{"headers": [], "text": "[[Image:Euclid flowchart.svg|thumb|right| [[Flowchart]] of an algorithm ([[Euclid's algorithm]]) for calculating the greatest common divisor (g.c.d.) of two numbers ''a'' and ''b'' in locations named A and B. The algorithm proceeds by successive subtractions in two loops: IF the test B ≥ A yields \"yes\" or \"true\" (more accurately, the ''number'' ''b'' in location B is greater than or equal to the ''number'' ''a'' in location A) THEN, the algorithm specifies B ← B − A (meaning the number ''b'' − ''a'' replaces the old ''b''). Similarly, IF A > B, THEN A ← A − B. The process terminates when (the contents of) B is 0, yielding the g.c.d. in A. (Algorithm derived from Scott 2009:13; symbols and drawing style from Tausworthe 1977).]] In [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]], an '''algorithm''' () is a finite sequence of [[well-defined]], computer-implementable instructions, typically to solve a class of problems or to perform a computation. Algorithms are always [[unambiguous]] and are used as specifications for performing [[calculation]], [[data processing]], [[automated reasoning]], and other tasks. As an [[effective method]], an algorithm can be expressed within a finite amount of space and time, and in a well-defined formal language for calculating a [[Function (mathematics)|function]]. Starting from an initial state and initial input (perhaps [[Empty string|empty]]), the instructions describe a [[computation]] that, when [[Execution (computing)|executed]], proceeds through a finite number of well-defined successive states, eventually producing \"output\" and terminating at a final ending state. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily [[deterministic]]; some algorithms, known as [[randomized algorithms]], incorporate random input. The concept of algorithm has existed since antiquity. [[Arithmetic]] algorithms, such as a [[division algorithm]], was used by ancient [[Babylonian mathematics|Babylonian mathematicians]] c. 2500 BC and [[Egyptian mathematics|Egyptian mathematicians]] c. 1550 BC. [[Greek mathematics|Greek mathematicians]] later used algorithms in 240 BC in the [[sieve of Eratosthenes]] for finding prime numbers, and the [[Euclidean algorithm]] for finding the [[greatest common divisor]] of two numbers. [[Arabic mathematics|Arabic mathematicians]] such as [[al-Kindi]] in the 9th century used [[cryptographic]] algorithms for [[code-breaking]], based on [[frequency analysis]]. The word ''algorithm'' itself is derived from the name of the 9th-century mathematician [[Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi|Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]], whose [[Nisba (suffix)|nisba]] (identifying him as from [[Khwarazm]]) was Latinized ''as Algoritmi''. A partial formalization of what would become the modern concept of algorithm began with attempts to solve the ''[[Entscheidungsproblem]] '' (decision problem) posed by [[David Hilbert]] in 1928. Later formalizations were framed as attempts to define \"[[effective calculability]]\" or \"effective method\". Those formalizations included the [[Kurt Gödel|Gödel]]–[[Jacques Herbrand|Herbrand]]–[[Stephen Cole Kleene|Kleene]] [[Recursion (computer science)|recursive functions]] of 1930, 1934 and 1935, [[Alonzo Church]]'s [[lambda calculus]] of 1936, [[Emil Post]]'s [[Formulation 1]] of 1936, and [[Alan Turing]]'s [[Turing machines]] of 1936–37 and 1939.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The word 'algorithm' has its roots in Latinizing the nisba, indicating his geographic origin, of the name of [[Persians|Persian]] mathematician [[Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]] to ''algorismus''. Al-Khwārizmī ([[Arabization|Arabized]] [[Persian language|Persian]] الخوارزمی c. 780–850) was a mathematician, [[astronomer]], [[geographer]], and scholar in the [[House of Wisdom]] in [[Baghdad]], whose name means 'the native of [[Khwarazm]]', a region that was part of [[Greater Iran]] and is now in [[Uzbekistan]]. About 825, al-Khwarizmi wrote an [[Arabic language]] treatise on the [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system]], which was translated into [[Latin]] during the 12th century. The manuscript starts with the phrase ''Dixit Algorizmi'' ('Thus spake Al-Khwarizmi'), where \"Algorizmi\" was the translator's [[Latinisation of names|Latinization]] of Al-Khwarizmi's name. Al-Khwarizmi was the most widely read mathematician in Europe in the late Middle Ages, primarily through another of his books, the [[Al-Jabr|Algebra]]. In late medieval Latin, ''algorismus'', English '[[algorism]]', the corruption of his name, simply meant the \"decimal number system\". In the 15th century, under the influence of the Greek word ἀριθμός (''arithmos''), 'number' (''cf.'' 'arithmetic'), the Latin word was altered to ''algorithmus'', and the corresponding English term 'algorithm' is first attested in the 17th century; the modern sense was introduced in the 19th century. In English, it was first used in about 1230 and then by [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]] in 1391. English adopted the French term, but it wasn't until the late 19th century that \"algorithm\" took on the meaning that it has in modern English. Another early use of the word is from 1240, in a manual titled ''Carmen de Algorismo'' composed by [[Alexander of Villedieu|Alexandre de Villedieu]]. It begins with: which translates to: The poem is a few hundred lines long and summarizes the art of calculating with the new styled Indian dice (''Tali Indorum''), or Hindu numerals.