (in contrast to India) was cold, as well as a Muslim land where Asian and European cultures meet, in 1994 Kikai made the first of six visits to Turkey, where he stayed for a total of nine months. His monochrome photographs of Turkey appeared in the magazine Asahi Camera, and his colour photographs on its website, before the publication in January 2011 of his large book Anatolia, a compilation of his monochrome work.\n\nPhotography elsewhere\nKikai was one of thirteen Japanese photographers invited by EU\u2013Japan Fest to photograph the twenty-six nations of the European Union; he spent twenty-one days in Malta in September 2005 and a short period in Portugal in October 2004, travelling widely in both countries. In color, these photographs are a departure from his earlier work. Most are more or less candid photographs of people. The collection was published in a book titled In-between\u00a08.\n\nSeries of color photographs from short visits to Cuba (2007) and Taiwan (2013) have appeared in Asahi Camera.\n\nWriting\nKikai's essays have appeared in periodicals and within some of his own photobooks. They have also been collected in four books, in which they are illustrated by reproductions of relevant photographs.\n\nIndo ya Gassan (\"India and Gassan\", 1999) is a collection of essays about and photographs of India. Gassan is a mountain in central Yamagata close to where Kikai was brought up; Kikai muses on India and compares it with the Yamagata of his youth.\n\nMe to kaze no kioku (\"Memories of the eye and the wind\", 2012) collects essays published in Yamagata Shinbun () since 2006; Dare omo sukoshi suki ni naru hi: Memekuri b\u014dbiroku (\"Days when you come to like anyone a little: An image-turning aide-memoire\", 2015) collects essays published in Bungakukai () since 2011; Kutsuzoku no herikata (\"Ways to wear down shoe rubber\", 2016) is a fourth collection.\n\nExhibitions\nSupplementary English titles in parentheses are nonce translations for this article; those outside parentheses and in quotation marks were used at the time.\n\n[A]: Asakusa portraits\n[I]: India\n[S]: Portraits of spaces\n[T]: Turkey\n\nSelected solo exhibitions\n\n\"Nagi: Machinaka no k\u014dkei\" (, Calm: Town scenes). [S] Konishiroku Photo Gallery (Shinjuku, Tokyo), August\u2013September 1983.\n\"Indo kik\u014d\" (, India travelogue). [I] Doi Photo Plaza Shibuya (Shibuya, Tokyo), August 1984; Art Plaza (Fukuoka), August 1984; Gallery Antomeru (Sendai), September 1984; Yamagata, 1984.\u3000\n\"\u014ctachi no sh\u014dz\u014d (Sens\u014dji keidai)\" (, Portraits of kings [in the grounds of Sens\u014d-ji]). [A] Ginza Nikon Salon (Ginza, Tokyo), September 1988.\u3000\n\"Dai-13 Ina Nobuo sh\u014d jush\u014d sakuhinten: Kikai Hiroo '\u014ctachi no sh\u014dz\u014d (Sens\u014dji keidai)'\u2009\" (, Exhibition of works winning the 13th Ina Nobuo Award: Hiroh Kikai, Portraits of kings [in the grounds of Sens\u014d-ji]). [A] Ginza Nikon Salon (Ginza, Tokyo); Osaka; Kyoto; etc., 1988\u201389.\nThe Hitachi Collection of Contemporary Japanese Photography, Center for Creative Photography, Tucson, Arizona. 1989.\u3000\n\"Dai-13-kai Ina Nobuo sh\u014d jush\u014d sakuhinten: Kikai Hiroo 'Kansh\u014d: Machi no katachi'\u2009\" (, Exhibition of works winning the 13th Ina Nobuo Award: Hiroh Kikai, Meditation: Town shapes). [S] Osaka Nikon Salon, February 1990; Ginza Nikon Salon (Ginza, Tokyo), March 1990; Kyoto; etc., 1990.\u3000\n\"Ecce Homo\". [A] Robert Koch Gallery (San Francisco), 1993.\u3000\n\"Indo kik\u014d\" (, India travelogue). [I] Sh\u014dmeid\u014d Gallery (Kodaira), 1998.\n\"Persona (1)\". [A] Centrum Sztuki i Techniki Japo\u0144skiej \"Manggha\" (Krak\u00f3w), 1999.\n \"Shashin to insatsu hy\u014dgen\" (, Photographs and printing expression). [S] Mitsumura Art Plaza (\u014csaki, Tokyo), February\u2013March 2000.\n\"Persona (2)\". [A] Centrum Sztuki i Techniki Japo\u0144skiej \"Manggha\" (Krak\u00f3w), November\u2013December 2002.\n\"Persona\". [A] The Third Gallery Aya (Osaka), October 2003.\n\"Persona\". [A] Domon Ken Photography Museum (Sakata), September\u2013November 2004.\u3000\n\"Persona\". [A] Ginza Nikon Salon (Tokyo); Osaka, 2004.\u3000\n\"Persona\". [A] Galeria Fotografii PF, Centrum Kultury \"Zamek\" (Pozna\u0144), February\u2013March 2005.\n\"Persona\". [A] Sh\u014dmeid\u014d Gallery (Kodaira) January 2005.\n\"Perusona\" (). [A] Ginza Nikon Salon (Ginza, Tokyo), February\u2013March 2006; Osaka Nikon Salon (Osaka), April 2006.\n\"T\u014dky\u014d mutan\" (). [S] Ginza Nikon Salon (Ginza, Tokyo), September 2007; Osaka Nikon Salon (Osaka), October 2007.\n\"Tokyo Labyrinth\". [S] Yancey Richardson Gallery (New York City), September\u2013October 2008.\n\"Jinsei gekij\u014d\" (, Human theatre). [A] Gallery Raku, Kyoto University of Art and Design, Kyoto, March 2009.\n\"Persona\". [A] Yancey Richardson Gallery (New York City), May\u2013July 2009.\n\"Asakusai portr\u00e9k\". [A] Liget Gallery (Budapest), November\u2013December 2010.\n\"Anatoria e no purosesu\" (). [T] Aoyama Book Center (Omotesand\u014d, Tokyo), January 2011.\n\"T\u014dky\u014d p\u014dtoreito\" () / \"Tokyo portraits\". [A, S] Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography (Ebisu, Tokyo), August\u2013October 2011.\n\"Anatoria\" (). [T] M2 (Shinjuku, Tokyo), August 2011.\n\"Persona\". [A, S, I, T] Yamagata Museum of Art (Yamagata), December 2011 \u2013 January 2012.\n\"Tokyo Labyrinth\". [S] Zen Foto Gallery (Roppongi, Tokyo), May 2013.\n\"Persona\" / \"Perusona\" (). [A] 14th Documentary Photo Festival Miyazaki, Miyazaki Prefectural Art Museum, August\u2013September 2013.\n\"Asakusa Portraits (1973\u20132008) et India (1982\u20132008)\". [A, I] In between Gallery (Paris), November 2013.\n\"India 1982\u20132011\". [I] Canon Gallery S (Shinagawa, Tokyo), May\u2013June 2014.\n\"Retratos de Asakusa\". [A] , Promoci\u00f3n del Arte (Madrid), September\u2013November 2014.\n\"India 1982\u20132011\". [I] The Museum of Art, Ehime (Matsuyama, Ehime), September\u2013October 2014.\n\"T\u00f4ky\u00f4: voyage \u00e0 Asakusa\". [A, S] Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale, Paris 6. October 2015.\n\"India 1979\u20132016\" [I] Fujifilm Photo Salon (Tokyo), May\u2013June 2017.\n\u300a\u4eba\u7269\u300b\u9b3c\u6d77\u5f18\u96c4\u7684\u8096\u50cf\u6444\u5f71. [A] See+ Art Space / Gallery (Beijing), December 2017 \u2013 February 2018.\n\"Persona\". [A] Photo Gallery Blue Hole (Katagami, Akita), August 2018 \u2013 January 2019.\n\"Persona\". 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\u043e\u0431\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u0432 \u0442\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u043c\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0438", " to depart, but she feels depressed about leaving Robert behind. Narissa appears as the old hag and offers the last poisoned apple to Giselle, promising that it will wipe her memories. She takes a bite and plunges into sleep with mere minutes to live.\n\nNarissa tries escaping with Giselle's body but Edward thwarts her. Realizing that Narissa never cared about him, Nathaniel reveals her plot and apologizes for his previous actions. Robert realizes that true love's kiss is the only force powerful enough to break the apple's curse. Edward's kiss fails to wake Giselle, so he and Nancy prompt Robert to kiss her instead. \n\nWhen Robert kisses her, she awakens. Infuriated, Narissa transforms into a dragon and takes him hostage. Giselle takes Edward's sword and pursues Narissa to the top of the building to rescue Robert. Pip comes to support Giselle and causes Narissa to fall to her death on the streets below. Robert almost falls as well, but Giselle rescues him, and they share another kiss on the roof.\n\nA happy new life unfolds for everyone, showing Edward and Nancy falling in love and marrying in Andalasia while Nathaniel, who stays in New York, and Pip, who returns to Andalasia, each write autobiographies based on their experiences in the real world. Giselle starts a prevalent fashion design business and then forms a happy family with Robert and Morgan in New York.\n\nCast\n\n Amy Adams as Giselle: A singing and dancing princess-to-be who ends up almost having her dream of meeting her prince a reality. Adams was announced to have been cast in the role of Giselle on November 14, 2005. Although the studio was looking for a film star in the role, director Kevin Lima insisted on casting a lesser-known actress. Out of the 300 or so actresses who auditioned for the role, Adams stood out to Lima because not only did she look like a Disney princess but her \"commitment to the character, her ability to escape into the character's being without ever judging the character was overwhelming\". Hailing from Andalasia, Giselle displays similar traits to early Disney Princesses; Lima describes her as \"about 80% Snow White, with some traits borrowed from Cinderella and Princess Aurora from Sleeping Beauty... although her spunkiness comes from Ariel from The Little Mermaid\". She is \"eternally optimistic and romantic\" but is also \"very independent and true to her convictions\". Over the course of the film, she becomes more mature (even stopping her habit of singing in a continuous manner) but maintains her fondness of singing, kindness, innocence and optimism.\n Patrick Dempsey as Robert Philip: A cynical Manhattan divorce attorney at Churchill, Harline & Smith LLP who does not believe in true love, happily-ever-after, or fairy tales since his wife left him and their daughter. He falls in love with Giselle after her adventure to New York City, and her sense of fun gradually rubs off on him over the course of the film. Lima cast Dempsey after Disney was satisfied with the casting of Adams but had wanted more well-known actors in the film. Dempsey, whose starring role on TV series Grey's Anatomy had earned him the nickname \"McDreamy\", was described by Lima as \"a modern-day Prince Charming to today's audience\". The role was challenging for Dempsey because he had to play the straight man to Adams' and Marsden's more outrageous characters.\n James Marsden as Prince Edward: A dim-witted, yet brave, heroic and good-hearted, prince who is baffled by the world of New York once he enters it. Marsden was announced to have been cast on December 6, 2005. At the time Marsden was auditioning, the role of Robert had not been cast but he decided to pursue the role of Prince Edward because he was \"more fun and he responded more to that character\". Edward is a prince in Andalasia and the stepson of Queen Narissa. He is \"very pure, very simple-minded and naive, but innocently narcissistic\".\n Timothy Spall as Nathaniel: A servant of Queen Narissa, who gets controlled through his infatuation with the Queen and his own lack of self-esteem. He initially does Narissa's bidding, but ultimately realizes her true nature and rebels against her. He has a penchant for disguises.\n Idina Menzel as Nancy Tremaine: A fashion designer and Robert's girlfriend. Once Giselle falls in love with Robert, she falls for Edward and leaves with him. Since the role did not require any singing, Menzel said in an interview that \"it was a compliment to be asked to just be hired on my acting talents alone\". She is named after Lady Tremaine, the stepmother from Cinderella.\n Rachel Covey as Morgan Philip: Robert's 6-year-old daughter. Despite her father misunderstanding her and telling her otherwise, she believes in fairy tales and also believes that magic exists.\n Susan Sarandon as Queen Narissa: Edward's evil stepmother, a sorceress, and a megalomaniac with a hatred for Giselle simply for being an obstacle for her to keep her power. Sarandon had been attracted to the project prior to Lima's involvement as director. Since Sarandon's on-screen time was relatively short, it took only two weeks to film her scenes. Narissa's mannerisms, characteristics, powers, and physical features were inspired by such classical Disney villainesses as the Evil Queen from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Maleficent from Sleeping Beauty.\n\nGiselle's chipmunk friend Pip is voiced by Jeff Bennett in Andalasia, where he has no trouble expressing himself through speech, while Enchanted director Kevin Lima voices Pip in the real world, where he must communicate through squeaks and charades. Much of Pip's personality were based on Disney sidekicks such as Mushu from Mulan and Timon from The Lion King. The Andalasia cast also includes Lima's daughter Emma Rose Lima as the bluebird and the fawn, Teala Dunn as a bunny and Fred Tatasciore as the troll. Julie Andrews provides the film's narration.\n\nPaige O'Hara and Judy Kuhn make cameo appearances as soap opera character Angela and a pregnant woman Edward encounters, respectively. John Rothman and Jodi Benson portray, respectively, Robert's boss Carl and secretary Sam, while Tonya Pinkins and Isiah Whitlock Jr. portray Phoebe and Ethan Banks, a couple whose divorce Robert is mediating. Marlon Saunders and Jon McLaughlin appear as vocalists who sing \"That's How You Know\" and \"So Close\", respectively.\n\nProduction\n\nDevelopment\nThe initial script of Enchanted, written by Bill Kelly, was bought by Disney's Touchstone Pictures and Sonnenfeld/Josephson Productions for a reported sum of $450,000 in September 1997. The script was written for three years, but it was thought to be unsuitable for Walt Disney Pictures because it was \"a racier R-rated movie\", inspired by the adult-risque comedy movies in the 1980s and 1990s such as Fast Times at Ridgemont High and American Pie. The first draft of the script had Giselle being mistaken for a stripper when she arrives in New York City. To the frustration of Kelly, the screenplay was rewritten several times, first by Rita Hsiao and then by Todd Alcott. The film was initially scheduled to be released in 2002 with Rob Marshall as director but he withdrew due to \"creative differences\" between the producers and him. In 2001, director Jon Turteltaub was set to direct the film but he left soon after, later working with Disney and Jerry Bruckheimer on the National Treasure franchise. Adam Shankman became the film's director in 2003, while Bob Schooley and Mark McCorkle were hired by Disney to rewrite the script once again. At the time, Disney considered offering the role of Giselle to Kate Hudson or Reese Witherspoon. However, the project did not take off.\n\nOn May 25, 2005, Variety reported that Kevin Lima had been hired as director and Bill Kelly had returned to the project to write a new version of the script. Lima worked with Kelly on the script to combine the main plot of Enchanted with the idea of a \"loving homage\" to Disney's heritage. He created visual storyboard printouts that covered the story of Enchanted from beginning to end, which filled an entire floor of a production building. After Lima showed them to Dick Cook, the chairman of the Walt Disney Studios, he received the green light for the project and a budget of $85 million. Lima began designing the world of Andalasia and storyboarding the movie before a cast was chosen to play the characters. After the actors were hired, he was involved in making the final design of the movie, which made sure the animated characters look like their real-life counterparts.\n\nFilming\nEnchanted is the first feature-length Disney live-action/traditional animation hybrid since Disney's Who Framed Roger Rabbit in 1988, though the traditionally animated characters do not interact in the live-action environment in the same method as they did in Roger Rabbit; however, there are some scenes where live-action characters share the screen with two-dimensional animated characters, for example, a live-action Nathaniel communicating with a cel-drawn Narissa, who is in a cooking pot. The film uses two aspect ratios; it begins in 2.35:1 when the Walt Disney Pictures logo and Enchanted storybook are shown, and then switches to a smaller 1.85:1 aspect ratio for the first animated sequence. The film switches back to 2.35:1 when it becomes live-action and never switches back, even for the remainder of the animated sequences. When this movie was aired on televised networks, the beginning of the movie (minus the Walt Disney Pictures logo and opening credits) was shown in the pillarboxed 4:3 aspect ratio; the remainder of the movie was shown in the 16:9 aspect ratio when it becomes live-action. The fullscreen version uses the 4:3 format during the entire movie, while the open matte version retains the letterboxed 1.85:1 format for the first animated sequence then switches to an open matted 1.85:1 format for the rest of the movie when it switches to live-action. Lima oversaw the direction of both the live-action and animation sequences, which were being produced at the same time Enchanted took almost two years to complete. The animation took about a year to finish while the live-action scenes, which commenced filming on location in New York City during the summer of 2006 and were completed during the animation process, were shot in 72 days.\n\nAnimation\nOut of the film's 107 minutes of running time, ten of the approximately 13 minutes of animation are at the beginning of the film. Lima tried to \"cram every single piece of Disney iconic imagery\" that he could into the first ten minutes, which were done in traditional cel animation (in contrast to computer-generated 3-D animation) as a tribute to past Disney fairy tale films such as Sleeping Beauty, Cinderella, and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. It was the first Disney film theatrically released in America to feature traditional cel animation since Pooh's Heffalump Movie (2005). This film, although quite different in terms of plot from any previous Disney film, also contained obvious homages to other Disney films of the distant past, such as Old Yeller, The Shaggy Dog, Swiss Family Robinson, Bon Voyage!, and Savage Sam. As most of Disney's traditional animation artists were laid off after the computer graphics boom of the late 1990s, the 13 minutes of animation were not done in-house but by the independent Pasadena-based company James Baxter Animation, founded by former Disney animator Baxter.\n\nAlthough Lima wanted the animation to be nostalgic, he wanted Enchanted to have a style of its own. Baxter's team decided to use Art Nouveau as a starting point. For Giselle, the hand-drawn animated character had to be \"a cross between Amy Adams and a classic Disney princess. And not a caricature.\" Seeing Giselle as \"a forest girl, an innocent nymph with flowers in her hair\" and \"a bit of a hippie\", the animators wanted her to be \"flowing, with her hair and clothes. Delicate.\" For Prince Edward, Baxter's team \"worked the hardest on him to make him look like the actor\" because princes \"in these kinds of movies are usually so bland.\" Many prototypes were made for Narissa as Baxter's team wanted her face to \"look like Susan Sarandon. And the costumes had to align closely to the live-action design.\"\n\nTo maintain continuity between the two media, Lima brought in costume designer Mona May during the early stages of the film's production so the costumes would be aligned in both the animated and live-action worlds. He also shot some live-action footage of Amy Adams as Giselle for the animators to use as reference, which also allowed the physical movement of the character to match in both worlds. Test scenes completed by the animators were shown to the actors, allowing them to see how their animated selves would move.\n\nLive-action\n\nPrincipal photography began in April 2006 and ended in July. Because of the sequence setting, the live action scenes were filmed in New York City. However, shooting in New York became problematic as it was in a \"constant state of new stores, scaffolding and renovation\".\n\nThe first scene in New York, which features Giselle emerging from a manhole in the middle of Times Square, was filmed on location in the center of the square. Because of the difficulties in controlling the crowd while filming in Times Square, general pedestrians were featured in the scene with hired extras placed in the immediate foreground. Similarly, a crowd gathered to watch as James Marsden and Timothy Spall filmed their scenes in Times Square. However, the scene Lima found the most challenging to shoot was the musical number, \"That's How You Know\", in Central Park. The five-minute scene took 17 days to finish due to the changing weather, which allowed only seven sunny days for the scene to be filmed. The filming was also hampered at times by Patrick Dempsey's fans. The scene was choreographed by John O'Connell, who had worked on Moulin Rouge! beforehand, and included 300 extras and 150 dancers.\n\nMany scenes were filmed at Steiner Studios, which provided the three large stages that Enchanted needed at the same facility. Other outdoor locations included the Brooklyn Bridge and The Paterno, an apartment building with a curved, heavily embellished, ivory-colored fa\u00e7ade located on the corner of Riverside Drive and 116th Street, which is the residence of the film's characters Robert and Morgan.\n\nCostume design\n\nAll the costumes in the film were designed by Mona May, who had previously worked on Clueless (1995), The Wedding Singer (1998), and The Haunted Mansion (2003). To create the costumes, May spent one year in pre-production working with animators and her costume department of twenty people, while she contracted with five outside costume shops in Los Angeles and New York City. She became involved in the project during the time when the animators were designing the faces and bodies of the characters as they had to \"translate the costumes from two-dimensional drawings to live-action human proportion\". Her goal was to keep the designs \"Disneyesque to the core but bring a little bit of fashion in there and humor and make it something new\". However, May admitted this was difficult \"because they're dealing with iconic Disney characters who have been in the psyche of the viewing audience for so long\".\n\nFor the character of Giselle, her journey to becoming a real woman is reflected in her dresses, which become less fairy tale-like as the film progresses. Her wedding dress at the beginning of the film directly contrasts her modern gown at the end of the film. The wedding dress served to provide a \"humongous contrast to the flat drawings\" and to accentuate the image of a Disney Princess. In order to make the waist look small, the sleeves are designed to be \"extremely pouffy\" and the skirt to be as big as possible, which included a metal hoop that holds up twenty layers of petticoats and ruffles. Altogether, eleven versions of the dress were made for filming, each made of 200 yards (183 m) of silk satin and other fabric, and weighing approximately 40 pounds (18\u00a0kg). On the experience of wearing the wedding dress, Amy Adams described it as \"grueling\" since \"the entire weight was on her hips, so occasionally it felt like she was in traction\".\n\nUnlike Giselle, Prince Edward does not adapt to the real world and James Marsden, who plays Edward, had only one costume designed for him. May's aim was to try \"not to lose Marsden in the craziness of the outfit... where he still looks handsome\". The costume also included padding in the chest, buttocks, and crotch, which gave Marsden the \"same exaggerated proportions as an animated character\" and \"posture \u2013 his back is straight, the sleeves are up and never collapse\".\n\nMay was delighted that Lima \"went for something more fashion-forward\" with Susan Sarandon's Queen Narissa. She decided to make her look like a \"runway lady\", wearing something that is \"still Disney\" but also \"high fashion, like something John Galliano or Thierry Mugler might design\". Since Narissa appears in three media: hand drawn animation, live-action, and computer animation, May had to make sure that the costume would be the same throughout in terms of \"color, shape, and texture\". The costume for Narissa consisted of a leather corset and skirt, which looked \"reptilian\", as well as a cape. Working with the animators, May incorporated parts of the dragon's form into the costume; the cape was designed to look like wings, the layers of the skirt wrap around like a tail and a crown that would turn into horns during Narissa's transformation into a dragon.\n\nMusic\n\nThe film's score was written by accomplished songwriter and composer Alan Menken, who has worked on a number of Disney films previously. Fellow composer Stephen Schwartz wrote the lyrics for six songs, also composed by Menken. Menken and Schwartz previously worked together on the songs for Pocahontas and The Hunchback of Notre Dame.\n\nMenken became involved with the film in the early stages of the film's development and invited Schwartz to resume their collaboration. They began the songwriting process by searching for the right moments in the story in which a song moment was allowed. Schwartz found that it was easier to justify situations in which the characters would burst into songs in Enchanted than in other live-action musicals as its concept \"allowed the characters to sing in a way that was completely integral to the plot of the story.\" The three songs Giselle sings contain references to earlier Disney films. The first song played in the film, \"True Love's Kiss\", was written to be \"a send-up of, and an homage to, the style of those Disney animated features\", namely, \"I'm Wishing\" (Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs) and \"A Dream is a Wish Your Heart", " trance, and electronic pop music.\n\nBorn and raised in Halmstad he moved to Malm\u00f6 in 2006. As a young teen, Basshunter sang in a choir his mother ran. He started producing music at the age of 17, and later he started performing in local venues in his early career. In 2006, he self-released \"Boten Anna\" for free download a few months before he signed with labels Extensive Music and Warner Music Sweden and began commercial releases. His 2007 song \"Now You're Gone\" featuring Bazzheadz is based on Bazzheadz's \"Now You're Gone\" which uses the melody of \"Boten Anna\" with entirely different lyrics.\n\nBasshunter has recorded five studio albums: The Bassmachine (2004), LOL (2006), Now You're Gone \u2013 The Album (2008), Bass Generation (2009), and Calling Time (2013). In addition to his own music, he has written for El Capon, Mange Makers, and Lana Scolaro. He has taken part in the seventh series of the British reality television show Celebrity Big Brother, episodes of the Swedish game show F\u00e5ngarna p\u00e5 fortet, and an episode of the British television quiz show Weakest Link.\n\nHis accolades include a European Border Breakers Award, a Musikf\u00f6rl\u00e4ggarnas pris, a Telia award, and nominations for a BT Digital Music Award, two Grammis, an MTV Europe Music Award, and a Rockbj\u00f6rnen. According to Svenska Dagbladet figures published in 2009, he has sold more than 3 million records.\n\nEarly life \nJonas Erik Altberg was born on 22 December 1984 in Halmstad to Gunhild Elisabet (died 2016), a teacher and school principal as well as union representative for the Swedish Teachers' Union and Karl G\u00f6ran Altberg, who worked for a construction company. He has a younger brother, Joakim; the family lived near Tyl\u00f6sand. In his mid-teens he started singing in a choir his mother ran. He also sang for two years in a rock band, where he became acquainted with experimental music. He attended secondary school with a technical specialization, but moved after two years to , a secondary school in Halmstad with a music specialization. He finished secondary school in 2005, after which he attended college, but did not complete his education.\n\nCareer\n\n2001\u20132006: Beginnings \nAltberg began producing music at the age of 17 after six months of using the software program FruityLoops (FL Studio). He chose the stage name \"Basshunter\" in a reference to his musical style, and described the name as commercial and powerful. His father was tired of hearing the constant pounding when Basshunter was producing music inside the bedroom, so he built him clubhouse.\n\nIn 2004, Basshunter was chosen in an online poll and performed live for the first time at a rave party in \u00c4lmhult. Alex Music released Basshunter's first studio album, The Bassmachine, on 25 August 2004. In 2005, a remastered version of this album with improved sound quality was released. In 2006, Basshunter re-released The Bassmachine as The Bass Machine and also released his first compilation album The Old Shit through his own website. Basshunter's interest in music deepened as time went by. He recorded a YouTube video, entitled Basshunter Tutorial, showing his recording process in FL Studio. The track from the video was covered over 200 times.\n\nBasshunter published his music mainly through the Internet for free download on platforms such as chat channels and gaming websites. He was registered on online communities like Efterfest, LunarStorm, Nattstad, Porrigt, Playahead, Skunk and Trance.nu. For several years he was a DJ in Swedish clubs.\n\n2006\u20132008: LOL \n\nIn March 2006, Basshunter published his song \"Boten Anna\" online and within twenty-four hours, it had been downloaded 37,000 times. Basshunter's single \"Welcome to Rainbow\" was released on 1 April 2006; it included the track \"Boten Anna\". With this success, Basshunter received several proposals from managers and music labels. Swedish DJ and party organizer Joakim Jarny contacted Basshunter via Internet Relay Chat and Jarny was soon overwhelmed by hundreds of requests from club owners in Sweden, Norway and Denmark who wanted Basshunter to perform at their clubs. Jarny contacted his friend Henrik Uhlmann at Extensive Music and in April 2006, Basshunter signed with Extensive Music and Warner Music Sweden. On 9 May 2006, \"Boten Anna\" was officially released as a single. By 8 June 2006, the song had been downloaded over one million times. In that year, he moved to Malm\u00f6, where the headquarters of Extensive Music are located.\n\n\"Boten Anna\" peaked at number one on the Swedish singles chart and reached number 13 on the Swedish Best of All Time list, and was certified platinum. It also reached number one on the Danish singles chart, staying there for 14 weeks, and was certified triple platinum for selling 61,000 copies. It was also certified gold in Austria. \"Boten Anna\" was covered twice by Dutch duo Gebroeders Ko, whose bootleg charted at number three in the Netherlands, right after Basshunter's version. The next cover called reached number two. An official German-language version was released in 2007.\n\nBasshunter's second studio album LOL was released on 28 August 2006. He worked on the album for three-and-a-half weeks, during which Ali Payami helped him with three songs. Basshunter described it as a connection of vocal music with hard dance and hard trance music; Basshunter's use of vocals is a significant departure from his earlier works. An American version of LOL was released on 1 January 2008, with the same Swedish songs as the original album but with lyrics and some titles translated into English. The new release also included new tracks, including \"Now You're Gone\", \"Russia Privjet\", \"The Beat\", \"Jingle Bells\", \"Beer in the Bar\" and \"DotA (Club Mix)\". A special version of this album was released in 2008, and includes the German version of \"Boten Anna\" and three music videos. LOL peaked at number five in Sweden, number four on the Finnish chart and number three on the Danish albums chart, and was certified double platinum in Denmark.\n\nThe second single from LOL, \"Vi sitter i Ventrilo och spelar DotA\", was released on 13 September of the same year. The single peaked at number two in Finland, number six in Sweden, and number seven in Norway and Denmark. It was certified gold in Denmark. His song \"Hall\u00e5 d\u00e4r\" charted at number 51 on Swedish singles chart. The album's third single, a remake of the Christmas song \"Jingle Bells\", was released on 13 November and peaked at number nine in Norway, and number 13 in Sweden. The single also made it onto the Dutch and United Kingdom charts. The single \"Vifta med h\u00e4nderna\", which features the duo Patrik & Lillen, peaked on the Finnish charts at number seven and on the Sweden charts at number 25. On 5 November 2007, a new version of the \"Vi sitter i Ventrilo och spelar DotA\" was released under the title \"DotA\"; it charted on Germany's singles chart. This is different from the 2008 version from Now You're Gone \u2013 The Album.\n\n2007\u20132009: Now You're Gone \u2013 The Album\n\nOn 29 December 2007, an English-language version of \"Boten Anna\" entitled \"Now You're Gone\" was released. A year earlier, in 2006, DJ Mental Theo (under the alias Bazzheadz) had created a bootleg English version called using the melody of \"Boten Anna\" with entirely different lyrics. Initially, Basshunter tried to translate \"Boten Anna\" into English but found it difficult to keep the \"hock\" and the story so he recorded his own version of \"Now You're Gone\" with DJ Mental Theo's lyrics. It was the initial release for Hard2Beat Records label (later Dance Nation). The single charted at number one in the United Kingdom, where it peaked at number one for five weeks. It was the first Swedish song to reach number one in the United Kingdom since \"Dancing Queen\" by ABBA. \"Now You're Gone\" sold in excess of 667,000 copies in the United Kingdom and was certified platinum there. It also charted on the UK Top 100 Songs of the Decade list. \"Now You're Gone\" also stayed at the top for five weeks in Ireland, made it to number two on the Swedish chart, and number three in New Zealand, where the single was certified platinum. On the French singles chart, \"Now You're Gone\" peaked at number six. \"Now You're Gone\" also charted at number four on the European Hot 100 Singles chart.\n\nThe next single \"Please Don't Go\", a cover of the KC and the Sunshine Band 1979 song, was released on 19 May 2008 and reached number six on the Swedish singles chart. The third single \"All I Ever Wanted\" was released on 29 June 2008 and peaked at number 2 in the United Kingdom, where it sold about 400,000 copies and was certified gold. It reached number one on the Irish singles chart. The single \"All I Ever Wanted\" was certified gold in New Zealand and charted at number 10 on the European Hot 100 Singles chart.\n\nBasshunter worked on Now You're Gone \u2013 The Album for two-and-a-half weeks before releasing it on 14 July 2008. The album entered the UK Albums Chart at number one sold 376,017 copies in the United Kingdom, and was certified platinum there. It also topped the album chart in New Zealand and was certified platinum there. Now You're Gone \u2013 The Album charted at number two in Ireland and reached number six on the European Top 100 Albums chart. The song \"Angel in the Night\" was released as a single on 8 September 2008; it charted at number 10 in Ireland and number 14 in the United Kingdom. It also charted in Sweden. In 2008 Basshunter became the 11th-best-selling singles songwriter in the United Kingdom according to eight months of data compiled by Official Charts Company.\n\nThe album's fifth single \"I Miss You\" is a dance cover of a Westlife song and was released on 14 December 2008. The single appeared on the United Kingdom, Swedish, and German charts. On 5 April 2009, the single \"Walk on Water\" was released, as was a deluxe edition of the album that includes all of the original album together with remixes of singles; \"I Can Walk on Water\" was replaced with the single version and renamed \"Walk on Water\".\n\n2009: Bass Generation \n\nOn 25 September 2009, Basshunter's fourth studio album Bass Generation, was released. The Double Album Version includes remixes of some of his singles, and the tracks \"Without Stars\" and the Swedish version of \"Camilla\". In early September 2009, prior to the album's release, the track \"Numbers\" was released as a free download via Basshunter's official Bebo account. Bass Generation reached number two in New Zealand, and number 16 in the United Kingdom and Irish album charts. It sold more than 60,000 copies and was certified silver in the United Kingdom.\n\nThe track \"Every Morning\" was released as a single on 18 September 2009; it reached number 13 on Swedish singles chart and number 14 in New Zealand. It peaked at number 17 in the United Kingdom and Ireland. \"I Promised Myself\", a cover of a Nick Kamen hit, was released on 29 November 2009.\n\n2010\u20132013: Calling Time and The Early Bedroom Sessions \nThe single \"Saturday\" was released on 5 July 2010; it reached number 14 on the New Zealand chart and was certified gold there. It also charted in the United Kingdom and Ireland. On 20 April 2011, the next Basshunter single \"Fest i hela huset\", which was recorded during his time in the Swedish Big Brother series, was released. The single charted at number five on the Swedish singles chart. His following single \"Northern Light\" was released on 14 May 2012 and the next single \"Dream on the Dancefloor\" was released on 18 November that year.\n\nBasshunter's compilation album The Early Bedroom Sessions, which consists of tracks from albums The Bassmachine and The Old Shit, other early releases and unreleased tracks, was released on 3 December 2012. In 2012, Basshunter moved to Dubai and he also lived in Mallorca for six months. Extensive Music also moved to Dubai.\n\nOn 13 May 2013, Basshunter's fifth album Calling Time was released. In the version released in Ireland and in the United Kingdom, the track \"Saturday\" was replaced with \"Open Your Eyes\". Basshunter recorded more than 30 tracks for Calling Time and selected the final fifteen; he said he \"tried to grow as an artist\" with an album that has \"classic Basshunter sounds\" and previously unreleased music. The album charted at number 25 on the US Dance/Electronic Albums chart. On 20 June 2013, the single \"Crash & Burn\" was released; it charted on the Russian airplay chart. The last single from the album was \"Calling Time\", which was released on 27 September.\n\n2013\u2013present: Singles \nOn 26 July 2013 Basshunter announced he was retiring from singing to focus on DJing, producing, and songwriting. He met new artists and invited them to sing on his songs. He made the decision after four exhaustive performances in four days. On 20 November 2013, the single \"Elinor\" was released. In 2014, Basshunter announced a new album was in work. In 2016, Basshunter returned to recording; he said he would not release a new studio album but would focus on recording singles in accordance with prevailing trends in music industry. Almost after five years since his last single, on 19 October 2018, the single \"Masterpiece\" was released; it did not appear on major national charts. Since then, he has released five more singles: \"Home\" (2019), \"Angels Ain't Listening\" (2020) and \"Life Speaks to Me\" (2021); a tribute to Avicii. His 2022 \"End the Lies\" is a collaboration with Italian duo . In 2023 he collaborated with Victor Leksell on \"Ingen kan sl\u00e5 (Boten Anna)\". It peaked at number four on the Swedish singles chart.\n\nArtistry\n\nMusical style \nBasshunter defines his music as eurodance. He says it is cheerful, full of energy and very melodic, stating it does not sound like other types of music, and that producers and artists display their own identities in their works. He is passionate about basslines and uses them in his music. Basshunter likes to create songs in minor scales. He has at least five unknown pseudonyms under which he produces music in secret. He always takes his laptop on concert tours so he can spontaneously record ideas and return to them when he is back in his main studio. Basshunter composes music and writes lyrics himself, though sometimes his agent helps with the lyrics to find the right English words. He likes to write lyrics that audiences can identify with. In 2018 Basshunter said that the music industry changed in previous years and it is harder now more than ever to stand out from other artists because it is easier to produce music. He added that it is more important than ever to adapt and an artist has to create something that people haven't heard before and described it as a holy grail. In 2020 Basshunter described himself as quite an emotional producer after a few years break from producing music.\n\nAs influences, he mentions listening to and , and bands Warp Brothers and Snap!. He also listened to many underground tracks that had never been released or are not widely known by the general public, as well as German and Dutch techno music, trance, reggae, funk and blues music; particularly the music of Ray Charles. He considers Ali Payami as one of the best music producers, songwriters and DJ's. The first music release he bought is a single \"The Way\" by Fastball in the 1990s. He is fan of Robbie Williams. Basshunter's work has influenced Avicii, Bladee, DCPA, Earmake and Thaiboy Digital. CMAT, Johan Gunterberg from De Vet Du, , , Surf Mesa and Linda Thelenius like Basshunter's music. Stef\u00e1n Finnbogason from Sykur and Throttle listen to Basshunter's music.\n\nThe first computer Basshunter used was the Atari ST. After achieving commercial success, he bought software to produce his music. Around 95% of his music is created with software, including digital audio workstations such as FL Studio, Logic Pro, Logic Studio, Pro Tools, Cubase, and Virtual Studio Technology plugins. He also plays guitar. He said stores buy an album for about 100 Swedish krona, of which he gets paid 12-13 percent. He said people think he listens to techno in his headphones all the time but he rarely listen to the music he produces, which gives him a wider perspective.\n\nBasshunter considers his fan base to be very important for his career and knows many of his non-Scandinavian fans actually prefer his songs to be in Swedish. Writing in English may be an advantage for reaching international audiences but he has also said he likes the challenge of writing songs in English.\n\nLive performances \n\nBasshunter tries to plan the shows but actually presents his live performances as improvisations. 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\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443\n\u041d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432, \u0441\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0438 2010 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430:\n\n\u0412\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e\u00a0\u2014 6\u00a0293\u00a0129 \u0447\u0435\u043b.\n\n \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435\u00a0\u2014 4\u00a0964\u00a0107 (78,88\u00a0%)\n \u042f\u043a\u0443\u0442\u044b\u00a0\u2014 469\u00a0897 (7,47\u00a0%)\n \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0446\u044b\u00a0\u2014 154\u00a0954 (2,46\u00a0%)\n \u041a\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0439\u0446\u044b\u00a0\u2014 56\u00a0973 (0,91\u00a0%)\n \u0422\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u00a0\u2014 40\u00a0003 (0,64\u00a0%)\n \u042d\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0438\u00a0\u2014 27\u00a0030 (0,43\u00a0%)\n \u0411\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0441\u044b\u00a0\u2014 24\u00a0502 (0,39\u00a0%)\n \u042d\u0432\u0435\u043d\u044b (\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0443\u0442\u044b)\u00a0\u2014 22\u00a0172 (0,35\u00a0%)\n \u0423\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0438\u00a0\u2014 19\u00a0561 (0,31\u00a0%)\n \u0410\u0440\u043c\u044f\u043d\u0435\u00a0\u2014 19\u00a0157 (0,30\u00a0%)\n \u0410\u0437\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0430\u0439\u0434\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0446\u044b\u00a0\u2014 16\u00a0150 (0,26\u00a0%)\n \u0427\u0443\u043a\u0447\u0438\u00a0\u2014 15\u00a0396 (0,24\u00a0%)\n \u041d\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0439\u0446\u044b\u00a0\u2014 11\u00a0784 (0,19\u00a0%)\n \u0411\u0443\u0440\u044f\u0442\u044b\u00a0\u2014 10\u00a0942 (0,17\u00a0%)\n \u041a\u0438\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0437\u044b\u00a0\u2014 9562 (0,15\u00a0%)\n \u041a\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0439\u0446\u044b\u00a0\u2014 8788 (0,14\u00a0%)\n \u041c\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u2014 8618 (0,14\u00a0%)\n \u041d\u0435\u043c\u0446\u044b\u00a0\u2014 8141 (0,13\u00a0%)\n \u0422\u0430\u0434\u0436\u0438\u043a\u0438\u00a0\u2014 7891 (0,13\u00a0%)\n \u041a\u043e\u0440\u044f\u043a\u0438\u00a0\u2014 7723 (0,12\u00a0%)\n \u0427\u0443\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0438\u00a0\u2014 7402 (0,12\u00a0%)\n \u0411\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0438\u0440\u044b\u00a0\u2014 6784 (0,11\u00a0%)\n \u041c\u043e\u043b\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0435\u00a0\u2014 6683 (0,11\u00a0%)\n \u041a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\u0438\u00a0\u2014 4687 (0,07\u00a0%)\n \u0415\u0432\u0440\u0435\u0438\u00a0\u2014 4626 (0,07\u00a0%)\n \u041d\u0438\u0432\u0445\u0438\u00a0\u2014 4544 (0,07\u00a0%)\n \u0418\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044b\u00a0\u2014 3092 (0,05\u00a0%)\n \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0446\u044b\u00a0\u2014 2771 (0,04\u00a0%)\n \u0423\u043b\u044c\u0447\u0438\u00a0\u2014 2700 (0,04\u00a0%)\n \u041b\u0438\u0446\u0430, \u043d\u0435 \u0443\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u00a0\u2014 295\u00a0359 (4,69\u00a0%)\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432 \u0432 2002 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443\n \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435\u00a0\u2014 5\u00a0470\u00a0759 \u0447\u0435\u043b. (81,74\u00a0%)\n \u042f\u043a\u0443\u0442\u044b\u00a0\u2014 435\u00a0610 (6,51\u00a0%)\n \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0446\u044b\u00a0\u2014 283\u00a0000 (4,23\u00a0%)\n \u041a\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0439\u0446\u044b\u00a0\u2014 61\u00a0946 (0,93\u00a0%)\n \u0422\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u00a0\u2014 55\u00a0361 (0,83\u00a0%)\n \u0411\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0441\u044b\u00a0\u2014 45\u00a0342 (0,68\u00a0%)\n \u042d\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0438\u00a0\u2014 24\u00a0761 (0,37\u00a0%)\n \u042d\u0432\u0435\u043d\u044b\u00a0\u2014 18\u00a0737 (0,28\u00a0%)\n \u0410\u0437\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0430\u0439\u0434\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0446\u044b\u00a0\u2014 18\u00a0094 (0,27\u00a0%)\n \u041b\u0438\u0446\u0430, \u043d\u0435 \u0443\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u00a0\u2014 43\u00a0747 (0,65\u00a0%)\n\n\u042f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0438 \n\u041f\u043e \u044d\u0442\u043d\u043e-\u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0443 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b \u0438 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0438:\n \u0418\u043d\u0434\u043e\u0435\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f\u00a0\u2014 5\u00a0202\u00a0564 \u0447\u0435\u043b. (82,67\u00a0%)\n \u0421\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0430\u00a0\u2014 5\u00a0147\u00a0124 (81,79\u00a0%)\n \u0410\u0440\u043c\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0430\u00a0\u2014 19\u00a0157 (0,30\u00a0%)\n \u0418\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0430\u00a0\u2014 11\u00a0094 (0,18\u00a0%)\n \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0430\u00a0\u2014 8608 (0,14\u00a0%)\n \u0420\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0430\u00a0\u2014 6982 (0,11\u00a0%)\n \u0422\u044e\u0440\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f\u00a0\u2014 582\u00a0770 (9,26\u00a0%)\n \u0422\u0443\u043d\u0433\u0443\u0441\u043e-\u043c\u0430\u043d\u044c\u0447\u0436\u0443\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f\u00a0\u2014 66\u00a0740 (1,06\u00a0%)\n \u041a\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0439\u0446\u044b\u00a0\u2014 56\u00a0973 (0,91\u00a0%)\n \u0427\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f\u00a0\u2014 28\u00a0077 (0,45\u00a0%)\n \u0423\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f\u00a0\u2014 15\u00a0708 (0,25\u00a0%)\n \u041c\u043e\u043d\u0433\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f\u00a0\u2014 11\u00a0512 (0,18\u00a0%)\n \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f\u00a0\u2014 10\u00a0318 (0,16\u00a0%)\n \u0421\u0438\u043d\u043e-\u0442\u0438\u0431\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f\u00a0\u2014 8811 (0,14\u00a0%)\n \u041d\u0438\u0432\u0445\u0438\u00a0\u2014 4544 (0,07\u00a0%)\n \u042e\u043a\u0430\u0433\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f\u00a0\u2014 2534 (0,04\u00a0%)\n \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f\u00a0\u2014 2359 (0,04\u00a0%)\n \u042d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0443\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f\u00a0\u2014 2049 (0,03\u00a0%)\n\n\u042d\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u044b\n\n\u042d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043a\u0430 \n\n\u0412 2009 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442 (\u0412\u0420\u041f) \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0443\u0448\u0443 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b 268 \u0442\u044b\u0441. \u0440\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0439, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043d\u0430 19\u00a0% \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u0432 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438.\n\n\u0412 2000-\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445 \u0432 \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043a\u0435 \u0414\u0424\u041e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439\u0447\u0438\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442, \u043d\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0440\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439\u0441\u044f \u0434\u0430\u0436\u0435 \u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0441\u0430 2008\u20142009 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432. C 1999 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e 2010 \u0433\u043e\u0434 \u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442 \u0414\u0424\u041e \u0432\u044b\u0440\u043e\u0441 \u043d\u0430 73\u00a0%. \u041f\u0440\u0438 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0441 2009 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442 \u0412\u0420\u041f \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439. \u0422\u0430\u043a, \u0432 2009 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0412\u0420\u041f \u0414\u0424\u041e \u0432\u044b\u0440\u043e\u0441 \u043d\u0430 1,5\u00a0% (\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 7,6\u00a0%), \u0432 2010 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430 6,8\u00a0% (\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430 4,6\u00a0%). \u0412 2011 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0451\u043c \u0412\u0420\u041f \u0443\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 5,4\u00a0% \u043f\u043e \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0441 2010 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b 2,3\u00a0\u0442\u0440\u043b\u043d \u0440\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0439.\n\n\u041e\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0412\u0420\u041f \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 (\u043f\u043e \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0437\u0430 2010 \u0433\u043e\u0434):\n \u0421\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0438 \u043b\u0435\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e, \u0440\u044b\u0431\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u00a0\u2014 6,5\u00a0%\n \u0414\u043e\u0431\u044b\u0447\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0445\u00a0\u2014 24,7\u00a0%\n \u041e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u00a0\u2014 5,6\u00a0%\n \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0438, \u0433\u0430\u0437\u0430 \u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u044b\u00a0\u2014 4,2\u00a0%\n \u0421\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u00a0\u2014 12,2\u00a0%\n \u0422\u043e\u0440\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043b\u044f\u00a0\u2014 10,2\u00a0%\n \u0413\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0446\u044b \u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044b\u00a0\u2014 0,8\u00a0%\n \u0422\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442 \u0438 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u044c\u00a0\u2014 13,4\u00a0%\n \u041e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u0437\u0434\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00a0\u2014 7,7\u00a0%\n \u0424\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0441\u044b \u0438 \u0443\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433\u0438\u00a0\u2014 7,3\u00a0%\n \u0413\u043e\u0441\u0443\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u00a0\u2014 7,4\u00a0%\n\n\u041e\u0431\u044a\u0451\u043c \u0438\u043d\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0439 \u0432 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0432 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0435 \u0432 2010 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b 726\u00a0\u043c\u043b\u0440\u0434 \u0440\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u043b\u0438 115 \u0442\u044b\u0441. \u0440\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0443\u0448\u0443 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u041e\u0431\u044a\u0451\u043c \u0438\u043d\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0443\u0448\u0443 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0414\u0424\u041e \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044f.\n\n\u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0440\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0430, \u043f\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0434\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439. \u0412 2010 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0437\u0430\u0440\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0432 \u0414\u0424\u041e \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0430 25,8 \u0442\u044b\u0441. \u0440\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0432 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0446 (\u043d\u0430 23\u00a0% \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u043e \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438), \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 20,8 \u0442\u044b\u0441. \u0440\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0432 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0446 (\u043d\u0430 10\u00a0% \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438), \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u044f\u044f \u043f\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 8,9 \u0442\u044b\u0441. \u0440\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0435\u0439. \u0421 2000 \u043f\u043e 2010 \u0433\u043e\u0434 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u044f\u044f \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0437\u0430\u0440\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434 \u0432 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0435 \u0443\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0432 8 \u0440\u0430\u0437, \u0430 \u043f\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 9 \u0440\u0430\u0437. \u0422\u0435\u043c \u043d\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0435, \u0432\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0443 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0442\u044f\u0436\u0451\u043b\u043e\u0439 \u0438 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\u043f\u0440\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f 319 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043b\u0435\u0439, \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435, \u0447\u0435\u043c \u0432 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u043c \u043f\u043e \u0420\u0424.\n\n\u0421\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \n\u0423\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u0441 \u0414\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0444\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 \u0432 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u043c \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0451\u043c\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 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2,5\u00a0%.\n\n\u041f\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u044c\u0435 \u041a\u0420\u0421 \u043d\u0430 1 \u0438\u044e\u043b\u044f 2021 \u0432 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u0445 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0439 1279,7 \u0442\u044b\u0441\u044f\u0447 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432 (-0,5\u00a0%), \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 504,9 \u0442\u044b\u0441. \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432 (+0,8\u00a0%), \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0432 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f 64,4\u00a0%. \u041f\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u044c\u0435 \u0441\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0439 586,7 \u0442\u044b\u0441\u044f\u0447 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432 (+13,5\u00a0%), , \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0432 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f 22,4\u00a0%. \u0412 1 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0438 2021 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043c\u044f\u0441\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u043e 92,5 \u0442\u044b\u0441. \u0442\u043e\u043d\u043d (\u0432 \u0436\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043c \u0432\u0435\u0441\u0435) (+11,9\u00a0%), \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043a\u0430 407,9 \u0442\u044b\u0441. \u0442\u043e\u043d\u043d (-1,8\u00a0%), \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0432 \u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f 64,2\u00a0%.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0442\u044b \n\n\u041d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0442\u044b \u0441 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 25 \u0442\u044b\u0441\u044f\u0447 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a\n\n\u041f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0424\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0414\u0424\u041e \n\n \u041f\u0443\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439, \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (18 \u043c\u0430\u044f 2000 / 26 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430 2004\u00a0\u2014 14 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 2005)\n \u0418\u0441\u0445\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u041a\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043b\u044c \u0428\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (14 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 2005\u00a0\u2014 2 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 2007)\n \u0421\u0430\u0444\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u041e\u043b\u0435\u0433 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (29 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 2007 / 14 \u043c\u0430\u044f 2008\u00a0\u2014 30 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f 2009)\n \u0418\u0448\u0430\u0435\u0432, \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (30 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f 2009 / 21 \u043c\u0430\u044f 2012\u00a0\u2014 31 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430 2013)\n \u0422\u0440\u0443\u0442\u043d\u0435\u0432, \u042e\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u0441 31 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430 2013 / 18 \u043c\u0430\u044f 2018)\n\n\u0421\u043c. \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \n 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\u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c \u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0444\u0438\u0440\u043c\u0430 \u00abAudes LLC \u041e\u00dc\u00bb, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0443\u044e \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0432 \u0421\u0428\u0410 \u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430. \u0421\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043b\u044c \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443 \u0431\u0435\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u00abBetoonimeister\u00bb.\n\n\u0422\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043c \n\u0419\u044b\u0445\u0432\u0438 \u0441\u043b\u0430\u0431\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0442\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434. \u041d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0441 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442 \u0426\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044c \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u043b\u0430, \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0439, \u0438 \u0425\u0440\u0430\u043c \u0411\u043e\u0433\u043e\u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0413\u043e\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044f. \u0421\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0442\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0438\u043c\u0443\u043b\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c, \u0430 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u044f\u043c\u0438. \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0448\u0430, \u0432\u0435\u0442\u0440\u044f\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430, \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u043b \u0438 \u0440\u044f\u0434 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u0412 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 3 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0446\u044b ( \u00abHostel Nele\u00bb, \u00abP\u00e4\u00e4suke\u00bb \u0438 \u00abWironia\u00bb).\n\n\u0422\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442 \n\u0412\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0437\u043a\u0438 \u0432 \u0419\u044b\u0445\u0432\u0438 \u043e\u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0431\u0443\u0441\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0440\u0443\u0442\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0438 \u043b\u0435\u0433\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438. \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0440\u0443\u0442\u044b \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0442\u0430\u043a, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0442 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0441 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u041a\u043e\u0445\u0442\u043b\u0430-\u042f\u0440\u0432\u0435, \u0432 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0410\u0445\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438 \u042f\u0440\u0432\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438. \u0422\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0419\u044b\u0445\u0432\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043d \u0441 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0431\u0443\u0441\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0438 \u0436\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0436\u043d\u044b\u043c", "7)\n1929 \u2013 Valery Alekseyev, Russian anthropologist and author (d. 1991)\n 1929 \u2013 Ulrich Wegener, German police officer and general (d. 2017)\n1930 \u2013 Gylmar dos Santos Neves, Brazilian footballer (d. 2013)\n1932 \u2013 Gerald P. Carr, American engineer, colonel, and astronaut (d. 2020)\n1933 \u2013 Sylva Koscina, Italian actress (d. 1994)\n1934 \u2013 Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr., American general and engineer (d. 2012)\n1935 \u2013 Annie Proulx, American novelist, short story writer, and journalist\n1936 \u2013 Chuck Brown, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2012)\n 1936 \u2013 John Callaway, American journalist and producer (d. 2009)\n 1936 \u2013 Dale Hawkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010)\n 1936 \u2013 Werner Stengel, German roller coaster designer and engineer, designed the Maverick roller coaster\n1938 \u2013 Jean Berkey, American businesswoman and politician (d. 2013)\n1939 \u2013 Valerie Harper, American actress (d. 2019)\n 1939 \u2013 Carl Yastrzemski, American baseball player\n1941 \u2013 Bill Parcells, American football player and coach\n1943 \u2013 Alun Michael, Welsh police commissioner and politician, inaugural First Minister of Wales\n 1943 \u2013 Masatoshi Shima, Japanese computer scientist and engineer, co-designed the Intel 4004\n1944 \u2013 Roger Cashmore, English physicist and academic\n1945 \u2013 David Chase, American screenwriter and producer\n 1945 \u2013 Ron Dante, American singer-songwriter and producer \n1947 \u2013 Cindy Williams, American actress and producer (d. 2023)\n1948 \u2013 David Marks, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n1949 \u2013 Diana Nyad, American swimmer and author\n1949 \u2013 Joop Donkervoort, Dutch businessman\n1950 \u2013 Ray Burris, American baseball player and coach\n 1950 \u2013 Scooter Libby, American lawyer and politician, Chief of Staff to the Vice President of the United States\n1952 \u2013 Peter Laughner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1977)\n1953 \u2013 Paul Ellering, American weightlifter, wrestler, and manager\n1955 \u2013 Chiranjeevi, Indian film actor, producer and politician\n1956 \u2013 Paul Molitor, American baseball player and coach\n 1956 \u2013 Peter Taylor, Australian cricketer\n1957 \u2013 Steve Davis, English snooker player, sportscaster, and author\n 1957 \u2013 Holly Dunn, American country music singer-songwriter (d. 2016)\n1958 \u2013 Colm Feore, American-Canadian actor\n 1958 \u2013 Stevie Ray, American semi-retired wrestler\n 1958 \u2013 Vernon Reid, English-born American guitarist and songwriter\n1959 \u2013 Juan Croucier, Cuban-American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer \n 1959 \u2013 Pia Gjellerup, Danish lawyer and politician, Danish Minister of Finance\n 1959 \u2013 Mark Williams, English actor\n1960 \u2013 Holger Gehrke, German footballer and manager\n 1960 \u2013 Collin Raye, American country music singer \n 1960 \u2013 Regina Taylor, American actress and playwright\n1961 \u2013 Andr\u00e9s Calamaro, Argentine singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n 1961 \u2013 Roland Orzabal, English singer and musician\n 1961 \u2013 Debbi Peterson, American singer-songwriter and drummer\n1962 \u2013 Stefano Tilli, Italian sprinter\n1963 \u2013 Tori Amos, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer \n 1963 \u2013 James DeBarge, American R&B/soul singer\n 1963 \u2013 Terry Catledge, American basketball player\n1964 \u2013 Trey Gowdy, American lawyer and U.S. Representative\n 1964 \u2013 Mats Wilander, Swedish-American tennis player and coach\n1965 \u2013 Wendy Botha, South African-Australian surfer\n 1965 \u2013 David Reimer, Canadian man, born male but reassigned female and raised as a girl after a botched circumcision (d. 2004)\n1966 \u2013 GZA, American rapper and producer\n 1966 \u2013 Rob Witschge, Dutch footballer and manager\n1967 \u2013 Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje, English actor\n 1967 \u2013 Ty Burrell, American actor and comedian\n 1967 \u2013 Paul Colman, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist \n 1967 \u2013 Alfred Gough, American screenwriter and producer\n 1967 \u2013 Layne Staley, American singer-songwriter (d. 2002)\n1968 \u2013 Casper Christensen, Danish comedian, actor, and screenwriter\n 1968 \u2013 Rich Lowry, American writer and magazine editor (National Review)\n 1968 \u2013 Aleksandr Mostovoi, Russian footballer\n 1968 \u2013 Elisabeth Murdoch, Australian businesswoman\n 1968 \u2013 Horst Skoff, Austrian tennis player (d. 2008)\n1970 \u2013 Charlie Connelly, English author and broadcaster\n 1970 \u2013 Giada De Laurentiis, Italian-American chef and author\n 1970 \u2013 T\u00edmea Nagy, Hungarian fencer\n1971 \u2013 Richard Armitage, English actor\n 1971 \u2013 Craig Finn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n 1971 \u2013 Melinda Page Hamilton, American actress\n 1971 \u2013 Rick Yune, American actor\n1972 \u2013 Okkert Brits, South African pole vaulter\n 1972 \u2013 Paul Doucette, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and drummer \n 1972 \u2013 Steve Kline, American baseball player and coach\n 1972 \u2013 Max Wilson, German-Brazilian race car driver\n1973 \u2013 Roslina Bakar, Malaysian sport shooter\n 1973 \u2013 Beenie Man, Jamaican deejay\n 1973 \u2013 Howie Dorough, American singer-songwriter and dancer\n 1973 \u2013 Kristen Wiig, American actress, comedian, and screenwriter\n 1973 \u2013 Eurelijus \u017dukauskas, Lithuanian basketball player\n1974 \u2013 Cory Gardner, American politician\n 1974 \u2013 Jenna Leigh Green, American actress and singer\n 1974 \u2013 Agust\u00edn Pichot, Argentinian rugby player\n1975 \u2013 Clint Bolton, Australian footballer\n 1975 \u2013 Rodrigo Santoro, Brazilian actor\n1976 \u2013 Marius Bezykornovas, Lithuanian footballer\n 1976 \u2013 Bryn Davies, American bassist, cellist, and pianist\n 1976 \u2013 Laurent Hernu, French decathlete\n 1976 \u2013 Jeff Weaver, American baseball player\n 1976 \u2013 Randy Wolf, American baseball player\n1977 \u2013 Hei\u00f0ar Helguson, Icelandic footballer\n 1977 \u2013 Keren Cytter, Israeli visual artist and writer\n1978 \u2013 James Corden, English actor, comedian, writer, and television presenter \n 1978 \u2013 Ioannis Gagaloudis, Greek basketball player\n1979 \u2013 Brandon Adams, American actor\n 1979 \u2013 Matt Walters, American football player\n1980 \u2013 Roland Benschneider, German footballer\n 1980 \u2013 Nicolas Macrozonaris, Canadian sprinter\n 1980 \u2013 Aya Sumika, American actress\n 1980 \u2013 Seiko Yamamoto, Japanese wrestler\n1981 \u2013 Alex Holmes, American football player\n 1981 \u2013 Jang Hyun-kyu, South Korean footballer (d. 2012)\n 1981 \u2013 Christina Obergf\u00f6ll, German athlete\n1983 \u2013 Theo Bos, Dutch cyclist\n 1983 \u2013 Jahri Evans, American football player\n1984 \u2013 Lee Camp, English footballer\n 1984 \u2013 Lawrence Quaye, Ghanaian-Qatari footballer\n1985 \u2013 Luke Russert, American journalist\n 1985 \u2013 Jey Uso, Samoan-American wrestler\n 1985 \u2013 Jimmy Uso, Samoan-American wrestler \n 1985 \u2013 Salih Yolu\u00e7, Turkish Automobile Racer\n1986 \u2013 Stephen Ireland, Irish footballer\n 1986 \u2013 Tokush\u014dry\u016b Makoto, Japanese sumo wrestler\n 1986 \u2013 Pac, English wrestler\n1987 \u2013 Leonardo Moracci, Italian footballer\n 1987 \u2013 Apollo Crews, American wrestler\n1989 \u2013 Giacomo Bonaventura, Italian footballer\n1990 \u2013 Randall Cobb, American football player\n 1990 \u2013 Drew Hutchison, American baseball player\n 1990 \u2013 Robbie Rochow, Australian rugby league player\n 1990 \u2013 Adam Thielen, American football player\n1991 \u2013 Federico Macheda, Italian footballer\n 1991 \u2013 Brayden Schenn, Canadian ice hockey player\n1992 \u2013 Ema Burgi\u0107 Bucko, Bosnian tennis player\n 1992 \u2013 Ari Stidham, American actor\n1993 \u2013 Dillon Danis, American mixed martial artist\n1994 \u2013 Israel Broussard, American actor\n 1994 \u2013 Olli M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4, Finnish ice hockey player\n1995 \u2013 Dua Lipa, English singer-songwriter\n1996 \u2013 Jessica-Jane Applegate, British Paralympic swimmer\n 1996 \u2013 Jeon So-min, South Korean singer-songwriter\n1997 \u2013 Maxx Crosby, American football player\n 1997 \u2013 Lautaro Mart\u00ednez, Argentine footballer\n2001 \u2013 LaMelo Ball, American basketball player\n\nDeaths\n\nPre-1600\n 408 \u2013 Stilicho, Roman general (b. 359)\n1155 \u2013 Emperor Konoe of Japan (b. 1139)\n1241 \u2013 Pope Gregory IX, (b. 1143)\n1280 \u2013 Pope Nicholas III (b. 1225)\n1304 \u2013 John II, Count of Holland (b. 1247)\n1338 \u2013 William II, Duke of Athens (b. 1312)\n1350 \u2013 Philip VI of France (b. 1293)\n1358 \u2013 Isabella of France (b. 1295)\n1425 \u2013 Eleanor, Princess of Asturias (b. 1423)\n1456 \u2013 Vladislav II of Wallachia\n1485 \u2013 Richard III of England (b. 1452)\n 1485 \u2013 James Harrington, Yorkist knight\n 1485 \u2013 John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk (b. 1430)\n 1485 \u2013 Richard Ratcliffe, supporter of Richard III\n 1485 \u2013 William Brandon, supporter of Henry VII (b. 1426)\n1532 \u2013 William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1450)\n1545 \u2013 Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, English politician and husband of Mary Tudor (b. c. 1484)\n1553 \u2013 John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, English admiral and politician, Lord President of the Council (b. 1504)\n1572 \u2013 Thomas Percy, 7th Earl of Northumberland, English leader of the Rising of the North (b. 1528)\n1584 \u2013 Jan Kochanowski, Polish poet and playwright (b. 1530)\n1599 \u2013 Luca Marenzio, Italian singer-songwriter (b. 1553)\n\n1601\u20131900\n1607 \u2013 Bartholomew Gosnold, English lawyer and explorer, founded the London Company (b. 1572)\n1652 \u2013 Jacob De la Gardie, Estonian-Swedish soldier and politician, Lord High Constable of Sweden (b. 1583)\n1664 \u2013 Maria Cunitz, Polish astronomer and author (b. 1610)\n1680 \u2013 John George II, Elector of Saxony (b. 1613)\n1681 \u2013 Philippe Delano, Dutch Plymouth Colony settler (b. 1602)\n1701 \u2013 John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1628)\n1711 \u2013 Louis Fran\u00e7ois, duc de Boufflers, French general (b. 1644)\n1752 \u2013 William Whiston, English mathematician, historian, and theologian (b. 1667)\n1773 \u2013 George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton, English poet and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b. 1709)\n1793 \u2013 Louis de Noailles, French general (b. 1713)\n1797 \u2013 Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser, French-Austrian field marshal (b. 1724)\n1806 \u2013 Jean-Honor\u00e9 Fragonard, French painter and illustrator (b. 1732)\n1818 \u2013 Warren Hastings, English lawyer and politician, 1st Governor-General of Bengal (b. 1732)\n1828 \u2013 Franz Joseph Gall, Austrian neuroanatomist and physiologist (b. 1758)\n1850 \u2013 Nikolaus Lenau, Romanian-Austrian poet and author (b. 1802)\n1861 \u2013 Xianfeng, Emperor of China (b. 1831)\n1888 \u2013 \u00c1goston Trefort, Hungarian jurist and politician, Hungarian Minister of Education (b. 1817)\n1891 \u2013 Jan Neruda, Czech journalist, author, and poet (b. 1834)\n\n1901\u2013present\n1903 \u2013 Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, English academic and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1830)\n1904 \u2013 Kate Chopin, American novelist and poet (b. 1850)\n1909 \u2013 Henry Radcliffe Crocker, English dermatologist and author (b. 1846)\n1914 \u2013 Giacomo Radini-Tedeschi, Italian bishop and academic (b. 1859)\n1918 \u2013 Korbinian Brodmann, German neurologist and academic (b. 1868)\n1920 \u2013 Anders Zorn, Swedish artist (b. 1860)\n1922 \u2013 Michael Collins, Irish rebel, counter-intelligence and military tactician, and politician; 2nd Irish Minister of Finance (b. 1890)\n1926 \u2013 Charles William Eliot, American academic (b. 1834)\n1933 \u2013 Alexandros Kontoulis, Greek general and diplomat (b. 1858)\n1940 \u2013 Oliver Lodge, English physicist and academic (b. 1851)\n 1940 \u2013 Gerald Strickland, 1st Baron Strickland, Maltese lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Malta (b. 1861)\n1942 \u2013 Michel Fokine, Russian dancer and choreographer (b. 1880)\n1946 \u2013 D\u00f6me Szt\u00f3jay, Hungarian general and politician, 35th Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1883)\n1950 \u2013 Kirk Bryan, American geologist and academic (b. 1888)\n1951 \u2013 Jack Bickell, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (b. 1884)\n1953 \u2013 Jim Tabor, American baseball player (b. 1916)\n1958 \u2013 Roger Martin du Gard, French novelist and paleographer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1881)\n1960 \u2013 Johannes Sikkar, Estonian soldier and politician, Prime Minister of Estonia in exile (b. 1897)\n1963 \u2013 William Morris, 1st Viscount Nuffield, English businessman and philanthropist, founded Morris Motors (b. 1877)\n1967 \u2013 Gregory Goodwin Pincus, American biologist and academic, co-created the birth-control pill (b. 1903)\n1970 \u2013 Vladimir Propp, Russian philologist and scholar (b. 1895)\n1971 \u2013 Birger Nerman, Swedish archaeologist (b. 1888)\n1974 \u2013 Jacob Bronowski, Polish-English mathematician, biologist, and author (b. 1908)\n1976 \u2013 Gina Bachauer, Greek pianist and composer (b. 1913)\n 1976 \u2013 Juscelino Kubitschek, Brazilian physician and politician, 21st President of Brazil (b. 1902)\n", "-seat soccer stadium, a multipurpose indoor arena, a swimming pool, a squash court, and a gym.\n\nThe university campus is divided into two sections. The Medical Faculties Complex is located at the northern part of the university and houses the faculties of Dentistry, Medicine, Nursing, Applied Medical Sciences, Pharmacy and Science and Arts. The Engineering Faculties Complex is located at the southern part of the university and includes the faculties of Agriculture, Computer and Information Technology, Engineering, Architecture and Design and Veterinary Medicine. Buses shuttle students from one complex to the other.\n\nThere are two libraries in JUST, one in the Engineering Faculties Complex and the other is in the Medical Faculties Complex. The two-floor library at the Medical Faculties Complex contains 115,000 books, and 45,000 volumes of back issues of periodicals, which makes it the main library at the university. At the present time, a third library is being constructed in the area between the Engineering Faculties Complex and the Medical Faculties Complex which is larger in size than both existing libraries.\n\nThere are three restaurants for students; one in each main campus, and one located near the soccer stadium.\n\nEvery department has a computer laboratory for the students to use. There are also two open labs one in each campus and six additional labs, which are available for the graduate and undergraduate computer science students and students who are taking related courses at the PH building located at the Medicine Faculties Building. The campus is covered by a wireless internet connection (WLAN).\n\nKing Abdullah University Hospital\n\nNamed after the first king of modern Jordan, Abdullah I bin al-Hussein, the King Abdullah University Hospital (KAUH) is the largest hospital in northern Jordan, serving approximately one million inhabitants of the Irbid, Ajloun, Jerash, and Mafraq governorates. It is also the teaching hospital affiliated with Jordan University of Science and Technology, located within the campus adjacent to the university's Medical Faculties Complex. The hospital is staffed with full-time physicians and surgeons who are faculty members of the JUST Faculty of Medicine, in addition to many others from the Ministry of Health, and the Royal Medical Services (RMS). The overall area of various hospital buildings is 95583m\u00b2, in addition to a double story car park of 9000m\u00b2 area. The hospital has a bed capacity of 683 which can be increased to 800 beds in an emergency situation.\n\nStructurally, the hospital is composed of a 15-storey high-rise building, in which all hospital beds are located, and a 3-story low-rise buildings in which patient clinics, diagnostic and other services are located. The hospital is connected to various health science faculties via the ground floor of the low-rise building. The hospital includes the departments of General Surgery, Special Surgery, Emergency Department, Pediatrics, Obstetrics and Gynecology, Internal Medicine and Dermatology, Cardiac Center, Diagnostic X-Ray, Pathology and Laboratory, Endoscopy Unit, Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation, Physiology Function Test, Neuroscience, Nursing and Information System Department.\n\nAcademics\nJordan University of Science and Technology is home to twelve faculties. The medium of teaching at the university; lectures, exams, and tuition, are primarily in English language, with Arabic being used mainly to facilitate student understanding as the greater majority of students are of Arab background.\n\nMedical Faculties Complex\n\nA group of building in the northern part of the university comprising the faculties of Medicine, Dentistry, Pharmacy, Nursing, Applied Medical Sciences, and Science and Arts.\n\nMedicine\nThe JUST Faculty of Medicine, the second medical school in Jordan, was established in Yarmouk University at the northern city of Irbid in 1984; the faculty then branched out into Jordan University of Science and Technology in 1986. The faculty is closely associated with King Abdullah University Hospital, the teaching hospital where postgraduate students undergo their residencies.\nAs the faculty's main teaching hospital, KAUH provide students with the opportunity to attend lectures, tutorials, clinics, ward rounds, and surgeries. Medical students graduating from JUST are widely renowned for their achievements in the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE), gaining postgraduate positions in well-known global institutions. Furthermore, the Faculty of Medicine has been an active participant in medical research and has hosted numerous international events and conferences, with focus on subjects in relation to myocardial protection and research, pediatrics, anesthesia, and internal medicine. As of September 2011, the faculty will be hosting the Fellow of the Royal College of Pathologists (FRC Path) Part 1 written exams in all Pathology specialties, which will enable Jordanian and Arab Pathologists to sit the exam outside the UK.\n\nNature of the Medical Program\nThe Faculty of Medicine awards the Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery (MBBS) after completion of six years comprising three years of medical sciences and three clinical years. Students are admitted to medicine based solely on their grade point average in their high school national general exam (Tawjihi); there are neither entrance interviews nor psychometric exams. The cutoff average used for admissions into medicine is the highest among all the other disciplines offered by universities. For example, the cutoff average used over the past five years has been: 94.9 (2005), 96.3 (2006), 97 (2007), 96.8 (2008), and 97.7 (2009). Although in the minority, the faculty of medicine accepts students from Israel, Palestine, Syria, Arab states of the Persian Gulf, Malaysia, and other countries. Tuition is significantly higher for the foreign students. Initially, the faculty at JUST accepted 50 students into the program, but that number has grown to more than 200 in recent years.\n\nDuring the first year and a half of their program, students are taught basic science in a traditional format. In an integrated\nmodule fashion, the next year and half is devoted to studying nine body systems: cardiovascular, respiratory, hematopoietic, digestive, endocrine, musculoskeletal, neuroscience 1 and 2, and reproductive and urinary. Towards the end of the third year students begin direct contact with patients in hospital settings. The last three years are spent in supervised inpatient and outpatient settings to develop their diagnostic and treatment competencies; the clinical years begin fully at the beginning of year 4 where students rotate through various areas of general clinical medicine. Year 5 continues this pattern focusing more on specialized areas of medicine and surgery. In total, students are required to complete 257 hours of classes divided among compulsory and elective courses. After completion of their 6th year, students are required to complete internship (imtiaz), which is a one-year term in general practice for which they are not compensated for.\n\nEvaluations are based primarily on written exams (marks are based on two midterms and one end of term exam) and percentage grades appear on transcripts. Practical exams are solely based on an objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) type of standardized exams. In the final year, the school of medicine invites external examiners (from the United States, Britain, among others) to participate in student evaluations and to benefit from the experience of others.\n\nResidency\nStudents looking to specialize can apply for residency programs after completion of imtiaz (internship). Most residency programs are four years in length, but notable exceptions include neurosurgery (6 years), general surgery (5 years), orthopedic surgery (5 years), and urology (5 years). Residency programs are divided into two broad groups: major and minor specialties. Major programs include internal medicine, pediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology, while the rest are considered minor. This division reflects the number of available seats and thus the competitiveness of each specialty. Faculty of Medicine\n\nDentistry\n\nThe Faculty of Dentistry at Jordan University of Science and Technology was founded by a royal decree on 16 September 1983 and the first group of students was admitted in the academic year 1984/1985. The faculty offers facilities for undergraduate and postgraduate training and is developing programs for all professionals in dentistry who wish to continue their education and obtain further qualifications. Faculty of Dentistry\n\nPharmacy\nThe Faculty of Pharmacy, the first in Jordan, was established as a department of the Faculty of Medical Sciences at Yarmouk University by a royal decree in 1979. The rapid growth and development of the department led to the transformation of the department into an independent faculty on September 19, 1983. Three years later -in September 1986\u2013 the Faculty of Pharmacy became affiliated with JUST. Faculty of Pharmacy\n\nNursing\nThe Faculty of Nursing was established in 1983 with only 2 faculty members and 23 students. It currently consists of 23 PhD, and 22 Masters prepared faculty members (Adult, Maternal Child, Community & Midwifery) placed in the four departments of the faculty; this body is supported by 27 MSN or BSN qualified clinical trainers. Faculty of Nursing\n\nApplied Medical Sciences\nThe Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences was established in 2000, and was housed in several makeshift facilities. It was created to educate allied health professionals to fill crucial shortages in the health care needs of the people in Jordan. The faculty has since become a dynamic and vital member of the university health team. The faculty also has a number of sponsored students who are pursuing graduate studies leading to M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in various majors at well-known universities in the US, UK, and Australia. Upon graduation, they will join the faculty. Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences\n\nScience and Arts\nThe Faculty of Science and Arts was established by a decree from the Council of Higher Education on January 26, 1987. It commenced its duties as of September 1, 1987. The faculty, one of the oldest and largest at the university, holds seven departments and a program of forensic science, offers both bachelor's and master's degrees and gives students the chance to choose from a plethora of disciplines that employ several pedagogical approaches involving classroom instruction, independent research, student-as-teacher approach, and internships or practical experience. Faculty of Science and Arts\n\nEngineering Faculties Complex\n\nThis is a group of buildings in the southern part of the university housing the faculties of Engineering, Agriculture, Information Technology, Architecture and Design, Veterinary Medicine, and Graduate Studies.\n\nEngineering\nThe Faculty of Engineering is the largest faculty in the university, with its 61 research and teaching labs. It comprises the departments of Biomedical Engineering, Aeronautical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Industrial Engineering, Mechanical Engineering power and mechatronics, and Nuclear Engineering. The Faculty takes part and is accredited by the United States Engineering Accreditation Commission (EAC) of (ABET).\n\nAgriculture\nThe Faculty of Agriculture was established by a royal decree on October 2, 1985. Study began at the faculty in 1989/1990 with 71 students, to grow into over 1100 students in the academic year 2006/2007, including 100 graduate students. The faculty began with only nine faculty members upon its establishment. Currently, the number has increased into 48 faculty members in four academic departments.\n\nInformation Technology\nThe Faculty of Information Technology was established in 2000. The Faculty consists of five departments: Computer Engineering, Computer Science, Computer Information System, Software Engineering, and Network Engineering.\n\nArchitecture and Design\nThe Faculty of Architecture and Design awards both bachelor's degrees and master's degrees and comprises the departments of architecture and urban planning. It participates yearly in the Arab Architectural Graduation Project Exhibition, which started as Bilad Al Sham Graduation Project Exhibition.\n\nVeterinary Medicine\nThe Faculty of Veterinary Medicine was established at JUST in 1990 as a response to the national objective of improving animal health and productivity by increasing their efficiency and thereby reducing the cost of animal production. It is the only Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Jordan. It also houses a Veterinary Health Center (VHC), which serves the purpose of clinical training for students and provides veterinary services to the public. The faculty is a research and a consultative center, in addition to its basic function in promoting and sustaining high standards of undergraduate and postgraduate programs. The faculty is an active member of the Arab Association of Veterinary Medical Faculties and it houses its office.\n\nGraduate Studies\nThe Faculty of Graduate Studies provides advanced studies in different fields including Medicine, Applied Medical Sciences, Science, Nursing, Dentistry, Pharmacy, Veterinary Medicine, Agriculture, Engineering and Computer Technology. The faculty is entrusted with setting the rules and regulations pertinent to graduate programs and degrees and pursuing the implementation of these regulations.\n\nEach faculty is best known with a color:\n\nResearch\nSince its establishment, JUST has given its utmost priority to academic research. In this vein, the Deanship of Research commenced its activities at the early stages of the university establishment during the academic year 1986/1987. Research, basic and applied, is amongst the principal priorities of the university. Training and supervision in research methodology, especially for postgraduate students, is reinforced by several research centers, such as the Queen Rania Center for Environmental Science and Technology, Consultative Center for Science and Technology, Energy Center, Pharmaceutical Research Center, Princess Haya Biotechnology Center, and the Agricultural Center for Research & Production.\n\nResearch funding has steadily grown since the establishment of JUST in 1986, and an average of 200 research projects are sponsored and funded each year. As testimony to this development, JUST was ranked as the top research university in Jordan, and amongst the top 3% universities in the Islamic world, according to a study carried out by the Ankara-based Statistical, Economic and Social Research and Training Center for Islamic Countries (SESRTCIC).\n\nNature Journal has reported Jordan as having the highest number of researchers in research and development per million people among all the 57 countries members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). In Jordan there are 2,000 researchers per million people, while the average among the members of OIC is 500 researchers per million people. This means that the number of researchers per population in Jordan, is higher than Italy, Israel and Greece and just close to the number in United Kingdom and Ireland.\n\nThe Deanship of Research at JUST is the administrative and technical body that facilitates, regulates and observes the processes concerning research. It works in a collaborative and complementary manner with other faculties and administrative bodies of the university. Any research on humans should be approved by the Institutional Research Board (IRB) and any research on animals should be approved by the university Animal Care and Use Committee (ACUC) before being funded. Deanship of Research\n\nNuclear Science and Technology Center\n\nIn consistence with Jordan's efforts to develop and use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and lessen its dependence on fossil fuel, and in co-ordinance with the Department of Nuclear Engineering of JUST, a nuclear research reactor, the first in the country, has been set to be built in the university campus which will serve as an integral part of the nuclear technology infrastructure of Jordan.\n\nThe five-megawatt (MW) nuclear research reactor, which was inaugurated in December 2016, will become the focal point for a Nuclear Science and Technology Center (NSTC) in JUST, playing the primary role in educating and training the upcoming generations of nuclear engineers and scientists, and providing irradiation services in support of the Jordanian industrial, agricultural and health/medical infrastructures.\n\nThe nuclear research reactor center will include radioisotope production and training facilities, future expansion of the center will include a fuel fabrication plant, as well as radioactive waste and cold neutron facilities. The reactor, which will be upgradeable to 10MW, will facilitate the training of nuclear operators and technicians as well as advanced nuclear research in neutron sciences and the commercial production of radioisotopes, it will also allow for practical experience for Jordanians in nuclear energy, reactor physics, radiochemistry and radiation protection. The research reactor is considered by Jordan Atomic Energy Commission (JAEC) officials to be an important precursor to Jordan's first nuclear power plant, a 750\u20131,000MW Generation III reactor to be built in an area in Mafraq 40 kilometers northeast of Amman and 15 kilometers away from the Hashemite University.\n\nLibrary\n\nThe library collection comprises 115,000 books, and 45,000 volumes of periodicals back issues. In organizing its collection, the Library adopts the Library of Congress Classification Scheme, and uses the Anglo-American Cataloging Rules (AACR2) and the International Standard of Bibliographic Description (ISBD).\n\nThe total floor area of the library is estimated as 12.500 square meters, and it can accommodate 2.500 visitors at the same time due to the large area that the library has.\n\nTo cope with the new technologies in the field of library and information science, the library started in 1993 to offer retrieved information services through a good number of necessary databases, which are published on CD-ROM or online (WAN) subscriptions.\n\nThere are two libraries in JUST, one in the Engineering Faculties Complex and the other is in the Medical Faculties Complex. While both libraries give the students an appropriate and suitable place for reading and studying, the two-floor library at the Medical Faculties Complex is relatively larger, also contains 115,000 books, and 45,000 volumes of back issues of periodicals, which makes it the main library at the university. At the present time, a third library is being built in the area between the two complexes and is larger in size than both existing libraries and is set to become the largest library in the Middle East.\n\nPublications\n\nThe university issues a quarterly journal called the Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering (JJCE). The journal is internationally peer-reviewed. Subjects covered include applications of civil rehabilatations, structural control, smart materials, earthquake engineering, geotechnical engineering and soil/rock mechanics, dam engineering, traffic and transportation engineering, water and environmental engineering, construction management and project planning, surveying and mapping, and infrastructures engineering, as well as numerical and analytical methods.\n\nThe Deanship of Research is responsible for the funding of research publications by staff members and students, as well as managing the Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering.\n\nStudent Newspaper\nJust for Just, is an electronic newspaper initiated by the students of the university.\n\nStudents\nA students' union is elected annually to represent the students. Student clubs that are responsible for organizing various events throughout the academic year. Of the most prominent of these clubs are the Medical Club, Great Arab Revolt Club, Media Club, Science Club, International student Club, Chess Club, and Culture Club.\n\nInternational community\nThe number of international students at JUST continues to rise; in the academic year 2005/2006, more than 3,500 students of 48 nationalities came from outside Jordan. As of the academic year 2009/2010, the university had 5,415 international students from 61 different nationalities, rendering it the most cultural-diverse university in Jordan. 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\u0433\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f\u0445.\n\n\u041e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0431\u0435\u0437\u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440 \u0431\u044b\u043b Ned Steinberger, \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440 \u0438 \u0434\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0439\u043d\u0435\u0440 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432. \u0412 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0435 1980-\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u043e\u043d \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b \u0441\u0432\u043e\u044e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0443\u044e \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0431\u0435\u0437\u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 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\u0432\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0430\u044e\u0442 Steinberger, Strandberg, \u0438 Ibanez. \u041c\u043d\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0432\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0436\u0430\u043d\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0438, \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0422\u043e\u043d\u0438 \u041b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u043d (Tony Levin), \u0414\u0436\u0435\u0444\u0444 \u0411\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0438\u043d (Jeff Berlin), \u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0434\u0436\u0435\u0440 \u0413\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440 (Roger Glover), \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u043e\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u0431\u0435\u0437\u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0445.\n\n\u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 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\u041a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0442\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442 \u0422\u0440\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0438\u00bb (Portrait of Tracy) \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430 \u0414\u0436\u0430\u043a\u043e \u041f\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0443\u0441\u0430.\n\n\u0412\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0442\u044b \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u043a\u0438 \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b \n\u0420\u0430\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0438 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0439 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\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u044b \u0434\u043e \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0439 (\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439).\n\n\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\n\n D# G# C# F# (\u0440\u0435 \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0434\u043e \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0444\u0430 \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u044b \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0430.\n D G C F (\u0440\u0435-\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c-\u0434\u043e-\u0444\u0430)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u044b \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u043e\u043d.\n C# F# B E (\u0434\u043e \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0444\u0430 \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0441\u0438-\u043c\u0438)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u044b \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0442\u043e\u043d\u0430.\n C F A# D# (\u0434\u043e-\u0444\u0430-\u043b\u044f \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0440\u0435 \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u044b \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u0442\u043e\u043d\u0430.\n C G D A (\u0434\u043e-\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c-\u0440\u0435-\u043b\u044f)\u00a0\u2014 \u0447\u0435\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0430 \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u0442\u043e\u043d\u0430, \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442\u044c\u044f \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u043e\u043d, \u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0442\u043e\u043d \u2014 \u00ab\u0432\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439\u00bb \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439. \u0427\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u00ab\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438\u00bb \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043a\u0440\u0438\u043f\u043a\u0435, \u0432\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0435.\n\n\u0422\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0442\u0430\u043a \u043d\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0435 Dropped-\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438:\n\n D A D G (\u0440\u0435-\u043b\u044f-\u0440\u0435-\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c)\u00a0\u2014 \u0447\u0435\u0442\u0432\u0451\u0440\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0430 \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0442\u043e\u043d, \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043d\u044b \u043f\u043e \u044d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0443.\n C# G# C# F# (\u0434\u043e \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0434\u043e \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0444\u0430 \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u044b \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0430, \u0430 \u0447\u0435\u0442\u0432\u0451\u0440\u0442\u0430\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430.\n C G C F (\u0434\u043e-\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c-\u0434\u043e-\u0444\u0430)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u044b \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0442\u043e\u043d, \u0430 \u0447\u0435\u0442\u0432\u0451\u0440\u0442\u0430\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0432\u0430.\n B F# B E (\u0441\u0438-\u0444\u0430 \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0441\u0438-\u043c\u0438)\u00a0\u2014 \u0447\u0435\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0430 \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u0441 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u043d\u0430, \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430.\n\n\u0412 \u043f\u0430\u043d\u043a-\u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u0435 \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044e\u0442, \u0430 \u043d\u0430\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u044e\u0442, \u043d\u043e \u043d\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u0434\u0430.\n\n F A# D# G# (\u0444\u0430-\u043b\u044f \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0440\u0435 \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u044b \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0430.\n F# B E A (\u0444\u0430 \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0441\u0438-\u043c\u0438-\u043b\u044f)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u044b \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0442\u043e\u043d.\n\n\u0421\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438 \u043f\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\n\n B E A D G (\u0441\u0438-\u043c\u0438-\u043b\u044f-\u0440\u0435-\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c)\u00a0\u2014 \u044d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439. \u041d\u0430 \u0441\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u044f\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0430.\n E A D G C (\u043c\u0438-\u043b\u044f-\u0440\u0435-\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c-\u0434\u043e)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u043a\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b \u0441 \u0434\u043e\u0431\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043d\u0435 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043d\u0438\u0437\u043a\u043e\u0439, \u0430 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u044b \u00ab\u0434\u043e\u00bb \u0438\u0437 \u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430. \u0420\u0430\u0441\u0448\u0438\u0440\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0441\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043d\u0435\u043c \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435, \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0443\u0449\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043d\u0438\u0436\u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0434\u0438\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430, \u0432\u044b\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u0433\u043b\u0443\u0448\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d.\n C G D A \u0415 (\u0434\u043e-\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c-\u0440\u0435-\u043b\u044f-\u043c\u0438) \u2014 \u043f\u044f\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0430 \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u0442\u043e\u043d\u0430, \u0447\u0435\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0430\u044f \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u043e\u043d, \u0430 \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0442\u043e\u043d, \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u044f \u2014 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0430 \u00ab\u043c\u0438\u00bb \u0438\u0437 \u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430. \u0414\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u00ab\u0432\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e-\u0441\u043a\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439\u00bb \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0430\u043a \u0436\u0435 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u00ab\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438\u00bb \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043a\u0440\u0438\u043f\u043a\u0435, \u0432\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0435.\n A# D# G# C# F# (\u043b\u044f \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0440\u0435 \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0434\u043e \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437-\u0444\u0430 \u0434\u0438\u0435\u0437)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u044b \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0430.\n A D G C F (\u043b\u044f-\u0440\u0435-\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c-\u0434\u043e-\u0444\u0430)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u044b \u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u043e\u043d. \u041d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b, \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0435\u00a0\u2014 Korn \u0438 Pantera.\n\n\u0421\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\n\n B E A D G C (\u0441\u0438-\u043c\u0438-\u043b\u044f-\u0440\u0435-\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c-\u0434\u043e)\u00a0\u2014 \u044d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439. \u041e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0434\u043e\u0431\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u043e, \u0430 \u043d\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0438, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0430\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0435.\n\n\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\n\n \u0441\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430 B E A D G C F (\u0441\u0438-\u043c\u0438-\u043b\u044f-\u0440\u0435-\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c-\u0434\u043e-\u0444\u0430)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0432 1987 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443.\n \u0432\u043e\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f, \u0434\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u0438- \u0438 \u0434\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0446\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0437 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d \u043e\u0431\u044b\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0447\u0435\u0442\u044b\u0440\u0451\u0445 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0443, \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u043c\u0443\u044e \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0443 \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435 (\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e \u0434\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0446\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0435), \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0451\u0442 \u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044d\u0444\u0444\u0435\u043a\u0442. \u041d\u0430 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\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0443\u0442\u043e \u0437\u0430 \u0441\u0447\u0451\u0442 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0442\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0437\u0443\u0440\u044b \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0437\u0430 \u0441\u0447\u0451\u0442 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d. \u0421\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u043d\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0440\u044b \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0438\u043a\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u044b\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441. \u041f\u0438\u043a\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e \u0431\u0430\u0441 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043d \u043a\u0430\u043a \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430, \u043d\u043e \u0438\u043c\u0435\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u0451 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u0431\u0440, \u0432\u0435\u0440\u043e\u044f\u0442\u043d\u043e, \u0438\u0437-\u0437\u0430 \u0437\u0432\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0441\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0438\u043f\u0430 \u0438 \u0443\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0437\u0443\u0440\u044b (\u0435\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0437\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b). \u0412 \u043e\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0442 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b \u0431\u0430\u0441 \u043f\u0438\u043a\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e \u043d\u0435 \u0443\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u044f. \u041e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0438\u0437 \u044f\u0440\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u043e\u0432 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0443\u0441\u043b\u044b\u0448\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u043c\u0435 \u0414\u0436\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u041f\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0447\u0447\u0438 \u00abOne More Angel\u00bb.\n\n \u041a\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0435\u0449\u0451 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b, \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e 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Waterloo \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0431\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0446\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438\u0437 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0435\u043c\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0446\u0430\u0442\u0438 \u0445\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0440\u044f\u0434 \u0432 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u043a\u0435. \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0433\u043b\u0438 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0438\u043d\u044b: Mamma Mia (1976), Fernando (1976), Dancing Queen (1976), Knowing Me, Knowing You (1977), The Name Of The Game (1977), Take A Chance On Me (1978), The Winner Takes It All (1980), Super Trouper (1980). \u0412\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043d\u044e\u044e \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0443 \u0447\u0430\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b, \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u043e \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0438 Greatest Hits, \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u0434\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0432 \u0428\u0432\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435 1975\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430. \u0414\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0447\u0435\u0442\u0432\u0451\u0440\u043a\u0438 \u0437\u0430 \u043e\u043a\u0435\u0430\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u043a\u0443\u0434\u0430 \u0441\u043a\u0440\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0435\u0435: \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e Dancing Queen \u0432 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 1977\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044e \u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u0441\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0430. \u0422\u0440\u0438 \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u043c\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u0421\u0428\u0410 \u00ab\u0437\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u044b\u043c\u0438\u00bb \u0438 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e The Album (1977) \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u00ab\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\u00bb.\n\n18 \u0438\u044e\u043d\u044f 1976\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 ABBA \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0451\u043c \u0428\u0432\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0443\u043d\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0432\u0430\u0434\u044c\u0431\u044b, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0432 \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0441\u0435\u043c \u043d\u043e\u0432\u0443\u044e \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e Dancing Queen. \u0412 \u0444\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0435 1977\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043e\u043d\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0435 (\u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0430 \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0410\u043b\u044c\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442-\u0445\u043e\u043b\u043b\u0435 (11 \u0442\u044b\u0441\u044f\u0447 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442) \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0438\u043b\u043e 3,5 \u043c\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u044f\u0432\u043e\u043a). \u0424\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0430 \u0432 \u0410\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0441\u043d\u044f\u0442\u0430 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u00ab\u0410\u0411\u0411\u0410\u00bb. 15 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f \u0442\u0430\u043c \u0436\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0438 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430. \u041d\u0430 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0430 \u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0432\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c 1977\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430. 9 \u044f\u043d\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044f 1979\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u043b \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u0431\u043b\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u042e\u041d\u0418\u0421\u0415\u0424 \u0432 \u041d\u044c\u044e-\u0419\u043e\u0440\u043a\u0435 \u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043b \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0434\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044b \u043e\u0442 \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0430 Chiquitita. 13 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 1979\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0432 \u042d\u0434\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0435 (\u041a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0430) ABBA \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0451 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0435. \u0413\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f \u0432 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435.\n\n\u0421 \u0437\u0438\u043c\u044b 1981/1982 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0442\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043f\u0430\u0434. \u0412 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u0435 1982\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u043b \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0433\u043b ABBA Under Attack.\n\n\u0421 1983\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0430 \u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0435\u0439\u0441\u044f, \u0445\u043e\u0442\u044f \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u043e\u0431 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u044a\u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c.\n\n\u041d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 ABBA, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0438 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0439 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0438 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0451\u043d \u0434\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u0431\u0443\u043c\u0430, \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0432 1992\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443. \u041a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f Polydor \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0445\u0438\u0442\u044b \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0432\u0443\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043a\u0442-\u0434\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0445. Erasure \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438-\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u043c \u0441 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0440-\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c ABBA-esque, \u0430 \u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0430 Bjorn again \u0434\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0445\u0430 \u0441 \u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0438 \u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043e \u0443\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0435\u043c\u044b\u043c \u0438\u043c\u0438\u0434\u0436\u0435\u043c \u0438 \u0437\u0432\u0443\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b ABBA.\n\n\u0414\u043e 1972\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430: \u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0440\u044b \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \n\u0411\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438 \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043d (\u0440. 16 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f 1946, \u0421\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0433\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043c) \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0448\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0448\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043f-\u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b \u00abHep Stars\u00bb, \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435 1960-\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432, \u0447\u0435\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0430\u0440 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043b \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0438\u043c\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u0438\u0437 \u043a\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0440-\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0445\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0432. \u0421 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u043c \u0438\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0448\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u00ab\u0411\u0438\u0442\u043b\u0437\u00bb: \u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0436\u0438\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441 \u044d\u0444\u0444\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0448\u043e\u0443 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0444\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u044b\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u0432\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0438. \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043d \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0437\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0435 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043e\u0440\u0438\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b, \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u0437 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0445\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438.\n\n\u0411\u044c\u043e\u0440\u043d \u0423\u043b\u044c\u0432\u0435\u0443\u0441 (\u0440. 25 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f 1945, 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\u043d\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043e\u0441\u0435\u043d\u044c\u044e 1969\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430. \u0414\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438\u0437 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043d\u044b \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0433\u043b \u0432\u0435\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 1970\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430: \u00abShe's My Kind of Girl\u00bb \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u00abInga Theme\u00bb (\u0437\u0430\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430) \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435. \u041e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0443 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\u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e \u043a\u0430\u043a ABBA. \u042d\u0442\u043e \u0441\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u0448\u0443\u0442\u043a\u043e\u0439, \u0442\u0430\u043a \u043a\u0430\u043a \u00abAbba\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0448\u0438\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0432 \u0428\u0432\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0440\u0435\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0432. \u041f\u043e \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c \u0424\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433, \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u043c\u044b \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u0410-\u0411-\u0411-\u0410, \u043c\u044b \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u043d\u044b \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0443 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438. \u0422\u0430\u043c \u043d\u0430\u043c \u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0438: \u201e\u0421\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0441\u043d\u044b, \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0441\u043c\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0435, \u0447\u0442\u043e\u0431\u044b \u043d\u0430\u043c \u043d\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u0437\u0430 \u0432\u0430\u0441 \u0441\u0442\u044b\u0434\u043d\u043e\u201c. \u041d\u0435 \u0434\u0443\u043c\u0430\u044e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0438\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0448\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u0441\u0442\u044b\u0434\u0438\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u0437\u0430 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0443\u00bb. \u0413\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0441 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0442\u0435. \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u00ab\u0410\u043b\u0438\u0431\u0430\u0431\u0430\u00bb \u0438 \u00ab\u0411\u0410\u0411\u0410\u00bb.\n\n\u0412 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437 \u0438\u043c\u044f ABBA \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0439\u0434\u0435\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043d\u0430 \u0431\u0443\u043c\u0430\u0433\u0435 \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0443\u0434\u0438\u0438 Metronome Studio \u0432 \u0421\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0433\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435 16 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 1973\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430. \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u043c \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0433\u043b\u043e\u043c, \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u044d\u0442\u0438\u043c \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043c, \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u00abWaterloo\u00bb.\n\n\u0418\u0434\u0435\u044f \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u00ab\u0444\u0438\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u00bb \u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0442\u0438\u043f\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0430 \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0431\u0430\u0440\u0445\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0451\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430 Bravo. \u041d\u0430 \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b ABBA \u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0433\u0438\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0431\u0443\u043a\u0432\u044b \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u043c\u0451\u043d. \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0441\u043d\u0438\u043c\u043a\u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0441\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043d\u044b, \u0425\u0430\u0439\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0430\u043d\u043d \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043b, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0411\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438 \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043d \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0443\u043b \u0441\u0432\u043e\u044e \u0431\u0443\u043a\u0432\u0443 \u00ab\u0412\u00bb. \u042d\u0442\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0434\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u043b\u0438 \u044d\u0442\u043e \u043d\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0448\u0438\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0439\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c, \u0438 \u0432 \u0438\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0435 \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u044c \u044d\u0442\u0443 \u0431\u0443\u043a\u0432\u0443 \u043e\u0442\u0437\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439. \u041e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0442 \u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0442\u0438\u043f\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043d \u0420\u0443\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0421\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043c, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043b \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043e\u0431\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043a \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a ABBA. \u0410\u043c\u0431\u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u0430 \u0432\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435 Golden Double Album, \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0432 \u043c\u0430\u0435 1976\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 Disques Vogue, \u0438 \u0441 \u0442\u0435\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u0440 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0430 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b Polygram \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0442\u044b \u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0442\u0438\u043f\u0430 ABBA, \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u044f \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0439 \u0448\u0440\u0438\u0444\u0442. \u0412 1992\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 Polygram \u0434\u043e\u0431\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b \u043a \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u044d\u043c\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u044b \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits. \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043a\u0430\u043a Universal Music \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435\u043b\u0430 Polygram (\u0430 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e, \u0438 \u043b\u0435\u0439\u0431\u043b ABBA Polar Music International), \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0434 \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043c \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b \u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0443\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0421\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0433\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043c. \u0421 \u0442\u0435\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u0440 \u043e\u0440\u0438\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0442\u0438\u043f \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0445.\n\n1974\u20141977: \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0443\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0445\u0438 \n1974\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u00ab\u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00bb\n\n\u0412 1972\u20141973\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445 \u0411\u044c\u043e\u0440\u043d, \u0411\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438 \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0434\u0436\u0435\u0440 \u0421\u0442\u0438\u0433 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 Melodifestivalen \u0438 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u041f\u043e\u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0443, \u043a\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u0432 1973\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0438\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u043e\u0432\u0443\u044e \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043e\u0442\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0441 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e, 1974\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u043e\u043d\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0443\u043c\u0438\u0439. \u0412\u044b\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f\u043c\u0438, \u0432 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0443 \u00abHasta Ma\u00f1ana\u00bb, \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0432 \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f 1960-\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0435, \u043e\u043d\u0438 \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u00abWaterloo\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0432\u043f\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0442\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430 \u0433\u043b\u044d\u043c-\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u0410\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0438. Waterloo \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0431\u0435\u0437\u0443\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0433\u043b\u044d\u043c-\u0440\u043e\u043a \u043f\u043e\u043f-\u0441\u0438\u043d\u0433\u043b\u043e\u043c, \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u041c\u0430\u0439\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0422\u0440\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043c \u0441 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0449\u044c\u044e \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0437\u0432\u0443\u043a\u0430\u00bb.\n\nABBA \u0437\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0434\u0446\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438", " however, and the .300 H&H was too long for the standard length Mauser and Springfield rifle actions of the time, barring substantial modifications.\n\nBeginning with the .270 Weatherby Magnum in 1943, Roy Weatherby introduced a popular line of rifle cartridges based on the H&H case shortened to fit a standard length () action. The Weatherby cartridges of any given caliber followed a formula of \"improved\" design, which entailed \"blowing out\" the H&H Magnum parent case, thereby reducing case taper and increasing usable powder capacity. The .300 Weatherby Magnum, an \"improved\", full-length cartridge derived from the .300 H&H was introduced in 1944.\n\nThe larger manufacturers soon noticed Weatherby's standard length magnum case, and in due time followed suit. From 1956 to 1959 Winchester introduced three such cartridges: the .264 Winchester Magnum, .338 Winchester Magnum and .458 Winchester Magnum, all based on the shortened and blown out .375 H&H Magnum case. The popular .30 caliber's omission from that lineup prompted a response by the shooting community and Winchester's competition. Wildcatters soon produced the .30-338 Winchester Magnum and Norma Projektilfabrik, who were by now manufacturing ammunition for Weatherby, took the standard length basic Weatherby brass and necked it down to .30 caliber (7.62\u00a0mm) to form the .308 Norma Magnum.\n\nThe .300 Winchester Magnum was introduced in 1963 by Winchester for use in the Model 70 rifle. Winchester developed the .300 Win Mag by taking the .338 Winchester Magnum, which was introduced in 1958, moving the shoulder forward by and lengthening it by . This resulted in a cartridge with a neck somewhat shorter than the diameter of the bullet. Some gun writers have speculated that, had the cartridge been released earlier, its dimensions would have more closely matched the .30-338 Winchester Magnum wildcat cartridge.\n\nThe .300 Winchester Magnum was not an instant success, mainly due to competition from the comparable 7mm Remington Magnum cartridge introduced in 1962. However, interest among hunters and shooters grew with time, and it gradually became the most popular of the magnum cartridges.\n\nThe .300 Winchester Magnum's broad availability in popular rifles such as the Winchester Model 70, Ruger M77, Remington Model 700 and Weatherby Mark V, together with the wide availability of ammunition from a number of manufacturers, made the cartridge a popular choice among hunters and competitive shooters the world over. Although the .300 H&H Magnum, .300 Weatherby Magnum, .30-338 Winchester Magnum, and the .308 Norma Magnum had a head start on the .300 Win Mag, most of these cartridges eventually faded into obscurity. Only the .300 Win Mag and the .300 Weatherby Mag survived into the 21st century as readily available cartridges, with the Winchester round by far the more popular of the two. New .30 caliber magnums have since been introduced, including the .300 Winchester Short Magnum, .300 Remington Ultra Magnum, .30 Nosler, and 300 PRC; however, none of these have achieved the popularity that the .300 Win Mag retains.\n\nDesign and specifications\nThe .300 Winchester Magnum uses the same case head design of the .375 H&H Magnum, its parent cartridge, though the taper of the round has been significantly reduced to ensure greater case volume. The larger dimensions of the .300 Win Mag compared to the .308 Norma Magnum and .30-338 Winchester Magnum cartridges ensures that rifles chambered in such rounds can readily be rechambered to the .300 Win Mag, though the shorter neck of the longer round necessitates comparable bullets must be seated more deeply in the case.\n\nCartridge dimensions\nThe ammunition standards organizations SAAMI (Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute) and C.I.P. (Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes \u00e0 Feu Portatives) have provided specifications for the .300 Winchester Magnum cartridge. Almost no divergence between C.I.P. and SAAMI dimensional values exist for this cartridge.\nHowever, case volume varies from manufacturer to manufacturer to such an extent that the reloading software suite QuickLOAD provides five differing cartridge case capacities for the cartridge.\nThe SAAMI specification .300 Winchester Magnum case capacity is 91.5 grains of H2O (5.93 ml).\nAccording to QuickLoad, the case capacities of .300 Win Mag brass produced by four ammunition manufacturers measure as follows:\nRemington 88.0 grains of H2O (5.70 ml)\nFederal 92.0 grains of H2O (5.96 ml)\nWinchester 93.8 grains of H2O (6.08 ml)\nNorma 95.5 grains of H2O (6.19 ml)\n\n.300 Winchester Magnum SAAMI cartridge dimensions. All sizes in inches (in) and millimeters (mm). The projectile diameter should be 0.309 in (7.85\u00a0mm)\n\nSAAMI recommends a bore diameter of and a groove diameter of . SAAMI recommended a six-groove barrel with each groove being wide. Recommended twist ratio is 1:10 (254\u00a0mm).\nC.I.P. defines the common rifling twist rate for this cartridge as 254\u00a0mm (1 in 10\u00a0in), 6 grooves, \u00d8 lands = , \u00d8 grooves = , land width = , and the primer type is large rifle magnum.\n\nThe SAAMI Maximum Average Pressure (MAP) for this cartridge is piezo pressure (54,000 CUP).\nAccording to the official C.I.P. (Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes \u00e0 Feu Portatives) rulings the .300 Winchester Magnum can handle up to Pmax piezo pressure. In C.I.P. regulated countries every rifle cartridge combo has to be proofed at 125% of this maximum C.I.P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers. This means that .300 Winchester Magnum chambered arms in C.I.P. regulated countries are currently (2013) proof tested at PE piezo pressure.\n\nPerformance \n\nCapable of stabilizing bullets weights ranging from 110 to 220 grains, the .300 Winchester Magnum happens to be a very versatile cartridge for different purposes and conditions including big game hunting, bench rest shooting and military applications. \n\nThe most useful bullet weights for the .300 Winchester Magnum are those weighing between . However, bullets weighing between are available to the reloader for the .300 Winchester Magnum.\n\n150-grain bullets \nAlthough the 150 grain bullet may have a lower ballistic coefficient than heavier alternatives, this is compensated by its high velocities which extend its maximum point blank range to considerable distances making it suitable for light skinned big game such as deer and sheep, up to considerable distances. Winchester's factory ammunition for the .300 Winchester Magnum is capable of with the bullet and with the bullet, however old Western \"Power Point\" soft point can reach past with projectiles. The maximum point blank range for the bullet is yards when zeroed at . The maximum point blank range for the bullet is 300 yards when zeroed at . The ability to zero the .300 Winchester Magnum and shoot without hold over to makes the cartridge one of the flatter shooting cartridges.\n\n165 grain bullets \nThe 165 grain bullet provides a higher ballistic coefficient than similarly shaped 150 grain bullet while maintaining a very high velocity which is translated into a flatter trajectory. Usually a 165 grain bullet shot from a .300 Win Mag has a muzzle velocity of approximately 3160 fps, which is 100 to 150 fps slower than the lighter 150 grain bullet. A almost similar 168 grain bullet is also popular among the .300 win mag as well as other .30 cal. magnum cartridges.\n\n180-grain bullets \nProbably the most popular weight for the 300 Win Mag is the 180 grain bullet, with high ballistic coefficient and capable of taking down light skinned big game of any weight. The 180 and 185 grain bullets are also considered the most versatile, with a muzzle velocity of 2950 fps from average factory loads.\n\n190 to 220-grain bullets \nDue to its high ballistic coefficients, the heavier bullets are usually preferred by long range shooters being extremely efficient in bucking wind as well as carrying downrange energy capable take down game of any size in America and Europe. These bullets are generally loaded to reach muzzle velocities of 2700 to 2800 fps.\n\nComparison with other .30 Caliber Big Game Cartridges \n\nCompared with the 30-06 Springfield the .300 Winchester Magnum provides a roughly increase in velocity. This translates to about 20% greater energy advantage over the 30-06 Springfield cartridge. Due to the short neck, heavier bullets particularly those weighing greater than and mono-metal bullets such as the Barnes X bullets will need to be seated more deeply into the cartridge. As the bullet will take up volume which could have been taken by the propellant velocity advantages diminish as the weight of the bullet increases.\n\nThe .300 Winchester Magnum is known for its accuracy and has been used for and competitions. While in hunting situations such accuracy is unnecessary, such accuracy does aid in the extending the range of the cartridge. Taken together with its performance it remains one of the most useful and popular cartridges today.\n\nAlthough cartridges such as the .30-378 Weatherby Magnum, .300 Remington Ultra Magnum and the .300 Weatherby Magnum all exceed performance of the .300 Winchester Magnum none of these cartridges can be chambered in a standard length action. Few .30 caliber (7.62\u00a0mm) standard length cartridges can match the performance and versatility of the .300 Winchester Magnum.\n\nThe down side to this performance is recoil. The amount of recoil the cartridge generates is a step up from the non-magnum .30 caliber (7.62\u00a0mm) cartridges. Its recoil is about 30% greater than that of the .30-06 Springfield, which is known as a 'stout' cartridge. With the average load for the .300 Winchester Magnum, the recoil energy is roughly 30\u00a0ft lbs. This would put the .300 Winchester Magnum at the upper limit of what most shooters can shoot comfortably for extended shooting sessions. As a rough comparison, the recoil of the .300 Winchester Magnum is roughly comparable to a 12 gauge shotgun shooting 1 oz. slugs. This greater recoil can make the .300 Winchester Magnum, despite its inherent accuracy advantages, a harder cartridge to shoot accurately, when compared to non-magnum .30 caliber cartridges such as the .30-06 Springfield or the .308 Winchester. On the other hand, recoil is subjective (some are more sensitive to it than others) and one can get used to it with practice. Also, many rifles available today now have effective recoil attenuating features built into them, such as muzzle compensators and energy absorbing stocks and butt-pads, that can significantly lessen recoil as it is felt by the shooter.\n\nRecoil from the .300 Win Mag is noticeably higher than the well-known and popular .30-06 Springfield. Subsequently, Remington has made low-recoil rounds called \"Managed-Recoil\" available for the .300 Win Mag, which recoil less while providing performance similar to the .30-06 Springfield.\n\nHunting Application \n\nThe .300 Winchester Magnum is powerful enough to hunt any North American game animal and is commercially loaded with bullets ranging from 150 grain to 220 grain bullets, making it a very versatile cartridge for hunting big game of all weighs and under all conditions. \n\n\"If you need to shoot long or short, big or small, if the house was burning down and you could only save one, I'd make it the 300 win mag\"\n\nIt is particularly useful when hunting the members of the ungulate family such as sheep, deer, elk, and moose; being popular cartridge among hunters for these class 3 game species. Elk can weigh as much as and moose . Bullet weights of are the preferred choices for these game species. Controlled expansion bullets such as the Nosler Partition or Barnes X are preferred rather than more lightly constructed bullets for these larger species of ungulate. Bullets weighing are adequate for smaller deer such as the mule deer and white-tailed deer.\n\n150-grain bullets are generally used for hunting medium sized game species. Factory loads are usually loaded to leave the muzzle at 3,250 feet per second, offering the hunter a very flat bullet suitable for long range shots. Nevertheless, handloaders may increase muzzle velocities in 150 fps. 165 and 168-grain bullets also offer a flat trajectory with higher ballistic coefficients, which hold on better in cross winds and higher energy downrange, which makes them a fine alternative for hunting mountain game. But probably the most popular bullet weigh is the 180-grain, which is offered in commercial loads a muzzle velocity of 3,000 fps, offering a good balance between flat trajectory, ballistic coefficient and energy to emphatically hunt large-size big game animals such as elk and moose up to considerable distances. Loaded with heavier 200 to 200 grain bullets, the .300 Win Mag shines for hunting thick boned heavier game.\n\n\"So, while the .300 Winchester Magnum does very well with standard .30-caliber hunting bullets from 150 to 180 grains, it starts to lose ground with extra-heavy bullets of 200 grains and more\"\n\nWith its velocity, low bullet drop and high energy retention, the .300 Winchester Magnum is useful for hunting sheep and other mountain game species, even at extended range, which may be considered unethical for many sport hunters.\n\nThe .300 Winchester Magnum cartridge is also very effective on dangerous class 3 game such as bear. Both black bears and grizzly bears are hunted using the cartridge. Many consider the .300 Winchester Magnum to be on the lighter side of what is required for the largest bears, but loaded with heavier bullets, hunters have had success with the cartridge against these large bears.\n\nThe .300 Winchester Magnum is well-suited for 95% of the world's game. Due to its worldwide ability and ballistic capability to shoot flat and carry its energy efficiently, due to its high sectional densities and ballistic coefficients, the cartridge is one of the more favored rounds for African plains game as well as big game hunting for different species and hunting conditions globally. With heavier bullets boasting high sectional density and ballistic coefficients, the cartridge possesses the long-range performance necessary to take large game species at extended ranges. Due to the wide selection of bullet weights and construction, the .300 Winchester Magnum may be used to hunt effectively everything from the dik-dik to the giant eland, being an excellent cartridge choice for all plains game under . However, it is also an excellent cartridge for mountain hunting conditions such as found in the Asian Mountains, Rockies and Andes, where fast bullets carrying enough energy to sit game fast while being able to buck cross winds efficiently are praised.\n\nMilitary and law enforcement applications\n\nThe .300 Win Mag sees use in long-range benchrest shooting competitions and has been adopted by law enforcement marksmen and by a few specific branches of the U.S. Military for use by snipers. Maximum effective range is generally accepted to be with ammunition incorporating low-drag projectiles. Sub 1 minute-of-angle (MOA) accuracy out to is not unusual in precision-built rifles firing match-grade ammunition.\n\nThe U.S. government purchased MK 248 MOD 1 .300 Winchester Magnum match-grade ammunition in 2009 for use in adapted M24 Sniper Weapon Systems and other .300 Winchester Magnum sniper rifles like the U.S. Navy Mk.13s. This ammunition was developed as a .300 Winchester Magnum Match Product Improvement (PIP) and uses the 220 gr (14.26 g) Sierra MatchKing Hollow Point Boat Tail (HPBT) very-low-drag bullet fired at a nominal muzzle velocity of 2,850\u00a0ft/s plus or minus 50\u00a0ft/s (869\u00a0m/s \u00b1 15.2\u00a0m/s). According to the U.S. Navy this ammunition should increase the maximum effective range of .300 Winchester Magnum sniper rifle systems to 1,500 yards (1,370 m), decrease wind deflection on bullets in flight and use Hodgdon H1000, a reduced muzzle flash propellant that remains temperature stable across an operational temperature range of \u221225\u00a0\u00b0F to +165\u00a0\u00b0F (\u221232\u00a0\u00b0C to 74\u00a0\u00b0C). The long MK 248 MOD 1 or alike ammunition is not offered commercially, since it exceeds SAAMI standards for overall length and maximum chamber pressure. However, the handloader can take advantage of modern advances in powder technology and actually exceed the velocity of the MK 248 MOD 1 cartridge while still loading to maximum SAAMI cartridge overall length, and maintaining safe pressure.\n\nAccording to JBM Ballistics, using the 0.310 G7 ballistic coefficient provided by Bryan Litz, and a Weapon Employment Zone (WEZ) analysis of the XM2010 rifle with various .300 Winchester Magnum ammunition types by Bryan Litz, the MK 248 MOD 1 .300 Winchester Magnum cartridge, when fired at its nominal muzzle velocity of 869\u00a0m/s (2,850\u00a0ft/s), should have supersonic range under International Standard Atmosphere conditions at sea level (air density \u03c1 = 1.225\u00a0kg/m3).\n\nIn January 2014, the U.S. Department of Defense annual testing report found that the older A191 or MK 2", " unexplainable. Radford further noted the importance of double-checking information as the mystery surrounding the Bermuda Triangle had been created by people who had neglected to do so.\n\nHypothetical explanation attempts \nPersons accepting the Bermuda Triangle as a real phenomenon have offered a number of explanatory approaches.\n\nParanormal explanations\nTriangle writers have used a number of supernatural concepts to explain the events. One explanation pins the blame on leftover technology from the mythical lost continent of Atlantis. Sometimes connected to the Atlantis story is the submerged rock formation known as the Bimini Road off the island of Bimini in the Bahamas, which is in the Triangle by some definitions. Followers of the purported psychic Edgar Cayce take his prediction that evidence of Atlantis would be found in 1968, as referring to the discovery of the Bimini Road. Believers describe the formation as a road, wall, or other structure, but the Bimini Road is of natural origin.\n\nSome hypothesize that a parallel universe exists in the Bermuda Triangle region, causing a time/space warp that sucks the objects around it into a parallel universe. Others attribute the events to UFOs. Charles Berlitz, author of various books on anomalous phenomena, lists several theories attributing the losses in the Triangle to anomalous or unexplained forces.\n\nNatural explanations\n\nCompass variations\nCompass problems are one of the cited phrases in many Triangle incidents. While some have theorized that unusual local magnetic anomalies may exist in the area, such anomalies have not been found. Compasses have natural magnetic variations in relation to the magnetic poles, a fact which navigators have known for centuries. Magnetic (compass) north and geographic (true) north are exactly the same only for a small number of places \u2013 for example, , in the United States, only those places on a line running from Wisconsin to the Gulf of Mexico. But the public may not be as informed, and think there is something mysterious about a compass \"changing\" across an area as large as the Triangle, which it naturally will.\n\nGulf Stream\nThe Gulf Stream (Florida Current) is a major surface current, primarily driven by thermohaline circulation that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and then flows through the Straits of Florida into the North Atlantic. In essence, it is a river within an ocean, and, like a river, it can and does carry floating objects. It has a maximum surface velocity of about . A small plane making a water landing or a boat having engine trouble can be carried away from its reported position by the current.\n\nHuman error\nOne of the most cited explanations in official inquiries as to the loss of any aircraft or vessel is human error. Human stubbornness may have caused businessman Harvey Conover to lose his sailing yacht, Revonoc, as he sailed into the teeth of a storm south of Florida on January 1, 1958.\n\nViolent weather\nHurricanes are powerful storms that form in tropical waters and have historically cost thousands of lives and caused billions of dollars in damage. The sinking of Francisco de Bobadilla's Spanish fleet in 1502 was the first recorded instance of a destructive hurricane. These storms have in the past caused a number of incidents related to the Triangle. Many Atlantic hurricanes pass through the Triangle as they recurve off the Eastern Seaboard, and, before the advent of weather satellite, ships often had little to no warning of a hurricane's approach.\n\nA powerful downdraft of cold air was suspected to be a cause in the sinking of Pride of Baltimore on May 14, 1986. The crew of the sunken vessel noted the wind suddenly shifted and increased velocity from to . A National Hurricane Center satellite specialist, James Lushine, stated \"during very unstable weather conditions the downburst of cold air from aloft can hit the surface like a bomb, exploding outward like a giant squall line of wind and water.\"\n\nMethane hydrates\n\nAn explanation for some of the disappearances has focused on the presence of large fields of methane hydrates (a form of natural gas) on the continental shelves. Laboratory experiments carried out in Australia have proven that bubbles can, indeed, sink a scale model ship by decreasing the density of the water, and any wreckage would be deposited on the ocean floor or rapidly dispersed by the Gulf Stream. It has been hypothesized that periodic methane eruptions (sometimes called \"mud volcanoes\") may produce regions of frothy water that are no longer capable of providing adequate buoyancy for ships. If this were the case, such an area forming around a ship could cause it to sink very rapidly and without warning.\n\nPublications by the USGS describe large stores of undersea hydrates worldwide, including the Blake Ridge area, off the coast of the southeastern United States. However, according to the USGS, no large releases of gas hydrates are believed to have occurred in the Bermuda Triangle for the past 15,000 years.\n\nNotable incidents\n\nHMS Atalanta\n\nThe sail training ship HMS Atalanta (originally named HMS Juno) disappeared with her entire crew after setting sail from the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda for Falmouth, England on 31 January 1880. It was presumed that she sank in a powerful storm which crossed her route a couple of weeks after she sailed, and that her crew being composed primarily of inexperienced trainees may have been a contributing factor. The search for evidence of her fate attracted worldwide attention at the time (connection is also often made to the 1878 loss of the training ship HMS Eurydice, which foundered after departing the Royal Naval Dockyard in Bermuda for Portsmouth on 6 March), and she was alleged decades later to have been a victim of the mysterious triangle, an allegation resoundingly refuted by the research of author David Francis Raine in 1997.\n\nUSS Cyclops\n\nThe incident resulting in the single largest loss of life in the history of the US Navy not related to combat occurred when the collier Cyclops, carrying a full load of manganese ore and with one engine out of action, went missing without a trace with a crew of 309 sometime after March 4, 1918, after departing the island of Barbados. Although there is no strong evidence for any single theory, many independent theories exist, some blaming storms, some capsizing, and some suggesting that wartime enemy activity was to blame for the loss. In addition, two of Cyclopss sister ships, and , were subsequently lost in the North Atlantic during World War II. Both ships were transporting heavy loads of metallic ore similar to that which was loaded on Cyclops during her fatal voyage. In all three cases structural failure due to overloading with a much denser cargo than designed is considered the most likely cause of sinking.\n\nCarroll A. Deering\n\nCarroll A. Deering, a five-masted schooner built in 1919, was found hard aground and abandoned at Diamond Shoals, near Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, on January 31, 1921. FBI investigation into the Deering scrutinized, then ruled out, multiple theories as to why and how the ship was abandoned, including piracy, domestic Communist sabotage and the involvement of rum-runners.\n\nFlight 19\n\nFlight 19 was a training flight of five TBM Avenger torpedo bombers that disappeared on December 5, 1945, while over the Atlantic. The squadron's flight plan was scheduled to take them due east from Fort Lauderdale for , north for , and then back over a final leg to complete the exercise. The flight never returned to base. The disappearance was attributed by Navy investigators to navigational error leading to the aircraft running out of fuel.\n\nOne of the search and rescue aircraft deployed to look for them, a PBM Mariner with a 13-man crew, also disappeared. A tanker off the coast of Florida reported seeing an explosion and observing a widespread oil slick when fruitlessly searching for survivors. The weather was becoming stormy by the end of the incident. According to contemporaneous sources the Mariner had a history of explosions due to vapor leaks when heavily loaded with fuel, as it might have been for a potentially long search-and-rescue operation.\n\nStar Tiger and Star Ariel\n\nG-AHNP Star Tiger disappeared on January 30, 1948, on a flight from the Azores to Bermuda; G-AGRE Star Ariel disappeared on January 17, 1949, on a flight from Bermuda to Kingston, Jamaica. Both were Avro Tudor IV passenger aircraft operated by British South American Airways. Both planes were operating at the very limits of their range and the slightest error or fault in the equipment could keep them from reaching the small island.\n\nDouglas DC-3\n\nOn December 28, 1948, a Douglas DC-3 aircraft, number NC16002, disappeared while on a flight from San Juan, Puerto Rico, to Miami. No trace of the aircraft, or the 32 people on board, was ever found. A Civil Aeronautics Board investigation found there was insufficient information available on which to determine probable cause of the disappearance.\n\nConnemara IV\nA pleasure yacht was found adrift in the Atlantic south of Bermuda on September 26, 1955; it is usually stated in the stories (Berlitz, Winer) that the crew vanished while the yacht survived being at sea during three hurricanes. The 1955 Atlantic hurricane season shows Hurricane Ione passing nearby between 14 and 18 September, with Bermuda being affected by winds of almost gale force. In his second book on the Bermuda Triangle, Winer quoted from a letter he had received from Mr J.E. Challenor of Barbados:\n\nKC-135 Stratotankers\nOn August 28, 1963, a pair of US Air Force KC-135 Stratotanker aircraft collided and crashed into the Atlantic west of Bermuda. Some writers say that while the two aircraft did collide there were two distinct crash sites, separated by over of water. However, Kusche's research showed that the unclassified version of the Air Force investigation report revealed that the debris field defining the second \"crash site\" was examined by a search and rescue ship, and found to be a mass of seaweed and driftwood tangled in an old buoy.\n\nSee also\n\n List of Bermuda Triangle incidents\n List of topics characterized as pseudoscience\n Nevada Triangle\n Devil's Sea (or Dragon's Triangle)\n Sargasso Sea\n SS Cotopaxi\n Vile vortex\n Hurricane Alley\n Golosov Ravine\n\nReferences\n\nCitations\n\nBibliography\nThe incidents cited above, apart from the official documentation, come from the following works. Some incidents mentioned as having taken place within the Triangle are found only in these sources:\n\n \n \n \n \n Reprinted in paperback in 2005; .\n \n \n \n\nFurther reading\n\nNewspaper articles\nProQuest has newspaper source material for many incidents, archived in Portable Document Format (PDF). The newspapers include The New York Times, The Washington Post, and The Atlanta Constitution. To access this website, registration is required, usually through a library connected to a college or university.\n\nFlight 19\n \"Great Hunt On For 27 Navy Fliers Missing In Five Planes Off Florida\", The New York Times, December 7, 1945.\n \"Wide Hunt For 27 Men In Six Navy Planes\", The Washington Post, December 7, 1945.\n \"Fire Signals Seen In Area Of Lost Men\", The Washington Post, December 9, 1945.\n\nSS Cotopaxi\n \"Lloyd's posts Cotopaxi As 'Missing'\", The New York Times, January 7, 1926.\n \"Efforts To Locate Missing Ship Fail\", The Washington Post, December 6, 1925.\n \"Lighthouse Keepers Seek Missing Ship\", The Washington Post, December 7, 1925.\n \"53 On Missing Craft Are Reported Saved\", The Washington Post, December 13, 1925.\n\nUSS Cyclops (AC-4)\n \"Cold High Winds Do $25,000 Damage\", The Washington Post, March 11, 1918.\n \"Collier Overdue A Month\", The New York Times, April 15, 1918.\n \"More Ships Hunt For Missing Cyclops\", The New York Times, April 16, 1918.\n \"Haven't Given Up Hope For Cyclops\", The New York Times, April 17, 1918.\n \"Collier Cyclops Is Lost; 293 Persons On Board; Enemy Blow Suspected\", The Washington Post, April 15, 1918.\n \"U.S. Consul Gottschalk Coming To Enter The War\", The Washington Post, April 15, 1918.\n \"Cyclops Skipper Teuton, 'Tis Said\", The Washington Post, April 16, 1918.\n \"Fate Of Ship Baffles\", The Washington Post, April 16, 1918.\n \"Steamer Met Gale On Cyclops' Course\", The Washington Post, April 19, 1918.\n\nCarroll A. Deering\n \"Piracy Suspected In Disappearance Of 3 American Ships\", The New York Times, June 21, 1921.\n \"Bath Owners Skeptical\", The New York Times, June 22, 1921. piera antonella\n \"Deering Skipper's Wife Caused Investigation\", The New York Times, June 22, 1921.\n \"More Ships Added To Mystery List\", The New York Times, June 22, 1921.\n \"Hunt On For Pirates\", The Washington Post, June 21, 1921\n \"Comb Seas For Ships\", The Washington Post, June 22, 1921.\n \"Port Of Missing Ships Claims 3000 Yearly\", The Washington Post, July 10, 1921.\n\nWreckers\n \"'Wreckreation' Was The Name Of The Game That Flourished 100 Years Ago\", The New York Times, March 30, 1969.\n\nS.S. Suduffco\n \"To Search For Missing Freighter\", The New York Times, April 11, 1926.\n \"Abandon Hope For Ship\", The New York Times, April 28, 1926.\n\nStar Tiger and Star Ariel\n \"Hope Wanes in Sea Search For 28 Aboard Lost Airliner\", The New York Times, January 31, 1948.\n \"72 Planes Search Sea For Airliner\", The New York Times, January 19, 1949.\n\nDC-3 Airliner NC16002 disappearance\n \"30-Passenger Airliner Disappears In Flight From San Juan To Miami\", The New York Times, December 29, 1948.\n \"Check Cuba Report Of Missing Airliner\", The New York Times, December 30, 1948.\n \"Airliner Hunt Extended\", The New York Times, December 31, 1948.\n\nHarvey Conover and Revonoc\n \"Search Continuing For Conover Yawl\", The New York Times, January 8, 1958.\n \"Yacht Search Goes On\", The New York Times, January 9, 1958.\n \"Yacht Search Pressed\", The New York Times, January 10, 1958.\n \"Conover Search Called Off\", The New York Times, January 15, 1958.\n\nKC-135 Stratotankers\n \"Second Area Of Debris Found In Hunt For Jets\", The New York Times, August 31, 1963.\n \"Hunt For Tanker Jets Halted\", The New York Times, September 3, 1963.\n \"Planes Debris Found In Jet Tanker Hunt\", The Washington Post, August 30, 1963.\n\nB-52 Bomber (Pogo 22)\n \"U.S.-Canada Test Of Air Defence A Success\", The New York Times, October 16, 1961.\n \"Hunt For Lost B-52 Bomber Pushed In New Area\", The New York Times, October 17, 1961.\n \"Bomber Hunt Pressed\", The New York Times, October 18, 1961.\n \"Bomber Search Continuing\", The New York Times, October 19, 1961.\n \"Hunt For Bomber Ends\", The New York Times, October 20, 1961.\n\nCharter vessel Sno'Boy\n \"Plane Hunting Boat Sights Body In Sea\", The New York Times, July 7, 1963.\n \"Search Abandoned For 40 On Vessel Lost In Caribbean\", The New York Times, July 11, 1963.\n \"Search Continues For Vessel With 55 Aboard In Caribbean\", The Washington Post, July 6, 1963.\n \"Body Found In Search For Fishing Boat\", The Washington Post, July 7, 1963.\n\nSS Marine Sulphur Queen\n \"Tanker Lost In Atlantic; 39 Aboard\", The Washington Post, February 9, 1963.\n \"Debris Sighted In Plane Search For Tanker Missing Off Florida\", The New York Times, February 11, 1963.\n \"2.5 Million Is Asked In Sea Disaster\", The Washington Post, February 19, 1963.\n \"Vanishing Of Ship Ruled A Mystery\", The New York Times, April 14, 1964.\n \"Families Of 39 Lost At Sea Begin $20-Million Suit Here\", The New York Times, June 4, 1969.\n \"10-Year Rift Over Lost Ship Near End\", The New York Times, February 4, 1973.\n\nSS Sylvia L. Ossa\n \"Ship And 37 Vanish In Bermuda Triangle On Voyage To U.S.\", The New York Times, October 18, 1976.\n \"Ship Missing In Bermuda Triangle Now Presumed To Be Lost At Sea\", The New York Times, October 19, 1976.\n \"Distress Signal Heard From American Sailor Missing For 17 Days\", The New York Times, October 31, 1976.\n\nWebsite links\nThe following websites have either online material that supports the popular version of the Bermuda Triangle, or documents published from official sources as part of hearings or inquiries, such as those conducted by the United States Navy or United States Coast Guard. Copies of some inquiries are not online and may have to be ordered; for example, the losses of Flight 19 or USS Cyclops", "Mr and Mrs Andrews is an oil on canvas portrait of about 1750 by Thomas Gainsborough, now in the National Gallery, London. Today it is one of his most famous works, but it remained in the family of the sitters until 1960 and was very little known before it appeared in an exhibition in Ipswich in 1927, after which it was regularly requested for other exhibitions in Britain and abroad, and praised by critics for its charm and freshness. By the post-war years its iconic status was established, and it was one of four paintings chosen to represent British art in an exhibition in Paris celebrating the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. Soon the painting began to receive hostile scrutiny as a paradigm of the paternalist and capitalist society of 18th-century England, but it remains a firm popular favourite.\n\nThe work is an unusual combination of two common types of painting of the period: a double portrait, here of a recently married couple, Robert and Frances Andrews, as well as a landscape view of the English countryside. Gainsborough's work mainly consisted of these two different genres, but their striking combination side-by-side in this extended horizontal format is unique in Gainsborough's oeuvre, and extremely rare for other painters. Conversation piece was the term for a group portrait that contained other elements and activities, but these normally showed more figures, seen engaged in some activity or in an interior, rather than a landscape empty of people.\n\nGainsborough was later famously given to complaining that well-paid portrait work kept him away from his true love of landscape painting, and his interest probably combined with that of his clients, a couple from two families whose main income was probably not from landowning, to make \u2013 more prominently than was normal in a portrait \u2013 a display of the country estate that had formed part of Mrs Andrews' dowry.\n\nArtist\n\nThomas Gainsborough was about twenty-three when he painted Mr and Mrs Andrews in 1750. He had married the pregnant Margaret Burr and returned to Sudbury, Suffolk, his home town as well as that of the Andrews, after an apprenticeship in London with the French artist Hubert-Fran\u00e7ois Gravelot, from whom he learnt the French rococo style. There, he also picked up a love of landscapes in the Dutch style. However, landscape painting was far less prestigious and poorly paid than portrait work, and Gainsborough was forced (since the family business, a clothiers' in Sudbury, had been bankrupted in 1733) to \"face paint\" as he put it. Mr and Mrs Andrews contains the widest landscape of Gainsborough's portraits, and he would not return to such compositions. Future paintings would be set against neutral or typical rococo settings. It has been speculated that Gainsborough wished to show off his landscape ability to potential clients, to satisfy his personal preference, or his sitters' wishes.\n\nThe relatively small size of the painting, just high, is typical of both Gainsborough's portraits and landscapes at this early period. Later he painted larger portraits approximating life-size for a grander London clientele than his early depictions of local gentry, and the landscape backgrounds he used were mostly of woods and very generalized. Both his landscape backgrounds to portraits and his pure landscapes tend to show woodland, and the open farmland view seen here is unusual, especially as it begins so close-up to the viewer. Like most pure landscape paintings, Gainsborough's normally showed a view all seen from a certain distance, and that this landscape sweeps away from a foreground very close to the viewer is a feature necessitated by and typical of the portrait, though one that greatly adds to the success of the painting. As with almost all artists of the period, it was not Gainsborough's practice to paint outdoors, and Mrs Andrews did not in reality have to walk in her silk clothes across the fields to pose, one of the aspects of the work commented on disapprovingly by some modern writers.\n\nSitters and setting\n\nRobert Andrews, the male sitter, was a member of the landed gentry, and this is very much apparent in Gainsborough's work. Although it is probable the family money came from being a landlord, Robert's father also lent substantial amounts of money, particularly to other gentry, at significant interest rates. This included the sum of \u00a330,000 to Frederick, Prince of Wales in 1743, for which he became Remembrancer. He had a London house in Grosvenor Square in Mayfair, and also owned ships and engaged in trade with the colonies of the British Empire. Robert himself was born in Bulmer, Essex in 1725, and after attending Sudbury Grammar School at the same time as Gainsborough (two years younger) did, went on to University College, Oxford. His father purchased him an estate, and secured a bride, in a successful attempt to further integrate Robert into the upper classes. In 1763, after his father's death, he would take over the family business. By 1750 he owned almost 3,000 acres, including most of the land visible in the painting. \n\nHis wife sitting beside him is Frances Mary Carter, who was brought up in the same parish of Bulmer, and was \"not quite the girl next door, but probably the nearest marriageable girl of his own class\". She was betrothed to Andrews at 15 or 16 years old. They were married in Sudbury, on 10 November 1748: he was 22, she 16. Her father also owned businesses as well as property, and had a \"share of a house in the City of London\" as well as a country base at Ballingdon Hall, just over the River Stour from Sudbury, and so then in Essex. Her family had made their money in the drapery business, and by buying the estate avoided the collapse of the textile industry.\n\nThe Andrews' estate, Auberies, in Bulmer Tye, North Essex, is just some four miles from Sudbury, and bordered Frances' father's Ballingdon estate. It was probably part of her dowry or bought with it, and had been bought between their marriage and when the painting was done. The church glimpsed in the middle of the work is All Saints, Sudbury, where the couple had been married. The small tower in the left background is that of Holy Trinity Church in Long Melford. On the right hand side the barns of the home farm of Frances's childhood home at Ballington Hall can be seen; such an identifiable and accurately depicted location is unusual in Gainsborough's work, and was probably a specific request of the sitters. Their house, also called Auberies, would be in their sight in the portrait, behind the viewer to his right, and much closer than the picture implies. The couple had nine children, and when Frances Andrews died at 48 in 1780, Robert remarried; he died in 1806 at 80.\n\nThe couple are buried in the churchyard of St. Andrew's Church in Bulmer, whilst a memorial to them hangs in the church itself.\n\nThe Andrews wear different dress, but both are more equal in their informality than many observers have thought. Robert is as informal as a man in his position was likely to be seen, even on his own estate, in a loose hunting coat with dangling bags for gunpowder and shot. Frances wears an outfit which in fact is an informal summer suit (as we would now call it) with a separate skirt and jacket, not a dress, of a light blue similar to those that Gainsborough often gave his early female sitters, including her mother, and which may not represent any actual garment of that colour. She wears informal mules and a straw hat. However, their poses are certainly different, with Robert's nonchalant pose not matched by Frances, who is \"sitting bolt upright\". Apart from considerations of corsetry, and the poise expected of ladies, her figure was probably painted from a dressed artist's mannequin. The rococo bench on which she sits must be made of wood at this date, and it is thought that this was an invention of Gainsborough's, drawing on his period with Gravelot.\n\nGainsborough had painted (probably in London) Frances's parents in his Mr and Mrs Carter of Bullingdon House, Bulmer, Essex in about 1747\u20131748 (now Tate Britain). This painting makes an interesting comparison with that of the Andrews in many respects. Frances Jamineau, who became Mrs Carter, was of French parentage, and whether she and her husband were really as disproportionate in size as Gainsborough paints them is unknown.\n\nThe neat parallel rows of corn produced by Jethro Tull's revolutionary and controversial seed drill show that this is a thoroughly modern and efficient farm. Robert was a keen farmer, whose letter in 1768 to the agriculturalist Arthur Young \"On the Smut in Wheat\" was published in Young's Annals of Agriculture. As such details are not typical of Gainsborough's landscapes, but rather anticipate the work of John Constable who was born nearby some 25 years later, it seems likely that they were Robert Andrews's idea. In fact the whole wheat field has been brought far closer to the house than would really have been the case; it is \"invented, or transposed from further away. If read literally, the sheaves of corn would be thrusting through the porch of Auberies itself\".\n\nThe painting has been described as unusual, as an outdoor conversation piece showing the subjects against an agricultural background rather than in the gardens of their own houses, but this is also seen in other early Gainsboroughs. A group portrait of his from about 1754 shows the parents and two daughters of The Gravenor Family (illustrated below) with a square version of a similar composition with two oaks on the left behind the standing father and seated mother, and the daughters to their right, close up to the edge of standing corn. A distant view can be seen above the corn, though Mr Gravenor was a \"successful apothecary\" in Ipswich, who had just entered local politics, and seems not to have owned either the corn or the view. This is now in the Yale Center for British Art, who also own Gainsborough's Major Dade in Shooting Dress (c. 1755), of another very relaxed Suffolk gentleman shooting on his farmland with two dogs and dead birds.\n\nThe oak tree in front of which the Andrews stand has several connotations beyond the choice of location: Englishness, stability and continuity, and a sense of successive generations taking over the family business. The landed gentry had been compared to the oak, holding Britain together. The oak tree still survives, now considerably larger.\n\nMissing area\n\nAn area on Mrs Andrews' lap is \"reserved\", that is to say not painted with the blue of her dress. A brown brushstroke has suggested \"a long-popular idea\" that a cock pheasant was to be placed there, despite the painting probably (from the state of the corn) being set before the legal start of the pheasant season on September 1. Perhaps more likely is a work bag for embroidery, \"tatting or knotting\", as is often seen in portraits, a book, a fan, a lapdog, or even a baby yet to be born\u2014their first child was a daughter born in 1751.\n\nCritical reception\n\nAfter it came to critical attention in 1927, the painting was initially a darling of the critics and art historians. Although Lord Duveen was still achieving huge prices for the later Grand Manner portraits he was selling to American plutocrats, critical taste was increasingly appreciative of Gainsborough's smaller and fresher early portraits. For Sir John Rothenstein in 1947 \"there are few interpretations of civilized man in his relations with cultivated nature more lovely or psychologically profound\", and other writers have developed the analysis of themes of fertility, abundance and interest in nature in the work. It was praised by Kenneth Clark in Landscape into Art (1949): \"this enchanting work is painted with such love and mastery ...\", which was in turn quoted scornfully by the Marxist art critic John Berger in his Ways of Seeing (1972) who went on to comment that Mr and Mrs Andrews are \"not a couple in nature as Rousseau imagined nature. They are landowners and their proprietary attitude towards what surrounds them is visible in their stance and expressions.\" \n\nBerger's brief remarks began a tradition of essentially hostile commentary in books on human geography and other parts of the humanities, that tend to treat normal features of historic portraiture as somewhat sinister, in a view emphasizing negative aspects of the English 18th century. By 2004 it was described as \"a painting that has become so widely cited by human geographers that we feel it has become the one cultural artefact no self-respecting commentary on the practice of human geography can afford to ignore\". According to another geographer: \"Mr and Mrs Andrews, then, is an image on which geographers are agreed: it is a symptom of the capitalist property relations that legitimize and are sanctioned by the visual sweep of a landscape prospect\".\n\nIn this tradition, the expensive medium of oil-on-canvas itself and the lack of farm-workers in the image are cited as further evidence, and Mrs Andrews' somewhat stiff seated position is said to express her inferior and passive status, as she is placed on display like other assets of her husband. Harsh things are said about the appearance and facial expressions of the two sitters, their dress and poses, and Mr Andrews carrying a gun. To some authors in this tradition, Gainsborough's intention in making the portrait was in part satirical, something most art historians are unlikely to agree with.\n\nIn contrast, Andrew Graham-Dixon finds the painting \"in its quiet, understated way, one of the masterpieces of erotic painting\"; Robert's \"clothes are almost falling off him, they are so loose and floppy\" while Frances \"has a melted, langourous look about her\". For Erica Langmuir it is \"the most tartly lyrical picture in the history of art. Mr Andrew's satisfaction in his well-kept farmlands is as nothing to the intensity of the painter's feeling for the gold and green of fields and copses, the supple curves of fertile land meeting the stately clouds\". She notes the visual \"rhymes and assonances\" that link elements of the composition: the skirt with the bench's back, Mrs Andrews' shoes with its feet and Mr Andrews' with the tree roots, and \"the lines of gun, thighs, dog, calf, coat\". His hanging coat tail relates to the ribbon hanging from his wife's hat.\n\nHistory\n\nAfter effectively being rediscovered in the 1927 Ipswich exhibition celebrating the bicentenary of Gainsborough's birth, the painting was exhibited in Brussels in 1929, London in 1930, London and Manchester in 1934, Amsterdam in 1936, London in 1937, and at the Louvre in Paris in 1938. After the Second World War it was seen in Norwich in 1948, toured for the British Council in 1949\u201350, was in London at the Festival of Britain in 1951, Paris and London in 1953, Fort Worth, Texas, in 1954, Rotterdam and Brussels in 1955, and Sudbury in 1958 to support an appeal to buy Gainsborough's house. When owned by the National Gallery it was lent to Expo 67 in Montreal in 1967, Paris in 1981, the Prado in Madrid in 1988\u201389, the National Portrait Gallery, London in 1991\u20132, and toured Norwich and Newcastle upon Tyne in 1997.\n\nThe painting remained with the family until sold by Gerald Willoughbury Andrews (b. 1896, a great-great-great-grandson of the sitters) at Sotheby's in London on 23 March 1960. It was bought for \u00a3130,000 by the dealers Thomas Agnew & Sons, apparently as agents for the National Gallery, to whom it soon belonged. It was purchased with a \"Special Grant from the Exchequer\" and contributions from the Pilgrim Trust, The Art Fund, Associated Television Ltd, and Mr and Mrs W. W. Spooner. This was still below the $621,000 paid in 1921 by Henry Huntington to Joseph Duveen (about \u00a3148,000 at the time) for The Blue Boy, and seemed \"cheap\" to Gerald Reitlinger, writing in 1970, before art prices began to escalate to their present levels.\n\nThe painting is in good condition, and entirely finished apart from the reserved area discussed above.\n\nSee also\n 100 Great Paintings, 1980 BBC series\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\nAlexander, Julia Marciari in: Warner, Malcolm and Alexander, Julia Marciari, This Other Eden, British Paintings from the Paul Mellon Collection at Yale, Yale Center for British Art/Art Exhibitions Australia, 1998\nBerger, John and others, Ways of Seeing, 1972, Pelican, \nClark, Kenneth, Landscape into Art, 1949, page refs to Penguin edn of 1961 \n Paul Cloke, Ian Cook, Philip Crang, Mark Goodwin, Joe Painter, Chris Philo, Practising Human Geography, 2004, Sage, \n Egerton, Judy, National Gallery Catalogues (new series): The British School, 1998, \nGraham-Dixon, Andrew A History of British Art, 1999, University of California Press, , google books\nJones, Jonathan, \"Thomas Gainsborough: A Modern Genius\", The Guardian, 19 October 2002 \nLangmuir, Erica, The National Gallery companion guide, 1997 revised edition, National Gallery, London, \nReitlinger, Gerald; The Economics of Taste, Vol III: The Art Market in the 1960s, 1970, Barrie and Rockliffe, London\nRose, Gillian, Feminism and Geography: The Limits of Geographical Knowledge, 2013, John Wiley & Sons, (unpaginated), google books\nRothenstein, John, British Painting: A General View, The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 78, No. 455 (Feb., 1941), p.\u00a043, JSTOR\nWaterhouse, Ellis, Painting in Britain, 1530\u20131790, 4th Edn, 1978, Penguin Books (now Yale History of Art series),\n\nExternal links\nNational Gallery video, 12 minutes\n\nCollections of the National Gallery", ", or nitroglycerin may be recommended. Procedures such as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or coronary artery bypass surgery (CABG) may be used in severe disease. In those with stable CAD it is unclear if PCI or CABG in addition to the other treatments improves life expectancy or decreases heart attack risk.\n\nIn 2015, CAD affected 110 million people and resulted in 8.9 million deaths. It makes up 15.6% of all deaths, making it the most common cause of death globally. The risk of death from CAD for a given age decreased between 1980 and 2010, especially in developed countries. The number of cases of CAD for a given age also decreased between 1990 and 2010. In the United States in 2010, about 20% of those over 65 had CAD, while it was present in 7% of those 45 to 64, and 1.3% of those 18 to 45; rates were higher among men than women of a given age.\n\nSigns and symptoms\nThe most common symptom is chest pain or discomfort that occurs regularly with activity, after eating, or at other predictable times; this phenomenon is termed stable angina and is associated with narrowing of the arteries of the heart. Angina also includes chest tightness, heaviness, pressure, numbness, fullness, or squeezing. Angina that changes in intensity, character or frequency is termed unstable. Unstable angina may precede myocardial infarction. In adults who go to the emergency department with an unclear cause of pain, about 30% have pain due to coronary artery disease. Angina, shortness of breath, sweating, nausea or vomiting, and lightheadedness are signs of a heart attack, or myocardial infarction, and immediate emergency medical services are crucial.\n\nWith advanced disease, the narrowing of coronary arteries reduces the supply of oxygen-rich blood flowing to the heart, which becomes more pronounced during strenuous activities during which the heart beats faster. For some, this causes severe symptoms, while others experience no symptoms at all.\n\nSymptoms in women \n\nSymptoms in women can differ from those in men, and the most common symptom reported by women of all races is shortness of breath. Other symptoms more commonly reported by women than men are extreme fatigue, sleep disturbances, indigestion, and anxiety. However, some women do experience irregular heartbeat, dizziness, sweating, and nausea. Burning, pain, or pressure in the chest or upper abdomen that can travel to the arm or jaw can also be experienced in women, but it is less commonly reported by women than men. On average, women experience symptoms 10 years later than men. Women are less likely to recognize symptoms and seek treatment.\n\nRisk factors\nCoronary artery disease is characterized by heart problems that result from atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a type of arteriosclerosis which is the \"chronic inflammation of the arteries which causes them to harden and accumulate cholesterol plaques (atheromatous plaques) on the artery walls\". CAD has a number of well determined risk factors that contribute to atherosclerosis. These risk factors for CAD include \"smoking, diabetes, high blood pressure (hypertension), abnormal (high) amounts of cholesterol and other fat in the blood (dyslipidemia), type 2 diabetes and being overweight or obese (having excess body fat)\" due to lack of exercise and a poor diet. Some other risk factors include high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, lack of exercise, obesity, high blood cholesterol, poor diet, depression, family history, psychological stress and excessive alcohol. About half of cases are linked to genetics. Smoking and obesity are associated with about 36% and 20% of cases, respectively. Smoking just one cigarette per day about doubles the risk of CAD. Lack of exercise has been linked to 7\u201312% of cases. Exposure to the herbicide Agent Orange may increase risk. Rheumatologic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, psoriasis, and psoriatic arthritis are independent risk factors as well.\n\nJob stress appears to play a minor role accounting for about 3% of cases. In one study, women who were free of stress from work life saw an increase in the diameter of their blood vessels, leading to decreased progression of atherosclerosis. In contrast, women who had high levels of work-related stress experienced a decrease in the diameter of their blood vessels and significantly increased disease progression. Having a type A behavior pattern, a group of personality characteristics including time urgency, competitiveness, hostility, and impatience, is linked to an increased risk of coronary disease.\n\nBlood fats\nThe consumption of different types of fats including trans unsaturated, saturated and trans in a diet \"influences the level of cholesterol that is present in the bloodstream\". Unsaturated fats originate from plant sources (such as oils). There are two types of unsaturated fats, cis and trans isomers. Cis unsaturated fats are bent in molecular structure and trans are linear in structure. Saturated fats originate from animal sources (such as animal fats) and are also molecularly linear in structure. The linear configurations of unsaturated trans and saturated fats allow them to easily accumulate and stack at the arterial walls when consumed in high amounts (and other positive measures towards physical health are not met).\n\nFats and cholesterol are insoluble in blood and thus are amalgamated with proteins to form lipoproteins for transport. Low density lipoproteins (LDL) transport cholesterol from the liver to the rest of the body and therefore raise blood cholesterol levels. The consumption of \"saturated fats increases LDL levels within the body, thus raising blood cholesterol levels\".\nHigh density lipoproteins (HDL) are considered 'good' lipoproteins as they search for excess cholesterol in the body and transport it back to the liver for disposal. Trans fats also \"increase LDL levels whilst decreasing HDL levels within the body, significantly raising blood cholesterol levels\".\n\nHigh levels of cholesterol in the bloodstream lead to atherosclerosis. With increased levels of LDL in the bloodstream, \"LDL particles will form deposits and accumulate within the arterial walls, which will lead to the development of plaques, restricting blood flow\". The resultant reduction in the heart's blood supply due to atherosclerosis in coronary arteries \"causes shortness of breath, angina pectoris (chest pains that are usually relieved by rest), and potentially fatal heart attacks (myocardial infarctions)\".\n\nGenetics\nThe heritability of coronary artery disease has been estimated between 40% and 60%. Genome-wide association studies have identified over 160 genetic susceptibility loci for coronary artery disease.\n\nTranscriptome\nTranscripts associated with CAD (TRACs) - FoxP1, ICOSLG, IKZF4/Eos, SMYD3, TRIM28, and TCF3/E2A that are likely markers of regulatory T cells (Treg), consistent with known reductions in Tregs in CAD.\n\nThe RNA changes are mostly related to ciliary and endocytic transcripts, which in the circulating immune system would be related to the immune synapse. The immune synapse is the contact-dependent mode of communication between T cells and B cells, on one side, and a variety of antigen-presenting and immunomodulating cells on the other side. One of the most differentially expressed genes, fibromodulin (FMOD, increased 2.8-fold in CAD). Several other regulated transcripts encode for proteins related to the structure and function of the immune synapse. Nebulette, the most down-regulated transcript (2.4-fold), is an important 'cytolinker' that connects actin and desmin to facilitate cytoskeletal function and vesicular movement. The endocytic pathway is further modulated by changes in tubulin, which is a key microtubule protein, and fidgetin, which is a tubulin-severing enzyme that is a GWAS marker for CV risk. Protein recycling would be modulated by changes in the proteasomal regulator SIAH3, and the ubiquitin ligase MARCHF10. On the ciliary aspect of the immune synapse, several of the modulated transcripts are related to ciliary length and function. Steriocilin (STRC) has been studied principally in outer sensory hair cells, and mutations lead to deafness. Steriocilin is a partner to mesothelin (MSN), a related super-helical protein, whose transcript is also modulated in CAD. Likewise, DCDC2, a double-cortin protein, is a known modulator of ciliary length. In the signaling pathways of the immune synapse, there were numerous transcripts that related directly to T cell function and the control of differentiation. Butyrophilin (BTN1A1) is a known co-regulator for T cell activation. Fibromodulin is a well-known modulator of the TGF-beta signaling pathway, which is a primary determinant of Tre differentiation. Further impact on the TGF-beta pathway is reflected in concurrent changes in the BMP receptor 1B RNA (BMPR1B), because the bone morphogenic proteins are members of the TGF-beta superfamily, and likewise impact Treg differentiation. As noted, several of the transcripts (TMEM98, NRCAM, SFRP5, SHISA2) are known elements of the Wnt signaling pathway, which is major determinant of Treg differentiation.\n\nOther\n Endometriosis in women under the age of 40.\n Depression and hostility appear to be risks.\n The number of categories of adverse childhood experiences (psychological, physical, or sexual abuse; violence against mother; or living with household members who used substances, mentally ill, suicidal, or incarcerated) showed a graded correlation with the presence of adult diseases including coronary artery (ischemic heart) disease.\n Hemostatic factors: High levels of fibrinogen and coagulation factor VII are associated with an increased risk of CAD.\n Low hemoglobin.\n In the Asian population, the b fibrinogen gene G-455A polymorphism was associated with the risk of CAD.\n Patient-specific vessel ageing or remodelling determines endothelial cell behaviour and thus disease growth and progression. Such 'hemodynamic markers' are thus patient-specific risk surrogates.\n\nPathophysiology\n\nLimitation of blood flow to the heart causes ischemia (cell starvation secondary to a lack of oxygen) of the heart's muscle cells. The heart's muscle cells may die from lack of oxygen and this is called a myocardial infarction (commonly referred to as a heart attack). It leads to damage, death, and eventual scarring of the heart muscle without regrowth of heart muscle cells. Chronic high-grade narrowing of the coronary arteries can induce transient ischemia which leads to the induction of a ventricular arrhythmia, which may terminate into a dangerous heart rhythm known as ventricular fibrillation, which often leads to death.\n\nTypically, coronary artery disease occurs when part of the smooth, elastic lining inside a coronary artery (the arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle) develops atherosclerosis. With atherosclerosis, the artery's lining becomes hardened, stiffened, and accumulates deposits of calcium, fatty lipids, and abnormal inflammatory cells \u2013 to form a plaque. Calcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite) deposits in the muscular layer of the blood vessels appear to play a significant role in stiffening the arteries and inducing the early phase of coronary arteriosclerosis. This can be seen in a so-called metastatic mechanism of calciphylaxis as it occurs in chronic kidney disease and hemodialysis. Although these people have kidney dysfunction, almost fifty percent of them die due to coronary artery disease. Plaques can be thought of as large \"pimples\" that protrude into the channel of an artery, causing partial obstruction to blood flow. People with coronary artery disease might have just one or two plaques, or might have dozens distributed throughout their coronary arteries. A more severe form is chronic total occlusion (CTO) when a coronary artery is completely obstructed for more than 3 months.\n\nMicrovascular angina is chest pain (angina pectoris) and chest discomfort in people who do not show signs of blockages in the larger coronary arteries of their hearts when an angiogram (coronary angiogram) is being performed.\nThe exact cause of microvascular angina is unknown. Explanations include microvascular dysfunction or epicardial atherosclerosis. For reasons that are not well understood, women are more likely than men to have it; however, hormones and other risk factors unique to women may play a role.\n\nDiagnosis\n\nFor symptomatic people, stress echocardiography can be used to make a diagnosis for obstructive coronary artery disease. The use of echocardiography, stress cardiac imaging, and/or advanced non-invasive imaging is not recommended on individuals who are exhibiting no symptoms and are otherwise at low risk for developing coronary disease.\n\nThe diagnosis of microvascular angina (previously known as cardiac syndrome X \u2013 the rare coronary artery disease that is more common in women, as mentioned, is a diagnosis of exclusion. Therefore, usually, the same tests are used as in any person with the suspected of having coronary artery disease:\n Baseline electrocardiography (ECG)\n Exercise ECG \u2013 Stress test\n Exercise radioisotope test (nuclear stress test, myocardial scintigraphy)\n Echocardiography (including stress echocardiography)\n Coronary angiography\n Intravascular ultrasound\n Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)\n\nThe diagnosis of coronary disease underlying particular symptoms depends largely on the nature of the symptoms. The first investigation is an electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG), both for stable angina and acute coronary syndrome. An X-ray of the chest and blood tests may be performed.\n\nStable angina\n\nStable angina is the most common form of ischemic heart disease, and is associated with reduced quality of life and increased mortality. It is caused by epicardial coronary stenosis which results in reduced blood flow and oxygen supply to the myocardium. \nStable angina is characterized as short-term chest pain during physical exertion caused by an imbalance between myocardial oxygen supply and metabolic oxygen demand. Various forms of cardiac stress tests may be used to induce both symptoms and detect changes by way of electrocardiography (using an ECG), echocardiography (using ultrasound of the heart) or scintigraphy (using uptake of radionuclide by the heart muscle). If part of the heart seems to receive an insufficient blood supply, coronary angiography may be used to identify stenosis of the coronary arteries and suitability for angioplasty or bypass surgery.\n\nIn minor to moderate cases, nitroglycerine may be used to alleviate acute symptoms of stable angina or may be used immediately prior to exertion to prevent the onset of angina. Sublingual nitroglycerine is most commonly used to provide rapid relief for acute angina attacks and as a complement to anti-anginal treatments in patients with refractory and recurrent angina. When nitroglycerine enters the bloodstream, it forms free radical nitric oxide, or NO, which activates guanylate cyclase and in turn stimulates the release of cyclic GMP. This molecular signaling stimulates smooth muscle relaxation, ultimately resulting in vasodilation and consequently improved blood flow to regions of the heart affected by atherosclerotic plaque.\n\nStable coronary artery disease (SCAD) is also often called stable ischemic heart disease (SIHD). A 2015 monograph explains that \"Regardless of the nomenclature, stable angina is the chief manifestation of SIHD or SCAD.\" There are U.S. and European clinical practice guidelines for SIHD/SCAD.\n\nAcute coronary syndrome\n\nDiagnosis of acute coronary syndrome generally takes place in the emergency department, where ECGs may be performed sequentially to identify \"evolving changes\" (indicating ongoing damage to the heart muscle). Diagnosis is clear-cut if ECGs show elevation of the \"ST segment\", which in the context of severe typical chest pain is strongly indicative of an acute myocardial infarction (MI); this is termed a STEMI (ST-elevation MI) and is treated as an emergency with either urgent coronary angiography and percutaneous coronary intervention (angioplasty with or without stent insertion) or with thrombolysis (\"clot buster\" medication), whichever is available. In the absence of ST-segment elevation, heart damage is detected by cardiac markers (blood tests that identify heart muscle damage). If there is evidence of damage (infarction), the chest pain is attributed to a \"non-ST elevation MI\" (NSTEMI). If there is no evidence of damage, the term \"unstable angina\" is used. This process usually necessitates hospital admission and close observation on a coronary care unit for possible complications (such as cardiac arrhythmias \u2013 irregularities in the heart rate). Depending on the risk assessment, stress testing or angiography may be used to identify and treat coronary artery disease in patients who have had an NSTEMI or unstable angina.\n\nRisk assessment\nThere are various risk assessment systems for determining the risk of coronary artery disease, with various emphasis on different variables above. A notable example is Framingham Score, used in the Framingham Heart Study. It is mainly based on age, gender, diabetes, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, tobacco smoking, and systolic blood pressure. When it comes to predicting risk in younger adults (18\u201339 years old), Framingham Risk Score remains below 10-12% for all deciles of baseline-predicted risk.\n\nPolygenic score is another way of risk assessment. In one study the relative risk of incident coronary events was 91% higher among participants at high genetic risk than among those at low genetic risk.\n\nPrevention\nUp to 90% of cardiovascular disease may be preventable if established risk factors are avoided. Prevention involves adequate physical exercise, decreasing obesity, treating high blood pressure, eating a healthy diet, decreasing cholesterol levels, and stopping smoking. Medications and exercise are roughly equally effective. High levels of physical activity reduce the risk of coronary artery disease by about 25%. Life's Essential 8 are the key measures for improving and maintaining cardiovascular health, as defined by the American Heart Association. AHA added sleep as a factor influencing heart health in 2022.\n\nMost guidelines recommend combining these preventive strategies. A 2015 Cochrane Review found some evidence that counseling and education to bring about behavioral change might help in high-risk groups. However, there was insufficient evidence to show an effect on mortality or actual cardiovascular events. \n\nIn diabetes mellitus, there is little evidence that very tight blood sugar control improves cardiac risk although improved sugar control appears to decrease other problems such as kidney failure and blindness.\n\nDiet\n\nA diet high in fruits and vegetables decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease and death. Vegetarians have a lower risk of heart disease, possibly due to their greater consumption of fruits and vegetables. Evidence also suggests that the Mediterranean diet and a high fiber diet lower the risk.\n\nThe consumption of trans fat (commonly found in hydrogenated products such as margarine) has been shown to cause a precursor to atherosclerosis and increase the risk of coronary artery disease.\n\nEvidence does not support a beneficial role for omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in preventing cardiovascular disease (including myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death). There is tentative evidence that intake of menaquinone (Vitamin K2), but not phylloquinone (Vitamin K1), may reduce the risk of CAD mortality.\n\nSecondary prevention\nSecondary prevention is preventing further sequelae of already established disease. Effective lifestyle changes include:\n Weight control\n Smoking cessation\n Avoiding the consumption of trans fats (in partially hydrogenated oils)\n Decreasing psychosocial stress\n Exercise\n\nAerobic exercise, like walking, jogging, or swimming, can reduce the risk of mortality from coronary artery disease. Aerobic exercise can help decrease blood pressure and the amount of blood cholesterol (LDL) over time. It also increases HDL cholesterol.\n\nAlthough exercise is beneficial, it is unclear whether doctors should spend time counseling patients to exercise. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force found \"insufficient evidence\"", " wife, Gerta Sidonov\u00e1, around this time; she had also been excluded from school.\n\nVrba wrote that he learned to live with the restrictions but rebelled when the Slovak government announced, in February 1942, that thousands of Jews were to be deported to \"reservations\" in German-occupied Poland. The deportations came at the request of Germany, which needed the labour; the Slovak government paid the Germans RM\u00a0500 per Jew on the understanding that the government would lay claim to the deportees' property. Around 800 of the 58,000 Slovakian Jews deported between March and October 1942 survived. Vrba blamed the Slovak Jewish Council for having cooperated with the deportations.\n\nInsisting that he would not be \"deported like a calf in a wagon\", Vrba decided to join the Czechoslovak Army in exile in England and set off in a taxi for the border, aged 17, with a map, a box of matches, and the equivalent of \u00a310 from his mother. After making his way to Budapest, Hungary, he decided to return to Trnava but was arrested at the Hungarian border. The Slovak authorities sent him to the Nov\u00e1ky transit camp; he escaped briefly but was caught. An SS officer instructed that he be deported on the next transport.\n\nMajdanek and Auschwitz\n\nMajdanek\n\nVrba was deported from Czechoslovakia on 15 June 1942 to the Majdanek concentration camp in Lublin, German-occupied Poland, where he briefly encountered his older brother, Sammy. They saw each other \"almost simultaneously and we raised our arms in brief salute\"; it was the last time he ever saw him. He also encountered \"kapos\" for the first time: prisoners appointed as functionaries, one of whom he recognized from Trnava. Most wore green triangles, signalling their category as \"career criminals\":\n\nVrba's head and body were shaved, and he was given a uniform, wooden shoes and a cap. Caps had to be removed whenever the SS came within three yards. Prisoners were beaten for talking or moving too slowly. At roll call each morning, prisoners who had died during the night were piled up behind the living. Vrba was given a job as a builder's labourer. When a kapo asked for 400 volunteers for farm work elsewhere, Vrba signed up, looking for a chance to escape. A Czech kapo who had befriended Vrba hit him when he heard about this; the kapo explained that the \"farm work\" was in Auschwitz.\n\nAuschwitz I\n\nOn 29 June 1942, the Reich Security Main Office transferred Vrba and the other volunteers to Auschwitz I, the main camp (Stammlager) in O\u015bwi\u0119cim, a journey of over two days. Vrba considered trying to escape from the train, but the SS announced that ten men would be shot for every one who went missing.\n\nOn his second day in Auschwitz, Vrba watched as prisoners threw bodies onto a cart, stacked in piles of ten, \"the head of one between the legs of another to save space\". The following day he and 400 other men were beaten into a cold shower in a shower room built for 30, then marched outside naked to register. He was tattooed on his left forearm as no.\u00a044070 and given a striped tunic, trousers, cap and wooden shoes. After registration, which took all day and into the evening, he was shown to his barracks, an attic in a block next to the main gate and the Arbeit macht frei sign.\n\nYoung and strong, Vrba was \"purchased\" by a kapo, Frank, in exchange for a lemon (sought after for its vitamin C) and assigned to work in the SS food store. This gave him access to soap and water, which helped to save his life. Frank, he learned, was a kind man who would pretend to beat his prisoners when the guards were watching, although the blows always missed. The camp regime was otherwise marked by its pettiness and cruelty. When Heinrich Himmler visited on 17 July 1942 (during which he watched a gassing), the inmates were told everything had to be spotless. As the prison orchestra assembled by the gate for Himmler's arrival, the block senior and two others started beating an inmate because he was missing a tunic button:\n\nAuschwitz II\n\n\"Kanada\" commando\n\nIn August 1942 Vrba was reassigned to the Aufr\u00e4umungskommando (\"clearing-up\") or \"Kanada\" commando, in Auschwitz II-Birkenau, the extermination camp, 4\u00a0km (2.5 miles) from Auschwitz I. Around 200\u2013800 prisoners worked on the nearby Judenrampe where freight trains carrying Jews arrived, removing the dead, then sorting through the new arrivals' property. Many brought kitchen utensils and clothes for different seasons, suggesting to Vrba that they believed the stories about resettlement.\n\nIt took 2\u20133 hours to clear out a train, by which time most new arrivals were dead. Those deemed fit for work were selected for slave labour and the rest taken by truck to the gas chamber. Vrba estimated that 90 percent were gassed. He told Claude Lanzmann in 1978 that the process relied on speed and making sure no panic broke out, because panic meant the next transport would be delayed.\n\nThe new arrivals' property was taken to barracks known as Effektenlager I and II in Auschwitz I (moved to Auschwitz II after Vrba's escape). Inmates, and apparently also some of the camp administration, called the barracks Kanada I and II because they were a \"land of plenty\". Everything was there\u2014medicine, food, clothing, and cash\u2014much of it repackaged by the Aufr\u00e4umungskommando to be sent to Germany. The Aufr\u00e4umungskommando lived in Auschwitz I, block 4, until 15 January 1943 when they were transferred to block 16 in Auschwitz II, sector Ib, where Vrba lived until June 1943. \n\nAfter Vrba had been in Auschwitz for about five months, he fell sick with typhus; his weight dropped to and he was delirious. At his lowest point, he was helped by Josef Farber, a Slovakian member of the camp resistance, who brought him medication and thereafter extended to him the protection of the Auschwitz underground.\n\nIn early 1943 Vrba was given the job of assistant registrar in one of the blocks; he told Lanzmann that the resistance movement had manoeuvered him into the position because it gave him access to information. A few weeks later, in June, he was made registrar (Blockschreiber) of block 10 in Auschwitz II, the quarantine section for men (BIIa), again because of the underground. The position gave him his own room and bed, and he could wear his own clothes. He was also able to speak to new arrivals who had been selected to work, and he had to write reports about the registration process, which allowed him to ask questions and take notes.\n\nEstimates of numbers murdered\nFrom his room in BIIa, Vrba said he could see the trucks drive toward the gas chambers. In his estimate, 10 percent of each transport was selected to work and the rest murdered. During his time on the Judenrampe from 18 August 1942 to 7 June 1943, he told Lanzmann in 1978, he had seen at least 200 trains arrive, each containing 1,000\u20135,000 people. In a 1998 paper, he wrote that he had witnessed 100\u2013300 trains arrive, each locomotive pulling 20\u201340 freight cars and sometimes 50\u201360. He calculated that, between the spring of 1942 and 15 January 1944, 1.5\u00a0million had been murdered. According to the Vrba\u2013Wetzler report, 1,765,000 were murdered in Auschwitz between April 1942 and April 1944. In 1961 Vrba swore in an affidavit for the trial of Adolf Eichmann that he believed 2.5\u00a0million had been murdered overall in the camp, plus or minus 10 percent.\n\nVrba's estimates are higher than those of Holocaust historians but in line with estimates from SS officers and Auschwitz survivors, including members of the Sonderkommando. Early estimates ranged from one to 6.5\u00a0million. Rudolf H\u00f6ss, the first Auschwitz commandant, said in 1946 that three million had been murdered in the camp, although he revised his view. In 1946 the Main Commission for the Investigation of German Crimes in Poland estimated four million. Later scholarly estimates were lower. According to Polish historian Franciszek Piper, writing in 2000, most historians place the figure at one to 1.5\u00a0million. His own widely accepted estimate was that at least 1.3\u00a0million were sent to Auschwitz and at least 1,082,000 died (rounded up to 1.1\u00a0million or 85 percent), including 960,000 Jews. Piper's estimate of the death toll for April 1942 to April 1944 was 450,000, against Vrba's 1,765,000.\n\nHungarian Jews\n\nAccording to Vrba, a kapo from Berlin by the name of Yup told him on 15 January 1944 that he was part of a group of prisoners building a new railway line to lead straight to the crematoria. Yup said he had overheard from an SS officer that a million Hungarian Jews would soon arrive and that the old ramp could not handle the numbers. A railway line leading directly to the crematoria would cut thousands of truck journeys from the old ramp. In addition Vrba heard directly, courtesy of drunk SS guards, he wrote, that they would soon have Hungarian salami. When Dutch Jews arrived, they brought cheese; likewise there were sardines from the French Jews, and halva and olives from the Greeks. Now it was Hungarian salami.\n\nVrba had been thinking of escaping for two years but, he wrote, he was now determined, hoping to \"undermine one of the principal foundations\u2014the secrecy of the operation\". A Soviet captain, Dmitri Volkkov, told him he would need Russian tobacco soaked in petrol, then dried, to fool the dogs; a watch to use as a compass; matches to make food; and salt for nutrition. Vrba began studying the layout of the camps. Both Auschwitz I and II consisted of inner camps where the prisoners slept, surrounded by a six-yard-wide trench of water, then high-voltage barbed-wire fences. The area was lit at night and guarded by the SS in watchtowers. When a prisoner was reported missing, the guards searched for three days and nights. The key to a successful escape would be to remain hidden just outside the inner perimeter until the search was called off.\n\nHis first escape was planned for 26 January 1944 with Charles Unglick, a French Army captain, but the rendezvous did not work out; Unglick tried to escape alone and was killed. The SS left his body on display for two days, seated on a stool. An earlier group of escapees had been killed and mutilated with dumdum bullets, then placed in the middle of Camp D with a sign reading \"We're back!\"\n\nCzech family camp\n\nOn 6 March 1944 Vrba heard that the Czech family camp was about to be sent to the gas chambers. The group of around 5,000, including women and children, had arrived in Auschwitz in September 1943 from the Theresienstadt concentration camp in Czechoslovakia. That they had been allowed to live in Auschwitz for six months was unusual, not least because women with children were usually murdered immediately. Correspondence found after the war between Adolf Eichmann's office and the International Red Cross suggested that the Germans had set up the family camp as a model for a planned Red Cross visit to Auschwitz. The group was housed in relatively good conditions in block BIIb near the main gate, although in the six months they were held there 1,000 died despite the better treatment. They did not have their heads shaved, and the children were given lessons and access to better food, including milk and white bread.\n\nOn 1 March, according to the Vrba\u2013Wetzler report (5 March, according to Danuta Czech), the group was asked to write postcards to their relatives, telling them they were well and asking for parcels of provisions, and to postdate the cards to 25\u201327 March. On 7 March, according to the report (8\u20139 March, according to Czech), the group of 3,791 was gassed. The report stated that 11 twins had been kept alive for medical experiments. On 20 December 1943, a second Czech family group of 3,000 arrived, according to the report (2,473, according to Czech). Vrba assumed that this group would also be murdered after six months, i.e. around 20 June 1944.\n\nEscape\n\nVrba resolved again to escape. In Auschwitz he had encountered an acquaintance from Trnava, Alfr\u00e9d Wetzler (prisoner no.\u00a029162, then aged 26) who had arrived on 13 April 1942 and was working in the mortuary. Czes\u0142aw Mordowicz, who escaped from Auschwitz weeks after Vrba, said decades later that it was Wetzler who had initiated and planned the escape.\n\nAccording to Wetzler, writing in his book \u010co Dante nevidel (1963), later published as Escape from Hell (2007), the camp underground had organized the escape, supplying information for Vrba and Wetzler to carry (\"Karol\" and \"Val\" in the book). \"Otta\" in Hut 18, a locksmith, had created a key for a small shed in which Vrba and others had drawn a site plan and dyed clothes. \"Fero\" from the central registry supplied data from the registry; \"Filipek\" (Filip M\u00fcller) in Hut 13 added the names of the SS officers working around the crematoria, a plan of the gas chambers and crematoria, his records of the transports gassed in crematoria IV and V, and the label of a Zyklon B canister. \"Edek\" in Hut 14 smuggled out clothes for the escapees to wear, including suits from Amsterdam. \"Adamek\", \"Bolek\" and Vrba had supplied socks, underpants, shirts, a razor and a torch, as well as glucose, vitamins, margarine, cigarettes and a cigarette lighter that said \"made in Auschwitz\".\n\nThe information about the camp, including a sketch of the crematorium produced by a Russian prisoner, \"Wasyl\", was hidden inside two metal tubes. The tube containing the sketch was lost during the escape; the second tube contained data about the transports. Vrba's account differs from Wetzler's; according to Vrba, they took no notes and wrote the Vrba\u2013Wetzler report from memory. He told the historian John Conway that he had used \"personal memotechnical methods\" to remember the data, and that the stories about written notes had been invented because no one could explain his ability to recall so much detail.\n\nWearing suits, overcoats, and boots, at 14:00 on Friday, 7 April 1944\u2014the eve of Passover\u2014the men climbed inside a hollowed-out space they had prepared in a pile of wood stacked between Auschwitz-Birkenau's inner and outer perimeter fences, in section BIII in a construction area known as \"Meksyk\" (\"Mexico\"). They sprinkled the area with Russian tobacco soaked in gasoline, as advised by Dmitri Volkov, the Russian captain, to ward off dogs. Bolek and Adamek, both Polish prisoners, moved the planks back in place once they were hidden.\n\nK\u00e1rn\u00fd writes that at 20:33 on 7 April SS-Sturmbannf\u00fchrer Fritz Hartjenstein, the Birkenau commander, learned by teleprinter that two Jews were missing. On 8 April the Gestapo at Auschwitz sent telegrams with descriptions to the Reich Security Head Office in Berlin, the SS in Oranienburg, district commanders, and others. The men hid in the wood pile for three nights and throughout the fourth day. Soaking wet, with strips of flannel tightened across their mouths to muffle coughing, Wetzler wrote that they lay there counting: \"[N]early eighty hours. Four thousand eight hundred minutes. Two hundred and eighty-eight thousand seconds.\" On Sunday morning, 9 April, Adamek urinated against the pile and whistled to signal that all was well. At 9\u00a0pm on 10 April, they crawled out of the wood pile. \"Their circulation returns only slowly,\" Wetzler wrote. \"They both have the sensation of ants running along in their veins, that their bodies have been transformed into big, very slowly warming ant-heaps.\u00a0... The onset of weakness is so fierce that they have to support themselves on the inner edges of the panels.\" Using a map they'd taken from \"Kanada\", the men headed south toward Slovakia away, walking parallel to the So\u0142a river.\n\nVrba\u2013Wetzler report\n\nWalking to Slovakia \n\nAccording to Henryk \u015awiebocki of the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, local people, including members of the Polish underground who lived near the camp, did what they could to help escapees. Vrba wrote that there was no organized help for them on the outside. At first the men moved only at night, eating bread taken from Auschwitz and drinking from streams. On 13 April, lost in Bielsko-Biala, they approached a farmhouse and a Polish woman took them in for a day. Feeding them bread, potato soup and ersatz coffee, she explained that most of the area had been \"Germanized\" and that Poles helping Jews risked death.\n\nThey continued following the river; every so often, a Polish woman would drop half a loaf of bread near them. They were shot at on 16 April by German gendarmes but escaped. Two other Poles helped them with food and a place to stay, until they finally crossed the Polish\u2013Slovakian border near Skalit\u00e9 on 21 April 1944. By this time, Vrba's feet were so swollen he had had to cut off his boots and was wearing carpet slippers one of the Polish peasants had given him.\n\nA peasant family in Skalit\u00e9 took them in for a few days, fed and clothed them, then put them in touch with a Jewish doctor in nearby \u010cadca, Dr.\u00a0", " \u0413\u0440\u0430\u0430\u043b\u044f, \u0434\u043e\u0431\u044b\u0442\u044c \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u0435\u043c\u0443 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043f\u044f\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0442\u044f\u0433\u043e\u0442\u0435\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0434 \u043d\u0438\u043c \u0433\u0440\u0435\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u0435\u044f\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043c\u0430\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0447\u0430\u0440\u044b \u043b\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0413\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0440\u044b, \u0437\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u043c \u0447\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e 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\u0413\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\n\n\u0412\u0437\u0430\u0438\u043c\u043e\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \n\n \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438:\n \u0411\u0430\u043d, \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0411\u0435\u043d\u0432\u0438\u043a\u0430\n \u042d\u043b\u0435\u0439\u043d\u0430, \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0430\n \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430:\n \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u044b\u0447\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u041e\u0437\u0435\u0440\u0430\n \u0441\u044e\u0437\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d:\n \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440\n \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043b\u044e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f:\n \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0413\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\n \u0441\u0443\u043f\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430:\n \u042d\u043b\u0435\u0439\u043d\u0430, \u0434\u043e\u0447\u044c \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f \u041f\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0430 (\u0415\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0430, \u0434\u043e\u0447\u044c \u041f\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0435\u0430\u0441\u0430)\n \u0441\u044b\u043d:\n \u0413\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0434\n \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0447\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438:\n \u0441\u044d\u0440 \u042d\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 (Hector de Maris)\u00a0\u2014 \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442, \u043f\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u044b\u043d \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0411\u0430\u043d\u0430\n \u0441\u044d\u0440 \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0435 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u044f\u0434\u044f, \u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0411\u0430\u043d\u0430\n \u0441\u044d\u0440 \u041b\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043b\u044c\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u0443\u0437\u0435\u043d, \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0435 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0435\u0433\u043e, \u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0411\u0430\u043d\u0430\n \u0441\u044d\u0440 \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0435 \u041c\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0448\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u0443\u0437\u0435\u043d, \u0441\u044b\u043d \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0435 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0435\u0433\u043e, \u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0411\u0430\u043d\u0430\n\n\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0441\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0430 \n \u0431\u0440\u0435\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043b\u0435\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0434\u044b;\n \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u043e-\u041b\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0442\u00bb;\n \u00ab\u0420\u044b\u0446\u0430\u0440\u044c \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0433\u0438\u00bb \u041a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u044c\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0435 \u0422\u0440\u0443\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0435;\n \u00ab\u0420\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d \u043e \u0422\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0435 \u0438 \u0418\u0437\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0434\u0435\u00bb;\n \u00ab\u041b\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0442\u00bb \u0423\u043b\u044c\u0440\u0438\u0445\u0430 \u0444\u043e\u043d \u0426\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043a\u0445\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0430 ();\n \u00ab\u041a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u0430 \u043e \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0435 \u0438 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0435 \u0413\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0435\u00bb () \u0422\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0441\u0430 \u041c\u044d\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0438.\n\n\u041e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u044e\u0436\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u0432 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0435 \n\u0421\u044e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0430\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0435 \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043d\u043e. \u0415\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0435 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043a\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438, \u043d\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0443\u0442\u044b\u0435 \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0432\u043b\u0438\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c.\n\n\u0412 \u0441\u0442\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043a\u0443\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0430\u0437\u043d\u043e\u043c \u044d\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442: \u00ab\u0420\u044b\u0446\u0430\u0440\u044c \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0433\u0438\u00bb (Le chevalier de la charrette) \u041a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u044c\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0435 \u0422\u0440\u0443\u0430 \u0438 \u00ab\u041b\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u00bb \u0423\u043b\u044c\u0440\u0438\u0445\u0430 \u0444\u043e\u043d \u0426\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043a\u0445\u043e\u0444\u0435\u043d (\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0446 XII\u00a0\u0432.). \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u0432\u0430\u0436\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0432 \u0440\u044f\u0434\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u00abDiu Kr\u00f4ne\u00bb \u0413\u0435\u0439\u043d\u0440\u0438\u0445\u0430 \u0444\u043e\u043d \u0434\u0435\u043c \u0422\u044e\u0440\u043b\u0438\u043d (\u043e\u043a. 1215), \u00ab\u0420\u0438\u0433\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0440\u00bb \u0438 \u0434\u0440.\n\n\u0412 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0430\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0435 XIII \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0435\u043c \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044e \u043a\u0443\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0430\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044d\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0430, \u0441\u044e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f; \u043a \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f, \u0441 \u043d\u0438\u043c \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441\u044e\u0436\u0435\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u044b \u041c\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430, \u043f\u043e\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0413\u0440\u0430\u0430\u043b\u044f \u0438 \u0433\u0438\u0431\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430. \u0422\u0430\u043a \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0451\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e 1215\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0430\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d \u043e \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0435, \u043b\u0435\u0436\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0432 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u043e\u043a \u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0442\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u0435\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u0445\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u043e\u043c (\u0423\u043b\u044c\u0440\u0438\u0445 \u0424\u044e\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0440 \u0438 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438), \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c, \u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c, \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c (\u043a\u0443\u0434\u0430 \u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u00abMort d\u2019Arthure\u00bb \u0422\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0441\u0430 \u041c\u044d\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0438, XV \u0432\u0435\u043a), \u0438\u0441\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c, \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0433\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c. \u041e\u043d \u0432 \u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u043b \u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0443 \u0440\u044b\u0446\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430.\n\n\u0412\u0441\u0435 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\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0430\u00a0/ Knights of the Round Table (1953;\u00a0\u0421\u0428\u0410) \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440\u00a0\u0420\u0438\u0447\u0430\u0440\u0434 \u0422\u043e\u0440\u043f, \u0432 \u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u00a0\u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442 \u0422\u0435\u0439\u043b\u043e\u0440.\n \u0412 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435 \u00ab\u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442 \u0438 \u0413\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u00bb / Lancelot and Guinevere (1963) \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0435\u043b \u0423\u0430\u0439\u043b\u0434.\n \u0412 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043c\u044e\u0437\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0435 \u00ab\u041a\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u00bb (1967) \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0424\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043a\u043e \u041d\u0435\u0440\u043e.\n \u0412 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0435 \u00ab\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u041a\u0442\u043e\u00bb \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043e\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u044b\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0436 \u0432 \u044d\u043f\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u00ab\u0412\u043e\u0440 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443\u043c\u0430\u00bb (1969).\n \u0412 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u041c\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0438 \u041f\u0430\u0439\u0442\u043e\u043d \u0438 \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0413\u0440\u0430\u0430\u043b\u044c\u00bb (1975) \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0441\u044d\u0440\u0430 \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0425\u0440\u0430\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u043b \u0414\u0436\u043e\u043d \u041a\u043b\u0438\u0437\n \u00ab\u0427\u0451\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430, \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u041f\u043e\u0434\u0437\u0435\u043c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0436\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438\u00bb 1980\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0445 \u041b\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\n \u0412 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435 \u00ab\u042d\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0431\u0443\u0440\u00bb (1981) \u0414\u0436\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0411\u0443\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0430. \u0420\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0441\u044d\u0440\u0430 \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u043b \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0441 \u041a\u043b\u0435\u0439.\n \u0412 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435 \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440\u00bb (1985) \u0420\u0443\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0442 \u042d\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0442.\n \u0412 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435 \u00ab\u041d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u044f\u043d\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0434\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430\u00bb (1988) \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u041a\u0430\u0439\u0434\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439.\n \u0412 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435 \u00ab\u0423\u0431\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0434\u0440\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0430\u00bb (1988) \u00ab\u043f\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043a\u0430 \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0438\u00bb \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0410\u0431\u0434\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0432.\n \u0412 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435 \u00ab\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u044b\u0446\u0430\u0440\u044c\u00bb (1995) \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0420\u0438\u0447\u0430\u0440\u0434 \u0413\u0438\u0440. \u0417\u0434\u0435\u0441\u044c \u043e\u0442\u0441\u0443\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u041c\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0438\u043d \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0438\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435.\n \u0412 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435 \u00ab\u0420\u044b\u0446\u0430\u0440\u044c \u041a\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430\u00bb (1998) \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u0414\u0436\u0435\u0439\u043c\u0441 \u041a\u0443\u043c\u0431\u0441.\n \u0412 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435 \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440\u00bb (2004), \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0419\u043e\u0430\u043d \u0413\u0440\u0438\u0444\u0444\u0438\u0442, \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u043e\u0431\u0448\u0438\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0442 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0435\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0434\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0431\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u0442 \u0440\u0443\u043a \u0432\u0440\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0432, \u043a\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u0413\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430 \u0435\u0449\u0435 \u0434\u0430\u0436\u0435 \u043d\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0439, \u0438 \u0432\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435, \u0432\u0441\u044f \u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0438\u0445 \u043b\u044e\u0431\u0432\u0438 \u0438 \u0435\u0451 \u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u0433\u0438\u0431\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0447\u044c \u0438\u0433\u043d\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f.\n \u0412 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435 \u00ab\u0422\u0443\u043c\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0410\u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0430\u00bb (2001) \u0423\u043b\u0438 \u042d\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043e \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043c \u041c\u044d\u0440\u0438\u043e\u043d \u0417\u0438\u043c\u043c\u0435\u0440 \u0411\u0440\u044d\u0434\u043b\u0438 \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u041c\u0438\u0448\u0435\u043b\u044c (\u041c\u0430\u0439\u043a\u043b) \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u043d.\n \u0412 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\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433\u0438 \u0411\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0435\u0440\u0430.\n \u0412 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0435 \u00ab\u041c\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0438\u043d\u00bb \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0421\u0430\u043d\u0442\u044c\u044f\u0433\u043e \u041a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0440\u0430.\n \u0412 \u0430\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0435-\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0435 \u00abCode Geass\u00bb \u043d\u0430\u0439\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0440 \u0421\u0443\u0434\u0437\u0430\u043a\u0443 \u041a\u0443\u0440\u0443\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u0435\u0442 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u00abLancelot\u00bb.\n \u0412 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435 \u00ab\u041d\u043e\u0447\u044c \u0432 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0435 3\u00bb \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u0442 \u0414\u044d\u043d \u0421\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0441.\n \u0412 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0435 \u00ab\u0411\u0438\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0440\u0438\u00bb \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0414\u044e\u043b\u0430\u043a\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u041c\u044d\u0442\u0442 \u0424\u0440\u044e\u044d\u0440.\n \u0412 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0435 \u00ab\u041e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u0436\u0434\u044b \u0432 \u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u043a\u0435\u00bb \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u0421\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0432\u0430 \u0423\u043e\u043b\u043b\u0441.\n \u0412 \u043c\u044e\u0437\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0435 \u00abLa L\u00e9gende du roi Arthur\u00bb \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 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\u041a\u0435\u0439\u0442\u0438 \u041b\u043e\u0442\u0446.\n \u0412 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435 \u00abKingsman\u00bb \u043a\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u0438\u043c\u044f \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442 \u043d\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0442 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0436 \u0420\u043e\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u041c\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043e\u043d, \u0441\u044b\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0421\u043e\u0444\u0438 \u041a\u0443\u043a\u0441\u043e\u043d.\n \u0412 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0435 \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043b\u044f\u0442\u0430\u044f\u00bb \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0441\u044b\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b \u0414\u044d\u043d\u0438\u044d\u043b \u0428\u0430\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d.\n \u0412 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435 \"\u0428\u0440\u0435\u043a 3\" \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f 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\u042d\u043b\u0435\u0439\u043d. \u0412 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0433\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043b \u0441\u0432\u043e\u044e \u0431\u0443\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0443\u044e \u043b\u044e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044c \u0413\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0443, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0435\u0442, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0438\u0445 \u0436\u0434\u0451\u0442. \u041d\u0430 \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0413\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0443 \u043f\u043e\u0445\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043b \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440.\n\n\u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0442 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0444 \n\n\u0412 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0424\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e \u0432 XIV \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u044b (\u00ab\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435\u00bb, \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u00ab\u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435\u00bb), \u00ab\u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0438\u00bb (\u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u044b \u0441 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0436\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f\u043c\u0438, \u0434\u0430\u043c\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0438 \u0432\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438) \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0441 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u0438 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043b\u0435\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0436\u0430\u043c\u0438. \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0442 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0444 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b \u041b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0443.\n\n\u0411\u0438\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f \n \u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0442\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432: \u00abChevalier de la charrette\u00bb \u041a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u044c\u0435\u043d\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435: W. Foerster, Halle, 1899; \u0422\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f:\n Roman de Rigomer, W. Foerster, 1908;\n Lanzelet, K. A. Hahn, Frankfurt a/M., 1845;\n Diu Kr", " the summit of Laurel Hill, US\u00a030 enters Somerset County and begins to descend the hill along two-lane undivided Lincoln Highway, passing through a section of Laurel Ridge State Park where it crosses the Laurel Highlands Hiking Trail. After descending the hill, the road runs east-southeast. The route enters the borough of Jennerstown and becomes West Pitt Street. US\u00a030 intersects PA\u00a0985 and becomes East Pitt Street.\n\nThe road leaves Jennerstown and becomes the Lincoln Highway again. The route heads through the community of Jenners Crossroads before it has a junction with PA\u00a0601 in the community of Ferrellton. US\u00a030 briefly becomes a four-lane divided highway as it comes to an interchange with the US\u00a0219 freeway.\n\nPast this interchange, the route becomes a two-lane undivided road again and winds southeast. The road runs along the southwest border of the borough of Stoystown and passes under Somerset Street before it reaches an interchange with the northern terminus of PA\u00a0281.\n\nPast Stoystown, US\u00a030 crosses the Stonycreek River and intersects the southern terminus of PA\u00a0403 before it comes to a bridge over CSX's S&C Subdivision railroad line. The route comes to the entrance road to the Flight 93 National Memorial to the south. The road runs through the community of Buckstown and passes north of the borough of Indian Lake before it reaches an intersection with PA\u00a0160 in the community of Reels Corner. US\u00a030 continues east-southeast and passes to the north of the Stony Creek Wind Farm before it begins to ascend Allegheny Mountain, winding to the east. Approaching the summit of the mountain, the road comes to an eastbound truck brake check station.\n\nUS\u00a030 leaves the Laurel Highlands region as it crosses into Bedford County and reaches the summit of Allegheny Mountain, where it turns north-northeast and begins to descend the mountain. The road makes a hairpin turn to the southeast and winds east, coming to an eastbound truck brake check station as it continues to descend. The route heads east-northeast and enters the borough of Schellsburg, where US\u00a030 becomes Pitt Street and crosses PA\u00a096.\n\nUpon leaving Schellsburg, the road becomes the Lincoln Highway again and passes north of Shawnee State Park, curving southeast and then east. The route passes under the Pennsylvania Turnpike (I-70/I-76) before intersecting the eastern terminus of PA\u00a031.\n\nUS\u00a030 heads east-northeast a short distance to the south of the Pennsylvania Turnpike and reaches a junction with the eastern terminus of PA\u00a056 before it curves southeast and crosses the Raystown Branch Juniata River in the community of Wolfsburg. The route runs south and comes to an intersection with the western terminus of US\u00a030 Bus., at which point US\u00a030 becomes a four-lane freeway that bypasses the borough of Bedford to the north.\n\nUS\u00a030 heads southeast and reaches a cloverleaf interchange with the US\u00a0220 freeway. The freeway crosses the Raystown Branch Juniata River and runs to the north of the river, passing over US\u00a0220 Bus. The route leaves Bedford and crosses the river again before it comes to a westbound exit and eastbound entrance with the eastern terminus of US\u00a030 Bus., where the freeway section ends and US\u00a030 becomes four-lane divided Lincoln Highway.\n\nUS\u00a030, the Raystown Branch Juniata River, and the Pennsylvania Turnpike pass southeast through the Bedford Narrows, a gap in Evitts Mountain. Here, US\u00a030 intersects the northern terminus of PA\u00a0326 and curves northeast, crossing over the river and under the turnpike. The route becomes a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane, curving east. The road turns into a four-lane divided highway and has interchanges with Pennknoll Road, where it passes south of UPMC Bedford hospital, and Lutzville Road. US\u00a030 continues east and southeast and passes east through a gap in Tussey Mountain. The route has an eastbound exit and westbound entrance with the western terminus of US\u00a030 Bus., where it becomes a freeway that bypasses the borough of Everett to the north. The freeway turns north between the mountain the west and Everett to the east before it turns east and passes over PA\u00a026 prior to an interchange with the Bud Shuster Bypass that connects to PA\u00a026. The freeway section of US\u00a030 ends at an intersection with the eastern terminus of US\u00a030 Bus. east of Everett, where US\u00a030 becomes four-lane divided Lincoln Highway. The road curves southeast as it runs north of the Raystown Branch Juniata River. The route crosses the river and winds east, heading into the community of Breezewood, where it passes several businesses and comes to an at-grade intersection with I-70. At this point, I-70 joins US\u00a030 in a wrong-way concurrency on a non\u2013limited access section of Interstate Highway that has two eastbound lanes, three westbound lanes, and a center left-turn lane before the road comes to an interchange with the Pennsylvania Turnpike, where I-70 splits from US\u00a030 and heads west along with I-76 on the turnpike. From here, US\u00a030 narrows to a two-lane undivided road and crosses the Abandoned Pennsylvania Turnpike before it heads northeast into rural areas and climbs Rays Hill, gaining a second eastbound lane and passing over the Pennsylvania Turnpike (I-76).\n\nBreezewood to Lancaster\nAt the summit of Rays Hill, US\u00a030 enters Fulton County and descends the hill as two-lane undivided Lincoln Highway, with the Pennsylvania Turnpike parallel to the north. The route turns east away from the turnpike and comes to an intersection with PA\u00a0915, at which point PA\u00a0915 heads east for a concurrency with US\u00a030. The road heads into the Buchanan State Forest, with PA\u00a0915 splitting to the north. US\u00a030 ascends Sideling Hill and reaches the summit, where it comes to an eastbound truck brake check station. At this point, the road begins to descend Sideling Hill, winding east. Along the descent, the roadway comes to two truck brake check stations and two runaway truck ramps in the eastbound direction. The route leaves the state forest and heads southeast, passing through the community of Saluvia. US\u00a030 curves east-southeast and comes to an intersection with PA\u00a0655 in the community of Harrisonville. The road turns southeast in the community of Breezy Point and ascends Scrub Ridge. The route comes to a westbound truck brake check station before it reaches the community of Summit, where it heads south to descend Scrub Ridge. US\u00a030 continues south and briefly becomes a divided highway as it intersects Lincoln Way, where it turns into a two-lane expressway that bypasses the borough of McConnellsburg to the north. The road makes a hairpin turn to the northeast and gains a second westbound lane. The route curves east and comes to a diamond interchange with US\u00a0522 that serves McConnellsburg, where it becomes a four-lane divided expressway. Past this interchange, the expressway becomes a three-lane undivided road with two eastbound lanes and one westbound lane, turning to the south-southeast. US\u00a030 becomes a divided highway and intersects Lincoln Way again, where the expressway section ends. The route becomes a three-lane undivided road with two eastbound lanes and one westbound lane as it ascends Tuscarora Mountain. The road narrows to two lanes as it continues to climb the mountain and follow a winding alignment.\n\nAt the summit of Tuscarora Mountain, US\u00a030 enters Franklin County and curves northeast to descend the mountain. The road comes to an eastbound truck brake check station as it winds northeast and reaches an eastbound runaway truck ramp and gains a westbound truck lane. The route curves to the east-southeast and narrows to two lanes. At the bottom of the mountain, US\u00a030 enters the Cumberland Valley and becomes Lincoln Way West, briefly turning into a divided highway as it reaches an intersection with PA\u00a075. The road becomes undivided again and heads to the south of the community of Fort Loudon. The route continues east-northeast through rural areas in the valley, intersecting the northern terminus of PA\u00a0416 and passing through the community of St. Thomas. US\u00a030 gains a center left-turn lane, crossing Back Creek. Farther east, the road has a junction with the northern terminus of PA\u00a0995 before it enters the borough of Chambersburg. At this point, the route runs through developed areas and splits into the one-way pair of West Loudon Street eastbound and Lincoln Way West westbound, with West Loudon Street a two-way, two-lane road and Lincoln Way West carrying two lanes of one-way traffic. US\u00a030 crosses the Conococheague Creek and the Chambersburg Rail-Trail, with the eastbound direction shifting to West Queen Street, which carries two lanes of one-way traffic. The route heads into downtown Chambersburg and intersects US\u00a011, which is routed on the one-way pair of Main Street southbound and 2nd Street northbound. Westbound US\u00a030 meets southbound US\u00a011 at Memorial Square, which features a fountain in the middle of the intersection. Upon crossing southbound US\u00a011, US\u00a030 becomes East Queen Street eastbound and Lincoln Way East westbound, crossing under Norfolk Southern's Lurgan Branch railroad line before both directions of US\u00a030 rejoin on Lincoln Way East, a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane. The road runs east and passes south of WellSpan Chambersburg Hospital before it widens to five lanes as it comes to an interchange with I-81 on the eastern border of Chambersburg. Past this interchange, the route heads through the community of Stoufferstown as a four-lane divided highway, soon becoming a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane. US\u00a030 narrows to three lanes as it continues through a mix of rural areas and development, passing south of the community of Fayetteville before it forms a short concurrency with PA\u00a0997 upon intersecting that route in the community of Greenwood. The road leaves the Cumberland Valley as it heads into the Michaux State Forest, where it crosses South Mountain. The route passes south of Caledonia State Park and becomes a three-lane road with two eastbound lanes and one westbound lane, crossing the Appalachian Trail. US\u00a030 briefly becomes four lanes before it loses the second lane eastbound and intersects PA\u00a0233, where it turns into a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane.\n\nUS\u00a030 enters Adams County and becomes Chambersburg Road, continuing east through Cashtown Gap in South Mountain. The road becomes three lanes with two eastbound lanes and one westbound lane before it turns back to a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane. The route intersects the western terminus of PA\u00a0234. US\u00a030 continues east with one eastbound lane and two westbound lanes before narrowing to a two-lane road. The route curves southeast in the community of Hilltown and gains a center left-turn lane. The road passes through the community of McKnightstown, where it narrows to two lanes. US\u00a030 crosses CSX's Hanover Subdivision railroad line at-grade in the community of Seven Stars. The route heads to the north of Gettysburg Regional Airport and passes through the community of Stremmels before it runs through a section of Gettysburg National Military Park. US\u00a030 enters the borough of Gettysburg and becomes Buford Avenue, passing north of the United Lutheran Seminary as it heads into developed areas and turns east onto Chambersburg Street. The route continues into downtown Gettysburg and meets US\u00a015 Bus./PA\u00a0116 at Lincoln Square, a traffic circle. At this point, US\u00a030 heads east concurrent with PA\u00a0116 on York Street, with PA\u00a0116 splitting to the east and US\u00a030 continuing northeast along York Street. The route leaves Gettysburg upon crossing Rock Creek and becomes York Road, a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane, with CSX's Hanover Subdivision parallel to the northwest. The road turns into a four-lane divided highway as it comes to an interchange with the US\u00a015 freeway. US\u00a030 continues east-northeast as a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane through a mix of rural areas and development, passing through the community of Guldens. The route curves east and briefly gains a second westbound lane before heading through the community of Brush Run. The road narrows to two lanes and crosses the South Branch Conewago Creek, where the name changes to Lincoln Way West. US\u00a030 enters the borough of New Oxford, crossing CSX's Hanover Subdivision at-grade and meeting Carlisle Street/Hanover Street at the New Oxford Town Square, a traffic circle. The route becomes Lincoln Way East before it leaves New Oxford, where it turns into York Road and gains a center left-turn lane. The road crosses PA\u00a094 in the community of Cross Keys and gains a second westbound lane further east before it reaches the borough of Abbottstown. Upon entering Abbottstown, US\u00a030 becomes two-lane West King Street, meeting PA\u00a0194 at the Abbottstown Square traffic circle, before it continues along East King Street.