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Informal definition"], "text": "An informal definition could be \"a set of rules that precisely defines a sequence of operations\", which would include all computer programs (including programs that do not perform numeric calculations), and (for example) any prescribed [[bureaucratic]] procedure or cook-book [[recipe]]. In general, a program is only an algorithm if it stops eventually—even though [[infinite loop#Intentional looping | infinite loop]] may sometimes prove desirable. A prototypical example of an algorithm is the [[Euclidean algorithm]], which is used to determine the maximum common divisor of two integers; an example (there are others) is described by the [[flowchart]] above and as an example in a later section. offer an informal meaning of the word \"algorithm\" in the following quotation: No human being can write fast enough, or long enough, or small enough† ( †\"smaller and smaller without limit … you'd be trying to write on molecules, on atoms, on electrons\") to list all members of an enumerably infinite set by writing out their names, one after another, in some notation. But humans can do something equally useful, in the case of certain enumerably infinite sets: They can give ''explicit instructions for determining the '''n'''th member of the set'', for arbitrary finite ''n''. Such instructions are to be given quite explicitly, in a form in which ''they could be followed by a computing machine'', or by a ''human who is capable of carrying out only very elementary operations on symbols.'' An [[recursively enumerable set| \"enumerably infinite set\"]] is one whose elements can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the integers. Thus Boolos and Jeffrey are saying that an algorithm implies instructions for a process that \"creates\" output integers from an ''arbitrary'' \"input\" integer or integers that, in theory, can be arbitrarily large. For example, an algorithm can be an algebraic equation such as ''y = m + n'' (i.e., two arbitrary \"input variables\" ''m'' and ''n'' that produce an output ''y''), but various authors' attempts to define the notion indicate that the word implies much more than this, something on the order of (for the addition example): Precise instructions (in a language understood by \"the computer\") for a fast, efficient, \"good\" process that specifies the \"moves\" of \"the computer\" (machine or human, equipped with the necessary internally contained information and capabilities) to find, decode, and then process arbitrary input integers/symbols ''m'' and ''n'', symbols ''+'' and ''='' … and \"effectively\" produce, in a \"reasonable\" time, output-integer ''y'' at a specified place and in a specified format. The concept of ''algorithm'' is also used to define the notion of [[decidability (logic)| decidability]]—a notion that is central for explaining how [[formal system]] come into being starting from a small set of [[axiom]] and rules. In [[logic]], the time that an algorithm requires to complete cannot be measured, as it is not apparently related to the customary physical dimension. From such uncertainties, that characterize ongoing work, stems the unavailability of a definition of ''algorithm'' that suits both concrete (in some sense) and abstract usage of the term.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Formalization"], "text": "Algorithms are essential to the way computers process data. Many computer programs contain algorithms that detail the specific instructions a computer should perform—in a specific order—to carry out a specified task, such as calculating employees' paychecks or printing students' report cards. Thus, an algorithm can be considered to be any sequence of operations that can be simulated by a [[Turing reduction|Turing-complete]] system. Authors who assert this thesis include Minsky (1967), Savage (1987) and Gurevich (2000):  Minsky: \"But we will also maintain, with Turing … that any procedure which could \"naturally\" be called effective, can, in fact, be realized by a (simple) machine. Although this may seem extreme, the arguments … in its favor are hard to refute\". Gurevich: \"… Turing's informal argument in favor of his thesis justifies a stronger thesis: every algorithm can be simulated by a Turing machine … according to Savage [1987], an algorithm is a computational process defined by a Turing machine\". Turing machines can define computational processes that do not terminate. The informal definitions of algorithms generally require that the algorithm always terminates. This requirement renders the task of deciding whether a formal procedure is an algorithm impossible in the general case—due to a major theorem of [[computability theory]] known as the [[halting problem]]. Typically, when an algorithm is associated with processing information, data can be read from an input source, written to an output device and stored for further processing. Stored data are regarded as part of the internal state of the entity performing the algorithm. In practice, the state is stored in one or more [[data structure]]. For some of these computational processes, the algorithm must be rigorously defined: specified in the way it applies in all possible circumstances that could arise. This means that any conditional steps must