\n\nUpon crossing Beaver Creek, US\u00a030 leaves Abbottstown and heads into York County. The route follows Lincoln Highway, a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane. The road curves to the northeast and passes through the community of Farmers, where it bends to the east-northeast. US\u00a030 heads to the north of York Airport before it reaches the community of Thomasville, where it narrows to two lanes and crosses a York Railway line at-grade. The route gains a center left-turn lane and passes through more developed areas. The road widens to a four-lane divided highway and reaches an intersection with the eastern terminus of PA\u00a0116. US\u00a030 heads east-northeast as West Market Street, a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane, and turns into a four-lane divided highway as it comes to a junction with the northern terminus of PA\u00a0616. Past this intersection, US\u00a030 splits from West Market Street at a trumpet interchange by heading north onto a four-lane freeway, with PA\u00a0462 continuing east along West Market Street towards the city of York. The freeway passes over a York Railway line and curves northeast, passing under PA\u00a0234. The route continues northeast and comes to a diamond interchange with PA\u00a074 in a business area north of the borough of West York, with the West Manchester Town Center shopping center located northwest of the interchange. US\u00a030 widens to six lanes before the freeway section ends, with US\u00a030 becoming a six-lane divided highway with at-grade intersections called Loucks Road that passes development. The road enters the city of York and curves east. The route leaves the city of York and crosses Susquehanna Trail/11th Avenue, where the name changes to Arsenal Road, before it reaches an intersection with I-83 Bus. and the southern terminus of PA\u00a0181 north of the borough of North York. US\u00a030 comes to a partial cloverleaf interchange with I-83, where it narrows to four lanes, before it passes over Codorus Creek and the York County Heritage Rail Trail and then Norfolk Southern's York Secondary railroad line. The route continues east, turning into an unnamed four-lane freeway and reaching an interchange with Memory Lane that serves the community of East York. The freeway reaches a partial cloverleaf interchange with PA\u00a024 south of the York Galleria shopping mall. US\u00a030 continues east-northeast and passes north of the Haines Shoe House as it heads into rural areas, coming to a diamond interchange with Kreutz Creek Road that provides access to PA\u00a0462 and the borough of Hallam to the south. The freeway reaches a diamond interchange at Cool Springs Road, which heads south to connect to PA\u00a0462 and the borough of Wrightsville.\n\nUS\u00a030 crosses the Susquehanna River on the Wright's Ferry Bridge into Lancaster County, where it heads into the borough of Columbia and passes over Norfolk Southern's Port Road Branch railroad line and the Northwest Lancaster County River Trail before coming to an interchange with PA\u00a0441 that serves Columbia; the Turkey Hill Experience is located south of this interchange. From here, the freeway heads northeast and curves to the southeast. The route leaves Columbia and turns east, coming to a diamond interchange with Prospect Road. US\u00a030 passes through the borough of Mountville before it reaches a diamond interchange with Stony Battery Road that serves Mountville. The freeway runs east-northeast through suburban development, coming to a partial cloverleaf interchange with Centerville Road. The route turns northeast and crosses under PA\u00a023. US\u00a030 curves east as it reaches a diamond interchange with PA\u00a0741. The freeway widens to six lanes before it curves northeast and crosses the Little Conestoga Creek. The route comes to an interchange with Harrisburg Pike, at which point it enters the city of Lancaster and narrows to four lanes with an auxiliary lane in each direction, passing southeast of the Park City Center shopping mall that is served by the Harrisburg Pike interchange. US\u00a030 leaves the city limits as it passes over Amtrak's Keystone Corridor and Norfolk Southern's Lititz Secondary railroad lines, reaching an eastbound exit and westbound entrance with PA\u00a072. The route comes to an interchange with the eastern terminus of the PA\u00a0283 freeway. At this point, the US\u00a030 freeway widens to six lanes and turns east as it becomes paralleled by a pair of frontage roads called Chester Road eastbound and York Road westbound. The frontage roads serve the interchanges at Fruitville Pike, PA\u00a0501, and US\u00a0222/PA\u00a0272 to the north of Lancaster. Past the US\u00a0222/PA\u00a0272 interchange, the frontage roads end and US\u00a0222 heads east concurrent with US\u00a030 on the freeway before US\u00a0222 splits northeast on a freeway at a trumpet interchange. From here, US\u00a030 continues southeast as a four-lane freeway with an auxiliary lane in each direction, coming to a diamond interchange with PA\u00a023 at New Holland Pike. At this point, PA\u00a023 joins US\u00a030 in a wrong-way concurrency, with the freeway crossing the Conestoga River before PA\u00a023 splits to the southwest at a partial cloverleaf interchange. US\u00a030 runs through a section of the city of Lancaster before it meets Greenfield Road at a partial cloverleaf interchange; Greenfield Road provides access to the Discover Lancaster Visitors Center", " deficit would reduce bond interest rates.\n\nPresident Clinton's attorney general Janet Reno authorized the FBI's use of armored vehicles to deploy tear gas into the buildings of the Branch Davidian community near Waco, Texas, in hopes of ending a 51 day siege. During the operation on April 19, 1993, the buildings caught fire and 75 of the residents died, including 24 children. The raid had originally been planned by the Bush administration; Clinton had played no role.\n\nIn August, Clinton signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993, which passed Congress without a Republican vote. It cut taxes for 15million low-income families, made tax cuts available to 90\u00a0percent of small businesses, and raised taxes on the wealthiest 1.2\u00a0percent of taxpayers. Additionally, it mandated that the budget be balanced over many years through the implementation of spending restraints.\n\nOn September 22, 1993, Clinton made a major speech to Congress regarding a health care reform plan; the program aimed at achieving universal coverage through a national health care plan. This was one of the most prominent items on Clinton's legislative agenda and resulted from a task force headed by Hillary Clinton. The plan was well received in political circles, but it was eventually doomed by well-organized lobby opposition from conservatives, the American Medical Association, and the health insurance industry. However, Clinton biographer John F. Harris said the program failed because of a lack of coordination within the White House. Despite the Democratic majority in Congress, the effort to create a national health care system ultimately died when compromise legislation by George J. Mitchell failed to gain a majority of support in August 1994. The failure of the bill was the first major legislative defeat of the Clinton administration.\n\nOn November 30, 1993, Clinton signed into law the Brady Bill, which mandated federal background checks on people who purchase firearms in the United States. The law also imposed a five-day waiting period on purchases, until the NICS system was implemented in 1998. He also expanded the Earned Income Tax Credit, a subsidy for low-income workers.\n\nIn December of the same year, allegations by Arkansas state troopers Larry Patterson and Roger Perry were first reported by David Brock in The American Spectator. In the affair later known as \"Troopergate\", the officers alleged that they had arranged sexual liaisons for Clinton back when he was governor of Arkansas. The story mentioned a woman named Paula, a reference to Paula Jones. Brock later apologized to Clinton, saying the article was politically motivated \"bad journalism\", and that \"the troopers were greedy and had slimy motives\".\n\nThat month, Clinton implemented a Department of Defense directive known as \"Don't Ask, Don't Tell\", which allowed gay men and women to serve in the armed services provided they kept their sexual preferences a secret. The Act forbade the military from inquiring about an individual's sexual orientation. The policy was developed as a compromise after Clinton's proposal to allow gays to serve openly in the military met staunch opposition from prominent Congressional Republicans and Democrats, including senators John McCain (R-AZ) and Sam Nunn (D-GA). According to David Mixner, Clinton's support for the compromise led to a heated dispute with Vice President Al Gore, who felt that \"the President should lift the ban\u00a0... even though [his executive order] was sure to be overridden by the Congress\". Some gay-rights advocates criticized Clinton for not going far enough and accused him of making his campaign promise to get votes and contributions. Their position was that Clinton should have integrated the military by executive order, noting that President Harry S. Truman used executive order to racially desegregate the armed forces. Clinton's defenders argued that an executive order might have prompted the Senate to write the exclusion of gays into law, potentially making it harder to integrate the military in the future. Later in his presidency, in 1999, Clinton criticized the way the policy was implemented, saying he did not think any serious person could say it was not \"out of whack\". The policy remained controversial, and was finally repealed in 2011, removing open sexual orientation as a reason for dismissal from the armed forces.\n\nOn January 1, 1994, Clinton signed the North American Free Trade Agreement into law. Throughout his first year in office, Clinton consistently supported ratification of the treaty by the U.S. Senate. Clinton and most of his allies in the Democratic Leadership Committee strongly supported free trade measures; there remained, however, strong disagreement within the party. Opposition came chiefly from anti-trade Republicans, protectionist Democrats and supporters of Ross Perot. The bill passed the house with 234 votes in favor and 200 votes opposed (132 Republicans and 102 Democrats in favor; 156 Democrats, 43 Republicans, and one independent opposed). The treaty was then ratified by the Senate and signed into law by the president.\n\nOn July 29, 1994, the Clinton administration launched the first official White House website, whitehouse.gov. The site was followed with three more versions, with the final version being launched on July 21, 2000. The White House website was part of a wider movement of the Clinton administration toward web-based communication. According to Robert Longley, \"Clinton and Gore were responsible for pressing almost all federal agencies, the U.S. court system and the U.S. military onto the Internet, thus opening up America's government to more of America's citizens than ever before. On July 17, 1996, Clinton issued Executive Order 13011\u2014Federal Information Technology, ordering the heads of all federal agencies to utilize information technology fully to make the information of the agency easily accessible to the public.\"\n\nThe Omnibus Crime Bill, which Clinton signed into law in September 1994, made many changes to U.S. crime and law enforcement legislation including the expansion of the death penalty to include crimes not resulting in death, such as running a large-scale drug enterprise. During Clinton's re-election campaign he said, \"My 1994 crime bill expanded the death penalty for drug kingpins, murderers of federal law enforcement officers, and nearly 60 additional categories of violent felons.\" It also included a subsection of assault weapons ban for a ten-year period.\n\nAfter two years of Democratic Party control, the Democrats lost control of Congress to the Republicans in the mid-term elections in 1994, for the first time in forty years.\n\nA speech delivered by President Bill Clinton at the December 6, 1995 White House Conference on HIV/AIDS projected that a cure for AIDS and a vaccine to prevent further infection would be developed. The President focused on his administration's accomplishments and efforts related to the epidemic, including an accelerated drug-approval process. He also condemned homophobia and discrimination against people with HIV. Clinton announced three new initiatives: creating a special working group to coordinate AIDS research throughout the federal government; convening public health experts to develop an action plan that integrates HIV prevention with substance abuse prevention; and launching a new effort by the Department of Justice to ensure that health care facilities provide equal access to people with HIV and AIDS.\n\nOn September 21, 1996, Clinton signed into law the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which defined marriage for federal purposes as the legal union of one man and one woman; the legislation allowed individual states to refuse to recognize gay marriages that were performed in other states. Paul Yandura, speaking for the White House gay and lesbian liaison office, said Clinton's signing DOMA \"was a political decision that they made at the time of a re-election\". In defense of his actions, Clinton has said that DOMA was intended to \"head off an attempt to send a constitutional amendment banning gay marriage to the states\", a possibility he described as highly likely in the context of a \"very reactionary Congress\". Administration spokesman Richard Socarides said, \"the alternatives we knew were going to be far worse, and it was time to move on and get the president re-elected.\" Clinton himself said DOMA was something \"which the Republicans put on the ballot to try to get the base vote for Bush up, I think it's obvious that something had to be done to try to keep the Republican Congress from presenting that\"; Others were more critical. The veteran gay rights and gay marriage activist Evan Wolfson has called these claims \"historic revisionism\". Despite this, it has been noted that other than a brief written response to a Reader's Digest that questioned whether he agreed with it, Clinton had made no documented reference to the issue of gay marriage until May 1996. In a July 2, 2011, editorial The New York Times opined, \"The Defense of Marriage Act was enacted in 1996 as an election-year wedge issue, signed by President Bill Clinton in one of his worst policy moments.\" Ultimately, in United States v. Windsor, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down DOMA in June 2013.\n\nDespite DOMA, Clinton was the first president to select openly gay persons for administrative positions, and he is generally credited as being the first president to publicly champion gay rights. During his presidency, Clinton issued two substantially controversial executive orders on behalf of gay rights, the first lifting the ban on security clearances for LGBT federal employees and the second outlawing discrimination based on sexual orientation in the federal civilian workforce. Under Clinton's leadership, federal funding for HIV/AIDS research, prevention and treatment more than doubled. Clinton also pushed for passing hate crimes laws for gays and for the private sector Employment Non-Discrimination Act, which, buoyed by his lobbying, failed to pass the Senate by a single vote in 1996. Advocacy for these issues, paired with the politically unpopular nature of the gay rights movement at the time, led to enthusiastic support for Clinton's election and reelection by the Human Rights Campaign. Clinton came out for gay marriage in July 2009 and urged the Supreme Court to overturn DOMA in 2013. He was later honored by GLAAD for his prior pro-gay stances and his reversal on DOMA.\n\nThe 1996 United States campaign finance controversy was an alleged effort by China to influence the domestic policies of the United States, before and during the Clinton administration, and involved the fundraising practices of the administration itself. Despite the evidence, the Chinese government denied all accusations.\n\nAs part of a 1996 initiative to curb illegal immigration, Clinton signed the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) on September 30, 1996. Appointed by Clinton, the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform recommended reducing legal immigration from about 800,000 people a year to about 550,000.\n\nIn November 1996, Clinton narrowly escaped possible assassination in the Philippines, which was a bridge bomb planted by al-Qaeda and was masterminded by Osama bin Laden. During Clinton's presidency, the attempt remained top secret.\n\n1996 presidential campaign\n\nIn the 1996 presidential election, Clinton was re-elected, receiving 49.2 percent of the popular vote over Republican Bob Dole (40.7 percent of the popular vote) and Reform candidate Ross Perot (8.4 percent of the popular vote). Clinton received 379 of the Electoral College votes, with Dole receiving 159 electoral votes. With his victory, he became the first Democrat to win two consecutive presidential elections since Franklin D. Roosevelt.\n\nSecond term (1997\u20132001)\nIn the January 1997, State of the Union address, Clinton proposed a new initiative to provide health coverage to up to five million children. Senators Ted Kennedy\u2014a Democrat\u2014and Orrin Hatch\u2014a Republican\u2014teamed up with Hillary Rodham Clinton and her staff in 1997, and succeeded in passing legislation forming the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), the largest (successful) health care reform in the years of the Clinton Presidency. That year, Hillary Clinton shepherded through Congress the Adoption and Safe Families Act and two years later she succeeded in helping pass the Foster Care Independence Act. Bill Clinton negotiated the passage of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 by the Republican Congress. In October 1997, he announced he was getting hearing aids, due to hearing loss attributed to his age, and his time spent as a musician in his youth. In 1999, he signed into law the Financial Services Modernization Act also known as the Gramm\u2013Leach\u2013Bliley Act, which repealed the part of the Glass\u2013Steagall Act that had prohibited a bank from offering a full range of investment, commercial banking, and insurance services since its enactment in 1933.\n\nInvestigations \nIn November 1993, David Hale\u2014the source of criminal allegations against Bill Clinton in the Whitewater controversy\u2014alleged that while governor of Arkansas, Clinton pressured Hale to provide an illegal $300,000 loan to Susan McDougal, the Clintons' partner in the Whitewater land deal. A U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission investigation resulted in convictions against the McDougals for their role in the Whitewater project, but the Clintons themselves were never charged, and Clinton maintains his and his wife's innocence in the affair. Investigations Robert B. Fiske and Ken Starr found insufficient to evidence to prosecute the Clintons.\n\nThe White House FBI files controversy of June 1996 arose concerning improper access by the White House to FBI security-clearance documents. Craig Livingstone, head of the White House Office of Personnel Security, improperly requested, and received from the FBI, background report files without asking permission of the subject individuals; many of these were employees of former Republican administrations. In March 2000, Independent Counsel Robert Ray determined there was no credible evidence of any crime. Ray's report further stated, \"there was no substantial and credible evidence that any senior White House official was involved\" in seeking the files.\n\nOn May 19, 1993, Clinton fired seven employees of the White House Travel Office. This caused the White House travel office controversy even though the travel office staff served at the pleasure of the president and could be dismissed without cause. The White House responded to the controversy by claiming that the firings were done in response to financial improprieties that had been revealed by a brief FBI investigation. Critics contended that the firings had been done to allow friends of the Clintons to take over the travel business and the involvement of the FBI was unwarranted. The House Government Reform and Oversight Committee issued a report which accused the Clinton administration of having obstructed their efforts to investigate the affair. Special counsel Robert Fiske said that Hillary Clinton was involved in the firing and gave \"factually false\" testimony to the GAO, congress, and the independent counsel. However Fiske said there was not enough evidence to prosecute.\n\nImpeachment and acquittal\n\nAfter a House inquiry, Clinton was impeached on December 19, 1998, by the House of Representatives. The House voted 228\u2013206 to impeach him for perjury to a grand jury and voted 221\u2013212 to impeach him for obstruction of justice. Clinton was only the second U.S. president (the first being Andrew Johnson) to be impeached. Impeachment proceedings were based on allegations that Clinton had illegally lied about and covered up his relationship with 22-year-old White House (and later Department of Defense) employee Monica Lewinsky. After the Starr Report was submitted to the House providing what it termed \"substantial and credible information that President Clinton Committed Acts that May Constitute Grounds for an Impeachment\", the House began impeachment hearings against Clinton before the mid-term elections. To hold impeachment proceedings, Republican leadership called a lame-duck session in December 1998.\n\nWhile the House Judiciary Committee hearings ended in a straight party-line vote, there was lively debate on the House floor. The two charges passed in the House (largely with Republican support, but with a handful of Democratic votes as well) were for perjury and obstruction of justice. The perjury charge arose from Clinton's testimony before a grand jury that had been convened to investigate perjury he may have committed in his sworn deposition during Jones v. Clinton, Paula Jones's sexual harassment lawsuit. The obstruction charge was based on his actions to conceal his relationship with Lewinsky before and after that deposition.\n\nThe Senate later acquitted Clinton of both charges. The Senate refused to meet to hold an impeachment trial before the end of the old term, so the trial was held over until the next Congress. Clinton was represented by Washington law firm Williams & Connolly. The Senate finished a twenty-one-day trial on February 12, 1999, with the vote of 55 not guilty/45 guilty on the perjury charge and 50 not guilty/50 guilty on the obstruction of justice charge. Both votes fell short of the constitutional two-thirds majority requirement to convict and remove an officeholder. The final vote was generally along party lines, with no Democrats voting guilty, and only a handful of Republicans voting not guilty.\n\nOn January 19, 2001, Clinton's law license was suspended for five years after he acknowledged to an Arkansas circuit court he had engaged in conduct prejudicial to the administration of justice in the Jones case.\n\nPardons and commutations \n\nClinton issued 141 pardons and 36 commutations on his last day in office on January 20, 2001. Controversy surrounded Marc Rich and allegations that Hillary Clinton's brother, Hugh Rodham, accepted payments in return for influencing the president's decision-making regarding the pardons. Federal prosecutor Mary Jo White was appointed to investigate the pardon of Rich. She was later replaced by then-Republican James Comey. The investigation found no wrongdoing on Clinton's part. Clinton also pardoned 4 defendants in the Whitewater Scandal, Chris Wade, Susan McDougal, Stephen Smith, and Robert W. Palmer, all of whom had ties to Clinton when he was governor of Arkansas. Former Clinton HUD Secretary Henry Cisneros, who pleaded guilty to lying to the FBI, was also among Clinton's pardons.\n\nCampaign finance controversies \n\nIn February 1997 it was discovered upon documents being released by the Clinton Administration that 938 people had stayed at the White House and that 821 of them had made donations to the Democratic Party and got the opportunity to stay in the Lincoln bedroom as a result of the donations. Some donors included Steven Spielberg, Tom Hanks, Jane Fonda, and Judy Collins. Top donors also got golf games and morning jogs with Clinton as a result of the contributions. Janet Reno was called on to investigate the matter by Trent Lott, but she refused.\n\nIn 1996,\u00a0it was found that several Chinese foreigners made contributions to Clinton's reelection campaign and the Democratic National Committee with the backing of the People's Republic of China. Some of them also attempted to donate to Clinton's defense fund. This violated United States law forbidding non-American citizens from making campaign contributions. Clinton and Al Gore also allegedly met with the foreign donors. A Republican investigation", "igarami \u2013 Wrist Shoulder entanglement \n Genkotsu Otoshi \u2013 Gripping with the fist drop \n Hongyaku Ichi \u2013 Basic Opposite #1 \n Hongyaku Ni \u2013 Basic Opposite #2\n Ushiro Daki Nage \u2013 Rear Embrace throw \n Mae Daki Nage Ichi \u2013 Front Embrace throw #1 \n Mae Daki Nage Ni \u2013 Front Embrace throw #2 \n Kata Guruma \u2013 Shoulder wheel \n Hiza Garami \u2013 Knee entanglement (formerly called Hiki-otoshi Ichi)\n Mae Osaegami Nage \u2013 Forward Gripping Hair Throw \n Ushiro Osaegami Nage \u2013 Rear Gripping Hair Throw \n Kesa Nage \u2013 Across the Shoulder (as a scarf) Throw \n Ashi Garami-Leg Entanglement\n Sannen Nage \u2013 Third Man throw (called Sannin Hazushi by Prof. Law and listed in his Shinin Notes; previously included by AJJF in Shinin no Maki with same name as noted below)\n\nFujin Goshin no Maki \u2013 Chuden level \nWomen's Self Defense Scroll, 35 Techniques\n\n1. Katate Hazushi Ichi \u2013 Single hand Escape #1.\n2. Katate Hazushi Ni \u2013 Single hand Escape #2.\n3. Morote Hazushi \u2013 Many hand Escape.\n4. Ryote Hazushi \u2013 Double hand Escape.\n5. Kata Eri Hazushi \u2013 Single Collar Escape.\n6. Ryo Eri Hazushi \u2013 Double Collar Escape.\n7. Momiji Hazushi Ichi \u2013 Maple tree Escape #1.\n8. Momiji Hazushi Ni \u2013 Maple tree Escape #2.\n9. Momiji Hazushi San \u2013 Maple tree Escape #3.\n10. Ushiro Daki Nage \u2013 Rear Embrace Throw.\n11. Mae Daki Nage Ichi \u2013 Front Embrace Throw #1.\n12. Mae Daki Nage Ni \u2013 Front Embrace Throw #2.\n13. Mae Daki Hazushi \u2013 Front Embrace Escape.\n14. Ninin Hazushi \u2013 Second Man Escape.\n15. Genkotsu Otoshi \u2013 Gripping with the Fist Drop.\n16. Osaegami Nage \u2013 Grabbing Hair Throw.\n17. Akushu Kote Tori \u2013 Handshake Forearm (curling) Technique.\n18. Akushu Ude Tori \u2013 Handshake Arm-lock.\n19. Akushu Kotemaki Tori \u2013 Handshake Forearm-winding Technique.\n20. Katate Tori Ichi \u2013 Single hand Technique #1.\n21. Katate Tori Ni \u2013 Single hand Technique #2.\n22. Imon tori \u2013 Insignia Technique.\n23. Daki kubi Tori \u2013 Embrace head Technique.\n24. Yubi Tori Hazushi \u2013 Digit (finger) Technique Escape.\n25. Yubi Tori \u2013 Digit (finger) Technique.\n26. Moro Yubi Tori \u2013 Many Digit (finger) Technique.\n27. Ryote Tori \u2013 Both Hand Technique.\n28. Tekubi Tori \u2013 Wrist Technique.\n29. Hagai Tori \u2013 Wing Technique.\n30. Shoto Hibara Hazushi \u2013 Knife Spleen Escape.\n31. Shoto Kata Hazushi \u2013 Knife Shoulder Escape.\n32. Shoto Tsukkomi Hazushi \u2013 Knife Thrusting Angle Escape.\n33. Tanju Mune Hazushi \u2013 Pistol Chest Escape.\n34. Tanju Gan Hazushi \u2013 Pistol Eye Escape.\n35. Tanju Hibara Hazushi \u2013 Pistol Spleen Escape.\n\nFusegi Jutsu \u2013 Chuden level \nSelf Defense Techniques\n\n Katate Hazushi Ichi - \"Single Hand Escape one\"- Escape and hold from outside wrist grip\n Kata Te Hazushi Ni - \"Single Hand Escape two\"- Escape and hold from an inside wrist grip\n Momiji Hazushi - \"Maple leaf Escape\" - \tDouble arm break from front strangle\n Moro Te Hazushi - \"Many Hand Escape\" - Double arm break from front strangle\n Imon Tori - \"Insignia Techniques\"- Knee takedown from chest push\n Akushu Ude Hazushi and Tori - \"Handshake Arm Escape and Technique\"- Escape and leg kick from armbar\n Akushu Kote Hazushi and Tori Ichi - \"Handshake Forearm Curling Escape and Technique one\" - \tBackward thumb flex from handshake\n Akushu Kote Hazushi and Tori Ni - \"Handshake Forearm Curling Escape and Technique two\" - Forward thumb flex from handshake\n Akushu Kote Hazushi and Tori San - \"Handshake Forearm Curling Escape and Technique three\" - Thumb control from handshake\n Hagai Shime Hazushi - \"Pinion Constriction Escape\" - Escape from full nelson\n Ushiro Daki Nage - \"Rearward Hug Throw\" - Seoi Nage, strike from rear bear hug\n Mae Daki Nage Ichi - \"Forward Hug Throw one\" - Nerve escape from front bear hug, arms free\n Mae Daki Nage Ni - \"Forward Hug Throw two\" - Head butt, knee strike from front bear hug, arms pinned\n Genkotsu Otoshi - \"Gripping with the Fist Drop\" - Dakikubi from a double punch\n Kata Gatame Ichi - \"Shoulder Pin one\" - Shoulder lock taking head to mat from punch\n Kata Gatame Ni - \"Shoulder Pin two\" - Kotemaki Tori from an overhead club, finish with O Soto Gari\n Kabe Shime - \"Wall Constriction\" - Ichi Monji against a wall\n Genkotsu Ude Tori - \"Gripping with the Fist Arm Technique\" - Wrap arm, strike, sweep and bar on ground from punch\n Genkotsu Gyaku - \"Gripping with the Fist Opposite\" - Wrap arm, hammerlock and choke\n Ude Tori - \"Arm Technique\" - Arm bar on your shoulder from punch\n Akushu Ude Nage - \"Handshake Arm Throw\" - Arm break, whip from handshake\n Ogoshi Ude Tori - \"Great Hip Arm Technique\" - Throw O Goshi, sit and break arm\n Ude Hazushi Ogoshi - \"Arm Escape Great Hip\" - Throw O Goshi from armbar across waist\n Genkotsu Komi Iri - \"Gripping with the Fist Swept Along Entry\" - \tLegbar takedown, apply Komi Iri\n Hadaka Shime Ni and Hazushi - \"Naked Constriciton two and Escape\" - Choke from Seoi Nage, drop on head\n Club take away - Throw Makikomi, break arm from overhead club strike\n\nKeisatsu Gijutsu \u2013 Chuden level \nalso called Keisatsu Torite: Police Arrest Techniques \n\n Katate Hazushi Ichi \u2013 \"Single Hand Escape #1\" \u2013 escape from an outside hand grab \n Katate Hazushi Ni \u2013 \"Single Hand Escape #2\" \u2013 escape from an inside hand grab \n Ry\u014dte Hazushi \u2013 \"Both Hands Escape\" \u2013 escape from a double wrist grab\n Morote Hazushi \u2013 \"Many Hands Escape or Multiple Hands Escape\" \u2013 escape from two hands grabbing one wrist\t\n Momiji Hazushi \" Maple leaf Escape\" \u2013 escape from a front choke\n Ry\u014deri Hazushi \u2013 \"Both Lapel Escape\" \u2013 escape from a double lapel grab\n Yubi Tori Hazushi \u2013 \"Digit (finger) Escape\" \u2013 escape from a finger hold/grab\n Yubi Tori \u2013 \"Digit (finger) Technique\" \u2013 finger lock on the sensitive third finger\t\n Moro Yubi Tori \u2013 \"Many Digit (finger) Technique\" \u2013 come-along all fingers hold \t\n Katate Tori \u2013 \"Single Hand Technique\" \u2013 one hand wrist lock\t\n Ry\u014dte Tori \u2013 \"Both Hand Technique\" \u2013 double wrist lock\t\n Akushu Kote Tori \u2013 \"Handshake Forearm (curling) technique\" \u2013 wrist and thumb lock from a handshake\t\n Akushu Ude Tori \u2013 \"Handshake Arm technique\" \u2013 arm bar from a handshake\t\n Akushu Kotemaki Tori \u2013 \"Handshake Forearm (curling) Rolling Technique\" \u2013 arm bar and wrist lock from a handshake\n Imon Tori \u2013 \"Insignia Technique\" \u2013 break hand from a chest push\n Tekubi Tori Ichi \u2013 \"Hand Neck (wrist) Technique One\" \u2013 wrist lock from an outside hand grab\t\n Tekubi Tori Ni \u2013 \"Hand Neck (wrist) Technique Two\" \u2013 thumb lock from an inside hand grab \n Ry\u014deri Tori \u2013 \"Both Lapel Technique\" \u2013 break and wrist lock from a two-handed lapel grab\t\n Kubi Nuki Shime \u2013 \"Neck Hug Constriction\" \u2013 escape from a side headlock\t\n Hagai Shime \u2013 \"Wing Constriction\" \u2013 full nelson taken after avoiding a blow\n Kata Mune Tori Ni - \"Shoulder Chest Technique Two\"- Lapel grab and punch defense\n Genkotsu Ude Tori Ni - \"Gripping with the Fist Arm Technique Two\"- Armbar from a punch\n Ude Gyaku San - \"Arm Opposite Three\"- Shoulder and neck hold from front\n Ude Gyaku Shi - \"Arm Opposite Four\"- Shoulder and neck hold from rear\n Ninnen Kote Garami - \"Second man Forearm (curling) Entanglement\"- Two man come-along hold\n Sunnen Kote Garami - \"Third man Forearm (curling) Entanglement\"- Three man come-along hold\n Kataeri Tori Ni - \"Single Collar Technique Two\"- Armbar from lapel hold\n Ushiro Gyaku Ni - \"Rearward Opposite Two\"- Extended rear armbar\n Mae Gyaku- \"Front Opposite\"- Extended front armbar\n Kote Shigarami - \"Forearm (curling) Arm Entanglement\"- Punch to Kotemaki pin with one hand\n Kote Gyaku - \"Forearm (curling) Opposite\"- Reverse arm dislocation\n Kata Hagai - \"Shoulder Wing\"- Standing Kata Gatame\n Tekubi Shigarami Ni - \"Hand-neck (wrist) Arm Entanglement Two- Wrist come-along hold\n Genkotsu Otoshi Ni - \"Gripping with the fist Drop Two\"- Punch takedown art, fist drop\n Hung Gyaku Ni - Arm-swing from a punch\n Ushiro Daki Nage Ni - \"Rearward Embrace Throw Two\"- Throw from a rear bear hug\n Ushiro Daki Nage San - \"Rearward Embrace Throw Three\"- Throw from a rear bear hug\n Mae Daki Nage Ni - \"Forward Embrace Throw Two\"- Throw from a front bear hug\n Kata Guruma - \"Shoulder Wheel\"- Punch to figure four and pile driver\n Hiki Otoshi - \"Pulling Drop\"- Throw and lock arm in leg\n Gyaku Shigarami - \"Opposite Arm Entanglement\"- Throw and hold with one foot\n Ushiro Nage - \"Rearward Throw\"- A rear throw\n Osaegami Nage Ni - \"Grabbing Hair Throw Two\"- Takedown (Imon Tori) from hair grab\n Kasumi Dori - \"Three in a row Dynamic technique\"- Block punch and hit side of neck\n Atemi Ichi - \"Strike the body One\"- Block punch and hit side of jaw\n Atemi Ni - \"Strike the body Two\" -Block punch and hit side of chin\n Atemi San - \"Strike the body Three\"- Block punch and hit side of nose\n Atemi Shi - \"Strike the body Four\"- Block punch and hit side of head\n Ken Keri - \"Sword Kick\"- Block punch and knee to groin\n Hibara Uchi - \"Spleen Inside\"- Block punch and hit armpit\n Sui Getsu - \"Water Moon\"- Solar plexus blow\n Denko - \"Electrical flash\"- Combination of blows\n Hon Getsu - \"Together Moon\"- Naval Blow\n Momo Shime- \"Thigh Constriction\"- Nerve at thigh\n Yubi Tori Shime Ichi - \"Digit (finger) Technique Constriction One\"- Nerve and thumb and index finger\n Yubi Tori Shime Ni - \"Digit (finger) Technique Constriction Two\"- Nerve and thumb and index finger base, palm\n Kesuri Yubi - Nerve between middle and ring finger\n Kosi Katari - Nerve between ring and little finger\n Tekubi Ichi - \"Hand neck (wrist) One\"- Nerve at wrist, anterior of arm\n Tekubi Ni - \"Hand neck (wrist) Two\"- Nerve at wrist, posterior\n Ude Ori - \"Arm Weaving\"- Nerve above wrist, arm-break\n Ninode Tori - Nerve above elbow\n Kata Tori - \"Shoulder Technique\"- Nerve at shoulder\n Ude Tori Shime - \"Arm Technique Constriction\"- Nerve in arm near elbow\n Keri Age - \"Kick Rising\"- Nerve at calf\n Sumi Age - \"Corner Rising\"- Nerve at shin\n Do Mike - \"Torso Body Scarf\"- Nerve at side of neck\n Mune - \"Chest\"- Nerve at front of neck\n Kubi - \"Neck\"- Nerve at chin\n Ni - \"Two\"- Nerve at eyelids\n Kata - \"Shoulder\"- Nerve at shoulder\n So - \"Thought\"- Nerve at shoulder blade\n Konbou Katate Ori - \"Club Single hand Weaving\"- Club arm hold\n Konbou Mune Dori - \"Club Chest Dynamic technique\"- Collarbone breaking art\n Konbou Kata Uchi - \"Club Shoulder Inside\"- Hit nerve at side of neck\n Konbou Kau Tori - Club hand hold\n Konbou Sui Getsu Otoshi - \"Club Water Moon Drop\"- Drop uke with solar plexus blow\n Konbou Ude Ori - \"Club Arm Weaving\"- Club arm break\n Konbou Waki Uchi Dori - \"Club Armpit Inside Dynamic technique\"- Side paralyzing art\n Konbou Sui Getsu Kin - \"Club Water Moon Groin\"- Solar plexus and groin blow\n Konbou Kasumi Dori - \"Club Three in a row Dynamic technique\"- Club takedown art\n Konbou Uchikomi Hiza Nage - Club Inside Angle Knee Throw\"- Miss swing for head, Hiza nage, leg lock\n Tanto Hibara Hazushi - \"Knife Spleen Escape\"- Side slash escape\n Tanto Kata Hazushi - \"Knife Shoulder Escape\"- Overhead stab escape\n Tanto Tsukkomi Hazushi Ichi - \"Knife Thrusting Angle Escape One\"- Thrusting stab escape 1\n Tanto Tsukkomi Hazushi Ni - \"Knife Thrusting Angle Escape Two\"- Thrusting stab escape 2\n Tanto Ryote Hazushi - \"Knife Both hands Escape\"- Upward stab escape\n Tanju Kata Hazushi - \"Pistol Shoulder Escape\"- Shoulder level escape\n Tanju Mi Hazushi - \"Pistol Body Escape\"- Eye level escape\n Tanju Hibara Hazushi - \"Pistol Spleen Escape\"- Side escape\n Tanju Ushiro Hazushi - \"Pistol Rearward Escape\"- Rear escape\n Bin Kata Hazushi - \"Bottle Shoulder Escape\"- Bottle overhead strike\n Bin Hibara Hazushi - \"Bottle Spleen Escape\"- Bottle side swing\n Bin Tsukkomi Hazushi- Bottle Thrusting Angle Escape\"- Bottle straight jab\n Fuetsu Kata Hazushi Ni - \"Axe Shoulder Escape Two\"- Axe overhead strike\n Fuetsu Hibara Hazushi Ni - \"Axe Spleen Escape Two\"- Axe side swing\n Fuetsu Sune Harai Hazushi - \"Axe Shin Sweep Escape\"- Axe leg cut\n\nShinen no Maki \u2013 Okuden level \nScroll of the Spirit Man. The AJJF at one time included an additional (36th) technique (Sannin Hazushi), but no longer does so. It is now included in Goshinjutsu (see above).\n Isami Tsuki Nage \u2013 Forward entering Thrusting Throw\n Obi Hane Goshi \u2013 Belt Springing Hip\n Tsurikomi Taoshi \u2013 Lifting Angle Throwdown\n Momiji Nage \u2013 Maple leaf Throw\n Gyaku Hayanada \u2013 Opposite Quick combination blade\n Hiza Nage \u2013 Knee Throw\n Osaekomi Gyakute Tori \u2013 Gripping angle opposite hand Technique\n Kobushi Shime \u2013 Fist Constriction\n Kesa Hazushi \u2013 Across the shoulders (as a scarf) Escape\n Kubi Shime Tomoe Gyakute \u2013 Neck Constriction Comma Opposite hand\n Ninin Nage \u2013 Second person Throw\n Gyakute Gaeshi \u2013 Reverse hand Accepting technique\n Hiza Ori Nage \u2013 Knee Weaving Throw\n Gyaku Hagai \u2013 Opposite Wing\n Ushiro Kan Nuki \u2013 Rearward Rigid Embrace\n Mae Kan Nuki \u2013 Forward Rigid Embrace\n Hikitate Tori Shime \u2013 Measure (from head to floor in seiza) Technique Constriction\n Ude Garami \u2013 Arm Entanglement\n Ebi Shime \u2013 Shrimp Constriction\n Ushiro Ebi Shime \u2013 Rearward Shrimp Constriction\n Gyaku Eri \u2013 Opposite Collar\n Ushiro Nage \u2013 Rearward Throw\n Ude Shigarami Shime \u2013 Arm Shoulder Entanglement Constriction\n Ashi Kan Nuki \u2013 Leg Rigid Embrace\n Kesa Koroshi \u2013 Across the shoulders (as a scarf) Killing\n Handou Shime \u2013 Quick reaction Constriction\n Ashi Gyaku \u2013 Leg Opposite\n Kabe Shime \u2013 Wall Constriction\n Ashi Karami Tori \u2013 Leg Entanglement Constriction\n Nidan Gaeshi \u2013 Two Level Accepting reversal \n Satsuma Shime \u2013 Pillar (or police) Constriction\n Tataki Komi \u2013 Striking Angle\n Ushiro Nage Tori \u2013 Rearward Throw Technique\n Saru Shigarami \u2013 Monkey Shoulder Entanglement\n Sandan Gaeshi \u2013 Three Level Accepting reversal\n\nShinyo no Maki \u2013 Okuden level \nScroll of the Yang Spirit\n Gyaku Hizaguruma \u2013 Opposite Knee Wheel\n Tsuki Hazushi Kotemaki \u2013 Thrusting Escape Forearm rolling\n Tsukkomi Dome and Gaeshi \u2013 Thrusting Angle Immediate stop and Accepting reversal\n Sune Shime \u2013 Lower leg Constriction \n Saru Shime \u2013 Monkey Constriction\n Tobi Tsuki Tenada \u2013 Flying Thrusting Hand blade\n Obi Otoshi \u2013 Belt Drop\n Sennin Kage \u2013 Sailor", " a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is depicted as a member of the Young Avengers, a team of teenaged superheroes in the Marvel Universe. His powers are based on those of his uncle Quicksilver. Speed first appeared in the comic book Young Avengers #10 (March 2006). In the 12th issue, he adopts the costumed identity Speed and joins the Young Avengers.\n\nHis story sees him discovering that he and the magical teen hero Wiccan are in fact long lost twin brothers, and that the pair are the reincarnations of the sons of the Scarlet Witch and her former husband Vision.\n\nAn illusory Tommy appeared in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) Disney+ miniseries WandaVision (2021) played by Gavin Borders and Jett Klyne. Klyne returned as a human version of Tommy from an alternate reality in the film Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness (2022).\n\nPublication history\nSpeed made his debut in Young Avengers #10 (March 2006) when he was recruited into the team after being broken out of prison. He was a main character until the conclusion of the series, adopting the code name Speed in the twelfth and final issue (August 2006).\n\nAfterwards, Speed continued to appear alongside his team in miniseries such as Young Avengers Presents and Dark Reign: Young Avengers; the event comic tie-ins Civil War, Secret Invasion and Siege: Young Avengers (co-starring with The Runaways in the former two); and various other guest appearances. From 2010 to 2012 he was a part of the main cast in Avengers: The Children's Crusade, written and drawn by the original Young Avengers creative team of Allan Heinberg and Jim Cheung.\n\nSpeed next appeared in Young Avengers (vol. 2) #6 (August 2013) before mysteriously vanishing. He reappeared at the end of issue #14 (February 2014), with his recovery shown in the final issue #15 (March 2014).\n\nApart a single-panel appearance in the Scarlet Witch series by James Robinson, Speed was absent from comics for five years until a guest appearance alongside the other former Young Avengers in The Unstoppable Wasp #7 (July 2019). He was since featured in the event comic tie-in Lords of Empyre: Emperor Hulkling (September 2020), made a non-speaking cameo in the epilogue issue Empyre: Aftermath (November 2020), and guest-starred in X-Factor (vol. 4) #7 (April 2021) and #10 (August 2021). He was a supporting character in the limited series X-Men: The Trial of Magneto.\n\nFictional character biography\n\nThomas Maximoff\nThomas and William were twins, with Tommy being the older of the two, Thomas and Willian supposedly born to Scarlet Witch and Vision; in reality, Scarlet Witch used her reality warping powers to create twin sons, unknowingly, from two of five scattered fragments of the soul of the demon Mephisto that were previously lost to him in an ill-fated encounter with the powerful mutant child Franklin Richards. When the boys' souls were reabsorbed into Mephisto, because of the power Wanda put into the soul fragments, they destroyed him and their souls were reincarnated as Thomas Shepherd, the Young Avenger Speed, and Billy.\n\nThomas Shepherd\nThomas \"Tommy\" Shepherd was raised in Springfield, New Jersey as the only son of Frank and Mary Shepherd, who are divorced.\n\nWiccan and the other Young Avengers locate him as another teenager with ties to the Avengers using the same program devised by the Vision that Iron Lad used to locate most of the current Young Avengers, their intent being to recruit more super-powered teens who could help them rescue their abducted teammate, Hulkling.\n\nThe Young Avengers find Tommy in a high-powered facility in Springfield that Hawkeye (Kate Bishop) initially describes as \"just juvie\" (juvenile hall), though the facility and its staff are equipped with advanced offensive and defensive technology such as robotic suits and power dampening containment cells.\n\nVision states that Tommy is being held at the facility, presumably under court order, because he \"accidentally\" vaporized his school. When they release him from his cell, it is immediately noted that Tommy, a white-haired speedster, bears a striking resemblance to Billy (\"twin-like\") and Quicksilver, sharing the latter's hair color and similar abilities.\n\nThe team encounters the armed officers of the facility. Tommy cynically and cruelly begins attacking the officers and fleeing doctors, stating that he had been locked up for months and that during his time there, he was tested and experimented on with the goal to make him into a living weapon. Hawkeye and Patriot manage to stop him and convince him to join them in rescuing their teammate Hulkling from Kl'rt the Super-Skrull. Little more has been revealed about the facility or Tommy's experiences there prior to his release, nor have they been addressed by the other Young Avengers or Tommy himself.\n\nTommy joins Billy as they search for the Scarlet Witch through Genosha and Wundagore before finally encountering Master Pandemonium at a former residence of the Scarlet Witch and the Vision. Master Pandemonium decides not to fight the boys after recognizing Wiccan's magic as being the same as the Scarlet Witch's. Instead, he elaborates on their history concerning Mephisto and the Scarlet Witch and advises them that the history they search for is filled with \"darkness and chaos\" and that they should embrace who they are in the present.\n\nHe goes on a date with Kate to help relieve her tensions about losing her name and bow to Clint Barton. He then helps her break into the Secret Avengers home base and reclaim her bow. During the course of the evening, the two share a kiss, addressing the heretofore unspoken love triangle between himself, Kate, and Patriot. However, Kate decides to attempt a relationship with Patriot instead. Tommy decides to officially join the team and adopts the codename Speed.\n\nWhen the Young Avengers confront the group of teenagers that have been using their name, Tommy immediately recognizes the member Coat of Arms (Lisa Molinari). It is revealed that Tommy knew her from \"juvie\" and is implied that they used to have a relationship.\n\nTommy and his friends are recruited to assist in defending Asgard when it is attacked by the forces under the control of Norman Osborn. Specifically, Tommy is tasked with delivering a backup suit of armor to Iron Man, which is essential in winning the day.\n\nAn older version of Tommy appears alongside the other Young Avengers in Avengers: The Children's Crusade - Young Avengers, a one-shot with the possible future timeline where the Young Avengers are grown up and now the Avengers. Tommy is together with Kate, who is pregnant and expecting twins. The timeline is the result of Iron Lad continuing to alter the timestream in an attempt to defeat Kang the Conqueror.\n\nWhen the Young Avengers disband following the events of the Children's Crusade, Tommy gets a job assembling tablet computers. He eventually meets and befriends Prodigy, a former member of the New X-Men, and partners with the boy to catch a mysterious entity dressed as Patriot. The \"not-Patriot\" entity attacks Speed and dissipates his body, before leaving a horrified Prodigy behind. Eventually when Prodigy kisses the not-Patriot, Tommy reappears in the not-Patriot's place with no memory of being missing. Finding himself unexpectedly kissing Prodigy, he jumps back and says that Prodigy is \"moving too fast\". Later that night Tommy dances with Kate and is embraced tightly by Wiccan.\n\nIn the one-shot Lords of Empyre: Emperor Hulkling, Speed and Prodigy now appear to be dating. They go out drinking with Hulkling, who describes that they \"always have exactly one and a half drinks and start making out\". Their relationship status is confirmed in Marvel Voices: Pride #2021, where the characters discuss their different attitudes to being bisexual. For Prodigy, the label is material to his identity and helps him understand himself better, whereas Speed says \"I crushed on who I crushed and... never did much worrying about the labels.\"\n\nSpeed does not move to the mutant island nation of Krakoa along with Prodigy. He is shown visiting Prodigy at X-Factor headquarters on Krakoa by running across the ocean, rather than using the Krakoan gates. He later attends the Hellfire Gala and discovers the Scarlet Witch's corpse; afterwards remaining on Krakoa while X-Factor conduct the murder investigation.\n\nParentage\nIn Young Avengers #11, Tommy's possible relationship to the Scarlet Witch, the original android Vision, and Billy was revealed by the Super-Skrull and the current Vision. In the past, the Scarlet Witch used her reality-warping powers to create twin sons, unknowingly using two (of five) scattered fragments of the soul of the demon Mephisto that he had lost in an encounter with the powerful mutant child, Franklin Richards. When the boys' souls were reabsorbed into Mephisto, they destroyed him and the souls were reincarnated separately as Thomas Shepherd and William Kaplan.\n\nWriter Allan Heinberg stated of the situation, \"According to Billy's theory, the souls of Wanda's twins inhabited his and Tommy's bodies when they were dispersed from Mephisto. But it's only a theory.\" He also stated in another interview that his plans for the new 'season' involved the two searching for Wanda, stating \"If everything goes according to plan, Wanda will indeed return to Young Avengers early in Season Two, when Billy and Tommy embark on a search for the true source of their powers. Indeed, the Young Avengers Present issue from March 2008 has been solicited as involving \"twin brothers\" Wiccan and Speed looking for their \"mother Wanda\".\n\nMuch conjecture has been made as to their appearance and powers, and while Marvel's official character files state that they are, indeed, her children, in the comics the only indication thereof is K'Lrt's statements and Vision's files. Billy believes himself to be Wanda's son, however Tommy has been more skeptical about the situation.\n\nHowever, in Young Avengers Presents #3, where Speed and Wiccan search for the Scarlet Witch, Tommy's skepticism appears to have entirely diminished. He refers to himself as Wiccan's \"big brother\" (though neither truly knows who is older) and frequently refers to the Scarlet Witch during their search as \"Mom.\"\n\nIn the limited series Avengers: Children's Crusade, the Young Avengers set out to locate the Scarlet Witch and Speed displays his original skepticism of their link to her. As they begin their search, Magneto arrives, having noticed the twins and their similarities to Wanda and Pietro, stating that he wants Wiccan and Speed to finally know him as their grandfather. Upon hearing this, Speed immediately accepts that the relationship must be genuine, later referring to Quicksilver as his \"Uncle Pietro\".\n\nIn Children's Crusade #6, Scarlet Witch confirms that Billy and Tommy are the reincarnations of her sons. When Wanda is discussing her life with a psychiatrist, she again confirms that Billy and Tommy are the reincarnated souls of her sons. However, seeing as they are already teenagers, Wanda doesn't know if they were normal kids before her sons' souls took over their bodies (effectively killing whoever they were before) or whether the spirits went back in time to be born and raised by different parents.\n\nPowers and abilities\nSpeed is a mutant with the power to move and accelerate at speeds far beyond those of normal human beings. His physiology is designed to move at high speeds which also grants him superhuman reflexes, agility, and durability. This durability is limited to impact forces, so bullets, energy blasts, and other piercing attacks are capable of harming him. It is also likely that Speed possesses a high amount of superhuman strength in his lower body, allowing him to lift around 1 ton, while his upper body is strengthened to the point where he can lift around 800 lbs. Although his top speed is unknown, he can exceed the speed of sound (about 1,225\u00a0km/h, or 761\u00a0mph) and resist the effects of friction, reduced oxygen, and kinetic impact while moving at those speeds. In Young Avengers Presents #3 he asserts that he is \"Quicksilver fast\", shown running from the eastern seaboard of the United States to Genosha, an island off the east coast of Africa, as well as search the entire island for anyone living there in the same amount of time it takes Wiccan to teleport the same distance. This indicates that Speed is fast enough to run across the surface tension of a body of water without sinking. In addition, his mind can operate in an accelerated state, allowing him to read in super speed and remember everything he's seen.\n\nHe can also generate hyperkinetic vibrations that accelerate the molecules in matter, causing any solid object he directs his vibrations at to explode. During the Civil War: Young Avengers and Runaways crossover, when both teams invaded the Cube in order to save their friends, Speed is shown exploding a gun in his hand by using his hyperkinetic vibrations. He is also able to accelerate his molecules (or even those of small groups of people) and vibrate fast enough to pass through solid matter, such as walls.\n\nReception\n\nCritical reception \nNishid Motwani of CBR.com referred to Speed as a \"fan favorite character audiences can't help but love,\" writing, \"Speed has spent a lot of time isolated. He was kept in a facility where high-powered individuals are held captive and experimented upon. Despite the things he has gone through, Tommy's personality is still vibrant and he instantly makes fans fall in love with him.\" Alex Schlesinger of Screen Rant wrote, \"Speed sits at a unique intersection where Young Avengers fans feel they know Tommy and have witnessed his growth, and yet have incredibly few stories where he's a central character. Now would be the perfect time to tap Speed to act as the team lead and mentor for the next generation of youthful superheroes. Speed has the charisma, power, legacy, and connections to be an ideal leader, and it would be incredibly helpful for a new team to have a slightly older, more experienced leader who could guide them in their heroics. The hero Speed, son of the Scarlet Witch, has not been utilized enough in Marvel Comics, but hopefully the future will give Tommy the spotlight as the leader of the Young Avengers.\"\n\nAccolades \n\n In 2018, CBR.com ranked Speed 20th in their \"25 Fastest Characters In The Marvel Universe\" list.\n In 2021, Looper ranked Speed 9th in their \"Fastest Speedsters In History\" list.\n In 2021, Screen Rant ranked Speed 8th in their \"10 Most Powerful Members Of The Young Avengers\" list.\n In 2022, CBR.com ranked Speed and Wiccan 1st in their \"10 Best Twins In Comics\" list, and ranked Wiccan 7th in their \"8 Fastest Avengers\" list and 12th in their \"Marvel: The 20 Fastest Speedsters\" list.\n\nOther versions\n\nAvengers Fairy Tales\nIn the one-shot Avengers Fairy Tales, Speed appears as the White Rabbit in an adaptation of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. He refers to the March Hare (Wiccan) as his brother.\n\nThe Last Avengers Story\n\nIn The Last Avengers Story (which uses an alternate timeline), Billy and Tommy grew up as the children of the Vision and the Scarlet Witch. As a child, Tommy witnessed the accidental murder of his mother by his uncle, Quicksilver, which caused their father, the Vision to become emotionless and withdrawn. Tommy (known as \"Tommy Maximoff\") chose to become a student of Doctor Strange and learn the mystic arts. He and his brother Billy (who became a villain known as \"the Grim Reaper\" and sought revenge against him and their father) communicated via holograms where Tommy implored his brother to give up his villainy, stating that he was apprehensive to fight him.\n\nEventually the Reaper joined forces with Kang the Conqueror and Ultron-59 and their \"final battle\" with the Avengers. Tommy sought advice from Doctor Strange about what to do concerning his brother, stating that he was not ready to fight him. Tommy decided to assist the Avengers and tried to reach and recruit the Vision, who had become near-catatonic and enormous having apathetically allowed his molecules to diffuse, but to no avail. Angered and frustrated, Tommy left to fight his brother. Tommy and Billy were locked in battle until their father the Vision saw this and came to his senses and destroyed Ultron, ending the fight.\n\nUnlike his Earth-616 counterpart, Tommy Maximoff inherited his mystical abilities from his mother the Scarlet Witch rather than his uncle's super speed. As a student of Doctor Strange, Tommy was able to perform various magical feats, including concussive mystical bolts and creating force fields.\n\nIn other media\n\nMarvel Cinematic Universe\nSeveral versions of Thomas \"Tommy\" Maximoff appear in live-action media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, portrayed by Gavin Borders as a five-year old and Jett Klyne as a ten-year old.\n In the miniseries WandaVision Tommy appears as an illusion created by Wanda Maximoff via chaos magic when she placed Westview, New Jersey within a \"Hex\" and displays the ability to willingly age himself. In the episode \"Now in Color\", Wanda becomes pregnant by unknown means. As it progresses in a short span of time, she and her husband Vision argue over what to name the baby if it is a boy, with the latter pushing for Billy and Wanda wanting an \"all-American\" name like Tommy. While Vision assents to Wanda's choice, she gives birth to twins, allowing them to use both names. In the episode \"All-New Halloween Spooktacular!\", Tommy develops superhuman speed while trick-or-treating. In the episodes \"Breaking the Fourth Wall\" and \"Previously On\", Wanda and Vision's neighbor \"Agnes\", later revealed to be the witch Agatha Harkness, babysits Tommy and Billy, but she takes them captive in order to force Wanda to reveal how she changed Westview. In the episode \"The Series Finale\", Wanda undoes the hex, ending Billy's and Tommy's existence.\n In a post-credits scene of WandaVision, Wanda hears cries of Billy and Tommy while studying the Darkhold. In the film Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness (2022), these cries are revealed to be from alternate realities in which Billy and Tommy actually exist as humans, with Klyne primarily portraying the Tommy of Earth-838.\n\nVideo games\n Speed appeared as an unlockable playable character in Lego Marvel's Avengers, voiced by Josh Keaton.\n Speed appeared as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Avengers Academy.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Speed at Marvel.com\n Speed at Marvel Wiki\n Speed at Comic Vine\n\nAvengers (comics) characters\nComics characters introduced in 2006\nCharacters created by Steve Englehart\nCharacters created by Richard Howell\nFictional bisexual men\nFictional characters from New Jersey\n", " \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0431\u0430\u0437 \u043f\u043e \u043a\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0443-\u043b\u0438\u0431\u043e \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0443, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0443 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\u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044e \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0444\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0437\u0432\u043e\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0421\u041c\u0421-\u0441\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435 \u0447\u0451\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432. \u0414\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u044b Android \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0431\u0435\u0441\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u044f \u0410\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441 Dr.Web Light, \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u0435\u0442 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043b\u044f \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0437\u0432\u043e\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0438 SMS-\u0441\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u043e\u0442\u0441\u0443\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u00ab\u0410\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0440\u00bb. \u041d\u0430 \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0410\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441 Dr.Web Light \u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0435 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u0432 Google Play \u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438.\n\n\u0418\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \n Fly-code\u00a0\u2014 \u044d\u043c\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0441 \u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043b\u044f\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0438 \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043e\u0432, \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0449\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0442 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430 \u0438 \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043c \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0446\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0438/\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0443\u043f\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0449\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u043a\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043f\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432. \u042d\u0442\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0444\u0430\u0439\u043b\u044b, \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435, \u043a \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0443, ASProtect, EXECryptor, VMProtect \u0438 \u0442\u044b\u0441\u044f\u0447\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0443\u043f\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0449\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432, \u0432\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0430\u044f \u043d\u0435\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0443.\n Origins Tracing\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043c \u043d\u0435\u0441\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0438\u0441\u043a \u0438 \u044d\u0432\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440, \u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0441\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c. \u0422\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 Dr.Web \u0434\u043b\u044f Android.\n Anti-rootkit API (ArkAPI)\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430, \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0430\u044f \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043c\u044b \u043d\u0435\u0439\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0443\u0433\u0440\u043e\u0437. \u041f\u043e\u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u043c \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u044b \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u0439\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0443\u0433\u0440\u043e\u0437 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0430. \u0422\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043b\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0443\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435 Dr.Web CureIt!\n Dr.Web Shield\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c \u0431\u043e\u0440\u044c\u0431\u044b \u0441 \u0440\u0443\u0442\u043a\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435 \u0434\u0440\u0430\u0439\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0430. \u041e\u0431\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0447\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043d\u0438\u0437\u043a\u043e\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f \u043a \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u043c, \u0441\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0433\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u044b.\n SelfPROtect\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043b\u044c \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u044b, \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0449\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044b \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0430 (\u0444\u0430\u0439\u043b\u044b, \u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u044b \u0438\u00a0\u0442.\u00a0\u0434.) \u043e\u0442 \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043d\u044b\u043c \u041f\u041e.\n Background Rootkit Scan\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u0444\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0439\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0443\u0433\u0440\u043e\u0437. \u0414\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u043e\u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043c\u0435\u0442 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0443\u0433\u0440\u043e\u0437 \u0438 \u0438\u0445 \u043d\u0435\u0439\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044e \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044f\u0445, \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440: \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u043a\u0442\u044b \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0437\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0443\u0437\u043a\u0438, \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u044b \u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043b\u0438, \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u043a\u0442\u044b, \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u044c, WMI, MBR/ \u0434\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u043d\u044b\u0439 BIOS \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430.\n Dr.Web Cloud\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0438\u0441 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0438 \u0441\u0441\u044b\u043b\u043e\u043a \u0438 \u0444\u0430\u0439\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0412\u0435\u0431\u00bb \u0432 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u043c\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438, \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0443 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0436\u0443\u044e \u0438\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044e \u043e \u043d\u0435\u0431\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u0435\u0441\u0443\u0440\u0441\u0430\u0445 \u0438 \u0444\u0430\u0439\u043b\u0430\u0445.\n Dr.Web Process Heuristic (DPH)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c, \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441 \u0443\u0436\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 Dr.Web \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u044b\u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0444\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0432\u044b\u0432\u043e\u0434 \u043e \u0435\u0451 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0447\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0440\u044b \u043f\u043e \u043d\u0435\u0439\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0443\u0433\u0440\u043e\u0437\u044b. \u0422\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0449\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u0442 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445, \u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c, \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0438 \u044d\u0432\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u0435\u0449\u0451 \u043d\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437 \u0432 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043b\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044e, \u0430 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0442, \u043d\u0435\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0437\u0435 Dr.Web \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0443. \u041c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u044f\u0442\u044c \u043e\u0447\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0443 \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u044b \u043e\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0439, \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u043e\u0439 \u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u0434\u043e \u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e (\u043d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0451\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e) \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u0438\u044f.\n Dr.Web Process Dumper (DPD)\u00a0\u2014 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438, \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0448\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u00ab\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0443\u0433\u0440\u043e\u0437\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0437\u0435 Dr.Web, \u043d\u043e \u0441\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0443\u043f\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0449\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438.\n Dr.Web HyperVisor\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442, \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439\u0441\u044f \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0438\u0436\u0435 \u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044f \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u044b, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0447\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0439 \u041e\u0421, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0445\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0434 \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0449\u0430\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0439 Dr.Web \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0439.\n Dr.Web ShellGuard\u00a0\u2014 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0437\u0430\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u043b\u043e\u0439\u0442\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u044b\u0442\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445\u0441\u044f \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0443\u044f\u0437\u0432\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u0432 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0435\u0449\u0451 \u043d\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0443, \u043a\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435 \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 (\u0442.\u00a0\u043d. \u0443\u044f\u0437\u0432\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u00ab\u043d\u0443\u043b\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0434\u043d\u044f\u00bb), \u0441 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u044c\u044e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0434 \u0430\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0443\u0435\u043c\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0439 \u0432 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u043e\u043c.\n\n\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \n\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0430 \u0418\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044f \u0414\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441 1991 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0439 Dr.Web \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u044b \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441 1994 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430.\n\n 1992 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u044b Spider\u2019s Web (\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0438\u043f\u0430 Dr.Web). \u0412 \u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0438\u0434\u0435\u044f \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c \u0432 \u044d\u043c\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u043d\u0435\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043e\u0432.\n 1993 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u044b Spider\u2019s Web \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0435 CeBIT.\n 1994 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0436 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0430 Doctor Web, \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0432 \u0442\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u0443 Aidstest, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u043d\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430 \u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u0441 \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0441\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0440\u0444\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u0434 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043a\u0430\u0436\u0434\u043e\u043c \u0437\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438.\n 1995 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0410\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430 DSAV 2.0. \u0412 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442 \u0432\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441 Doctor Web.\n 1996 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0435\u0431\u044e\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u044b Dr.Web (\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u044f 3.06b) \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0444\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u043e\u043c \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c Virus Bulletin, \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0447\u0435\u043c \u0432\u043f\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0442\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043f\u043e \u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044e \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0440\u0444\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043e\u0432, \u0442\u0430\u043a \u0438 \u043f\u043e \u043a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443 \u044d\u0432\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430. \u0412 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0435 \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430 Virus Bulletin \u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u0435 Doctor Web (\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u044f 3.08) \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e \u043e\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d \u044d\u0432\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0430, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u0432 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u043c\u0435 \u00ab\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0438\u043a\u00bb \u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043b 100\u00a0% \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0440\u0444\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043e\u0432. \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0444\u0430-\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u044f Dr.Web \u0434\u043b\u044f Novell NetWare.\n 1997 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u0430 (Dr.Web) \u0432\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0430 \u0432 \u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u043a\u0443 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043c \u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430 Virus Bulletin. \u0412\u044b\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u0431\u0435\u0442\u0430-\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u044f Dr.Web \u0434\u043b\u044f Novell NetWare.\n 1998 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u044b\u0445\u043e\u0434 Dr.Web 4.0. \u0418\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0430\u0440\u0445\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u0430\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043c \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u044b. \u041f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 Dr.Web \u0434\u043b\u044f Windows 95/98/NT.\n 1999 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043b\u044f SpIDer Guard \u0434\u043b\u044f Windows 95/98. Dr.Web \u0434\u043b\u044f Windows 95/98/NT \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0443\u044e \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0443 VB100 \u0432 \u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0445 \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430 Virus Bulletin. \u0412\u044b\u0445\u043e\u0434 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0438 Dr.Web \u0434\u043b\u044f Windows 95/98/NT. \u0412 Dr.Web \u0432\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u0438 \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043c\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d \u0432 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435 Windows NT.\n 2000 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 Dr.Web \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0442 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u044f \u041c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u044b \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438. \u0420\u0435\u0437\u043a\u043e \u0443\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0437\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u043e \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0437 \u0432 \u0447\u0430\u0441.\n 2001 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u042f\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043a\u0441. \u0421 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0430, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0437 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0443\u044e \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u042f\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043a\u0441, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0449\u044c\u044e \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 Dr.Web.\n 2002 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432 Dr.Web \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0442\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 CommuniGate Pro. \u0412\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0435\u0442\u0430-\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0438 Dr.Web \u0434\u043b\u044f Unix \u0441 \u0443\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u043e\u0442 \u043c\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0444\u0430\u0439\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0443. \u0412\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u044b SpIDer Mail\u00a0\u2014 \u0443\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u043e\u0442 \u043c\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u044b \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0438 \u0432\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0442\u044b.\n 2007 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0441\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c Origins.Tracing.\n 2007 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u043e \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0430 Dr.Web AV-Desk, \u043d\u0430 \u0431\u0430\u0437\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442-\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0439\u0434\u0435\u0440\u044b \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0438\u043c \u0430\u0431\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c \u0443\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433\u0443 \u00ab\u0410\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441 Dr.Web\u00bb (\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0432 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442-\u0431\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0441\u0430 SaaS-\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c).\n 2008 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0430 Dr.Web Security Space. \u0412\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0438 HTTP-\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 Dr.Web SpIDer Gate.\n 2009 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0431\u0435\u0442\u0430-\u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0430 Dr.Web Security Space Pro \u041e\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043e\u0442 Dr.Web Security Space \u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0441\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044d\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0430.\n 2010 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u041e\u0421 Android\u00a0\u2014 Dr.Web \u0434\u043b\u044f Android.\n 2013 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0430 Dr.Web Security Space 9. \u041d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 Dr.Web Cloud, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u0430, \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440 Dr.Web Process Heuristic, \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0443\u043f\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0443\u0433\u0440\u043e\u0437, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0430 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u043c, \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f \u00ab\u0411\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0438\u0441\u043a\u00bb, \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0445 \u043c\u0433\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438.\n 2014 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a 10 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0430.\n \u0412 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u0435 2015 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u044b \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0442 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u0443\u043f\u043e\u043a \u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0443\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433. \u041d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u0421\u041c\u0418 \u043e\u0448\u0438\u0431\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0438\u043b\u0438, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u00ab\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0441\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0431\u043b\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0443 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438 \u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u044f\u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u0441\u043e \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u044b \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u044b\u00bb.\n 2015 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u043b Dr.Web Security Space 11, \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0443\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u044b \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u044b, \u0432 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f Dr.Web ShellGuard \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u0443 \u043e\u0442 \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u043b\u043e\u0439\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0442.\u00a0\u043d. \u0443\u044f\u0437\u0432\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u00ab\u043d\u0443\u043b\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0434\u043d\u044f\u00bb.\n 2015 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0430 Dr.Web Katana (\u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432 Dr.Web Security Space), \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u044b, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441 \u0443\u0436\u0435 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043e\u043c \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f.\n 2016 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0430 Dr.Web Katana Business Edition. \u0412\u043d\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0432 Dr.Web \u0432 \u0415\u0434\u0438\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440 \u043e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041f\u041e. Dr.Web Enterprise Security Suite \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0438 10.0 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d \u0424\u0421\u0422\u042d\u041a \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u044b \n \u041f\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043c \u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043b\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f (\u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044c 2008), \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0451\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0430\u0439\u0442\u043e\u043c anti-malware.ru, Dr.Web \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u0437 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0430\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043b \u043c\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e \u0431\u0430\u043b\u043b\u043e\u0432 (15) \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b Platinum Malware Treatment", " \u0432 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0435 \u043e\u0442\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0432 \u041a\u0443\u0434\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0438\u043b \u0435\u043c\u0443 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u043e\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0443. \u0412\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0436\u0435 \u0434\u043d\u044f \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f 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\u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435). \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043d \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0435\u0439. \u041c\u0443\u0441\u0443\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e \u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435. \u041e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0435 \n\n\u0412 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435 XIV\u00a0\u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0443\u0447\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u041a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0435\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0445\u0438\u044f, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0434\u043e 1799\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u043a\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0435\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0445\u0438\u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u0422\u0443\u043b\u0443. \u0412 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u041a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0431\u043b\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043c \u0438\u0437 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u0432 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0435\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0445\u0438\u0438.\n\n\u0412", " conscripted large numbers of Ubangians to work on the Congo-Ocean Railway; many of these recruits died of exhaustion and illness as a result of the poor conditions.\n\nIn 1925, the French writer Andr\u00e9 Gide published Voyage au Congo, in which he described the alarming consequences of conscription for the Congo-Ocean railroad. He exposed the continuing atrocities committed against Central Africans in Western Ubangi-Shari by such employers as the Forestry Company of Sangha-Ubangi. In 1928, a major insurrection, the Kongo-Wara rebellion or 'war of the hoe handle', broke out in Western Ubangi-Shari and continued for several years. The extent of this insurrection, which was perhaps the largest anti-colonial rebellion in Africa during the interwar years, was carefully hidden from the French public because it provided evidence of strong opposition to French colonial rule and forced labor.\n\nResistance\nAlthough there were numerous smaller revolts, the largest was the Kongo-Wara rebellion. Peaceful opposition to recruitment for railway construction and rubber tapping, mistreatment by European concessionary companies, began in the mid-1920s, but these efforts descended into violence in 1928, when over 350,000 natives rebelled against the colonial administration. Although the primary opposition leader, Karnou, was killed in December 1928, the rebellion was not fully suppressed until 1931.\n\nGrowing economy and World War II\nDuring the 1930s, cotton, tea, and coffee emerged as important cash crops in Ubangi-Shari and the mining of diamonds and gold began in earnest. Several cotton companies were granted purchasing monopolies over large areas of cotton production and were able to fix the prices paid to cultivators, which assured profits for their shareholders.\n\nIn September 1940, during the Second World War, pro-Gaullist French officers took control of Ubangi-Shari. In August 1940, the territory responded, with the rest of the AEF, to the call from General Charles de Gaulle to fight for Free France.\n\nPost-war transition to independence\nAfter World War II, the French Constitution of 1946 inaugurated the first of a series of reforms that led eventually to complete independence for all French territories in western and equatorial Africa. In 1946, all AEF inhabitants were granted French citizenship and allowed to establish local assemblies. The assembly in CAR was led by Barth\u00e9lemy Boganda, a Catholic priest who also was known for his forthright statements in the French Assembly on the need for African emancipation. In 1956, French legislation eliminated certain voting inequalities and provided for the creation of some organs of self-government in each territory.\n\nThe French constitutional referendum of September 1958 dissolved the AEF, and on 1 December of the same year the Assembly declared the birth of the autonomous Central African Republic with Boganda as head of government. Boganda ruled until his death in a plane crash on 29 March 1959. His cousin, David Dacko, replaced him as head of Government. On 12 July 1960 France agreed to the Central African Republic becoming fully independent. On 13 August 1960 the Central African Republic became an independent country and David Dacko became its first President.\n\nIndependence \n\nDavid Dacko began to consolidate his power soon after taking office in 1960. He amended the Constitution to transform his regime into a one-party state with a strong presidency elected for a term of seven years. On 5 January 1964, Dacko was elected in an election in which he ran alone.\n\nDuring his first term as president, Dacko significantly increased diamond production in the Central African Republic by eliminating the monopoly on mining held by concessionary companies and decreeing that any Central African could dig for diamonds. He also succeeded in having a diamond-cutting factory built in Bangui. Dacko encouraged the rapid \"Centralafricanization\" of the country's administration, which was accompanied by growing corruption and inefficiency, and he expanded the number of civil servants, which greatly increased the portion of the national budget needed to pay salaries.\n\nDacko was torn between his need to retain the support of France and his need to show that he was not subservient to France. In order to cultivate alternative sources of support and display his independence in foreign policy, he cultivated closer relations with the People's Republic of China. By 1965, Dacko had lost the support of most Central Africans and may have been planning to resign from the presidency when he was overthrown.\n\nBokassa and the Central African Empire \n\nOn 1 January 1966, following a swift and almost bloodless overnight coup, Colonel Jean-B\u00e9del Bokassa assumed power as president of the Republic. Bokassa abolished the constitution of 1959, dissolved the National Assembly, and issued a decree that placed all legislative and executive powers in the hands of the president. On 4 March 1972, Bokassa's presidency was extended to a life term. On 4 December 1976, the republic became a monarchy \u2013\u00a0the Central African Empire\u00a0\u2013 with the promulgation of the imperial constitution and the coronation of the president as Emperor Bokassa I. His authoritarian regime was characterized by numerous human rights violations.\n\nOn 20 September 1979, Dacko overthrew Bokassa in a bloodless coup.\n\nKolingba \nDacko\u2019s efforts to promote economic and political reforms proved ineffectual, and on 20 September 1981, he in turn was overthrown in a bloodless coup by General Andr\u00e9 Kolingba. Kolingba suspended the constitution and ruled with a military junta, the Military Committee for National Recovery (CMRN) for four years.\n\nIn 1985, the CMRN was dissolved, and Kolingba named a new cabinet with increased civilian participation, signaling the start of a return to civilian rule. The process of democratization quickened in 1986 with the creation of a new political party, the Rassemblement D\u00e9mocratique Centrafricain (RDC), and the drafting of a new constitution that subsequently was ratified in a national referendum. General Kolingba was sworn in as constitutional President on 29 November 1986. The constitution established a National Assembly made up of 52 elected deputies, elected in July 1987. Municipal elections were held in 1988. Kolingba's two major political opponents, Abel Goumba and Ange-F\u00e9lix Patass\u00e9, boycotted these elections because their parties were not allowed to participate.\n\nBy 1990, inspired by the fall of the Berlin Wall, a pro-democracy movement became very active. In May 1990, a letter signed by 253 prominent citizens asked for the convocation of a National Conference. Kolingba refused this request and instead detained several opponents. Pressure from a group of locally represented countries and agencies called GIBAFOR (Groupe informel des bailleurs de fonds et representants residents', the United States, France, Japan, Germany, EU, World Bank and the UN finally led Kolingba to agree, in principle, to hold free elections in October 1992.\n\nAlleging irregularities, Kolingba opted to suspend the results of the elections and held on to power. GIBAFOR applied intense pressure on him to establish a Provisional National Political Council (Conseil National Politique Provisoire de la R\u00e9publique / CNPPR) and to set up a \"Mixed Electoral Commission\", which included representatives from all political parties.\n\n Patass\u00e9 \nWhen elections were finally held in 1993, again with the help of the international community and the UN Electoral Assistance Unit, Ange-F\u00e9lix Patass\u00e9 led in the first round and Kolingba came in fourth behind Abel Goumba and David Dacko. In the second round, Patass\u00e9 won 53% of the vote while Goumba won 45.6%. Most of Patass\u00e9's support came from Gbaya, Kare, and Kaba voters in seven heavily populated prefectures in the northwest while Goumba's support came largely from ten less-populated prefectures in the south and east. Patass\u00e9's party, the Mouvement pour la Lib\u00e9ration du Peuple Centrafricain (MLPC) or Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People, gained a plurality but not an absolute majority of seats in parliament, which meant it required coalition partners to rule effectively.\n\nPatass\u00e9 relieved former President Kolingba of his military rank of General in March 1994 and then charged several former ministers with various crimes. Patass\u00e9 also removed many Yakoma from important, lucrative posts in the government. Two hundred predominantly Yakoma members of the presidential guard were also dismissed or reassigned to the army. Kolingba's RDC loudly proclaimed that Patass\u00e9's government was conducting a \"witch hunt\" against the Yakoma.\n\nA new constitution was approved on 28 December 1994 and promulgated on 14 January 1995, but this constitution, like those before it, did not have much impact on the country's politics. In 1996\u20131997, reflecting steadily decreasing public confidence in the government's erratic behaviour, three mutinies against Patass\u00e9's administration were accompanied by widespread destruction of property and heightened ethnic tension.\n\nOn 25 January 1997, the Bangui Agreements, which provided for the deployment of an inter-African military mission, the Mission Interafricaine de Surveillance des Accords de Bangui (MISAB), were signed. Mali's former president, Amadou Tour\u00e9, served as chief mediator and brokered the entry of ex-mutineers into the government on 7 April 1997. The MISAB mission was later replaced by a U.N. peacekeeping force, the Mission des Nations Unies en RCA (MINURCA).\n\nIn 1998, parliamentary elections resulted in Kolingba's RDC winning 20 out of 109 seats, constituting a significant political comeback. In 1999, however, Patass\u00e9 won free elections to become president for a second term, despite widespread public anger in urban centres over his rule.\n\n Boziz\u00e9 \nOn 28 May 2001, rebels stormed strategic buildings in Bangui in an unsuccessful coup attempt. The army chief of staff, Abel Abrou, and General Fran\u00e7ois N'Djadder Bedaya were killed, but Patasse retained power with the assistance of troops from Libya and rebel FLC soldiers from the DRC led by Jean-Pierre Bemba.\n\nIn the aftermath of the failed coup, militias loyal to Patass\u00e9 sought revenge against rebels in many neighborhoods of the capital, Bangui. They incited unrest which resulted in the destruction of homes as well as the torture and murder of opponents.\n\nPatass\u00e9 came to suspect that General Fran\u00e7ois Boziz\u00e9 was involved in another coup attempt against him, which led Boziz\u00e9 to flee with loyal troops to Chad. In March 2003, Boziz\u00e9 launched a surprise attack against Patass\u00e9, who was out of the country. This time, Libyan troops and some 1,000 soldiers of Bemba's Congolese rebel organization failed to stop the rebels, who took control of the country and thus succeeded in overthrowing Patass\u00e9. On 15 March 2003, rebels moved into Bangui and installed their Boziz\u00e9, as president.\n\nPatass\u00e9 was found guilty of major crimes in Bangui. CAR brought a case against him and Jean-Pierre Bemba to the International Criminal Court, accusing them both of multiple crimes in suppressing one of the mutinies against Patasse.\n\nBoziz\u00e9's won the 2005 presidential election, and his coalition was the leader in the 2005 legislative election.\n\n 2003\u20132007: Bush War \n\nAfter Boziz\u00e9 seized power in 2003, the Central African Republic Bush War began with the rebellion by the Union of Democratic Forces for Unity (UFDR), led by Michel Djotodia. This quickly escalated into major fighting during 2004. The UFDR rebel forces consisted of three allies, the Groupe d'action patriotique pour la liberation de Centrafrique (GAPLC), the Convention of Patriots for Justice and Peace (CPJP), the People's Army for the Restoration of Democracy (APRD), the Movement of Central African Liberators for Justice (MLCJ), and the Front d\u00e9mocratique Centrafricain (FDC).\n\nIn early 2006, Boziz\u00e9's government appeared stable.\n\nOn 13 April 2007, a peace agreement between the government and the UFDR was signed in Birao. The agreement provided for an amnesty for the UFDR, its recognition as a political party, and the integration of its fighters into the army. Further negotiations resulted in an agreement in 2008 for reconciliation, a unity government, and local elections in 2009 and parliamentary and presidential elections in 2010. The new unity government that resulted was formed in January 2009.\n\n 2012\u20132014: Civil War \n\nIn late 2012, a coalition of old rebel groups under new name of S\u00e9l\u00e9ka renewed fighting. Two other, previously unknown groups, the Alliance for Revival and Rebuilding (A2R) and the Patriotic Convention for Saving the Country (CPSK) also joined the coalition, as well as the Chadian group FPR.\n\nOn 27 December 2012, CAR President Francois Boziz\u00e9 requested international assistance to help with the rebellion, in particular from France and the United States. French President Fran\u00e7ois Hollande rejected the plea, saying that the 250 French troops stationed at Bangui M'Poko International Airport are there \"in no way to intervene in the internal affairs\".\n\nOn 11 January 2013, a ceasefire agreement was signed Libreville, Gabon. The rebels dropped their demand for President Fran\u00e7ois Boziz\u00e9 to resign, but he had to appoint a new prime minister from the opposition party by 18 January 2013. On 13 January, Boziz\u00e9 signed a decree that removed Prime Minister Faustin-Archange Touad\u00e9ra from power, as part of the agreement with the rebel coalition. On 17 January, Nicolas Tiangaye was appointed Prime Minister.\n\nOn 24 March 2013, rebel forces heavily attacked the capital Bangui and took control of major structures, including the presidential palace. Boziz\u00e9's family fled across the river to the Democratic Republic of the Congo and then to Yaounde, the capital of Cameroon where he was granted temporary refuge.\n\nDjotodia\n\nS\u00e9l\u00e9ka leader Michel Djotodia declared himself President. Djotodia said that there would be a three-year transitional period and that Tiangaye would continue to serve as Prime Minister. Djotodia promptly suspended the constitution and dissolved the government, as well as the National Assembly. He then reappointed Tiangaye as Prime Minister on 27 March 2013. Top military and police officers met with Djotodia and recognized him as president on 28 March 2013. Catherine Samba-Panza assumed the office of interim president on 23 January 2014.\n\nPeacekeeping largely transitioned from the Economic Community of Central African States-led MICOPAX to the African Union-led MISCA, which was deployed in December 2013. In September 2014, MISCA transferred its authority to the UN-led MINUSCA while the French peacekeeping mission was known as Operation Sangaris.\n\n 2015\u2013present: Civil War \n\nBy 2015, there was little government control outside of the capital, Bangui. The dissolution of S\u00e9l\u00e9ka led to ex-S\u00e9l\u00e9ka fighters forming new militias that often fought each other.\n\nArmed entrepreneurs had carved out personal fiefdoms in which they set up checkpoints, collect illegal taxes, and take in millions of dollars from the illicit coffee, mineral, and timber trades. Noureddine Adam, the leader of the rebel group Popular Front for the Rebirth of Central African Republic (FRPC), declared the autonomous Republic of Logone on 14 December 2015. By 2017, more than 14 armed groups vied for territory, and about 60% of the country's territory was controlled by four notable factions led by ex-S\u00e9l\u00e9ka leaders, including the FRP led by Adam; the Union Pour la Paix en Centrafrique (UPC), led by Ali Darassa, the Mouvement patriotique pour la Centrafrique (MPC) led by Mahamat Al-Khatim. The factions have been described as ethnic in nature with the FPRC associated with the Gula and Runga people and the UPC associated with the Fulani. With the de facto'' partition of the country between ex-S\u00e9l\u00e9ka militias in the north and east, and Anti-balaka militias in the south and west, hostilities between both sides decreased but sporadic fighting continued.\n\nIn February 2016, after a peaceful election, the former Prime Minister Faustin-Archange Touad\u00e9ra was elected president. In October 2016, France announced that Operation Sangaris, its peacekeeping mission in the country, was a success and largely withdrew its troops.\n\nTensions erupted in competition between ex-S\u00e9l\u00e9ka militias arising over control of a goldmine in November 2016, where a coalition formed by the MPC and the FPRC (incorporating elements of their former enemy, the Anti-balaka) attacked the UPC.\n\nConflict in Ouaka\nMost of the fighting was in the centrally located Ouaka prefecture, which has the country's second largest city Bambari, because of its strategic location between the Muslim and Christian regions of the country and its wealth. The fight for Bambari in early 2017 displaced 20,000. MINUSCA made a robust deployment to prevent FPRC taking the city. In February 2017, Joseph Zoundeiko, the chief of staff of FPRC was killed by MINUSCA after crossing one of the red lines. At the same time, MINUSCA negotiated the removal of Darassa from the city. This led to UPC to find new territory, spreading the fighting from urban to rural areas previously spared.\n\nThe thinly spread MINUSCA relied on Ugandan as well as American special forces to keep the peace in the southeast as they were part of a campaign to eliminate the Lord's Resistance Army but the mission ended in April 2017. By the latter half of 2017, the fighting largely shifted to the Southeast where the UPC reorganized and were pursued by the FPRC and Anti-balaka with the level of violence only matched by the early stage of the war. About 15,000 people fled from their homes in an attack in May and six U.N. peacekeepers were killed \u2013 the deadliest month for the", " as the chair- of the special committee on transportation issues for the Caribbean region. Following a meeting in November 2004, several leaders of South America have attempted to make Cuba either a full or associate member of the South American trade bloc known as Mercosur.\n\nHistory\n\n1917 \nIn 1917, Cuba entered World War I on the side of the allies.\n\nThe Cold War \n\nFollowing the establishment of diplomatic ties to the Soviet Union, and after the Cuban Missile Crisis, Cuba became increasingly dependent on Soviet markets and military and economic aid. Castro was able to build a formidable military force with the help of Soviet equipment and military advisors. The KGB kept in close touch with Havana, and Castro tightened Communist Party control over all levels of government, the media, and the educational system, while developing a Soviet-style internal police force.\n\nCastro's alliance with the Soviet Union caused something of a split between him and Guevara. In 1966, Guevara left for Bolivia in an ill-fated attempt to stir up revolution against the country's government.\n\nOn August 23, 1968, Castro made a public gesture to the USSR that caused the Soviet leadership to reaffirm their support for him. Two days after Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia to repress the Prague Spring, Castro took to the airwaves and publicly denounced the Czech rebellion. Castro warned the Cuban people about the Czechoslovakian 'counterrevolutionaries', who \"were moving Czechoslovakia towards capitalism and into the arms of imperialists\". He called the leaders of the rebellion \"the agents of West Germany and fascist reactionary rabble.\"\n\nRelations in Latin America during the Cold War \n\nDuring the Cold War, Cuba's influence in the Americas was inhibited by the Monroe Doctrine and the dominance of the United States. Despite this Fidel Castro became an influential figurehead for leftist groups in the region, extending support to Marxist Revolutionary movements throughout Latin America, most notably aiding the Sandinistas in overthrowing Somoza in Nicaragua in 1979. In 1971, Fidel Castro took a month-long visit to Chile. The visit, in which Castro participated actively in the internal politics of the country, holding massive rallies and giving public advice to Salvador Allende, was seen by those on the political right as proof to support their view that \"The Chilean Way to Socialism\" was an effort to put Chile on the same path as Cuba.\n\nIntervention in Cold War conflicts \n\nDuring the Cold War, Africa was a major target of Cuba's influence. Fidel Castro stated that Africa was chosen in part to represent Cuban solidarity with its own large population of African descent. Exporting Cuba's revolutionary tactics abroad increased its worldwide influence and reputation. Wolf Grabendorff states that \"Most African states view Cuban intervention in Africa as help in achieving independence through self-help rather than as a step toward the type of dependence which would result from a similar commitment by the super-powers.\" Cuban Soldiers were sent to fight in the Simba rebellion in the DRC during the 1960s. Furthermore, by providing military aid Cuba won trading partners for the Soviet bloc and potential converts to Marxism.\n\nStarting in the 1970s, Cuba's intervened in 17 African nations including three insurgencies. Cuba expanded military programs to Africa and the Middle East, sending military missions to Sierra Leone in 1972, South Yemen in 1973, Equatorial Guinea in 1973, and Somalia in 1974. It sent combat troops to Syria in 1973 to fight against Israel. Cuba was following the general Soviet policy of d\u00e9tente with the West, and secret discussions were opened with the United States about peaceful coexistence. They ended abruptly when Cuba sent combat troops to fight in Angola in 1975.\n\nIntervention in Africa\n\nOn November 4, 1975, Castro ordered the deployment of Cuban troops to Angola to aid the Marxist MPLA against UNITA, which were supported by the People's Republic of China, United States, Israel, and South Africa (see: Cuba in Angola). After two months on their own, Moscow aided the Cuban mission with the USSR engaging in a massive airlift of Cuban forces into Angola. Both Cuban and South African forces withdrew in the late 1980s and Namibia was granted independence. The Angolan civil war would last until 2002. Nelson Mandela is said to have remarked \"Cuban internationalists have done so much for African independence, freedom, and justice.\" Cuban troops were also sent to Marxist Ethiopia to assist Mengistu Haile Mariam's government in the Ogaden War with Somalia in 1977. Cuba sent troops along with the Soviet Union to aid the FRELIMO government against the Rhodesian and South African-backed RENAMO.\nCastro never disclosed the number of casualties in Soviet African wars, but one estimate is that 14,000 Cubans were killed in Cuban military actions abroad.\n\nIntervention in Latin America\n\nIn addition, Castro extended support to Marxist Revolutionary movements throughout Latin America, such as aiding the Sandinistas in overthrowing the Somoza government in Nicaragua in 1979.\n\nLeadership of non-aligned movement\n\nIn the 1970s, Fidel Castro made a major effort to assume a leadership role in the non-aligned movement, which include over 90 countries. Cuba's intervention in Angola other military advisory missions, economic and social programs were praised fellow non-aligned member. The 1976 world conference of the non-aligned Movement applauded Cuban internationalism, stating that it \"assisted the people of Angola in frustrating the expansionist and colonialist strategy of South Africa's racist regime and its allies.\" The next non-aligned conference was held in Havana in 1979, and chaired by Castro, who became the de facto spokesman for the Movement. The conference in September 1979 marked the peak of Cuban global influence. The non-aligned nations had believed that Cuba was not aligned with the Soviet Union in the Cold War. However, in December 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, an active member of the non-aligned Movement. At the United Nations, non-aligned members voted 56 to 9, with 26 abstaining, to condemn the Soviet invasion. Cuba, however, was deeply in debt financially and politically to Moscow, and voted against the resolution. It lost its reputation as non-aligned in the Cold War. Castro, instead of becoming a spokesman for the Movement, became inactive, and in 1983, leadership passed to India, which had abstained on the UN vote. Cuba lost its bid to become a member of the United Nations Security Council. Cuba's ambitions for a role in global leadership had ended.\n\nSocial and economic programs\n\nCuba had social and economic programs in 40 developing countries. This was possible by a growing Cuban economy in the 1970s. The largest programs were construction projects, in which 8,000 Cubans provided technical advice, planning, and training of engineers. Educational programs involved 3,500 teachers. In addition thousands of specialists, technicians, and engineers were sent as advisors to agricultural mining and transportation sectors around the globe. Cuba also hosted 10,000 foreign students, mostly from Africa and Latin America, in health programs and technical schools. Cuba's extensive program of medical support to international attention. A 2007 study reported:\nSince the early 1960s, 28,422 Cuban health workers have worked in 37 Latin American countries, 31,181 in 33 African countries, and 7,986 in 24 Asian countries. Throughout a period of four decades, Cuba sent 67,000 health workers to structural cooperation programs, usually for at least two years, in 94 countries ... an average of 3,350 health workers working abroad every year between 1960 and 2000.\n\nPost\u2013Cold War relations \n\nIn the post\u2013Cold War environment Cuban support for guerrilla warfare in Latin America has largely subsided, though the Cuban government continued to provide political assistance and support for left leaning groups and parties in the developing Western Hemisphere.\n\nWhen Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev visited Cuba in 1989, the ideological relationship between Havana and Moscow was strained by Gorbachev's implementation of economic and political reforms in the USSR. \"We are witnessing sad things in other socialist countries, very sad things\", lamented Castro in November 1989, in reference to the changes that were sweeping such communist allies as the Soviet Union, East Germany, Hungary, and Poland. The subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 had an immediate and devastating effect on Cuba.\n\nCuba today works with a growing bloc of Latin American politicians opposed to the \"Washington consensus\", the American-led doctrine that free trade, open markets, and privatization will lift poor third world countries out of economic stagnation. The Cuban government condemned neoliberalism as a destructive force in the developing world, creating an alliance with Presidents Hugo Ch\u00e1vez of Venezuela and Evo Morales of Bolivia in opposing such policies.\n\nCurrently, Cuba has diplomatically friendly relationships with Presidents Nicol\u00e1s Maduro of Venezuela and Daniel Ortega of Nicaragua, with Maduro as perhaps the country's staunchest ally in the post-Soviet era. Cuba has sent thousands of teachers and medical personnel to Venezuela to assist Maduro's socialist oriented economic programs. Maduro, in turn provides Cuba with lower priced petroleum. Cuba's debt for oil to Venezuela is believed to be on the order of one billion US dollars.\n\nIn the wake of the Russian invasion of Ukraine and the ongoing international isolation of Russia, Cuba emerged as one of the few countries that maintained friendly relations with the Kremlin. Cuban president Miguel Diaz-Canel visited Vladimir Putin in Moscow in November 2022, where the two leaders opened a monument of Fidel Castro, as well as speaking out against U.S. sanctions against Russian and Cuba.\n\nDiplomatic relations \nList of countries with which Cuba maintains diplomatic relations:\n\nBilateral relations\n\nAfrica\n\nAmericas \n\nCuba has supported a number of leftist groups and parties in Latin America and the Caribbean since the 1959 revolution. In the 1960s Cuba established close ties with the emerging Guatemalan social movement led by Luis Augusto Turcios Lima, and supported the establishment of the URNG, a militant organization that has evolved into one of Guatemala's current political parties. In the 1980s Cuba backed both the Sandinistas in Nicaragua and the FMLN in El Salvador, providing military and intelligence training, weapons, guidance, and organizational support.\n\nAsia\n\nEurope\n\nOceania \n\nCuba has two embassies in Oceania, located in Wellington (opened in November 2007) and also one in Canberra opened October 24, 2008. It also has a Consulate General in Sydney. However, Cuba has official diplomatic relations with Nauru since 2002 and the Solomon Islands since 2003, and maintains relations with other Pacific countries by providing aid.\n\nIn 2008, Cuba will reportedly be sending doctors to the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Tuvalu, Nauru and Papua New Guinea, while seventeen medical students from Vanuatu will study in Cuba. It may also provide training for Fiji doctors. Indeed, Fiji's ambassador to the United Nations, Berenado Vunibobo, has stated that his country may seek closer relations with Cuba, and in particular medical assistance, following a decline in Fiji's relations with New Zealand.\n\nInternational organizations and groups \n\nACS \u2022 ALBA \u2022 AOSIS \u2022 CELAC \u2022 CTO \u2022 ECLAC \u2022 G33 \u2022 G77 \u2022 IAEA \u2022 ICAO \u2022 ICRM \u2022 IFAD \u2022 ILO \u2022 IMO \u2022 Interpol \u2022 IOC \u2022 ISO \u2022 ITU \u2022 LAES \u2022 NAM \u2022 OAS \u2022 OEI \u2022 OPANAL \u2022 OPCW \u2022 PAHO \u2022 Rio Group \u2022 UN \u2022 UNCTAD \u2022 UNESCO \u2022 UPU \u2022 WCO \u2022 WHO \u2022 WIPO \u2022 WMO\n\nCaribbean Community (CARICOM) \n\nTies between the nations of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and Cuba have remained cordial over the course of the later half of the 20th century. Formal diplomatic relations between the CARICOM economic giants: Barbados, Jamaica, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago have existed since 1972, and have over time led to an increase in cooperation between the CARICOM Heads of Government and Cuba. At a summit meeting of sixteen Caribbean countries in 1998, Fidel Castro called for regional unity, saying that only strengthened cooperation between Caribbean countries would prevent their domination by rich nations in a global economy. Cuba, for many years regionally isolated, increased grants and scholarships to the Caribbean countries.\n\nTo celebrate ties between the Caribbean Community and Cuba in 2002 the Heads of Government of Cuba and CARICOM have designated the day of December 8 to be called 'CARICOM-Cuba Day'. The day is the exact date of the formal opening of diplomatic relations between the first CARICOM-four and Cuba.\n\nIn December 2005, during the second CARICOM/CUBA summit held in Barbados, heads of CARICOM and Cuba agreed to deepen their ties in the areas of socio-economic and political cooperation in addition to medical care assistance. Since the meeting, Cuba has opened four additional embassies in the Caribbean Community including: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Suriname, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. This development makes Cuba the only nation to have embassies in all independent countries of the Caribbean Community. CARICOM and Canadian politicians have jointly maintained that through the International inclusion of Cuba, a more positive change might indeed be brought about there (politically) as has been witnessed in the People's Republic of China.\n\nCuban cooperation with the Caribbean was extended by a joint health programme between Cuba and Venezuela named Operaci\u00f3n Milagro, set up in 2004. The initiative is part of the Sandino commitment, which sees both countries coming together with the aim of offering free ophthalmology operations to an estimated 4.5 million people in Latin America and the Caribbean over a ten-year period. According to Denzil Douglas, the prime minister of St. Kitts and Nevis, more than 1,300 students from member nations are studying in Cuba while more than 1,000 Cuban doctors, nurses and other technicians are working throughout the region. In 1998 Trinidadian and Tobagonian Prime Minister Patrick Manning had a heart valve replacement surgery in Cuba and returned in 2004 to have a pacemaker implanted.\n\nIn December 2008 the CARICOM Heads of Government opened the third Cuba-CARICOM Summit in Cuba. The summit is to look at closer integration of the Caribbean Community and Cuba. During the summit the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) bestowed Fidel Castro with the highest honour of CARICOM, The Honorary Order of the Caribbean Community which is presented in exceptional circumstances to those who have offered their services in an outstanding way and have made significant contributions to the region.\n\nIn 2017 Cuba and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) bloc signed the \"CARICOM-Cuba Trade and Economic Cooperation Agreement\"\n\nOrganization of American States \n\nCuba was formerly excluded from participation in the Organization of American States under a decision adopted by the Eighth Meeting of Consultation in Punta del Este, Uruguay, on 21 January 1962. The resolution stated that as Cuba had officially identified itself as a Marxist\u2013Leninist government, it was incompatible with \"the principles and objectives of the inter-American system.\" This stance was frequently questioned by some member states. This situation came to an end on 3 June 2009, when foreign ministers assembled in San Pedro Sula, Honduras, for the OAS's 39th General Assembly, passed a vote to lift Cuba's suspension from the OAS. In its resolution (AG/RES 2438), the General Assembly decided that:\n\n Resolution VI, [...] which excluded the Government of Cuba from its participation in the Inter-American system, hereby ceases to have effect\n The participation of the Republic of Cuba in the OAS will be the result of a process of dialogue initiated at the request of the Government of Cuba, and in accordance with the practices, purposes, and principles of the OAS.\n\nThe reincorporation of Cuba as an active member had arisen regularly as a topic within the inter-American system (e.g., it was intimated by the outgoing ambassador of Mexico in 1998) but most observers did not see it as a serious possibility while the Socialist government remained in power. On 6 May 2005, President Fidel Castro reiterated that the island nation would not \"be part of a disgraceful institution that has only humiliated the honor of Latin American nations\".\n\nIn an editorial published by Granma, Fidel Castro applauded the Assembly's \"rebellious\" move and said that the date would \"be recalled by future generations.\" However, a Declaration of the Revolutionary Government dated 8 June 2009 stated that while Cuba welcomed the Assembly's gesture, in light of the Organization's historical record \"Cuba will not return to the OAS\".\n\nCuba joined the Latin American Integration Association becoming the tenth member (out of 12) on 26 August 1999. The organization was set up in 1980 to encourage trade integration association. Its main objective is the establishment of a common market, in pursuit of the economic and social development of the region.\n\nOn September 15, 2006, Cuba officially took over leadership of the Non-Aligned Movement during the 14th summit of the organization in Havana.\n\nCuban intervention abroad: 1959 \u2013 Early 1990s \nCuba became a staunch ally of the USSR during the Cold War, modeling its political structure after that of the CPSU. Owing to the fundamental role Internationalism plays in Cuban socialist ideology, Cuba became a major supporter of liberation movements not only in Latin America, but across the globe.\n\nBlack Panthers \nIn the 1960s and 1970s, Cuba openly supported the black nationalist and Marxist-oriented Black Panther Party of the U.S. Many members found their way into Cuba for political asylum, where Cuba welcomed them as refugees after they had been convicted in the U.S.\n\nPalestine \n\nCuba also lent support to Palestinian nationalist groups against Israel, namely the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and lesser-known Marxist\u2013Leninist Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP). Fidel Castro called Israel practices \"Zionist Fascism.\" The Palestinians received training from Cuba's General Intelligence Directorate, as well as financial and diplomatic support from the Cuban government. However, in 2010, Castro indicated that he also strongly supported Israel's right to exist.\n\nIrish Republicans \n\nThe Irish Republican political party, Sinn F\u00e9in has political links to the Cuban government. 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\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0435. \u041d\u0430 88 \u044d\u0442\u0430\u0436\u0435 \u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u0442\u0435 2", " for handling goods and freight traffic), reproduction notice boards and enamelled signage reinstated on the exterior walls based upon period photographs. This work was carried out by the Friends Of... group.\n\nDisplays\n\nLocomotive Frames\n\nThe former goods shed exterior loading platform became the home in 1985 to the remaining component frames of the railway company's 1880 locomotive No. 7 Tynwald for display purposes, although many major components were by that time scrapped; the display consisted of the main frames, cylinders, coal bunker, with a set of carriage wheels substituting for the pony truck. The locomotive had not been used in traffic since 1947 and was purchased by the group in 1978 following the nationalisation of the railway, to save it from scrap. The frames were initially stored at Ballasalla Station, later being removed to Santon Station before being relocated here. They were owned by the now-defunct Isle Of Man Railways & Tramways Preservation Society, and for a period they were moved to off-site storage before being returned to the goods platform in the autumn of 2009 only to depart again in 2012 due to issues with railway's management and the owners. They now reside on the Southwold Railway in Suffolk and await restoration. There is currently nothing displayed on the platform although the Friends Of... group have future plans.\n\nTriskelion\n\nAlso at the station, to the side of the goods shed in a gravelled raised section of the lawn is a large cast concrete Triskelion or Legs Of Mann at platform level, painted in a yellow and red colour scheme. It is believed that this piece was relocated from the long-closed stopping place at Peel Road on the Ramsey Line, and was relocated at some point prior to the closure of these other lines in 1968, and prior to 1975 when the Peel Road site was cleared. This feature originally had a gravel surround which was later replaced with grass. In 2012 the Friends Of... group restored the item, repainting it to a golden colour scheme with red gravelled surround to mimic the colourings on the national flag though it returned to its more familiar red, yellow and black setting in the spring of 2016. Originally the feature also had a large circular surround although this was beyond repair to be removed from the original site.\n\nOther Items\n\nOn the rear goods siding, one of the railway's three breakdown cranes was stored for a number of years, being removed in 1991 and subsequently restored and placed on display at Union Mills on the site of the former railway station. This crane was constructed in 1893 by the Birmingham-based firm Richard C. Gibbins. Inside the station's waiting room are several framed displays charting various historical aspects of the railway featuring old photographs, framed tickets, maps and other historical documentation relating to the earliest days of the railway. A headboard commemorating the centenary of the adjacent Poulsom Park in 1996 is also mounted on the wall above the fireplace, several other pieces of ephemera are available to view at the station. For many years, there also featured large advertisement hoardings lining the down platform but these were removed in 1974 having become unsafe. An original signal windlass constructed by the Birmingham company A.J. Linley & Co., was also displayed on the up platform for many years, a similar version is extant and used to operate the unique slotted post semaphore signal which protects the station's southerly side.\n\nAdvertisement Hoarding\nThe Friends Of... volunteer group were successful in obtaining planning permission in 2016 to erect a replica advertisement hoarding up the up platform on the site and with fund from Culture Vannin began works shortly thereafter; after a number of setbacks, not least of which the various lockdowns during the Covid-19 pandemic, the large timber baulks were installed in early 2022 and as the season progressed further fundraising was achieved so that the remaining timber could be sourced and delivered to the site; by mid-September work began on erecting the hoarding itself with a view to completion in readiness for the railway's 150th anniversary in 2023.\n\nPoulsom Park\n\nTo the northeasterly side of the station lies this park, provided and funded by a generous benefactor to the town and being established at around the same time as the railway and it is from this benefactor that the park takes its name; it consists of a large grassed area and is surrounded by perimeter railings within which are contained playground equipment for children and two football/rugby pitches which form the home grounds and changing rooms for the local clubs. The play equipment has been greatly improved in recent times, the standard slide and swings being replaced by a pirate ship-themed set of equipment. The park is accessed either from a wide path that passes underneath the railway at the south-western end, or via a set of steps accessed from the station platform. More recently the area has become home to a skateboard park which is viewable from the passing trains; this facility is popular with local children who use the facilities for both skate boarding and stunt bike racing. Such is the popularity of the park with travellers that it can be accessed directly from the line's northbound platform; the area is a popular site for campers in the summer months as well as being home to the local football and rugby teams who regularly play matches there. The brick-built changing rooms and club house facilities for the rugby team are located at the northern end of the park, close the skatepark. A macadam pathway around the perimeter of the play park, and sporting fields is a popular with walkers and a regular Walk & Talk event takes place here. In more recent times the park has been plagued by vandalism which has resulted in the installation of closed circuit television cameras to monitor and apprehend culprits.\n\nFilming\n\nThe Ginger Tree\n\nAs part of a major adaptation of the Oswald Wynd novel in 1988 the station was used to film exterior scenes, together with several other locations on the line, which doubled for Russia during the revolution. The recessed canopy was dressed with luggage and artificial snow for numerous linking scenes, and locomotive No. 11 Maitland was memorably repainted into a matt black colour scheme as part of the filming, a scheme it retained for the remainder of that season. Much of the location work was filmed during the hours of darkness and the scenes shot at the station do not feature a train although one was present. At the present time the series has not been repeated nor is it available in any home media format. The production was made by the BBC.\n\nThomas & The Magic Railroad\n\nThe live-action film version of Thomas The Tank Engine was partially filmed at the station, forming the basis of Shining Time Station (itself a variation of the series screened in the U.S.) in the story and the building and its environs were considerably disguised for this purpose, with a temporary canopy being built in the place where the original had once stood; whilst being a temporary structure this canopy looked remarkably similar to the original which had been demolished some seven years previously. The distinctive limestone station building was completely encased in wooden cladding and finished in a brown and cream colour scheme for the duration. Between the filming the production company provided their own style station nameboards which were erected between shots for the convenience of passengers, the railway remaining operational throughout the period of filming. The goods shed was disguised as the local Cooperative Store and period cars and set dressings were featured in the station. Some of the scenes shot featuring Alec Baldwin (the 1st station master), Michael E. Rodgers (the 2nd station master) and Peter Fonda (the grandfather) were shot at this location. The railway was used extensively during filming, with Port St. Mary goods shed being transformed into a workshop for the purpose and other island locations were also used including the Tynwald Hill Inn at St. John's. The locomotives and carriages were however not featured in the finished motion picture.\n\nFive Children & It\n\nThe station was again used for filming in 2005 when a live-action version of the Edith Nesbit story was filmed on the island, particularly in and around the town. For this, a temporary canopy was reinstated along the frontage of the station in a similar position to the original, and this remained in place through the majority of the peak season. the canopy was fitted with replica decorate fascia boards to match in with the extant versions. The film starred local resident Sir Norman Wisdom and the creature was voiced by Eddie Izzard. Scenes at the station retained the name of Castletown which are clearly discernable in the finished film. Upon completion of filming a number of smaller period props were retained at the station.\n\nJames May's Toy Stories\n\nDuring June 2014 an episode of this series was filmed on the island as part of the T.T. races when a motorcycle constructed entirely of Meccano was driven around the famous mountain circuit. As part of the filming Oz Clarke took a footplate ride on locomotive No. 10 G.H. Wood alighting at the station where linking footage of the train and its crew was filmed.\n\nGreat Coastal Railway Journeys\n\nIn September 2021 a film crew visited the railway with former politician Michael Portillo to film and episode of the upcoming series on coastal railway journeys and briefly alighted at the station which was featured in the episode; filming also took place at Douglas, Port St. Mary and Port Erin while the episode also featured the electric railway at Groudle Glen and a number of other heritage locations on the island as well as a visit to Tynwald Court.\n\nTimetabling\n\nSince the establishment of the line in 1874 the station has been one of the key passing places for trains and remains so today; since 2015 it has been used for the passing of all timetabled services (prior to this Ballasalla Railway Station was favoured until its closure that November). It was common for the midday services to pass here since the nationalisation of the railway in 1978 and today many of the dining train excursions terminate here. In recent years a letter-coded timetable has been in place which sees trains passing here daily throughout the season with generally runs between the start of March and end of October annually. In both 2020 and 2021 services did operate but to a curtailed timetable owing to various lockdowns during the Covid-19 pandemic. In 1975 the railway only operated between here and Port Erin and it acted as a terminus. The following year saw services extended to Ballasalla and in 1977 the full line reopened, again seeing use as a passing place. During major track work between 2000 and 2002 it again served as a temporary terminus. With work being carried out southwest of the station in 1967 it again acted as temporary terminus, and no trains operated in 1966 following cessation of Railway Company operations. Prior to this it was open throughout the year, though latterly the winter services were limited and occasionally substituted with bus services. Being a main hub on the south line the station remained open throughout the year though other smaller rural halts were not always kept open away from the peak season. A number of staff members were full time to deal with bookings, parcels, livestock, passing of trains and miscellaneous duties. It was common for the railway to issue a number of printed timetables throughout the year, with a short winter service, early spring, peak season, late season and autumn schedules prevailing. Provided with a long passing loop capable of holding twelve bogie vehicles on each side the station saw regular use for passing of trains as well as marshalling of goods stock in the two sidings, one of which remains connected to the goods shed, while the other was temporarily lifted in 2020 to allow for drainage work.\n\nEvents\n\nThe Royal Train (1972)\nOn 2 August 1972 members of the Royal Family boarded a special train at the station accompanied by dignitaries and officers of the Railway Company; accompanying Her Majesty The Queen and Prince Philip were three of their children, Princess Anne, Prince Andrew and Prince Edward as well as Lord Mountbatten. They were introduced to key members of staff by lieutenant governor Peter Stallard, including the chairman William Lambden, chief engineer Donald Shaw and the locomotive crew and train staff. The train was hauled by No.13 Kissack and the party travelled in Royal Saloon F.36 (now on display in the Isle of Man Railway Museum in Port Erin) into Douglas Station, passing No.4 Loch where it was acting as standby locomotive. This represented only the second time the railway had conveyed royalty, the first being The Queen Mother who travelled on the Peel Line in 1963 using the same carriage by hauled by No.11 Maitland. On arrival in the capital Her Majesty also travelled on the Douglas Bay Horse Tramway riding tramcar No.44 which thereafter became known as the Royal Tram, painted in a patriotic red, white and blue scheme for the occasion.\n\nIsland At War (2010-2019)\nBeginning in 2010 the station has taken part in an annual event, usually held on the third weekend of August, as part of a wartime recreation weekend staged by the railway. The station building and goods shed are dressed with period posters and memorabilia, with all traces of modern signage and additions being removed or concealed for the duration of the event. Anti-shatter tape is applied to the windows and historical recreation groups attend the site adding to the period atmosphere; themed music is played on the station's public address system and various music groups also attend throughout the weekend entertaining around the station site. At previous events there have also been stagings of un-exploded bombs, sandbag bunkers, field hospitals and other period dioramas. This weekend is one of the busiest of each season and attracts both locals and visitors. Local groups of scouts also attend the site, camping on the concourse and providing period foodstuffs such as rabbit stew to passengers. Similar events are staged of several other stations along the line during this event, notably at either termini at Douglas and Port Erin . In recent times similar themed events have also taken place at Cregneash Folk Museum operated by Manx National Heritage for which a shuttle bus service has been operated from Port St. Mary.\n\nAs Tinseltown (2010-2013)\nIn December 2010 the station was renamed for the first time as Tinseltown; this was carried out when it was used as the terminus for the railway's popular annual Santa Trains for the first time; these seasonal services had previously been terminated at Santon Station for many years. As part of a new initiative operated by Manx National Heritage, the local authority Castletown Commissioners and the railway the revamped services saw trains bring passengers to the station on an hourly basis for a short shuttle bus ride to Castle Rushen where Santa's Grotto was located in addition to traditional market stalls, fairground rides, an enchanted forest walk and snow machine. For these services the station was decorated with festive lights and music played, and adding to the festive feel of the station several of the services took place following an unusually heavy snowfall that blanketed the island in December 2010. As part of the experience the unusual step of allowing buses into the relatively small station car park was permitted and the Tinseltown Shuttle departed at regular intervals, echoing the latter years of Railway Company operation when Road Services buses called at the station at regular intervals when the rail-based services were restricted during the winter months. This theme and use of the station as a terminus was repeated in 2011 and 2012; in 2013 the grotto was based in the station's office; the decision was taken to revert festive services to Santon Station in 2014.\n\nCommonwealth Youth Games (2011)\nOn Monday, 12 September 2011, the station played host to the official parties connected with the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games with the \"culture day\" prior to the closing ceremony of the event taking place in the town; to accommodate the vast numbers travelling on this occasion passenger services on the railway were suspended for the day whilst the competitors and officials were transported by rail to the station. The event has been a fixture of the sporting calendar taking place every four years since the inaugural event which took place in Edinburgh in the year 2000 and the 2011 event was the first time that the island has hosted the event. The event is designed as a small-scale version of the Commonwealth Games aimed at children and young people; past hosts have included Bendigo in Australia and Pune in India. The event saw the railway coping with its largest crowd on a single day for what may possibly be the first time since the annual influx of passengers on Tynwald Day ceased to be a major part in the railway's calendar after the Peel Line closed in 1968 when the railway stopped serving the village of St. John's where the outdoor ceremony is still held on 5 July each year. For the 2011 event, every serviceable steam locomotive on the railway was used (No. 4 Loch, No. 10 G.H. Wood, No. 12 Hutchinson and No. 13 Kissack all seeing service) together with all available coaches, which totalled 18 bogie carriages - the first time this number of coaches had been available since 1974 - including three newly refurbished coaches all of which are over one hundred years old. Once competitors arrived at the station they were transferred to the town square by four Wright Eclipse Gemini buses provided by the island's nationalised Bus Vannin arm of the transport division. All competitors attended specially prepared events at Castle Rushen before returning to the capital by rail.\n\nFor Southern 100 Ceremony (2015)\nWith ongoing regeneration works in the town's historic market square at the time of the event, the organisers of the Southern 100 motorcycle races held the closing ceremony and prize presentation for the 2015 outside the station; the road was cordoned off from Victoria Road to the station forecourt and a temporary dais installed on the approach lawn to the station to allow the event to take place. Several hundred people attended the event, which may become an annual sight at the station, and the Friends Of group provided refreshments. As part of the 2015 event the races marked their diamond jubilee resulting in record crowds attending the ceremony, at which Guy Martin was hailed as the overall winner, being a long-time supporter of the event, which is known widely as the \"friendly races\". Since this time the area immediately outside the station (known as \"the triangle\" between the two hostelries The Sidings and The Viking) has been used for a number of open-air events in conjunction with local events, notably a music venue in the summer of 2021.\n\nChristmas Terminus (2013-Date", " a form of body armor and a cape with ragged ends. He has long blonde hair maintained in a ponytail and inhuman features such as red eyes, elongated canines, and retractable claws at the tips of his fingers and pointed ears.\n\nFictional character biography\n\nHistorical \nBorn Vlad Dracula in 1430 in Schassburg, Transylvania (now Sighi\u015foara, Romania), he was the second son of a Transylvanian nobleman. He was named prince of Transylvania and voivode (prince) of Wallachia and became ruler while still a child. Over the next several years, he struggled against the Ottoman Turks, losing and regaining his throne. Through an arranged marriage to a Hungarian noblewoman, Zofia, he sired his daughter, Lilith. He sent his wife and daughter away and later married a woman named Maria, with whom he had a son named Vlad Tepelus. He had a son with his third wife Domini, who was named Janus.\n\nIn 1459, Dracula was mortally wounded by the Turkish warlord Turac, who brought Dracula to a gypsy named Lianda to be healed. However, Lianda was a vampire, and in revenge for his persecution of the gypsies, transformed Dracula into a vampire as well. Turac raped and killed Dracula's wife Maria, and in revenge Dracula slew Turac, making him a vampire as well. Dracula gave his son Vlad Tepelus to gypsies to raise.\n\nDracula defeated the vampire Nimrod the First in battle, and thus succeeded him as ruler of Earth's vampires. Soon afterwards, he enhanced his own blood with that of Varnae, giving him greater powers than any other vampire. In 1471, Dracula abdicated his princehood.\n\nIn the 19th century, he faced opposition from Abraham van Helsing and Jonathan Harker in England, the exploits of which were recorded in the 1897 novel by Bram Stoker, Dracula. When the humans destroyed Dracula, his remains were placed in his coffin, concealed within a cave blocked by an enormous boulder. Frankenstein's Monster was later tricked into unsealing the cave and opening the coffin, thus freeing Dracula. In later years, he also came in conflict with Cagliostro and Solomon Kane. Just before World War I, he was responsible for transforming Lord John Falsworth into Baron Blood.\n\nThe Tomb of Dracula \n\nIn the later half of the 20th century, Dracula was once more returned from death by Clifton Graves, and subsequently came into conflict with Quincy Harker and Rachel van Helsing,\n\nAfter bringing the Cult of the Darkhold under his control, Dracula began to seek the power of the dark book to remove his vampiric weaknesses and make himself truly immortal. However, in his quest he was repeatedly foiled by the X-Men, the now-vampiric Rachel van Helsing and Lilith, Thor, Doctor Strange, Hannibal King and the Avengers.\n\nDracula had one apparent post-mortem appearance when the Grandmaster summoned him and a number of other deceased heroes and villains to challenge the Avengers.\n\nDracula's return (1994 \u2013 present) \nDracula eventually returned when the effect of the Montesi Formula was negated and HYDRA created a clone from Dracula's DNA to serve as their vampiric superweapon, only for the vampire to escape their control.\n\nIn the 21st century, Dracula assembled an army of vampires in a sanctuary on the Moon and planned to conquer the United Kingdom, with other supernatural villains Lilith (a different entity from his daughter), Captain Fate, and Baron Blood. He first contacted Doctor Doom to agree to a non-aggression pact with him, and by association the Cabal, in order to be unopposed in his conquest. Once he'd secured this, he launched a pre-emptive strike on MI-13's superheroes, launching specially-bred vampires at the Earth like missiles.\n\nIt was also shown he still possessed contempt and bigotry towards Muslims, and intended to exterminate them once he had secured Great Britain; as part of his attack, he went to the parents of Faiza Hussain, attacking her mother and taking her father (along with Killpower, an MI-13 agent sent to protect the family) hostage. British vampire hero Spitfire, meanwhile, was abducted and forcibly turned into a minion. MI-13 were manipulated into exposing the whereabouts of Quincy Harker's remains, magically treated to prevent vampires from entering the U.K. without invitation, so Dracula could destroy them. Once that was done, with the help of Fate, he launched a series of warships towards Earth.\n\nHowever, unknown to Dracula, Pete Wisdom had tricked him into destroying fake remains and Spitfire had been faking her mind control while channeling information to MI-13. In order to stop Dracula from finding out the remains were fake, he was briefly trapped in a demonic \"Dream Corridor\" which saw him live out his fantasies of victory (ending with him standing in a conquered House of Commons while holding the Speaker's mace); as well as giving MI-13 some intelligence on his plans, it stopped him from sending in advance teams. Once he escaped, there were a series of attacks to keep him occupied until the warships entered British airspace without invitation, wiping out the bulk of his forces.\n\nIn the final battle, he was pursued to his fortress and prevented from escaping by the Black Knight and Faiza Hussain, wielder of the sword Excalibur. While Dracula was able to seriously wound the Black Knight, he was slain with a single blow from Excalibur, leaving Britain victorious.\n\nIn a 2010 X-Men storyline \"Curse of the Mutants\", Dracula has been killed by his son Xarus, but is resurrected by the X-Men in hopes that he would join them against Xarus. However, Dracula declines and leaves shortly after. Dracula reasserts himself as Lord of the Vampires, granting amnesty to those who sided with Xarus. When Xarus tries to attack Dracula, he rips off Xarus' head. Although he contemplated attacking the X-Men, Cyclops reminded him that they had had custody of his body for 17 hours before the head was reattached, suggesting that they had included a 'contingency plan' in Dracula similar to the plan that they had used to infiltrate Xarus' forces by temporarily shutting down Wolverine's healing factor so that he could be turned and then returned to normal. Although Dracula suspected that Cyclops was bluffing, he complimented Cyclops's style and allowed them to depart, even returning the now-vampire Jubilee to the X-Men.\n\nDuring the \"Fear Itself\" storyline, Dracula is informed of the arrival of the Hulk (in the form of Nul: Breaker of Worlds) by one of his followers when Nul lands in the Carpathian foothills following his fight with Thor and ends up taking down some vampires. It is revealed that he has the mysterious Raizo Kodo and his legion of vampires called \"the Forgiven\" locked up in his dungeon. Dracula frees the Forgiven, who worked to slow Nul's progress. Dracula then prepares the vampires for his last stand. As the Forgiven continue to stall Nul, Dracula prepares his vampire armies for battle when Nul gets closer. In the end, Nul is defeated when Inka uses a vampire-mesmerizing spell to take the form of Betty Ross, causing the Hulk to break free of the hammer's magic and revert to normal.\n\nIn \"Dracula's Gauntlet\", Dracula hired Deadpool to retrieve his fianc\u00e9, a succubus queen named Shiklah. On the way, she falls in love with him instead and, during the extended trip, her brothers are killed by Dracula to secure the kingdom of Monster Metropolis as his own. This causes Shiklah to deny him the throne by marrying Deadpool, driving Dracula into a rage not because of the power and kingdom he lost, but because he was cuckolded by \"an escaped mental patient\". After a fight in which he is stabbed with Deadpool's severed hand, poisoned by the mercenary's blood and his army mostly wiped out, Dracula flees into hiding, leaving Shiklah as Queen of the Monsters.\n\nPossibly a little over a year later, there is trouble in his ex-fianc\u00e9's marriage. Shiklah has had enough of the humans and started a war to annex New York. Deadpool comes to Dracula for help in stopping her, threatening him with a wooden stake. Dracula cannot remember Shiklah's name at first, until Deadpool angrily reminds him. He states that he hates Deadpool, who replies that Dracula hates himself more, which actually makes him Shiklah's type. Once they return to New York, Dracula is able to gain control of the vampires in Shiklah's army to fight against her monsters. However, the second he meets Shiklah, he proposes to her\u00a0\u2014 wanting to merge their kingdoms and rule with the humans at their feet. Deadpool angrily curses Dracula. Dracula and Shiklah are married by Mephisto, while an angry Deadpool and a confused Spider-Man are tied up and made to watch. Dracula and Shiklah share a kiss, and she thanks him for giving her the wedding she always wanted\u00a0\u2014 with chaos and fire burning.\n\nThey head off to tell their followers of their union. However, Shiklah's monsters tell her that they do not wish to be ruled by a monarch any longer. Shiklah is shocked that her subjects want her run off, and Deadpool shows up to tell her that she cannot marry Dracula. He argues that the entire reason they married was because he was saving her from Dracula, reminding her that Dracula killed her brothers. Shiklah shrugs it off, and tells Deadpool that he would have done the same if he knew them. She then attacks him, telling him that he cannot tell her who she can impetuously marry. After one last tryst and talk with Deadpool, Shiklah emerges and tells Dracula to let their subjects rule themselves, stating that she does not want to rule by force. Dracula eventually relents, stating that he was retired anyway before Deadpool dragged him into this fight. He leaves with Shiklah, who wants to see more of the world. Shiklah wrote Deadpool a note, stating she was off for some stake-play with Dracula.\n\nDracula returns to his castle in Romania without Shiklah, and somehow begins summoning all vampires in the world to him, including Jubilee. Old Man Logan tracks Jubilee to Dracula's castle, where it is revealed that she is under the vampire's control. Dracula bites Old Man Logan, but his healing factor is able to resist vampirism. Jubilee eventually breaks free from Dracula's influence, allowing Old Man Logan to decapitate Dracula. Dracula's head is given to a Sentinel that then throws it into the Sun.\n\nDracula is shown to have both men and women as consorts.\n\nPowers and abilities \n\nDracula gained the powers of a vampire from his transformation into a vampire by the bite of the vampiress Lianda, and gained additional power by Varnae. Dracula possesses far greater powers than most vampires. He is superhumanly strong (to the point of standing toe-to-toe and defeating Colossus in single combat), and also possesses superhuman speed, stamina, reflexes, and transvection. He is immune to aging, conventional disease, sickness and most forms of injury. He cannot be killed or permanently injured by conventional means.\n\nHe is unaffected by most assaults and, due to his healing factor, can rapidly regenerate damaged tissue. Dracula can manipulate the minds of others, and command animals, such as rats, bats, and wolves, to his will. With limited exceptions, he may control other vampires. He has the ability to mentally control victims he has bitten, and can temporarily hypnotize anyone with his gaze.\n\nHe is capable of shapeshifting into a bat\u00a0\u2013 either normal or human size\u00a0\u2013 or a wolf while retaining his intelligence and into a fog or mist\u00a0\u2013 partially or fully\u00a0\u2013 and has the ability of weather control, such as summoning electrical storms. Like some vampires in other works of fiction, Dracula does not cast a reflection in mirrors and his image cannot be captured on film. His powers have been greatly amplified and his weaknesses circumvented by magical sources, such as the spells of the Darkholders.\n\nDracula has a dependence on the ingestion of fresh blood to sustain his existence, and an inability to endure direct sunlight. He falls into a comatose state during daylight hours and must spend much time in contact with his native soil. He has vulnerabilities to garlic (which can both repel him and prevent him from changing form), silver and wood (both of which can cause severe pain, the latter to a lesser extent unless it penetrates his heart) and the presence of religious symbols (wielded by one who believes in their spiritual meaning), and can be killed either by beheading or by a wooden stake or blade made of silver driven through his heart. He can also be destroyed by the spell in the Darkhold known as the Montesi Formula (named after Brother Montesi, the late monk who both discovered it and first realized what it was).\n\nDracula is a skilled hand-to-hand combatant and swordsman with centuries of experience, specializing in 15th-century warfare and militaristic strategy. He has a gifted intellect, and studied under tutors in his youth in Transylvania.\n\nReception\n\nCritical reception \nMarc Buxton of Den of Geek called Dracula \"Marvel\u2019s greatest classic monster,\" writing, \"Somehow, Marvel made Dracula into a classic anti-hero that captured the atmosphere and pathos of Bram novel and the Universal Horror classic. Somehow, Marvel also managed to weave in some super hero craziness as well with Dracula serving as the sometime hero in a book that featured one of the richest supporting casts of any comic of the 1970s. So many characters on our list, Lilith, Blade, and Hannibal King to name but a few, got their starts in Tomb of Dracula. But it was Vlad the Impaler himself that outshined them all with his evil brand of nobility.\"\n\nAccolades \n\n In 2015, Den of Geek ranked Dracula 3rd in their \"Marvel\u2019s 31 Best Monsters\" list.\n In 2019, CBR.com ranked Dracula 1st in their \"Top 10 Marvel And DC Vampires\" list.\n In 2020, CBR.com ranked Dracula 10th in their \"Dracula: The 5 Best Versions In Comics (& 5 Vampires Even More Terrifying)\" list.\n In 2021, Screen Rant included Dracula in their \"Marvel: 10 Most Powerful Vampires\" list.\n In 2022, CBR.com ranked Dracula 2nd in their \"10 Most Important Marvel Vampires\" list, 5th in their \"Marvel's 10 Scariest Monsters\" list, and 6th in their \"Scariest Comic Book Vampires\" list.\n\nOther versions \nIn the mid-1970s, Roy Thomas and Dick Giordano created a serialized adaptation of the original Bram Stoker novel, published in 10- to 12-page installments in the short-lived series Dracula Lives!.\n\nFollowing the cancellation of Dracula Lives!, an additional installment of their adaptation appeared in Marvel Preview #8 (\"The Legion of Monsters\"), for a total of 76 pages comprising roughly one-third of the novel. After a 30-year hiatus, Marvel commissioned Thomas and Giordano to finish the adaptation, and ran the reprinted and new material as the four-issue miniseries Stoker's Dracula (Oct. 2004\u00a0\u2013 May 2005). The entire adaptation was collected by Marvel Illustrated in 2010.\n\nIn the Ultimate Marvel Universe, Vlad III Dracula is the brother of the vampire known as Morbius the Living Vampire and a direct ancestor of Doctor Doom.\n\nIn Mutant X, Dracula succeeded in transforming Storm into a vampire. After Dracula's defeat, he was imprisoned in the Vault, contained in a coffin. The Marauders broke Dracula free. Dracula went on a killing spree, until being killed by Storm.\n\nIn other media\n\nTelevision \n Dracula appears in the Spider-Woman episode \"Dracula's Revenge\".\n Dracula appears in the Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends episode \"The Transylvania Connection\", voiced by Stan Jones.\n Dracula appears in The Super Hero Squad Show episode \"This Man-Thing, This Monster! (Six Against Infinity, Part 3)\", voiced by Dave Boat. He attacks a local town with N'Kantu, the Living Mummy's army of mummies before the latter kidnaps Werewolf by Night's girlfriend Ellen. In response, Werewolf by Night, the Man-Thing, and an alternate universe-displaced Iron Man join forces to save her, defeating Dracula in the process.\n Dracula appears in Avengers Assemble, voiced by Corey Burton. In the first season, he joins the Red Skull's Cabal until the latter betrays them.\n Dracula appears in the Ultimate Spider-Man two-part episode \"Blade and the Howling Commandos\", voiced again by Corey Burton.\n Dracula appears in the Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. episode \"Days of Future Smash, Part 3: Dracula\", voiced again by Corey Burton.\n\nFilm \n Dracula appears in Dracula: Sovereign of the Damned, voiced by Kenji Utsumi in Japanese and Tom Wyner in English.\n Dracula appears in Blade: Trinity, primarily portrayed by Dominic Purcell, and in his \"Beast\" form by Brian Steele. He also takes the forms of Dr. Edgar Vance (John Michael Higgins), Abraham Whistler (Kris Kristofferson), and Blade (Wesley Snipes). Though the character has little resemblance to the comic book version, this version is the original progenitor of \"Hominus Nocturna\" and has gone by many names, currently assuming the name Drake. Drake was \"born\" as the \"perfect\" vampire, though his true origins are unknown. He is also capable of limited shapeshifting due to a particularly malleable bone structure, which allows him to assume the appearance of others so long as they are of similar size and shape to him and transform into a demonic form called \"the Beast\", and possesses perfect immunity to sunlight. After spending three centuries in self-imposed exile, Drake is brought back by modern vampires led by Danica Talos in the hope that he will allow them to free them of their weakness to sunlight. However, Blade and Abigail Whistler kill Drake with a \"plague arrow\" that combines with the vampire's \"pure\" vampire blood to release an airborne contagion capable of destroying all vampires in the world. Out of respect for Blade's victory over him, Drake transforms himself into a duplicate of the former so Blade can escape police manhunt. In an extended ending, Drake awakes in Blade's form and attacks the police.\n\nVideo games \n Dracula appears as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online, voiced again by Dave Boat.\n Dracula appears as a group boss in Marvel Avengers Alliance.\n Dracula appears as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Avengers Academy.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n Dracula at Marvel.com\n\nBlade (comics) characters\nCharacters", " \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043c \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u043d\u0435\u0443\u043f\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0435\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435). \u0422\u0430\u043a, \u0438\u043e\u043d\u044b \u0441 \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u044b \u043a \u0437\u0430\u0440\u044f\u0434\u0443 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\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f (EI)\n \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f (CI)\n (EC)\n \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435 (FI)\n\n \u0416\u0438\u0434\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0444\u0430\u0437\u0430\n \u0442\u0435\u0440\u043c\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0439\n \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0430\u0442\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0434\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 (AP)\n \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0439 (APESI)\n \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0430\u0442\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0434\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 (APCI)\n \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0430\u0442\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0434\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 (APPI)\n\n \u0422\u0432\u0451\u0440\u0434\u0430\u044f \u0444\u0430\u0437\u0430\n \u043f\u0440\u044f\u043c\u0430\u044f \u043b\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0434\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0440\u0431\u0446\u0438\u044f \u2014 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f (LDMS)\n \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043b\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0434\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0440\u0431\u0446\u0438\u044f/\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f (MALDI)\n \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 (SIMS)\n \u0431\u043e\u043c\u0431\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043c\u0438 (FAB)\n \u0434\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0440\u0431\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435 (FD)\n \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0434\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0440\u0431\u0446\u0438\u044f (PD)\n\n\u0412 \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0436\u0451\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u0442\u0430\u043a \u043a\u0430\u043a \u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0438 \u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0442\u0432\u0451\u0440\u0434\u043e\u043c \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u043e \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435 \u0438 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0436\u0451\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u044b \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u043e \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e\u0431\u044b \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u044d\u0442\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0438 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0438\u043e\u043d\u044b.\n\n \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0438\u043d\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e-\u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0437\u043c\u0435 (ICP)\n \u0442\u0435\u0440\u043c\u043e\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f\n \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0442\u043b\u0435\u044e\u0449\u0435\u043c \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u044f\u0434\u0435 \u0438 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f (\u0441\u043c. \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u044f\u0434)\n \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0435 \u043b\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0431\u043b\u044f\u0446\u0438\u0438\n\n\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0433\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0430\u0437\u044b.\n\n\u041e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043d\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0438\u0441\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0442\u044c, \u0442\u043e \u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u0433\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0443\u044e \u0444\u0430\u0437\u0443, \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u0410 \u044d\u0442\u043e \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0442, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0438\u0445 \u043d\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0437\u044f \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043e\u043c. \u041d\u043e \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0442\u0438 \u0432\u0441\u0451, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u0436\u0438\u0432\u0443\u044e \u0442\u043a\u0430\u043d\u044c (\u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0438, \u0414\u041d\u041a \u0438\u00a0\u0442.\u00a0\u0434.), \u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u044b, \u0442\u043e \u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0432\u0441\u0451 \u0442\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0441. \u041c\u0430\u0441\u0441-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043b\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0438 \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439. \u0421\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044f \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f, \u0432 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c, \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0430\u0442\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0434\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0435\u0451 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0432\u0438\u0434\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0439 (ESI), \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0430\u0442\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0434\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 (APCI) \u0438 \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0430\u0442\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0434\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 (APPI), \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043b\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0440\u0431\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u044b (MALDI).\n\n\u041c\u0430\u0441\u0441-\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b \n\u041f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438\u043e\u043d\u044b \u0441 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0449\u044c\u044e \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0441\u044f\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 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\u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c, \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0438\u044f.\n\n\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0438 \n 1912 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u0436. \u0414\u0436. \u0422\u043e\u043c\u0441\u043e\u043d \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0451\u0442 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u044b \u043c\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0443\u043b \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u0430\u0437\u043e\u0442\u0430, \u0443\u0433\u0430\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0433\u0430\u0437\u0430, \u0443\u0433\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0433\u0430\u0437\u0430 \u0438 \u0444\u043e\u0441\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0430.\n\n 1913 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0421 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0449\u044c\u044e \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0430 \u0414\u0436. \u0414\u0436. \u0422\u043e\u043c\u0441\u043e\u043d \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0438\u0437\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043f\u044b \u043d\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0430: \u043d\u0435\u043e\u043d-20 \u0438 \u043d\u0435\u043e\u043d-22.\n\n 1918 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440 \u0414\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0442 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444.\n\n 1919 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0424\u0440\u044d\u043d\u0441\u0438\u0441 \u0410\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043d, \u043d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u043c\u043e \u043e\u0442 \u0414\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430, \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0442 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444 \u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438\u0437\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0432. \u042d\u0442\u043e\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0431\u043e\u0440 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043b \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0435\u0448\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0443\u044e \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e 130.\n\n 1923 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043d \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u0440\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u0441 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0449\u044c\u044e \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0434\u0435\u0444\u0435\u043a\u0442 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u044b.\n\n 1932 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0442 \u0411\u0435\u0439\u043d\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0436 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0442 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440 \u0441 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0435\u0448\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e 600 \u0438 \u0447\u0443\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e 1 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430 10 \u0442\u044b\u0441.\n 1934 \u0433\u043e\u0434 \u2014 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0440\u0430\u0434 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044e \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0443\u043b.\n\n 1936 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0440 \u0414\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440, \u041a\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0442 \u0411\u044d\u0439\u043d\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0436 () \u0438 () \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444 \u0441 \u0434\u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043a\u043e\u0439. \u0414\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438.\n\n 1940 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0441 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0449\u044c\u044e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u0443\u0440\u0430\u043d-235.\n\n 1940 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u043b\u044c\u0444\u0440\u0435\u0434 \u041d\u0438\u0440 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0451\u0442 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0434\u0451\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0430, \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0432 \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043a\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0443.\n\n 1942 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u043e\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0441 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u00ab\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044e\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0443 \u043f\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0438\u0437\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0432 \u0443\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0430, \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0430\u0433\u043d\u0438\u0442\u043d\u043e-\u0441\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0435.\n\n 1946 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u00a0\u2014 \u0423\u0438\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043c \u0421\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0441 () \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0430\u0435\u0442 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\u0438\u044e\u043d\u044f \u0432 Adrenaline Stadium 7\u0420\u0430\u0441\u0430 \u0441\u044b\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043d\u0435\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b Alice in Chains.\n\n\u041e\u0441\u0435\u043d\u044c\u044e \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0430 \u043e\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0430 15-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u043c\u0430 \u00ab\u041a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043b\u0438\u00bb \u043e\u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u043c\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0432\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0435. \u0422\u0430\u043a \u0436\u0435 6 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0433\u043b \u00ab\u0421\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u043c\u00bb.\n\n21 \u043c\u0430\u044f \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u043b \u0441\u0435\u0434\u044c\u043c\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u043c \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u00abAvidya\u00bb. \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u043c\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0430 5 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f \u0432 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0435. \u0413\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u0443 \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0443\u043b\u0438 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0427\u0430\u043b\u044b\u0445 \u0438 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B-sides\u00bb \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0435\u0451 16 \u0438 17 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f \u0432 \u0421\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0442-\u041f\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0435 \u0438 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0435.\n\n\u0421\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\n\n\u0422\u0435\u043a\u0443\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432 \n \u0421\u0430\u0448\u0430 \u0420\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447 (\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u043c\u044f \u0438 \u0444\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0421\u0435\u0447\u0451\u043d\u044b\u0445)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b, \u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430, \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d (1996\u2014\u043d\u0430\u0448\u0438 \u0434\u043d\u0438)\n \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0435\u0439 \u041e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430 (2020\u2014\u043d\u0430\u0448\u0438 \u0434\u043d\u0438)\n \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0418\u043b\u044c\u0447\u0443\u043a\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430 (2020\u2014\u043d\u0430\u0448\u0438 \u0434\u043d\u0438)\n \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0439 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 (2022\u2014\u043d\u0430\u0448\u0438 \u0434\u043d\u0438)\n\n\u0411\u044b\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \n \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0439 \u042f\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e\u00a0\u2014 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 (1996\u20141999)\n \u0414\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u041c\u044b\u0441\u043b\u0438\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430 (1996\u20141998)\n \u0414\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0421\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430 (1996\u20141997)\n \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u0442\u00bb \u0427\u0430\u043b\u044b\u0445\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430 (1997\u20142008, 2015\u20142020)\n \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438\u043c \u041a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430 (1998\u20141999)\n \u041f\u0451\u0442\u0440 \u0422\u0430\u043c\u0431\u0438\u0435\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 (1999\u20142000)\n \u0415\u0433\u043e\u0440 \u041f\u043e\u0434\u0442\u044f\u0433\u0438\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0430\u0441-\u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430 (1999\u20142020)\n \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0439 \u00ab\u0421\u0435\u0440\u0436\u00bb \u0413\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0443\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 (2000\u20142009, 2015\u20142016, 2017)\n \u0420\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d \u00ab\u0420\u0443\u0431\u043e\u00bb \u0425\u043e\u043c\u0443\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430 (2009\u20142010, 2012\u20142015)\n \u0415\u0433\u043e\u0440 \u042e\u0440\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00a0\u2014 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 (2009\u20142015)\n \u0414\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0441 \u0411\u0443\u0440\u0438\u043c\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430 (2010\u20142011)\n \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0435\u0439 \u0421\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0446\u044b\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 (2016\u20142017)\n \u0415\u0432\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e\u00a0\u2014 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 (2017\u20142022)\n\n\u0412\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0448\u043a\u0430\u043b\u0430\n\n\u0414\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f\n\n\u0421\u0442\u0443\u0434\u0438\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u043c\u044b \n 2003\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab1-\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u00bb\n 2004\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043b\u0438\u00bb\n 2006\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0418\u043b\u043b\u044e\u0437\u0438\u044f: \u041c\u0430\u0439\u044f\u00bb\n 2008\u00a0\u2014 Coda\n 2013\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0421\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u043f\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb\n 2020\u00a0\u2014 Avidya\n\n\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0437\u044b \n 2022\u00a0\u2014 7\u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0439 (\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432 2022-\u043c \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u00ab\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435\u00bb \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b)\n\n\u0414\u0435\u043c\u043e \n 1999\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u0435\u043c\u043e-\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u043c\n\n\u0421\u0438\u043d\u0433\u043b\u044b \n 2001\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0421\u0435\u0434\u044c\u043c\u0430\u044f \u0420\u0430\u0441\u0430\u00bb\n 2009\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0421\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0446\u0435 \u0432\u0437\u043e\u0439\u0434\u0435\u0442\u00bb\n 2012\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0420.\u041d.\u0413.\u00bb\n 2017\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041b\u044e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044c \u0441\u0431\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0430\u044f \u0441 \u043d\u043e\u0433\u00bb\n 2018\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0417\u0438\u043c\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u043a\u0430\u00bb\n 2018\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0437\u0438\u043c\u0430\u00bb\n 2018\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0418\u0434\u0438 \u0434\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0439\u00bb\n 2019\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0422\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\u00bb\n 2019\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0421\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u043c\u00bb\n 2021\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0416\u0430\u043b\u043a\u043e\u00bb\n\n\u041a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0430\u043b\u044c\u0431\u043e\u043c\u044b \n 2005\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043b\u044c \u0431\u0443\u043c\u0430\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0439\u00bb\n\n\u0412\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043e \nDVD\n 2006", "981 to replace the Combat Arms Regimental System (CARS) to provide each soldier with continuous identification with a single regiment, and to increase a soldier's probability of serving recurring assignments with his or her regiment. The USARS was intended to enhance combat effectiveness by providing the opportunity for a regimental affiliation, thus obtaining some of the benefits of the traditional regimental system.\n\nOverview\n\nUSARS was developed to include the active Army (all combat, combat support (CS), combat service support (CSS), and special branches as well as appropriate training battalions) and the reserve components (the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve).\n\nIt was developed to offer the opportunity for long-term identification with a regiment or corps, provide the potential for recurring assignments within a regiment or corps, provide the opportunity to further emphasize the history, customs, and traditions of the regiment or corps, and provide regiments that are structured as one or more continental United States (CONUS) units of like type linked with one or more units of like type outside the continental United States (OCONUS), or one or more units of like type located exclusively in either CONUS or OCONUS, including one or more training battalions or tactical armored cavalry or ranger regiments.\n\nUSARS is also designed to provide for CS, CSS, and special branches to operate on a \u201cwhole branch\u201d concept as a corps or special branch, carrying on the activities and traditions of a regiment, offer regimental affiliation to allow soldiers the opportunity for continuous identification with a combat arms regiment, a corps, or special branch throughout their careers. USARS provides (through regimental affiliation) different opportunities for soldiers, depending upon which combat arms regiment they choose to be affiliated with or whether they affiliate with a CS or CSS corps or special branch. In addition, the regimental affiliation process allows combat arms soldiers to select the regiment of choice (soldiers can change their affiliation at any time); provides that CS, CSS, and special branch soldiers will automatically be affiliated with their corps or special branch; specifies that all soldiers will belong to a regiment or corps; permits no limit to the number of soldiers who can be affiliated with a regiment or corps; and provides that DA civilians can automatically be affiliated with a regiment or corps by direction of the regiment or corps commander.\n\nCombat arms\n\nConcept\nCombat arms is a rescinded doctrinal term, though colloquially it includes air defense artillery, armor, aviation, field artillery, infantry, and special forces regiments. Combat arms soldiers may affiliate with any of the combat arms regiments consistent with their primary military occupational specialty (PMOS), specialty code, special qualification identifiers (SQI), or additional skill identifiers (ASI). Soldiers will have greater opportunities to serve recurring assignments in their regiments if regiments are chosen that have battalions in both CONUS and OCONUS locations. Since there is no ceiling on the number of soldiers who can affiliate with a particular regiment, the potential for recurring assignments to regiments is diminished where the number of affiliated soldiers exceeds the requirements.\n\nAffiliation policy\nQuoting from Chapter 3\u20132, page 7 of Army Regulation 600-82, U.S. Army Regimental System\n(note: Currently the regulation for The U.S. Army Regimental System is Army Regulation 870-21):\n\na. USARS regiments offered to active Army and USAR soldiers for affiliation are listed [below].\n\n (1) All active Army soldiers are required to affiliate with a regiment. Although affiliation is mandatory, the choice of regiment is left up to the individual. Officers who are single-tracked in a Functional Area will affiliate with a regiment associated with their basic combat arms branch. Functional Area officers who have no basic branch will submit request for regimental affiliation using procedures outlined below. Regimental affiliation is based on the Army branch associated with a soldier\u2019s PMOS or specialty. AR 670\u20131 contains a listing of all PMOS and corresponding branches for each. Army recruiters who have been assigned the SQI\u201c4\u201d will affiliate with a regiment associated with their PMOS. Recruiters or retention noncommissioned officers (NCOs) will be affiliated with The Adjutant General Corps. Regimental affiliation may be changed at any time; however, the regimental selection must be associated with the soldier\u2019s PMOS or specialty.\n\n (2) All combat arms officers and soldiers will affiliate with a regiment upon arrival at their first unit of assignment. These Soldiers will be affiliated with their regiment of assignment unless they voluntarily select another. Combat arms officers and soldiers whose initial Army assignment is not to a regimental unit may defer selection until they are so assigned.\n\n (3) Enlisted soldiers may elect the Regiment of Choice Reenlistment Option under AR 601\u2013280.\n\n (4) Soldiers who deliberately terminate airborne status after affiliating with an airborne regiment will change their affiliation to a non-airborne regiment at the time of their termination. Those who are terminated for medical reasons may retain their regimental affiliation with an airborne regiment if they desire; however, such affiliation will be ceremonial and will not affect subsequent assignments.\n\n (5) Regimental affiliation will be a primary assignment consideration for officers and enlisted soldiers. To the maximum extent possible, soldiers who are regimentally affiliated will be assigned to their regimental units. No assignment guarantees will be made, as Army requirements and soldier professional development needs must be met; however, it is incumbent upon commanders and the personnel community to make every effort to ensure that requisitions are submitted for and filled with affiliated regimental Soldiers and that soldiers are subsequently assigned within their regiments. (See AR 614\u2013100, and AR 614\u2013185 for officers, and AR 614\u2013200 for enlisted soldiers).\n\nb. Specific procedures for affiliation are below. These procedures permit affiliation and change of affiliation to be administered at the local Personnel Service Center (PSC) level.\n\nc. Active Army soldiers who are accessioned into the USAR will retain their regimental affiliation unless they elect to change their affiliation, which may be done at any time.\n\nCombat arms regiments\nNote: There are currently 177 USARS regiments, with only 47 consisting of units at multiple locations. Some of the regimental battalions are assigned to brigade combat teams in multiple divisions. Only 27 of these regiments meet the USARS \"Conus/Oconus goal.\"\nAdditionally, the term \"Regiment\" was not officially appended to a USARS regiment's official name/designation (and was not used under CARS) until 2005.\n\nArtillery regiments\n\nAir defense artillery regiments \n1st Air Defense Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 94th Army Air and Missile Defense Command, Kadena Air Base Japan\n 2nd Battalion, 35th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Osan Air Base, Korea\n2nd Air Defense Artillery Regiment\n Battery A, 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Bliss, Texas\n Battery B, 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Bliss, Texas\n 3rd Battalion, 31st Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n3rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment\n 4th Battalion, 31st Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n4th Air Defense Artillery Regiment\n Battery A, 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Bliss, Texas\n 3rd Battalion, 108th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Liberty, North Carolina\n5th Air Defense Artillery Regiment\n 4th Battalion, 69th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Hood, Texas\n 5th Battalion, 31st Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n6th Air Defense Artillery Regiment (Training Regiment)\n 2nd Battalion, 30th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n 3rd Battalion, 30th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n7th Air Defense Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 108th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Liberty, North Carolina\n 5th Battalion, 10th Army Air & Missile Defense Command, Germany\n43rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Bliss, Texas\n 2nd Battalion, 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Bliss, Texas\n 3rd Battalion, 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Bliss, Texas\n44th Air Defense Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 69th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Hood, Texas\n 2nd Battalion, 108th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Campbell, Kentucky\n52nd Air Defense Artillery Regiment\n 5th Battalion, 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Bliss, Texas\n 6th Battalion, 35th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Osan Air Base, Korea\n56th Air Defense Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion (ADA Officer Training), 30th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n62nd Air Defense Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 69th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Hood, Texas\n\nField artillery regiments\n1st Field Artillery Regiment\n 4th Battalion, 3rd BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas\n2nd Field Artillery Regiment\n 2nd Battalion, 428th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n3rd Field Artillery Regiment\n 2nd Battalion, 1st ABCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas\n 5th Battalion, 17th Field Artillery Brigade, I Corps, Joint Base Lewis-McChord, Washington\n4th Field Artillery Regiment\n \n 5th Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas\n \n6th Field Artillery Regiment\n 3rd Battalion, 1st BCT, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Drum, New York\n7th Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas\n 3rd Battalion, 3rd BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Schofield Barracks, Hawaii\n8th Field Artillery Regiment\n 2nd Battalion, 1st BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Fort Wainwright, Alaska\n9th Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia\n10th Field Artillery Regiment\n\n11th Field Artillery Regiment\n 2nd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Schofield Barracks, Hawaii\n12th Field Artillery Regiment\n 2nd Battalion, 1st BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado\n13th Field Artillery Regiment\n 3rd Battalion, 75th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n14th Field Artillery Regiment\n \n15th Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 2nd Infantry Division, South Korea\n 2nd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Drum, New York\n16th Field Artillery Regiment\n 3rd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado\n17th Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 75th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n 3rd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 2nd Infantry Division, Joint Base Lewis-McChord, Washington\n18th Field Artillery Regiment\n 2nd Battalion, 75th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n19th Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 434th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n 20th Field Artillery Regiment\n 2nd Battalion, 41st Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Hood, Texas\n21st Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 41st Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Hood, Texas\n22nd Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 434th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n25th Field Artillery Regiment\n 5th Battalion, 3rd BCT, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Polk, Louisiana\n26th Field Artillery Regiment\n Battery A (Target Acquisition), 41st Field Artillery Brigade, III Corps, Fort Hood, Texas\n Battery B (Target Acquisition), 212th Field Artillery Brigade, III Corps, Fort Bliss, Texas\n Battery C (Target Acquisition), 75th Field Artillery Brigade, III Corps, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n Battery D (Target Acquisition), 18th Field Artillery Brigade, XVIII Airborne Corps, Fort Liberty, North Carolina\n Battery F (Target Acquisition), 17th Field Artillery Brigade, I Corps, Fort Lewis, Washington\n \n27th Field Artillery Regiment\n 3rd Battalion, 18th Field Artillery Brigade, XVIII Airborne Corps, Fort Liberty, North Carolina\n 4th Battalion, 2nd BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas\n29th Field Artillery Regiment\n 2nd Battalion, 4th BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas\n 3rd Battalion, 3rd BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado\n30th Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 428th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n32nd Field Artillery Regiment\n 2nd Battalion, 4th BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas\n37th Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 3rd BCT (Styker), 2nd Infantry Division, Fort Lewis, Washington\n 6th Battalion, 210th Field Artillery Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, South Korea\n38th Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 210th Field Artillery Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, South Korea\n40th Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 434th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n41st Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia\n 42nd Field Artillery Regiment\n 4th Battalion, 1st BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Carson, Colorado\n76th Field Artillery Regiment\n\n77th Field Artillery Regiment\n 2nd Battalion, 4th BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado\n78th Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 428th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n79th Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 434th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\n82nd Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas\n 2nd Battalion, 3rd BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas\n 3rd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas\n84th Field Artillery Regiment\n94th Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 17th Field Artillery Brigade, I Corps, Joint Base Lewis-Mcchord, Washington\n194th Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 34th Infantry Division, Fort Dodge, Iowa\n319th Field Artillery Regiment (Airborne)\n 1st Battalion, 3rd BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina\n 2nd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina\n 3rd Battalion, 1st BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina\n 4th Battalion, 173rd ABCT, Grafenwoehr, Germany\n320th Field Artillery Regiment (Air Assault)\n 1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky\n 2nd Battalion, 1st BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky\n 3rd Battalion, 3rd BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky\n321st Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion (Airborne), 18th Field Artillery Brigade, XVIII Airborne Corps, Fort Liberty, North Carolina\n 3rd Battalion, 18th Field Artillery Brigade, XVIII Airborne Corps, Fort Liberty, North Carolina\n333rd Field Artillery Regiment\n Battery F (Target Acquisition), 210th Field Artillery Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, South Korea\n377th Field Artillery Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 17th Field Artillery Brigade, I Corps, Joint Base Lewis-McChord, Washington\n 2nd Battalion (Airborne), 4th BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Fort Richardson, Alaska\n\nArmored and cavalry regiments\n\nArmored regiments \n34th Armored Regiment\n 2nd Battalion, 1st BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas\n35th Armored Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas\n37th Armored Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas\n 2nd Battalion, 1st BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas\n63rd Armored Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas\n64th Armored Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia\n66th Armored Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 3rd BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado\n 3rd Battalion, 1st BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas\n67th Armored Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 3rd BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas\n 3rd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia\n68th Armored Regiment\n 1st Battalion, 3rd BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado\n Company A, 4th Battalion, 1st BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty\n69th Armored Regiment\n 2nd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Benning, Georgia\n 3rd Battalion, 1st BCT, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia\n70th Armored Regiment\n 2nd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas\n 4th Battalion, 1st BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas\n72nd Armored Regiment\n No active Battalions\n77th", " \u0413\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b \u0413\u0435\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445, \u041e\u0440\u043a\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445, \u0428\u0435\u0442\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0432, \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0410\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0441\u0438, \u041c\u044d\u043d, \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0410\u0440\u0440\u0430\u043d \u0438 \u0434\u0440. \u0418\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u043a \u0411\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u041d\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0434\u043b\u0435\u0436\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438, \u043d\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0443 \u0431\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0432 \u0424\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u00ab\u0411\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00bb \u0438\u0437\u0431\u0435\u0433\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0418\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0438, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0443 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0435 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\u0441\u0442\u0443\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0438\u00a0\u0442.\u00a0\u0434.\n\n\u0412 \u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0435\u043c \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0443\u0436\u0435 \u0446\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0442\u044b: \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0438, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0438 \u0434\u0440.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n \n \u0411\u043e\u0431\u0447\u0435\u0432\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u0421. \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b \u0414\u0440\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u043b\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0422\u044b\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438: \u041f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b, \u0434\u0443\u0445\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e \u043b\u0438\u0446\u0435, \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043a, \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a, \u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u043e\u0444\u0438\u044f, 1926\n \u0422\u0440\u0438\u0444\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u042e.\u00a0\u0412. \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b \u0414\u0440\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u043b\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0411\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0446\u043a\u0438 \u0438 \u0422\u044a\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438: \u0416\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0442, \u0434\u0435\u0439\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442 \u0438 \u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u043e\u0444\u0438\u044f, 1926\n \u041a\u043b\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0422\u044a\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438, \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b \u0414\u0440\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0432: \u0417\u0430 25-\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0448\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u043e\u0442 \u0441\u043c\u044a\u0440\u0442\u0442\u0430 \u043c\u0443: \u0418\u0437\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0441\u043f\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u0438 \u0434\u043e\u043a-\u0442\u0438.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u043e\u0444\u0438\u044f, 1927\n \u041b\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0414. \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b \u0414\u0440\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0432. \u0416\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0442 \u0438 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u043e.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u043e\u0444\u0438\u044f: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0438\u0437\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e, 1976.\u00a0\u2014 199 \u0441.\n \u0421\u043c\u043e\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u0413. \u041d\u043e\u0432\u0438 \u0434\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438 \u0437\u0430 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b \u0414\u0440\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0432 (\u0420\u044a\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0414\u0440\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0432 \u043e\u0442 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434\u0430 1874\u20141882) // \u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u0441\u044a\u043b.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u043e\u0444\u0438\u044f, 1976.\u00a0\u2014 \u2116\u00a06.\n \u0421\u043c\u043e\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u0413. \u041a\u044a\u043c \u0432\u044a\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0430 \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0442\u043e \u043d\u0430 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b \u0414\u0440\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0432. \u0421\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0434 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438 \u0434\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u0430\u0440\u0445\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e \u0422\u044a\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e \u0438 \u0421\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430 // \u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u0441\u044a\u043b.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u043e\u0444\u0438\u044f, 1977.\u00a0\u2014 \u2116\u00a06.\n \u0421\u043c\u043e\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u0413. \u041f\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0434\u0435\u0439\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b \u0414\u0440\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0432 // \u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u0441\u044a\u043b.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u043e\u0444\u0438\u044f, 1979.\u00a0\u2014 \u2116\u00a03.\n \u0421\u043c\u043e\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u0413. \u0422\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0414\u0440\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u043e\u0444\u0438\u044f: \u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0411\u043e\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a, 1987.\u00a0\u2014 166 \u0441.\n \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u0419. \u041f\u0438\u0441\u043c\u0430 \u043e\u0442 \u0412. \u0414\u0440\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0442\u043e \u0434\u0443\u0445\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e \u043b\u0438\u0446\u0435 \u0432 \u0414\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0427\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u044f: (16 \u044e\u043d\u0438 1873\u00a0\u2014 28 \u0441\u0435\u043f\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0431\u0440\u0438 1878\u00a0\u0433.).\u00a0\u2014 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0435, 1988;\n \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u0419. \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b \u0414\u0440\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u0435\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043f \u041a\u043b\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 (1983\u20141878).\u00a0\u2014 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0435, 1989\n \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b \u0414\u0440\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u043b\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0422\u044a\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0432 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0438\u044f: \u042e\u0431\u0438\u043b. \u0441\u0431. / \u0420\u0435\u0434.: \u0414. \u041b\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432.\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u043d\u0430, 1992;\n \u0422\u0430\u0448\u0435\u0432, \u0422\u0430\u0448\u043e \u041c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0438\u044f 1879\u20141999.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u043e\u0444\u0438\u044f, \u0410\u0418 \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0444. \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u043d \u0414\u0440\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u00bb / \u0418\u0437\u0434. \u043d\u0430 \u041c\u041e, 1999.\n \u0418\u0433\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0414. \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b \u0414\u0440\u0443\u043c\u0435\u0432: \u041b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0438 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434 \u0412\u043e\u0437\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0411\u043e\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0438: \u0414\u0438\u0441. \u0428\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d, 2000\n \u0426\u0430\u0446\u043e\u0432 \u0411. \u0410\u0440\u0445\u0438\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0438\u0442\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0430 \u0426\u044a\u0440\u043a\u0432\u0430: \u0411\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u043e\u0444\u0438\u044f, 2003.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 152\u2014153\n \u0414\u0430\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0420. \u041d\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0442\u043e \u0431\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u0442\u0440. \u041a\u043b\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0411\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0446\u043a\u0438 \u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0438 \u0437\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0413\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u044f \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0440 \u0441\u0432. \u0432\u043c\u0447. \u0413\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0438 \u041f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0446 // \u0418\u0437\u0432. \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0439.\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0435\u043b. \u0422\u044a\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e, 2004. \u0413\u043e\u0434. 19.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 154\u2014156\n \u0421\u043c\u043e\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u041c.\u00a0\u0413.\u00a0\u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b 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\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u043b\u0435\u0432\u0430\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f;\n \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043a\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0443\u0431\u044b\u0448 \u0434\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439 2,2896 \u043a\u043c, \u0441 \u0432\u0445\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0438 \u0432\u044b\u0445\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043e\u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d \u0432 \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u044b\u0435\u043c\u043a\u0435; \n \u0434\u044e\u043a\u0435\u0440 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0437 \u0440\u0435\u043a\u0443 \u041a\u0443\u0431\u044b\u0448, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e 70 \u043c\u00b3/\u0441 (40+30 \u043c\u00b3/\u0441). \u0421\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u0442 \u0438\u0437 \u0434\u0432\u0443\u0445 \u043d\u0438\u0442\u043e\u043a \u0434\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e 1,143\u00a0\u043a\u043c, \u0434\u0438\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c 4 \u043c (\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0430\u044f) \u0438 3,24 \u043c (\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0430\u044f). \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043d\u0438\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u0442 \u0438\u0437 \u0436\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u043b\u0435\u0432\u0430\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f;\n \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b \u041a\u0443\u0431\u044b\u0448\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0435\u0439\u043d \u0441\u0443\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0443\u043b\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0434\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439 2,288\u00a0\u043a\u043c, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d \u0432 \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u044b\u0435\u043c\u043a\u0435.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e-\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0443\u0437\u0435\u043b \n\u0414\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e-\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0443\u0437\u043b\u043e\u043c, \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0442 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043e\u0431\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0447\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0413\u042d\u0421 (\u0432\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a \u0434\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438), \u0442\u0430\u043a \u0438 \u0432\u0435\u0441\u044c \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0432 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0413\u0410\u042d\u0421. \u0415\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0431\u044f:\n \u0448\u043b\u044e\u0437-\u0440\u0435\u0433\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u043f\u0440\u044f\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0434\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0438 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0435\u0439\u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0443\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0443\u043b\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f;\n \u0431\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0435\u0439\u043d \u0441\u0443\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0443\u043b\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f (\u0411\u0421\u0420), \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044e \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0431\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0435\u0439\u043d\u0430 \u0413\u0410\u042d\u0421, \u0434\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439 1250\u00a0\u043c, \u0448\u0438\u0440\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439 400\u00a0\u043c, \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0434\u044c\u044e 350 \u0442\u044b\u0441. \u043c\u00b2, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0451\u043c\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e 1,85\u00a0\u043c\u043b\u043d \u043c\u00b3, \u043e\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u041d\u041f\u0423 983\u00a0\u043c, \u043e\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0423\u041c\u041e 977 \u043c. \u0411\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0435\u0439\u043d \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0432\u044b\u0435\u043c\u043a\u0435-\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0441\u044b\u043f\u0438, \u0434\u043d\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u043e \u0441\u0443\u0433\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b\u043c \u044d\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u044d\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0439; \n \u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0438\u0451\u043c\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0441 \u0434\u0432\u0443\u043c\u044f \u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043c\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e 5\u00d75 \u043c, \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0443\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0451\u0442\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0438 \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0430\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0439\u043d\u043e-\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0442\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0438;\n \u0436\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0442\u0440\u0443\u0431\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u044b (2 \u043d\u0438\u0442\u043a\u0438) \u0434\u0438\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e 5\u00a0\u043c, \u0434\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439 423,5\u00a0\u043c \u0438 411,7 \u043c;\n \u043d\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0435\u043b\u0438 (2 \u043d\u0438\u0442\u043a\u0438) \u0434\u0438\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e 5 \u043c \u0438 \u0434\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e 2271,5\u00a0\u043c;\n \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u0443\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0443\u0430\u0440\u0430 \u0432 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435 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\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u044f\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 13,8 \u043a\u0412 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0451\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0440\u0451\u0445\u0444\u0430\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b \u0422\u0414\u0426-125 000/110/13,8 (2 \u0448\u0442.), \u0422\u0414\u0426-2000000/330/13,8-\u04231 (1 \u0448\u0442.) \u0438 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0410\u0422\u0414\u0426\u0422\u041d-200000/330/110/13,8-\u04231 (1 \u0448\u0442.), \u0430 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0437 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e (\u041a\u0420\u0423\u042d) 110 \u043a\u0412 \u0438 330 \u043a\u0412\u00a0\u2014 \u0432 \u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u043f\u043e \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c \u043b\u0438\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0438:\n \u0412\u041b 330 \u043a\u0412 \u0417\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0447\u0443\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0413\u0410\u042d\u0421\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0421 \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043a;\n \u0412\u041b 110 \u043a\u0412 \u0417\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0447\u0443\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0413\u0410\u042d\u0421\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0421 \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a (\u041b-31);\n \u0412\u041b 110 \u043a\u0412 \u0417\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0447\u0443\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0413\u0410\u042d\u0421\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0421 \u042e\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f (\u041b-42);\n \u0412\u041b 110 \u043a\u0412 \u0417\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0447\u0443\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0413\u0410\u042d\u0421\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0421 \u0422\u043e\u043a \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u044b (\u041b-143);\n \u0412\u041b 110 \u043a\u0412 \u0417\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0447\u0443\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0413\u0410\u042d\u0421\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0421 \u0417\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0447\u0443\u043a (\u041b-144).\n\n\u042d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \n\u0417\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0447\u0443\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0413\u042d\u0421-\u0413\u0410\u042d\u0421 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u0432 \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u043e-\u0427\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0435\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0437 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u0413\u042d\u0421 \u043d\u0430 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c \u041a\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0435 (\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e \u043c\u043e\u0449\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043b\u0438\u0448\u044c \u0427\u0438\u0440\u043a\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0413\u042d\u0421, \u0418\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0413\u042d\u0421 \u0438 \u0417\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0433\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0413\u042d\u0421-1). \u041e\u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0447\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u043e-\u0427\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0435\u0441\u0438\u0438, \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u043b\u0443\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0417\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0447\u0443\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0413\u042d\u0421-\u0413\u0410\u042d\u0421 \u0432\u044b\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 6 \u043c\u043b\u0440\u0434 \u043a\u0412\u0442\u22c5\u0447 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0439 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0438. \u0422\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u044d\u0442\u043e \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430 \u0438\u0437 \u0442\u0440\u0451\u0445 \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0433\u0438\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0430\u043a\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0443\u043b\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0439 (\u043f\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043c\u043e \u0417\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0413\u0410\u042d\u0421 \u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0439 \u041a\u0443\u0431\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0413\u0410\u042d\u0421 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0443\u043b\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f). \u0421\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0443\u0437\u043a\u0438 \u041e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0451\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u044b \u042e\u0433\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438, \u043f\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0448\u0430\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0434\u0451\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b \u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u044b \u0438 \u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u043e\u0441\u043d\u0430\u0431\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044f\u044f \u0442\u0435\u043f\u043b\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u0438 \u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043d\u044b\u043c \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f\u043c \u0444\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043e\u043f\u0442\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0445. \u0412\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0431\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0435\u0439\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0438\u0437 \u0411\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0417", "\u043f\u043e-\u043b\u0438\u0442. \u0442-\u0432\u0430 \u0418.\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u041a\u0443\u0448\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432 \u0438 \u041a\u00b0, 1904. 24 \u0441.\n \u0412\u0438\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0414. \u0413. \u0412\u043b\u0438\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0448\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0432 // \u0423\u0447. \u0437\u0430\u043f. \u041c\u0413\u0423. 1946. \u0412\u044b\u043f. 104. \u0422. 2. \u2116\u00a02. \u0421. 46-59.\n \u0412\u0438\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0414. \u0413. \u0420\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0438 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0432 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 1946. \u2116\u00a06. \u0421. 343\u2014352.\n \u0412\u0438\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0414. \u0413. \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432, \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u044c \u0438 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c // \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438. \u041c.: \u0421\u043e\u0432. \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430. 1958. \u0421. 104\u2014122.\n \u0412\u0438\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043c\u0441 \u0412. \u0420. \u0417\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f // \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432. \u0418\u0437\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u0422. 1. \u041c.: \u0421\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0445\u043e\u0437\u0433\u0438\u0437, 1948. C. 12-20\n \u0413\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0443\u0448\u0430 \u0418. \u0424. \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u0438 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0448\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432: (\u041a \u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0441\u043e \u0434\u043d\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f). \u0413\u043e\u0440\u044b-\u0413\u043e\u0440\u043a\u0438: \u0418\u0437\u0434-\u0432\u043e \u0411\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0441. \u0441.-\u0445. \u0438\u043d-\u0442\u0430, 1947. 15 \u0441.\n \u0413\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u0418. \u041f. \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432: (\u041a 125-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0441\u043e \u0434\u043d\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f) // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 1971. \u2116\u00a08. \u0421. 3-7.\n \u0413\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u041a. \u0414. \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434 // \u0415\u0436\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a \u043f\u043e \u0433\u0435\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438. 1905. \u0422. 7. \u0412\u044b\u043f. 1. \u0421. 10-16.\n \u0413\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u041a. \u0414. \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435: \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u0447\u0435\u0440\u043a: (\u041a 20-\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0449\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u0441\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0438 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430) // \u0417\u0430\u043f. \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0440. \u0441.-\u0445. \u0438\u043d-\u0442\u0430. 1924. \u0422. 1. \u0421. 1-24.\n \u0413\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u041a. \u0414. \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f // \u0422\u0440. \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432. \u043d-\u0442\u0430. 1927. \u0412\u044b\u043f. 2. \u0421. 301\u2014302; 318\u2014322.\n \u0413\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u0435\u0432 \u0414. \u0418. \u0420\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0432 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u043e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u0438\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0435\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 // \u0422\u0440. \u041b\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0440. \u0433\u0438\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0435\u043e\u043b. \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b. \u0438\u043c. \u0424.\u00a0\u041f.\u00a0\u0421\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0410\u041d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420. 1949. \u0422. 6. \u0421. 194\u2014206.\n \u0413\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0432 \u0410. \u0410. \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434 \u0432 \u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043e \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044b: (\u041a 50-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0441\u043e \u0434\u043d\u044f \u0441\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0438 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430) // \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430. 1953. \u2116\u00a012. \u0421. 27-34.\n \u0413\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0432 \u0410. \u0410. \u0413\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0437\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0438 \u043d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u0435\u0451 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438: \u041a 50-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0433\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0437\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 // \u0418\u0437\u0432. \u0410\u041d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420. \u0421\u0435\u0440. \u0433\u0435\u043e\u043b. 1954. \u2116\u00a05. \u0421. 17- 39; \u2116\u00a06. \u0421. 41-50.\n \u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0413. \u0412. \u0417\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u00ab\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0447\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0437\u0435\u043c\u0430\u00bb \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f // \u0412\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d. \u041c\u0413\u0423. \u0421\u0435\u0440. 17. \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 1983. \u2116\u00a01. \u0421. 3-8.\n \u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0413. \u0412. \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439\u0441\u044f \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433 // \u0412\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d. \u041c\u0413\u0423. \u0421\u0435\u0440. 17. \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 1996. \u2116\u00a03. \u0421. 3-8.\n \u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0413. \u0412. \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 1996. \u2116\u00a02. \u0421. 117\u2014123.\n \u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0413. \u0412. \u0421\u043b\u0435\u0434 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0430: (\u041a 150-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0441\u043e \u0434\u043d\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430) // \u0412\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d. \u0420\u0410\u041d. 1996. \u2116\u00a02. \u0421. 153\u2014158.\n \u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0413. \u0412. \u042f\u0437\u044b\u043a \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043e\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0448\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0442\u044b \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0437\u0437\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430 // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 2007. \u2116\u00a09. \u0421. 1129\u20141138.\n \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432: [\u0421\u0431. \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0439]. \u0421\u041f\u0431.: \u0418\u0437\u0434-\u0432\u043e \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d. \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435, 1904. 123 \u0441.\n \u0414\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0410. \u0410. \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 // \u041e\u0442\u0447\u0451\u0442 \u0420\u0413\u041e \u0437\u0430 1903\u00a0\u0433. \u0421\u041f\u0431.: \u0442\u0438\u043f. \u041c. \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0441\u044e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447\u0430, 1904. \u0421. 7-8.\n \u0414\u0438\u043c\u043e \u041d. \u0410. \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0448\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044b // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 1946. \u2116\u00a06. \u0421. 377\u2014378.\n \u0415\u0444\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u042e. \u041a. \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0433\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444 // \u041e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043a\u043e-\u0433\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u044b \u0438 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0435\u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438. \u041c.: \u0423\u0447\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0433\u0438\u0437. 1959. \u0421. 450\u2014452.\n \u0417\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0448\u0438\u043d \u0410. \u0410. \u0423\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u043e \u0444\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e-\u0433\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0432 // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 1958. \u2116\u00a09. \u0421. 39-47.\n \u0417\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0421. \u0410. \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 1939. \u2116\u00a01. \u0421. 43-50.\n \u0417\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0421. \u0410. \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0438 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0438 \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 1946. \u2116\u00a06. \u0421. 361\u2014365.\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u044f\u0442\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u041f. \u0410. \u041e \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 // \u041e\u0442\u0447\u0451\u0442 \u043e \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0421\u041f\u0431. \u0443\u043d-\u0442\u0430 \u0437\u0430 1903\u00a0\u0433. \u0421\u041f\u0431., \u0442\u0438\u043f. \u0411. \u0412\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0444\u0430. 1904. \u0421. 12-17.\n \u0417\u0435\u043c\u044f\u0442\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u041f. \u0410. \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c: \u041f\u043e \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 1939. \u2116\u00a02. \u0421. 9-13.\n \u0417\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0438\u0434\u0435\u0439 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0431\u043e\u0440\u044c\u0431\u044b \u0441 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u0443\u0445\u043e\u0439 \u0438 \u044d\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u0432 \u043b\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420. \u041c.: \u0418\u0437\u0434-\u0432\u043e \u0410\u041d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420, 1955. 183 \u0441.\n \u0417\u043e\u043d\u043d \u0421. \u0412. \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432. \u041c.: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430, 1991. 221 \u0441. (\u041d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u0431\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u044f).\n \u0418\u0437 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0438 \u0412.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u0412\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e // \u041d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e. \u0422. 2. \u041c.: \u0418\u0437\u0434-\u0432\u043e \u0410\u041d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420, 1951. \u0421. 761\u2014855.\n \u0418\u0437 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0438 \u0410.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u0418\u0437\u043c\u0430\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e // \u0422\u0430\u043c \u0436\u0435. \u0421. 859\u20141026.\n \u0418\u043c\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0434\u0437\u0435 \u0412. \u041a. \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0443\u0447\u0451\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u0438 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0432 \u0413\u0440\u0443\u0437\u0438\u0438. \u0422\u0431\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0438: \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0434\u0430 \u0448\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430, 1955. 70 \u0441.\n \u041a\u0432\u0430\u0441\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0412. \u0412. \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432: \u041e\u0447\u0435\u0440\u043a \u043e \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0438 \u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438. \u0412\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0436: \u041e\u0431\u043b. \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442., 1951. 60 \u0441.\n \u041a\u0438\u0440\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0413. \u0424. \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432. 1846\u20141903. \u041c.: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430, 1966. 291 \u0441. (\u041d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u0431\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u0440.).\n \u041a\u0440\u0438\u0448\u0442\u0430\u0444\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u041d. \u0418. \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0433\u0435\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433 // \u0415\u0436\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a \u043f\u043e \u0433\u0435\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438. 1905. \u0422. 7. \u0412\u044b\u043f. 1. \u0421. 16-22.\n \u041a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0418. \u0410. \u041c\u0430\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 2002. \u2116\u00a09. \u0421. 1034\u20141042.\n \u041a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0418. \u0410., \u041a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u041b. \u0410. \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432. 1846\u20141903. \u041c.: \u041c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u044f, 1949. 288 \u0441. (\u0416\u0417\u041b).\n \u041a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0418. \u0410., \u041a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u041b. \u0410. \u041f\u0443\u0442\u0435\u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430. \u041c.: \u0413\u043e\u0441\u0433\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0433\u0438\u0437, 1949. 126 \u0441. (\u0421\u0435\u0440. \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0435\u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438).\n \u041a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0418. \u0410., \u041a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u041b. \u0410. \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432. \u041c.: \u0421\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0445\u043e\u0437\u0433\u0438\u0437, 1950. 192 c.\n \u041a\u0443\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0446\u043e\u0432 \u041f. \u0421. \u0423\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043e \u0437\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044b: (\u041a 50-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u043e \u0437\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044b) // \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430. 1948. \u2116\u00a09. \u0421. 77-79.\n \u041a\u0443\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0446\u043e\u0432 \u041f. \u0421. \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0433\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444 // \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430. 1950. \u2116\u00a09. \u0421. 73-76.\n \u041a\u0443\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0446\u043e\u0432 \u041f. \u0421. \u0415\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0436\u0435 XIX \u0438 XX \u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 // \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430. 1951. \u2116\u00a08. \u0421. 55-59.\n \u041a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u043f\u0438\u043d \u042d. \u0421. \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0430 \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e-\u043a\u043e\u0441\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0430: \u0441\u0443\u0434\u044c\u0431\u0430 \u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u0441\u0443\u0434\u044c\u0431\u044b \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 // \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e: \u041d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0440\u0444\u043e\u0437. \u041c.: \u0418\u0410\u0426 \u042d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u044f, 2010. \u0421. 167\u2014183.\n \u041b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043e\u043d-\u041b\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u043d\u0433 \u0424. \u042e. \u0416\u0438\u0437\u043d\u044c \u0438 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 // \u0422\u0440. \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432. \u0438\u043d-\u0442\u0430 \u0410\u041d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420. 1927. \u0412\u044b\u043f. 2. \u0421. 289\u2014300.\n \u041b\u044b\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e \u041c. \u041f. \u0417\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u0438\u0434\u0435\u0439 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f // \u0412\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d. \u041b\u0413\u0423. \u0421\u0435\u0440. \u0431\u0438\u043e\u043b., \u0433\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440. \u0438 \u0433\u0435\u043e\u043b. 1955. \u2116\u00a07. \u0412\u044b\u043f. 3. \u0421. 111\u2014122.\n \u041b\u044b\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e \u041c. \u041f. \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u0438 \u043b\u0451\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0430 // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435.\u00a0\u2014 1956.\u00a0\u2014 \u2116\u00a07.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 59\u201467.\n \u041c\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0418. \u0418. \u041d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043e \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435 // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 1903. \u2116\u00a04. \u0421. 427\u2014430.\n \u041c\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0437\u043e\u0432 \u0413. \u0424. \u0417\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043b\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 // \u0422\u0430\u043c \u0436\u0435. \u0421. 415\u2014421.\n \u041d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0435 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430: \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u0434\u0435\u0439 (\u043a 170-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0441\u043e \u0434\u043d\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f): \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0440: [\u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430. 30-31 \u043c\u0430\u044f 2016\u00a0\u0433.]: \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044b. \u041c.: \u0410\u043a\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u044a, 2017. 348 c. (\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a \u043e \u0417\u0435\u043c\u043b\u0435; \u0412\u044b\u043f. 6).\n \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0414. \u0410. \u041d\u0438\u0436\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0438 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 // \u0420\u043e\u0441. \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447. \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b. 2000. \u2116\u00a02. \u0421. 25-29.\n \u041e \u0433\u0435\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u0445 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0432 \u044e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0421\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0438 // \u0422\u0440. \u0421\u041f\u0431. \u043e\u0431-\u0432\u0430 \u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0438\u0441\u043f. 1877. T. 8. \u041e\u0442\u0434. \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b. \u0438 \u0433\u0435\u043e\u043b. \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043a. \u0421. 43-44.\n \u041e\u0442\u043e\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u041f. \u0412. \u0416\u0438\u0437\u043d\u044c \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 1903. \u2116\u00a04. \u0421. 319\u2014342; \u0422\u043e \u0436\u0435 // \u0422\u0440. \u0412\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d. \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c. \u043e\u0431-\u0432\u0430. 1904. \u2116\u00a01/2. \u0421. 53-71.\n \u041f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444. \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430. \u0421\u041f\u0431.: \u0442\u0438\u043f. \u0421\u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430, 1904. [5], 61 c. [\u041a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043e\u043a \u043b\u044e\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0437\u043d., \u0441.-\u0445. \u0438 \u043b\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e-\u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0438\u043d-\u0442\u0435].\n \u041f\u0430\u0432\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0410. \u041f. \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0433\u0435\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433 // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 1903. \u2116\u00a04. \u0421. 390\u2014413.\n \u041f\u043e\u043b\u044b\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0411. \u0411. \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u0438 \u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 // \u0418\u0437\u0432. \u0410\u041d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420. \u0421\u0435\u0440. \u0433\u0435\u043e\u043b. 1947. \u2116\u00a01. \u0421. 105\u2014113.\n \u041f\u043e\u043b\u044b\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0411. \u0411., \u041a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0418. \u0410., \u041a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u041b. \u0410. \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432: \u041e\u0447\u0435\u0440\u043a \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0438 \u0438 \u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 . \u041c.: \u0418\u0437\u0434-\u0432\u043e \u0410\u041d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420, 1956. 278 c.\n \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u041b. \u0418. \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u044c \u0438 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 1946. \u2116\u00a06. \u0421. 333\u2014340.\n \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u041b. \u0418. \u0418\u0437 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043e \u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0445 \u0441 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u044b\u043c, \u041d.\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u0421\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0446\u0435\u0432\u044b\u043c \u0438 \u0412.\u00a0\u0420.\u00a0\u0412\u0438\u043b\u044c\u044f\u043c\u0441\u043e\u043c // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 1950. \u2116\u00a07. \u0421. 389\u2014393.\n \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0437\u0435\u043c\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u0442\u043e \u043b\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 / \u0420\u0435\u0434. \u0412.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u041a\u043e\u0432\u0434\u0430, \u0415.\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u0421\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0439\u043b\u043e\u0432. \u041c.: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430, 1983. 302 c.\n \u0420\u0443\u0431\u0446\u043e\u0432 \u041d. \u0418. \u0412\u043b\u0438\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u0434\u0435\u0439 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u0435\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438: (\u041a 100-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0441\u043e \u0434\u043d\u044f \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f) // \u0412\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d. \u0410\u041d \u041a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445. \u0421\u0421\u0420. 1946. \u2116\u00a011. \u0421. 35-38.\n \u041a 150-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0441\u043e \u0434\u043d\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430. \u0421\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0442-\u041f\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442. 1996. \u2116\u00a016. (3421). 33 \u0441.\n \u0421\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043e \u0434\u043d\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 // \u0418\u0437\u0432. \u0410\u041d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420. \u0421\u0435\u0440. \u0433\u0435\u043e\u043b. 1947. \u2116\u00a02. C. 161\u2014162.\n \u0421\u043a\u0440\u044b\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0418. \u041d. \u041e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0435 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0438 \u0412.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u0412\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e // \u041d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e. \u0422. 2. \u041c.: \u0418\u0437\u0434-\u0432\u043e \u0410\u041d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420, 1951. \u0421. 745\u2014760.\n \u0421\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0432-\u041b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0412. \u041f. \u041f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u0438 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 // \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 1939. \u2116\u00a01. \u0421. 51-53.\n \u0421\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432 \u0421. \u0421. \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 // \u041a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442.-\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442. \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430. 1948. \u0421. 18-21.\n \u0421\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u041d. \u041d. \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0433\u0435\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433 \u0438 \u0433\u0435\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0440\u0444\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433 // \u0421\u0431. \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442 \u0426\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440. \u043c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438\u043c. \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430. \u0412\u044b\u043f. 1. \u041c.; \u041b.: \u0418\u0437\u0434-\u0432\u043e \u0410\u041d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420, 1954. \u0421. 70-99.\n \u0421\u043e\u0447\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u0412. \u0411. \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u0438 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0435\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430: \u041a \u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044e \u0441\u043e \u0434\u043d\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0430 // \u0421\u043e\u0432. \u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430. 1946. \u0422. 14. \u2116\u00a02. \u0421. 73-78\n \u0421\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0421. \u0421. \u0412.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0432 \u0438 \u0433\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f // \u0418\u0437\u0432. \u0420\u0413\u041e. 1947. \u0422. 79. \u0412\u044b\u043f. 2. \u0421. 127\u2014136.\n", "\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044b:\n \u043f\u0433\u0442 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u041a\u0440\u044b\u043c\u00a0\u2014 \u0411\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0431\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u043b \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e 70\u00a0% \u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e, \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0434\u0430\u0442),\n \u043f\u0433\u0442 \u0421\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0430\u0445\u0441\u043c\u0430, \u0421\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0430\u043d \u0413\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432), \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u0421\u043a\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u044c (\u043e\u0442 \u041a\u041f\u0423), \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0436\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0430, \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u041a\u0438\u0440\u044c\u044f\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0435 \u0431\u0430\u043b\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f,\n \u043f\u0433\u0442 \u0422\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0439 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u0432\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044c), \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 5 \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0436\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0430, \u0413\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e \u043d\u0435 \u0431\u0430\u043b\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f.\n \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 76 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0445 (\u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u041a\u0440\u044b\u043c, \u0421\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430, \u0422\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430)\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e 30 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432.\n \u0432 \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u0434\u0435\u043f\u0443\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u043b\u043e \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0435 123 303 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 \u0438\u0437 344 721 \u043f\u043e \u0441\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0430\u043c (\u044f\u0432\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 35,77\u00a0%). \u041f\u043e \u043c\u0430\u0436\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0438 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 (\u0432\u0441\u0435 38 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442). \u041f\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043c \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0438\u0437\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0435 \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0438:\n \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 (65 032 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432, \u0438\u043b\u0438 52,74\u00a0%): 26 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432 (+ 38\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e \u043c\u0430\u0436\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\u043c, \u0438\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e 64 \u0438\u0437 76)\n \u041a\u041f\u0423 (10 709, \u0438\u043b\u0438 8,68\u00a0%): 4 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0430\n \u00ab\u0424\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0442 \u0437\u043c\u0438\u043d\u00bb (10 174, \u0438\u043b\u0438 8,25\u00a0%): 4 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0430\n \u00ab\u0421\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0430\u00bb (4 736, \u0438\u043b\u0438 3,84\u00a0%): 2 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0430\n \u0421\u041f\u0423 (4 461, \u0438\u043b\u0438 3,62\u00a0%): 2 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0430\n \u043d\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438:\n \u0411\u0430\u0442\u044c\u043a\u0456\u0432\u0449\u0438\u043d\u0430 (3 613, \u0438\u043b\u0438 2,93\u00a0%)\n \u041a\u041f\u0423 (\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f) (3 531, \u0438\u043b\u0438 2,86\u00a0%)\n \u0421\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b-\u0434\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u044b (1 522, \u0438\u043b\u0438 1,23\u00a0%)\n \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 (11 516, \u0438\u043b\u0438 9,34\u00a0%)\n\n\u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430 \n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0410\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e (2 546 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432, \u0438\u043b\u0438 43,69\u00a0%, \u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e).\n \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u043b\u043e \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0435 5 828 \u0438\u0437\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0437 12 201 \u043f\u043e \u0441\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0430\u043c (\u044f\u0432\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 47,77\u00a0%).\n \u0431\u043b\u0438\u0436\u0430\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d \u041c\u0443\u0441\u0435\u0439\u043a\u043e (1 993 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u0430, \u0438\u043b\u0438 34,20\u00a0%, \u043e\u0442 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u0417\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u041e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u00bb), \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0418\u043b\u044c\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e (648 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432, \u0438\u043b\u0438 11,12\u00a0%), \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445\u00a0\u2014 409 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432, \u0438\u043b\u0438 7,02\u00a0%.\n \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 36 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u0421\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432\u043e \n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0420\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0432 (38,6\u00a0%, \u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0421\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432\u043e \u0434\u043e 2006\u00a0\u0433.)\n \u0431\u043b\u0438\u0436\u0430\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u0415\u0432\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0411\u043e\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e (37,3, \u043e\u0442 \u00ab\u0415\u0434\u0438\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u00bb), \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u041b\u0430\u0442\u044b\u043d\u0438\u043d, \u041b\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u041b\u0438\u043e\u043d\u044f\u0435\u0432\u0430.\n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043d\u044f\u043a\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u0440\u0445\u0438\u043f\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e, \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u0413\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e.\n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0440, \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432.\n \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 36 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445 \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043d\u044f\u043a \u0438 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a \u043f\u043e 30 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u0432 \u043f\u0433\u0442 \u041a\u0443\u0440\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 20, \u0432 \u043f\u0433\u0442 \u0426\u0443\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0438\u043d\u043e\u00a0\u2014 16 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u0421\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a \n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0428\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0430 \u041d\u0435\u043b\u044f \u0418\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0430 (\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e 60\u00a0%, \u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0431\u043b\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0444\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0430 \u00ab\u0421\u043f\u0435\u0448\u0438\u0442\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0434\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u00bb).\n \u041e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e \u0438\u0437\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0421\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 91 306, \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u043a\u0438\u00a0\u2014 11 117, \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 2 777 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a. \u042f\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0421\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0443\u00a0\u2014 31,4\u00a0% (\u043d\u0430\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044c\u0448\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438).\n \u0431\u043b\u0438\u0436\u0430\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u0412\u0438\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e (8\u00a0%, \u043e\u0442 \u041d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438), \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u044e\u0433\u0438\u043d (6\u00a0%, \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0417\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u044b\u0445), \u041e\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u041d\u0435\u0447\u0438\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e (2\u00a0%, \u0412\u041e \u00ab\u0421\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb), \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0435\u0439 \u041f\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0440 (2\u00a0%, \u00ab\u0415\u0434\u0438\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u00bb).\n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u043e\u0445\u0438\u0434\u043d\u044f, \u0413\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u043e\u0442 \u041d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438), \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u0437\u044e\u0431\u0430, \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e).\n \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 60 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 30 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u00a0\u2014 26 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432.\n \u043f\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043c \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0438\u0437\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0435 \u0432 \u0421\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0438:\n \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 (45,7\u00a0%),\n \u041a\u041f\u0423 (11,5\u00a0%),\n \u041f\u0421\u041f\u0423 (4,84\u00a0%),\n \u0421\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0430 (6,06\u00a0%),\n \u00ab\u0424\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0442 \u0437\u043c\u0438\u043d\u00bb (3,35\u00a0%),\n \u00ab\u0414\u0435\u0442\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b\u00bb \u041d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f (3,3\u00a0%).\n\n\u0421\u043d\u0435\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0435 \n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u043e\u0442 \u041d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438, \u0431\u044b\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u2116\u00a04 \u0410\u041e\u0417\u0422 \u00ab\u0410\u0433\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0436\u00bb)\n \u0431\u043b\u0438\u0436\u0430\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u0427\u0435\u043f\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0421\u0435\u043c\u0451\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u044b\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u0430\u0434\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u043d\u0430\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043b \u043d\u0430 2 000 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u044c\u0448\u0435), \u041b\u0438\u0441\u0438\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0439\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u043e\u0442 \u00ab\u041d\u0430\u0448\u0430 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0430\u00bb).\n \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 38 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u0432 \u043f\u0433\u0442 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0435\u00a0\u2014 30 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u0433\u0442 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u2014 20, \u0432 \u043f\u0433\u0442 \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0435\u0435\u0432\u043a\u0430, \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043d\u044f\u0446\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0438 \u0417\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e 16 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432.\n \u043f\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043c \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0438\u0437\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0435 \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0438:\n \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 (8 945 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432, \u0438\u043b\u0438 47\u00a0%): 11 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432\n \u041d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f (3 278, \u0438\u043b\u0438 17,3\u00a0%): 4 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0430\n \u041a\u041f\u0423 (1 778, \u0438\u043b\u0438 9,4\u00a0%): 2 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0430\n \u0421\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0430 (1 110, \u0438\u043b\u0438 5,8\u00a0%): 1 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\n \u0421\u041f\u0423 (699, \u0438\u043b\u0438 3,7\u00a0%): 1 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\n \u043d\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442:\n \u041f\u0421\u041f\u0423 (308, \u0438\u043b\u0438 1,6\u00a0%),\n \u00ab\u0424\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0442 \u0437\u043c\u0456\u043d\u00bb (275, \u0438\u043b\u0438 1,4\u00a0%),\n \u00ab\u041d\u0430\u0448\u0430 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0430\u00bb (148, \u0438\u043b\u0438 0,8\u00a0%),\n \u00ab\u041d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430\u00bb (144, \u0438\u043b\u0438 0,8\u00a0%),\n \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u043b\u043e\u043a (134, \u0438\u043b\u0438 0,7\u00a0%),\n \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445\u00a0\u2014 1 582 (8,3\u00a0%).\n\n\u0425\u0430\u0440\u0446\u044b\u0437\u0441\u043a \n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0417\u0443\u0433\u0440\u044d\u0441\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e, \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0439 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432.\n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0418\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440, \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0439 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u0428\u0430\u0445\u0442\u0451\u0440\u0441\u043a \n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043c\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432).\n \u044f\u0432\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 51\u00a0% (\u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438).\n \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 50 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u0432 \u043f\u0433\u0442 \u0421\u0442\u043e\u0436\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435\u00a0\u2014 20 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u0432 \u043f\u0433\u0442 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0438 \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e 16.\n\n\u042f\u0441\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0430\u044f \n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e (41,5\u00a0%, \u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u0438.\u00a0\u043e. \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u044b \u0441 2010 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430)\n \u0431\u043b\u0438\u0436\u0430\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0438\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e (\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e 22\u00a0%, \u043e\u0442 \u0421\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u044b)\n \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u044b\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 (\u0441 2006 \u043f\u043e 2010 \u0433\u043e\u0434), \u0415\u0432\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0418\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e-\u0413\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0435\u0440, \u0431\u0430\u043b\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439\u0441\u044f \u043e\u0442 \u0421\u041f\u0423, \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0441\u043d\u044f\u0442 \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432.\n \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 36 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d \n \u044f\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0445\u00a0\u2014 66\u00a0%.\n \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0433\u0442 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0435\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u0410\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0413\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\n \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 32 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, 30 \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445 (93,8\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, 2 (6,2\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u041f\u0423.\n\n\u0410\u043c\u0432\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d \n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0410\u043c\u0432\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0435\u0432\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u043a\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0418\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (3 612 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432, \u0438\u043b\u0438 48,01\u00a0%), \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 (\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e).\n \u0431\u043b\u0438\u0436\u0430\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0439\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (1 771 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441, \u0438\u043b\u0438 23,54\u00a0%), \u041c\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e \u0418\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (975 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432, \u0438\u043b\u0438 12,26\u00a0%). \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 945 \u0438\u0437\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 (12,56\u00a0%).\n \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 36 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, 33 \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445 (91,7\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, 3 (8,3\u00a0%)- \u041a\u041f\u0423.\n \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0410\u043c\u0432\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0435\u0432\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 30 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u0411\u0430\u0445\u043c\u0443\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d \n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u00a0\u2014 \u0413\u0443\u0440\u0430, \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (1 680 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432, \u0438\u043b\u0438 47,63\u00a0%). (\u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e).\n \u0431\u043b\u0438\u0436\u0430\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0413\u0430\u0442\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e (913 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432, \u0438\u043b\u0438 25,89\u00a0%), \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0435\u0439 \u0414\u0440\u0430\u0433\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0431\u043e\u0432 (222 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u0430, \u0438\u043b\u0438 6,29\u00a0%), \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0439 \u0422\u043a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e (201 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441, \u0438\u043b\u0438 5,7\u00a0%), \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u0413\u0430\u0442\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e (71 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441, \u0438\u043b\u0438 2,01\u00a0%). \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445\u00a0\u2014 11,11\u00a0%. \u042f\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u0438\u0437\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439\u00a0\u2014 3527 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a 40\u00a0%.\n \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 52 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, 48 \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445 (92,3\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u043e 2 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0430 (3,8\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0442 \u041a\u041f\u0423 \u0438 \u0411\u0430\u0442\u044c\u043a\u0456\u0432\u0449\u0438\u043d\u0430.\n \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u00a0\u2014 30 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432.\n \u041f\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043c \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0438\u0437\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0435 \u0432 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0438:\n\u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, (2 016 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432, 57,16\u00a0%): 11 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432 (+ 12\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e \u043c\u0430\u0436\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\u043c, \u0438\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e 23 \u0438\u0437 30),\n\u041a\u041f\u0423 (429 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432, 12,16\u00a0%): 2 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0430 (+ 2\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e \u043c\u0430\u0436\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\u043c),\n\u0415\u0434\u0438\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0426\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440 (293 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u0430, 8,31\u00a0%): 2 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0430 (+ 1\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e \u043c\u0430\u0436\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0443).\n\n\u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0451\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d \n \u044f\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0445\u00a0\u2014 74,91\u00a0% (\u043c\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438).\n \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0433\u0442 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u044f \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0451\u043b\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u044e\u0440\u0438\u043d, \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0439 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 (\u0431\u044b\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0438\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u041e\u0428 \u2116\u00a02)\n \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 34 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445 30 (88,2\u00a0%) \u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, 4 (11,8\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u041f\u0423.\n\n\u0412\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0445\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d \n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0412\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0445\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u0435\u043c\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e, \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0439 \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (\u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e, \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u044b \u043f\u043e \u0433\u0438\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0443, \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b-\u043c\u0430\u0439\u043e\u0440 \u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0447\u044c\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u044f).\n \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 68 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, 56 (82,4\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, 5 (7,4\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u041f\u0423, 3 (4,4\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0424\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0442 \u0437\u043c\u0456\u043d\u00bb, \u043f\u043e 2 (2,9\u00a0%) \u043e\u0442 \u0410\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u044b \u0438 \u00ab\u0421\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0430\u00bb.\n \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0412\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0445\u0430\u00a0\u2014 36.\n\n\u0412\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d \n \u044f\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0445\u00a0\u2014 65,14\u00a0%.\n 10 \u0441\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432 \u0430\u0434\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0437 11\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 (\u041a\u0430\u0441\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0439).\n \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0433\u0442 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0430\u0439\u0448\u043c\u0430\u0437, \u0424\u0451\u0434\u043e\u0440 \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447, \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u0411\u043e\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u0427\u0435\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0445\u0447\u0438, \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u043b \u0421\u0435\u043c\u0451\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447, \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u0420\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e, \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447, \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u043e\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c\u00a0\u2014 \u0411\u0430\u0445\u0447\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0439, \u0415\u0432\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0424\u0451\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0430, \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u0417\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u042f\u0440\u00a0\u2014 \u042e\u0437\u0432\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0439 \u0412\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447, \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u0417\u0430\u0440\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0430\u043f\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e \u041d\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0430 \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0430, \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u041a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0447\u0438\u043a\u00a0\u2014 \u0420\u044b\u0431\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u041d\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0430 \u0410\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0430, \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u041a\u0430\u0441\u044c\u044f\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u0432\u0434\u0436\u0438 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0412\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447, \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0411\u0435\u0437\u043b\u044e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0439 \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447, \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u00a0\u2014 \u0416\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0435\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447, \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u0422\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u0413\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0413\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447.\n \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 44 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0430.\n \u043f\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043c \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0438\u0437\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0435 \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0438:\n \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 (95,5\u00a0%): 42 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0430,\n \u041a\u041f\u0423: 2 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442 (4,5\u00a0%).\n \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u044b (\u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u2014 198) \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0438\u043c\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u2014 173 (87\u00a0%), \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0446\u044b\u00a0\u2014 16 (8\u00a0%), \u041a\u041f\u0423\u00a0\u2014 9 (5\u00a0%). \u0412 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u043e\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0441\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0445 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u043f\u0443\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432. \u0412 \u0412\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0431\u043b\u044e\u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043c\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0430 \u044e\u0433\u0435 \u0414\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0446\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438.\n\n\u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d \n \u044f\u0432\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e 60\u00a0%\n \u0438\u0437 11 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0447\u0435\u0442\u044b\u0440\u0451\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0438 \u043a\u0430\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\n \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0433\u0442 \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0438\u043d (\u0441\u0430\u043c\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u0414\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0446\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u00a0\u2014 24 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430)\n \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 44 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0430.\n \u043f\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043c \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0438\u0437\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0435 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0438:\n \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u2014 35 (79,5\u00a0%),\n \u041a\u041f\u0423\u00a0\u2014 4 (9,1\u00a0%),\n \u00ab\u0421\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0430\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 2 (4,5\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0443 \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0435,\n \u00ab\u0411\u0430\u0442\u044c\u043a\u0456\u0432\u0449\u0438\u043d\u0430\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 2 (4,5\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0443 \u0441\u0451\u043b \u0412\u0435\u0441\u0451\u043b\u043e\u0435 \u041f\u043e\u043b\u0435, \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435\n \u00ab\u0415\u0434\u0438\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 1 (2,3\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u043e \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0443 \u0441\u0451\u043b \u041a\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0430, \u041b\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043d, \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435.\n\n\u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d \n \u044f\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0445\u00a0\u2014 67,76\u00a0%.\n \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 40 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, 36 \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445 (90\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, 4 (10\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u041f\u0423.\n\n\u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0430\u0440\u043c\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d \n \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e 40 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, 35 \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445 (87,5\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, 5 (12,5\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u041f\u0423.\n\n\u041c\u0430\u0440\u044c\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d \n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u044c\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e, \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0430 (66\u00a0%, \u0432\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044c, \u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0430\u044f \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0441\u043e\u043c). \u042f\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u00a0\u2014 55,6\u00a0%.\n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0435\u0433\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f, \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0439 \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e.\n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041a\u0443\u0440\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0432\u043e\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0430\u0436\u043a\u043e, \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0439 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u043e\u0442 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432.\n \u0431\u043b\u0438\u0436\u0430\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0435 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80 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, 73 \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0438\u0445 (91,7\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0420\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432, 5 (6,3\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u041f\u0423, 2 (2,5\u00a0%)\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f (\u043f\u043e \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0443 \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0439\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430).\n \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u044c\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 30 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445 \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u041a\u0443\u0440\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0432\u043e \u043f\u043e 36 \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d \n \u044f\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0445\u00a0\u2014 51,6\u00a0% (\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430 \u0438\u0437 \u043d\u0430\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044c\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438).\n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e, \u041e\u043b\u0435\u0433 \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (36,6\u00a0%, \u043e\u0442 \u0421\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430", "\u0451\u0432\u044b\u043c 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10-\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0420\u041a\u041a\u0410, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0448\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u044b \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0438 \u0432\u0434\u043e\u0445\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0410\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0435\u0451 \u0442\u044f\u0436\u0451\u043b\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u043e\u0440\u044c\u0431\u0435 \u0441 \u0432\u0440\u0430\u0433\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0430\u0442\u0430\n\n\u0421\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f \n\u0411\u0440\u0430\u0442 \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d, \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u0440\u0430\u0447\u043e\u043c, \u0438 \u0441\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u041a\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0434\u0438\u044f, \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0430\u044f 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\u041f\u043e\u0441\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043d\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0432 1957 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443.\n\n\u0414\u043e\u0447\u044c\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0435\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0430 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0438-\u0420\u044b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 (22 \u0430\u0432\u0433\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430 1916\u00a0\u2014 9 \u044f\u043d\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044f 2010), \u0432 1939, 1946 \u0438 1950 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u0443\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u041e\u0421\u041e. 18 \u043b\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u0432 \u043b\u0430\u0433\u0435\u0440\u044f\u0445 \u0438 \u0441\u0441\u044b\u043b\u043a\u0435, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0443\u0436 \u0437\u0430 \u0441\u0441\u044b\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044d\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0430 \u0412. \u041f\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0438, \u0443\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0432 1961\u00a0\u0433. \u0420\u0435\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0432 1956\u00a0\u0433. \u0414\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0439 \u043d\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e. \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u041d\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0438 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0435\u0435\u0432\u043d\u044b \u0437\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d \u043d\u0430 \u0414\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0431\u0438\u0449\u0435.\n\n\u041d\u044b\u043d\u0435\u0448\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445 \u041a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434 \u0438 \u0411\u0438\u0448\u043a\u0435\u043a.\n\n\u0421\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0420\u044b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043c \u0437\u0430 \u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0411. \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u043c (1899\u20141938).\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0432 \u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0420\u044b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 \n\n \u0412 \u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0410.\u00a0\u0418.\u00a0\u0420\u044b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u044b: \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0415\u043d\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0435\u0432\u043e \u0414\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0446\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 (\u0432", "19. Howdy Wilcox won, accompanied by riding mechanic Leo Banks. More than half the field (19 of 33 cars) consisted of rookie drivers, tied for the most ever, excluding the inaugural race where all 40 cars were considered \"rookies.\" Ralph DePalma, the 1915 winner, and the driver who suffered a defeat in 1912, again put in a strong performance. DePalma led 93 of the first 102 laps, and drove the first half at record-breaking speed. Tire problems, however, necessitated a long pit stop, and DePalma finished in 6th place.\n\nRain was a factor during practice, limiting available track time in the days immediately leading up to time trials. Since most teams did not arrive until later in the month, some cars had very limited preparation time. Qualifying was supposed to be held on just one day, but officials decided to add two additional days due to the lost track time.\n\nThe first half of the race was marred by three fatalities. Driver Arthur Thurman died in a crash on lap 45. On lap 96, Louis LeCocq and his riding mechanic Robert Bandini wrecked in turn two, and both were burned to death.\n\nRace background\nOver two years had gone by since the last competitive events had been held at the Speedway. The 1916 race was followed by the Harvest Auto Racing Classic, at which point the track was closed due to the escalation of World War I. When the Armistice was signed in November 1918, the Speedway management was anxious to begin planning for the resumption of the 500-mile race for 1919. Some early rumors circulated that the race may change dates to July 4, or even expand to 1,000 miles. These rumors were briefly entertained when the AAA Contest Board announced that both May 30 and July 4 were being set aside on the calendar for the event.\n\nOn December 6, 1918, Speedway business manager T.E. \"Pop\" Myers announced that the 1919 Indianapolis 500 would be scheduled for Friday, May 30. It was decided to keep the traditional date, and likewise return the race to a distance of 500 miles. The 1916 race had been scheduled for 300 miles (a decision that management later mostly regretted), the only such time which the race was scheduled for less than 500 miles. AAA would return as the sanctioning body. An editorial the following day in the Indianapolis News, however, sharply criticized the choice of Memorial Day. It was going to be the first \"Decoration Day\" holiday following the end of the \"Great War\", and they believed that the holiday should be left alone to properly honor the many thousands of war casualties. About a week later, Speedway management announced that they would change the date to Saturday May 31. The race was deliberately moved off Memorial Day (Friday May 30) and pushed to Saturday so as not to detract from the holiday.\n\nThe race was given a new name for 1919, the Liberty Sweepstakes as a gesture to the peacetime brought on by victory and the end of the war. The new title was used for only one year. Without hesitation, Cliff Durant submitted the first entry on December 16.\n\nRace schedule\n\nPractice\nThe deadline for entries to be submitted was midnight on Thursday May 1. A total of 43 cars were entered, including three entries by the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. The AAA Contest Board confirmed that the maximum starting field rule of 33 cars would apply.\n\nThursday May 1: Omar Toft arrived in Indianapolis after a nine-day drive from Los Angeles. He arrived in just enough time to deliver his entry to the Speedway headquarters. Three other last-minute entries also arrived.\nFriday May 2: Jean Chassagne arrived in town from Wolverhampton, England along with his chief mechanic Thomas Harrison.\nSaturday May 3: Howdy Wilcox was seen perusing the track, in search of a ride. He was rumored to be in line to drive one of the I.M.S. entries.\nSunday May 4: Jean Chassagne made his first visit to the Speedway. The Sunbeam cars of Chassagne and Dario Resta had reportedly arrived in New York from England. The cars were expected to arrive at the Speedway soon.\nMonday May 5: The Sunbeam cars of Chassagne and Resta arrived in Indianapolis. They were immediately being unpacked and readied for testing on the Speedway.\nTuesday May 6: Howdy Wilcox became the first driver to take to the track for the month. Wilcox drove one of the I.M.S. Premier entries for several laps over 100\u00a0mph. Among those on hand to observe were Arthur Chevrolet, Jules Goux, and Jean Chassagne. Goux's car was being overhauled, while Chassagne's car was expected to arrive at any time.\nWednesday May 7: Eddie Rickenbacker was named the honorary referee.\nThursday May 8: The 1916 winner and 1916 National Champion Dario Resta arrived at the Speedway for the Sunbeam entry. He was expected to take the track for preparation soon. Much fanfare was being made that four former winners (Resta, Ren\u00e9 Thomas, Ralph DePalma, Jules Goux) were expected to attempt to qualify.\n\nFriday May 9: As the first full week of track availability was coming to an end, still only two non-local teams had arrived at the Speedway. The Ballot team out of France, and the Sunbeam team out of England. Poised to be spirited rivals, both were at the track with their full complement of drivers. The only Americans at the track thus far were Howdy Wilcox, and Elmer T. Shannon.\nSaturday May 10: Visiting the Speedway was Barney Oldfield, in town for his tire company. Oldfield was planning to return later in the month to start his preparations.\nSunday May 11: No track activity on Sunday. The prevailing topics of discussion for the week focused on the number of foreign entries and foreign drivers vying for the field.\nMonday May 12: Greek driver George Buzane was mentioned as a possible driver for one of the I.M.S. Premier entries. Louis Wagner and Eddie Pullen were among drivers mentioned as possible qualifiers.\nTuesday May 13: Dario Resta took practice laps for the first time during the month. Carl G. Fisher and James A. Allison were among those watching in attendance. J. J. McCoy arrived at the track, and was expected to start taking laps as soon as his McCoy Special was unpacked. With the prestigious French Grand Prix still not yet revived after the war, Indianapolis was being ranked as the biggest motor race of the year.\nWednesday May 14: Predictions were being made of record speeds during the race.\nThursday May 15: Dario Resta was practicing his Ballot entry, but nearly crashed. The shock absorbers were not affixed properly, and when the car hit a bump in turn one, it became airborne. The car jumped a foot off the ground, but Resta was able to slow the car down and keep it from crashing over the embankment. Resta and his crew made repairs, and he was soon back out on the track running several hot laps. Art Klein, Arthur Thurman, and J. M. Reynolds arrived at the Speedway. The expectations were that practice would begin to pick up by Saturday and Sunday.\nFriday May 16: Of discussion was the budding rivalry between the American and European entries. The 7th 500 would be the \"rubber match\" between the two factions, each of whom had won the race three times apiece.\nSaturday May 17: Rene Thomas was clocked with a lap of 1 minute and 32 seconds, for an average speed of 97\u00a0mph. Louis Disbrow took the Detroit Special for a few laps around the track.\nSunday May 18: More drivers arrived from Europe, including Andr\u00e9 Boillot, Paul Bablot, and Louis Wagner. Also arriving in town was Ralph DePalma. The track was open for practice, but closed to the public on Sunday. About four or five cars took to the track including Dario Resta and Jean Chassagne in the Sunbeam cars. Resta took some hot laps, while Chassagne took his time. Rene Thomas in the Ballot was observed opening up the throttle down the backstretch, but \"loafing\" in the turns. George Buzane took some hot laps in one of the I.M.S. Premiers late Sunday afternoon, leading some to think he may attempt to qualify.\nMonday May 19: Howdy Wilcox was officially named to an I.M.S. entry as a teammate to Jules Goux. The Indianapolis Star published a photograph, purported to be the first-ever picture of the track taken from an airplane. Several drivers, including Tommy Milton, were at Uniontown Speedway for another race, and were expected to arrive at Indianapolis soon.\nTuesday May 20: The Sunbeam cars for Jean Chassagne and Dario Resta were ruled ineligible after it was discovered their engines were oversized. Chief engineer Louis Coatalen discovered the infraction, and informed speedway officials that the team was withdrawing from the event. Tom Alley and A. E. Cotey arrived at the Speedway on Tuesday.\nWednesday May 21: Many drivers and teams were arriving at the Speedway, but rain and foggy weather was limiting available track time. Charles Kirkpatrick was named to the Detroit Special.\nThursday May 22: Rain kept cars off the track. After losing his ride with the withdrawn Sunbeam team, Dario Resta joined the Ballot team, possibly to serve as a relief driver on race day.\n\nFriday May 23: Jesse G. Vincent was named the driver of the pace car. Two entries were scratched, the Jay-Bee Special for P.W. Monaghan, and the Hudson for C.W. Johnson.\nSaturday May 24: The fastest practice lap was made by Ralph DePalma at 98\u00a0mph. After many days of rainy weather, sunny conditions saw heavy track activity, including many drivers taking their first laps of the month.\nSunday May 25: George Buzane crashed and flipped over in the south turns. Buzane and his riding mechanic Carl Weinbrecht were not seriously injured. The track was closed to the public on Sunday.\nMonday May 26: Denny Hickey blew a tire coming out of turn 2, spun the car around three times, and backed into the inside wall on the backstretch. The car suffered only minor damage. During the afternoon, Howdy Wilcox and Jules Goux took to the track together for many laps over the 90\u00a0mph range. Ira Hall was also out on the track. Monday was the final full day of practice available before elimination trials began.\n\nTime trials\nTime trials were scheduled for three days, May 27\u201329. Elimination trials consisted of one timed lap. This would be the final time single-lap qualifying runs were used at Indianapolis. In 1920, four-lap time trial runs would be introduced. For the first time, qualifiers would line up in the grid by speed based on the day they qualified. All cars that qualified on the first day would line up by speed rank first, with the fastest qualifier starting on the pole position. The remaining cars that qualified on subsequent days would line up by speed rank behind the first day qualifiers. The cars from the second and third days, however, were merged on the grid. This format was adopted in order to encourage more drivers to qualify early on, instead of waiting until the last minute.\n\nOriginally it was planned for all elimination trials to be held on Tuesday, but due to inclement weather, the schedule was expanded to allow Wednesday and Thursday as well. The minimum speed to qualify was set at 80\u00a0mph, and the field was set at a maximum of 33 cars. Based on the entries prepared at the track, the expectation was that about six cars would fail to qualify.\n\nIn an effort to foil the \"bootleg\" programs that were being printed and sold in and around the Speedway, car numbers were not assigned until race morning.\n\nTuesday May 27\nThe first day of time trials was held Tuesday May 27 starting at 10:00\u00a0a.m. Ralph DePalma (98.2\u00a0mph) was the first car in the field. Former winner Ren\u00e9 Thomas shattered the track record with a lap of 104.7\u00a0mph to secure the pole position. Thomas went out late in the afternoon, deciding to wait out windy conditions. A total of eleven cars completed runs, all over 90\u00a0mph. Howdy Wilcox went out after Thomas, and qualified second with a speed of 100.0\u00a0mph.\n\nNote: Car numbers not assigned until race morning.\n\nSources: The Indianapolis Star, The Indianapolis News\n\nWednesday May 28\nThe second day of time trials was held Wednesday May 28. The qualifiers on the second and third day would line up behind the qualifiers from the first day. Louis Chevrolet drove a Frontenac at a speed of 103.1\u00a0mph to be the fastest car of the day. Tommy Milton was on his way to qualifying over 101\u00a0mph, but his car slowed, and he managed a lap of only 89.9\u00a0mph.\n\nDuring a practice run, Omar Toft spun in the south turns, but avoided contact and was able to continue around. Two cars, Al Cotey and Dave Lewis, made an attempt but failed to qualify. Cotey was too slow (below the 80\u00a0mph minimum) and Lewis suffered engine failure. Both drivers were eligible to try again on Thursday.\n\nA total of 13 cars completed qualifying runs Wednesday, filling the field to 24 cars. The final starting positions, however, for those 13 cars would not be finalized until qualifying was completed on Thursday.\n\nNote: Car numbers not assigned until race morning.\n\nSources: The Indianapolis Star, The Indianapolis News\n\nThursday May 29\nThe third and final day of time trials was held Thursday May 29. The day opened with nine spots available in the field.\n\nThe 1913 winner Jules Goux was the final car to qualify. During a practice run on Thursday, he suffered a broken piston and broken connecting rod, which blew a hole in the Peugeot's engine block. The Premier team offered him a spare engine, and Goux spent the entire day working to install it. Late in the day, just minutes before sundown, Goux took the car to the track. After one single warm-up lap, he signaled to officials to start the run. His lap of 95\u00a0mph bumped James Reynolds, and Goux surprisingly made the field. Not as lucky was Dave Lewis. A day after suffering engine problems, Evans was on his qualifying lap, running over 100\u00a0mph. Two-thirds of the way through the lap, the bearings in the engine burned out, and broke the crankcase.\n\nDuring an exhibition run, Ralph DePalma attempted to set track records in a 950-c.i.d. car, the same car he set records in at Daytona. He failed to break Ren\u00e9 Thomas's one-lap record from Tuesday, but he did set 5-mile and 10-mile distance speed records.\n\nNote: Car numbers not assigned until race morning.\n\nSources: The Indianapolis Star, The Indianapolis News\n\nStarting grid\n\nAlternates\nFirst alternate: James M. Reynolds\n\nFailed to qualify\nAl Cotey \u2013 Too slow\nDave Lewis \u2013 Incomplete attempt\nP.W. Monaghan \u2013 Withdrew (engine failure)\nH.C. Simmons \u2013 Withdrew (engine failure)\nGeorge Buzane \u2013 practice crash\n\nRace recap\nThe start of the race was scheduled for Saturday May 31 at 11:00\u00a0a.m. local time. The facility was closed to the public on Friday, but participants were allowed a brief period of practice time on Friday morning for last-minute preparations. The rest of the day was spent prepping the track by scrubbing the brick surface of oil and debris.\n\nMaurice Becker, the riding mechanic for Howdy Wilcox during the month, was disallowed by his family from participating in the race. He was replaced for the race by Leo Banks just hours before the start.\n\nA crowd estimated at 120,000 arrived at the Speedway on a hot and sunny Saturday morning. At 8 a.m., the Purdue Band entertained fans. Pace car driver Jesse G. Vincent, with passenger Eddie Rickenbacker, took the field around for one unscored warm-up lap. At a speed of about 80\u00a0mph, the field was released for the start. Andr\u00e9 Boillot's car initially failed to pull away, but eventually got started, and sprinted to catch up to the rest of the field.\n\nFirst half\nThe first half of the race belonged to 1915 winner Ralph DePalma. Depalma led the first 65 laps, and raced at a record pace. With an average speed of over 92\u00a0mph, DePalma was shattering existing track records. Though the pace was incredible, his lead was not large. His closest contenders stayed within reach. Louis Chevrolet took the lead for lap 66\u201374, before giving it back to DePalma. Also in the top five were Earl Cooper, Howdy Wilcox, and Ren\u00e9 Thomas.\n\nTwo fatal accidents, taking the lives of three competitors, marred the first half of the race. On lap 45, Arthur Thurman lost control at about 90\u00a0mph, swerved to the inside wall on the backstretch, then flipped over three times. Thurman was thrown from the car, and landed about twenty-five feet away. He died about ten minutes later as he was being taken to the hospital. His riding mechanic Nicholas Molinaro suffered a fractured skull, but survived.\n\nOn the 96th lap, Louis LeCocq and his riding mechanic Robert Bandini lost control and turned over in the exit of turn two. The fuel tank ruptured and burst into flames. Both LeCocq and Bandini were pinned underneath the car, doused with gasoline, and burned to death at the scene. With other cars whizzing by, flaming gasoline was spread in all directions, as crews attempted to extinguish the flames.\n\nSecond half\n\nAfter dominating most of the first half, Ralph DePalma gave up the lead on lap 103 to make a pit stop. DePalma was experiencing tire trouble, and was forced to make long stop to make repairs. DePalma lost about ten laps in the pits, and fell out of contention.\n\nHowdy Wilcox took the lead on lap 103, and led the rest of the way. After major crashes and high attrition in the first half, the second half of the race settled down into a steady pace. Only three cars dropped out in the second half, leaving 14 cars running to complete 500 miles. Wilcox made a pit stop for tires and fuel at some point after the 400 mile mark. He came out of the pits with a two-lap lead over Eddie Hearne, and cruised the rest of the way.\n\nLate in", " \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0438 \u0414\u0436\u0435\u0439\u043c\u0441\u0430 \u0411\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0430, \u0433\u0435\u0440\u043e\u044f \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u042f\u043d\u0430 \u0424\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0430). \u0421\u043d\u044f\u0442\u0430\u044f \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043c \u041a\u044d\u043c\u043f\u0431\u0435\u043b\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0432 1995 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443, \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430, \u0432 \u043e\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0442 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u043d\u0435 \u043e\u043f\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 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\u041c. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u044c\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e (1947). \u0412 1946\u20141948 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u0411\u0430\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0434\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430, \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0433\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0442\u044b \u00ab\u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u00bb.\n\n\u0412 1948 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043b \u0438\u0437 \u0411\u0430\u043a\u0443 \u0432 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0443. \u0412 1949 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\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0435\u0440 \u0410.\u00a0\u041c.\u00a0\u041b\u043e\u0431\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u0438 \u00ab\u0420\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0435\u0439\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u0413.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u0422\u043e\u0432\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0430. \u041e\u0431\u0430 \u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u043a\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443 \u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0441\u043e \u0441\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043d\u044f\u0442\u044b \u043f\u043e \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0437\u0443\u0440\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c. \u0427\u043b\u0435\u043d \u041a\u041f\u0421\u0421 \u0441 1952 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430.\n\n\u0412 1967 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0443\u044e \u043f\u044c\u0435\u0441\u0443 \u00ab\u0412\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u0432 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0435 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u0412\u0430\u0445\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0438 \u0432 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0435 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430.\n\n\u0421 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0430 1970-\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0434 \u0417\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043d \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043b \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0443. \u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043b \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u044b \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0443\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u044c\u00bb (1980), \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u00bb (1984), \u00ab\u0417\u043b\u043e\u0431\u0430 \u0434\u043d\u044f\u00bb (1992), \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c \u00ab\u0413\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430\u00bb (1981).\n\n\u041e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0438\u0437 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u043e \u0435\u0433\u043e, \u0444\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 (\u0432 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0435 \u041a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0417\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043d \u0432\u044b\u0432\u0435\u043b \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0435\u0431\u044f) \u043f\u044c\u0435\u0441\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0430\u00bb (1982). \u042d\u0442\u0430 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0442\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u0443\u044e \u044d\u043f\u043e\u0445\u0443, \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0441 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u00ab\u043e\u0442\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0435\u043b\u0438\u00bb 60-\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432. \u041a\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0438, \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0432 \u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0417\u0410\u0413\u0421\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0436\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0443\u044e \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0443 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430.\n\n\u0412 1995 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043b \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u0443 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u00ab\u0410\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0430: \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0430\u00bb, \u0432 1999 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0439 \u00ab\u0417\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u00bb. \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u044b \u00ab\u042e\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u00bb (2002), \u00ab\u0421\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0430\u0440\u0430\u00bb (2004), \u00ab\u0412\u044b\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u00bb (2007), \u00ab\u0413\u043b\u0430\u0441 \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb (2008), \u00ab\u0422\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u00bb, \u00ab\u041a\u043d\u0443\u0442\u00bb, \u00ab\u0417\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0449\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0413\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u00bb, \u00ab\u0422\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00bb, \u00ab\u0413\u043e\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u00bb, \u00ab\u0417\u0430\u0431\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb. \u0421\u043e\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439, \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439, \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439, \u0438\u0441\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439, \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439, \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0438. \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043d\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u043b \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u00ab\u0414\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u043e\u043a: \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0430 2016\u20132020\u00bb (2022), \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u044b\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0435\u0435\u043c.\n\n\u0412\u0441\u0451 \u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0434\u0430 \u0413\u0435\u043d\u0440\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043e \u043d\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0431\u0430\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0443\u0448\u0435\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u043f\u043b\u043e\u0442\u044b. \u0412\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u043f\u0438\u0448\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u043d \u043e \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0435 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u0432\u0435, \u0430 \u0442\u044b \u0443\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0435\u0448\u044c \u0432 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0436\u0430\u0445 \u0431\u0430\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0432. \u041d\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0431\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u043d \u0443\u043f\u043e\u043c\u044f\u043d\u0443\u0442\u044c \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435 \u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440 \u0432 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043f\u044c\u0435\u0441\u0435 \u00ab\u0412\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f 50 \u043b\u0435\u0442 \u043d\u0435 \u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u0441\u043e \u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u044b, \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0432 \u0441 \u0434\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u043e\u043a \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043a.\n\n\u0411\u044b\u043b \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437\u0430 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0420\u0424.\n\n\u0421\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0435 \u043d\u043e\u0447\u044c\u044e 31 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430 2020\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435 95 \u043b\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u0442 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0438 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0434\u0446\u0430. \u041f\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d \u043d\u0430 \u0422\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043a\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0431\u0438\u0449\u0435 (18 \u0443\u0447.).\n\n\u0421\u0435\u043c\u044c\u044f \n \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0413\u0435\u043d\u0440\u0438\u0435\u0442\u0442\u0430 \u0413\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0430 \u0417\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430 (\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0420\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447), \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\n \u0421\u044b\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0435\u0439 \u0417\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043d (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1956), \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0440.\n \u0412\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u0430\u0442\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0430 \u0413\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0430 \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1935), \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434, \u0434\u043e\u0447\u044c \u0413.\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u041f\u043e\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430.\n\n\u0422\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\n\n\u041f\u044c\u0435\u0441\u044b \n\n \u00ab\u041c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u00bb, 1949\n \u00ab\u0412\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0440 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439\u00bb, 1951\n \u00ab\u0410\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0440\u0435\u00bb, 1952\n \u00ab\u041e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u00bb, 1953\n \u00ab\u0413\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u00bb, 1954 (\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 1987)\n \u00ab\u0427\u0443\u0436\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u00bb, 1956\n \u00ab\u0410\u043b\u043f\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432\u00bb, 1957\n \u00ab\u0421\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043b\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u0439\u00bb, 1958\n \u00ab\u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u044f\u043a\u0438\u00bb, 1959\n \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0449\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb, 1959\n \u00ab\u0423\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0442\u044c \u0432\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f\u00bb, 1960\n \u00ab\u0427\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u044b\u00bb, 1960\n \u00ab\u041f\u043e \u043c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u00bb, 1961\n \u00ab\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0437\u044c\u044f \u0438 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u044b\u00bb, 1962 (\u0432 \u043f\u044c\u0435\u0441\u0435, \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0437 14 \u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d, \u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u0441 1934 \u043f\u043e 1961 \u0433\u043e\u0434, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441\u0443\u0434\u044c\u0431\u044b \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0439 \u044e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438)\n \u00ab\u042d\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b\u00bb, 1962\n \u00ab\u041f\u0430\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430\u00bb, 1963\n \u00ab\u0420\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb (\u00ab\u0414\u0438\u043e\u043d\u00bb), 1965 (\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0414\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0430)\n \u00ab\u0414\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b\u00bb (\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0433\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f), 1966\n \u00ab\u0412\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb, 1967\n \u00ab\u0421\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u043c, \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0422\u0440\u0438 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044b \u0438\u0437 \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0438 \u041a\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00bb, 1967\n \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f\u00bb, 1968\n \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u00bb, 1969\n \u00ab\u0422\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0424\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0437\u0438\u044f\u00bb 1971\n \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0430\u00bb, 1974\n \u00ab\u0426\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430\u00bb, 1974\n \u00ab\u041c\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0431\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0430\u00bb, 1975\n \u00ab\u041d\u0435\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0446\u00bb, 1976\n \u00ab\u041f\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043c \u0437\u0432\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0442 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u00bb (\u043f\u043e \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0443 \u042d. \u0425\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0443\u044d\u044f), 1977\n \u00ab\u041c\u0443\u0436\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0449\u0438\u043d\u044b\u00bb (\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043c-\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u043a\u043b\u044c), 1978\n \u00ab\u0418\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0430\u00bb, 1979\n \u00ab\u041a\u0430\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b\u00bb, 1981\n \u00ab\u0421\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0438 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0437\u0430 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0448\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0438\u00bb, 1984\n \u00ab\u041f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u044e\u0436\u0435\u0442\u00bb, 1985\n \u00ab\u0426\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430\u00bb, 1985\n \u00ab\u041c\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438\u043c \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435 \u0442\u044b\u0441\u044f\u0447\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u044f\u00bb, 1989\n \u00ab\u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437 \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0434\u0435\u0446\u00bb, 1991\n \u00ab\u0413\u0440\u0430\u0444 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0435\u0439 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00bb, 1992\n \u00ab\u0422\u043e\u0440\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb, 2009\n\n\u041f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u044c\u0435\u0441 \n 1965\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0420\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u0413\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0438\u044f \u0422\u043e\u0432\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0430 (\u0411\u0414\u0422\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0430)\n 1965\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0414\u0438\u043e\u043d\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u0420\u0443\u0431\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0421\u0438\u043c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 (\u0422\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u0412\u0430\u0445\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n 1967\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0412\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u0420\u0443\u0431\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0421\u0438\u043c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 (\u0422\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u0412\u0430\u0445\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n 1967\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0412\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u0418\u0433\u043e\u0440\u044f \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430 (\u0422\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430)\n 1969\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u0415\u0432\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0421\u0438\u043c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 (\u0422\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u0412\u0430\u0445\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n 1975 (?)\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0430\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u041a\u043e\u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 (\u0422\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u043d\u0430 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0439 \u0411\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439)\n 1977\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0426\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u0420\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0442\u044e\u043a\u0430 (\u0422\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430)\n 1986\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0426\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u041f\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0430 \u0425\u043e\u043c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e (\u0422\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430)\n 2003\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0420\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0442\u043a\u0430\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u041f\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0430 \u0425\u043e\u043c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e (\u0422\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430)\n 2007\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0412\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u041b\u044c\u0432\u0430 \u0414\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u044b\u0439 \u0414\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b\n 2009 \u2014 \u00ab\u0412\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u044f \u0413\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0422\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u043d\u0430 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0439 \u0411\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439\n 2014\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0420\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u041f\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0430 \u0425\u043e\u043c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e (\u0422\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430)\n 2015\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0412\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0430 \u0414\u0443\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 (\u0410\u0440\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0433\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u0434\u0440\u0430\u043c\u044b \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u041c.\u00a0\u0412.\u00a0\u041b\u043e\u043c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0430)\n 2019\u00a0\u2014 \u00ab\u0412\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u0414\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0425\u0443\u0441\u043d\u0438\u044f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430 (\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u00ab\u041c\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435\u00bb \u0433. \u041d\u0430\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0427\u0435\u043b\u043d\u044b)\n2021 \u2014 \u00ab\u0414\u044f\u0434\u044f \u041b\u0451\u0432\u0430\u00bb \u043f\u043e \u043f\u044c\u0435\u0441\u0435 \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0430\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0411\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 (\u0422\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u043d\u0430 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0439 \u0411\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439)\n2023 \u2014 \u00ab\u0418\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0430\u00bb \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u041f\u0430\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 (\u0421\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0434\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u0434\u0440\u0430\u043c\u044b)\n\n\u0421\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e \n\n 1958\u00a0\u2014 \u0417\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0438, \u043d\u0430\u0448\u0430 \u044e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c (\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439)\n 1960\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d \u0413\u0430\u0440\u0440\u043e\u0441 \u0438\u0449\u0435\u0442 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e \u0441 \u0421. \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\n 1960 \u2014 \u0428\u0443\u0440\u0438\u043a \u0438 \u0428\u0430\u0440\u0438\u043a (\u0434\u043e\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439)\n 1961\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0438\u0440 \u0432\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0449\u0435\u043c\u0443\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e \u0441 \u0410. \u0410\u043b\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u0438 \u0412. \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043c\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\n 1961\u00a0\u2014 \u0427\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a \u043d\u0438\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0443\u0434\u0430\n 1965\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u0440\u0443\u0437\u044c\u044f \u0438 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u044b\n 1966\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u043a\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u043d\u0435\u043a\u0434\u043e\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e \u0441 \u0410. \u0410\u043b\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u0438 \u0412. \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043c\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\n 1970\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0435\u043a\u0443\u043d\u0434\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0440\n 1972\u00a0\u2014 \u0413\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u043c\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\n 1976\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0441\u0435\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u0441\u043e \u043c\u043d\u043e\u044e\u2026\n 1978\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0443\u0436\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0449\u0438\u043d\u044b \u2014 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u043a\u043b\u044c\n 1979\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u044f\u043a\u0438\n 1980\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0435\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0446\u00a0\u2014 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u043a\u043b\u044c\n 1982\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0437\u0438\u0442\n 1982\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u043e\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0430\n 1982\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\n 1984\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0438 \u0421\u043a\u0430\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0430\n 1987\u00a0\u2014 \u041f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442 \u2014 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u043a\u043b\u044c\n 1988\u00a0\u2014 \u0426\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u2014 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u043a\u043b\u044c\n 1989\u00a0\u2014 \u0417\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\n 1990\u00a0\u2014 \u0426\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0430\n 1999\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0433\u043d\u0435\u0437\u0434\u043e (\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u043a\u043b\u044c)\n 2008\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u044f\u0436\u0451\u043b\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043e\u043a\u00a0\u2014 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\n\n\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0430 \n\n \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0443\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u044c (1980)\n \u0425\u043e\u0445\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0443\u043b\u043e\u043a (1980), \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c\n \u0413\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430 (1981)\n \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0435\u0439 (1981), \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c\n \u0421\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a (1984)\n \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0449\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0448 (1984), \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c\n \u041e\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u044e\u043c\u043e\u0440 (1986)\n \u0417\u043b\u043e\u0431\u0430 \u0434\u043d\u044f (1992)\n \u0410\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0430. \u041c\u0435\u043c\u0443\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d (1997)\n \u0422\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 (1997), \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c\n \u0421\u044e\u0436\u0435\u0442\u044b (1998)\n \u0413\u043e\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433 (2000) \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c\n \u0422\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a (2001) \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\n \u0418\u0437 \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0438 \u0411\u0430\u0433\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430 (2001) \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u044b\n \u041a\u043d\u0443\u0442 (2001), \u043c\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044c\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\n \u042e\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440 (2002), \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\n \u0418\u0437 \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0438 \u0420\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430 (2003)\n \u0417\u0430\u0431\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 (2004), \u043c\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044c\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\n \u0421\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0430\u0440\u0430 (2004), \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\n \u0417\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0449\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0413\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430 (2005), \u043c\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044c\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\n \u041e\u0431\u0438\u0434\u0430 (2005), \u043c\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044c\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\n \u041e\u043d (2006), \u043c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\n \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c(2006), \u043c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\n \u041f\u0438\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u0438\u0437 \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0430 (2007), \u044d\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\n \u0412\u044b\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442 (2007), \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d-\u043c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\n \u041c\u0435\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u0430\u0442 (2008), \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0449\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\n \u041e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u044f\u043d\u0435 (2008), \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044d\u0442\u044e\u0434\n \u0413\u043b\u0430\u0441 \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 (2008), \u043c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\n \u042e\u0434\u0438\u0444\u044c (2009), \u043c\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044c\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c\n \u0421\u0442\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0438\u0437 \u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 (1981\u20142008)\n \u0418\u0437 \u00ab\u0417\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0439\u00bb\n \u0414\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u043e\u043a. \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0430 2016\u20142020. \u041c.: \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0437\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435, 2022. \u2014 648 \u0441.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u044b \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \n \u041e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d \u00ab\u0417\u043d\u0430\u043a \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0451\u0442\u0430\u00bb (18 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 1974 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430)\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433\u0438 \u0432 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b \u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0438 \u0441 \u043f\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0441\u043e \u0434\u043d\u044f \u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\n \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0451\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0438\u0443\u043c\u0430 \u0412\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u0420\u0421\u0424\u0421\u0420 (29 \u044f\u043d\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044f 1985 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430)\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u0430 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u044e\u044e \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\n \u041b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0441\u043e\u0432\n \u043d\u0430 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0443\u044e \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044e (1977)\n \u043d\u0430 \u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0443\u044e \u043f\u044c\u0435\u0441\u0443 \u043e \u0434\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043b\u044e\u0434\u044f\u0445 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 (1995)\n \u0412\u0441\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0441\u0430 \u0434\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0433\u043e\u0432 (1996)\n \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u00ab\u0417\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043e\u043a\u00bb \u00ab\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0413\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0442\u044b\u00bb (\u00ab\u041a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430 12 \u0441\u0442\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u00bb) (1975, 1982, 1985)\n \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u00ab\u041a\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u00bb (1983)\n \u0444\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0430 \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u00ab\u0417\u043d\u0430\u043c\u044f\u00bb (2001)\n\n \u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u041f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044f \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u0430 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0437\u0430 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c \u00ab\u041c\u0435\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u0430\u0442\u00bb. (2008)\n \u041f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044f \u00ab\u0411\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u0430\u00bb (III \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044f) \u0437\u0430 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u00ab\u0421\u043a\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u043b\u043e\u0431\u0443\u0441\u00bb (2009)\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n \u041d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0412. \u0418. \u0420\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0441\u044e\u0436\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0438\u043b\u044f (\u0422\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440 \u041b. \u0417\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430) // \u041d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0412. \u0418. \u0414\u0438\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433. \u041c., 1986;\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u0421\u0441\u044b\u043b\u043a\u0438 \n \n \n \n \n \n \u0417\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043d, \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0434 \u0413\u0435\u043d\u0440\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0432 \u0411\u0438\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0435 OCR\n \"\u041d\u0430\u0442\u044e\u0440\u043b\u0438\u0445 \u2014 \u041a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a!\" \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0434 \u0417\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043d \u0432 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0435 \u00ab\u041a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442 \u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u00bb (\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0434 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0445\u043e\u0432) \u043d\u0430 \u0420\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043e \u00ab\u0421\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb (\u0430\u0443\u0434\u0438\u043e)\n\n \n\u041f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420\n\u041f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0430\u043b\u0444\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0443\n\u041f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 XX \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430\n\u0414\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0430\u043b\u0444\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0443\n\u0414\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438\n\u0414\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0438 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420\n\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 XX \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430\n\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 XXI \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430\n\u0412\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u0410. \u041c. \u0413\u043e\u0440\u044c\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b, \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u043f\u0441\u0435\u0432\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043c\u0438\n\u041f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 XXI \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430\n\u0427\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044b \u041a\u041f\u0421\u0421\n\u0421\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b \u043f\u043e \u0430\u043b\u0444\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0443\n\u0421\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420\n\u0421\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438\n\u0412\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0411\u0430\u043a\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430\n\u041b\u0438\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420\n\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0447\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0441 \u0430\u0437\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0430\u0439\u0434\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\n\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0447\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0437\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\n\u041f\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0422\u0440\u043e", ", is in the public domain. New editions of the database and code are published as changes warrant, usually several times per year.\n\nData structure\n\nFile formats \nThe tz database is published as a set of text files which list the rules and zone transitions in a human-readable format. For use, these text files are compiled into a set of platform-independent binary files\u2014one per time zone. The reference source code includes such a compiler called zic (zone information compiler), as well as code to read those files and use them in standard APIs such as localtime() and mktime().\n\nDefinition of a time zone \nWithin the tz database, a time zone is any national region where local clocks have all agreed since 1970. This definition concerns itself first with geographic areas which have had consistent local clocks. This is different from other definitions which concern themselves with consistent offsets from a prime meridian. Therefore, each of the time zones defined by the tz database may document multiple offsets from UTC, typically including both standard time and daylight saving time.\n\nIn the time zone text files, each time zone has one or more \"zone lines\" in one of the time zone text files. The first zone line for a time zone gives the name of the time zone; any subsequent zone lines for that time zone leave the name blank, indicating that they apply to the same zone as the previous line. Each zone line for a zone specifies, for a range of date and time, the offset to UTC for standard time, the name of the set of rules that govern daylight saving time (or a hyphen if standard time always applies), the format for time zone abbreviations, and, for all but the last zone line, the date and time at which the range of date and time governed by that line ends.\n\nDaylight saving time (DST) rules \nThe rules for daylight saving time are specified in named rule sets. Each rule set has one or more rule lines in the time zone text files. A rule line contains the name of the rule set to which it belongs, the first year in which the rule applies, the last year in which the rule applies (or \"only\" if it applies only in one year or \"max\" if it is the rule then in effect), the type of year to which the rule applies (\"-\" if it applies to all years in the specified range, which is almost always the case, otherwise a name used as an argument to a script that indicates whether the year is of the specified type), the month in which the rule takes effect, the day on which the rule takes effect (which could either be a specific day or a specification such as \"the last Sunday of the month\"), the time of day at which the rule takes effect, the amount of time to add to the offset to UTC when the rule is in effect, and the letter or letters to use in the time zone abbreviation (for example, \"S\" if the rule governs standard time and \"D\" if it governs daylight saving time).\n\nNames of time zones \nThe time zones have unique names in the form \"Area/Location\", e.g. \"America/New_York\". A choice was also made to use English names or equivalents, and to omit punctuation and common suffixes. The underscore character is used in place of spaces. Hyphens are used where they appear in the name of a location. The Area and Location names have a maximum length of 14 characters.\n\nArea \nArea is the name of a continent, an ocean, or \"Etc\". The continents and oceans used are Africa, America, Antarctica, Arctic, Asia, Atlantic, Australia, Europe, Indian, and Pacific.\n\nThe oceans are included since some islands are hard to connect to a certain continent. Some are geographically connected to one continent and politically to another. See also Boundaries between continents.\n\nThe special area of \"Etc\" is used for some administrative zones, particularly for \"Etc/UTC\" which represents Coordinated Universal Time. In order to conform with the POSIX style, those zone names beginning with \"Etc/GMT\" have their sign reversed from the standard ISO 8601 convention. In the \"Etc\" area, zones west of GMT have a positive sign and those east have a negative sign in their name (e.g \"Etc/GMT-14\" is 14 hours ahead of GMT).\n\nLocation \nLocation is the name of a specific location within the area\u00a0\u2013 usually a city or small island.\n\nCountry names are not normally used in this scheme, primarily because they would not be robust, owing to frequent political and boundary changes. The names of large cities tend to be more permanent. Usually the most populous city in a region is chosen to represent the entire time zone, although another city may be selected if it is more widely known, and another location, including a location other than a city, may be used if it results in a less ambiguous name. In the event that the name of the location used to represent the time zone changes, the convention is to create an alias in future editions so that both the old and new names refer to the same database entry.\n\nIn some cases the Location is itself represented as a compound name, for example the time zone \"America/Indiana/Indianapolis\". Three-level names include those under \"America/Argentina/...\", \"America/Kentucky/...\", \"America/Indiana/...\", and \"America/North_Dakota/...\".\n\nThe location selected is representative for the entire area. However, if there were differences within the area before 1970, the time zone rules only apply in the named location.\n\nExamples\n\nExample zone and rule lines \nThese are rule lines for the standard United States daylight saving time rules, rule lines for the daylight saving time rules in effect in the US Eastern Time Zone (called \"NYC\" as New York City is the city representing that zone) in some years, and zone lines for the America/New_York time zone, as of release version tzdata2011n of the time zone database. The zone and rule lines reflect the history of DST in the United States.\n# Rule NAME FROM TO TYPE IN ON AT SAVE LETTER/S\nRule US 1918 1919 - Mar lastSun 2:00 1:00 D\nRule US 1918 1919 - Oct lastSun 2:00 0 S\nRule US 1942 only - Feb 9 2:00 1:00 W # War\nRule US 1945 only - Aug 14 23:00u 1:00 P # Peace\nRule US 1945 only - Sep 30 2:00 0 S\nRule US 1967 2006 - Oct lastSun 2:00 0 S\nRule US 1967 1973 - Apr lastSun 2:00 1:00 D\nRule US 1974 only - Jan 6 2:00 1:00 D\nRule US 1975 only - Feb 23 2:00 1:00 D\nRule US 1976 1986 - Apr lastSun 2:00 1:00 D\nRule US 1987 2006 - Apr Sun>=1 2:00 1:00 D\nRule US 2007 max - Mar Sun>=8 2:00 1:00 D\nRule US 2007 max - Nov Sun>=1 2:00 0 S\n....\n# Rule NAME FROM TO TYPE IN ON AT SAVE LETTER\nRule NYC 1920 only - Mar lastSun 2:00 1:00 D\nRule NYC 1920 only - Oct lastSun 2:00 0 S\nRule NYC 1921 1966 - Apr lastSun 2:00 1:00 D\nRule NYC 1921 1954 - Sep lastSun 2:00 0 S\nRule NYC 1955 1966 - Oct lastSun 2:00 0 S\n# Zone NAME GMTOFF RULES FORMAT [UNTIL]\nZone America/New_York -4:56:02 - LMT 1883 November 18, 12:03:58\n -5:00 US E%sT 1920\n -5:00 NYC E%sT 1942\n -5:00 US E%sT 1946\n -5:00 NYC E%sT 1967\n -5:00 US E%sT\n\nData stored for each zone \nFor each time zone that has multiple offsets (usually due to daylight saving time), the tz database records the exact moment of transition. The format can accommodate changes in the dates and times of transitions as well. Zones may have historical rule changes going back many decades (as shown in the example above).\n\nZone.tab \nThe file zone.tab is in the public domain and lists the zones. Columns and row sorting are described in the comments of the file, as follows:\n # This file contains a table with the following columns:\n # 1. ISO 3166 2-character country code. See the file `iso3166.tab'.\n # 2. Latitude and longitude of the zone's principal location\n # in ISO 6709 sign-degrees-minutes-seconds format,\n # either +-DDMM+-DDDMM or +-DDMMSS+-DDDMMSS,\n # first latitude (+ is north), then longitude (+ is east).\n # 3. Zone name used in value of TZ environment variable.\n # 4. Comments; present if and only if the country has multiple rows.\n #\n # Columns are separated by a single tab.\n # The table is sorted first by country, then an order within the country that\n # (1) makes some geographical sense, and\n # (2) puts the most populous zones first, where that does not contradict (1).\n\nData before 1970 \nData before 1970 aims to be correct for the city identifying the region, but is not necessarily correct for the entire region. This is because new regions are created only as required to distinguish clocks since 1970.\n\nFor example, between 1963-10-23 and 1963-12-09 in Brazil only the states of Minas Gerais, Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and S\u00e3o Paulo had summer time. However, a requested split from America/Sao_Paulo was rejected in 2010 with the reasoning that, since 1970, the clocks were the same in the whole region.\n\nTime in Germany, which is represented by Europe/Berlin, is incorrect for the year 1945 when the Trizone used daylight saving time rules different from Berlin's.\n\nCoverage\n\nZones covering multiple post-1970 countries \nThere are two zones that cover an area that was covered by two countries after 1970. The database follows the definitions of countries as per ISO 3166-1, whose predecessor, ISO 3166, was first published in 1974.\n Asia/Aden\u00a0\u2013 two countries until 1990: North Yemen (ISO 3166-1: YE; capital Sana'a) and South Yemen (People's Republic, ISO 3166-1: YD, ISO 3166-3: YDYE; capital: Aden).\n Europe/Berlin\u00a0\u2013 two countries until 1990: East Germany (ISO 3166-1: DD, ISO 3166-3: DDDE) and West Germany (ISO 3166-1: DE)\n\nMaintenance \n\nThe tz reference code and database is maintained by a group of volunteers. Arthur David Olson makes most of the changes to the tz reference code. Paul Eggert makes most of the changes to the tz database. Proposed changes are sent to the tz mailing list, which is gatewayed to the comp.time.tz Usenet newsgroup. Source files are distributed via the IANA FTP server. Typically, these files are taken by a software distributor like Debian, compiled, and then the source and binaries are packaged as part of that distribution. End users can either rely on their software distribution's update procedures, which may entail some delay, or obtain the source directly and build the binary files themselves. The IETF has published , \"Procedures for Maintaining the Time Zone Database\" documenting best practices based on similar principles.\n\nUnix-like systems \nThe standard path for the timezone database is /usr/share/zoneinfo/ in Linux distributions, macOS, and some other Unix-like systems.\n\nUsage and extensions\n\nBoundaries of time zones \nGeographical boundaries in the form of coordinate sets are not part of the tz database, but boundaries are published by Eric Muller in the form of vector polygons. Using these vector polygons, one can determine, for each place on the globe, the tz database zone in which it is located.\n\nUse in other standards \nThe Unicode Common Locale Data Repository (CLDR) refers to zones in the tz database. However, as the name for a zone can change from one tz database release to another, the CLDR assigns the UN/LOCODE for the city used in the name for the zone, or an internally-assigned code if there is no such city for the zone, to a tzdb zone.\n\nUse in software systems \nThe tz database is used for time zone processing and conversions in many computer software systems, including:\n\n BSD-derived systems, including FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, DragonFly BSD, macOS, and iOS (they also use the reference TZ database processing code as their TZ POSIX API implementation);\n the GNU C Library and systems that use it, including GNU, most Linux distributions, BeOS, Haiku, Nexenta OS, and Cygwin;\n System V Release 4-derived systems, such as Solaris and UnixWare;\n AIX 6.1 and later (earlier versions of AIX, starting with AIX 5.2, include zoneinfo, for support of third-party applications such as MySQL, but do not use it themselves);\n Android\n several other Unix systems, including IRIX, Tru64, SunOS 4.x, and UNICOS/mp;\n OpenVMS;\n the Java Runtime Environment since release 1.8 (2014), see java.time.ZoneId\n the Perl modules DateTime::TimeZone and DateTime::LeapSecond since 2003;\n PHP releases since 5.1.0 (2005);\n the Ruby Gem TZInfo;\n the Python standard library zoneinfo module, and the third-party pytz package;\n the JavaScript language specification for Internationalization explicitly specifies the usage of IANA Time Zone names for API, and recommends the usage of the time zone data as well.\n Numerous libraries also available: timezone-js, BigEasy/TimeZone, WallTime-js and moment-timezone;\n the Pandas (Python) module pandas \u2013 Python Data Analysis Library;\n the .NET Framework libraries NodaTime, TZ4Net and zoneinfo ;\n the Haskell libraries timezone-series and timezone-olson;\n the Erlang module ezic;\n The Go standard library time package;\n The Rust crate chrono-tz;\n The Squeak Smalltalk time package;\n The C++ libraries Boost and Qt, and C++20 chrono standard library's std::chrono::tzdb;\n The Delphi and Free Pascal library TZDB;\n The Free Pascal library PascalTZ;\n The Tool Command Language has a clock command using tzdata;\n Oracle releases since 10g (2004);\n PostgreSQL since release 8.0 (2005);\n the Microsoft SQL Server library SQL Server Time Zone Support\n MongoDB since release 3.6;\n the Dart/Flutter Timezone package in pub;\n embedded software such as the firmware used in IP clocks.\n\nThe Olson timezone IDs are also used by the Unicode Common Locale Data Repository (CLDR) and International Components for Unicode (ICU). For example, the CLDR Windows\u2013Tzid table maps Microsoft Windows time zone IDs to the standard Olson names, although such a mapping cannot be perfect because the number of time zones in Windows systems is significantly lower than in the IANA TZ database.\n\nHistory \nThe project's origins go back to 1986 or earlier.\n\n2011 lawsuit \nOn 30 September 2011, a lawsuit, Astrolabe, Inc. v. Olson et al., was filed concerning copyright in the database. As a result, on 6 October 2011, the database's mailing list and FTP site were shut down. The case revolved around the database maintainers' use of The American Atlas, by Thomas G. Shanks, and The International Atlas, by Thomas G. Shanks and Rique Pottenger. It complained of unauthorised reproduction of atlas data in the timezone mailing list archive and in some auxiliary link collections maintained with the database, though it did not actually point at the database itself. The complaint related only to the compilation of historical timezone data, and did not cover extant tzdata world timezone tables.\n\nThis lawsuit was resolved on 22 February 2012 after the involvement of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, when Astrolabe voluntarily moved to dismiss the lawsuit without having ever served the defendants and agreed to a covenant not to sue in the future.\n\nMove to ICANN\nICANN took responsibility for the maintenance of the database on 14 October 2011. The full database and a description of plans for its maintenance are available online from IANA.\n\nSee also \n List of tz database time zones\n Time zone\n Daylight saving time\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nGeneral\n", ". Route Numbering Committee, and the designation remains unused.\n\nRoute description\n\nWestwego to Harvey Canal\nFrom the west, US\u00a090 Bus. begins at a modified trumpet interchange with US\u00a090 in a sparsely developed area of Jefferson Parish surrounded by the suburban city of Westwego, Bayou Segnette State Park, and an industrial area formerly known as Avondale Shipyard. Mainline US\u00a090 connects with Boutte to the west and the Huey P. Long Bridge across the Mississippi River to the east (geographically north). Due to the proximity of the BNSF/Union Pacific Railroad overpass on eastbound US\u00a090, the ramp from westbound US\u00a090 Bus. travels in an indirect fashion and intersects an eastbound ramp at grade at a four-way stop. As a result, a significant amount of local traffic circumvents this movement by turning onto Nine Mile Point Road toward a signalized intersection with US\u00a090 that features a protected no-stop turn lane.\n\nUS\u00a090 Bus. heads southeast along the Westbank Expressway as a divided four-lane highway and intersects Segnette Boulevard, the entrance to the Alario Center and Bayou Segnette State Park. Soon afterward, US\u00a090 Bus. widens to six lanes, and the median width increases from to . Upon entering the city of Westwego, US\u00a090 Bus. becomes a developed commercial corridor, and an intersection with LA\u00a018 Spur (Louisiana Street) provides a route for truck traffic to the industrial facilities along the riverfront. The highway crosses from Westwego into the unincorporated community of Marrero immediately past Victory Drive and curves due east, maintaining a parallel trajectory to the Mississippi River. At Carmadelle Street, several blocks past a signalized intersection with Westwood Drive, a ramp leads through traffic onto an elevated six-lane freeway, which begins in the median. The ground-level portion of the Westbank Expressway continues straight ahead as frontage roads serving local businesses and maintains a six-lane capacity.\n\nAfter a short distance, the first in a series of tight diamond interchanges, exit 4A, connects with Ames Boulevard. As it is located near the west end of the freeway, the interchange consists only of an eastbound entrance and westbound exit with the remaining movements accessed from the frontage roads. The following exit (4B) connects with LA\u00a045 (Barataria Boulevard) and leads to Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve as well as several communities situated alongside Bayou Barataria. This exit also serves the nearby West Jefferson Medical Center. US\u00a090 Bus. proceeds through the neighboring unincorporated community of Harvey, which is bisected by the Harvey Canal, a link in the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway. An industrial corridor flanks the canal and stretches from the Mississippi River southward into Plaquemines Parish near Belle Chasse. A half-diamond interchange at exit 5 (MacArthur Avenue) serves the industrial area on the west bank of the canal. The highway elevates to a height of to cross the canal while the frontage roads pass underneath it via the Harvey Tunnel. Direct access to the facilities on the east side of the canal, situated along LA\u00a03017 (Peters Road), is limited to a westbound exit ramp.\n\nHarvey Canal to Mississippi River\n\nEast of the Harvey Canal, US\u00a090 Bus. heads northwest, returning to its prior elevation and connecting to Manhattan Boulevard via exit 6. It then enters the city of Gretna, the seat of Jefferson Parish government. Two interchanges serve Gretna: exit 7 to LA\u00a018/LA\u00a023 (Lafayette Street) and exit 8 to Stumpf Boulevard. Between these two exits, the expressway frontage roads run concurrent with LA\u00a023, which continues northwest onto Stumpf Boulevard. While passing alongside the Oakwood Center shopping mall, US\u00a090 Bus. enters into its final interchange on the west bank: exit 9 to Terry Parkway and General de Gaulle Drive. These are parallel divided thoroughfares, the former serving the mall and adjacent neighborhood of Terrytown. The first portion of the exit is a tight half-diamond interchange consisting of an eastbound exit and westbound entrance that utilize the frontage roads to connect with both thoroughfares.\n\nImmediately after crossing Terry Parkway, US\u00a090 Bus. enters Orleans Parish and the city of New Orleans, which are co-extensive. All remaining movements on exit 9 are provided via a partial cloverleaf interchange at General de Gaulle Drive with flyover ramps connecting to Terry Parkway, and the US\u00a090 Bus. frontage roads are discontinued at this point. General de Gaulle Drive is part of LA\u00a0428 and is the principal thoroughfare of Algiers, a name applied to the west bank section of New Orleans. The highway curves due west to begin its ascent onto the Crescent City Connection, a pair of cantilever bridges each carrying four lanes of through traffic across the Mississippi River. Additionally, the eastbound (geographically westbound) span contains two reversible HOV lanes, separated from the main travel lanes by a row of Jersey barriers. Due to the bend in the Mississippi River from which the \"Crescent City\" gets its name and the orientation of the bridges, the remainder of US\u00a090 Bus. carries traffic signed \"eastbound\" and \"westbound\" in geographically opposite directions.\n\nDowntown New Orleans\n\nAfter climbing to a height of above the Mississippi River, US\u00a090 Bus. enters the New Orleans Central Business District and crosses over the city's Convention Center. The highway simultaneously engages in an interchange with Tchoupitoulas Street at exit 11A, the designated exit for truck traffic associated with the Port of New Orleans. (This exit is signed westbound as exit 11 to Tchoupitoulas and South Peters Streets.) US\u00a090 Bus. proceeds northwest onto the Pontchartrain Expressway, an elevated six-lane freeway in the center of Calliope Street, a divided surface street. Several overlapping interchanges with limited movements further serve the business district, beginning with exit 12A (Camp Street), which passes between the National World War II Museum and Lee Circle. This is followed by exit 12D (Carondelet Street/St. Charles Avenue). In addition to being a significant downtown street, St. Charles Avenue is a scenic oak tree-lined boulevard that traverses uptown neighborhoods such as the Garden District and Carrollton. Exit 12C connects with Loyola Avenue, a divided downtown thoroughfare that provides access to the Union Passenger Terminal and the city's two major entertainment venues\u2014the Superdome and New Orleans Arena. At Loyola Avenue, Calliope Street becomes Earhart Boulevard, which serves as a frontage road for a short distance until US\u00a090 Bus. departs from its alignment.\n\nUS\u00a090 Bus. enters into a complex interchange with both US\u00a090 (South Claiborne Avenue) and I-10. Separate ramps connect to westbound US\u00a090 (exit 13A), eastbound US\u00a090 (13B), and eastbound I-10 (13C). To the east, US\u00a090 travels beneath the elevated I-10 as it passes through the downtown area en route to Slidell, located on the north shore of Lake Pontchartrain. Following exit 13C, eastbound US\u00a090 Bus. continues straight ahead to merge with westbound I-10, which swings to the northwest to proceed along the Pontchartrain Expressway toward New Orleans International Airport and the city of Baton Rouge. Locally, westbound I-10 carries traffic between downtown New Orleans and the suburbs in Jefferson and St. Tammany parishes, the latter accessed via the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway.\n\nRoute classification and data\nUS\u00a090 Bus. is classified as an urban freeway by the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development (La\u00a0DOTD) and carries the internal designation of US\u00a090-Z. Annual average daily traffic data collected by the department in 2019 showed a low of 38,818 vehicles near Westwego, increasing to a peak of 163,126 vehicles on the Mississippi River bridge. The remainder of the route through downtown New Orleans maintained at least 100,000 vehicles to the junction with I-10. The posted speed limit is along the surface portion of the route, increasing to throughout the west bank freeway portion. The remainder of the route across the Crescent City Connection and along the Pontchartrain Expressway is generally posted at .\n\nThe portion of US\u00a090 Bus. between the Lafayette Street and Camp Street exits serves as a link in the ten-state National Scenic Byway known as the Great River Road.\n\nHistory\n\nThe three main elements that constitute the route of US\u00a090 Bus. in New Orleans\u2014the Westbank Expressway, the Crescent City Connection, and the Pontchartrain Expressway\u2014were initially conceived between the 1920s and 1940s as separate projects.\n\nEarly planning\nIn 1926, New Orleans visionary George A. Hero and engineer Allen S. Hackett proposed the construction of a bridge across the Mississippi River located in downtown New Orleans. At the time, there was no automobile bridge spanning the river south of Memphis, Tennessee. While its construction was authorized by the United States Congress the following year, the project languished in the face of the Great Depression. In 1935, the Huey P. Long Bridge was completed in neighboring Jefferson Parish about upriver from the city's business district. This bridge was constructed and financed jointly between the Louisiana Highway Commission and the New Orleans Public Belt Railroad primarily to accommodate railroad traffic, which up to that time was forced to cross the river by ferry between the rail yards at Avondale and Harahan. While it contained automobile lanes that benefited through traffic on US\u00a090 through the area, the bridge's location made it inconvenient for local travel between New Orleans and the developing communities on the opposite side of the river. While increasingly outmoded, the string of existing ferry services along the Mississippi River would continue to serve this purpose for another two decades.\n\nBefore the existence of the Westbank Expressway, the only highway traversing the west bank communities between US\u00a090 and Algiers was former State Route 30, a narrow two-lane highway that zigzagged through the center of each town. This route is now generally followed by the modern LA\u00a018, which was created in the 1955 Louisiana Highway renumbering. During the 1930s, this once rural area was transformed into a booming industrial corridor focused along the Mississippi River and the Harvey Canal, which had become a link in the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway. By 1942, the existing highway had become heavily congested, and the draw bridge crossing of the Harvey Canal was specifically cited as one of the worst traffic bottlenecks in the entire state. That year, the Jefferson Parish Police Jury and a committee of local citizens began to lobby the state highway department to alleviate the problem by constructing a new four-lane highway parallel to the existing Route 30. The proposed bypass would extend from US\u00a090 near the Huey P. Long Bridge to the Algiers Naval Station. It would also feature a bridge across the Harvey Canal with a higher draw span, allowing most marine traffic to pass underneath without impeding the flow of vehicular traffic.\n\nIn 1946, the Louisiana Department of Highways engaged New York-based urban planner, Robert Moses, to study traffic patterns in the New Orleans metropolitan area and compile a report to address current and future transportation needs. Moses devised a multi-phase plan that incorporated both the downtown bridge proposal and the west bank bypass highway. The plan also included the Pontchartrain Expressway, another project discussed for many years involving the construction of a modern highway connecting the downtown area with US\u00a061 (Airline Highway), the main route to the state capital. Moses' plan combined these elements into a continuous traffic artery and provided cost estimates as well as engineering evaluations by the New York firm of Andrews and Clark. Eight more years would pass, however, before construction on these projects would begin.\n\nConstruction\nThe first project that would eventually become part of US\u00a090 Bus. was underway in June 1954 with the construction of the Harvey Tunnel. Approved by the Louisiana Department of Highways in October 1951, the tunnel had replaced the earlier idea of a bridge across the Harvey Canal. Although the more expensive option, the tunnel would be quicker to build and could be used as a bomb shelter in case the Cold War were to heat up. Construction of the Westbank Expressway began in the vicinity of the Harvey Canal and forged a path largely along the southern edge of the west bank's existing development. It was originally configured as a divided four-lane surface highway with interchanges at US\u00a090 and Victory Drive (now General de Gaulle Drive). Intersections were provided at major cross streets between these points while two-lane frontage roads provided access to all services and remaining cross streets. The frontage roads began at Louisiana Street in Westwego and continued to the Victory Drive interchange in Algiers, interrupted only at the Harvey Tunnel, through which only the central express lanes traveled. On September 5, 1957, the Harvey Tunnel was opened to traffic and was touted as the first fully automatic underwater vehicular tunnel in the world. Completion of the tunnel was more than 20 months behind schedule due to unexpected soil and cofferdam difficulties. Also placed into service were the adjacent portions of the West Bank Expressway extending west to Barataria Boulevard in Marrero and east to Franklin Avenue in Gretna. A newly reconstructed and improved Franklin Avenue carried through traffic into Algiers at this time.\n\nThe Greater New Orleans Bridge, now the westbound (geographically eastbound) span of the Crescent City Connection, began construction in early 1955. The bridge was designed by Modjeski and Masters, the firm responsible for the earlier Huey P. Long Bridge upriver. When opened to traffic in April 1958, the Greater New Orleans Bridge was declared as having the longest cantilever structure in the United States and third longest in the world, its central span totaling . The bridge originally contained a roadway that carried two travel lanes in either direction. The cost of the bridge was approximately $54 million, to be recouped by tolls collected at a toll plaza located at its west bank approach. (The tolls were later removed by Governor John McKeithen in 1964.) Also opened was the first section of the Pontchartrain Expressway, New Orleans' first controlled access freeway, extending from the bridge to an interchange with US\u00a090 (South Claiborne Avenue). The Pontchartrain Expressway also carried four lanes of traffic in its original configuration and contained partial interchanges at Camp Street, St. Charles Avenue, Dryades Street (now O'Keefe Avenue), and Loyola Avenue.\n\nAfter the opening of the Greater New Orleans Bridge, the Louisiana Department of Highways focused on extending its adjoining expressways to their intended termini. The Pontchartrain Expressway was completed between US\u00a090 (South Claiborne Avenue) and US\u00a061 (Airline Highway) in February 1960. During construction, this segment had been incorporated into the new Interstate Highway System as part of I-10 and was signed accordingly by the end of the year. In September 1960, the Westbank Expressway was completed westward from Barataria Boulevard to its interchange with US\u00a090 near Avondale, which involved filling in a section of Westwego's historic Company Canal. With this accomplished, the designation of US\u00a090 Bus. was applied to the entire route comprising the Westbank Expressway, Greater New Orleans Bridge, and the Pontchartrain Expressway as far as the Claiborne interchange, as it now connected with US\u00a090 at either end. Prior to 1960, the entire route carried the state highway designation of LA\u00a03019, which was changed from Route 2200 in the 1955 Louisiana Highway renumbering.\n\nLater improvements\nIn December 1972, the I-10 viaduct in the median of South Claiborne Avenue was completed, closing a gap in the interstate's route between the Pontchartrain Expressway and Tulane Avenue. New ramps were added to directly connect the two sections of I-10 and allow through traffic to bypass the Claiborne interchange. However, no direct connection was provided between US\u00a090 Bus. and the new section of I-10 along South Claiborne Avenue.\n\nDuring the 1960s and 1970s, the suburbs of New Orleans continued to grow dramatically, including the communities on the west bank of the Mississippi River. The resulting traffic congestion on the Westbank Expressway led to plans that would ultimately convert most of the route into an elevated controlled-access freeway. This project was carried out in stages beginning in September 1977 with the construction of a high-level bridge across the Harvey Canal. When completed in May 1984, the bridge became the route for through traffic while the frontage roads were reconfigured to utilize the existing Harvey Tunnel. Also placed into service at this time was the first section of the elevated expressway on either end of the bridge, extending from Avenue D in Marrero to Manhattan Boulevard in Harvey. The elevated expressway was completed eastward from Manhattan Boulevard to Lafayette Street in Gretna in January 1985 and to Stumpf Boulevard the following September. After several delays, the portion between Stumpf Boulevard and Terry Parkway was completed in February 1987. By 1993, the elevated Westbank Expressway was completed from the General de Gaulle Drive interchange to its present terminus near Westwood Drive in Marrero. The original expressway lanes had been removed from that point through Westwego during the 1980s, leaving all traffic to utilize the existing service roads, which were improved and widened. As of 2020, plans to complete the expressway through Westwego have not come to fruition, although the route is part of the future extension of I-49.\n\nBy the 1970s, heavy traffic congestion on the Greater New Orleans Bridge and Pontchartrain Expressway led to the planning of a massive road project that would ultimately become the longest-running in the state's history. Construction began in September 1980 on a parallel span of the Greater New Orleans Bridge designed to carry eastbound traffic on US\u00a090 Bus., freeing the original span to carry four lanes of westbound traffic. The Pontchartrain Expressway was also twinned between the new bridge and the Claiborne interchange, after which the original viad", " the Task Force 10 commander and his officers finalised the plan and its coordination. All other Groups were at their start-up positions on this day. November 8 saw the SADF units complete their last-minute repairs and replenishment while the Tactical HQ moved later that evening south and then to the west close to the positions of Combat Group Alpha.\n\nSADF attack on 16 Brigade\nThe attack began at 01h00 on 9 November with Combat Group Alpha moving to position themselves to the south of 16 Brigade, while Combat Group Charlie started to move to its positions north at 04h00. SADF mortar and artillery began to shell the enemy while a 06h30 bombing by SAAF Mirages kept the pressure on FAPLA. The main attack unit, Combat Group Charlie, was 4\u00a0km northeast from 16 Brigade around 06h00. At 07h00 Combat Group Alpha began its diversionary attack on 16 Brigade from the south, with the brigade responding by preparing their tanks to attack the group. Combat Group Alpha withdrew and became the task force reserve. Combat Group Charlie's attack was led by a company from 32 Battalion with UNITA troops and became pinned down by machine gun and 23mm anti-aircraft guns, followed too far behind by 4SAI and UNITA troops who were moving too slowly due to dense bush and trees. Meanwhile, FAPLA prepared an ambush for 4SAI's left flank consisting of 3 tanks, various AA guns and APCs, but 4SAI was receiving confusing intelligence by UNITA about the preparations but the SADF recces sorted out the confusion, allowing 4SAI to prepare a counter-ambush when it released its tank squadron and a mechanized company. During this battle, FAPLA would lose 2 tanks and various AA guns and MRLS as the attack is beaten off with the help of the SADF G5s and G6 artillery. This attack ended around 09h00 with 22 FAPLA dead and 2 prisoners with valuable intelligence gained from captured maps. Combat Group Charlie resumed its attack at 10h00 against two FAPLA battalions with ten tanks and various AA guns but they were pinned down when they received accurate enemy artillery fire and would lose two 4SAI soldiers and one from 32 Battalion. The SADF companies were unpinned when their artillery responded to the enemy attack but a Ratel-20 company became entangled with two tanks. One was destroyed by the Ratel, which in turn was destroyed by the second tank. Two soldiers were killed in the Ratel with a further two killed from wounds inflicted during the engagement. The second tank itself was destroyed by a SADF tank. The 32 Battalion company came under a threat on their right flank from FAPLA tanks so 4SAI's tanks flanked to the right and engaged the enemy. At 11h00 Combat Group Charlie came under attack by Mig-23 attack aircraft. 4SAI companies began to clear the bunkers and trenches and FAPLA forces started to flee and by 12h30 the main battle was over. At this point the commander of Combat Group Charlie ordered a withdrawal to the deployment point as they were short of ammunition and needed resupply, a decision the SADF Tactical HQ was not happy with and allowed 16 Brigade to reorganize themselves and to get away from the South African forces. Casualties for FAPLA at the end of battle were 75 killed and 6 prisoners, the loss of 10 tanks and various equipment with 14 SA-7 and SA-14 weapons captured while the SADF lost 7 killed and 9 wounded.\n\nAround 18h00, two battalions of 21 Brigade and the one battalion 59 Brigade aided by tanks left their positions and attacked Combat Group Bravo who had attacked these units earlier in the day in a diversionary attack, but the SADF group withdrew from a fight under instructions to avoid the tanks.\n\nAttacks resume against 16 Brigade\n10 November saw Combat Group Charlie resting in a position 15\u00a0km east of the Cunzumbia River. Around 15h00, Combat Group Charlie resumed its attack on 16 Brigade but at last light was unsuccessful after being slowed by MiG bombing attacks, observation of their attack by FAPLA reconnaissance and a shooting incident within the unit. The SADF Tactical HQ now moved to Catato Bush on the night of 10/11 November and would be subject to a Mig-23 bombing during the day. The same evening 59 Brigade had begun its withdrawal from its position between the Humbe and Vimpulo rivers across the Chambinga crossing while 16 Brigade was reinforced with tanks.\n\nThe next attack would be the following day, 11 November. The plan called for three attacks. Combat Group Bravo would keep 21 and 59 Brigades engaged while Combat Group Alpha would engage 16 Brigade positions from the north-east, drawing the tanks away in a diversionary move. It would then become the SADF reserve and Charlie would lead the main attack from the south.\n\nThe attack began at 06h00 with SADF artillery attacking the northern units of 16 Brigade giving them the impression that it was the target and this impression was followed up by SAAF Mirage bombing on the same positions at 07h00. Charlie's attack resumed around 10h00 as it had again been held up by poor navigation through thick bush and MiG bombing runs taking one wounded and this allowed FAPLA to withdraw some of its units in the south. They soon come up against two battalions, ten tanks and artillery. After resting Charlie regained the momentum around 12h25 when six Mirages bomb 16 Brigade positions but are then counter-attacked by the enemy infantry and artillery but is eventually beaten back with the loss of 2 killed and eight wounded. Charlie resumes the attack supplemented with Ratel-90 and tanks and drew heavy enemy artillery and MRLs before getting stuck in minefields. Charlie was then ordered to withdraw around 15h30 being short of ammunition so Combat Group Alpha resumed the attack but is not successful and the battle ends around 18h00 when both parties withdraw. Early morning of the same day, saw an accidental explosion of an artillery round in a G5 gun which killed 2 SADF gunners and badly wounded another eight.\n\nCasualties at the end of this day are recorded as FAPLA 394 dead and 14 tanks destroyed while the SADF saw 5 dead and 19 wounded. The recovery, under fire and in a minefield, of a crippled tank and the subsequent re-entry into a minefield to rescue a wounded soldier, earned Captain Petrus van Zyl and Lieutenant De Villers de Vos of 32 Battalion both Honoris Crux decorations. Combat Group Bravo to the south attacked 59 Brigade to prevent its northward retreat but when 21 Brigade comes to its aid, both brigades are able to withdraw. Radio intercepts around 14/15 November reported that 16 Brigade no longer existed as a cohesive unit as the soldiers had deserted to Cuito Cuanavale.\n\n21 Brigade withdraws\n12 November had the SADF and UNITA soldiers resting and replenishing, with the South Africans now becoming short of mechanical spares and consumables. The SADF logistics network was hindered by the distance between South Africa and the battle sites, the inability to stockpile close to the battles due to the SADF units perpetual movement and insufficient logistics vehicles to move the supplies. MiG bombing attacks continued on the units throughout the day but were not successful and the SADF artillery continued to target the Mianei and Chambinga crossings but they to were subject wear and tear of continuous fire and so slowing fire.\n\nBy the afternoon of 13 November, FAPLA caught the South Africans by surprise when their recces spotted the rapid and controlled retreat of 21 Brigade with the single battalion of 25 Brigade from their positions north of the Mianei River and moved northwards to the Sandumba ford over the Vimpulo River. On the same day, three SADF G6 self-propelled artillery moved onto the Chambinga high ground and caught FAPLA by surprise when they began to shell Cuito Cuanavale but would only do so for two days before technical issues with the equipment began to hinder them.\n\nBy 14 November Combat Group Charlie is ordered to move rapidly 20\u00a0km south-west to trap and prevent the two FAPLA units from crossing the Vimpulo into the ground between the Vimpulo and Humbe Rivers. Joined by Alpha, the two units catch 21 Brigade, slowed by G5 artillery, around 16h00 but FAPLA evades them. Combat Group Charlie is now ordered to move into within 2\u00a0km of the crossing point to ambush 21 Brigade but due to some issue ends up 6\u00a0km away and the FAPLA brigade slips past the SADF unit and by the morning of 15 November had crossed the river, while Alpha patrolled the ground between the Mianei and Vimpulo rivers left behind by 21 Brigade for any stragglers.\n\nFAPLA's race for the Chambinga Bridge\nThe night of 15 November saw 21 and 25 Brigades attempt to cross the Hube river as a shortcut to the Chambinga crossing point but the ground was too marshy. The brigades could not find a crossable point over the Hube so it was decided to follow to the river through the Viposto high ground to the Hube source in the east and round it and back westward to the high grounds south of the Chambinga river crossing. Combat Team Charlie's plan was to intercept 21 Brigade as it rounded the Hube on 16 November and so left its position at Vimpulo river and rounded its source and headed for the area of Hube river's source. Combat Team Bravo would be its reserve.\n\nInstead of an interception, Charlie met them head-on between and 10h00 10h30, after failing to deploy properly. In the first ninety minute battle the SADF forces lost three soldiers and two vehicles. Ratel-20 infantrymen from 4SAI, Ratel-90s, Olifant tanks and Unita troops engaged the enemy who countered with mortar, BM-21 Stalin Organs and tanks as the SADF tried to force the enemy out of the tick bush and trees into the floodplains.\n\nThe battle lasted until 16h30 with Combat Team Bravo joining Charlie after engaging further tanks before withdrawing twelve kilometres when they ran short of ammunition and fuel. Using SADF artillery to keep 21/25 Brigade in place, SADF reconnaissance units saw them begin preparing defensive positions but the brigades organised themselves and were able to round the Hube during the replenishment and hidden by a thunderstorm. FAPLA lost 131 soldiers, seven tanks and various vehicles while the SADF lost 6 soldiers with 19 wounded, and two Ratels and two other vehicles. UNITA itself took terrible casualties.\n\nFAPLA's plan for the 17 November had the 21/25 Brigades dug into the high ground between the sources of the Chambinga and Hube rivers defending the approach to the bridge crossing, allowing 16 Brigade to cross the river with 59 Brigade managing the crossing. The SADF plan had the G5 artillery trapping FAPLA at the bridge while an attack would be made by Combat Group Alpha and elements of tanks and two 32 Battalion companies from Combat Group Charlie. The landscape around the southern Chambinga river crossing consisted of a one kilometre floodplain called an anhara with forest to the south were the FAPLA forces hid while the bridge crossing itself consisted of a TMM mobile bridge with log laid approach roads over the marshy ground.\n\n17 November saw the SADF again advance westwards to the Chambinga crossing point with Combat Group Alpha leading the attack, Combat Group Bravo south-east at the source of the Humbe River and Charlie replenishing and in reserve. SADF artillery units targeting the bridge crossing consisted of G-5s, MRl and 120mm mortars while a SADF forward artillery observer, Lieutenant Koos Breytenbach, watched, protected by UNITA troops. The artillery began to engage the enemy with fragmentation shells as it moved to cross the anhara in the early morning.\n\nAlpha stepped off at 08h30 but its progress was hindered by UNITA's faulty intelligence concerning a minefield which slowed it down to a halt while the ground ahead was inspected. Alpha was hindered as it approached its attack on 21 and 25 Brigades as the bush was extremely thick and the armoured vehicles were unable to move fast. 21 and 25 Brigades on hearing their approach began to retreat and combined with MiG air patrols stopped the SADF artillery firing and the combat units approach which allowed 21 Brigade to retreat to the bridge and fords, with only Bravo engaging small elements of the brigade's rearguard three kilometres from the bridge. Combat Group Alpha arrived at the bridge by 17h00 but 21 Brigade had escaped. \n\n59 Brigade held its nerve and had succeeded in managing the passage of the remains of 21 Brigade across the Chambinga bridge and the three fords despite constant attacks from the G-5 artillery. At the end of the day, Task Force 10 had retreated back to the east, resting, safe from MiG attacks the SADF thought would happen at the battle site the next day. SADF artillery continued to engage targets identified while UNITA forces patrolled the controlled areas. That evening FAPLA would recross the bridge and began retrieving damaged and stranded vehicles.\n\nFurther plans discussed\nOn 18 November in Pretoria, General Jannie Geldenhuys, General Koos Liebenberg and Admiral Dries Putter gathered to discuss the options for the next course of action. Liebenberg placed three options on the table. One, withdraw the SADF forces and end Operation Moduler or secondly attack and take the bridge over the Cuito or lastly attack Cuito Cuanavale from the west as opposed to operations taking place currently to the east of the town. The third option had been discussed by the generals on 2 November, but would require another brigade on the western side of the river that would have to be made up of Citizen Force units who could only be ready for operations by the earliest 20 December. The 18 November meeting resolved nothing and on 22 November General Geldenhuys flew into Task Force 10's Angolan headquarters where a decision was made for a plan to attack the FAPLA forces at Chambinga. While the SADF forces rested, repaired and resupplied, FAPLA began to resupply and dug in to defend their positions.\n\nAttack on Chambinga Heights\nWith the demobilisation date of the SADF national servicemen fast approaching on 15 December, a plan was hatched for one last attack on the remains of the FAPLA forces situated on the Chambinga Heights with the intention of forcing them to flee west across the Cuito river to Cuito Cuanavale. General Jannie Geldenhuys and other senior officers flew to the Tactical Headquarters on 22 November and a plan was finalized for an attack. The plan called for the Task Force 10 to begin the attack with Battle Group Alpha attacking from the north with intention of fooling the enemy into believing it was the main attack, while two regular UNITA battalion, the 3rd and 5th, were the main attack moving in a westerly direction along the river followed up by Battle Group Bravo with E squadrons tanks and Battle Group Charlie in reserve to take the Cuito bridge. FAPLA forces were made up of the remains of five brigades of 4000 to 5000 soldiers and forty tanks while the SADF forces consisted of around 3000 soldiers and 13 tanks. The heights favoured a defence plan aided by thick vegetation and sand so FAPLA forces dug in with their morale raised with the arrival of 300 Cuban soldiers. The battle took place on 25 November and did not go well for the South African forces. The attack was to begin at 06h30 but was delayed when UNITA failed to turn up on time. Due to heavy bush and trees, the SADF armoured vehicles found it difficult to turn their turrets and the vegetation hindered proper navigation. UNITA forces took heavy casualties by the afternoon as they pushed the FAPLA forces back into alternative positions. Battle Group Bravo's advance was slowed by minefields and MiG fighter-bombers overhead and by 15h00 had only moved 800 m in four hours but by 17h00 was finally able to start its attack only to be stopped by heavy FAPLA artillery fire and due to the lateness of the hour retreated until the next day. The 26 November saw Battle Group Charlie reattached their tanks and led the attack with 4th UNITA Regular Battalion and Battle Group Bravo in reserve. Charlie's attack was again held up by minefields and dense vegetation, FAPLA re-enforcements of 10 tanks, further MiG bombing attempts and heavy FAPLA artillery fire while UNITA's attack petered out due to the latter's fire and so a decision was made to end the attack and withdrew to the east and with it the close of Operation Moduler. By 30 November, Task Force 10 began its withdrawal back to Rundu via Mavinga with its Tactical Headquarters back at Mavinga by 5 December.\n\nCasualties\nAt the conclusion of the final phase of Operation Moduler, FAPLA casualties were estimated at 525 killed with the loss of 28 tanks, 10 BTR-60s, 85 other vehicles and 3 SA-13 anti-aircraft missile systems while the SADF was said to have lost 16 soldiers with 41 wounded.\n\nAftermath\nOperation Moduler achieved the objective of halting the FAPLA advance against UNITA at Mavinga and inflicted heavy losses on FAPLA. After the FAPLA offensive had been stopped, the South African/UNITA force went on the offensive but failed to push them across the Cuito River before 30 November deadline, thus ending Operation Moduler and beginning Operation Hooper. FAPLA forces would later withdraw westward from the Chambinga heights taking up positions around Tumpo.\n\nSee also \n 32 Battalion (South Africa)\n Angolan Civil War\n List of operations of the South African Border War\n United Nations Security Council Resolution 602\n United Nations Security Council Resolution 606\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nFurther reading\n \n \n \n \n \n\n1987 in Angola\n1987 in South Africa\nBattle of Cuito Cuanavale\nBattles and operations of the South African Border War\nConflicts in 1987\nCross-border operations of South Africa\nMilitary history of Angola\nMilitary operations of the Angolan", " \u0433\u0435\u0440\u0446\u043e\u0433\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u043c \u041a\u0443\u0440\u043b\u044f\u043d\u0434\u0438\u044f.\n\n\u041f\u043e\u0434 \u043f\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u0442\u0435\u0440\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u043b\u0430 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The equivalent rate in the United States Navy (USN) is hospital corpsman.\n\nOverview \nThe Medical Assistant provides a broad spectrum of skills in primary care, occupational health, secondary care, pre-hospital trauma life support, medical administration, teaching first aid and disease prevention, providing health briefs, and basic environmental health. These are performed in a variety of roles at sea in a ship or submarine, with Royal Marines Commandos, Fleet Air Arm, shore establishments, Ministry of Defence Hospital Units, UKSF, and other Tri-Service departments. Predominantly they provide day-to-day healthcare for their crew mates as a vital part of the ship's company. On larger ships, they are part of a medical team, while on smaller ships they may be the only medic on board.\n\nHistory \n\nThe Medical Assistant was previously known as Sick Berth Attendant and Sick Berth Steward (19th\u201320th century) and earlier as loblolly boy (16th\u201319th century). Medical Assistants are colloquially known as \"scablifters\" or \"doc\" in Royal Naval Jackspeak.\nThe Sick Berth Branch of the Royal Navy originated on 4 May 1833 when an Admiralty order was issued to Commanding Officers to organise a \"Sick Berth Attendant\" in ships of the 5th rate and upwards a man of good character is to be selected from the complement and rated as Sick Berth attendant, whose duty it will be to attend exclusively on the sick, without being called away by the ordinary duties of the ship, and who is to be paid as an able seaman. They received no formal medical training and it was not until June 1883 that a Committee, known as the Hoskins Committee, after its chairman, Rear Admiral A. H. Hoskins was formed to enquire into the organization and training of the Sick Berth and Nursing Staff of the Royal Navy Hospitals. The committee, after visiting Naval and Military Hospitals as well as the larger London Hospitals reported their findings to the Admiralty in the autumn of 1884. The Admiralty gave their verdict in an Order in Council dated 17 October 1884. This Order authorised the establishment of a trained Sick Berth Rating Staff with the following Rates:\n\n 1st and 2nd Class Boys\n Sick Berth Attendant\n Sick Berth Steward 2nd Class\n Sick Berth Steward 1st Class\n Chief Sick Berth Steward\n\nThe Order also supported the formation of trained female nursing staff in naval hospitals, which in 1902 was to become the Queen Alexandra's Royal Naval Nursing Service.\n\nIt was thought that boys from the Greenwich Hospital School, later the Royal Hospital School, would fill the vacancies. This proved not to be the case, so entry was opened to the Royal Marines and civilians.\n\nIn 1900, three new posts were created, known as Head Wardmasters, one for each of the three main hospitals.\n\nIn 1891 Sick Berth personnel received a new style of uniform. Instead of the blue serge jumper, blue cloth collar and bell bottom trousers, known as 'Square Rig, they received a single or double breasted jacket and trousers with black buttons, red badges and a peaked cap. This was known as 'fore and aft' rig, and issued to 'all ratings not dressed as seamen. This uniform was also issued to tradesmen known as \"Artificers\", who were collectively known as \"Tiffies\". So it was natural that sick berth attendants were also known as \"Sick Berth Tiffies\".\n\nIn 1903 the Saint John Ambulance Brigade provided staff to create the Royal Navy Auxiliary Sick Berth Reserve (R.N.A.S.B.R.). Initially suggested in 1899, the Lord Commissioners of the Admiralty expressed their desire for the Brigade to provide and auxiliary sick berth reserve for ships at war, hospital ships and naval hospitals at home and abroad. Regulations for this reserve were issued to every Corps division. The Chief Commissioner requested that the officer in charge of every ambulance unit of the Brigade will be good enough to assemble members without delay.\nThe reserve was formed for the purpose of supplementing Sick Berth staff of the Royal Navy in time of national emergency and maritime war only and would be subject to the Naval Discipline act when activated. Volunteers were issued the same uniforms as their regular SBA counterparts, but wore an arm badge indicating that they belonged to the Auxiliary Sick Berth Reserve. There were two grades of ratings, junior and senior Auxiliary Royal Navy Sick Berth Attendants. However they would be able to become Sick Berth Stewards and even reserve Ward masters, if qualified and on a vacancy arising. During peace time they would be required to attend one annual inspection. Special First Aid courses and nursing instruction were provided to the auxiliaries, normally carried out at the nearest Royal Naval Hospital. The auxiliaries would serve with distinction in the Great War at sea, in hospitals, and with the Royal Naval Divisions on land. In World War 2 they again served with honour in Dunkirk, at sea, on the raid at Loften islands, during the withdrawal of Polish Forces from France 1940, the attack on Dieppe, the battle of Crete, the capture of sciliy, and in the Far Eastern theatre of war.\n\nOn 16 December 1914 Royal Marine Medical Units were formed to support the RM Brigade of the RN Divisions that were to fight on land during WW1 as there were not enough SBAs or RNASBR ratings to fulfill this role. They were trained at Crystal Palace. The majority made up the Field Ambulance sections for the RN divisions. The medical unit was borne on the strength of the Royal Marine Depot, Deal. And were allotted the service number: Depot (S) and entered on same register as Engineer and Army Service Corps unit. The excerpt form 'OFFICIAL HISTORY OF THE MEDICAL UNIT OF THE ROYAL NAVAL DIVISION FROM ITS INCEPTION TO THE EVACUATION OF GAILIPOLI.' by Arthur Gaskell: \"The position then was that the A.D.M.S. knew exactly what personnel he wanted, and Mr. Darvil-Smith knew exactly how to get them. The G.0.U. of the Division referred the matter to the Administrative Headquarters, and here unforeseen difficulties and delays arose as to how these men should be entered. Should they be Sick Berth ratings or Royal Marines? Should they be Royal Marines ashore or Royal Marines afloat? Should they be under the Army Act or under the Naval Discipline Act? what rate of pay should they receive'? What allowances were they entitled to, more especially should they have separation allowance? This last point was especially insisted upon by Mr. Darvil-Smith. At last a round-table discussion among Mr. Darvil-Smith, Lieutenant-Colonel Blumberg, R.M.L.I., Fleet Surgeon Stewart and the A.D.1\\f.S. (Fleet Surgeon Gaskell), with the D.A.D.M.S. (Captain Casement, R.A.M.C.), settled all these knotty points.\" They would see action in France on the Western front and Gallipoli. At the end of the great war the Royal Marine Medical Units were disbanded along with a reduction of the Sick Berth Branch. \n\nIn 1920, the term Steward was dropped in favour of Petty Officer. Another major change took place in 1965 which affected the Royal Navy as a whole when the \"Fore and Aft\" rig was abolished in favour of the \"Square Rig\". Also in 1965 the term Medical Assistant replaced Sick Berth, and so it remains to this day.\n\nThe Royal Navy Medical Assistant, throughout their history, whether as a Loblollyboy, or Sick Berth Rating, has seen action during war and in peace. From assisting the ships surgeons in amputating limbs to nursing the injured sailors and Marines from wars and battles throughout Britain's history, from the 16th century onwards. Most notably they served with distinction during the Napoleonic Wars at sea, the Crimean War, the Boer and other African wars, the Chinese Boxer Rebellion, and in World War I at sea and on the land. Both Sick Berth Staff of the Navy and the Medical Attendants of the Royal Marines served with distinction at the Battle of Jutland, Flanders, Gallipoli, the Western Front, Battle of Heligoland Bight, Zeebrugge Raid, the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force, Siege of Antwerp, the Battle of Dogger Bank, and the British Campaign in the Baltic (Russia) to name a few.\n\nDuring World War II the Sick Berth Branch once again served with distinction from the Atlantic to the Pacific, in Commando raids at St Nazaire and the D-Day landings at Normandy, the far East, and with the British Pacific Fleet at Okinawa.\n\nPost-war they served with further recognition and distinction in Op Musketeer (Suez Crisis), Korea, Aden, Malaya, Malaysia/Borneo Operation Claret, Op Banner N. Ireland, Op Corporate Falkland Islands, Gulf War 1, Bosnia, Kosovo, Op Herrick Afghanistan, Op Telic Iraq, various humanitarian and other peacetime Operations, both at sea and with the Royal Marine Commandos. A total of 992 have died in service, Their name liveth for evermore.\n\nHonours and awards \nSo far recorded the Sick Berth/Medical Assistant branch rating has earned:\n\nAlbert Medal x 4\nConspicuous Gallantry Medal x 4\nGeorge Medal x 3\nDistinguished Service Medal x 85\nDistinguished Conduct Medal x 2\nMilitary Cross x 3\nMilitary Medal (4 with Bar) x 106\nQueen's Gallantry Medal x 1\nBritish Empire Medal x 180\nMember of the Royal Victorian Order x 1\nRoyal Victorian Medal x 6\nOrder of St John Serving Brother x 27\nVenerable Order of Saint John (Serving Sister) x 1\nRoyal Humane Society Medal x 2\nMember of the Order of the British Empire Medal x 17\nMeritorious Service Medal x 93\nQueen's Commendation for Brave Conduct x 3\nMention in Despatches x 337\nRoyal Red Cross 2nd Class x 7\nQueens Commendation for Valuable Service x 3\n(Foreign awards listed are only those of which the reigning monarch of the time provided permission to wear, and therefore noted in the London Gazette. Many hundreds of foreign decorations have been awarded to the medical branch which have not been noted in the London Gazette)\nCross of St George 4th Class (Russia) x 1\nCroix de Guerre (French) (1 with palm) x 4\nCroix de Guerre (Belgium) x 2\nCroix de Virtute Militara 2nd Class (Romania) x 1\nKrzyz Walecznych (Polish Cross of Valour) x 1\nRomanian Distinguished Conduct Medal 2nd class x 1\nMedal of the Order of Orange-Nassau Gold with crossed swords (Netherlands) x 1\nGold Medal for Zealous service (Serbia) x 1\nMedal of the Order of Orange-Nassau Silver (Netherlands) x 1\nSilver Medal of Military Valor (Italy) x 1\nBronze Medal of Military Valor (Italy) x 2\nM\u00e9daille militaire (French) x 6\nDecoration Militaire (Belgium) x 1\nMedal D'Honneur des Epidemies (Bronze) (French) x 1\nMedal of Military Merit (Greece) x 1\nCross of Valour (Greece) x 1\nImperial Order of the Dragon of Annam Chevalier (French Vietnamese)]] x 1\n\nAn ongoing project is underway to find all honours and awards that have been recorded in the London Gazette for the Sick Berth/Medical Assistant ratings. Many more are being discovered.\n\nTraining \nBasic training (10 weeks) is conducted at shore establishment in Torpoint, Cornwall. Medical training (39 weeks) is conducted at the Defence Medical Academy at Whittington Barracks in Lichfield.\n\nThe first 13 weeks is called Common Core and is also completed with the medics from the British Army and RAF. This training includes:\n\n Anatomy and physiology\n Disorders and their treatments\n Basic pharmacology and dispensing\n Basic environmental health\n Preventative medicine\n Wounds and dressings\n Medical administration\n Geneva Convention\n First-Aid\n Military Acute Care Course, involving Pre-Hospital Trauma, Life Support.\n\nAn exam is taken on each week, those unable on the pass on their second attempt of each exam are 'back classed'.\n\nOnce complete a clinical placement of 6 weeks is conducted in a Ministry of Defence Hospital Unit (MDHU) on various wards. Trainees then return to DMSTG Whittington barracks to complete 6 weeks of Single Service (SS) training. SS training involves learning all aspects of Royal Navy medical administration, medical care in the CBRN environment and the care of those suffering from CBRN causes. Included in this is a week spent on board the training ship, to practice casualty extraction, treatment, casualty simulation, organising of First-Aid exercises and the management of First-Aid Parties during peace and action stations.\n\nThe final set of clinical placements covers a period of 12 weeks. The first 6 weeks are conducted at a Medical Centre at a shore establishment to put into practice clinical primary care and administrative skills. The next 6 weeks are spent once again at a MDHU, this time culminating in shifts at Emergency Rooms and Medical and Surgical Acute Care wards.\n\nOn return from the final phase of clinical placements the trainees return to DMSTG for 2 weeks which involves final exams on everything learned and if successful, graduation. The final phase, called 'Part IV training' is then concluded by a consolidation period of 'on the job' supervised training (12 weeks) on board a ship or shore establishment sick bay.\n\nContinuation of training \nThroughout their career an MA must complete a rolling OPS task book, which was introduced in to the MA branch in 2010. This task book covers all skills required for the MA to maintain their clinical skills in the primary care, secondary care and emergency care environments as well as medical administration and various maritime components. The various sections vary from being required to be completed annually to three yearly. The task book must be kept up to date and is an annual requirement if the rating is to be expected to even meet the basic qualifying criteria for further promotion. This ensures the MA remains current and motivated with their knowledge and skills. The rolling OPS task book is currently required for the MA, Leading Medical Assistant (LMA) and Petty Officer Medical Assistant (POMA) rates.\n\nPre-front line assignment training \nPrior to joining a ship, submarine or 3 Commando Brigade, MAs must conduct either the Maritime or Commando MA's Pre-Joining training of 6 weeks duration. This is conducted at the Institute of Naval Medicine and involves refresher and update training in primary and emergency care, medical administration and dental first-aid. The Maritime component involves exercising on board . Those completing the commando component practice field exercises in the Role 1 and 2 field medical environments at Commando Logistic Regiment Medical Squadron. Included in the pre-joining training is the Battle Field Advanced Trauma Life Support course (BATLS).\n\nCommando Medical Assistant \nRoyal Navy Medical Assistants who volunteer for service with the Royal Marines must pass the All Arms Commando Course (9-weeks) held at the Commando Training Centre Royal Marines (CTCRM) in Lympstone, Devon. Prior to this the Pre-All Arms Commando Course (4 weeks, Commando Logistic Regiment) must be taken to ensure candidates are suitable, selected and prepared prior to the All Arms Commando Course. The MA branch is also open to Royal Marines who are designated as Royal Marines Medical Assistants (RMMA). Those that go on to work with reconnaissance sections of 3 Commando Brigade complete the basic military parachutist course.\n\nMedical Assistants working in support of United Kingdom Special Forces \nThose (Commando trained or Royal Marine Commando only) who have completed at least two operational tours and have passed the arduous Black Serpent course can be selected to provide medical support to UK Special Forces (UKSF) for either the Special Air Service (SAS), Special Reconnaissance Regiment (SRR), Special Forces Support Group (SFSG) or the Special Boat Service (SBS). They then go on to complete the basic military parachutist course and, if required the HAHO and HALO Para courses.\n\nBlack Serpent selection and training\nThe Black Serpent course is Tri-Service and open to RN, RAF and Army personnel. It is run by the Medical Support Unit (MSU), Hereford and features various physical and other tests including a hills phase with march routes across the Brecon Beacons similar to those done for UKSF selection. Candidates will be expected to carry out simulated medical treatments during these marches. The goal of such exercises is to test a medic's ability to successfully perform while under pressure and exhausted.\n\nSubmariner Medical Assistant \nThose who volunteer for Service in the Submarine Service are responsible for the monitoring of air and water supplies and carrying out vital health and environmental safety checks. The training is undertaken at in Gosport and at the Institute of Naval Medicine in Alverstoke. On completion of this training, Medical Assistant Submariners, MA(SM)'s are awarded a City and Guilds Certificate in Radiation Protection and optional membership of the Guild of Radiation Workers.\n\nAdditional qualifications \nOther additional specialisations open to the MA Cadre are the newly formed Paramedic Sub Cadre. Others may transfer to beocome a Pharmacy Technician and Operating Department Practitioner. These were previously additional qualifications which are civilian accredited and have become Medical Technician branches.\n\nInsignia/badge \nThe insignia of the Medical Assistant badge is the Red Cross of Geneva on a white background with gold circling. A Royal Crown above the insignia denotes that the rating is qualified at the senior rate level (PO).\n\nRating structure \nThe branch structure of the Medical Assistant follows the same as structures of the other branches of the Royal Navy.\n\n Medical Assistant 2 (under training) (MA 2)\n Medical Assistant (MA)\n Leading Medical Assistant (LMA)\n Petty Officer Medical Assistant (POMA)\n Chief Petty Officer Medical Assistant (CPOMA)\n Warrant Officer Medical Assistant Class 2 (WO2MA)\n Warrant Officer Medical Assistant Class 1 (WO1MA)\n\nMedical Services Officer \nThose who are at PO level who are qualified, recommended and selected, can go on to become Medical Services Officers (MSO). They undertake their initial training at Britannia Royal Naval College (BRNC) Dartmouth. The MSO are commissioned officers who provide policy, guidance and other managerial, administrative and staff skills to the Medical Branches of the Royal Navy and Tri-service environment. The highest level they can reach is that of Captain, although there has been one instance of a Commodore. 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\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0437\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0435\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u043e\u0442 \u0433\u0440\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043a\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0434\u0438 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0438, \u043e\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0447\u0438\u0445 \u0442\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f, \u043e\u0442 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0445\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0443 \u0434\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0446\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430, \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0441\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u043a\u043b\u044c \u0432 \u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0443 \u0434\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0446\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043b\u0430. \u041e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u043c\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0432\u043a\u043b\u044e", ") concepts\nThese are concepts that relate, prior to experience, to the external sense of space and the internal sense of time. As such, they are mathematical in that they refer to geometry and arithmetic. A pure, sensuous concept is the construction or mental drawing of what is common to several geometrical figures. These mathematical concepts are not based on objective visual images. They are based on schemata that exist only in thought. Any particular image could not be as general as the concept. The schemata are rules that allow the imagination to mentally construct or draw or trace a pure, general geometrical form that gives the pure, sensuous concept significance. \"\u2026 [T]o possess the schema corresponding to the concept triangle is to be able to envisage the variety of things to which the word \"triangle\" applies.\" \"[T]he schema of sensuous concepts (such as of figures in space) is a product and, as it were, a monogram of the pure imagination a priori. Images become possible only through the schema. But the images must always be connected with the concept only by means of the designated schema. Otherwise, the images can never be fully congruent to the general concept.\"\n\nPure concepts of the understanding (Categories)\nA pure concept of the understanding, or category, is a characteristic, predicate, attribute, quality, or property of any possible object, that is, an object in general or as such. These concepts are not abstractions of what is common to several perceived, particular, individual objects, as are empirical concepts. \"Since the categories are a priori and are therefore not abstractions from sense perceptions, they owe their origin to the very nature of the mind itself.\" They are not derived from perceptions of external objects, as are empirical concepts. Instead, they are the result of the way that the mind is constituted or formed. They come from within the mind, not from outside of the mind.\n\nKant claimed that the schemata of pure, non-empirical concepts, or categories, provide a reference to intuition in a way similar to the manner of empirical concepts. \"If the concepts are empirical, the intuitions are called examples; if they are pure concepts of the understanding, the intuitions are called schemata.\" In the same way that examples provide signification for empirical concepts, schemata help to answer the question of \"whether operating with the categories is anything other than playing with words.\"\n\nSince the pure concepts of the understanding, or categories, are characteristics of all objects in general, they can never be associated with the image of any specific, particular, individual object. \"Since they are pure, they cannot be pictures...\" \"Yet there must be some connection between the abstract idea and the experienced world to which the idea is expected to apply...\" \"In order for the pure categories to have objective validity (and not merely subjective validity) they must be related to sensibility.\"\n\nApplying pure concepts to sense impressions\nThe categories, or pure concepts of the understanding, are a priori logical innate forms that are conditions of the possibility of things in general, or of things as such. A thing can become a known object of thought when an a posteriori sense impression is comprehended through the forms of the categories. Categories and sense impressions are totally different from each other. Categories are utterly heterogeneous with the perceptions that are experienced through the sense organs. In order for specific phenomena of Nature to be thought from the combination of categories (pure concepts) and sense perceptions, there must be a third, mediating procedure that connects them. This mediator is a transcendental schema. Transcendental schemata meaningfully join the empty \"thoughts without content\" and the blind \"intuitions without concepts.\"\n\nSchemata that mediate between empirical (a posteriori) concepts or mathematical (pure sensuous) concepts and perceptions are similar to adapters. Just as adapters are devices for fitting together incompatible parts, schemata connect empirical concepts with the perceptions from which they were derived. Schemata are rules for the production of images. As rules, they are related to concepts. As image\u2013producers, they are related to perceptions. \"While the concept belongs to the understanding and its instance to perception, the schema has, so to speak, a foot in either domain. As rules for the production of images the schemata \u2026 are linked to the understanding; as rules for the production of images they are linked to perception.\" The \"adapter\" simile is even more apt in the case of transcendental schemata. This is because pure concepts of the understanding (Categories) are totally unrelated to perceptions. The pure concepts or Categories are original constituent components of the understanding and are not derived from empirical sense perceptions.\n\nTranscendental schemata\nTranscendental schema are not related to empirical concepts or to mathematical concepts. These schemata connect pure concepts of the understanding, or categories, to the phenomenal appearance of objects in general, that is, objects as such, or all objects.\n\nJudgment\nTranscendental Schematism results from the ability to make judgments. Judgment applies \"the concepts of the understanding [the Categories] to phenomena.\" \" \u2026 [T]he judgment \u2026 schematizes these concepts a priori and applies these schemata, without which no experiential judgment would be possible, to each empirical synthesis. \u2026 the transcendental schematism of judgment provides it [judgment] with a rule under which given empirical intuitions are to be subsumed.\" Kant defined the Greek word hypotyposis as a \" \u2026 rendering perceptible to the senses, making sensual (Versinnlichung).\" The usual definition is \"example, pattern, outline, or sketch.\" If a hypotyposis is schematic, according to Kant, \"...to a concept, which is comprehended by the understanding, the corresponding intuition is given a priori...\" This is in opposition to a symbolic hypotyposis, like God, in which the concept can only be thought by Reason and to which no sensible intuition can be adequate. Schemata contain direct presentations of the concept. They make this presentation demonstratively, not by the use of analogies. Judgment, according to Kant, works mechanically with given appearances and brings them under concepts. It does this as a tool that is utilized and controlled by both the understanding and the senses. To avoid possible mistakes in judgments one must conduct the transcendental reflection.\n\nTime\nThe schematism of the pure understanding is \"the sensuous condition [time] under which alone pure concepts of the understanding [the Categories] can be used.\" Categories, or pure concepts of the understanding, are abstract representations of objects in general. However, they can result in thought about particular, specific internal or external objects if they are related to time. All concepts are derived from perceptions, therefore pure concepts [Categories] are based on pure perceptions. The purest perception, or schema, is time. Time has the purest relation to sensation that is possible. It is the mere form of sensation because sensations must be felt in succession. Therefore, time was designated by Kant as the purest possible schema of a pure concept.\n\nAll things are experienced in time, that is, in succession, one after another. This applies to our internal selves as well as to all external objects. Since categories are the forms through which every specific thing can be thought as being in time, categories are related to time. Thus, pure concepts, or categories, and phenomenal objects share time as a common feature. Therefore, time is the means by which an intuited phenomenon is subsumed under a pure concept. Schemata are transcendental time determinations. \"Hence it will be possible for the category to be applied to appearances by means of the transcendental time determination, which, as the schema of the concepts of the understanding, mediates the subsumption of appearances under the category.\"\n\nSchemata are procedural rules, not images\nBecause schemata are determinations of objects in general, not specific, individual objects, they are not particular images. Kant asserted that \"\u2026 a schema must be distinguished from an image.\" A schema is a procedural rule. The rule prescribes the way to relate a pure concept to an object in general. Schemata are ways of applying pure concepts (categories) to sense impressions. They are prescriptions for graphically illustrating a pure concept. A schema is a method for representing a non-empirical concept in any image as such or any image in general. \" \u2026 [F]or Kant a schema is not an image, but a capacity to form images or (perhaps) to construct models.\" \"The schema of a pure concept of the understanding is something which can never be made into an image...\"\n\nLewis White Beck wrote, \"The pure concepts of the understanding\u2026are applied to the pure form of intuition (time) to give rise to the 'transcendental schemata' or rules of the application of pure concepts to whatever sense\u2013impressions we receive.\" To exemplify this, he continued, \"To take the most important example, we have the hypothetical (if\u2013then) judgment, which is the mode of judgment under the category of cause. This is applied to phenomena in time by the schema of causation, namely, the rule that the cause of a phenomenon is another phenomenon that invariably precedes it in time\u2026.\" In this way, Beck showed that a transcendental schema is the rule that leads to the understanding of successive [in time] sensations according to various pure concepts [Kant's \"categories\"].\n\nExamples of different categories and their schemata\nEach category has one schema. Some schemas are shared by other categories in their class.\n The categories of quantity all share the schema of number. Quantity is related to a numerical time series. William H.S. Monck claimed that Kant can be understood as saying \"In apprehending an object I always successively add part to part, and thus generate a series of determinate magnitude.\" Unity is one moment in time. Plurality is several moments. Totality is expressed as all moments. But Monck noted that \"Kant does not trace out specially the Schemata of the Categories of Unity, Plurality, and Totality.\" Monck supposed: \"In the Category of Unity I presume we should stop at the first term of the Time\u2013series: for the Category of Plurality we should represent the addition of unit to unit without laying down any determinate limit; and for the Category of Totality we should limit the number of units and complete the addition up to this number.\"\n The categories of quality all have degrees of reality as their schema. Quality is related to the content of real being in time. Kant metaphorically explained the schema of quality as the filling up of time with a sensation. Monck paraphrased Kant as saying, \"We may speak of time as being more completely filled when the sensation is more vivid, and less completely filled when the sensation is weaker. If the sensation is sufficiently vivid the present moment is so filled with it that it seems impossible to attend to, or even be conscious of any other sensation simultaneously; but when it becomes weaker we have leisure to perceive other sensations also. This occurs by degrees. \"We can represent this filling as taking place by a gradual increase from zero (empty time) to any given degree of vividness, or by a similar descent from the sensation of the moment to zero.\" Reality is the experience of sensation in time. Negation is the absence of sensation in time. Limitation is the range of degrees, between the transition from full to empty, by which things are sensed in time. But Monck stated that \"Again Kant does not here give in detail the Schemata of the Categories of Reality, Negation, and Limitation.\" He qualifiedly suggested that \"In the first case [Reality], we should, perhaps, represent the sensation as occupying the present moment to the exclusion of everything else; in the second [Negation] the sensation as entirely absent from the present moment; in the third [Limitation] the sensation as occupying the present moment along with others.\n \"The Schema of the Category of Relation is the Order of Time.\" In the class of relation, each category has its own schema. Substance's schema is the permanence of the unchanging substance (subject) to which accidents (predicates) belong, or the permanence of the object in time. Causality's schema is the necessary succession of a consequent to an antecedent. That is, \"\u2026 the Schema of the Category of Cause is its regular Antecedence in Time (i.e. Succession in Time determined by fixed law).\" The category of community has the schema of the necessary coexistence of the accidents of one substance with the accidents of another substance. This communal interaction consists of the changing accidents of one substance having their cause in the changing accidents of another substance, and vice versa. This can be understood as \"\u2026 the Simultaneity of objects in Time.\"\n \"The Schema of the Category of Modality according to Kant is Time itself as related to the Existence of the object.\" In the class of modality, the category of possibility has the schema of possibility at any time. The schema of actual existence at a certain time belongs to the category of existence. Finally, the category of necessity has the schema of being an object at all times.\n\nEven though Kant provided these illustrations and examples of schemata, author John Mahaffy claimed that the topic remained obscure. He wrote, \"I may add, that these illustrations of the various schemata are developed and explained by the succeeding chapters on the Principles which embody them, and that it is impossible to make them clear to the reader until he has studied the theory of the Principles.\"\n\nSchematized and unschematized categories\nThe schemata give the categories a \"cash value\", as though the category is like paper money and sense experience is analogous to precious metal. A schema is the agreement or harmony of a category with sensual phenomena. For example, \"Number is the quantity of the phenomenon; sensation is the reality of the phenomenon; the permanence and endurance of things is the substance of the phenomenon, eternity is the necessity of the phenomenon, etc.\" In this way, the schemata restrict the categories to conditions of sensibility. \"Schematism and the schemas thus have the property of 'realizing' the categories at the same time as restricting their scope to appearances.\" Categories cannot be realized in objects that are not detectable by the senses, that is, are not phenomenal objects (objects that appear to an observer).\n\n\"The schemata of the pure concepts of the understanding are, therefore, the true and sole conditions for providing these concepts with a reference to objects and hence with signification. And therefore the categories have, in the end, no other use than a possible empirical one.\" In order for categories to refer to perceived, experienced objects, they must be schematized. If a category is not schematized, then it has no reference to perception. An unschematized category can be thought, but can not be known. If something can never be perceived, it can never be known. Schemata represent things in general as they appear, not as they might otherwise exist. \"Categories, therefore, without schemata are only functions of the understanding necessary for concepts, but do not themselves represent any object.\" This act results in the formation of one abstract concept from various perceptions or other concepts. With the transcendental determination of time as the transcendental schema, \" \u2026 use of the categories is clearly restricted to the range of things that fall within time \u2014 meaning, for Kant, restricted to phenomena.\" Metaphysical entities that are not related to time, such as spontaneous or uncaused movements, immortal souls, and eternal gods, are products of unschematized categories. They can be thought, but not known.\n\nUnschematized concepts\nTwo kinds of concepts do not use schemata in order to exhibit their empirical bases: rational concepts (ideas of reason), and Platonic Ideas. With these concepts or ideas, there is no intermediate nexus between abstract entity and concrete sense perception. These unschematized concepts do not contain or subsume a representation of an object that is the basis of a concept.\n \nKant listed three rational concepts or ideas of reason: God, freedom, and immortality. They are not found in experience. \u201c\u2026[T]he difficulty about ideas of reason is that \u2018absolutely no intuition commensurate with these can be given\u2019 (Critique of Judgment, \u00a7 59).\u201d \u201cTo make sense of such ideas we must accordingly have recourse to an alternative procedure, in which use is made of \u2018symbols\u2019 as opposed to schemata proper. What happens here is\u2026that we find some empirically intuitable situation which can serve as a model by reference to which the idea can be made comprehensible.\u201d For example, Kant tried to show how sense can be made of the idea of an unseen God \u201cby making a [loving or angry] father\u2019s relationship to his children the [metaphorical, figurative] symbol of God\u2019s relationship to the world.\u201d The rational idea of a non-deterministic occurrence can be spoken of in reference to the analogies of the universe as a mechanism [such as a clock] or organism. Thus, while pure concepts of understanding, empirical, and pure sensible concepts are directly exhibited and made sensible through schemata, ideas of reason are indirectly exhibited through relations by the use of symbolic analogy.\n\nProfessor W. H. Walsh attempted to explain how schemata are used to make sense of, or exhibit, the twelve Kantian categories (pure concepts of the understanding) while symbolic analogous relationships are used for the three rational concepts (ideas of reason). \"It may be useful in this connection to compare what Kant says about the schematization, or quasi-schematization, of ideas of reason with what he says about the schematization of categories. The problem in the two cases is in essentials identical: how to make a concrete use of concepts which are by nature remote from sense. To show that such a use is possible we need, in Kant\u2019s technical terminology, to find intuitions corresponding to them. In the case of pure concepts of the understanding this can be done, since we can point to the appropriate schemata; the difficulty about ideas of reason is just that 'absolutely no intuition commensurate with them can be given' (Critique of Judgment, \u00a759). To make sense of such ideas [of reason] we must accordingly have recourse to an alternative procedure, in which use is made of \u2018symbols\u2019 as opposed to schemata proper. What happens here is, roughly, that we find some empirically intuitable situation which can serve as a model by reference to which the idea [of reason] can be made comprehensible. The idea of God, for example, is incapable of being schematized, but we can nevertheless make partial sense of it for certain purposes by making a father\u2019s relationship to his children the symbol of God\u2019s relationship to the world....What is noteworthy in this discussion\u2026is\u2026the sharp contrast drawn between schema and symbol, and hence between the meaningfulness of categories and that of ideas [of reason]\u2026.every concept capable of schematization\u2026seems to allow that the relationship between idea [of reason] and symbol is altogether less intimate: symbolizing is a relatively arbitrary process, and hence each idea [of reason] can be symbolized in a variety of ways.\" A category has one transcendental schema; an idea of reason can have multiple symbols for its analogy.\n\nPlato\u2019s Ideas (also known as notions, forms, paradigms, or archetypes) are concepts that function as patterns or models. They are related to objects in the experienced world Ideas are related to natural objects or their perceptual representations by the processes of participating, partaking, and copying. \u201cThe particular objects which we perceive are imperfect copies or reflections of the eternal patterns.\u201d\n\nLink to the Unconscious\nIn von Hartmann\u2019s Philosophy of the Unconscious he declared that", "\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0441\n \u0412\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0430, \u041d\u0430\u0434\u044c\u043a\u0430, \u041b\u044e\u0431\u043a\u0430\n \u0421\u043b\u0451\u0442-\u0441\u0438\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0443\u043c\n \u041f\u043e\u0434\u0432\u0438\u0433 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0447\u0438\u043a\u0430\n \u0422\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e\n \u0421\u044f\u0434\u0435\u043c \u0440\u044f\u0434\u043e\u043c\n \u041a\u0430\u043a \u0432\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0435\n \u0412 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435\n \u041d\u0430 \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u044c \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442\u043e\u0432\n\nCD2: \u041d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044f\u00a0\u2014 1998 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0421\u043d\u0435\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043a\u0438\n \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430\n \u041a\u043b\u0438\u043f\u0441\u043e \u041a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043f\u0441\u043e\n \u041d\u0430 \u0441\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c\u0435\n \u0421\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0430\n \u0421\u043e\u043d \u043d\u0430\u044f\u0432\u0443\n \u0417\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u0436\u0434\u044c\n \u041d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430\n \u0412\u043d\u0438\u0437 \u043f\u043e \u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u043d\u0435\u0431\u0430\n \u0422\u043e\u043c \u0421\u043e\u0439\u0435\u0440\n \u0412\u0441\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0451 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f\n \u0422\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0446 \u043d\u0430 \u0446\u044b\u043f\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0430\u0445\n \u0422\u0430\u0446\u0443\n \u041c\u043e\u0440\u0435 \u0421\u0438\u0430\u043c\n \u041d\u043e\u0430 \u041d\u043e\u0430\n\nCD3: \u0410\u0433\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u041a\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u00a0\u2014 1998 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n Viva Kalman\n \u0422\u0430\u043d\u0433\u043e \u0441 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u043f\u043b\u0430\u043d\u043e\u043c\n \u041d\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\n \u041a\u0430\u043a \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u0435\n \u0410\u0439\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044c\u044e\n \u0429\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\n \u041c\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043a\u0430\n \u0423\u0440\u0430\u0433\u0430\u043d\n \u0422\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n \u041f\u043e\u0437\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0437\u0432\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0430\n \u0421\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0430\n \u041a\u043e\u0448\u043a\u0430\n \u0428\u043f\u0430\u043b\u0430\n \u0414\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\n \u0413\u043d\u043e\u043c\u044b-\u043a\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0431\u0430\u043b\u044b\n \u0410\u0444\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0430\n \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0438\n \u0422\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0430\n \u0425\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0433\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0448\u043d\u0430\n \u0418\u0437\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\n Viva\n\nCD4: \u0410\u043a\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0443\u043c\u00a0\u2014 1998 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u041e\u043d\u0430 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0433\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0439\n 10 \u0421\u0442\u0440\u0435\u043b\n \u0414\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0442\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0430\n \u041f\u043e\u0435\u0437\u0434 \u0432 \u043e\u0433\u043d\u0435\n \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0437\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0439\n \u0420\u043e\u043a-\u043d-\u0440\u043e\u043b\u043b \u043c\u0451\u0440\u0442\u0432\n \u041c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0447\u0438\u043a \u0415\u0432\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\n \u0410\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0438\u0434\u0430\n \u042f\u00a0\u2014 \u0437\u043c\u0435\u044f\n 15 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u044b\u0445 \u0431\u0430\u0431\n \u041a\u043e\u0437\u043b\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0435\u0432\n \u0411\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0445\u043e\u0439\n \u042d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0451\u0441\n \u0416\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432\u043e\u0434\u0430\n \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\n \u0413\u043b\u0430\u0437\n \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u041e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\n \u0413\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0431\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0433\u043e\u043d\u0451\u043a\n \u041d\u0438\u043a\u0438\u0442\u0430 \u0420\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n \u041a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430 Mon Amour\n \u0422\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u043b\u044e\u0437\n \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0436\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0438\u043c\u0444\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\nCD5: \u0427\u0430\u0439\u0444\u00a0\u2014 1998 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0420\u043e\u043a-\u043d-\u0440\u043e\u043b\u043b \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u043e\u0447\u0438\n \u041e\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0436\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\n \u0422\u0430\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a\n \u041d\u0435 \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0448\u0438\n \u041d\u0435 \u0434\u0430\u0439 \u043c\u043d\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\n \u041f\u043e\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0447\u044c \u043e \u043d\u0451\u043c\n \u041a\u0430\u043a \u0442\u0435\u0431\u044f \u0437\u043e\u0432\u0443\u0442\n \u041d\u043e \u044d\u0442\u043e \u0442\u0430\u043a\n \u0421\u0435\u043c\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0446\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043b\u0435\u0442\n \u0412\u0447\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u043b\u044e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044c\n \u041f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0442\u0435\u0431\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f\n \u041f\u0438\u0432\u043e\n \u0428\u0430\u043b\u044f\u0439-\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044f\u0439\n \u0412\u043d\u0435\u043f\u043b\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0440\u0442\n \u0417\u0430\u0436\u0433\u0438 \u043e\u0433\u043e\u043d\u044c \u0432 \u043c\u043e\u0438\u0445 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\n \u041a\u043e\u0432\u0431\u043e\u0438\n \u041d\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e \u043d\u0435 \u0443\u0441\u043b\u044b\u0448\u0438\u0442 (\u041e\u0439-\u0439\u043e)\n \u0414\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0451\u043c\u0441\u044f\n\nCD6: \u0411\u0440\u0438\u0433\u0430\u0434\u0430 \u0421\u00a0\u2014 1998 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0417\u0432\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0430\n \u0411\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0433\u0430\n Playboy\n \u0421\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\n \u042f \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0430\u044e Jazz\n \u0417\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0437\u043e\u043d\u0430\n \u0427\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a \u0432 \u0448\u043b\u044f\u043f\u0435\n \u041d\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435 \u0437\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u043c\u0438\n \u041e\u0433\u043b\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0441\u044c\n \u0420\u043e\u0437\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434 \u043d\u0430 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0435\n \u0421\u043a\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0435\u0437\u0434 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0451\u0442 \u0432 6 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u043e\u0432\n \u0414\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f\n \u0411\u0435\u043b\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u043f\u0430\u043a\n \u041d\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0451\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0435 \u041b\u0443\u043d\u044b\n \u0412\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0441 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430\n \u0412\u0441\u0435 \u044d\u0442\u043e \u0440\u043e\u043a-\u043d-\u0440\u043e\u043b\u043b\n\n\u041b\u0435\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0434\u044b \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u043e\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 4 \n\nCD1: \u0414\u0414\u0422\u00a0\u2014 1999 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0420\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420\n \u0421\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c\n \u041e\u043d\u0438 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0436\u0451\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043a\n \u0425\u0438\u043f\u043f\u0430\u043d\u044b\n \u042f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b \u044d\u0442\u0443 \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\n \u0422\u0435\u0440\u0440\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\n \u0420\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0446\u0438\u044f\n \u0412 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u044e\u044e \u043e\u0441\u0435\u043d\u044c\n \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\n \u0427\u0451\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0451\u0441 \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\n \u0413\u043b\u0430\u0437\u0438\u0449\u0430\n \u0412\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\n \u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\n \u042f \u0437\u0430\u0436\u0451\u0433 \u0432 \u0446\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0432\u044f\u0445 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0447\u0438\n \u0410\u0433\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c (\u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0435\u043a\u0430)\n \u041c\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\n\nCD2: \u0410\u0443\u043a\u0446\u042b\u043e\u043d\u00a0\u2014 1999 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u041f\u0442\u0438\u0446\u0430\n \u0421\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0430\n \u0421\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0451\u0442\n \u041f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0440\n \u0423\u0448\u043b\u0430\n \u0417\u0438\u043c\u0430\n \u041d\u044d\u043f\u043c\u0430\u043d\n \u0421\u043f\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u043b\u0434\u0430\u0442\n \u0416\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0432\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\n \u041a\u043e\u043b\u0434\u0443\u043d\n \u0421 \u0434\u043d\u0451\u043c \u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\n \u0422\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0430\n \u0412\u0440\u0443\n \u0413\u043b\u0430\u0437\u0430\n \u041b\u0435\u0442\u0438, \u043b\u0435\u0439\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0442\n \u0427\u0443\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0440\n\nCD3: \u0426\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u00a0\u2014 1999 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0442\n \u041c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0447\u0438\u043a \u0432 \u0442\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u0443\u0444\u043b\u044f\u0445\n \u0421\u043c\u0443\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u044f\u0442\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0435\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e \u0447\u0435\u0433\u043e\n \u0422\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0449\u0438\u043d\u044b\n \u0412\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u044f, \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0443\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0448\u043e\u0444\u0451\u0440\n \u041d\u0430\u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u0434\u0430\n \u0414\u0435\u0432\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0438 \u043b\u044e\u0431\u044f\u0442 \u043b\u0451\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\n \u0427\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a\n \u0418\u043c\u0435\u0442\u044c\n \u0424\u0438\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u044b\u043c\n \u0416\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0431\u044b\n \u0421\u0442\u044e\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0430 \u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u043b\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0439\n \u0413\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043b\u044e\u0434\u0438\n \u042f \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0443\u043c\u0435\u044e\n \u0421\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0439 \u0432 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\n \u0411\u0435\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f\n \u041d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0437\u0435\u043c\u043b\u044f\n \u0425\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\n \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0435\u0435\u0432\n\nCD4: \u041d\u043e\u043b\u044c\u00a0\u2014 1999 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u043e \u0431\u0435\u0437\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u044e\u0431\u0432\u0438 \u043a \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\n \u0427\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a \u0438 \u043a\u043e\u0448\u043a\u0430\n \u041b\u0438\u0446\u0430\n \u041c\u043e\u0440\u0435\n \u0418\u0434\u0443, \u043a\u0443\u0440\u044e\n \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0431\u0443\u0433\u0438\n \u0421\u043a\u0430\u0437\u043a\u0430 \u043e \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0431\u0430\u0441\u0435\n \u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u043e \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u043c \u0438\u043d\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0435\n \u0414\u043e\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0425\u0430\u0439\u0434\u0435\u0440\n \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u043a\u0437\u0430\u043b\n \u0422\u0430\u043d\u0433\u043e\n \u041f\u043e\u043b\u0451\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u043b\u0443\u043d\u0443\n \u0418\u043d\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0434 \u043d\u0443\u043b\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b\n \u0428\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430 \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0438\n \u041c\u0430\u0436\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0449\u0435\n \u042f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b\n \u0411\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0442\n \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043d\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043b\n\nCD5: \u0414\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043a\u00a0\u2014 1999 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n 17 \u043b\u0435\u0442\n \u041c\u044f\u0447\u0438\u043a\n \u041f\u043e-\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0436\u043d\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u0432\u0434\u0432\u043e\u0451\u043c (\u041a\u0430\u043f\u044e\u0448\u043e\u043d)\n \u041c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442\u044b (\u0412 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c)\n \u0422\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0430\n \u041f\u043e\u0447\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u043c\u044b \u043f\u044c\u0451\u043c \u0432\u0438\u043d\u043e?\n \u041d\u0430 \u043f\u043b\u044f\u0436\u0435 (\u041f\u043b\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0430)\n \u041f\u0440\u043e\u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430\n \u041c\u0430\u043c\u0430, \u044f \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0430\u043b \u0432 \u0431\u0435\u0434\u0443\n \u041b\u0438\u0432\u0435\u043d\u044c\n \u042f \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0434\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0439\n \u0414\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0439 \u0444\u0438\u0437\u0437\u0430\u0440\u044f\u0434\u043a\u0443 (39-\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433)\n \u041a\u0442\u043e \u043d\u0435 \u0443\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043b, \u0442\u043e\u0442 \u043e\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043b\n \u0421\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043e\n\nCD6: \u0412\u0430-\u0411\u0430\u043d\u043a\u042a\u00a0\u2014 1999 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0440\u0443\u0442\u044b \u043c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435\n \u042d\u043b\u044c\u0434\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0434\u043e\n \u0414\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f\n \u041d\u0430 \u0434\u0430\u0447\u0435\n \u0414\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0430\n \u041f\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f\n \u0427\u0451\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043c\u044f\n \u0417\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044c\n \u041c\u043d\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0442 (\u0448\u0438\u0437\u043e)\n \u041a\u0443\u0445\u043d\u044f\n \u041e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0438\u0441\u0442\n \u0421\u043a\u0430\u0437\u043a\u0438\n \u041a\u0443\u0434\u0440\u044f\u0432\u0430\u044f\n \u0416\u0438\u0437\u043d\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0451\u0441\u0430\u0445\n \u041a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0438\u043d\u043e\n \u0412\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0430\n \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\n \u041b\u0435\u0442\u0443\u0447\u0430\u044f \u043c\u044b\u0448\u044c\n \u041f\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044e\n \u0412\u044b\u043f\u0435\u0439 \u0437\u0430 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f!\n\n\u041b\u0435\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0434\u044b \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u043e\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 5 \n\nCD1: \u0427\u0451\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u0444\u0435\u00a0\u2014 2000 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c\n \u0413\u0434\u0435-\u0442\u043e \u0432 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0437\u0430\u0445\n \u0412\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\n \u0421\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043b\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\n \u0418 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u043c\u044b\n \u042f \u0442\u0430\u043a \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\n \u041b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044f\n \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u043a\n \u0417\u0438\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442\n \u0414\u044c\u044f\u0432\u043e\u043b \u0432\u043e \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0438\n \u0413\u0434\u0435 \u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442?\n \u041b\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u043e\u0441\u0435\u043d\u044c\n \u041d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0433\u0438\u044f\n \u0412\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u043b\u044f\n \u042d\u0442\u043e\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u043e\u043a\n \u041a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u044f\n \u0427\u0451\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u0444\u0435\n \u041f\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043b\u0443\u043d\u0430\n \u041a\u043e\u0434\u0430\n\nCD2: \u0423\u0440\u0444\u0438\u043d \u0414\u0436\u044e\u0441\u00a0\u2014 2000 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0427\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a \u043d\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0430\n \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0432\u043e\u0434\u044b\n \u041c\u044b\u0448\u044c\n \u0427\u0435\u0433\u043e \u044d\u0442\u043e \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043b\u043e \u043c\u043d\u0435\n \u0410\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440 \u0432 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e-\u0431\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0435\n \u041b\u0438\u0448\u043d\u044f\u044f \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\n \u0428\u0443\u043c\u044f\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u0440\n \u0422\u0443\u043f\u0438\u043a\n \u0410\u0432\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043b\u044c \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0443\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\n \u0421\u043e\u0431\u043b\u044e\u0434\u0430\u0439 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044e\n \u0420\u0430\u0437\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u043e \u043b\u044e\u0431\u0432\u0438\n \u041f\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\n \u041d\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u044c\u0435\n \u041c\u0435\u0433\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n 451\u2019F\n \u041f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433. 1975\n\nCD3: \u0411\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u00a0\u2014 2000 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u041e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0438\u0435\n \u0412\u0435\u0440\u044e \u044f\n \u0416\u0451\u043b\u0442\u044b\u0435 \u0431\u043e\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0438\n \u041a\u043e\u0448\u043a\u0438\n \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\n \u0420\u043e\u0437\u044b\n \u0427\u0443\u0434\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0430\n \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u041e\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0436\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u041b\u0435\u0442\u043e\n \u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0440, \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430\n \u0414\u0436\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0430\n \u0427\u0451\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u0442\n \u0412\u0430\u0441\u044f\n \u0421\u0442\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0436\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u0430\u043b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043a\n \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0438\u0442\n \u041a\u0430\u043a \u0436\u0430\u043b\u044c\n \u0414\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0438\u0441\u044c, \u043f\u0438\u0436\u043e\u043d\n \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043a-\u043d-\u0440\u043e\u043b\u043b\n \u0414\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0430 \u0432 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u043a\u0430\n \u0417\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043a \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\n \u042d\u0442\u043e\u0442 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\n \u042d\u0442\u043e \u0437\u0430 \u043e\u043a\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442\n \u0412\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0435\u0442\n \u0416\u0430\u0440-\u043f\u0442\u0438\u0446\u0430\n \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0430 2000 (Pop Mix)\n\nCD4: \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0439 \u041a\u0443\u0440\u0451\u0445\u0438\u043d \u0438 \u041f\u043e\u043f-\u043c\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 2000 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0422\u0438\u0431\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0442\u0430\u043d\u0433\u043e\n \u0421\u0442\u044b\u043f\u0430\u043d \u0434\u0430 \u0434\u044b\u0432\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0430\n \u0411\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0434\u043d\u0438\n \u0421\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0439\n \u041d\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\n \u0421\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0441 \u0430\u0437\u0438\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0432 \u0410\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0435\n \u0420\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0441\n \u041e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\n \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0437\u0430\n \u0422\u0440\u0438 \u0441\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u044b\n \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0441\n \u0412\u0438\u0432\u0430, \u041d\u0435\u0430\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\n \u0414\u0432\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430 2 (\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c 4)\n \u0414\u0432\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430 2 (\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c 5)\n \u0414\u0432\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430 2 (\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c 6)\n \u041a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441 \u043d\u0435\u0432\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 (\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c 5)\n \u0412\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0431\u044c\u0438\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u0434\u0430\n\nCD5: \u041d\u0435\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0441\u0430\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0435\u00a0\u2014 2000 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u041d\u0430\u043f\u043e\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f \u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0439\n \u041e\u043b\u044c\u0433\u0430\n \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0434\u043e\u0436\u0434\u044f \u0434\u044b\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0430\u0441\u0444\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0442\n \u042d\u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439\n \u041d\u0435\u043f\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0451\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0430\n \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0431\u043e\u0440\n \u041c\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u0443\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043b\u2026\n \u0414\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u043b\u044e\n \u0417\u0430 \u043e\u043a\u043e\u0448\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043c\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0446 \u043c\u0430\u0439\n \u0425\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0442 \u0445\u043e\u0442\u044c \u043a\u0442\u043e-\u0442\u043e\n \u042d\u0439, \u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442, \u0437\u0434\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0439\n \u042d\u0442\u043e \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0430\u043d\u0433\u0435\u043b\n\nCD6: \u0421\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u00a0\u2014 2000 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u042f \u043b\u044e\u0431\u043b\u044e \u0411\u0443\u0433\u0438-\u0432\u0443\u0433\u0438\n \u0422\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u043f\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\n \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0442\n \u0411\u043b\u044e\u0437 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0447\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0430\u043a\n \u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f\n \u0411\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0435\u0437\u0434\u043e\u043a\n \u0421\u0438\u0434\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u0440\u044b\u0448\u0435\n \u0414\u0430\u0439 \u043c\u043d\u0435\n \u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0433\u043d\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0432\n \u0418\u0434\u0438 \u0434\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0439\n \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0430\u0439\u0442\u0435, \u043f\u0430\u043f\u0430\n \u0421\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0434\u043d\u0438\n \u0423\u0431\u0435\u0433\u0430\u0439, \u043a\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043a\u0430\n \u041c\u0430\u0436\u043e\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u043a-\u043d-\u0440\u043e\u043b\u043b\n \u0410\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430-\u0431\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430\n \u0412\u0441\u0435 \u00ab\u041e\u041a\u00bb\n \u041e\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0435\u0442\n \u0422\u0432\u043e\u0438 \u0448\u0430\u0433\u0438\n \u041e\u0442\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0442\u043e\u0440\u043c\u043e\u0437\u0430\n \u0412 \u0436\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0445\n \u0412\u043e\u0437\u044c\u043c\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\n\n\u041b\u0435\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0434\u044b \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u043e\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 6 \n\nCD1: \u0412\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 (\u0412\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a 2)\u00a0\u2014 2002 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0420\u0430\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0441\u044c\n \u042f \u0442\u043e\u0436\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b\n \u041d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f \u0436\u0438\u0442\u044c\n \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043c\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0438, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u044f \u0436\u0438\u0432\u0443\n \u0421\u043f\u0435\u0448\u0438\u0442 \u043c\u043e\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\n \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043a\n \u0421\u043d\u0435\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0431\u0430\n \u0417\u0432\u043e\u043d\n \u0415\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u0436\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043d\u044c\u044f \u0431\u0435\u0433\u0443\u0442, \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e \u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\n \u042f \u0437\u043d\u0430\u044e\n \u041d\u0430 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0431\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0433\u0443\n \u041a\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0442\u044b \u0441\u043c\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0448\u044c \u0432 \u0441\u043f\u0438\u043d\u0443\n \u0421\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043b\u0430\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430\n \u0428\u0430\u043d\u0445\u0430\u0439-\u0431\u043b\u044e\u0437\n \u041f\u0438\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0430\n \u0414\u043e \u0441\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\n Hotel California\n\nCD2: \u0421\u0412\u00a0\u2014 2001 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430\n \u0414\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u0434\u0443\u0448\u0435\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439\n \u0412\u043e\u0442 \u0438 \u043b\u0435\u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u043e\n \u0414\u0435\u043b\u043e \u0434\u0440\u044f\u043d\u044c\n \u0421\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0439\n \u0415\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043a\u0440\u0430\u0439 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0439\n \u0414\u0435\u043d\u044c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f\n \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0430\n \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0448\u0430\u0433\n \u0413\u0434\u0435-\u0442\u043e \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435\n \u0412 \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0451\u0442\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0434 \u0420\u044b\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c\n \u041e\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u043b\u044e\u0437\n \u042f \u0432\u044b\u0434\u043e\u0445\u0441\u044f\n \u041d\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044f\u0441\u044c \u0443\u043f\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c\n \u041a\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u0442\u044b \u0441\u043c\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0448\u044c\n \u041d\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0430, \u041b\u044e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044c \u0438 \u0412\u0435\u0440\u0430\n \u0414\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0439 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0451 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u043e\n\nCD3: \u0427\u0438\u0436 & Co\u00a0\u2014 2001 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0412\u0435\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\n \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0451\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\n \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c\u0433\u0438\n \u0425\u043e\u0447\u0443 \u0447\u0430\u044e\n \u0422\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\n \u041d\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0435\u0440\u044f\u0442\u044c\n \u042d\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0437\u043e\u043d\u0430\n \u0418\u0434\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438\u044f\n \u041f\u0430\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\n \u0415\u0445\u0430\u043b \u0432\u0441\u044e \u043d\u043e\u0447\u044c\n \u0420\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d, \u0447\u0442\u043e\u0431\u044b \u0431\u0435\u0436\u0430\u0442\u044c\n \u041f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0430\u043a\u0435\n \u0413\u043b\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0438 \u0434\u0443\u0448\u043e\u0439\n \u0421\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0438\u043c\u0438\u043b\u044c\u044f\n \u0422\u043e \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0430, \u0442\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0441\u0430\u0434\u0430\n \u0424\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043c\n\nCD4: \u041e\u043f\u0442\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0442\u00a0\u2014 2001 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0411\u043b\u044e\u0437 \u0440\u044b\u0436\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\n \u041d\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0433\u043a\u0435\n \u041f\u0435\u0432\u0447\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0434\n \u041f\u043e\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0430\n \u0410\u0440\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0433\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\n \u041f\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434 \u043a\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0442\u044c\n \u0423\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c\n \u0420\u0436\u0430\u0432\u044b\u043c \u0441\u0435\u0440\u043f\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0430\u043c\n \u042d\u0439, \u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a!\n \u041f\u0447\u0435\u043b\u0430 (\u0411\u043b\u044e\u0437 \u043d\u0430 \u0430\u0431\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0430\u0445)\n \u0411\u044b\u0434\u043b\u043e\n \u0416\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0451\u0442\n \u0420\u0430\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u043f\u0435\u0439\n \u0413\u0440\u0435\u0439\u043f\u0444\u0440\u0443\u0442\n \u0412\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0441 (\u0422\u044b \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0448\u044c \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0441)\n \u0422\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0432\u0430\u0440\n \u0423\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u044f\u0431\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043b\u0435\u0442\n \u0427\u0442\u043e-\u0442\u043e \u0441\u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c\n \u0422\u043e\u043a\u0438 \u0424\u0443\u043a\u043e\n\nCD5: \u041c\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u00a0\u2014 2002 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0411\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0441\u044c\n \u0420\u0443\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0447\u044c!\n \u041a\u0442\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e?\n \u0429\u0438\u0442 \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0447\n \u041c\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\n \u041f\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0447\u0438\n \u041d\u0430\u043f\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c!\n \u041c\u044b \u043d\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u044b?\n Heroes\n They Are Just Like Us\n \u041f\u0435\u043f\u0435\u043b \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0443\n \u041d\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0435\u043b\u043e\n \u0411\u0430\u0441 \u0441\u043e\u043b\u043e\n \u0417\u0434\u0435\u0441\u044c \u043a\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\n \u0422\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043d\n \u041a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044b\n \u041c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430 \u0445\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0442 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043c\n\nCD6: \u0413\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0430\u00a0\u2014 2001 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u042f \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0443\u043c\u0430\u043d \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0447\u044c\n \u042f \u0438\u043b\u043b\u044e\u0437\u043e\u0440\u0435\u043d \u0441\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\n \u041d\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\n \u0418\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u0432 \u0431\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0440\n \u0414\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u0440\n \u0422\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043c\n \u0421\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0442\n \u041a\u043e\u0433\u043e-\u0442\u043e \u0435\u0449\u0451\n \u041c\u044b\u0448\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0430\n \u041d\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0435\u0440\u044f\u0442\u044c\n \u041c\u0438\u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u0438\u044f\n \u041c\u0430\u043c\u0430, \u043c\u0430\u043c\u0430\n \u041d\u0435\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044f\n \u041f\u0440\u043e \u0434\u0443\u0440\u0430\u0447\u043a\u0430\n \u041f\u0441\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043a\n \u041c\u0451\u0440\u0442\u0432\u044b\u0435\n \u0421\u043b\u0435\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0435 \u043c\u043d\u0435 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0443\n \u0422\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0432\u0430\u0439\n \u041f\u043e\u0439, \u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0446\u0438\u044f!\n \u041d\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0436\u0443 \u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442\n \u041f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0434\u0430\n \u041d\u0435\u0432\u044b\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043c\u0430\u044f \u043b\u0451\u0433\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0431\u044b\u0442\u0438\u044f\n \u0417\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0443 \u043d\u0430\u0441 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0430\u044f\n \u0417\u0434\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0439, \u0447\u0451\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a\n \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0451\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430\n\n\u041b\u0435\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0434\u044b \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u043e\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 7 \n\nCD1: \u0410\u0440\u0438\u044f (\u0412\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a 2)\u00a0\u2014 2002 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u041d\u0430 \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0431\u0435 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u044b \u0437\u043b\u0430\n \u0420\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0435\u043c \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0442 \u043c\u0438\u0440\n \u041d\u0435 \u0445\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0448\u044c\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u044c \u043c\u043d\u0435\n \u0411\u0435\u0433\u0438 \u0437\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0446\u0435\u043c\n \u0411\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u0435\u043b\n \u041d\u043e\u0447\u044c \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0447\u0435 \u0434\u043d\u044f\n \u0428\u0442\u0438\u043b\u044c (feat. U.D.O.)\n 1100\n \u0410\u043d\u0433\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u044b\u043b\u044c\n \u041e\u0442\u0448\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a\n \u0411\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430 \u043e \u0434\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0432\u043e\u0438\u043d\u0435\n \u041f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u044f\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0439\n \u041a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0435\u0439\n\nCD2: \u0412\u0435\u0436\u043b\u0438\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430\u0437\u00a0\u2014 2002 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0420\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0442\u044b-\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u044b\n \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0437\u0438\u043c\u044b\n \u0413\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f\n \u0412 \u0447\u0443\u0436\u0438\u0445 \u043e\u0437\u0451\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u0441\u043d\u0430\u2026\n \u042d\u0439!\n \u0412\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\n \u041a\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0433\u0438\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u0435\u043b \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\n \u041f\u043e\u0436\u0430\u0440 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u044b 1812 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\n \u0412\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0441\n \u0411\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0430-\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\n \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\n \u0420\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\n \u0420\u043e\u043a \u044d\u043d\u0434 \u0420\u043e\u043b\u043b\u044c\n \u041f\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0430\u0434\u043e\u043a\n \u0428\u043a\u0430\u0444\n \u041f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044e\n \u0413\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u0430. \u041e\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\n \u041b\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u043d\n \u0411\u043b\u044e\u0437\n\nCD3: \u0418\u043d\u043d\u0430 \u0416\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f\u00a0\u2014 2002 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0427\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0437 \u0441\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043a\n \u0421\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0439\n \u0418\u0437-\u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442 \u0437\u0430\u0440\u044f\n \u041c\u0430\u043a\n \u041c\u0430\u043c\u0430\n \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\n \u0421\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\n \u0414\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435, \u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435\n \u0414\u043e \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0435\u0431\u0430\n \u0422\u0430\u043d\u0446\u044b \u0442\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0439\n \u0422\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0441 \u0442\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0439\n \u041c\u043e\u043b\u0447\u0438\n \u0417\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0430\u043b\u043e\n \u041b\u0435\u0433\u043a\u043e \u0431\u043b\u044e\u0437 \u0434\u043e-\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0440\n\nCD4: \u041a\u0438\u043d\u043e (\u0412\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a 2)\u00a0\u2014 2002 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0412\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0430\n \u0412\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u043e\u0447\u044c\n \u0417\u0430\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0437\u0430 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044c\n \u041a\u0430\u043c\u0447\u0430\u0442\u043a\u0430\n \u0412\u043e\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430\n \u0414\u043e\u0436\u0434\u044c \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0441\n \u0414\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\n \u0414\u0435\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\n \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043b\u0435\u0442\u043e\n \u041a\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u0442\u0432\u043e\u044f \u0434\u0435\u0432\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0430 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\n \u042d\u0442\u043e \u043d\u0435 \u043b\u044e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044c\n \u0421\u0430\u0448\u0430\n \u0418\u0433\u0440\u0430\n \u0411\u0435\u0437\u044a\u044f\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0437\u043e\u043d\u0430\n \u041f\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\n \u0412 \u043d\u0430\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\n \u041c\u0430\u043c\u0430, \u043c\u044b \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0438 \u0441 \u0443\u043c\u0430\n \u0421\u043f\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0439\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043d\u043e\u0447\u044c\n \u041a\u0443\u043a\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0430\n \u041c\u0430\u043b\u044b\u0448\n\nCD5: \u041a\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0439 (\u0412\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a 2)\u00a0\u2014 2002 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0411\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0439\u043b\u0438\n \u041a\u0430\u0442\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0443\n \u0423\u0431\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0449\u0435\n \u042f\u0434\n \u0417\u0435\u0431\u0440\u044b\n \u0414\u043e\u043c \u00ab\u0413\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0431\u044b\u0435 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0437\u0430\u00bb\n 2001 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u041f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0445\u0438\u043f\u043f\u0438\n \u0420\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u043b\u044e\u0437\n \u0421\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0438 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u0442\n \u0420\u0435\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0430\n \u0428\u043f\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0440\n \u0422\u0440\u0438 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\n \u0428\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0443\u0441\n \u0420\u0435\u043a\u0432\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0432\u0441\u0430\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u044b\n \u0411\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\n \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0425\u0430\u0440\u0438 \u0431\u043b\u044e\u0437\n \u0421\u0435\u0431\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u044f\n \u041c\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u0422\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043e\u043d\n \u041f\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043b\u044f\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u044c\n \u042d\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f\n\nCD6: \u0422\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0440\u00a0\u2014 2002 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0421 \u0432\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0440\n \u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\n \u0428\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u044b\u0431\n \u041e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0438\u043b\u043b\u044e\u0437\u0438\u0439\n \u0414\u0435\u0442\u0438 \u0443\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0442\n \u0422\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u043f\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0444\u0430\u0448\u0438\u0441\u0442\n \u0412\u0435\u0440\u0430\n \u0422\u0440\u0438-\u0447\u0435\u0442\u044b\u0440\u0435 \u0433\u0430\u0434\u0430\n \u0414\u044b\u043c-\u0442\u0443\u043c\u0430\u043d\n \u0421\u044b\u0442 \u043f\u043e \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043b\u043e\n \u041d\u0430 \u0416\u0435\u043b\u044f\u0431\u043e\u0432\u0430, 13\n \u041d\u0435\u0442 \u0434\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0433\n \u0417\u0432\u0451\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f\n \u041b\u044e\u043b\u0438-\u043b\u044e\u043b\u0438\n \u0422\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u0427\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0433\u043e\n \u041f\u0443\u0442\u044c \u043a \u0443\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0445\u0443\n \u0423\u043a\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430\n \u0410\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0435\u0442\n\n\u041b\u0435\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0434\u044b \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u043e\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 8 \n\nCD1: \u042d.\u0421.\u0422.\u00a0\u2014 2003 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0412\u0435\u0441\u0451\u043b\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0436\u043e\u043a\u0435\u0440\n \u041a\u0430\u0442\u044e\u0448\u0430\n 10 \u0432\u0435\u0441\u0451\u043b\u044b\u0445 \u043b\u0435\u0442\n Russian Vodka\n \u0421\u043f\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0439\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u043e\u0447\u0438, \u0411\u0440\u0430\u0439\u0442\u043e\u043d-\u0411\u0438\u0447\n \u041f\u044c\u044f\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0432\u0438\u043d\u0430\n \u0428\u0442\u044b\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\n \u0418\u0433\u0440\u044b \u0437\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0439\n \u041c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u043d\u0435\u0431\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0439\n \u041a\u0430\u043a \u043c\u043d\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u0442\u044c\n \u0411\u0443\u0445-\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0445\n \u0414\u0438\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438 \u043f\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0430\u044f\n \u0417\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043c (remix)\n \u041e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0439\u0441\u044f \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0439\n \u0421\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043b\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u0435\u043b\n \u041a\u0430\u0439\u0444\n \u0417\u043b\u043e\n Bully\n We\u2019ll Be Back\n\nCD2: \u0410\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u041a\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0427\u0451\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0441\u043a\u00a0\u2014 2003 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u041f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0447\u044c\n \u0410\u043f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043f\u0441\u0438\u0441\n \u0421\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0430\n \u0410\u0432\u0435, \u0426\u0435\u0437\u0430\u0440\u044c\n \u041c\u0435\u0447\n \u041f\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f\n City\u2019s On Fire\n \u0412\u043e\u0439\u043d\u0430\n \u0415\u0449\u0451 \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c\n \u0423\u0431\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0445 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445\n \u0417\u0434\u0435\u0441\u044c \u0438 \u0441\u0435\u0439\u0447\u0430\u0441\n \u0414\u043e\u043c \u0436\u0451\u043b\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043d\u0430\n \u041a\u0442\u043e \u043c\u044b \u0442\u0435\u043f\u0435\u0440\u044c\n \u042f \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u044e\u0441\u044c\n\nCD3: \u041e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u043a\u0442 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u043c\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043a\u00a0\u2014 2003 \u0433\u043e\u0434\n \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\n \u042d\u043f\u043e\u0445\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0441\n \u0416\u0438\u0437\u043d\u044c 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A. \u0424\u0443\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438", " \u0442\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0443\u043b\u0451\u0437\u0443. \u0412 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0446\u0438\u0438 2\u00a0% \u043b\u044e\u0434\u0435\u0439 \u043d\u0435\u0447\u0443\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b \u043a \u0442\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0443\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0443.\n\n\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \n\n\u0412 1890 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443, \u043d\u0430 \u0414\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u043e\u043c \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0435 \u0432 \u0411\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0435, \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0443\u0447\u0451\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0420\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442 \u041a\u043e\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u044a\u044f\u0432\u0438\u043b \u043e 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1908 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0438 (Petruschky) \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0434\u043b\u044f \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043b\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0435\u0442, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u044f \u043f\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0436\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0435\u0437. \u041d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044e\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0432 1922 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0438\u043b \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043a\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440. \u0412 1923 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0412\u0441\u0435\u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0439 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\u0434\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0443\u0431\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b \u0442\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0443\u043b\u0451\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0431\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0432 \u043c\u044f\u0441\u043e-\u043f\u0435\u043f\u0442\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0431\u0443\u043b\u044c\u043e\u043d\u0435. \u041d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043e\u0442 \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0444\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0438\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u043b\u043b\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0432 \u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0447\u0443\u0436\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0410\u0422\u041a \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0435\u043b\u043e \u043a \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e PPD.\n\n\u041e\u0447\u0438\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0442\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0443\u043b\u0438\u043d PPD (purified protein derivative) \u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u044f\u0442 \u0438\u0437 \u0441\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0438 \u0443\u0431\u0438\u0442\u044b\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0431\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0443\u043b\u0451\u0437\u0430 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0447\u044c\u0435\u0433\u043e (M.tuberculosis) \u0438 \u0431\u044b\u0447\u044c\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432 (M.bovis). \u0417\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432 \u043e\u0441\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0442\u0440\u0438\u0445\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0441\u0443\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0439, \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u044d\u0442\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u0441\u043f\u0438\u0440\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u044d\u0444\u0438\u0440\u043e\u043c, \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0444\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e-\u0431\u0443\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0435. \u041e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u044b\u0439 F. Seibert \u0432 1934\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 PPD-S \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0443\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u0432 1952-\u043c \u0412\u041e\u0417 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0442 \u0441\u0443\u0445\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0447\u0438\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0443\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430. \u0412 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438 PPD-L (\u041c. \u041b\u0438\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439).\n\n\u0421\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432 PPD-L: \u0444\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e-\u0431\u0443\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u00a0\u2014 0,85\u00a0%, \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u00a0\u2014 0,005\u00a0% \u0442\u0432\u0438\u043d-80, \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0442\u00a0\u2014 0,01\u00a0% \u0445\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0437\u043e\u043b (\u0433\u0438\u0434\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0441\u0438\u0445\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d \u0441\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0444\u0430\u0442). \u0412 0,1 \u043c\u043b \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f 2\u0422\u0415 (\u0442\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0443\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0446\u044b), \u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 0,00012\u00a0\u043c\u0433 \u0441\u0443\u0445\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0430.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0435\u0438\u043c\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e PPD \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434 \u0410\u0422\u041a \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0432 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 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\u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0433\u0438\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0435\u0439, \u043e\u0442\u0451\u043a \u043a\u043e\u043d\u044a\u044e\u043d\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u044b, \u043e\u0442\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0435 \u0438\u0437 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u044a\u044e\u043d\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0435\u0448\u043a\u0430.\n\n\u0421\u043c. \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \n \u0411\u0426\u0416\n \u0422-\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0442\n \u041a\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043d\n \u0422\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0443\u043b\u0451\u0437\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n \n \u0418\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0438\u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0435 \u0438 \u043b\u0438\u043a\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0442\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0443\u043b\u0451\u0437\u0430 \u041c\u0421\u0425.", "Episode 77: An interview and KEXP live performance from The Hold Steady, and interviews with Les Savy Fav, New York Noise VJ Search, and videos from Adam Green, The Go! Team, The Mountain Goats, Parts & Labor, Evangelicals, The Long Blondes, and Pete & The Pirates\nEpisode 76: Tim Harrington of Les Savy Fav celebrates Hanukkah, The Harlem Shakes perform on KEXP, interviews with Jens Lekman, Klaxons, and Vampire Weekend, and videos from Dr. Dog, Panda Bear, The Helio Sequence, Les Savy Fav, Imani, Of Montreal, and Cut Copy\nEpisode 75: Yeasayer interview and performance on KEXP, behind the scenes of a Ladybug Transistor video, interviews with Mark Ronson and The Black Kids, the New York Noise VJ Search, and videos from The Dodos, Au Revoir Simone, Shout Out Louds, Super Furry Animals, MGMT, Jeremy Jay, CSS, Holy Hail, and Jamie T\nEpisode 74: Vampire Weekend tours Morningside Heights, Au Revoir Simone begins the weekly New York Noise VJ Search 2008, a CMJ fashion report, an interview with Liars, an exclusive performance by Simian Mobile Disco recorded live at the KEXP CMJ broadcast, and music videos from The Thermals, My Teenage Stride, Hot Chip, Ra Ra Riot, Digitalism, New Young Pony Club, Love of Diagrams, O'Death, Vampire Weekend, Liars\n\n2007\n\nEpisode 73: Apples in Stereo in Central Park\nEpisode 72: The National tours the United Nations building\nEpisode 71: Jeffrey Lewis hosts with his parents\nEpisode 70: Devlin & Darko of Spank Rock at the Big Apple Circus\nEpisode 69: Battles learn non-violent communication with Dr. Dian Killian\nEpisode 68: New York Noise's executive board takes over the show, with appearances from Andrew Thompson and Oxford Collapse\nEpisode 67: Peggy & Roy go head to head in the New York Noise Blogger War at SXSW, featuring interviews with Peter Bjorn & John, Voxtrot, The Pipettes, Menomena, Dan Deacon, Matt & Kim, Fujiya & Miyagi, and more.\nEpisode 66: Senior citizens judge music videos by The Hold Steady and Albert Hammond Jr., Of Montreal, Nicole Atkins, Dr. Dog, and The Knife\nEpisode 65: Antique Rockshow at the WFMU Record Fair, with music videos from Human Television, Saturday Looks Good To Me, The Magnetic Fields, Stephen Malkmus, Danielson, Animal Collective, Barbara Morgenstern, The Embassy, The Tough Alliance, Dr. Octagon, Yeah Yeah Yeahs and Talking Heads\nEpisode 64: \"Disability Mentoring Day\" behind the scenes of DFA Records, Insound.com, and Time Out NY, plus videos from The Rapture, LCD Soundsystem, Goldfrapp, Moby, CSS, TV on the Radio, Band of Horses, Tahiti 80 and The Knife\nEpisode 63: MC Steinberg interviews The Shins, The Rapture, Girl Talk, The Presets, Hot Chip, Forward, Russia!, The Knife, and Tokyo Police Club at the 2006 CMJ Music Festival.\n\n2006\n\nEpisode 62: \"My SuperSweet Barmitzvah\" with Michael Leviton, plus videos from The Spinto Band, Tom Vek, The Strokes, Locksley, The Thermals, Art Brut, Klaxons, Klaus Nomi, Jos\u00e9 Gonz\u00e1lez, Menomena, Oliver Laric, Ralph Myerz & Jack Herren Band and Hot Chip\nEpisode 61: An inside look at the 2006 Pitchfork Music Festival with Aesop Rock, The Mountain Goats, The Futureheads, CSS, Yo La Tengo, Fred Armisen and roving fruit correspondent Ted Leo, with videos from The Heavy Blinkers, Pavement, Beirut, and M. Ward\nEpisode 60: A comparative study between the Willie Mae Rock Camp for Girls and Ethel's Music Camp, plus videos from Plastic Operator, Dr. Octagon, Asobi Seksu, Dick & Dee Dee, Michael Leviton, El Perro Del Mar, Klaxons, Dan Deacon, Danielson, Sonic Youth, Dungen, Art Brut, Arctic Monkeys and The Cribs\nEpisode 59: Live performances by Saturday Looks Good to Me, Mobius Band, Human Television, Meneguar and Fallen Angel Crying at the East River Music Project, along with videos from Field Music, Mates of State, Oliver Laric, Camera obscura, Broken Social Scene, Yeah Yeah Yeahs, Supersystem, Services, and Psapp\nEpisode 58: \"Making the Video\" with Beirut at the Sweet N\u2019 Low sugar factory, with videos from Jamie Lidell, Feist, Regina Spektor, Jos\u00e9 Gonz\u00e1lez, TV on the Radio, Kudu, Spank Rock, Figurines, The Spinto Band, I'm From Barcelona, Suburban Kids with Biblical Names and The Besties\nEpisode 57: \"Ms. New York\" Staci Shands interviews Art Brut, The Cribs, Stars, Rogers Sisters, Tapes 'N Tapes, Dirty on Purpose, Man Man, Serena Maneesh at the 2006 Siren Festival, with videos from Dirty on Purpose, Tapes N Tapes, Islands, Rogers Sisters and Hot Chip\nEpisode 56: The Fiery Furnaces join up with the FDNY at Ladder 54 Engine 8 for a fire safety lesson, with videos from Irving, The Futureheads, Kelley Stoltz, Islands, Sonic Youth, The Rogers Sisters, The Presets, The Real Tuesday Weld, and They Might Be Giants\nEpisode 55: The Walkmen are interviewed, with videos from Fischerspooner, DJ Spooky, Jason Forrest, We Are Scientists, Spoon, Neko Case, Band of Horses, Dirty on Purpose, and Serena Maneesh\nEpisode 54: Kids critique music videos by The Cloud Room, Ezra Reich, LCD Soundsystem, The Knife, Blondie, Phofo, Animal Collective, and Arctic Monkeys\nEpisode 53: Simon Reynolds, author of \"Rip It Up and Start Again: A History of Post-Punk\" is interviewed while people get \"post-punk haircuts\", with videos from Talking Heads, Orange Juice, OMD, Klaus Nomi, A Certain Ratio, ESG, Josef K, Franz Ferdinand, Monochrome Set, Devo and The Raincoats\nEpisode 52: SXSW 2006 with Ted Leo, Art Brut, Aziz Ansari & Paul Scheer, Ryan Schreiber from Pitchfork Media, Serena Maneesh, Calla, Clap Your Hands Say Yeah, and Au Revoir Simone, with performances by The New Pornographers, Joggers, Love Is All, Clap Your Hands Say Yeah, Matt & Kim, Meneguar, Psychic Ills, The Boy Least Likely To, Belle & Sebastian, and Afrirampo, with videos from Baby Dayliner, The Go! Team, Pizzicato Five, Shugo Tokumaru, Arctic Monkeys, Menomena, and Ivy League\nEpisode 51: Adam Green hosts \"The Adam Green Variety Hour\" with guests Jenny Lewis, Rogue Wave, Jeffrey Lewis, Kimya Dawson, Animal Collective, The Strokes, Langhorne Slim, Mr. Scruff, Human Television, and The Knife\nEpisode 50: Walter Kuhr of The Main Squeeze Orchestra is interviewed, with videos from Envelopes, Of Montreal, Gogol Bordello, The Cloud Room, The Walkmen, Test Icicles, Liars, Burnside Project, Annie, Phofo, Ezra Reich, and The Peachwaves\nEpisode 49: Aziz Ansari hosts the 2006 PLUG Awards, with appearances by TV on the Radio, The National, Beans, Holy Fuck, Celebration, Emiliana Torrini, Chad VanGaalen Claire and Patrick from OhMyRockness.com, Jack Rabid of Big Takeover, and Nick Sylvester.\n\n2005\n\nEpisode 48 Highlights from previous episodes and the best videos of 2005, including The National, Jason Forrest, M.I.A., The Go! Team, and Out Hud\nEpisode 47: The Hold Steady perform at The Variety Club Boys & Girls Club of Queens, plus videos from Ivy, The Clientele, The Magic Numbers, Pia Fraus, Snoozer, Sons & Daughters, Cornelius, No-Neck Blues Band, Talking Heads, The Double, Bright Eyes, The Bats, and Run On\nEpisode 46: J from The Cloud Room and Nicole Atkins go on a blind date, plus videos from Wolf Parade, Grizzly Bear, Bright Lights, Beat Happening, The Knife, and Matt Pond PA\nEpisode 45: Aziz Ansari & Rob Huebel portray Pitchfork Media's Thadius P. Scornburner and Nigel P. Radcliffe at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre, plus videos from Pinback, My Morning Jacket, Devendra Banhart, Pavement, Chalets, Bloc Party, Burnside Project, LCD Soundsystem, and The Go! Team\nEpisode 44: \"WFMU Record Fair\" with radio personalities Brian Turner, Small Change, DJ Trouble, OCDJ, Small Change, and Mac of Antique Phonograph, plus Brian Turner shares videos from Afrirampo, Lightning Bolt, The Fall, Serge Gainsbourg, Captain Beefheart, Devo, and Deerhoof\nEpisode 43: Oneida gives a tour of their studio, plus videos from Jason Forrest, Antony & The Johnsons, Shout Out Louds, Mother and the Addicts, The Peachwaves & Goblin Cock\nEpisode 42: Bishop Allen host a rooftop barbecue along with Funny Ha Ha director Andrew Bujalski, plus videos from Mates of State, CocoRosie, Sleater-Kinney, Spoon, Bloc Party, Out Hud, Smog, and The Fiery Furnaces\nEpisode 41: Hosts Eugene Mirman & Langhorne Slim hand out fried scallops, highlights from the New York Noise CMJ Showcase with Au Revoir Simone and Mahogany, along with other CMJ clips featuring The Besties, Of Montreal, The Hold Steady, Why?, Tomorrow's Friend, The Castanets, Skeletons & the Girl-Faced Boys, The Gossip, Blood on the Wall, and Test-Icicles\nEpisode 40: An inside look at the first Willie Mae Rock Camp For Girls, plus videos from Dirty on Purpose, Stars, Sons & Daughters, The Legends, and OK Go\nEpisode 39: Hosts Carl Newman of the New Pornographers, and Dave Martin at the Beggars Group 10th Anniversary, with cameos by Fred Armisen, and Dean Wareham, plus videos from the Beggars Group catalogue, including The New Pornographers, The Double, Calla, The Avalanches, M/A/R/R/S, Cocteau Twins, Charlatans, and The Pixies\nEpisode 38: Man Parrish & Richard Barone talk about Klaus Nomi, with footage from the documentary, The Nomi Song, as well as videos by Architecture in Helsinki, Of Montreal, The Cloud Room, and LCD Soundsystem\nEpisode 37: Trachtenburg Family Slideshow Players host from their East Village apartment, with music videos from M83, Spoon, The Arcade Fire, Mr. Scruff, and Interpol\nEpisode 36: My Favorite gives summer reading recommendations from the New York Public Library, with performances from SXSW (by Voxtrot, LCD Soundsystem, M.I.A., Dirty on Purpose, Hot Chip, Kings of Convenience, and Ariel Pink), and videos from Emiliana Torrini, Jennifer Gentle, Iron & Wine\nEpisode 35: Kids judge videos by Sparks, The Real Tuesday Weld, Suburban Kids With Biblical Names, and Adam Green\nEpisode 34: Ben Goldberg of The Leaf Label listens to top 40 music for 30 days straight to investigate the harmful effects, plus videos from M.I.A., Solvent, Antony & the Johnsons, and Caribou\nEpisode 33: Fischerspooner is interviewed, plus videos from ESG, Sonic Youth, Beck, Matisyahu, Enon, and Talking Heads\nEpisode 32: The National is interviewed, plus videos from Bright Eyes, Sleater-Kinney, Annie, and The Shout Out Louds\nEpisode 31: Tommy Ramone sips tea and talks about the Ramones documentary, End of the Century, with videos from Fischerspooner, My Favorite, and Brazilian Girls\nEpisode 30: Animal Collective is interviewed at a cupcake shop, with videos from Ariel Pink, Suburban Kids with Biblical Names, Devendra Banhart, Matisyahu\nEpisode 29: International whistling champion Steve \"the Whistler\" Herbst gives whistled renditions of songs by Adam Green, M.I.A., My Favorite, The Postal Service, and Jens Lekman, with videos from The National, Dirty Projectors, and Aberfeldy\nEpisode 28: The members of 33\u00a0Hz cook a turducken and perform at the NYCTV Winter Launch, with videos from Regina Spektor, Annie, Emiliana Torrini, Sonic Youth, and Supersystem\nEpisode 27: WFMU DJ and musician Jason Forrest is interviewed, with videos from Beck, LCD Soundsystem, R\u00f6yksopp, and Kings of Convenience\nEpisode 26: Interview with Chris from CMJ, about the CMJ Music Marathon\nEpisode 25: Le Tigre is interviewed\nEpisode 24: ?\nEpisode 23: Featuring Tommy Ramone Ramones- Rock & Roll High School Bloc Party- Banquet Human Television- Mars Red Dust Adem- These Are Your Friends The Walkmen- We\u2019ve Been Had Ramones- I Wanna Be Sedated Joanna Newsom- Sprout & the Bean Devendra Banhart- A Ribbon The Real Tuesday Weld- Bathtime in Clerkenwell Fischerspooner- Just Let Go Brazilian Girls- Don't Stop Ramones- Do You Remember Rock & Roll Radio Darude- Cowboy S-Stomp LCD Soundsystem- Daft Punk is Playing at My House\nEpisode 22: Featuring the Animal Collective The Dears- Lost in the Plot Jeffrey Lewis- Don't Let the Record label Take You Out To Lunch The Organ- Brother The Bravery- Honest Mistake MIA- Galang Danielson Famile- Rubbernecker Suburban Kids with Biblical Names- Rent a W reck Mice Parade- Focus on the Rollercoaster Mum- Green Grass of Tunnel Animal Collective- Who Could Win a Rabbit Ariel Pink- For Kate I Wait\nEpisode 21: ?\nEpisode 20: ?\nEpisode 19: ?\nEpisode 18: CMJ 2004 Music Marathon featuring Midlake, The Russian Futurists, Poingly, Danielson feat. Sufjan Stevens, The Organ, Parker and Lily, and Smoosh\nEpisode 17: Ted Leo & the Pharmacists- Me & Mia Concretes- You Can't Hurry Love Interpol- Slow Hands Bloc Party- Banquet Human Television- Tell Me What You Want Bonnie Prince Billy- Horses Boyskout- Jesse James Animal Collective- Who Could Win a Rabbit Jeffrey Lewis- Don't Let the Record Label Take You Out To Lunch Devendra Banhart- At the Hop Sparks- The Rhythm Thief Moving Units- Available Futureheads- First Day My Favorite- Happiest Days of My Life Le Tigre- TKO\n\n2003\u20132004\n\nEpisode 16: Videos from Interpol, Prosaics, The Mazing Vids, The Moldy Peaches, My Favorite and Boyskout\nEpisode 15: Live footage of Jeffrey Lewis and White Magic, along with videos from Radio 4, Burnside Project, The Wrens, Eltro, Cat Power, Mixel Pixel & ROTFLOL\nEpisode 14: Videos from The Stills, Adam Green, The Boggs, Chromeo, !!!, Joanna Newsom, Bonnie Prince Billy, and My Favorite\nEpisode 13: Live footage of Ari-Up of The Slits performing an ode to New York City with her son, along with videos from Burnside Project, !!!, My Favorite & Prosaics\nEpisode 12: Videos from The Boggs, Chromeo, Radio 4, The Rapture, The Real Tuesday Weld, The Natural History, DJ Spooky, My Favorite, The Walkmen, The Stills & Calla\nEpisode 11: Live footage of White Magic, Prosaics and ESG, along with videos from My Favorite, Burnside Project, The Thermals, The High Strung, Iron & Wine, and The French Kicks\nEpisode 10: The Sleepy Jackson- \"Good Dancers\" Dir. Nash Edgerton (Astralwerks)Radio 4- \"White Man in Hammersmith Palais\" Dir. Punkcast.com from Joe Strummer tribute (Astralwerks) The Natural History- \"Watch This House\" Dir. Ryan Junell (Startime) The Oranges Band- \"Finns For Our Feet\" Dir. Farah (Lookout!) ESG- \"You\u2019re No Good\" Dir. Punkcast.com (99) Pepe Deluxe- \"Girl\" Dir. Paul Malmstrom & Linus karlsson (Emperor Norton) Ralph Myerz & The Jack Herren Band- \"Think Twice\" Dir. G.H. Hopland & Arild Fr\u00f6hlich (Emperor Norton) Burnside Project- \"Cue the Pulse To Begin\" Dir. Jacob Hensberry (Bar None) Franz Ferdinand- \"Take Me Out\" Dir.Jonas Odell (Domino) French Kicks- \"When You Heard You\" Dir. Brett Simon (StarTime) Seconds- \"Baby\" Dir. Punkcast.com (5RC) Oneida- \"Privilege\" Dir. Punkcast.com (Jagjaguwar) Sonic Youth- \"100%\" Dir. Tamra Davis (DGC) The Prosaics- \"Now the Shadow of the Column\" Dir. Punkcast.com (Unsigned) Cat Power- \"He War\" Dir. Brett Vapnek (Matador) Run On- \"Christmas Trip\" Dir. Mark Steiner (Matador)\nEpisode 9: The Moldy Peaches- \"Lucky Charms\" Dir. Punkcast.com (Rough Trade) Spoon- \"The Way We Get By\" Dir. Steve Hanft (Merge) The Boggs- \"Plant Me a Rose\" Dir. Julia Li (Arena Rock) Franz Ferdinand- \"Take Me Out\" Dir", " at Louisiana State University. His college career ended during his junior season, when he injured his elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery. The San Francisco Giants selected him in the 2003 draft. He reached the major leagues in 2006 and had become the Giants' regular closer by the end of 2007. In 2010, he led the Majors with 48 saves which tied the franchise single season record while posting a 1.81 ERA, and he saved clinching games at every level of the playoffs, including the 2010 World Series over the Texas Rangers.\n\nIn the first week of the 2012 season, Wilson injured his elbow and subsequently underwent his second Tommy John surgery. He completed his recovery midway through the 2013 season and signed with the Los Angeles Dodgers, pitching effectively with them as a late-inning reliever through the playoffs. However, he was not able to continue his success in 2014, and the Dodgers released him after that season.\n\nEarly life\nWilson was born in Winchester, Massachusetts on March 16, 1982. While he was in second grade, he moved to Londonderry, New Hampshire. Today, he talks little of his childhood except to discuss his father, Mike Wilson, who was an Air Force veteran and a demanding perfectionist. During fall, he would have Brian bag leaves and bury them in the woods; and in winter, he would have Brian spend seven hours shoveling snow on weekends. Brian said in a 2011 interview, \"I think that's how you need to be raised. It's not your friend, it's your dad. And he's going to be strict. And one day you're going to understand why. And sometimes, it's a little too late. They might pass away, and you might not get that chance to say thanks or understand why you did those things. But when you become a man, you understand why.\"\n\nWhen Wilson was 12 years old, his father was diagnosed with cancer. His father fought the disease for five years before dying while Wilson was attending Londonderry High School; Wilson today says he had to become a man when his father was diagnosed. In a 2011 story, ESPN.com writer Elizabeth Merrill said about Wilson's high school years, \"He was an honor roll student at Londonderry, but clashed with various authority figures who didn't appreciate his occasional lack of a filter.\" In the same story, a number of Londonderry faculty speculated that some teachers didn't understand Wilson's life situation at the time. Art Psaledas, an assistant principal at the school, added, \"It happened at probably the worst time anybody could lose your dad. Watching his dad deteriorate over the years was probably the singular thing that formed his personality.\"\n\nBob Napolitano, Wilson's coach at Londonderry High School, noticed Wilson's ability to concentrate on baseball. Napolitano specifically remembered the first home game of Wilson's senior year, which happened shortly after his father's death. No fewer than 29 professional scouts, all with radar guns, showed up to see him pitch. According to Napolitano, Wilson was completely oblivious to their appearance; he ate and drank in the dugout, warmed up, and pitched a two-hitter while apparently not noticing that scouts were there. The Cleveland Indians offered him a contract straight out of high school, but he did not sign, opting to attend college instead.\n\nCollege career\nAfter a coach saw Wilson pitch well at a tournament in California, he was offered a scholarship to Louisiana State University (LSU), where he played for the LSU Tigers baseball team, eventually becoming their No. 2 starter. In his time at LSU, Wilson pitched in 51 games (22 starts) and accumulated 18 wins, 10 losses, and five saves. In 2002, he played collegiate summer baseball with the Hyannis Mets of the Cape Cod Baseball League. He was in the middle of his third season on March 28, 2003, when he injured his elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery. He also played for the Keene Swamp Bats of the New England Collegiate Baseball League, a summer league for collegiate prospects. Despite facing extensive rehabilitation, Wilson chose to enter the 2003 Major League Baseball draft.\n\nProfessional career\n\nDraft and minor leagues\nComing off his surgery, Wilson was drafted by the San Francisco Giants in the 24th round in 2003. He began his career with the Hagerstown Suns of the Class-A South Atlantic League in 2004. In 23 games, he had a 2\u20135 record, a 5.34 earned run average (ERA), 41 strikeouts, and 22 walks in innings pitched. He made three starts that year, the only time he ever started games professionally. The Giants switched single-A affiliates the next year and Wilson began pitching for the Augusta GreenJackets. In 26 games, he had a 5\u20131 record, a 0.82 ERA, 30 strikeouts, and seven walks in 33 innings pitched while notching 13 saves, good for second in the league behind Brett Campbell's 19. His performance with Augusta caused Mark Camps of the San Francisco Chronicle to mention him in his \"Minor Report\" on May 15. He also pitched for the Norwich Navigators of the double-A Eastern League (posting no record, eight saves, a 0.57 ERA, 22 strikeouts, five walks, and innings pitched in 15 games) and the Fresno Grizzlies of the Triple-A Pacific Coast League (posting a 1\u20131 record, no saves, a 3.97 ERA, 13 strikeouts, eight walks, and innings pitched in nine games).\n\nSan Francisco Giants (2006\u20132012)\n\n2006 season\nWilson began 2006 with the Grizzlies before getting called up to the majors on April 23 to replace Tyler Walker, who was designated for assignment after struggling to begin the season. He made his major league debut that day in relief, pitching two innings, surrendering two hits and no runs while striking out three. He later revealed that he hurt himself during his first inning but continued pitching through the second without informing anyone of his injury. Afterward he was placed on the disabled list for a month. On May 23, he returned from the DL. He was optioned to Fresno on June 7 when Tim Worrell was activated from the DL; Giants' manager Felipe Alou said Wilson was not getting enough playing time. Wilson would go on to have three more stints with the Giants in 2006. On July 2, he got his first career save, stranding three inherited runners in the eighth inning and throwing scoreless innings in a 6\u20132 victory over the San Diego Padres. In 31 games, he had a 2\u20133 record, a 5.40 ERA, 23 strikeouts, and 21 walks in 30 innings pitched. In 24 games with Fresno, he had a 1\u20133 record, a 2.89 ERA, 30 strikeouts, and 14 walks in 28 innings pitched.\n\n2007 season\nWilson competed for the closer role with Armando Ben\u00edtez in 2007 spring training. After he struggled and posted a 7.71 ERA, the Giants optioned him to the minors to start the season. After building a 1\u20132 record, 2.10 ERA, 37 strikeouts, 24 walks, 11 saves, and innings pitched in 31 games with Fresno, Wilson was called up on August 11 when Jonathan S\u00e1nchez was demoted. He was initially used as the setup man for closer Brad Hennessey, but he took over as closer on September 11 when Hennessey lost the role due to ineffectiveness. He went on to pitch in 24 games, recording a 1\u20132 record, a 2.28 ERA, 18 strikeouts, six walks, innings pitched, and six saves.\n\n2008 season\nWilson remained the Giants' closer in 2008 and kept the role all season. He recorded 24 consecutive saves from May 3 through August 17, the longest streak by a Giant since Robb Nen had 28 straight in 2000. Wilson was named to the All-Star Game after leading the NL in saves with 25 in the first half of the season. He gave up no hits and struck out one in innings in a 4\u20133 loss to the American League. He continued to lead the league in saves until Jos\u00e9 Valverde passed him at the end of August. Despite posting a 4.04 ERA through September 6, Wilson converted 37 of 40 save opportunities. In his final seven games of the year, however, he posted a 9.56 ERA while converting just four out of seven opportunities. In 63 games, he had a 3\u20132 record, a 4.62 ERA, 67 strikeouts, and 28 walks in innings pitched. He converted 41 saves in 47 attempts; his 41 saves were tied with Brad Lidge's total for second in the league behind Valverde's 44.\n\n2009 season\nOn June 5, 2009, Wilson saved Randy Johnson's 300th win. Johnson, searching for his 300th win, gave up one unearned run in six innings in Game 1 of a doubleheader against the Washington Nationals; the Giants had a 2\u20131 lead in the eighth inning. With runners on first and second for the Nationals and two outs, Wilson was called on to get the save. He walked Ryan Zimmerman to load the bases and bring up Adam Dunn. He then loaded the count against Dunn before throwing a called strike three to end the inning. Wilson then pitched a scoreless ninth, preserving the victory for Johnson. On September 24, with two outs and two strikes in the ninth inning and the Giants leading the Chicago Cubs by a 2\u20131 score, Wilson gave up a two-run home run to Jeff Baker. The loss hurt the Giants' chances of reaching the playoffs. In 68 games, Wilson had a 5\u20136 record, a 2.74 ERA, 83 strikeouts, and 27 walks in innings pitched. He blew seven saves, but his 38 saves tied for third in the NL with Ryan Franklin's total behind Heath Bell's 42 and Francisco Cordero's 39. He led the league in saves requiring four outs or more, with eight.\n\n2010 season\n\nIn 2010 spring training, Wilson was asked whether or not he thought himself one of baseball's elite closers. In what would turn out to be a very prophetic quote, he replied:\n\nOn March 25, Wilson agreed to a contract extension with the Giants. He struck out five batters in innings on May 9 while recording a save in a 6\u20135 victory over the New York Mets. On May 15, against the Houston Astros with the bases loaded, two outs, and the Giants leading 2\u20131 in the ninth inning, Wilson struck out Kazuo Matsui in a 15-pitch at bat to end the game. The next day, against Houston with runners on first and second, two outs, and the Giants leading 4\u20133 in the ninth, Wilson retired Matsui to end the game. On June 12, Wilson entered in the eighth inning with one out, the bases loaded, and the Giants leading the Oakland Athletics 5\u20134. Wilson struck out Adam Rosales and retired Rajai Davis to end the inning; he then pitched a scoreless ninth to earn the save. He recorded 22 saves in his first 24 chances and was named to the All-Star Game in which he threw a scoreless eighth inning in the contest, a 3\u20131 victory over the AL. On October 3 (the final day of the regular season), the Giants faced the Padres, whom they led by one game in the NL West. Wilson threw a scoreless inning to earn the save and clinch the division for the Giants. Wilson converted his 48th save that day, tying the Giants' single season save record of 48 held by Rod Beck. He finished the season with a 3\u20133 record, a 1.81 ERA, 93 strikeouts, 26 walks, and inning pitched in 70 games. He converted 48 of 53 save opportunities and led the majors in saves as well as leading the major leagues in saves of four outs or more (10). He was named the This Year in Baseball Closer of the Year after the season. He finished 13th in NL Most Valuable Player (MVP) voting.\n\n2010 postseason\nWilson made his playoff debut in Game 2 of the NL Division Series against the Atlanta Braves; he blew a save, but that was partly because of an error by Pablo Sandoval. He earned saves in Games 3 and 4 as the Giants defeated the Braves in four games. In the NL Championship Series, the Giants faced the Philadelphia Phillies. In Game 4, Wilson threw a scoreless inning and earned the win in the 6\u20135 victory. In Game 6, Wilson entered with one out in the eighth inning, runners on first and second, and the Giants leading 3\u20132. He got Carlos Ruiz to line into a double play. He then pitched the ninth inning, striking out Ryan Howard with two runners on base, clinching the series for the Giants. He joined Dennis Eckersley, Mitch Williams, and John Wetteland as the only pitchers since 1969 to win or save four games in a postseason series. (In 2014 Greg Holland of Kansas City matched this feat.)\n\nThe Giants faced the Texas Rangers in the World Series. Wilson appeared in three games, allowing no runs. He recorded the save in the series-clinching Game 5 as the Giants won their first World Series since 1954.\n\n2011 season\nWilson strained an oblique muscle in 2011 spring training and opened the season on the DL. He was activated from the DL on April 6. After posting a 3.75 ERA in his first two games, Wilson posted a 1.26 ERA in his next 35 outings. During a game against the Detroit Tigers on July 1, Wilson blew a save for a second straight game and was taken out of the game by Bruce Bochy. Upon entering the dugout, Wilson took out his frustrations by throwing a Gatorade cooler and smashing it with a bat. The Giants still won the game 4\u20133 as Jeremy Affeldt got the save. Wilson was elected to his third All-Star Game; he earned the save in a 5\u20131 victory over the AL.\n\nWilson was placed on the DL on August 21 due to inflammation in his right elbow. At the time of his injury, he was third in the NL in saves, behind Craig Kimbrel and John Axford. On September 18, the Giants reactivated him from the DL. After two games back, Bochy decided to shut down Wilson for the final two games of the season. In 57 games, he had a 6\u20134 record, a 3.11 ERA, 54 strikeouts, and 31 walks in 55 innings pitched. He converted 36 of his 41 save opportunities, which tied Juan Carlos Oviedo for eighth in the NL.\n\n2012 season\nWilson's 2012 season would be short-lived. With the Giants leading the Colorado Rockies 4\u20131 entering the bottom of the ninth inning on April 12, he made his second appearance of the season to get the save for the Giants. He walked in a run to make it 4\u20132, but retired Marco Scutaro with the bases loaded to earn the save. He injured his elbow during the game and underwent Tommy John surgery for the second time in his career on April 19, causing him to miss the remainder of the season. During his injury shortened season, Wilson made only 2 appearances with an ERA of 9.00 and 1 save. The Giants went on to win their second World Series in three years. Wilson expressed confidence in an interview on April 15 that he would return to the Giants in 2013. However, because he was coming off an injury and would be owed at least $6.8 million for 2013, he was non-tendered after the season, which made him a free agent for the first time in his career. At the end of the 2012 season, he ranked third all-time in saves as a Giant with 171, behind only Robb Nen (206) and Rod Beck (199).\n\nLos Angeles Dodgers (2013\u20132014)\nWilson chose not to sign with any team before the 2013 season because he wanted to be fully recovered from surgery when he attempted his comeback. On July 25, he threw a bullpen session in front of various teams' scouts with the hope to sign with a contender.\n\nOn July 30, 2013, Wilson agreed to a contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers for the remainder of the 2013 season. After a few weeks at the Dodgers training facility in Arizona, he began a minor league rehab assignment.\n\nHe joined the Dodgers active roster on August 19 and made his debut with the team on August 22 against the Miami Marlins at Marlins Park. He appeared in 18 games for the Dodgers with a 2-1 record and a 0.66 ERA. Regardless of signing for the team late in the season, Wilson made 3 relief appearances in the postseason without giving up an earned run until the Dodgers lost in the 2013 NLCS to the St. Louis Cardinals.\n\nOn December 5, 2013, Wilson agreed to a one-year, $10 million contract to return to the Dodgers. The deal also contained a player option for the 2015 season. His numbers were not as good in 2014, as he had a 4.66 ERA in 61 appearances. On October 8, 2014, he announced that he would be exercising his player option for 2015. However, the Dodgers designated him for assignment on December 16, 2014. He was released by the Dodgers on December 19 and became a free agent.\n\nWilson did not play in the MLB in 2015 or 2016, but announced in early 2017 that he would be attempting a comeback as a knuck", " use of closure policy by Israel, which led to an employment growth and an expansion of the West Bank and Gaza economy. After the signing of the Wye River Memorandum, a new donors' conference was convened, and over $2 billion was pledged to the PNA for 1999\u20132003. Nevertheless, overall donor disbursements fell in 1998\u20132000, and the 1998 disbursements=to-commitments ratio was the lowest since 1994. As for international institutions, they began to play a bigger role in the international funding process, in spite of the decline in the absolute value of these institutions' total commitments. After 1997, the need for donor support for the current budget and employment generation programs receded due to the PA's improved fiscal performance, and attention was focused instead on infrastructures to the detriment of institution building. Donors' activity was also characterized by a decline in support for PNGOs, and by a preference to concessionary loans (instead of grants) with generous grace periods, long repayment periods and low interest rates\n\n2000\u20132006\nThe second Intifada led to one of the deepest recessions the Palestinian economy\nexperienced in modern history. In those two years, Palestinian real\nGDP per capita shrunk by almost 40 percent. The precipitator of this economic crisis was again a multi-faceted system of restrictions on the movement of goods and people designed to protect Israelis in Israel itself and in the settlements.\n\nOne of the many frustrations of the crisis was the erosion of the development effort financed by the international community, since the overwhelming emphasis in donor work was now directed towards mitigating the impact of the economic and social crisis. A collapse of the PNA was averted by emergency budget support from donor countries. Despite a significant increase in donor commitments in 2002 compared with 2001, commitments to infrastructure and capacity-building work with a medium-term focus continued to decline. In 2000, the ratio was approximately 7:1 in\nfavor of development assistance. By 2002, the ratio had shifted to almost 5:1 in favor of\nemergency assistance.\n\nYasser Arafat's death in 2004 and Israel's unilateral disengagement from Gaza created new hopes to the donor community. In March 2005, the Quartet on the Middle East underscored the importance of development assistance, and urged the international donors community to support Palestinian institution building, without however ignoring budgetary support. The Quartet also urged Israel and the PNA to fulfill their commitments arising from the Road map for peace, and the international community \"to review and energize current donor coordination structures [...] in order to increase their effectiveness.\" The international community's attempt in late 2005 to promote Palestinian economic recovery reflected a long-standing assumption that economic development is crucial to the peace process and to prevent backsliding into conflict. Although a mild positive growth returned in 2003 and 2005, this fragile recovery stalled as a result of the segmentation of the Gaza Strip, the stiff restrictions on movements of goods and people across the borders with Israel and Egypt, and the completion of the Israeli West Bank barrier. As the World Bank stressed in December 2005, \"growth will not persist without good Palestinian governance, sound economic management and a continued relaxation of closure by GOI.\"\n\n2006\u201307\nOn 25\u00a0January 2006, the Islamist organization, Hamas, which is considered by the main donor countries to be a terrorist organization, won the Palestinian legislative elections and formed government on 29\u00a0March 2006, without accepting the terms and conditions set by the Quartet. This resulted in the imposition of economic sanctions against the PA, including near cessation of direct relations and aid between most bilateral donors and the PA, with only some multilateral agencies and a few donors continuing direct contact and project administration. The Quartet's decision was criticised by the Quartet's former envoy, James Wolfensohn, who characterized it \"a misguided attempt to starve the Hamas-led Palestinians into submission,\" and of UN's Middle East former envoy, Alvaro de Soto.\n\nBecause of the worsening humanitarian crisis, the EU proposed a plan to channel aid directly to the Palestinians, bypassing the Hamas-led government. The Quartet approved the EU proposal, despite an initial US objection, and the EU set up a \"temporary international mechanism\" (TIM) to channel funds through the Palestinian President for an initial period of three months, which was later extended. Oxfam was one of the main critics of the EU TIM program arguing that \"limited direct payments from the European Commission have failed to address this growing crisis.\"\n\nThe emergence of two rival governments in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip in June 2007 presented the international community with the prospect of shouldering a huge aid burden. The World Bank estimated that in 2008 the PNA would need $1.2 billion in recurrent budget support, in addition to $300 million in development aid. The formation of the emergency government in mid-2007 in the West Bank led by Salam Fayyad, led to the resumption of aid to the West Bank PA government which partly reversed the impact of the aid boycott. Nevertheless, economic indicators have not changed considerably. For instance, because of the situation in Gaza, real GDP growth was estimated to be about -0.5% in 2007, and 0.8% in 2008.\n\nAccording to the Development Assistance Committee, the main multilateral donors for the 2006\u20132007 period were UNRWA and the EU (through the European Commission), while the main bilateral donors were the US, Japan, Canada and five European countries (Norway, Germany, Sweden, Spain and France).\n\n2007\u201309\n\nIn December 2007, during the Paris Conference, which followed the Annapolis Conference, donor countries pledged over $7.7 billion for 2008\u20132010 in support of the Palestinian Reform and Development Program (PRDP). Hamas, which was not invited to Paris, called the conference a \"declaration of war\" on it. In the beginning of 2008, the EU moved from the TIM mechanism to PEGASE, which provided channels for direct support to the PA's Central Treasury Account in addition to the types of channels used for TIM. The World Bank also launched a trust fund that would provide support in the context of the PA's 2008\u20132010 reform policy agenda. However, neither mechanism contained sufficient resources to cover the PA's entire monthly needs, thus not allowing the PA to plan expenditures beyond a two-month horizon.\n\nThe World Bank assesses that the PA had made significant progress on implementing the reform agenda laid out in the PRDP, and re-establishing law and order. Gaza, however, remained outside the reforms as Hamas controls security and the most important ministry positions there. Palestinian inter-factional tension continued in the West Bank and Gaza, with arrests of people and closures of NGOs by each side, resulting in a deterioration in the ability of civil society organizations to continue to cater to vulnerable groups. Following the 2008\u20132009 Israel\u2013Gaza conflict, an international conference took place in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt, where donors pledged almost $4.5 billion for the reconstruction of Gaza. These funds bypassed Hamas, since the PA in collaboration with the donor community has taken the lead in delivering and distributing the assistance. India which is aspiring to be recognized as 'globally respected power' has made concerted efforts in fostering better relations with the PA. When PA President Abbas visited New Delhi in 2008 he was offered a credit of US$20 million (Rs.900 million) by the Indian government. India also continued to offer eight scholarships under ICCR Schemes to Palestinian students for higher studies in India, while also offering several slots for training courses under the ITEC Program.\n\nAccording to estimates made by the World Bank, the PA received $1.8 billion of international aid in 2008 and $1.4 billion in 2009.\n\n2010\nIn 2010, the lion's share of the aid came from the European Union and the United States. According to estimates made by the World Bank, the PA received $525 million of international aid in the first half of 2010. Foreign aid is the \"main driver\" of economic growth in the Palestinian territories. According to the International Monetary Fund, the unemployment rate has fallen as the economy of Gaza grew by 16% in the first half of 2010, almost twice as fast as the economy of the West Bank.[Hamas and the Peace Talks,\"] The Economist, September 25, 2010, p. 59.\n\nIn July 2010, Germany outlawed a major Turkish-German donor group, the Internationale Humanitaere Hilfsorganisation (IHH) (unaffiliated to the Turkish \u0130nsani Yard\u0131m Vakf\u0131 (\u0130HH)) that sent the Mavi Mamara aid vessel, saying it had used donations to support projects in Gaza that are related to Hamas, which is considered by the European Union to be a terrorist organization, while presenting their activities to donors as humanitarian help. German Interior Minister Thomas de Maiziere said, \"Donations to so-called social welfare groups belonging to Hamas, such as the millions given by IHH, actually support the terror organization Hamas as a whole.\"\n\n2011\nIn March 2011, there were threats to cut off aid to the PA if it continued to move forward on a unity government with Hamas, unless Hamas formally renounced violence, recognized Israel, and accepted previous Israel-Palestinian agreements. Azzam Ahmed, spokesman for PA President Abbas, responded by stating that the PA was willing to give up financial aid in order to achieve unity, \"Palestinians need American money, but if they use it as a way of pressuring us, we are ready to relinquish that aid.\"\n\n2014\nIn October 2014, the Cairo Conference on Palestine, an international donor conference on reconstructing the Gaza Strip, garnered $5.4 billion in pledges, of which $1 billion was pledged by Qatar. Half of the pledges were to be used for rebuilding efforts in Gaza, while the remainder was to support the PA budget until 2017.\n\n2018\nOn 23 March 2018, U.S. President Donald Trump signed the Taylor Force Act into law, which will cut about a third of US foreign aid payments to the PA, until the PA ceases making payment of stipends to terrorists and their surviving families.\n\nIn July 2018, Australia stopped the A$10M (US$7.5M) in funding that had been sent to the PA via the World Bank, and instead is sending it to the UN Humanitarian Fund for the Palestinian Territories. The reason given was that they did not want the PA to use the funds to assist Palestinians convicted of politically motivated violence.\n\nOn 24 August, the United States cut more than $200 million in direct aid to the PA. The administration had previously cut aid to several UN bodies devoted to the Palestinian cause, including cutting $300 million off the contribution to United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA), and the UN Human Rights Council.\n\n2019\nIn February 2019, the US stopped all USAID to Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza. The US stopped providing more than $60m in annual funds for the Palestinian security services at the request of the PA because of a fear of lawsuits following the enactment of the Anti-Terrorism Clarification Act of 2018 (ATCA), which came into force in February 2019, and allows Americans to sue in US courts those receiving US foreign aid over alleged complicity in \"acts of war\". The stopping of funding for security services has raised some concerns.\n\nIn November 2019, the Netherlands cut the US$1.5 million per annum it paid directly to the Palestinian Authority over payments it makes to families of militants killed, hurt, or imprisoned by Israel (described by Israel as salaries to terrorists).\n\nHamas takeover and Israeli blockade of the Gaza Strip\n\nIn 2007, Israel, the Quartet on the Middle East (comprising the United Nations, the United States, the European Union, and Russia) and other countries ceased providing aid to the PA Hamas-led government that refused to accept the conditions set by them, and imposed sanctions against the PA. After Hamas took control of the Gaza Strip and a non-Hamas government installed in the West Bank, the sanctions against the PA administered West Bank were withdrawn and donations resumed. Israel and Egypt imposed a land, air, and sea blockade of the Gaza Strip, which is ongoing. The PA administration imposed its own sanctions against the Hamas-ruled Gaza Strip. \n\nSince 2014, with Israel's approval despite the blockade, Qatar has provided aid to the Gaza Strip that has partially relieved some of the economic pressure on the Gaza Strip. Between 2014 and 2019, Qatar has provided over $1 billion in reconstruction funds and stipends for poor Palestinians.\n\nMajor donors\n\nSince 1993 the European Commission and the EU member-states combined have been by far the largest aid contributor to the Palestinians.\n\nArab League states have also been substantial donors, notably through budgetary support of the PNA during the Second Intifada. However, they have been criticized for not sufficiently financing the UNRWA and the PNA, and for balking at their pledges. After the 2006 Palestinian elections, the Arab countries tried to contribute to the payment of wages for Palestinian public servants, bypassing the PNA. At the same time Arab funds were paid directly to Abbas' office for disbursement.\n\nDuring the Paris Conference, 11% of the pledges came from the US and Canada, 53% from Europe and 20% from Arab countries.\n\nThe US is also a major contributor, providing more than $5.2 billion through USAID since 1994. In recent years, this aid has totaled around $600 million annually. Since April 2021, the United States has provided over half a billion dollars in assistance for the Palestinians, including more than $417 million in humanitarian assistance for Palestinians through UNRWA, $75 million in support through USAID, and $20.5 million in COVID and Gaza recovery assistance.\n\nDonor coordination\nThe Ad Hoc Liaison Committee (AHLC) was established in November 1993 to coordinate donor donations and in an effort to balance competing United States and European positions, to facilitate agenda-setting, reduce duplication, and foster synergies. The AHLC operates on the basis of consensus, and aims at promoting dialogue between the partners of the \"triangular partnership\", namely the donors, Israel and the Palestinian Authority.\nUNRWA\n\nThe United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) was set up in 1949 to provide humanitarian relief to Palestinians displaced by the 1948 Arab\u2013Israeli War. Originally, it was intended to provide jobs on public works projects and direct relief. Today, UNRWA provides education, health care, and social services to more than 5\u00a0million registered Palestinian refugees and their descendants, and other segments of Palestinian society, as well as providing some financial aid to Palestinians. UNRWA has also been a donor to the PA. UNRWA employs over 30,000 staff, 99% of whom are locally recruited Palestinians. Most of UNRWA's funding comes from European countries and the United States. Between 2000 and 2015 the European Union contributed \u20ac1.6\u00a0billion to UNRWA. In addition to its regular budget, UNRWA receives funding for emergency activities and special projects.\n\n In 2009, UNRWA's total budget was US$1.2\u00a0billion, of which it received US$948\u00a0million. In 2009, the retiring Commissioner General spoke of a $200\u00a0million shortfall in UNRWA's budgets. Officials in 2009 spoke of a 'dire financial crisis'.\n In 2010, the biggest contributors to its regular budget were the United States and the European Commission with $248\u00a0million and $165\u00a0million respectively. Sweden ($47m), the United Kingdom ($45m), Norway ($40m), and the Netherlands ($29m) were also important donors.\n In 2011, the US was the largest single contributor with a total contribution of over $239\u00a0million, followed by the European Commission's $175 million contribution.\n According to World Bank data, for all countries receiving more than $2 billion international aid in 2012, Gaza and the West Bank received a per capita aid budget over double the next largest recipient, at a rate of $495.\n In 2013, $1.1 billion was contributed to UNRWA, of which $294 million was contributed by the United States, $216.4 million by the EU, $151.6 million by Saudi Arabia, $93.7 million by Sweden, $54.4 million by Germany, $53 million by Norway, $34.6 million by Japan, $28.8 million by Switzerland, $23.3 million by Australia, $22.4 million by the Netherlands, $20 million by Denmark, $18.6 million by Kuwait, $17 million by France, $12.3 million by Italy, $10.7 million by Belgium as well as $10.3 million by all other countries.\n In 2016, the US contributed $368 million to UNWRA, and $350 million in 2017, but has cut around one-third of its contributions for 2018. In January 2018, the US withheld $65 million, roughly half the amount due in the month, again creating a financial crisis for UNRWA. Belgium and the Netherlands announced a plan to increase their contributions to UNRWA. In August 2018, the US cut its annual contribution of $360m to UNWRA, citing many complaints, including the number of Palestinians UNWRA recognizes as refugees, which number more than 5 million. In mid-2019, Netherlands, Belgium and Switzerland temporarily suspended funding to UNRWA. 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\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430, \u043f\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u044f\u043c \u043e \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u0445 \u2014 \u0441\u0442. 109 (\u00ab\u0417\u043b\u043e\u0443\u043f\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e\u00bb), \u0441\u0442. 111 (\u00ab\u0411\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u00bb) \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u043c\u00bb.\n\n\u0414\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0431\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0430\u0445.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0431\u043b\u044e\u0434\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u043e \u0441\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043c, \u041f\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0420\u0421\u0424\u0421\u0420 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u044e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438. \u0422\u0430\u043a, \u0432 \u0421\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0434\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u043e\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0432 \u00ab\u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043b\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a \u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u2014 \u043f\u043e 197 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043b\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043e 288 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a \u2014 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0443\u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0440\u044f\u0434\u0443 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u0435\u043b, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u043b\u0438\u0448\u044c \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435\u043c\u00bb, \u041f\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e 28,4 % \u0443\u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u0435\u043b, \u0430 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e \u043e\u0441\u0443\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u043d\u0430 27 %. \u041d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0432 \u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0443\u0434\u044b. \u0412 \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0435 \u00ab\u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u044e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0446\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u044b \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043c \u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0445\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e.\n\n\u041f\u0430\u043c\u044f\u0442\u044c \n\n\u0412 \u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0445\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0443\u043b\u0438\u0446\u044b \u0432 \u0440\u044f", "\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u044b \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043c \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u00ab\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438\u00bb, \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u043c \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0418\u043b\u044c\u044f \u0413\u043b\u0430\u0437\u0443\u043d\u043e\u0432, \u042e\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u041c\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044c\u0435\u0432 \u0438 \u0434\u0440.\n\n\u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043a \u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443: \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u043f\u0435\u0441\u043d\u044f\u043c, \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c, \u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u043a\u0430\u043c, \u0441\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0438 \u0438\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0441\u0430\u0433\u0430\u043c, \u043a \u00ab\u044d\u0434\u0434\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0437\u0438\u0438\u00bb. \u0421\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043b \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u0444\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u044e\u0436\u0435\u0442\u044b, \u0433\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u044b \u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u0441\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044d\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432, \u043e \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u041e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u0435 (\u00ab\u041c\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u043b \u0416\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u00bb, \u00ab\u041d\u0430\u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435\u00bb, \u00ab\u041f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0434 \u0441\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043a \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e\u00bb, \u00ab\u0422\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u00bb, 1972\u20141975).\n\n\u0420\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0432 \u0436\u0430\u043d\u0440\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0439\u0437\u0430\u0436\u0430 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430 (\u00ab\u041b\u0435\u0431\u0435\u0434\u0438\u00bb, 1967; \u00ab\u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0451\u043b\u00bb, 1969; \u00ab\u0423 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0446\u0430\u00bb, 1973; \u00ab\u041e\u0436\u0438\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb, 1976; \u00ab\u0427\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a \u0441 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043c\u00bb, 1976). \u0410\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432: \u00ab\u0428\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00bb (1961), \u00ab\u0411\u0435\u0442\u0445\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u00bb (1962), \u00ab\u0421\u043a\u0440\u044f\u0431\u0438\u043d\u00bb (1962), \u00ab\u0420\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439-\u041a\u043e\u0440\u0441\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u00bb (1962) \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445; \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430 \u043a \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435 \u0420. \u0412\u0430\u0433\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0446\u043e \u041d\u0438\u0431\u0435\u043b\u0443\u043d\u0433\u043e\u0432\u00bb (1970-\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u044b).\n\n\u0423\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0440\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043a\u0438 \u00ab\u0425\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438-\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u041a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438\u00bb (\u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, 1963), \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043e\u043a \u0432 \u0417\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0435 \u0438 \u041a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438 (1968-76). \u0412 1980\u20141990-\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0440\u044f\u0434 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043e\u043a \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0432\u043e \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0432 \u0411\u043e\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0438, \u042e\u0433\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0438, \u0418\u0441\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438. \u041e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u044b \u041c\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0439 \u0432 \u043f\u0433\u0442. \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u043e (1996), \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0440\u0435\u044f \u0432 \u041a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438 (1996) \u0438 \u041c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0439 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0432 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0435, \u0432 \u041b\u0438\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043f\u0430\u0440\u043a\u0435 (1998). \u041f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0441\u043e\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0430 \u0422\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u041c\u0443\u0441\u044b \u0414\u0436\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043b\u044f \u0437\u0430 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d \u043e \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u041e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u0435 (\u0432 1988).\n\n29 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 1976\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0431\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0441\u0431\u0438\u0442 \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0430 \u0436\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0449\u0438\u043c \u043f\u043e\u0435\u0437\u0434\u043e\u043c. \u041f\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0451\u043b\u043a\u0435 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u043e \u0432 \u0431\u0435\u0440\u0451\u0437\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u0449\u0435, \u0432 \u043b\u0435\u0441\u0443, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u043e\u043d \u043b\u044e\u0431\u0438\u043b \u0431\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c. \u0412 \u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0435\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0434\u043e\u0439 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0440\u044f\u0434 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u00ab\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0438\u00bb.\n\n\u0422\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \n\n\u0421\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043b \u0432 \u0436\u0430\u043d\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u0430\u0431\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u044e\u0440\u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0430. \u0417\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043c, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0441\u0430, \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u043c \u0432 1968\u20141969\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445, \u0441\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043b \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0443 \u0436\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0438, \u0437\u0430\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438, \u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u043c \u0424\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0440\u0438\u0445\u0430 \u041d\u0438\u0446\u0448\u0435 \u0438 \u0420\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0430 \u0412\u0430\u0433\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430, \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b \u00ab\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435\u00bb \u0438\u0434\u0435\u0438 \u0432 \u0436\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0438. \u0412 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0445 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u00ab\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435\u00bb \u044f\u0437\u044b\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u043f\u0430\u0444\u043e\u0441 \u043d\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438 \u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044f\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0430\u0433 \u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438\u043d. \u0415\u043c\u0443 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043c\u044b \u0438 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u00ab\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435\u00bb \u043c\u0438\u0444\u044b.\n\n\u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u043b \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u044b \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u00ab\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e\u00bb, \u00ab\u0441\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0431\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u00bb, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u043d \u043f\u044b\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0430\u0434\u0430\u043f\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043a \u00ab\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438\u00bb. \u0415\u0433\u043e \u044d\u043f\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0432\u043e\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0434\u0443\u0445\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0439.\n\n\u041a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u044b \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0441 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0435\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 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\u0447\u0443\u043c\u0443\u00bb.\n\n\u0420\u0435\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043c\u0435\u0449\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u0432 \u0445\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0435 \u00ab\u041a\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435 \u0412\u0435\u0434\u044b \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0430\u00bb \u043d\u0435\u043e\u044f\u0437\u044b\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0430 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0432 \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u0445 \u00ab\u0421\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044f\u043d\u043e-\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0434\u044b\u00bb, \u0438\u0437\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0430.\n\n\u041d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b \n\n \u00ab\u0412\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0438\u0440\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0434 \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0417\u0438\u0433\u0444\u0440\u0438\u0434\u043e\u043c\u00bb\n \u00ab\u041c\u0430\u0440\u0448 \u201e\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0449\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0438\u201c\u00bb\n \u00ab\u041c\u0430\u0440\u0448 \u201e\u0422\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u201c\u00bb\n \u00ab\u0412\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043d\u00bb (\u00ab\u041e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u00bb, 1969)\n \u00ab\u041e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0441 \u0432\u043e\u043b\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00bb, (22.06.1969)\n \u00ab\u0423 \u0447\u0443\u0436\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u043a\u043d\u0430\u00bb, 1973\n \u00ab\u041d\u0435\u0447\u0430\u044f\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0447\u0430\u00bb\n \u00ab\u0413\u0443\u0441\u0438-\u043b\u0435\u0431\u0435\u0434\u0438\u00bb, 1967\n \u00ab\u041f\u043b\u0430\u0447 \u042f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u00bb\n \u00ab\u041e\u0441\u0435\u043d\u044c\u00bb, 1973\n \u00ab\u041b\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u043a\u0430\u00bb, 1973\n \u00ab\u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u044b\u043a\u0430 \u043b\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0432\u00bb, 1970\n \u00ab\u0420\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0414\u0443\u043d\u0430\u044f\u00bb, 1974\n \u00ab\u0420\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0414\u0443\u043d\u0430\u044f\u00bb (\u044d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0437)\n \u00ab\u041e\u0433\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0447\u00bb, 1974\n \u00ab\u0412\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0433\u0430 \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00bb, 1970\n \u00ab\u0411\u043e\u0439 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u0441 \u0427\u0435\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0435\u043c\u00bb, 1974\n \u00ab\u0421\u0430\u0434\u043a\u043e \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u043e\u0449\u0435\u0447\u043a\u0435 \u043a\u0438\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439\u00bb, 1974\n \u00ab\u0421\u0430\u0434\u043a\u043e \u0438 \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u044b\u043a\u0430 \u043c\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439\u00bb, 1974\n \u00ab\u0418\u043b\u044c\u044f \u041c\u0443\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0446 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0443\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u00bb, 1974\n \u00ab\u0411\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043e \u0437\u043c\u0435\u0435\u043c\u00bb, 1974\n \u00ab\u0412\u0438\u0442\u044f\u0437\u044c\u00bb, 1970\n \u00ab\u0418\u043b\u044c\u044f \u041c\u0443\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0446 \u0438 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u044c \u043a\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0446\u043a\u0430\u044f\u00bb,1974\n \u00ab\u0410\u0432\u0434\u043e\u0442\u044c\u044f-\u0420\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0430\u00bb, 1974\n \u00ab\u0413\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb\n \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0435\u0446\u00bb\n \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0440\u044f\u0434\u0435\u0446\u00bb\n \u00ab\u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043b\u0435\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0430\u00bb\n \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442 \u041b\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0410\u0441\u0435\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0439\u00bb\n \u00ab\u041f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u044b \u041b\u044e\u0434\u043c\u0438\u043b\u044b\u00bb\n \u00ab\u041d\u0430\u0434 \u0412\u043e\u043b\u0433\u043e\u0439\u00bb, 1970\n \u00ab\u041e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u00bb\n \u00ab\u0413\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0436\u0430\u0440\u044b\u00bb\n \u00ab\u0421\u0432\u0438\u044f\u0436\u0441\u043a\u00bb, 1964\n \u00ab\u0421\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u00bb\n \u00ab\u0414\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439, \u0424\u0451\u0434\u043e\u0440 \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0439\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447\u00bb (\u041c\u0430\u0441\u043b\u043e)\n \u00ab\u041c\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0430\u043b \u0416\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u00bb (1974, \u0445\u043e\u043b\u0441\u0442, \u043c\u0430\u0441\u043b\u043e)\n \u00ab\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0430\u043b\u043a\u0430\u00bb\n \u00ab\u041b\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0430\u00bb\n \u00ab\u0414\u0430\u0440 \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0430\u00bb (1974, \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u043e\u043d, \u043f\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c)\n \u00ab\u0412\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0433\u0430 \u0438 \u041c\u0438\u043a\u0443\u043b\u0430\u00bb (1974)\n \u00ab\u0412\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb (1963)\n \u00ab\u0410\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0435\u0439 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439\u00bb (1964)\n \u00ab\u0410\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043b\u00bb (1963)\n \u00ab\u0421\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0430\u00bb, 1963\n \u00ab\u0418\u043b\u044c\u044f \u041c\u0443\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0446 \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f\u00bb\n \u00ab\u0416\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430\u00bb (1966)\n \u00ab\u0415\u0432\u043f\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438\u044f\u00bb (1969)\n \u00ab\u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0440\u0451\u043b\u00bb (1969)\n \u00ab\u0427\u0430\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044f\u00bb (1971)\n \u00ab\u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u00bb (1975)\n \u00ab\u041e\u0436\u0438\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb (1976)\n \u00ab\u0427\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a \u0441 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043c\u00bb (\u00ab\u0412\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0441\u00bb, 1976)\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u0421\u0441\u044b\u043b\u043a\u0438 \n \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u044b \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0430\n \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432 \u0438 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0435\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\n \u0412\u0430\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0440\u0435\u044f / \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0435\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (1942\u20141976)\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n \n \n \n \n \n \u0422\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0435\u0432\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u0412. \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0435\u0432. // \u0412\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e-\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b.\u00a0\u2014 1989.\u00a0\u2014 \u2116\u00a02.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421. 94\u201496.\n \n \n\n\u0425\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438-\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0437\u0430\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438\n\u0425\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438-\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438\n\u0425\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438-\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0437\u0430\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420\n\u0425\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438-\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420\n\u0416\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0432\u044b \u043d\u0430\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0430\n\u041f\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432 \u0417\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0435\n\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438:\u041d\u0435\u043e\u044f\u0437\u044b\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e", " to analyzing liquid blood. This technique was adopted for criminal investigation.\n\nIn 1928, Albrecht. H.O, a German chemist, developed a chemical solution luminol, which can be used to detect trace amounts of blood stains at crime scenes.\n\nAmong others, Sir Alec Jeffreys further shaped forensics into what we know now. In 1984, he developed the DNA fingerprinting technique to examine the variations in the genetic code. This can be used to distinguish one individual from another. This method has become important in forensic science to assist police detective work, and it has also proved useful in resolving paternity and immigration disputes.\n\nIn 1983, Kary B. Mullis made a significant contribution to the fields of medicine and criminology by developing the PCR (polymerase chain reaction) technique, which can amplify even trace amount of DNA segments in-vitro. Such DNA samples, often found in crime scenes in minute amounts, degraded states and sometimes mixed with various body fluids from multiple individuals, can be effectively amplified using PCR. Beyond forensics, PCR has been applied to a wide range of fields, including disease diagnosis and virus detection.\n\nDNA analysis\n\nDNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is one of the most popular pieces of evidence to recover at a crime scene. More often than not, evidence containing DNA is regarded as biological evidence. With all of the substantial advances that have been made regarding DNA, biological evidence is recognized to be the \"golden standard\" in forensic science.\n\nAt the scene, biological evidence must be initially visibly recognized. Sometimes this is not always possible and the aid of an alternative light source, or Advanced Light Source (ALS), is required. Once identified as a potential source, presumptive tests are conducted to establish the possibility of the specified biological presence (semen, saliva, blood, urine, etc.). If positive, samples are collected and submitted for analysis in the laboratory, where confirmatory tests and further tests are performed.\n\nDNA analysis has numerous applications such as paternity testing, identifications of unknown human remains, cold case breakthroughs, as well as connecting suspects and/or victims to a piece(s) of evidence, a scene, or to another person (victim or suspect, respectively).Nuclear DNA evidence can be recovered from blood, semen, saliva, epithelial cells and hair (if the root is still intact). Furthermore, Mitochondrial DNA (mt DNA) can be recovered from the shaft of hair, bone and the roots of teeth.\n\nFor most forensic DNA samples, STR analysis of autosomal short tandem repeats (STR) is performed in an attempt to individualize the sample to one person with a high degree of statistical confidence. Here, STR markers for autosomal STR are used in forensic DNA typing to track down the missing, verify family connections, and potentially connect suspects to crime sites.\n\nLaboratory analysis of DNA evidence involves the sample DNA being extracted, quantified, amplified, and visualized. There are several methods of DNA extraction possible including organic (phenol-chloroform) extraction, Chelex extraction, and differential extraction.\n\nQuantitation is commonly conducted using a form of the polymerase chain reaction, known as real-time PCR, quantitative PCR (qPCR). qPCR is the preferred method of DNA quantitation for forensic cases because it is very precise, human-specific, qualitative, and quantitative. This technique analyses changes in fluorescence signals of amplified DNA fragments between each PCR cycle without needing to pause the reaction or open the temperature-sensitive PCR tubes. In addition to the components necessary for standard a PCR reaction (i.e. template DNA, carefully designed forward and reverse primers, DNA polymerase [usually Taq], dNTPs, and a buffer solution containing Mg2+), qPCR reactions involve fluorescent dye-labelled probes that complement and anneal to the DNA sequence of interest that lies between the two primers. A \"reporter\" (R) dye is attached at the 5\u2019 end of the fluorescent probe, while a \"quencher\" (Q) dye is attached at the 3\u2019 end. Before the DNA strands are extended by the polymerase, the reporter and quencher are close enough in space that no fluorescence is detected by the instrument (the quencher completely absorbs/masks the fluorescence of the reporter). As the polymerase begins to extend the strand, the 5' end of the probe is degraded by the polymerase due to its exonuclease activity. The reporter dye is released from the 5\u2019 end. It is no longer quenched, thus enabling fluorescence detection. A graph is constructed for the sample DNA comparing the presence of fluorescence (y-axis) to cycle number (x-axis) of the qPCR process. This is then compared to a standard curve of the cycle fluorescence threshold (y-axis) versus the log of known DNA concentrations (x-axis). By comparing the sample data to the standard curve, one may extrapolate the DNA concentration in the sample, which is essential to move forward with PCR amplification and capillary electrophoresis to obtain a DNA profile. DNA profiles are produced as an electropherogram. The obtained profile can be compared to known samples in CODIS to identify a possible suspect. Based on known frequencies of the genotype found in the DNA profile, the DNA analyst may place a statistical measure of confidence on DNA match.\n\nMitochondrial DNA analysis \nMitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is used instead of nuclear DNA when forensic samples have been degraded, are damaged, or are in very small quantities. In many cases, there may be older human remains, sometimes ancient, and the only options for DNA collection are the body's bone, teeth, or hair.\n\nmtDNA can be extracted from such degraded samples since its presence in cells is much higher than nuclear DNA. There can be more than 1,000 copies of mtDNA in a cell, while there are only two copies of nuclear DNA. Nuclear DNA is inherited from both the mother and the father but mtDNA is passed down from only the mother to all of her offspring. Due to this type of inheritance, mtDNA is useful for identification purposes in forensic work but can also be used for mass disasters, missing persons cases, complex kinship, and genetic genealogy.\n\nThe main advantage of using mtDNA is its high copy number. However, there are a few disadvantages of using mtDNA as opposed to nuclear DNA. Since mtDNA is inherited maternally and passed to each offspring, all members of the maternal familial line will share a haplotype. A haplotype \"is a group of alleles in an organism that are inherited together from a single parent\". Sharing this haplotype among family members can cause an issue in forensic samples because these samples are often mixtures that contain more than one DNA contributor. De convolution and interpretation of mtDNA mixtures is more difficult than that of nuclear DNA, and some laboratories choose not to attempt the process Since mtDNA does not recombine, the genetic markers are not as diverse as autosomal STRs are in the case of nuclear DNA. Another issue is that of heteroplasmy \u2014 when an individual has more than one type of mtDNA in their cells. This can cause an issue in interpreting data from questioned forensic samples and known samples that contain mtDNA. Having adequate knowledge and understanding of heteroplasmy can help ensure successful interpretation.\n\nThere are some ways to improve success of mtDNA analysis. Preventing contamination at all testing stages and using positive and negative controls is a priority. In addition, the use of mini-amplicons can be beneficial. When a sample of mtDNA is severely degraded or has been obtained from an ancient source, the use of small amplicons can be used to improve the success of amplification during PCR. In these cases primers amplifying smaller regions of HV1 and HV2 in the control region of mtDNA are used. This process has been referred to as the 'ancient DNA' approach.\n\nThe first use of mtDNA as evidence in court was in 1996 in State of Tennessee v. Paul Ware. There was only circumstantial evidence against Ware so the admittance of mtDNA from hairs found in the victim's throat and at the scene were key to the case.\n\nIn 2004, with the help of the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children and ChoicePoint, mtDNA was used to solve a 22-year-old cold case where the nuclear DNA evidence was not originally strong enough. After mtDNA analysis, Arbie Dean Williams was convicted of the murder of 15-year-old Linda Strait, which had occurred in 1982.\n\nIn 2012, mtDNA evidence allowed investigators to establish a link in a 36-year-old investigation into the murders of four Michigan children. Hair fibers found on the bodies of two of the children were tested and the mtDNA found to be the same for each sample. For the investigators this was a big break because it meant that the murders were likely connected.\n\nForensic anthropology \n\nAnthropology is applied to forensics most regularly through the collection and analysis of human skeletal remains. The primary goals of anthropological involvement include identification and aiding in scene reconstruction by determining details regarding the circumstances of the victim's death. In cases where conventional techniques are unable to determine the identity of the remains due to the lack of soft tissue, anthropologists are required to deduce certain characteristics based on the skeletal remains. Race, sex, age and possible ailments can often be determined through bone measurements and looking for clues throughout the skeletal structure.\n\nThis becomes necessary when conventional methods that use soft tissue fail to establish the identity of remains. By examining bone measurements and other skeletal structure characteristics, anthropologists can often determine information such as race, sex, age, and potential health conditions.\n\nForensic botany \nForensic botany deals with the study of plants, leaves, seeds, and pollen or plant properties (such as anatomy, growth, behavior, classification, population dynamics, and reproductive cycles) that would be considered as physical evidence.\n\nBefore a plant can aid the investigations, the plant must be identified first to see if it is from the location that the plant was found. Forensic botany can help investigators by providing a link between an individual and the crime scene by pinpointing the geographical location of missing bodies or estimate where the burial took place. Another way that is used is through the interrogation process where investigators compare the traces that the victim(s) are found and compare to the statements of the suspect(s). Forensic botany can also reveal whether a death is due to suicide, accident, or homicide. Another example of forensic botany aiding investigators is by moss, moss can establish the PMI of a human skeletal, through its growth rate.\n\nFor example, an elderly man fell a steep hillside and was found dead. They concluded that the man did not die from the fall but from hypertensive heart disease. Forensic botany concluded that the fall was approximately 10 m and there was a lane that joined the hill path around 9 m perpendicular form the body. It showed he had leaves on his left hand and sweater. There were also broken bushes in the scene. Forensic scientists specializing in forensic botany had grabbed five soil samples and some plant samples from the scene. The plant samples were analyzed through optical microscopy, and they also examined the victims' clothing since it did carry some plant elements. They did a macroscopic and microscopic analysis compared to the collected samples on the scene. It was concluded that there was no evidence of struggle caused by another person instead, the elderly man had lost his balance.\n\nSubspecialties In Forensic Botany \nSubdisciplines within forensic botany examples include:\n\n forensic palynology (study of pollen and spores). Palynology can produce evidence of decomposition time, location of death or the time of year.\n dendrochronology (study of the growth of rings of trees stems and roots)\n Lichenology (study of lichens)\n Mycology (study of fungi)\n Bryology (study of bryophytes). Bryology is the easiest to find evidence since bryophyte (a species of plants) attaches to shoes and clothes easily. Bryophyte useful since even if it is ripped apart or broken down, DNA can still be analyzed. Ways in which DNA can be analyzed is through the microscope or other sophisticated DNA testing.\n\nForensic ornithology \nForensic ornithology employs scientific methodologies to ascertain the bird species from traces of evidence such as a small feather, a fragment of bone, or a trace of blood. Bird remains can be identified, first and foremost from feathers as feathers exhibit distinctive characteristics specific to a particular bird species, which can be observed both at a macroscopic and microscopic level.\n\nForensic odontology \n\nDentistry has helped law enforcement detect and solve cases in criminal and civil proceedings. Odontology did not get popular until the 1960s when an interest was brought up by the first instructional program in the United States at the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. As a result of this program, the term \"forensic odontology\" is now widely known and understood by both dental and law enforcement professionals.\n\nOdontologists or dental professionals can use dental science to establish a person's identity. The broad duties of a Forensic Odontologist include forensic identification of individuals, including in multi-casualty events, age estimation in living and deceased persons, interpreting injuries in the oral and perioral regions, bite mark analysis and comparison, and assisting forensic pathologists in determining the cause of death if there is a possible contributing dental condition.\n\nDental evidence is useful in establishing human identity by comparing the dental features of a deceased person with antemortem dental records.\n\nForensic pathology \nForensic pathology is a subfield in forensics where experts examine persons (bodies) who die suddenly, unexpectedly or violently, and thus determine the cause of death. The function of a forensic autopsy is to provide information through a postmortem examination of the body and analysis of the fluids to determine the cause of death, manner of death, and mechanism of injury.\n\nA forensic pathologist is a medical doctor who is an expert in both trauma and disease and is responsible for performing autopsies. He/she applies their extensive knowledge of the human body and possible internal and external inflections as he/she performs an autopsy, to ascertain the manner and cause of death hopefully.\n\nInformation derived from the autopsy often greatly assists investigative efforts and scene reconstruction.\n\nForensic toxicology \n\nForensic toxicology is the use of toxicology and other disciplines such as analytical chemistry, pharmacology and clinical chemistry to aid medical or legal investigation of death, poisoning, and drug use. The primary concern for forensic toxicology is not the legal outcome of the toxicological investigation or the technology utilized but rather the obtainment and interpretation of results.\n\nForensic microbiology \nWith recent advances in massive parallel sequencing (MPS), or next-generation sequencing (NGS), forensic microbiology has become an increasingly promising area of research. \"Initial applications in circumstances of biocrime, bioterrorism and epidemiology use microorganisms for the following reasons: (i) as ancillary evidence in criminal cases; (ii) to clarify causes of death (e.g., drownings, toxicology, hospital-acquired infections, sudden infant death and shaken baby syndromes); (iii) to assist human identification (skin, hair and body fluid microbiomes); (iv) for geolocation (soil microbiome or microbiome of bodies of water); and (v) to estimate postmortem interval (PMI) via thanatomicrobiome and epinecrotic microbial community\". In fact, scientists estimate the time elapsed since death or the PMI by analyzing the stage of decay from bacterial decomposition or the bacterial succession patterns.\n\nBioterrorism and epidemiology \nBio terrorism occurs when biological components are used as warfare agents. Such biological weapons are microorganisms that are deliberately dispersed to incapacitate or cause disease and death to humans, animals or plants. Biological warfare agents can be natural or genetically modified. Nevertheless, these biological agents - be it viruses, bacteria or fungi are highly contagious.\n\nForensic microbiology also contributes to the development of epidemiology. By examining microorganisms obtained from infected individuals, scientists can determine a suspected source of infection, the type of infection present, and the evolution or mutation pattern of the microorganism. The application of a forensic microbiologist would be to examine the microorganisms isolated from infected individuals and compare it to known sources of infectious pathogens.\n\n\"It is important to remember that biological agents that can be used as weapons are often found in the environment. For this reason, it is always difficult to determine whether infections associated with these bioagents are accidental or purposely started\". While not the first, or only, incidence of bioterrorism, perhaps the most notable case in recent memory involved the sending of at least four anthrax-containing envelopes in the United States in September and October 2001. \"At least 22 victims contracted anthrax due to the mailings: 11 individuals contracted inhalation anthrax, with 5 of these infections resulting in fatalities; another 11 individuals suffered cutaneous anthrax. In addition, 31 persons tested positive for exposure to B. anthracis spores\". However, the advancements in PCR and whole-genome sequencing allowed scientists to collaborate with the FBI and identify the source of the letter spores.\n\nDifferentiating a biowarfare attack from a normal epidemiology outbreak \nThe basic epidemiologic approach to evaluating a potential bioterrorist or biowarfare attack differs from any standard epidemiologic investigation. The first step uses laboratory and clinical findings to confirm that a disease outbreak has occurred. Once the case definition and attack rate have been determined, the outbreak can be characterized in the conventional context of time, place, and person. These data provide crucial information in determining the potential source of the outbreak. An epidemic curve can be calculated using data gathered on cases over time. The disease pattern is important to differentiate between a natural outbreak and an intentional attack. A bioterrorism attack is most likely caused by a point source, with everyone coming in contact with the agent at approximately the same time. Additional characteristics investigated in determining whether it is the result of a biological attack are: the presence of a large epidemic; more severe disease than expected for a given pathogen; a disease that is unusual for a given geographic area; and multiple simultaneous epidemics of different diseases.\n\nPostmortem analysis \n\"Post-mortem microbiology (PMM) aims to detect unexpected infections causing sudden deaths; confirm clinically suspected but unproven infection; evaluate the efficacy of antimicrobial therapy; identify emergent pathogens; and recognize medical errors. Additionally, the analysis of the thanatomicrobiome may help to estimate the post-mortem interval.\". There is currently an extensive amount of research being performed, most notably using the famous \"body farms\" throughout the United States, to determine if there is a consistent microbial decomposition \"clock\" that could be used by itself, or in conjunction with other techniques (such as forensic entomology) to help estimate postmortem intervals. One such group has made extensive headway into describing such a microbial clock, and \"believes she's within two to five years of testing her clock in a real crime scene scenario\". However, if a reliable and consistent microbial clock is determined to exist, \"it's too soon to know whether the microbial clock will pass scientific and legal muster,\" (Beans) and \"a judge would also have to determine that the microbial clock meets the standard for admission of expert testimony\".\n\nWater sample analysis \nIn cases involving a body of water at or near the scene of a crime, a sample of the water can be extracted and analyzed under a light microscope for microorganisms. One such microorganism that are analyzed within samples of fresh water are diatoms, microscopic algae of varying shapes. Different bodies of water have been found to contain unique sets of diatoms and therefore, a piece of evidence found in a specific body of water will contain unique diatoms on it found only in that specific body of water.", " \u043c\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u044f \u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430,\n \u00a0\u2014 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0430 (\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0430\u043d/\u0441) \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0443\u0441\u043e\u0438\u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u043e\u043a\u0430,\n \u00a0\u2014 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0432 \u0433\u0435\u0440\u0446\u0430\u0445,\n \u00a0\u2014 \u0451\u043c\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 (\u0444\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0434).\n\n\u041e\u0442\u0441\u044e\u0434\u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0435\u0442, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e \u0414\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u043e\u043a\u0430 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0443\u043b\u044e, \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e, \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u043e\u043a\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0431\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0447\u043d\u043e.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438 \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u044b \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0434\u0438\u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0434\u0438\u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0432\u043b\u0438\u044f\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0438\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u044c. \u041d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0445 \u043b\u044e\u0431\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0431\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0443\u0440, \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0439 \u0451\u043c\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u044c \n\n\u0420\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0430:\n\n \n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0432 \u0446\u0435\u043f\u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u043e\u043a\u0430 \u0432\u0435\u0434\u0451\u0442 \u0441\u0435\u0431\u044f \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0430 \u0438\u043d\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438. \u041f\u043e\u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0441\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u043e \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043b\u0438\u0448\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0445 , \u043d\u0430 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\u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u044e. \u042d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u044f \u0437\u0430\u0440\u044f\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430:\n\n \n\n \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u044f\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 (\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432), \u0434\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0440\u044f\u0436\u0435\u043d \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440,\n \u00a0\u2014 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u0440\u044f\u0434 \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0437 \u043e\u0431\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u043e\u043a.\n\n\u041e\u0431\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0445\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0445 \n\n\u0412 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0443\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0445\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0445 \u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0413\u041e\u0421\u0422 2.728-74 \u043b\u0438\u0431\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0442 \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 IEEE 315\u20141975.\n\n\u041d\u0430 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043f\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0445\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0445 \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0451\u043c\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043e\u0431\u044b\u0447\u043d\u043e \u0443\u043a\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0445 (1 \u043c\u043a\u0424 = 1\u00b7106 \u043f\u0424 = 1\u00b710\u22126 \u0424) \u0438 \u043f\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0444\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0445 (1 \u043f\u0424 = 1\u00b710\u221212 \u0424), \u0438 \u0432 \u043d\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0444\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0445 (1 \u043d\u0424 = 1\u00b710\u22129 \u0424). 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\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u043e\u043a\u0441\u0451\u0440-\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b, \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0442\u044f\u0436\u0451\u043b\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438.\n \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041a\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 (1926\u20142013)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430, \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041a\u044d\u0442\u0438 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1983)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u0438 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442.\n\n\u041b \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041b\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043b (1905\u20141985)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u0438 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0436\u0430\u043d\u0440\u0435 \u043d\u0443\u0430\u0440.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041b\u0435\u043e (1882\u20141948)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440 \u0442\u0435\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d (\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043d \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0411\u0438\u0433 \u0412\u0430\u043d \u0412\u0435\u0439\u0434\u0435\u0440; 1955\u20142018)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0440\u00a0\u0438 \u0431\u044b\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0432\u00a0\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041b\u0435\u0441\u043b\u0438 (1900\u20141975)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433 \u0438 \u044d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041b\u043e\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0441 (\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043d \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u043f\u0441\u0435\u0432\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043c\u0438 40 Glocc \u0438 Big Bad 4-0; \u0440\u043e\u0434. 1979)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u044d\u043f\u0435\u0440 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044e\u0441\u0435\u0440.\n\n\u041c \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041c\u0430\u0439\u043a\u00a0(\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1970)\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0451\u0440, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u044e\u0441\u0435\u0440 \u0438 \u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041c\u0430\u0439\u043a (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1995) \u2014 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0432 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041c\u0430\u0439\u043a\u043b (1949\u20142008)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0441\u0438\u0445\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433, \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0440\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u043f\u0441\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0438.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041c\u0430\u0439\u043a\u043b (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1991)\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0432 \u0441\u043d\u0443\u043a\u0435\u0440.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041c\u0430\u0439\u043a\u043b \u0414\u0436\u0435\u0439 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1967)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440 \u0438 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u0431\u043e\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041c\u0430\u0439\u043d\u043e\u0440 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d (1908\u20141976)\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d \u0438\u0437 \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445\u0441\u044f \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0444\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u043e\u0432 XX \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0436\u043e\u0440\u0438 (1904\u20141935)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043a\u0430, \u0432 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0440\u044b\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u043e\u0432\u0449\u0438\u0446\u0430.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041c\u0430\u0440\u043a (1940\u20142017)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a, 43-\u0439 \u0433\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0422\u0435\u0445\u0430\u0441\u0430.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041c\u0435\u0433 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1974)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0431\u0430\u043d\u0449\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b The White Stripes.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041c\u0435\u043b (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1940)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0433 \u043d\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0443.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041c\u0438\u0433\u0435\u043b\u044c (1909\u20141942)\u00a0\u2014 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043f\u043f\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043b\u0435\u0433\u043a\u043e\u0430\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0442 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043f\u043f\u0438\u043d\u043e-\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041c\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441 (1941\u20142016)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442, \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b Earth, Wind & Fire.\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1947)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0447\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043a, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u041a\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0446\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0431\u0443\u043c\u0430\u0433\u0430\u043c \u0438 \u0431\u0438\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043c.\n\n\u041d \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041d\u0435\u0440\u0430 (1935\u20142016)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430.\n\n\u041e \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041e\u2019\u0411\u0440\u0430\u0439\u0430\u043d (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1985)\u00a0\u2014 \u044f\u043c\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041e\u043a\u0430\u0440\u043e (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1992)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n\u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1997) \u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0440, \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u041e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d \u0422\u0438\u043e\u0440\u0438.\n\n\u041f \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041f\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u043a (1919\u20141990)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u043b\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0435\u0430\u0442 \u041d\u043e\u0431\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0435 (1973).\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041f\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0448\u0430 \u0410\u043b\u043b\u0435\u043d (\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0444\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0440\u0438; 1922\u20142016)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041f\u0435\u0440\u043b (1889\u20141938)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430, \u0437\u0432\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u044f (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1972)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0438 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0442.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041f\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1950) \u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440 \u043a\u0438\u043d\u043e \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041f\u043e\u043b \u0414\u0430\u0434\u043b\u0438 (1886\u20141973)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041f\u043e\u043b \u0420\u044d\u043d\u0434\u0430\u043b\u043b (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1972)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0440\u00a0\u0438 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440, \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043c\u00a0\u0411\u0438\u0433 \u0428\u043e\u0443.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041f\u043e\u0440\u0446\u0438\u044f (1911\u20141968)\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430-\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0442\u043e.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041f\u044d\u0439 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1963)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0445\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430.\n\n\u0420 \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0420\u0430\u0439\u0430\u043d (1971\u20141990)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a, \u0441\u0438\u043c\u0432\u043e\u043b \u0431\u043e\u0440\u044c\u0431\u044b \u0441\u043e \u0421\u041f\u0418\u0414\u043e\u043c.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0420\u0430\u0448\u0430\u0434 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1999) \u2014 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0432 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0420\u0435\u0433 (1935\u20142010)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044f\u0445\u0442\u0441\u043c\u0435\u043d, \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d \u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440 1976.\n \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0420\u043e\u0439\u0441 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1991)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0420\u0443\u0442 (1914\u20141969)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430.\n\n\u0421 \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0421\u0438\u0434\u043d\u0438 \u0420\u044d\u0439 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1991)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0438 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440-\u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0421\u0438\u0440\u0438\u043b \u0422\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0441\u043e\u043d (1890\u20141950)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043a.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0421\u0442\u0435\u0444\u0430\u043d\u0438 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1977)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0421\u0442\u044d\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u0434 (1853\u20141906)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u0445\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0421\u0442\u044e\u0430\u0440\u0442 \u042d\u0434\u0443\u0430\u0440\u0434 (1873\u20141946)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0435\u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a.\n\n\u0422 \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0422\u0430\u043d (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1982)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430.\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1938) \u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c-\u0444\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0441\u0442, \u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0438 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0422\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0441 \u0425\u044d\u043d\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0438 (1906\u20141964)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0422\u0435\u0440\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043e (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1990)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0430\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0422\u0438\u043c (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1950)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043e\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0422\u043e\u0434\u0434 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1975)\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0445\u043e\u043a\u043a\u0435\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0422\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0441 (1888\u20141957)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0422\u043e\u043d\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0422\u043e\u043d\u0438 \u0414\u0436\u043e (1943\u20142018)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0446 \u0438 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0422\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0440 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1984)\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043b\u044b\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a, \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a \u043e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440 2010 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 \u0412\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0435.\n\n\u0423 \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0423\u0438\u043b (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1994)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0440\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0439\u0434-\u043c\u0430\u0443\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0431\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0435\u0440.\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1946)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0446 (\u0431\u0430\u0441) \u044f\u043c\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0423\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438 (1939\u20142007) \u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043b\u0435\u0433\u043a\u043e\u0430\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043a\u0430.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0423\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1962)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n\n\u0424 \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0424\u0440\u044d\u043d\u0441\u0438\u0441 \u0411\u044c\u044e\u043a\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d (1842\u20141894)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044d\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433 \u0438 \u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043a.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0424\u044d\u0439 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1978)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430, \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c \u0437\u0430 \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043b\u043e\u043d\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u00ab\u0410\u0440\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0430\u043b\u00bb \u0438 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0410\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0438.\n\n\u0425 \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0425\u0430\u0440\u0432\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0437\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0425\u0430\u0440\u0432\u0438 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 2001)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1930)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0425\u0435\u0439\u0434\u0435\u043d (1928\u20142018)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043a \u0438 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0425\u044c\u044e\u0433\u043e (1939\u20142014)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u0433\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0413\u0438\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0425\u044d\u043b\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0442 (1950\u20142012)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044d\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n\n\u0427 \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0427\u0430\u0440\u043b\u0438 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1987)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0438\u0433\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0432\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0432 \u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0430\u0445 \u043d\u0430 \u043b\u044c\u0434\u0443.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0427\u0430\u0440\u043b\u0437 (1728\u20141813)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0445\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0440\u0433 \u0438 \u0430\u043a\u0443\u0448\u0435\u0440.\n\n\u0428 \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0428\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d (1928\u20142011)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0430.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0428\u043e\u043d (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1986)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043d\u043e\u0443\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n\n\u042d \n \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u042d\u0434\u043c\u0443\u043d\u0434 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1940)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u0434\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0433 \u0438 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u042d\u0434\u0443\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0443 (1963\u20142014)\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u043e\u0437\u0430\u043c\u0431\u0438\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442, \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043b \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0433\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0435.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u042d\u0439\u0434\u0435\u043d (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1991)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0438\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u042d\u043b\u0432\u0438\u043d \u0411\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0441 (1899\u20141985)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u044d\u0441\u0441\u0435\u0438\u0441\u0442, \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u042d\u043b\u0438\u0441 (\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0410\u043b\u0432\u0430 \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442; 1904\u20141983)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430.\n \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u042d\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0414\u0436\u0435\u0439\u043d (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1982)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u042d\u043d\u0434\u0440\u044e (1579\u20141656)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0435\u0437\u0443\u0438\u0442, \u043a\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0440, \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u041c\u044d\u0440\u0438\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0434.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u042d\u043d\u0434\u0440\u044e \u0414\u0438\u043a\u0441\u043e\u043d (1832\u20141918)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u042d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u041b\u0438\u043d\u0430 (1876\u20141944)\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430, \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0430, \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u043f\u0441\u0438\u0445\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u0421\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0444\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0438 \n \u0411\u0440\u044d\u0434\u0448\u043e\u0443-\u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u041b\u0443\u0438\u0437\u0430 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1974)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442-\u0413\u043b\u0430\u0437, \u0410\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0430 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 1985)\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u0438 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u043f\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442-\u0438-\u041b\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0442\u0442, \u0425\u043e\u0441\u0435 \u0421\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435 (1835\u20141918)\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u0443\u0431\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043a\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0430\u0447 \u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440.\n \u0424\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432-\u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0414\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 (1889\u20141950)\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0444\u0438\u0446\u0435\u0440, \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043a.\n \u0411\u043b\u0430\u043d\u043a\u043e \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442, \u0414\u0436\u043e\u0437\u0435\u0444 (1775\u20141841)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u044d\u0442, \u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0438 \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442.\n\n\u041f\u0441\u0435\u0432\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043c\u044b \n \u0414\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u0444\u0435\u0440 \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442 (\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u043c\u044f \u041a\u0430\u0440\u043b\u0438 \u042d\u043d\u043d\u0438 \u0424\u0440\u0438\u0434\u043c\u0430\u043d; \u0440\u043e\u0434. 1988)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430 \u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n \u0422\u0430\u0440\u0440\u0430 \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442 (\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u043c\u044f \u041c\u0430\u0301\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u041c\u0440\u0430\u0301\u043a\u0432\u0438\u043e\u0432\u0430; \u0440\u043e\u0434. 1987)\u00a0\u2014 \u0447\u0435\u0448\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0430.\n\n\u0412\u044b\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0436\u0438 \n \u041a\u044d\u0440\u0440\u0438 \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0433\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0438\u043d\u044f \u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0421\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u041a\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0430 \u00ab\u041a\u044d\u0440\u0440\u0438\u00bb.\n \u0423\u043e\u043b\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u00ab\u0412\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0442\u044f\u0436\u043a\u0438\u0435\u00bb.\n\n\u0422\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043c \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0430 \u044e\u0433\u0435 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u0443\u043b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0443 \u0431\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0432 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0417\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0438.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u041a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0410\u0440\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0430\u0440\u0445\u0438\u043f\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0430.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0437 \u0445\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0435\u0442 \u0411\u0430\u0443\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u0421\u0428\u0410 \u0438 \u041a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0439.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u0442\u0430\u0443\u043d\u0448\u0438\u043f \u0432 \u041c\u0438\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0442\u0435.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u0432 \u0421\u0428\u0410. \u0412 \u0421\u0428\u0410 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f 5 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0432 \u0441 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u00ab\u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00bb:\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u0432 \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u0410\u0440\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0437\u0430\u0441.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u0432 \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u0414\u0436\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0436\u0438\u044f.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u0432 \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u0418\u043b\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439\u0441.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u0432 \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u0418\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0430.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u0432 \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u0422\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438.\n\n\u0421\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \n \u041a\u0430\u043f\u043f\u0430-\u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u044f \u0432 \u0418\u0440\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0438, \u043d\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u042e\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0422\u0438\u043f\u043f\u0435\u0440\u044d\u0440\u0438 (\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f \u041c\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440).\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442-\u0411\u043b\u0430\u0444\u0444\u0441\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u044b\u043d\u0435 \u043d\u0435 \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0435\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0432 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0435 \u0411\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043d, \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442 \u0412\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0442\u043e\u043d.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442-\u0411\u044d\u0440\u00a0\u2014 \u0442\u0430\u0443\u043d\u0448\u0438\u043f \u0432 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0435 \u0420\u0430\u043c\u0441\u0438, \u041c\u0438\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0442\u0430, \u0421\u0428\u0410.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442-\u0411\u044d\u0440-\u041b\u0435\u0439\u043a\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0432 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430\u0445 \u0420\u0430\u043c\u0441\u0438, \u0412\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0442\u043e\u043d, \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442 \u041c\u0438\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0442\u0430, \u0421\u0428\u0410.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442-\u041a\u0435\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u0435\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u042e\u0410\u0420 \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0435\u0440\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u041a\u0430\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438.\n \n \n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442-\u041e\u043a\u00a0\u2014 \u0442\u0430\u0443\u043d\u0448\u0438\u043f \u0432 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0435 \u0425\u0430\u0431\u0431\u0430\u0440\u0442, \u041c\u0438\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0442\u0430, \u0421\u0428\u0410.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442-\u041f\u043b\u0435\u0439\u043d\u0441\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 (\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0438) \u0432 \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u041d\u044c\u044e-\u0419\u043e\u0440\u043a, \u0421\u0428\u0410.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442-\u0421\u0438\u0442\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c, \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0435 \u0421\u0435\u043d\u0442-\u041b\u0443\u0441\u0438 (\u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442 \u0424\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0430, \u0421\u0428\u0410).\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442-\u0421\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0441\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043f\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442, \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0435 \u0413\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0442\u043e\u043d (\u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442 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\u041c\u0438\u043d\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0442\u0430, \u0421\u0428\u0410.\n \u0424\u043e\u0440\u0442-\u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043f\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442, \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0435 \u041a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0431\u0438\u0430 (\u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442 \u0424\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0430, \u0421\u0428\u0410).\n \u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u044f\u0434 \u0442\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u0421\u0428\u0410.\n\n\u0421\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u044b \u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u044b \n \u00ab\u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442 \u0411\u0435\u044d\u0440\u0437\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0445\u043e\u043a\u043a\u0435\u044e \u0441 \u0448\u0430\u0439\u0431\u043e\u0439 \u0438 \u043f\u043e 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2007 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0435 \n \u00ab\u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0441\u0438\u043b \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e-\u043c\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0444\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0441 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u044c\u044e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0432\u043e\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u041c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443 \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0431\u0438\u0442\u0432\u044b \u0437\u0430 \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0437\u0435\u043c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043c\u043e\u0440\u0435.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0439 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u0432 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\u041a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u0430\u2014\u041e\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0430\u2014\u0411\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u044f\u0440\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u0438\u0437 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442 \u041a\u0440\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0430, \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0432 1970 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443.\n \u041b\u0438\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442-\u041f\u043b\u0435\u0439\u043d\u0441-\u0440\u043e\u0443\u0434, \u0410\u0439-\u0430\u0440-\u0442\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0438\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0410\u0439-\u0430\u0440-\u0442\u0438 \u041d\u044c\u044e-\u0419\u043e\u0440\u043a\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e.\n \u00ab\u041c\u0433\u0435\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0432-\u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0443\u0448\u0435\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u043f\u0443\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0451\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043b\u044c \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0451\u043d \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b.\n \u041e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u00ab\u041c\u044d\u0448\u0435\u0440 / \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442 \u0423\u0438\u043d\u0433\u00bb\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0451\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0432\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0421\u0428\u0410 \u0438 \u0438\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0432 1966 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0412\u044c\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442-\u0441\u043f\u0438\u0440\u0438\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u044b\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0432 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435 \u0441\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0438 \u0436\u0438\u0434\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0430\u043b\u0438\u0444\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438 \u0430\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0443\u0433\u043b\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442 \u0425\u0430\u0440\u0442 \u041b\u0435\u0439\u043d\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043e\u043d \u0432 \u041b\u043e\u043d\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0435.\n \u0424\u043b\u044d\u0442 \u0443\u0430\u0439\u0442\u00a0\u2014 \u043a\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0442\u043e\u043a \u0438\u0437 \u0410\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438, \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432 80-\u0445 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430.\n\n\u0421\u043c. \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \n \n \u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u043a \u0440\u0435\u043a\u0430\u043c \u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0442\u0430\u043c.\n \u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u043e\u044f\u0437\u044b\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043c, \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0432 \u0421\u0428\u0410.\n \u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0444\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0442\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043c.\n \u0423\u0430\u0439\u0442-\u0428\u0430\u0440\u043a-\u041a\u0430\u0444\u0435\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0422\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u043a\u0435\u0430\u043d\u0430, \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u0437\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0439 \u0438", "1822.\n\nBy agreeing to defy the Cortes and stay in Brazil, Prince Pedro assumed the leadership of the Brazilian cause; as a recognition of his leading role, Brazilian independentists offered Pedro on 13 May 1822 the title of \"Perpetual Protector and Defender of Brazil\"; he rejected the title of Protector, arguing that Brazil did not need one, but assumed the title of \"Perpetual Defender of Brazil\". By defying explicit orders that demanded his return to Europe, Pedro escalated the events that would lead to the separation of Brazil from the United Kingdom, and hastened the crucial moment of the Proclamation of Independence. As the situation between Brazilians and Portuguese deteriorated, the United Kingdom was doomed to dissolution.\n\nBrazilian independentists argued that Brazil's future should be decided by Brazilians and not by the Lisbon Cortes, and they accordingly demanded the summoning of a National Constituent Assembly for Brazil, separate from the Constituent Cortes assembled in Portugal. Prince Pedro, acting on the advice of his newly convened Council, embraced those demands, and issued a decree on 13 June 1822 summoning elections for a Brazilian Constituent Assembly. Due to the further escalation of tensions between Brazil and Portugal, the elections to that Constituent Assembly would only take place after the Prince himself had proclaimed the independence of Brazil (the Assembly would only convene in 1823, and the independence of Brazil was declared in September 1822, with the establishment of the Empire of Brazil in October 1822).\n\nThe Cortes sent troops to Brazil to compel the dissolution of the Prince's Government and to force his return to Portugal as ordered, but, on arrival those troops were commanded by the Prince to return to Portugal. The Portuguese troops in Rio de Janeiro obeyed the Prince Royal and returned to Europe, but in other Provinces fighting erupted between Brazilians and Portuguese.\n\nProclamation of Independence\n\nNews of further attempts of the Portuguese Cortes aimed at dissolving Prince Pedro's Regency led directly to the Brazilian Proclamation of Independence. Accordingly, in 1822, the Regent of the Kingdom of Brazil, Prince Pedro, the son of John VI, declared the independence of Brazil, as a reaction against the attempts of the Cortes to terminate Brazilian home rule, and became Emperor Pedro I of Brazil, which spelled the end of the United Kingdom.\n\nThe independence of Brazil was proclaimed by Prince Pedro on 7 September 1822. The Proclamation of Independence was made while the Prince was in the Province of S\u00e3o Paulo. He had travelled there to secure the Province's loyalty to the Brazilian cause. He departed the city of S\u00e3o Paulo, the Province's capital, on 5 September, and on 7 September, while on his way back to Rio de Janeiro, he received mail from his Minister Jos\u00e9 Bonif\u00e1cio de Andrada e Silva and from his wife, Princess Leopoldina (who remained in Rio de Janeiro presiding over the Ministry during Prince Pedro's absence), informing Pedro of further acts by the Cortes aimed at dissolving his Government by force, insisting on his return to Lisbon and attempting to void his later acts as Regent of the Kingdom of Brazil. It was clear that independence was the only option left. Pedro turned to his companions that included his Guard of Honor and spoke: \"Friends, the Portuguese Cortes want to enslave and pursue us. From today on our relations are broken. No ties can unite us anymore\" and continued after he pulled out his blue-white armband that symbolized Portugal: \"Armbands off, soldiers. Hail to the independence, to freedom and to the separation of Brazil from Portugal!\" He unsheathed his sword affirming that \"For my blood, my honor, my God, I swear to give Brazil freedom,\" and later cried out: \"Independence or death!\". This event is remembered as \"Cry of Ipiranga\", because it took place next to the riverbank of the Ipiranga brook. The Prince then decided to return urgently to the city of S\u00e3o Paulo, where he and his entourage arrived in the night of 7 September. There, they announced the news of the Prince's Proclamation, and of Brazil's separation from Portugal, and were met with great popular acclaim.\n\nLess than a month later, on 23 September 1822, the Lisbon Cortes, still unaware of the Brazilian declaration of independence, approved the Constitution of the United Kingdom, that was then signed by the members of the Cortes and presented to the King. Between 23 September and 1 October, the members of the Cortes, including Brazilians that still took part in its deliberations, took oaths to uphold the Constitution. In a solemnity on 1 October 1822, King John VI appeared before the Cortes, made a speech from the Throne declaring his acceptance of the Constitution, swore an oath to uphold it, and signed an instrument of assent that was included in the text of the Constitution after the signatures of the members of the Cortes, declaring that the king had accepted the Constitution and sworn to abide by it. On 4 October, acting as the Cortes had directed, the Portuguese King signed at the Royal Palace of Queluz a Charter of Law promulgating the text of the Constitution and ordering its execution by all his subjects throughout the United Kingdom. This Charter of Law, containing the full text of the Constitution, including the signatures of the members of the Cortes and the King's instrument of assent, was published on the following day, 5 October 1822. Due to the Brazilian secession from the United Kingdom, that Constitution was never recognized in Brazil and was only effective in Portugal.\n\nThat the newly independent Brazilian Nation would adopt a constitutional monarchy as its form of Government and that Prince Pedro would be the new State's monarch were obvious facts to all the leaders involved in the process of Brazilian emancipation, but still, for a little more than one month after the 7 September 1822 Proclamation of Independence, Prince Pedro initially continued to use the title of Prince Regent, as he did not want to declare himself monarch, preferring instead to accept the new country's Crown as an offer. This led several local councils to adopt motions and addresses asking the Prince Regent to assume the title of King, or of Emperor (there were no legislatures in the provinces, and also no national legislature existed at that time; the municipal councils were the only existing legislatures, and since the colonial era they had substantial authority). The municipal council of the city of Rio de Janeiro and the other municipal councils of the province of Rio de Janeiro then organized a ceremony of acclamation, with the support of the Prince Regent's Government. The municipal council of Rio de Janeiro voted to instruct its president to offer Prince Pedro the title of Emperor. Then, the Prince's Advisory Council, a body that was not a legislative assembly, but was composed of councillors elected from all Provinces of Brazil to represent its peoples and advise the Prince Regent (the Conselho de Procuradores das Prov\u00edncias do Brasil or Council of the Representatives of the Provinces of Brazil), advised the Prince Regent to accede to the several requests already presented and to assume the imperial title. On 12 October 1822, Prince Pedro accepted the offer of the new Brazilian Throne and was acclaimed the first Emperor of the independent Empire of Brazil.\n\nAlthough Portuguese monarchs were not crowned since the 16th century, it was decided by the newly created imperial Government that the Brazilian monarchy, then recently instituted, should adopt different customs, both to differentiate itself from the Portuguese model and to highlight its status as a distinct institution, from a separate and independent country. Thus, it was decided that Emperors of Brazil should be consecrated, anointed and crowned with the full Catholic coronation ritual. Also, in the context of the struggle to sustain the newly declared independence of Brazil, and to seek recognition for the Empire, the religious act of coronation would establish Emperor Pedro I as an anointed monarch, crowned by the Catholic Church. It was regarded that this could improve his legitimacy in the eyes of other Christian monarchies, and it would also confirm the alliance between the newly declared State and the Church in Brazil. Accordingly, the coronation of Emperor Pedro I took place on 1 December 1822.\n\nRecognition of independence\nThe Brazilian declaration of independence and foundation of the Empire of Brazil led to a War of Independence. The Portuguese initially refused to recognize Brazil as a sovereign state, treating the whole affair as a rebellion and attempting to preserve the United Kingdom. However, military action was never close to Rio de Janeiro, and the main battles of the independence war took place in the Northeastern region of Brazil. The independentist Brazilian forces overpowered the Portuguese forces as well as the few local forces that were still loyal to Portugal, and the last Portuguese troops surrendered in November 1823. Compared to the wars of independence waged by Spanish colonies during the decolonization of the Americas, the Brazilian Independence War did not result in significant bloodshed, although land and naval battles were fought.\n\nThe Portuguese military defeat, however, was not followed by swift recognition of the new country's independence. Instead, from 1822 to 1825 the Portuguese Government engaged in heavy diplomatic efforts to avoid the recognition of Brazil's independence by the European Powers, invoking the principles of the Congress of Vienna and subsequent European alliances. Those foreign Nations, however, were keen on establishing trade and diplomatic ties with Brazil. Under British pressure, Portugal eventually agreed to recognize Brazil's independence in 1825, thus allowing the new country to establish diplomatic ties with other European powers shortly thereafter.\n\nIn 1824, in the wake of the adoption of the Constitution of the Empire of Brazil on 25 March that year, the United States of America became the first nation to recognize the independence of Brazil and the consequential disbandment of the United Kingdom.\n\nPortugal recognized the sovereignty of Brazil only in 1825. Since a coup d'et\u00e1t on 3 June 1823 the Portuguese King John VI had already abolished the Constitution of 1822 and dissolved the Cortes, thus reversing the Liberal Revolution of 1820. On 4 January 1824 King John VI issued a Charter of Law confirming as in force the \"traditional laws of the Portuguese Monarchy\", thus ratifying the restoration of the absolutist r\u00e9gime in Portugal.\n\nThere were two Portuguese acts of recognition of Brazilian independence. The first was unilateral and purporting to be constitutive of such independence, the second was bilateral and declaratory.\n\nThe first act of recognition was materialized in Letters Patent issued on 13 May 1825, by which the Portuguese King \"voluntarily ceded and transferred the sovereignty\" over Brazil to his son, the Brazilian Emperor, and thus recognized, as a result of this concession, Brazil as an \"Independent Empire, separate from the Kingdoms of Portugal and Algarves\".\n\nThe second act of recognition was materialized in a Treaty of Peace signed in Rio de Janeiro on 29 August 1825, by means of which Portugal again recognized the independence of Brazil. This Treaty was ratified by the Emperor of Brazil on 30 August 1825, and by the King of Portugal on 15 November 1825, and entered into force in international Law also on 15 November 1825 upon the exchange of the instruments of ratification in Lisbon. On the same date of the signature of the Portuguese instrument of ratification and of the exchange of the ratification documents between the representatives of the two Nations, the Portuguese King also signed a Charter of Law, a statute, ordering the execution of the Treaty as part of the domestic Law of Portugal. The Treaty was incorporated as part of the domestic Law of Brazil by a Decree of Emperor Pedro I signed on 10 April 1826.\n\nThe reason why there were two separate acts of recognition of the independence of Brazil is this: in the wake of the Brazilian victory in the War of Independence, the Portuguese king initially attempted to recognize Brazilian independence unilaterally so as to ignore the fact of the Portuguese defeat and transmit the impression that Portugal was being magnanimous. By means of such unilateral concession, Portugal intended to avoid the humiliation of Peace negotiations with its former Colony. King John VI wanted to \"save face\" by giving the impression that Portugal was voluntarily conceding independence to Brazil, and not just recognizing a fait accompli. Thus the Letters Patent issued on 13 May 1825 ignored the proclamation of 1822 and \"granted independence to Brazil\" as if it were a concession, that was laced with conditions. Thus, Brazilian independence would result not from the events of 1822, but from the 1825 Letters Patent.\n\nIn the 13 May 1825 Letters Patent, King John recited the polity creating acts of his predecessors and of other sovereigns of Europe, recited his own desire to promote the happiness of all the peoples over which he ruled, and proceeded to declare and enact that from thenceforth the Kingdom of Brazil would be an Empire, and that the Empire of Brazil would be separate from the Kingdoms of Portugal and the Algarves in both internal and foreign affairs; that he, John, therefore took for himself the title of Emperor of Brazil and King of Portugal and the Algarves, to which would follow the other titles of the Portuguese Crown; that the title of \"Prince or Princess Imperial of Brazil, and Royal of Portugal and the Algarves\" would be vested in the heir or heiress presumptive of the imperial and royal Crowns; that since the succession of both the imperial and royal Crowns belonged to his son, \"Prince Dom Pedro\", he, King John, at once, \"by this same act and letters patent\", ceded and transferred to Pedro, from thenceforth, of his \"own free will\", the full sovereignty of the Empire of Brazil, for Pedro to govern it, assuming at once the title Emperor of Brazil, keeping at the same time the title of Prince Royal of Portugal and the Algarves, while John reserved for himself the same title of Emperor, and the position of King of Portugal and the Algarves, with the full sovereignty of the said Kingdoms (of Portugal and the Algarves).\n\nHowever, such unilateral, constitutive recognition was not accepted by Brazilians, who demanded a declarative recognition of the independence as proclaimed and existing since 1822. The new Brazilian Government therefore made the establishment of peaceful relations and diplomatic ties with Portugal conditional on the signature of a bilateral treaty between the two Nations. Portugal eventually agreed, and a treaty to that effect was signed with British mediation. The treaty between the Empire of Brazil and the Kingdom of Portugal on the recognition of Brazilian independence, signed in Rio de Janeiro on 29 August 1825, finally entered into force on 15 November 1825 upon the exchange of the instruments of ratification in Lisbon.\n\nThe Portuguese, however, only accepted to sign the Independence treaty on condition that Brazil agreed to pay reparations for the properties of the Portuguese State that were seized by the new Brazilian State. Brazil desperately needed to establish normal diplomatic relations with Portugal, because other European Monarchies had already made clear that they would only recognize the Empire of Brazil after the establishment of normal relations between Brazil and Portugal. Thus, by a separate convention that was signed on the same occasion as the Treaty on the Recognition of Independence, Brazil agreed to pay Portugal two million pounds in damages. The British, who had mediated the Peace negotiations, granted Brazil a loan of the same value, so that Brazil could pay the agreed sum. The new Nation, therefore, achieved international recognition at a heavy price. As a result of this agreement, Brazil became plunged in debt to Britain, but was able to achieve universal international recognition, both de facto and de jure as an independent State.\n\nUpon recognizing the independence of Brazil from the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarves, King John VI, by his charter of law of 15 November 1825 changed back the name of the Portuguese State and the Royal Titles to \"Kingdom of Portugal\" and \"King of Portugal and the Algarves\" respectively. The title of the Portuguese heir apparent was changed to \"Prince Royal of Portugal and the Algarves\" by the same edict.\n\nThe recognition of Brazilian independence completed the dissolution of the United Kingdom.\n\nBy a provision of the Letters Patent of 13 May 1825, confirmed by the Treaty on the Recognition of Independence in spite of the secession of Brazil from the Portuguese Monarchy, the Portuguese King, John VI, was allowed to use for the remainder of his life the honorary title of \"Emperor of Brazil\", with the caveat that this title was honorary and ceremonial only, and that Pedro I and his successors in the independent Brazilian Crown were the only actual Emperors of Brazil. This honorary title ceased to have effect upon the demise of King John VI on 10 March 1826.\n\nNews of the separate convention appended to the Independence Treaty, by which Brazil agreed to pay Portugal financial compensation, angered many Brazilians, who saw this payment as a result of a bad negotiation, especially in view of the Brazilian military victory in the independence war. The grant of the honorary imperial title to the Portuguese King was also not popular with Brazilians. Furthermore, the declaratory language of the Independence Treaty was sufficiently ambiguous, so that Brazilians could claim that the independence declared in 1822 was being recognized, but mention was also made of the 13 May 1825 Letters Patent, so that the Portuguese could claim that the recognition was based on the previous concession. The preamble of the treaty mentioned the concession made by means of the Letters Patent of 13 May 1825; it stated that, by that Letters Patent, the Portuguese King had \"recognized Brazil as an independent Empire, and his son Dom Pedro as Emperor\", but also stated that, in so doing, the Portuguese monarch was \"ceding and transferring of his free will the sovereignty of the said Empire\". In the treaty's second article, it was the Brazilian Emperor who agreed that his father, the Portuguese King, should take for himself the honorary life title of Emperor. In the first article of the treaty it was declared that the King of Portugal recognized Brazil as an independent Empire, and as a Nation separate from the Kingdoms of Portugal and the Algarves, and also recognized his son Dom Pedro as Emperor of Brazil, ceding \"of his own free will\" to the Brazilian Emperor and his legitimate successors all claims of sovereignty over Brazil. Peace was established between the countries of Brazil and Portugal by the fourth Article.\n\nIn spite of the unpopular clauses, and especially of the harsh financial agreement, Brazilian Emperor Pedro I agreed to ratify the treaty negotiated with Portugal as he was keen on resolving the recognition of independence question before the opening of the first legislative session of the Brazilian Parliament (Assembl\u00e9ia Geral or General Assembly) elected under the Constitution adopted in 1824. The first meeting of the new Legislature was set to take place on 3 May 1826, and after a brief delay, that Parliament was indeed opened on 6 May 1826. By that time, the independence question was indeed resolved, as the Independence treaty had been ratified in November 1825 and as the Emperor, still yielding the fullness of legislative authority (that he was to lose upon the first meeting of the Parliament), ordered the execution of the agreement as part of the law of Brazil on 10 April 1826.\n\nAftermath: resolution of the dynastic ent", ".\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434 \u0432 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0442 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0438\u043b \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441. \u041e\u043d \u0432\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 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\u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u044c \u0432\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0438 \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f: \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c, \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0437\u043c, \u0445\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e, \u043d\u0435\u043e\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c, \u0437\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043c, \u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0445\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e, \u0441\u0443\u0444\u0438\u0437\u043c, \u044d\u043b\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f, \u0435\u0433\u0438\u043f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u044d\u043b\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f, \u0432\u0438\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f, \u0430\u0440\u0430\u0431\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438 \u0435\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u044f.\n\n\u0421\u043c. \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \n \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\n \u0424\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044c\n \u0421\u043f\u0430\u0433\u0438\u0440\u0438\u044f\n \u0425\u0438\u043c\u0438\u044f\n \u041d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430\n \u0410\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0438\u043c\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044b\n \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0437\u043c\n \u0414\u0430\u043e\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u044f\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n\n \n \n \n\n\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0430\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438\n \u041c\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0437\u043e\u0432 \u041d. \u0410. \u0412 \u043f\u043e\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0445 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0430\u043c\u043d\u044f.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0442-\u041f\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433: \u041e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432. \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0430, 1909.\n \u0420\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0412. \u041b. \u0410\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u044f \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0444\u0435\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430, 1979; 2-\u043e\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435: \u0412\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c \u0420\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447. \u0410\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u044f.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u041f\u0431.: \u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u041b\u0438\u043c\u0431\u0430\u0445\u0430, 2012.\n \u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u042e. \u0424. \u0414\u0432\u0430\u0434\u0446\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0430\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438: \u043e\u0442 \u043f\u0441\u0435\u0432\u0434\u043e-\u0414\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430 \u0434\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u043d\u0435\u0439.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u041f\u0431.: \u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0420\u0425\u0413\u0410, 2019. ISBN 978-5-9906888-5-8\n \u0417\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0421. \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0430\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438. \u041f\u0443\u0442\u0435\u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0430\u043c\u043d\u044f \u0438\u0437 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0437\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043d\u044b\u0439. \u2014 \u041c.: \u0410\u0421\u0422, 2020. ISBN 978-5-17-117986-1 \n\n\u0421\u043e\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0430 \u0422\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043c\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\n \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u0441 \u0422\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043c\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0441\u0442. Aureus Tractatus / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0412.\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u041c\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430 // Studia culturae. \u0412\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a 9.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u041f\u0431.: \u0421\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0442-\u041f\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e. 2006\u00a0\u0433.\u00a0\u2014 360 \u0441. (\u0421. 291\u2014317)\n\n\u0421\u043e\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f XVII \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430\n 1600\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d, \u00ab\u041a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u0430 \u0434\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0446\u0430\u0442\u0438 \u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u0439\u00bb (Duodecim Claves). \u0414\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0446\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u0439 \u043c\u0443\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0412.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u041a\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u0411\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u044c\u0435, 1999.\n 1604\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d, \u00ab\u0422\u0440\u0438\u0443\u043c\u0444\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00bb (Currus triumphalis antimonii)\n 1612\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430 \u0424\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u00ab\u0418\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0444\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0444\u0438\u0433\u0443\u0440\u044b\u00bb (Le Livre des figures hi\u00e9roglyphiques)\n 1618\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u0430\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d, \u0410\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044b / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0412. \u0444\u043e\u043d \u042d\u0440\u0446\u0435\u043d-\u0413\u043b\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0430. \u041a.: \u0410\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444, 2008.\n 16??\u00a0\u2014 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430 \u0424\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c, \u0410\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u044f / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0440. \u0413.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u0411\u0443\u0442\u0443\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u041f\u0431.: \u0410\u0437\u0431\u0443\u043a\u0430; \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435, 2001. 384 \u0441. + \u0446\u0432. \u0432\u043a\u043b.\n 1647 \u2014 \u041e\u0441\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0434 \u041a\u0440\u043e\u043b\u043b \u00ab\u0426\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0425\u0438\u043c\u0438\u044f\u00bb / \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 \u0441\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u2014 \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0438\u044f: \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u00bb \u2014 \u0425\u0430\u0440\u044c\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0424\u041b\u041f \u0410\u0440\u0442\u044b\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e, 2020 \u0433. \u2014 408 \u0441\u0442\u0440. ISBN 978-966-97939-0-4\n 1648 \u2014 Collectanea Chemica. \u0420\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044b \u043f\u043e \u0433\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u0438 \u0430\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b. \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0441\u043b. \u0413. \u0414. \u0418\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 ; \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447. \u0440\u0435\u0434., \u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442. \u041a. \u041c. \u0420\u043e\u0434\u044b\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0430, \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u043e\u0431\u0449. \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0411. \u041a. \u0414\u0432\u0438\u043d\u044f\u043d\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430. \u2014 \u0421\u041f\u0431. : \u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u00ab\u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044f \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b\u00bb, 2022. \u2014 240 \u0441. : \u0438\u043b. ISBN 978-5-94396-240-0\n 1652 \u2014 \u0413\u043b\u0430\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0440 \u00ab\u041c\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb / \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 \u0441 \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0443\u0437\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u2014 \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0438\u044f: \u00ab\u041a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u00bb \u2014 \u0425\u0430\u0440\u044c\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0424\u041b\u041f \u0410\u0440\u0442\u044b\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e, 2020 \u0433. \u2014 276 \u0441\u0442\u0440. ISBN 978-966-97939-1-1\n 1653\u00a0\u2014 \u0421\u0438\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043e \u0434\u0435 \u0411\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043a, \u0421\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043d\u044c\u0435\u043d, \u00ab\u0420\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00bb (\u0152uvres diverses, \u0438\u0437\u0434. 1709 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 )\n 1677\u00a0\u2014 Mutus Liber\n 1677\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438, \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430, \u00ab\u041a\u0443\u0440\u0441 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438\u00bb (Cours de Chimie)\n 1689\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043e\u043d \u0434\u0435 \u0421\u0435\u043d-\u0414\u0438\u0434\u044c\u0435, \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0422\u0440\u0438\u0443\u043c\u0444 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u041f\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0424\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u041a\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044c / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446. \u0418. \u041a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0434\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, 2017, 202 \u0441. ISBN 978-5-4485-0074-9\n\n\u0421\u043e\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f XVIII \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430\n \u0422\u0440\u0438 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u043e\u0431 \u0430\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438: \u041f\u0440\u0430\u0439\u0441 \u0414\u0436. \u042d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044b \u0441 \u043c\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0438 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u043e\u043c. \u0411\u043e\u0439\u043b\u044c \u0420. \u041e\u0442\u0447\u0435\u0442 \u043e \u0434\u0435\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0437\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430. \u0423\u043e\u043b\u043b \u041c. \u041e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0434\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0441\u0438\u043c\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b., \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442. \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0441\u043b. \u042e. \u0424. \u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430; \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0441\u043b. \u041c. \u042e. \u0420\u043e\u0434\u044b\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0430. \u2014 \u0421\u041f\u0431.: \u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u00ab\u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044f \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b\u00bb, 2020. \u2014 164 \u0441.: \u0438\u043b. ISBN 978-5-6045100-0-1\n 1758\u00a0\u2014 \u0414\u043e\u043c \u041f\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0438, \u00ab\u041c\u0438\u0444\u043e-\u0433\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044c\u00bb (Dictionnaire mytho-herm\u00e9tique)\n\n\u0421\u043e\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f XIX \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430\n 1843\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0430\u043c\u0431\u0440\u0438\u044d\u043b\u044c, \u041b\u0443\u0438-\u041f\u043e\u043b\u044c-\u0424\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0443\u0430. \u041a\u0443\u0440\u0441 \u0433\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0438\u0438 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0430\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0434\u0435\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043d\u0430\u0434\u0446\u0430\u0442\u0438 \u0443\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0445 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u0444\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0446. \u0418. \u041a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0431\u0435\u0440\u0434\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, 2019.\u00a0\u2014 242 \u0441. ISBN 978-5-4496-8860-6\n\n\u0421\u043e\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f XX \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430\n 1905\u00a0\u2014 \u041c\u0430\u0430\u043a \u0424\u0435\u0440\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0434. \u00ab\u0417\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0446\u0435\u043f\u044c \u0413\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0430. \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0435, \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0438\u0437\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0430\u00bb. \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 \u0441 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0446\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0415.\u00a0\u041d.\u00a0\u0413\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0444\u0440\u0435\u0439\u0445. \u0418\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, 2018.\u00a0\u2014 68 \u0441. \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0438\u044f \u00ab\u041c\u0430\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0438\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0430\u00bb.\u00a0\u2014 ISBN 978-5-4493-3751-1\n 1926\u00a0\u2014 \u0424\u0443\u043b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438, \u0422\u0430\u0439\u043d\u044b \u0421\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u0444\u0440. \u0412.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u041a\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0437\u0434. \u042d\u043d\u0438\u0433\u043c\u0430, 2008. 384 \u0441.\n 1930\u00a0\u2014 \u0424\u0443\u043b\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0438, \u0424\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0444\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 / \u041f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u0444\u0440. \u0412.\u00a0\u0410.\u00a0\u041a\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0438\u0437\u0434. \u042d\u043d\u0438\u0433\u043c\u0430, 2003. 624 \u0441.\n 1977\u00a0\u2014 \n 1979\u00a0\u2014 \u0420\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0412. \u041b. \u0410\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u044f \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0444\u0435\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b: \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u0441 \u0442\u0440\u0438\u0436\u0434\u044b \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0430\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0439. \u0418\u0437\u0443\u043c\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u043a\u0440\u0438\u0436\u0430\u043b\u044c: \u043f\u0435\u0440. \u0441 \u043b\u0430\u0442., \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0435\u043d., \u0431\u0438\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440. \u043e\u0441\u043d. \u0438\u043d\u043e\u044f\u0437. \u043f\u0435\u0440. / \u0410\u041d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420.\u00a0\u2014 \u041c.: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430, 1979.\n 1987\u00a0\u2014 \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043f\u0435\u0442\u044c\u044f\u043d\u0446 \u0410. \u041c., \u0422\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0415. \u0410. \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0430\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u041a\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0435 // \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043e-\u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f: \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u041a\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0435. \u0420\u0435\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a. \u041c., 1987. \u0421.158-167.\n 1987\u00a0\u2014 \u041b\u044b\u0441\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e \u0412. \u0413. \u041a\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0435\u0451 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438 // \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043e-\u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f: \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u041a\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0435. \u0420\u0435\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a. \u041c., 1987. \u0421.168-181.\n 1992\u00a0\u2014 \u0422\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0415. \u0410. \u0414\u0430\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0437\u043c \u0438 \u0430\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u041a\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0435 // \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435: \u0410\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0445. \u0421\u041f\u0431. \u0412\u044b\u043f. 2. 1992. \u0421. 272\u2014353.\n 2000\u00a0\u2014 \u0411\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u041e. \u0412. \u0410\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0435\u0451 \u0441\u0438\u043c\u0432\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u0418\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430 \u0411\u043e\u0441\u0445\u0430 // \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 2000. \u2116\u00a01. \u0421. 82-127.\n 2004\u00a0\u2014 \u0412\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0412. \u041c. \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0434\u043e \u0434\u0430 \u0412\u0438\u043d\u0447\u0438 \u0438 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441 \u043e \u043c\u0430\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0430\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438 // \u041b\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0434\u043e \u0434\u0430 \u0412\u0438\u043d\u0447\u0438 \u0438 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0412\u043e\u0437\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u041c.: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430, 2004.- \u0421.176-183. ISBN 5-02-032668-2\n 2009\u00a0\u2014 \u0411\u0443\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d, \u00ab\u0418\u0431\u043e \u043e\u043d \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043e\u0433\u043e\u043d\u044c \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0449\u0438\u043a\u0430\u00bb: \u043a\u0430\u0431\u0431\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0438 \u0430\u043b\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u044f. \u041c.: \u0418\u0424\u0420\u0410\u041d, 2009.- 295 \u0441.", " \u043e\u0442 \u043b\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430 natrium (\u0441\u0440. ), \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0438\u043c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e \u0438\u0437 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0435\u0433\u0438\u043f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044f\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430 (n\u1e6fr), \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u043e\u043d\u043e \u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0433\u043e: \u00ab\u0441\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00bb, \u00ab\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u00bb.\n\n\u0410\u0431\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u00abNa\u00bb \u0438 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043e natrium \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0432\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c, \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c \u0448\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0432\u0440\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0439 \u0419\u0451\u043d\u0441\u043e\u043c \u042f\u043a\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043c \u0411\u0435\u0440\u0446\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0443\u0441\u043e\u043c \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f 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\u043a \u0430\u0440\u0430\u0431\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0443 suda, \u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u00ab\u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u00bb, \u0442\u0430\u043a \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0432 \u0442\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u043b\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043e\u0442 \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438.\n\n\u041c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0425\u0435\u043c\u0444\u0440\u0438 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\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0448\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c \u0432 \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0446\u0432\u0435\u0442. \u042d\u0442\u0443 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0443 \u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438.\n\n\u0424\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \n\n\u041d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e-\u0431\u0435\u043b\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b, \u0432 \u0442\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u044f\u0445 \u0441 \u0444\u0438\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u043e\u0442\u0442\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e\u043c, \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d, \u0434\u0430\u0436\u0435 \u043c\u044f\u0433\u043e\u043a (\u043b\u0435\u0433\u043a\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u043e\u0436\u043e\u043c), \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0436\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0437 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0431\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442.\n\n\u042d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0434\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u0438, \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0430 (\u043f\u0440\u0438 ), \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f , 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.\n\n\u0425\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \n\u0429\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b, \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0443\u0445\u0435 \u043b\u0435\u0433\u043a\u043e \u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0434\u043e \u043e\u043a\u0441\u0438\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f. \u0414\u043b\u044f \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u044b \u043e\u0442 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0443\u0445\u0430 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044f\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0435\u043c \u043a\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0430.\n\n 4Na + O2 -> 2Na2O.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0443\u0445\u0435 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0441\u0438\u0434 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f:\n\n 2Na + O2 ->[t] Na2O2.\n\n\u041a\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0434 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f NaO3.\n\n\u0421 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u0433\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0431\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e, \u043f\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0449\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043a\u0443\u0441\u043e\u0447\u0435\u043a \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0432\u0441\u043f\u043b\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442, \u0438\u0437-\u0437\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0441\u044f \u0442\u0435\u043f\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0430\u044f\u0441\u044c \u0432 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u044b\u0439 \u0448\u0430\u0440\u0438\u043a, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0436\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u0445 \u043f\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u044b, \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0438\u0434\u0451\u0442 \u0441 \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f. \u0423\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438:\n\n 2Na + 2H2O -> 2NaOH + H2 ^.\n\n\u041a\u0430\u043a \u0438 \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u0449\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u044b, \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c \u0438 \u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e \u0432\u0437\u0430\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u043e \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0438 (\u0437\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0430\u0437\u043e\u0442\u0430, \u0438\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u0443\u0433\u043b\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u0431\u043b\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0433\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432):\n\n 2Na + Cl2 -> 2NaCl,\n 2Na + H2 ->[200-400{\u00b0}C, p] 2NaH.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0435\u043d, \u0447\u0435\u043c \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0439. \u0421 \u0430\u0437\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0440\u0435\u0430\u0433\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043a\u0440\u0430\u0439\u043d\u0435 \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0445\u043e \u0432 \u0442\u043b\u0435\u044e\u0449\u0435\u043c \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u044f\u0434\u0435, \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443\u044f \u043e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u043d\u0435\u0443\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439\u0447\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u00a0\u2014 \u043d\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0434 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f (\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043b\u0435\u0433\u043a\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u043c\u0443\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0443 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u044f):\n\n 6Na + N2 -> 2Na3N.\n\n\u0421 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0431\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0432\u0437\u0430\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043e\u0431\u044b\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b:\n\n 2Na + 2HCl_{{(\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0431)}} -> 2NaCl + H2 ^.\n\n\u0421 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u044b \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f:\n\n 8Na + 10HNO3_{{(\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446)}} -> 8NaNO3 + NH4NO3 + 3H2O,\n 8Na + 5H2SO4_{{(\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446)}} -> 4Na2SO4 + H2S + 4H2O.\n\n\u0420\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0436\u0438\u0434\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0430\u043c\u043c\u0438\u0430\u043a\u0435, \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443\u044f \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440:\n\n Na + 4NH3 ->[-40{\u00b0}C] Na(NH3)4.\n\n\u0421 \u0433\u0430\u0437\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0430\u043c\u043c\u0438\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043c \u0432\u0437\u0430\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438:\n\n 2Na + 2NH3 ->[350{\u00b0}C] 2NaNH2 + H2 ^.\n\n\u0421\u043e \u0440\u0442\u0443\u0442\u044c\u044e \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0430\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0433\u0430\u043c\u0443 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043c\u044f\u0433\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e \u0447\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430. \u041f\u0440\u0438 \u0441\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0441 \u043a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0434\u0430\u0451\u0442 \u0436\u0438\u0434\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432.\n\n\u0410\u043b\u043a\u0438\u043b\u0433\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0434\u044b \u0441 \u0438\u0437\u0431\u044b\u0442\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430 \u043c\u043e\u0433\u0443\u0442 \u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u044b\u0447\u043d\u043e \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043f\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0443\u0445\u0435 \u0438 \u0432\u0437\u0440\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0439. \u041f\u0440\u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043a\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0412\u044e\u0440\u0446\u0430.\n\n\u0420\u0435\u0430\u0433\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u043e \u0441\u043f\u0438\u0440\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u0444\u0435\u043d\u043e\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0431\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0441 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0441\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439.\n\n\u0420\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043a\u0440\u0430\u0443\u043d-\u044d\u0444\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0443\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0438 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439, \u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u044f \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0434 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0430\u043b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0434 (\u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u043c \u0443 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u044b\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0435\u043d\u044c \u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u22121).\n\n\u041f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \n\n\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0431\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0443\u0433\u043b\u0451\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0438 \u044d\u0442\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u0432 \u0436\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0451\u043c\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0434\u043e 1000\u00a0\u00b0C (\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431 \u0414\u0435\u0432\u0438\u043b\u043b\u044f):\n\n Na2CO3 + 2C ->[1000{\u00b0}C] 2Na + 3CO ^.\n\n\u0412\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043e \u0443\u0433\u043b\u044f \u043c\u043e\u0433\u0443\u0442 \u0431\u044b\u0442\u044c \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u044b \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0434 \u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0438\u044f, \u0430\u043b\u044e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0439, \u043a\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0439, \u0444\u0435\u0440\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0439, \u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0430\u043b\u044e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0439.\n\n\u0421 \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f\u00a0\u2014 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0437 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u0435\u0434\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0445\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f:\n\n 4NaOH ->[{\u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0437}] 4Na + 2H2O + O2 ^.\n 2NaCl ->[{\u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0437}] 2Na + Cl2 ^.\n\n\u0412 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0437\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0446\u0438\u0440\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0439\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043c \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0430\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \n\u041c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0448\u0438\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u0432 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0432 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0438. \u0418\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043e\u0441\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439, \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440, \u044d\u0444\u0438\u0440\u0430. \u041d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0441\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u043e\u0451\u043c\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439-\u0441\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0430\u043a\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432. \u0415\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0442 \u0432 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043b\u0430\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0433\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0436\u0438\u0434\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0434. \u0418\u0437\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043a\u0430 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u0442\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u0412 \u0441\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u0441 \u043a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0435\u043c, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0441 \u0440\u0443\u0431\u0438\u0434\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0438 \u0446\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u043e\u044d\u0444\u0444\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0435\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f. \u0412 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u0441\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u0435\u0442 \u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0434\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0438\u0437\u043a\u0443\u044e \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0443 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0433\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0430\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u043e\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043a.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0438 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0436\u0438\u0434\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0432 \u043d\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u044f\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u043d\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u043d\u0435\u0439\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0445. \u0421\u0435\u0439\u0447\u0430\u0441 \u0432 \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u043b\u0443\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0441 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0435\u043c\u00a0\u2014 \u0411\u041d-600 \u0438 \u0411\u041d-800. \u041a\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0411\u041e\u0420-60. \u0421\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0446\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0433\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u044f\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043b\u0430\u043c\u043f\u0430\u0445 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u043d\u0438\u0437\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0434\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f (\u041d\u041b\u0412\u0414 \u0438 \u041d\u041b\u041d\u0414). \u041b\u0430\u043c\u043f\u044b \u041d\u041b\u0412\u0414 \u0442\u0438\u043f\u0430 \u0414\u041d\u0430\u0422 (\u0414\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u041d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0422\u0440\u0443\u0431\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0430\u044f) \u043e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0448\u0438\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0443\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043e\u0441\u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438. \u041e\u043d\u0438 \u0434\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u044f\u0440\u043a\u043e-\u0436\u0451\u043b\u0442\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442. \u0421\u0440\u043e\u043a \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0431\u044b \u043b\u0430\u043c\u043f \u0414\u041d\u0430\u0422 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442 12\u201424 \u0442\u044b\u0441\u044f\u0447 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u043e\u0432. \u041f\u043e\u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0433\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u044f\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043b\u0430\u043c\u043f\u044b \u0442\u0438\u043f\u0430 \u0414\u041d\u0430\u0422 \u043d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043c\u044b \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0430\u0440\u0445\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0441\u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u0422\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u043b\u0430\u043c\u043f\u044b \u0414\u041d\u0430\u0421 (\u00ab\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f\u00bb), \u0414\u041d\u0430\u041c\u0422 (\u0414\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u041d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0430\u044f \u041c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f), \u0414\u041d\u0430\u0417 (\u0414\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u041d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0417\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f) \u0438 \u0414\u041d\u0430\u0422\u0411\u0420 (\u0414\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u041d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0435\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0422\u0440\u0443\u0431\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0411\u0435\u0437 \u0420\u0442\u0443\u0442\u0438), \u0414\u041d\u0430\u0411 (\u0411\u0435\u0437\u0440\u0442\u0443\u0442\u043d\u0430\u044f). \u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0432 \u00ab\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0435\u00bb(\u0433\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440. \u0442\u0440\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u0432\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0431\u044b) \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0439(\u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u0434\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u043d\u0430 \u043d\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0436\u0438\u043c) \u043b\u0430\u043c\u043f\u044b \u0414\u041d\u0430\u0422\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 (\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0437\u043c\u044b \u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0438\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u0435\u0449\u0451 \u0440\u0442\u0443\u0442\u0438(\u0442\u0430\u043a \u0445\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0433\u043e\u0440\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0442\u0438 \u0441 \u0432\u0430\u043a\u0443\u0443\u043c\u043e\u043c \u0432\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u043b\u0435\u0433\u0447\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0436\u0438\u0433\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f)) \u0431\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043a\u043e \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e \u0430\u0442\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443,\n\n\u041c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0435 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430. \u0421\u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043d\u0435\u0439\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u044d\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043c, \u0434\u043e\u0431\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u043c\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0438 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u0442 \u043d\u0430 3 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0430 \u0416. \u041b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0435\u043d\u044f (1843), \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0430\u0437\u043e\u0442\u0430, \u0441\u0435\u0440\u044b \u0438 \u0433\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432 (\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0430 \u0411\u0435\u0439\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0442\u0435\u0439\u043d\u0430).\n\n\u0418\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \n\u0412 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f:\n \u0425\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0434 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f (NaCl) (\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c)\u00a0\u2014 \u0434\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0435\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.\n \u0410\u0437\u0438\u0434 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f (NaN3) \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u0430\u0437\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0432 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0430\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0430 \u0441\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0446\u0430.\n \u0426\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0434 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f (NaCN) \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438 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\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0442\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0435\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0436\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u0435.\n \u0411\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0434 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f (NaBr) \u0448\u0438\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0435 (\u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430).\n\n\u0418\u0437\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043f\u044b \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f \n\n\u041d\u0430 2012\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434 \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e 20 \u0438\u0437\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0432 \u0441 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043e\u0442 18 \u0434\u043e 37 \u0438 2 \u044f\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0438\u0437\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f. \u0415\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0431\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u0437\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043f\u00a0\u2014 23Na. \u0423 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0438\u0437\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u044c\u0448\u0435 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u043d\u0443\u0442\u044b, \u043b\u0438\u0448\u044c \u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d 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\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b. \u041e\u0431\u044b\u0447\u043d\u043e \u0432 \u043b\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0443\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u044f\u0445 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f, \u043d\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0448\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u043e\u0432. \u0414\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440, \u0432 \u0448\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0443\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0445 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438, \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0435 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0433\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043c\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f. \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b \u0441 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0432\u0441\u044e \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0443 \u0438 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0437\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0431\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0441\u043f\u0438\u0440\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440 \u043d\u0435\u0439\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0441\u043b\u0430\u0431\u044b\u043c \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u044b. \u0421\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e\u0431\u044b \u0432\u0441\u0435 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0437\u043a\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u043d\u0435\u0439\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0434\u043e \u0438\u0445 \u0432\u044b\u0431\u0440\u0430", "71 Field Regiment\n one provost platoon - 7 Provost Unit\nParachute Battalion Group\n three parachute companies\n one parachute support company\n one anti aircraft troop\n one engineer troop\n one signal troop\n one maintenance platoon\n one reconnaissance section\n one light workshop troop\n one provost platoon\n one medical team\n two mobile air operations teams\n 10 Artillery Brigade\n HQ 10 Artillery Brigade\n one G-5 battery - 4 SAI\n one G-5 battery - 61 Mechanised Battalion\n one G-2 battery - Transvaal State Artillery\n one G-2 battery - 51 Battalion\n one MRL battery - 32 Battalion\n one MRL battery - 4 Artillery Regiment\n one 120\u00a0mm mortar battery - 4 Artillery Regiment\n one 120\u00a0mm mortar battery - 18 Light Artillery Regiment Parachute Brigade\n two meteorological sections\n Reserves\n HQ elements from 71 Motorised Brigade\n HQ elements from 8th Armoured Division (South Africa)\n HQ elements from 44 Parachute Brigade\n one G-5 battery - based in SE Angola\n one G-2 battery - 71 Motorised Brigade\n 8 Maintenance Unit\n 30 Corps Maintenance Unit\n two 32mm anti aircraft batteries\n one provost platoon\n\n10 SA Division (Operation Prone) - Brigadier Chris SerfonteinTask Force X-ray - Colonel Leon Marais\n 53 Battalion\n 54 Battalion\n 4 SAI Battalion\n one combat wing - 101 Battalion\n 17 Field Regiment HQ\n one G5 battery - 4 SAI\n one G2 battery - 17 Field Regiment\n one MRL battery - 17 Field Regiment\n one AA battery - Regiment VaalriverTask Force Zulu - Colonel Mucho Delport\n 51 Battalion\n 52 Battalion\n 102 Battalion\n 32 Battalion\n 61 Mechanised Battalion incl. one tank squadron\n one combat wing - 101 Battalion\n 14 Artillery Regiment HQ\n one G2 battery - Transvaal State Artillery Regiment\n one 35mm AA troop - Regiment Orange Free State\n two 20mm AA troops - Regiment Eastern TransvaalTask Force Yankee - Colonel Jan Lusse\n HQ 81 Armour Brigade\n HQ 10 Artillery Brigade\n one tank regiment (less one tank squadron) - 81 Armour Brigade\n one mechanized infantry company - 81 Armour Brigade\n one armoured car squadron - Light Horse Regiment|2 Light Horse Regiment\n two armoured car squadrons - 1 & 2 Special Service Battalion\n one 120mm mortar battery - 4 Artillery RegimentTask Force Whiskey all counter-insurgency units from Tsumeb/Grootfontein/Otavi10 Artillery Regiment - Colonel Jean Lausberg\n\nCuban forces50th Division''' - Brigadier General Patricio de la Guardia Font\n three special forces battalions - Cuban SPETSNAZ\n three tank battalions - Cuban tank regiment (105-110 tanks)\n one artillery regiment - Cuban regiment\n six infantry regiments - Cuban and Angolan soldiers (1500-2000 men each plus tanks)\n three raiding battalions - Cuban and SWAPO soldiers (200 Cuban + 250 SWAPO each)\n Missile air defence batteries, air force helicopters and aircraft\n\nInitial clashes\nWith the Cuban movements southwards and continuing SADF/South West African Territorial Force operations against SWAPO in the same area, both forces would soon come into contact with each other. On 18 April 1988, a SWATF unit, 101 Battalion, chasing a SWAPO unit was ambushed by Cuban elements from Xangongo near Chipeque. The battle ended with the South Africans losing two men and eleven wounded. Thereafter the Cubans continued patrolling southwards from Xangongo towards the SADF garrison at Calueque.\n\nOn 2 May 1988, SAAF Mirages attacked FAPLA positions south of Techipa. The Cubans, fearing a South African advance, retaliated and planned another ambush.\n\nDuring the first round tripartite talks in London on the 3 May 1988, behind the scene talks between the military contingents of Cuba and South Africa was tense. The Cubans threatened to invade SWA/Namibia if the South Africans did not agree to the Cuban proposals while the South African indicated if they tried, it would be Cuba's darkest day. The talks ended the following day.\n\nThe Cuban ambush site was in position by 4 May 1988 less than 2\u00a0km south of Donguena. A SADF unit, the 101 Battalion, with twenty Casspirs and two trucks had been sent forward to occupy Donguena. They ran into the ambush with Cubans destroying or damaging four Casspirs. The South Africans withdrew at dusk having lost seven men and one captured, Sergeant Johan Papenfus and failed to retrieve the fourth Casspir and its equipment. The Cubans were said to have lost forty-five soldiers. Later that evening, a further three companies from 201 and 101 Battalions were sent forward to capture Donguena, but with Cuban tank positions south of the town, withdrew. The Cuban later withdrew the same evening.\n\nOn 12 May 1988, the 32 Battalion commander was called to a meeting in Oshakati to discuss a plan for the unit to attack SWAPO units at Techipa. The commander persuaded the planners to reconnoitre the area first before attacking. On 16 May, two reconnaissance units were airlifted to an area south of Techipa and while the second landed close to Xangongo but on the western side of the Cunene River. The first team was unable to get close to Techipa while the second team found tank tracks on all roads showing extensive patrolling of the area. The first team was sent back in from the north of Techipa by vehicle, finding extensive trench systems around the town reminiscent of the same layered system around Cuito Cuanavale with vehicles, generators and radar systems and outposts at further distances south of the town. A decision was then made to establish a new task force but it would only be in operation by early June, with a specific aim of protecting the water scheme at Calueque. In the meantime, three companies of 32 Battalion would hold the line until the task force was operational and would continue to patrol and reconnoitre the area south of Techipa.\n\nAn ambush by 32 Battalion was planned for 22 May 1988. The plan called for a mortar attack on an outpost south of Techipa which would draw out the Cubans who would be then ambushed. Members of 32 Battalion company ambushed a Cuban de-mining team before the mortaring began and then found themselves being attacked by four BRDM-2 armoured personnel carriers and from two other hidden outposts. Fleeing back to the mortar position under covering mortar fire, the Cubans finally caught up and attacked with the BRDM's resulting in the abandonment of three damaged Unimogs. The 32 Battalion company retreated again as BM-21s started shelling. The Cubans eventually gave up the chase and the company was able to return to the mortar position in search of the missing vehicles but these had been removed by the Cubans. The remaining missing 32 Battalion members turned up at Ruacana and Calueque the following day.\n\nFollowing the bungled ambush of the 22 May, the Cubans analysed the intelligence gathered from the captured SADF vehicles. Cuban intelligence concluded that the South African were planning a major attack on Techipa which was not the case.\n\nJune 1988 was spent reinforcing the defences around Techipa with consisted of minefields, bunkers and anti-tank barriers which had been employed successfully to slow down the SADF and UNITA forces around Cuito Cuanavale during Operation Packer. There was also a build-up of Cuban forces around the town and aggressive patrolling by SWAPO and FAPLA forces to establish the positions of the South African forces.\n\nCuban attack planning\nAt the same time, Castro planned an operation consisting of two parts.\n The first, a two-pronged attack, one from Xangongo to capture Cuamato, then a three column advance from Techipa to capture Calueque joined later by the forces that had captured Cuamato. \n The second part of the plan was an air attack on Ruacana if Techipa was attacked by the SAAF. Castro also notified the Angolan and Soviets of his plan.\n\n10 SA Division formed\nBy the 27 May 1988, Brigadier Chris Serfontein was appointed 10 SA Division commander while Colonel Roland de Vries was appointed his chief of staff.\n\nOn the 30 May/1 June, operational instructions for Operation Hilti (to be renamed Operation Prone later) was released to the planners by SADF HQ. The instructions required the development of a conventional and counterinsurgency plan for north-west South-West Africa and south-western Angola.\n\nThe instructions called for a sub-phase called Operation Excite to gain military control of south-west Angola by August 1988.\n\nFollowing Operation Excite, Operation Faction, restoration of SADF influence over 21 days in the area of dispute. And finally Operation Florentine, the installation of UNITA in the area of dispute and to support them against a FAPLA and Cuban attempts to retake the area.\n\nThis plan would make use of the 10 SA Division, as well as elements of the SA Air Force, the SA Navy operating off the Angolan coast and the insertion of SA special forces deep in the FAPLA/Cuban rear.\n\nTo counter the immediate threat of the Cuban advance to the South-West African border, the 10 SA Division planning team moved to South-West Africa on the 7 June 1988 to the operational headquarters at Oshakati and worked on the plan until 17 June.\n\nSouth African Citizen Force Mobilization\nPart of this plan would become Operation Excite/Hilti. After a visit to SWA/Namibia, General Jannie Geldenhuys spoke to journalists on 8 June, announcing the Cubans build-up and their advance to the border region around Ruacana and the call-up of SADF conventional forces made up of citizen reserves.\n\nThe call-up was said to be around 140,000 men and was hoped the announcement would send a message to the Cubans to end their advance to the SWA/Namibian border.The Call-up would begin on 21 July and be completed by 25 July with movement to SWA/Namibia taking place between the 26 and 31 July.\n\nBattle training would be completed by 21 August with the units ready to be deployed for action into Southern Angola by the 24 August.\n\nClashes continue\nBy 13 June 1988, the new South African Task Force planned in May, was now in operation under the command of Colonel Mucho Delport with SADF forces in place east of the Cunene River, south of Xangongo, and around Cuamato and Calueque. Other SADF forces were positioned west of the Cunene River, with placements around and to the north-west of Calueque and Ruacana. The Task Force's headquarters was at Ruacana.\n\nOn 18 June, G-2 and G-5 batteries were in position and ready for use by the Task Force. These were used to shell the Cuban positions. On 22 June, a company from 32 Battalion clashed with a Cuban unit with tanks and infantry. They were able to break off contact with the Cubans after assistance from SADF artillery.\n\nOn the 23 June, reconnaissance units and members of 32 Battalion spotted three Cuban columns moving southwards from Techipa towards Calueque, with this stop-start advance continuing until the 26 June.\n\nMeanwhile, the Cubans and FAPLA forces advanced from Xangongo on 24 June, the first prong of their plan and attacked the SADF units at Cuamato. 201 Battalion with additional elements of Ratels and mortars stopped the advanced and occupation of the town and the Cubans retreated back to Xangongo. The South African lost a few vehicles and remained in the town.\n\nNegotiations continue\nAt the same time the Cubans, Angolan's and South Africans met in Cairo on 24 June for a second round of tripartite talks. The two-day meeting was led by the Americans with a Soviet delegation in attendance. The meeting was fiery with the Soviets pulling the Cuban delegation back into line and all that was agreed was that the concept of linkage, a South African pull-out of Angola followed by the Cubans, was the only option for a future agreement.\n\nOperation Excite\nBy 26 June 1988, a 32 Battalion company was moved into position to provide early warning of the Cuban tanks and columns advancing from Techipa while 61 Mechanised Battalion was brought in behind them to intercept when required. Using their MRL's and artillery they hindered and slowed the Cuban advance. Four Ratel ZT3 anti-tank missile units had also arrived at 61 Mechanised Battalion positions. The evening of 26 June, SADF reconnaissance discovered SA-6 launchers around Techipa. Using a ruse of releasing meteorological balloons with aluminium strips attached to them, the Cubans fired their SA-6's narrowing down their location for the SADF reconnaissance units, and the South Africans counterattacked with G-5 artillery destroying them and after four hours other Cuban artillery.\n\nOn the morning of the 27 June 1988, the Cuban columns began to move again. Elements of 32 Battalion that were monitoring the column were unable to make contact with 61 Mechanised Battalion to warn them about the advancing Cubans. 61 Mechanised Battalion and their tanks begun moving at the same time to find a better position than the night lager and when advancing over a low ridge, ran into a forward Cuban units ambush. The leading Ratel was hit by a RPG and during the battle, four further Ratels were damaged losing one soldier and a further three wounded. 61 Mechanised called in artillery fire as Cuban reinforcements arrived to support the ambush unit.\n\nDuring the heavy fighting that followed this South African battalion destroyed a tank, a BTR-60, many trucks and inflicted heavy casualties on the Cuban infantry forcing them to withdraw. During the battle, 32 Battalion eventually made contact with 61 Mechanised, informing them that Cuban tanks were on their way. 61 Mechanised released their tanks and sent them to intercept the Cuban tanks. The SADF tanks made contact and after half an hour had stopped the advance destroying another T-55 tank, trucks and a BTR-60. The Cubans were forced to withdraw again. Spotting the advance of two Cuban columns, Commandant Mike Muller withdrew his forces southwards towards Calueque attacking one column and then the other with G-5 artillery. Both columns were halted.\n\nCuban air attack\nAround 1pm, twelve Cuban MiG-23's based at Lubango and Cahama, flying at tree height to Ruacana, were spotted by SADF units but were unable to signal an air attack fast enough as the planes turned and headed to attack the hydroelectric dam at Calueque. Two bombed the bridge over the Cunene River and destroyed it, damaged the sluice gates while another two bombed the power plant and engine rooms. A fifth plane bombed the water irrigation pipeline to Ovambo, destroying it. One of those bombs from the fifth plane exploded between a Buffel and Eland 90 killing eleven SADF soldiers on ammunition escort duty. Two Cuban planes were hit by 20\u00a0mm AA guns and one crashed on its way back to its base in Angola.\n\nThe South African soldiers retreated towards the SWA/Namibian border, crossing in the late afternoon. As described above, the air attack part of the Cuban operation went ahead but their ground forces retreated back to Techipa after the clash.\n\nUndeclared peace\nFearing a revenge attack by the SADF, the Cubans implemented plans that included possible attacks on SWA/Namibia itself. These plans were scrapped when no retaliation occurred from the South Africans.\n\nWhat followed the hostilities at Calueque was an undeclared ceasefire. The South African public was shocked by the deaths at Calueque and the government ordered a scaling back of operations.\n\nBattle Group 20 whom with UNITA, guarding the minefields east of the Cuito River across from Cuito Cuanavale, were ordered to withdraw personnel and equipment so as not to take casualties and prevent any further SADF personnel becoming prisoners of war.\n\nUNITA was informed, with some regarding this withdrawal as an act of betrayal. Orders were to ensure no Cubans advance any further than where they were currently positioned.\n\nTalks continue\nBy 10 July, the Cubans and South Africans were back at the negotiation table in New York City for three days.\n\nThe Cubans surprised the South African delegation by proposing an honourable Cuban withdrawal from Angola linked to the implementation of UN Resolution 435 and the ending of support to SWAPO and UNITA. This proposal became known as the New York Principle though the detail in the proposal would be negotiated at a later date.\n\nThe parties met again in the Cape Verde on the 22 July for the fourth round of talks but all that was agreed on was the proposal to set up a Joint Monitoring Commission.\n\nModified planning\nFollowing the clashes at the end of June 1988, the South African politicians and the military re-evaluated the SADF's role in the operational area. What was considered was the change in the military balance brought about by the Cuban division, the reluctance of the South African public to accept high casualties, the political direction towards the ending of Apartheid, and the international push to end South Africa's control of SWA/Namibia.\n\nNew South African Military Plan\nOn 19 July 1988 planning was finalised and Operation Hilti was changed to Operation Prone and the new plan became the defence of SWA/Namibia.\n\nThis plan was divided into sub-operations, Operation Linger and Operation Faction (renamed Operation Pact).\n\n Operation Linger became the counterinsurgency plan against SWAPO incursions in SWA and bases in Angola.\n Operation Faction (Pact) was the conventional plan that would defend SWA against a Cuban invasion across the border and the destruction of the remainder of the enemy in Angola with a possible offensive action.\n\nOperation Pact was further divided into three phases.\n\nThe first phase was to deceive the Cubans as to the intentions and disposition of the South African forces, the preparation of the SADF forces, assist in countering any SWAPO raids, and use of the recces to track the movement and disposition of the Cuban forces.\nPhase two would occur when the Cubans invaded SWA/Namibia, drawing them into areas of SADF control, halting and destroying the Cubans.\nThe third phase would occur if phase two failed, a delaying retreat by SADF forces to an", " resources or objects in order to carry out.\n\nExternal factors:\n\n Living situation: can greatly affect an individual\u2019s self-care.\n Surrounding environment: must be safe and promote self-care for all residents.\n Proximity of health care facilities: are important to have at a close radius from one\u2019s household. As well as office/clinic opening hours and affordability must be taken into consideration.\n\nProcesses:\n Experiences \n Knowledge\n Skill\n Values\n\nSelf-care practices are shaped by what are seen as the proper lifestyle choices of local communities. Social determinants of health play an important role in self-care practices. Internal personal factors such as motivation, emotions, and cognitive abilities also influence self-care maintenance behaviors. Motivation is often the driving force behind performing self-care maintenance behaviors. Goal setting is a practice associated with motivated self care. A person with depression is more likely to have a poor dietary intake low in fruits and vegetables, reduced physical activity, and poor medication adherence. An individual with impaired cognitive or functional abilities (e.g., memory impairment) also has a diminished capacity to perform self-care maintenance behaviors such as medication adherence which relies on memory to maintain a schedule.\n\nSelf-care is influenced by an individual's attitude and belief in his or her self-efficacy or confidence in performing tasks and overcoming barriers. Cultural beliefs and values may also influence self-care. Cultures that promote a hard-working lifestyle may view self-care in contradictory ways Personal values have been shown to have an effect on self-care in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.\n\nSocial support systems can influence how an individual performs self-care maintenance. Social support systems include family, friends, and other community or religious support groups. These support systems provide opportunities for self-care discussions and decisions. Shared care can reduce stress on individuals with chronic illness.\n\nThere are numerous self-care requisites applicable to all individuals of all ages for the maintenance of health and wellbeing. The balance between solitude or rest, and activities such as social interactions is a key tenet of self-care practices. The prevention and avoidance of human hazards and participation in social groups are also requisites. The autonomous performance of self-care behaviors is thought to aid elderly patients. Perceived autonomy, self-efficacy and adequate illness representation are additional elements of self-care, which are said to aid people with chronic conditions.\n\nMeasurement of self-care behaviors \nA variety of self-report instruments have been developed to allow clinicians and researchers to measure the level of self-care in different situations for both patients and their caregivers: These instruments are freely available in numerous languages. Many of these instruments have a caregiver version available to encourage dyadic research.\n\n Self-Care Heart Failure Index\n Self-Care of Hypertension Inventory\n Self-Care of Diabetes Inventory \n Self-Care of Coronary Heart Disease Inventory\n Self-Care of Chronic Illness Inventory\n Self-care of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease\n\nMiddle-range theory of self-care of chronic illness \n\nAccording to the middle-range theory of chronic illness, these behaviors are captured in the concepts of self-care maintenance, self-care monitoring, and self-care management. Self-care maintenance refers to those behaviors used to maintain physical and emotional stability. Self-care monitoring is the process of observing oneself for changes in signs and symptoms. Self-care management is the response to signs and symptoms when they occur. The recognition and evaluation of symptoms is a key aspect of self-care.\n\n Below these concepts are discussed both as general concepts and as specific self-care behaviors are (e.g., exercise).\n\nSelf-care maintenance \nSelf-care maintenance refers to those behaviors performed to improve well-being, preserve health, or to maintain physical and emotional stability. Self-care maintenance behaviours include illness prevention and maintaining proper hygiene. Specific illness prevention measures include tobacco avoidance, regular exercise, and a healthy diet. Taking medication as prescribed by a healthcare provider and receiving vaccinations are also important specific self-care behaviors. Vaccinations provide immunity for the body to actively prevent an infectious disease. Tobacco use is the largest preventable cause of death and disease in the US. Overall health and quality of life have been found to improve, and the risk of disease and premature death are reduced due to the decrease in tobacco intake.\n\nThe benefits of regular physical activity include weight control; reduced risk of chronic disease; strengthened bones and muscles; improved mental health; improved ability to participate in daily activities; and decreased mortality. The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends two hours and thirty minutes of moderate activity each week, including brisk walking, swimming, or bike riding.\n\nAnother aspect of self-care maintenance is a healthy diet consisting of a wide variety of fresh fruits and vegetables, lean meats, and other proteins. Processed foods including fats, sugars, and sodium are to be avoided, under the practice of self-care. File:USDA Food Pyramid.gif|Food pyramid\n\nHygiene is another important part of self-care maintenance. Hygienic behaviors include adequate sleep, regular oral care, and hand washing. Getting seven to eight hours of sleep each night can protect physical and mental health. Sleep deficiency increases the risk of heart disease, kidney disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, excess weight, and risk-taking behaviour. Tooth brushing and personal hygiene can prevent oral infections.\n\nHealth-related self-care topics include;\n General fitness training and physical exercise \n Healthy diet, meals, diet foods and fasting \n Smoking cessation and avoiding excessive alcohol use \n Personal hygiene \n Life extension \n Pain management \n Stress management \n Self-help and personal development \n Self-care portals and the use of health apps \n\nObjective Measures of Specific Self-Care Maintenance Behaviors:\n\nInterventions to improve maintenance behaviors\nSelf-care is considered to be a continuous learning process. Knowledge is essential but not sufficient to improve self-care. Multifaceted interventions that tailor education to the individual are more effective than patient education alone.\n\n \"Teach-back\" is used to gauge how much information is retained after patient teaching. Teach-back occurs when patients are asked to repeat information that was given to them. The educator checks for gaps in the patient's understanding, reinforces messages, and creates a collaborative conversation with the patient. It is important for individuals with a chronic illness to comprehend and recall information received about their condition. Teach-back education can both educate patients and assess learning. For example, a provider can initiate teach-back is by asking, \"I want to make sure that I explained everything clearly. If you were talking to your neighbor, what would you tell her/him we talked about today\". This phrase protects the patient's self-esteem while placing responsibility for understanding on both the provider and patient. One study performed showed that patients with heart failure who received teach-back education had a 12% lower readmission rate compared to patients who did not receive teach-back. Although the teach-back method is effective in the short-term, there is little evidence to support its long-term effect. Long-term knowledge retention is crucial for self-care, so further research is needed on this approach.\nHabits are automatic responses to commonly encountered situations such as handwashing after restroom use. A habit is formed when environmental cues result in a behavior with minimal conscious deliberation.\nBehavioral economics is a subset of the study of economics that examines how cognitive, social, and emotional factors play in role in an individual's economic decisions. Behavioral economics is now influencing the design of healthcare interventions aimed at improving self-care maintenance. Behavioral economics takes into account the complexity and irrationality of human behavior.\nMotivational interviewing is a way to engage critical thinking in relation to self-care needs. Motivational interviewing uses an interviewing style that focuses on the individual's goals in any context. Motivational interviewing is based on three psychological theories: cognitive dissonance, self-perception, and the transtheoretical model of change. Motivational interviewing is intended to enhance intrinsic motivation for change.\nHealth coaching is a method of promoting motivation to initiate and maintain behavioral change. The health coach facilitates behavioral change by emphasizing personal goals, life experiences, and values.\n\nMonitoring \nSelf-care monitoring is the process of surveillance that involves measurement and perception of bodily changes, or \"body listening\". It can be helpful to understand the concept of bodymind when monitoring self-care. Effective self-care monitoring also requires the ability to label and interpret changes in the body as normal or abnormal. Recognizing bodily signs and symptoms, understanding disease progression, and their respective treatments allow competency in knowing when to seek further medical help.\n\nSelf-care monitoring consists of both the perception and measurement of symptoms. Symptom perception is the process of monitoring one's body for signs of changing health. This includes body awareness or body listening, and the recognition of symptoms relevant to health.\n\nChanges in health status or body function can be monitored with various tools and technologies. The range and complexity of medical devices used in both hospital and home care settings are increasing. Certain devices are specific to a common need of a disease process such as glucose monitors for tracking blood sugar levels in diabetic patients. Other devices can provide a more general set of information, such as a weight scale, blood pressure cuff, pulse oximeter, etc. Less technological tools include organizers, charts, and diagrams to trend or keep track of progress such as the number of calories, mood, vital sign measurements, etc.\n\nBarriers to monitoring\nThe ability to engage in self-care monitoring impacts disease progression. Barriers to monitoring can go unrecognized and interfere with effective self-care. Barriers include knowledge deficits, undesirable self-care regimens, different instructions from multiple providers, and limitations to access related to income or disability. Psychosocial factors such as motivation, anxiety, depression, confidence can also serve as barriers.\n\nHigh costs may prevent some individuals from acquiring monitoring equipment to keep track of symptoms.\nLack of knowledge on the implications of physiological symptoms such as high blood glucose levels may reduce an individual's motivation to practice self-care monitoring.\nFear of outcomes/fear of using equipment such as needles may deter patients from practicing self-care monitoring due to the resulting anxiety, or avoidant behaviors.\nLack of family support may affect consistency in monitoring self-care due to the lack of reminders or encouragement.\n\nThe presence of co-morbid conditions makes performing self-care monitoring particularly difficult. For example, the shortness of breath from COPD can prevent a diabetic patient from physical exercise. Symptoms of chronic illnesses should be considered when performing self-care maintenance behaviors.\n\nInterventions to improve monitoring behaviors\nBecause self-care monitoring is conducted primarily by patients, with input from caregivers, it is necessary to work with patients closely on this topic. Providers should assess the current self-care monitoring regimen and build off this to create an individualized plan of care. Knowledge and education specifically designed for the patient's level of understanding has been said to be central to self-care monitoring. When patients understand the symptoms that correspond with their disease, they can learn to recognize these symptoms early on. Then they can self-manage their disease and prevent complications.\n\nAdditional research to improve self-care monitoring is underway in the following fields:\nMindfulness: Mindfulness and meditation, when incorporated into a one-day education program for diabetic patients, have been shown to improve diabetic control in a 3-month follow-up in comparison to those who received the education without a focus on mindfulness.\nDecision-making: How a patient's decision making capacity can be encouraged/improved with the support of their provider, leading to better self-care monitoring and outcomes.\nSelf-efficacy: Self-efficacy has been shown to be more closely linked to a patient's ability to perform self-care than health literacy or knowledge.\nWearable technology: How self-care monitoring is evolving with technology like wearable activity monitors.\n\nManagement \nSelf-care management is defined as the response to signs and symptoms when they occur. Self-care management involves the evaluation of physical and emotional changes and deciding if these changes need to be addressed. Changes may occur because of illness, treatment, or the environment. Once treatment is complete, it should be evaluated to judge whether it would be useful to repeat in the future. Treatments are based on the signs and symptoms experienced. Treatments are usually specific to the illness.\n\nSelf-care management includes recognizing symptoms, treating the symptoms, and evaluating the treatment. Self-care management behaviors are symptom- and disease-specific. For example, a patient with asthma may recognize the symptom of shortness of breath. This patient can manage the symptom by using an inhaler and seeing if their breathing improves. A patient with heart failure manages their condition by recognizing symptoms such as swelling and shortness of breath. Self-care management behaviors for heart failure may include taking a water pill, limiting fluid and salt intake, and seeking help from a healthcare provider.\n\nRegular self-care monitoring is needed to identify symptoms early and judge the effectiveness of treatments. Some examples include:\nInject insulin in response to high blood sugar and then re-check to evaluate if blood glucose lowered\nUse social support and healthy leisure activities to fight feelings of social isolation. This has been shown to be effective for patients with chronic lung disease\n\nBarriers to management\n\nAccess to care \nAccess to care is a major barrier affecting self-care management. Treatment of symptoms might require consultation with a healthcare provider. Access to the health-care system is largely influenced by providers. Many people with a chronic illness do not have access to providers within the health-care system for several reasons. Three major barriers to care include: insurance coverage, poor access to services, and being unable to afford costs. Without access to trained health care providers, outcomes are typically worse.\n\nFinancial constraints \nFinancial barriers impact self-care management. The majority of insurance coverage is provided by employers. Loss of employment is frequently accompanied by loss of health insurance and inability to afford health care. In patients with diabetes and chronic heart disease, financial barriers are associated with poor access to care, poor quality of care, and vascular disease. As a result, these patients have reduced rates of medical assessments, measurements of Hemoglobin A1C (a marker that assesses blood glucose levels over the last 3 months), cholesterol measurements, eye and foot examinations, diabetes education, and aspirin use. Research has found that people in higher social classes are better at self-care management of chronic conditions. In addition, people with lower levels of education often lack resources to effectively engage in self-management behaviors.\n\nAge \nElderly patients are more likely to rate their symptoms differently and delay seeking care longer when they have symptoms. An elderly person with heart failure will experience the symptom of shortness of breath differently than someone with heart failure who is younger. Providers should be aware of the potential delay in provider-seeking behavior in elderly patients which could worsen their overall condition.\n\nPrior experience \nPrior experience contributes to the development of skills in self-care management. Experience helps the patient develop cues and patterns that they can remember and follow, leading to reasonable goals and actions in repeat situations. A patient who has skills in self-management knows what to do during repeated symptomatic events. This could lead to them recognizing their symptoms earlier, and seeking a provider sooner.\n\nHealth care literacy \nHealth care literacy is another factor affecting self-care management. Health care literacy is the amount of basic health information people can understand. Health care literacy is the major variable contributing to differences in patient ratings of self-management support. Successful self-care involves understanding the meaning of changes in one's body. Individuals who can identify changes in their bodies are then able to come up with options and decide on a course of action. Health education at the patient's literacy level can increase the patient's ability to problem solve, set goals, and acquire skills in applying practical information. A patient's literacy can also affect their rating of healthcare quality. A poor healthcare experience may cause a patient to avoid returning to that same provider. This creates a delay in acute symptom management. Providers must consider health literacy when designing treatment plans that require self-management skills.\n\nCo-morbid conditions \nA patient with multiple chronic illnesses (multimorbidity) may experience compounding effects of their illnesses. This can include worsening of one condition by the symptoms or treatment of another. People tend to prioritize one of their conditions. This limits the self-care management of their other illnesses. One condition may have more noticeable symptoms than others. Or the patient may be more emotionally connected to one illness, for example, the one they have had for a long time. If providers are unaware of the effect of having multiple illnesses, the patient's overall health may fail to improve or worsen as a result of therapeutic efforts.\n\nInterventions to improve management\nThere are many ways for patients and healthcare providers to work together to improve patients and caregivers' self-care management. Stoplight and skill teaching allow patients and providers to work together to develop decision-making strategies.\n\nStoplight \nStoplight is an action plan for the daily treatment of a patient's chronic illness created by the healthcare team and the patient. It makes decision making easier by categorizing signs and symptoms and determining the appropriate actions for each set. It separates signs and symptoms into three zones:\n\n Green is the safe zone, meaning the patient's signs and symptoms are what is typically expected. The patient should continue with their daily self-care tasks, such as taking daily medications and eating a healthy diet.\n Yellow is the caution zone, meaning the patient's signs and symptoms should be monitored as they are abnormal, but they are not yet dangerous. Some actions may need to be taken in this zone to go back to the green zone, for instance taking additional medication. The patient may need to contact their healthcare team for advice.\n Red is the danger zone, meaning the patient's signs and symptoms show that something is dangerously wrong. If in this category the patient needs to take actions to return to the green category, such as taking an emergency medication, as well as contact their healthcare team immediately. They may also need to contact emergency medical assistance.\n\nThe stoplight plan helps patients to make decisions about what actions to take for different signs and symptoms and when to contact their healthcare team with a problem. The patient and their provider will customize certain signs and symptoms that fit in each stoplight category.\n\nSkills teaching \nSkills teaching is a learning opportunity between a healthcare provider and a patient where a patient learns a skill in self-care unique to his or her chronic illness. Some of these skills may be applied to the daily management of the symptoms of a chronic illness. Other skills may be applied when there is an exacerbation of a symptom.\n\nA patient newly diagnosed with persistent asthma might learn about taking oral medicine for daily management, control of chronic symptoms, and prevention of an asthma attack. However, there may come a time when the patient might be exposed to an environmental trigger or stress that causes an asthma attack. When unexpected symptoms such as wheezing occur, the skill of taking daily medicines and the medicine that is taken may change. Rather than taking oral medicine daily, an inhaler is needed for quick rescue and relief of symptoms. Knowing to choose the right medication and knowing how to take the medicine with an inhaler is a skill that is learned for the self-care management of asthma.\n\nIn skills teaching, the patient and provider need to discuss skills and address any lingering questions. The patient needs to know when and how a skill is to be implemented, and how the skill may need to be changed when the symptom is different from normal. See the summary of tactical and situational skills above. Learning self-care management skills for the first time in the care of a chronic illness is not easy, but with patience, practice, persistence, and experience, personal mastery of self-care skills can be achieved.\n\nSupport can include: \n Self-care information on health and human body systems, lifestyle and healthy eating.\n Support to capture, manage, interpret, and report observations of daily living (ODLs), the tracking of trends, and the use of the resulting information as clues for self-care action and decision making.\n Information prescriptions providing personalised information and instructions to enable an individual to self-care and take control of their health\n Self-care and self-monitoring devices and assistive technology.\n Medication therapy management\n Self-care skills and life skills training programmes and courses for people.\n Advice from licensed counselors, clinical social workers, psychotherapists, pharmacists, physiotherapists and complementary therapists", 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\u041c\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0448\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u041a\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043b\u0438\n \u0414\u043e\u043c-\u043c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0439 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e \u041f\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438 \u0432 \u0434\u0435\u0440. \u041c\u0438\u0440\u0437\u0430\u0430\u043d\u0438\n\n\u0414\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \n\n\u0412 \u041a\u0430\u0445\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0438 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0439, \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445:\n\n \u043a\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0413\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0438\n \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0440 \u0410\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0434\u0438\n \u043c\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044b\u0440\u044c \u0418\u043a\u0430\u043b\u0442\u043e\n \u041d\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044b\u0440\u044c\n \u0446\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044c \u041a\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\n \u043c\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044b\u0440\u044c \u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0428\u0443\u0430\u043c\u0442\u0430\n \u043c\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044b\u0440\u044c \u041d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0428\u0443\u0430\u043c\u0442\u0430\n \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0421\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0430\u0445\u0438\n \u043c\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044b\u0440\u044c \u0411\u043e\u0434\u0431\u0435\n \u0434\u043e\u043c-\u043c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0439 \u041f\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438 \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u041c\u0438\u0440\u0437\u0430\u0430\u043d\u0438,\n \u0434\u043e\u043c-\u043c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0439 \u0418\u043b\u044c\u0438 \u0427\u0430\u0432\u0447\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0434\u0437\u0435 \u0432 \u041a\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043b\u0438,\n \u043a\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0425\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0431\u0443\u0434\u0436\u0438\n \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u043a \u041b\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0445\u0438 \u0441 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043c\u0438\n \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u043a \u0422\u0443\u0448\u0435\u0442\u0438\n \u043c\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044b\u0440\u044c \u0414\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0434", " and control, Presidential support, and nuclear treaty verification.\n\nAssigned Units\nThe 55th Operations Group uses the tail code OF for its aircraft\n\n 38th Reconnaissance Squadron (RC-135, TC-135)\n 45th Reconnaissance Squadron (OC-135, RC-135, TC-135, WC-135)\n 55th Intelligence Support Squadron \n 55th Operations Support Squadron\n 82d Reconnaissance Squadron (RC-135)\n Operates from Kadena AB, Japan\n 95th Reconnaissance Squadron (RC-135)\n Operates from: RAF Mildenhall, England\n Operates from: Souda Bay, Crete\n 97th Intelligence Squadron\n 338th Combat Training Squadron\n 343d Reconnaissance Squadron (RC-135, TC-135)\n 390th Intelligence Squadron\n 488th Intelligence Squadron\n\nHistory\n For additional history and lineage, see 55th Wing\nThe 55th Operations Group traces its lineage to the 55th Pursuit (Interceptor) Group during World War II. During the war, the 55th Pursuit Group garnered two Distinguished Unit Citations. The group fostered 16 aces who were credited with 90 air-to-air victories.\n\nAfter the war, Strategic Air Command activated and redesignated the 55th Fighter Group as the 55th Reconnaissance group at MacDill Field, Florida, operating the RB-17. The newly activated group's mission consisted of aerial photography, mapping, charting, and photo reconnaissance missions, some of which flew around the globe.\n\nActivated after the end of the Cold War, the 55th Operations Group has maintained an unmatched operational tempo, supporting every US contingency worldwide.\n\nWorld War II \n\nThe history of the Fightin' Fifty-Fifth began in January 1941, when the 55th Pursuit Group was activated at Hamilton Field, California. Training along the west coast, the group move to England, August- September 1943 and was assigned to VIII Fighter Command.\n\nThe 55th FG began operations with Lockheed P-38H Lightnings on 15 October 1943, and was the first to use these aircraft on long-range escort missions from the UK. The P-38H differed from earlier versions in being powered by 1425\u00a0hp Allison V-1710-89/91 engines.\n\nThe Lightnings' engines were troubled by the addition of alcohol used as an anti-knock compound in their fuel supply; a British war economy solution which caused problems with water condensation on the ground and fuel line icing at altitude. Another British attempt to correct fuel composition caused lead metal deposits to coat cylinders and foul plugs throughout the squadron. The -H series Lightnings did not have adequate cooling for extended high-power usage, as their engine development had outstripped the cooling capacity of the integral intercooler which ran through the wing's leading edge. Pilots were instructed to restrict their periods of highest engine power to defined time limits, but many did not. As a result of these various influences, the Group's Lightnings suffered a high rate of attrition. Nevertheless, 55FG P-38H pilots provided cover for missions against aircraft plants during Big Week in February 1944. Lt. Col. Jack Jenkins led the group on 3 March 1944, when they became the first Allied fighters to reach Berlin on an escort mission.\n\nOn 16 April 1944 the group moved to RAF Wormingford to accommodate the arrival of the 398th Bomb Group. The 55FG converted to North American P-51D Mustangs in July 1944, continuing their primary task of escorting B-17 and B-24 bombers that attacked such targets as industries and marshalling yards in Germany, and airfields and V-weapon sites in France. In July the group attacked gun emplacements during the Saint-L\u00f4 breakthrough in July 1944, and transportation facilities during the Battle of the Bulge, December 1944 \u2013 January 1945. The group also patrolled the air over the English Channel and bombed bridges in the Tours area during the invasion of the Continent in June 1944. The unit patrolled the Arnhem sector to support the airborne invasion of the Netherlands in September 1944 along with strafing trucks, locomotives, and oil depots near Wesel when the Allies crossed the Rhine in March 1945.\n\nThe unit received a Distinguished Unit Citation for eight missions to Germany between 3 and 13 September 1944 when the group not only destroyed enemy fighters in the air to protect the bombers it was escorting, but also descended to low levels, in spite of intense anti-aircraft fire, to strafe airfields and to destroy enemy aircraft on the ground. Received second DUC for operations on 19 February 1945 when the organization flew a sweep over Germany to hit railway tracks, locomotives, oil cars, goods wagons, troop cars, buildings, and military vehicles. The 55th Flew last combat mission on 21 April 1945.\n\nThe 55th Fighter Group moved to AAF Station Kaufbeuren Germany on 22 July 1945 as part of the occupation forces. It was assigned to United States Air Forces in Europe. While on occupation duty, the group was one of the units to receive the first U.S. operational jet fighter, the Lockheed P-80B Shooting Star in July 1946. However, the Group continued to fly P-51s and according to. one source, A-26s. On 29 April, the unit moved to AAF Station Giebelstadt, Germany, and on 20 August 1946, the unit was inactivated, the resources being transferred to the 31st Fighter Group.\n\nWith more than 600 combat missions, the group destroyed over 400 enemy aircraft while damaging more than 100. The 55th, inactivated in August 1946, had 16 aces credited with 90 victories.\n\nPostwar era\n\nOn 24 February 1947, Strategic Air Command activated and redesignated the 55th Fighter Group as the 55th Reconnaissance group at MacDill Field, Florida, operating the RB-17. The newly activated group's mission consisted of aerial photography, mapping, charting, and photo reconnaissance missions, some of which flew around the globe. RB-17s were specifically used by the 55th RG to probe the borders of the Soviet Union, who had by then begun to emerge as a potential threat to the Western Powers. Little was known about the air defence capability of the Soviet Union at this time and the most effective way of determining their capability was to probe the borders and see whether they would respond. Gradually the RB-17s and other aircraft mapped the perimeter of the Soviet Air Defences from the Baltic to the Sea of Okhotsk, north of Japan.\n\nThe group then converted to RB-29s and transferred to Topeka (later Forbes) AFB, Kansas, in 1948, but was again inactivated in October 1949. On 1 November 1950, the 55th Strategic reconnaissance group was activated as a \"paper organization\" with the tactical squadrons attached directly to the 55th Strategic Reconnaissance wing. The wing was bestowed with the awards and honors of the 55th Reconnaissance Group and moved to Ramey AFB, Puerto Rico. In 1952 the group was again inactivated on 16 June 1952 as the Air Force reorganized its wings into the tri-deputate system.\n\nModern era\nThe group was reactivated in on 29 August 1991 as the 55th Operations Group and assigned to the 55th Wing. It was activated on 1 September 1991. The 55th OG was the operational component of the wing under the new \"Objective Wing\" concept adapted by the Air Force, and was bestowed the history and honors of the 55th 55 Strategic Reconnaissance Group. The 55th Operations Group activated with one of the largest and most diverse missions in the USAF.\n\nThe 24th Reconnaissance Squadron at Eareckson AFB, Shemya, Alaska, joined the group with its Cobra Eye and Cobra Ball missions.\n\nOn 1 April 1993, the 55th OG Wing took operational control of the 11th Airlift Flight. The 11 ALF flew operational airlift missions in support of the commander of the United States Strategic Command and transported high-ranking military, Department of Defense officials, and members of Congress. This unit has since inactivated and the mission has reverted to Air Mobility Command.\n\nThe 2 ACCS also inactivated in 1994 with its mission transferring to the 7th Airborne Command and Control Squadron. Likewise, the 24 RS inactivated in 1994 and its mission transferred to the newly activated 45th Reconnaissance Squadron. Also in 1994, the 1 ACCS National Emergency Airborne Command Post was renamed the National Airborne Operations Center to reflect the addition of a support role to the Federal Emergency Management Agency.\n\nIn October 1998, the 55th OG transferred control of the Boeing EC-135 Looking Glass mission to the United States Navy's E-6B Mercury TACAMO aircraft and the 7th Airborne Command and Control Squadron, which flew the Looking Glass aircraft, inactivated. In September 1999, the 338th Combat Training Squadron was activated and assigned to the 55th Operations Group.\n\nAdditionally, in March 2000, the group received its 16 RIVET JOINT aircraft. The group conducts operations from Offutt AFB, Nebraska; Kadena AB, Japan; RAF Mildenhall, United Kingdom; Souda Bay Naval Support Activity, Crete; and other locations around the world. The 55th OG is the largest Operations Group in Air Combat Command and the second largest in the Air Force.\n\nSince the end of the Cold War, the 55th Operations Group has maintained an unmatched operational tempo, supporting every US contingency worldwide. These missions have included but were not limited to reconnaissance, command and control, and airlift missions supporting Operations SOUTHERN WATCH, PROVIDE COMFORT, VIGILANT WARRIOR (Southwest Asia), PROVIDE PROMISE, DENY FLIGHT (Bosnia-Herzegovina), SUPPORT DEMOCRACY, UPHOLD DEMOCRACY (Haiti), and TIGER RESCUE (Yemen). Additionally, its squadrons have been called upon to support Distinguished Visitor airlift for the National Command Authorities, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, and numerous exercises.\n\nBeginning in January 2011, the unit has hosted training for flight and maintenance crews from No. 51 Squadron RAF in preparation for the delivery of the squadron's RC-135W Airseeker fleet.\n\nOn 7 October 2016, the E-4Bs under the 55th Wing moved to the USAF 8th Air Force.\n\nLineage\n Established as 55th Pursuit Group (Interceptor) on 20 November 1940\n Activated on 15 January 1941\n Redesignated: 55th Pursuit Group (Interceptor) (Twin Engine) on 31 January 1942\n Redesignated: 55th Fighter Group (Twin Engine) on 15 May 1942\n Redesignated: 55th Fighter Group, Twin Engine, on 1 March 1944\n Redesignated: 55th Fighter Group, c. 19 July 1944\n Inactivated on 20 August 1946, aircraft, personnel and equipment being redesignated as 31st Fighter Group.\n Redesignated 55th Reconnaissance Group (Very Long Range) (Mapping) on 5 February 1947\n Activated on 24 February 1947\n Redesignated 55th Strategic Reconnaissance Group on 29 June 1948\n Inactivated on 14 October 1949\n Redesignated 55th Strategic Reconnaissance Group, Medium, on 27 October 1950\n Activated on 1 November 1950\n Inactivated on 16 June 1952\n Redesignated 55th Operations Group on 29 August 1991\n Activated on 1 September 1991.\n\nAssignments\n\n Northwest Air District (later, 2 Air Force), 15 January 1941\n II Interceptor Command, 2 October 1941\n 4 Air Force, 5 January 1942\n 4 Interceptor (later, IV Interceptor; IV Fighter) Command, 26 January 1942\n Attached to Seattle Air Defense Wing, 28 October 1942 \u2013 11 April 1943\n Seattle Air Defense Wing, 12 April 1943\n Eighth Air Force, c. 14 September 1943\n VIII Fighter Command, 15 September 1943\n\n 66th Fighter Wing, 5 October 1943\n Attached to: 3d Bombardment (later Air) Division, 15 September 1944 \u2013 20 July 1945\n XXIX Tactical Air Command, 20 July 1945\n 70th Fighter Wing, 6 August 1945 \u2013 20 August 1946\n 311th Reconnaissance Wing (later, 311 Air Division, Reconnaissance), 24 February 1947\n 55th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing, 19 July 1948 \u2013 14 October 1949\n 55th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing, 1 November 1950 \u2013 16 June 1952\n 55th Wing, 1 September 1991 \u2013 present\n\nComponents\n 1st Airborne Command and Control Squadron: 1 September 1991 \u2013 1 October 2016\n 2d Airborne Command and Control Squadron: 1 September 1991 \u2013 19 July 1994\n 7th Airborne Command and Control Squadron: 19 July 1994 \u2013 28 October 1998\n 24th Reconnaissance Squadron: 7 July 1992 \u2013 30 June 1994\n 37th Pursuit (later, 37th Fighter): 15 January 1941 \u2013 1 March 1943\n 38th Pursuit (later, 38th Fighter; 38th Reconnaissance; 38 Strategic Reconnaissance; 38 Reconnaissance): 15 January 1941 \u2013 20 August 1946; 1 June \u2013 14 October 1949; 1 November 1950 \u2013 16 June 1952 (detached 1 November 1950 \u2013 6 January 1951); 1 September 1991 \u2013 present\n 41st Electronic Combat Squadron: 1 October 2002 \u2013 3 February 2003\n 43d Electronic Combat Squadron: 1 October 2002 \u2013 3 February 2003\n 45th Reconnaissance Squadron: 1 July 1994 \u2013 present\n 54th Pursuit (later, 54th Fighter): 15 January 1941 \u2013 11 September 1942 (Detached 31 May \u2013 11 September 1941)\n 55th Intelligence Support Squadron: 22 July 2010 \u2013 present\n 82d Reconnaissance Squadron: 1 July 1992 \u2013 present\n 95th Reconnaissance Squadron: 1 July 1994 \u2013 present\n 338th Fighter (later, 338th Reconnaissance; 338th Strategic Reconnaissance; 338th Combat Training): 12 September 1942 \u2013 20 August 1946; 1 June \u2013 14 October 1949; 1 November 1950 \u2013 16 June 1952 (detached 1 November \u2013 1 December 1950); 20 September 1999 \u2013 present\n 343d Fighter (later, 343d Reconnaissance; 343d Strategic Reconnaissance; 343d Reconnaissance): 1 February 1943 \u2013 20 August 1946; 24 February 1947 \u2013 14 October 1949; 1 November 1950 \u2013 16 June 1952 (detached 1 November 1950 \u2013 3 January 1951); 1 September 1991 \u2013 present\n 922d Reconnaissance Squadron: 31 March \u2013 1 June 1992; 1 July 1992 \u2013 30 June 1994.\n\nStations\n\n Hamilton Field, California, 15 January 1941\n Portland Army Air Base, Oregon, 21 May 1941\n Paine Field, Washington, 10 February 1942\n McChord Field, Washington, 22 July 1942\n Camp Kilmer, New Jersey, 28 August \u2013 4 September 1943\n RAF Nuthampstead (AAF-131), England, 14 September 1943\n RAF Wormingford (AAF-159), England, 16 April 1944\n\n AAF Station Kaufbeuren, Germany, 22 July 1945\n AAF Station Giebelstadt, Germany, 29 April \u2013 20 August 1946\n MacDill Field (later, MacDill AFB), Florida, 24 February 1947\n Topeka (later, Forbes) AFB, Kansas, 30 June 1948 \u2013 14 October 1949\n Ramey AFB, Puerto Rico, 1 November 19", ". Differing reports say that they either found that the child itself was a serpent, that it was guarded by a serpent, that it was guarded by two serpents, or that it had the legs of a serpent. In Pausanias's story, the two sisters were driven mad by the sight of the chest's contents and hurled themselves off the Acropolis, dying instantly, but an Attic vase painting shows them being chased by the serpent off the edge of the cliff instead.\n\nErichthonius was one of the most important founding heroes of Athens and the legend of the daughters of Cecrops was a cult myth linked to the rituals of the Arrhephoria festival. Pausanias records that, during the Arrhephoria, two young girls known as the Arrhephoroi, who lived near the temple of Athena Polias, would be given hidden objects by the priestess of Athena, which they would carry on their heads down a natural underground passage. They would leave the objects they had been given at the bottom of the passage and take another set of hidden objects, which they would carry on their heads back up to the temple. The ritual was performed in the dead of night and no one, not even the priestess, knew what the objects were. The serpent in the story may be the same one depicted coiled at Athena's feet in Pheidias's famous statue of the Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon. Many of the surviving sculptures of Athena show this serpent.\n\nHerodotus records that a serpent lived in a crevice on the north side of the summit of the Athenian Acropolis and that the Athenians left a honey cake for it each month as an offering. On the eve of the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC, the serpent did not eat the honey cake and the Athenians interpreted it as a sign that Athena herself had abandoned them. Another version of the myth of the Athenian maidens is told in Metamorphoses by the Roman poet Ovid (43 BC17 AD); in this late variant Hermes falls in love with Herse. Herse, Aglaulus, and Pandrosus go to the temple to offer sacrifices to Athena. Hermes demands help from Aglaulus to seduce Herse. Aglaulus demands money in exchange. Hermes gives her the money the sisters have already offered to Athena. As punishment for Aglaulus's greed, Athena asks the goddess Envy to make Aglaulus jealous of Herse. When Hermes arrives to seduce Herse, Aglaulus stands in his way instead of helping him as she had agreed. He turns her to stone.\n\nAthena gave her favour to an Attic girl named Myrsine, a chaste girl who outdid all her fellow athletes in both the palaestra and the race. Out of envy, the other athletes murdered her, but Athena took pity in her and transformed her dead body into a myrtle, a plant thereafter as favoured by her as the olive was. An almost exact story was said about another girl, Elaea, who transformed into an olive, Athena's sacred tree.\n\nPatron of heroes\n\nAccording to Pseudo-Apollodorus's Bibliotheca, Athena advised Argos, the builder of the Argo, the ship on which the hero Jason and his band of Argonauts sailed, and aided in the ship's construction. Pseudo-Apollodorus also records that Athena guided the hero Perseus in his quest to behead Medusa. She and Hermes, the god of travelers, appeared to Perseus after he set off on his quest and gifted him with tools he would need to kill the Gorgon. Athena gave Perseus a polished bronze shield to view Medusa's reflection rather than looking at her directly and thereby avoid being turned to stone. Hermes gave him an adamantine scythe to cut off Medusa's head. When Perseus swung his blade to behead Medusa, Athena guided it, allowing his scythe to cut it clean off. According to Pindar's Thirteenth Olympian Ode, Athena helped the hero Bellerophon tame the winged horse Pegasus by giving him a bit.\n\nIn ancient Greek art, Athena is frequently shown aiding the hero Heracles. She appears in four of the twelve metopes on the Temple of Zeus at Olympia depicting Heracles's Twelve Labors, including the first, in which she passively watches him slay the Nemean lion, and the tenth, in which she is shown actively helping him hold up the sky. She is presented as his \"stern ally\", but also the \"gentle... acknowledger of his achievements.\" Artistic depictions of Heracles's apotheosis show Athena driving him to Mount Olympus in her chariot and presenting him to Zeus for his deification. In Aeschylus's tragedy Orestes, Athena intervenes to save Orestes from the wrath of the Erinyes and presides over his trial for the murder of his mother Clytemnestra. When half the jury votes to acquit and the other half votes to convict, Athena casts the deciding vote to acquit Orestes and declares that, from then on, whenever a jury is tied, the defendant shall always be acquitted.\n\nIn The Odyssey, Odysseus' cunning and shrewd nature quickly wins Athena's favour. For the first part of the poem, however, she largely is confined to aiding him only from afar, mainly by implanting thoughts in his head during his journey home from Troy. Her guiding actions reinforce her role as the \"protectress of heroes,\" or, as mythologian Walter Friedrich Otto dubbed her, the \"goddess of nearness,\" due to her mentoring and motherly probing. It is not until he washes up on the shore of the island of the Phaeacians, where Nausicaa is washing her clothes that Athena arrives personally to provide more tangible assistance. She appears in Nausicaa's dreams to ensure that the princess rescues Odysseus and plays a role in his eventual escort to Ithaca. Athena appears to Odysseus upon his arrival, disguised as a herdsman; she initially lies and tells him that Penelope, his wife, has remarried and that he is believed to be dead, but Odysseus lies back to her, employing skillful prevarications to protect himself. Impressed by his resolve and shrewdness, she reveals herself and tells him what he needs to know to win back his kingdom. She disguises him as an elderly beggar so that he will not be recognized by the suitors or Penelope, and helps him to defeat the suitors. Athena also appears to Odysseus's son Telemachus. Her actions lead him to travel around to Odysseus's comrades and ask about his father. He hears stories about some of Odysseus's journey. Athena's push for Telemachus's journey helps him grow into the man role, that his father once held. She also plays a role in ending the resultant feud against the suitors' relatives. She instructs Laertes to throw his spear and to kill Eupeithes, the father of Antinous.\n\nPunishment myths\n\nThe Gorgoneion appears to have originated as an apotropaic symbol intended to ward off evil. In a late myth invented to explain the origins of the Gorgon, Medusa is described as having been a young priestess who served in the temple of Athena in Athens. Poseidon lusted after Medusa, and raped her in the temple of Athena, refusing to allow her vow of chastity to stand in his way. Upon discovering the desecration of her temple, Athena transformed Medusa into a hideous monster with serpents for hair whose gaze would turn any mortal to stone.\n\nIn his Twelfth Pythian Ode, Pindar recounts the story of how Athena invented the aulos, a kind of flute, in imitation of the lamentations of Medusa's sisters, the Gorgons, after she was beheaded by the hero Perseus. According to Pindar, Athena gave the aulos to mortals as a gift. Later, the comic playwright Melanippides of Melos ( 480-430 BC) embellished the story in his comedy Marsyas, claiming that Athena looked in the mirror while she was playing the aulos and saw how blowing into it puffed up her cheeks and made her look silly, so she threw the aulos away and cursed it so that whoever picked it up would meet an awful death. The aulos was picked up by the satyr Marsyas, who was later killed by Apollo for his hubris. Later, this version of the story became accepted as canonical and the Athenian sculptor Myron created a group of bronze sculptures based on it, which was installed before the western front of the Parthenon in around 440 BC.\n\nA myth told by the early third-century BC Hellenistic poet Callimachus in his Hymn 5 begins with Athena bathing in a spring on Mount Helicon at midday with one of her favorite companions, the nymph Chariclo. Chariclo's son Tiresias happened to be hunting on the same mountain and came to the spring searching for water. He inadvertently saw Athena naked, so she struck him blind to ensure he would never again see what man was not intended to see. Chariclo intervened on her son's behalf and begged Athena to have mercy. Athena replied that she could not restore Tiresias's eyesight, so, instead, she gave him the ability to understand the language of the birds and thus foretell the future.\n\nMyrmex was a clever and chaste Attic girl who became quickly a favourite of Athena. However when Athena invented the plough, Myrmex went to the Atticans and told them that it was in fact her own invention. Hurt by the girl's betrayal, Athena transformed her into the small insect bearing her name, the ant.\n\nThe fable of Arachne appears in Ovid's Metamorphoses (8 AD) (vi.5\u201354 and 129\u2013145), which is nearly the only extant source for the legend. The story does not appear to have been well known prior to Ovid's rendition of it and the only earlier reference to it is a brief allusion in Virgil's Georgics, (29 BC) (iv, 246) that does not mention Arachne by name. According to Ovid, Arachne (whose name means spider in ancient Greek) was the daughter of a famous dyer in Tyrian purple in Hypaipa of Lydia, and a weaving student of Athena. She became so conceited of her skill as a weaver that she began claiming that her skill was greater than that of Athena herself. Athena gave Arachne a chance to redeem herself by assuming the form of an old woman and warning Arachne not to offend the deities. Arachne scoffed and wished for a weaving contest, so she could prove her skill.\n\nAthena wove the scene of her victory over Poseidon in the contest for the patronage of Athens. Athena's tapestry also depicted the 12 Olympian gods and defeat of mythological figures who challenged their authority. Arachne's tapestry featured twenty-one episodes of the deities' infidelity, including Zeus being unfaithful with Leda, with Europa, and with Dana\u00eb. It represented the unjust and discrediting behavior of the gods towards mortals. Athena admitted that Arachne's work was flawless, but was outraged at Arachne's offensive choice of subject, which displayed the failings and transgressions of the deities. Finally, losing her temper, Athena destroyed Arachne's tapestry and loom, striking it with her shuttle. Athena then struck Arachne across the face with her staff four times. Arachne hanged herself in despair, but Athena took pity on her and brought her back from the dead in the form of a spider.\n\nIn a rarer version, surviving in the scholia of an unnamed scholiast on Nicander, whose works heavily influenced Ovid, Arachne is placed in Attica instead and has a brother named Phalanx. Athena taught Arachne the art of weaving and Phalanx the art of war, but when brother and sister laid together in bed, Athena was so disgusted with them that she turned them both into spiders, animals forever doomed to be eaten by their own young.\n\nTrojan War\n\nThe myth of the Judgement of Paris is mentioned briefly in the Iliad, but is described in depth in an epitome of the Cypria, a lost poem of the Epic Cycle, which records that all the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of Peleus and Thetis (the eventual parents of Achilles). Only Eris, goddess of discord, was not invited. She was annoyed at this, so she arrived with a golden apple inscribed with the word \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u1fc3 (kallist\u0113i, \"for the fairest\"), which she threw among the goddesses. Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena all claimed to be the fairest, and thus the rightful owner of the apple.\n\nThe goddesses chose to place the matter before Zeus, who, not wanting to favor one of the goddesses, put the choice into the hands of Paris, a Trojan prince. After bathing in the spring of Mount Ida where Troy was situated, the goddesses appeared before Paris for his decision. In the extant ancient depictions of the Judgement of Paris, Aphrodite is only occasionally represented nude, and Athena and Hera are always fully clothed. Since the Renaissance, however, Western paintings have typically portrayed all three goddesses as completely naked.\n\nAll three goddesses were ideally beautiful and Paris could not decide between them, so they resorted to bribes. Hera tried to bribe Paris with power over all Asia and Europe, and Athena offered fame and glory in battle, but Aphrodite promised Paris that, if he were to choose her as the fairest, she would let him marry the most beautiful woman on earth. This woman was Helen, who was already married to King Menelaus of Sparta. Paris selected Aphrodite and awarded her the apple. The other two goddesses were enraged and, as a direct result, sided with the Greeks in the Trojan War.\n\nIn Books V\u2013VI of the Iliad, Athena aids the hero Diomedes, who, in the absence of Achilles, proves himself to be the most effective Greek warrior. Several artistic representations from the early sixth century BC may show Athena and Diomedes, including an early sixth-century BC shield band depicting Athena and an unidentified warrior riding on a chariot, a vase painting of a warrior with his charioteer facing Athena, and an inscribed clay plaque showing Diomedes and Athena riding in a chariot. Numerous passages in the Iliad also mention Athena having previously served as the patron of Diomedes's father Tydeus. When the Trojan women go to the temple of Athena on the Acropolis to plead her for protection from Diomedes, Athena ignores them.\n\nAthena also gets into a duel with Ares, the god of the brutal wars, and her male counterpart Ares blames her for encouraging Diomedes to tear his beautiful flesh. He curses her and strikes with all his strength. Athena deflects his blow with her aegis, a powerful shield that even Zeus's thunderbolt and lightning cannot blast through. Athena picked up a massive boulder and threw it at Ares, who immediately crumpled to the ground. Aphrodite, who was a lover of Ares, came down from Olympus to carry Ares away but was struck by Athena's golden spear and fell. Athena taunted the gods who supported Troy, saying that they will too eventually end up like Ares and Aphrodite, which scared them, therefore proving her power and reputation among the other gods.\n\nIn Book XXII of the Iliad, while Achilles is chasing Hector around the walls of Troy, Athena appears to Hector disguised as his brother Deiphobus and persuades him to hold his ground so that they can fight Achilles together. Then, Hector throws his spear at Achilles and misses, expecting Deiphobus to hand him another, but Athena disappears instead, leaving Hector to face Achilles alone without his spear. In Sophocles's tragedy Ajax, she punishes Odysseus's rival Ajax the Great, driving him insane and causing him to massacre the Achaeans' cattle, thinking that he is slaughtering the Achaeans themselves. Even after Odysseus himself expresses pity for Ajax, Athena declares, \"To laugh at your enemies - what sweeter laughter can there be than that?\" (lines 78\u20139). Ajax later commits suicide as a result of his humiliation.\n\nClassical art\nAthena appears frequently in classical Greek art, including on coins and in paintings on ceramics. She is especially prominent in works produced in Athens. In classical depictions, Athena is usually portrayed standing upright, wearing a full-length chiton. She is most often represented dressed in armor like a male soldier and wearing a Corinthian helmet raised high atop her forehead. Her shield bears at its centre the aegis with the head of the gorgon (gorgoneion) in the center and snakes around the edge. Sometimes she is shown wearing the aegis as a cloak. As Athena Promachos, she is shown brandishing a spear. Scenes in which Athena was represented include her birth from the head of Zeus, her battle with the Gigantes, the birth of Erichthonius, and the Judgement of Paris.\n\nThe Mourning Athena or Athena Meditating is a famous relief sculpture dating to around 470-460 BC that has been interpreted to represent Athena Polias. The most famous classical depiction of Athena was the Athena Parthenos, a now-lost gold and ivory statue of her in the Parthenon created by the Athenian sculptor Phidias. Copies reveal that this statue depicted Athena holding her shield in her left hand with Nike, the winged goddess of victory, standing in her right. Athena Polias is also represented in a Neo-Attic relief now held in the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, which depicts her holding an owl in her hand and wearing her characteristic Corinthian helmet while resting her shield against a nearby herma. The Roman goddess Minerva adopted most of Athena's Greek iconographical associations, but was also integrated into the Capitoline Triad.\n\nPost-classical culture\n\nArt and symbolism\n\nEarly Christian writers, such as Clement of Alexandria and Firmicus, denigrated Athena as representative of all the things that were detestable about paganism; they condemned her as \"immodest and immoral\". During the Middle Ages, however, many attributes of Athena were given to the Virgin Mary, who, in fourth-century portrayals, was often depicted wearing the Gorgoneion. Some even viewed the Virgin Mary as a warrior maiden, much like Athena Parthenos; one anecdote tells that the Virgin Mary once appeared upon the walls of Constantinople when it was under siege by the Avars, clutching a spear and urging the people to fight. During the Middle Ages, Athena became widely used as a Christian symbol and allegory, and she appeared on the family crests of certain noble houses.\n\nDuring the Renaissance, Athena donned the mantle of patron of the arts and human endeavor; allegorical paintings involving Athena were a favorite of the Italian Renaissance painters. In Sandro Bottic" ], "desc_act": false, "exllama_config": { "version": 1 }, "group_size": 128, "max_input_length": null, "model_seqlen": null, "module_name_preceding_first_block": null, "modules_in_block_to_quantize": null, "pad_token_id": null, "quant_method": "gptq", "sym": true, "tokenizer": null, "true_sequential": true, "use_cuda_fp16": false, "use_exllama": true }, "rms_norm_eps": 1e-05, "rope_theta": 1000000.0, "sliding_window": null, "tie_word_embeddings": false, "torch_dtype": "float16", "transformers_version": "4.45.0.dev0", "use_cache": true, "vocab_size": 131074 }