be systematically dealt with, case-by-case; the criteria for each case must be clear (and computable). Because an algorithm is a precise list of precise steps, the order of computation is always crucial to the functioning of the algorithm. Instructions are usually assumed to be listed explicitly, and are described as starting \"from the top\" and going \"down to the bottom\"—an idea that is described more formally by ''[[control flow|flow of control]]''. So far, the discussion on the formalization of an algorithm has assumed the premises of [[imperative programming]]. This is the most common conception—one which attempts to describe a task in discrete, \"mechanical\" means. Unique to this conception of formalized algorithms is the [[assignment operation]], which sets the value of a variable. It derives from the intuition of \"[[memory]]\" as a scratchpad. An example of such an assignment can be found below. For some alternate conceptions of what constitutes an algorithm, see [[functional programming]] and [[logic programming]].", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Formalization", "Expressing algorithms"], "text": "Algorithms can be expressed in many kinds of notation, including [[natural language]], [[pseudocode]], [[flowchart]], [[DRAKON|drakon-charts]], [[programming language]] or [[control table]] (processed by [[Interpreter (computing)|interpreters]]). Natural language expressions of algorithms tend to be verbose and ambiguous, and are rarely used for complex or technical algorithms. Pseudocode, flowcharts, [[DRAKON|drakon-charts]] and control tables are structured ways to express algorithms that avoid many of the ambiguities common in the statements based on natural language. Programming languages are primarily intended for expressing algorithms in a form that can be executed by a computer, but are also often used as a way to define or document algorithms. There is a wide variety of representations possible and one can express a given [[Turing machine]] program as a sequence of machine tables (see [[finite-state machine]], [[state transition table]] and [[control table]] for more), as flowcharts and [[DRAKON|drakon-charts]] (see [[state diagram]] for more), or as a form of rudimentary [[machine code]] or [[assembly code]] called \"sets of quadruples\" (see [[Turing machine]] for more). Representations of algorithms can be classed into three accepted levels of Turing machine description, as follows: (-) 1 High-level description  \"…prose to describe an algorithm, ignoring the implementation details. At this level, we do not need to mention how the machine manages its tape or head.\" (-) 2 Implementation description  \"…prose used to define the way the Turing machine uses its head and the way that it stores data on its tape. At this level, we do not give details of states or transition function.\" (-) 3 Formal description  Most detailed, \"lowest level\", gives the Turing machine's \"state table\". For an example of the simple algorithm \"Add m+n\" described in all three levels, see [[Algorithm#Examples]].", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Design"], "text": "Algorithm design refers to a method or a mathematical process for problem-solving and engineering algorithms. The design of algorithms is part of many solution theories of [[operation research]], such as [[dynamic programming]] and [[Divide and conquer algorithm|divide-and-conquer]]. Techniques for designing and implementing algorithm designs are also called algorithm design patterns, with examples including the template method pattern and the decorator pattern. One of the most important aspects of algorithm design is resource (run-time, memory usage) efficiency; the [[big O notation]] is used to describe e.g. an algorithm's run-time growth as the size of its input increases. Typical steps in the development of algorithms: (1) Problem definition (2) Development of a model (3) Specification of the algorithm (4) Designing an algorithm (5) Checking the [[correctness (computer science)|correctness]] of the algorithm (6) Analysis of algorithm (7) Implementation of algorithm (8) Program testing (9) Documentation preparation", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Implementation"], "text": "[[Image:TTL npn nand.svg|right|thumb|[[Logical NAND]] algorithm implemented electronically in [[7400 series|7400]] chip]] Most algorithms are intended to be implemented as [[computer programs]]. However, algorithms are also implemented by other means, such as in a [[biological neural network]] (for example, the [[human brain]] implementing [[arithmetic]] or an insect looking for food), in an [[electrical circuit]], or in a mechanical device.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Computer algorithms"], "text": "In [[computer systems]], an algorithm is basically an instance of [[logic]] written in software by software developers, to be effective for the intended \"target\" computer(s) to produce ''output'' from given (perhaps null) ''input''. An optimal algorithm, even running in old hardware, would produce faster results than a non-optimal (higher [[time complexity]]) algorithm for the same purpose, running in more efficient hardware; that is why algorithms, like computer hardware, are considered technology. ''\"Elegant\" (compact) programs, \"good\" (fast) programs '': The notion of \"simplicity and elegance\" appears informally in [[Donald Knuth|Knuth]] and precisely in [[Gregory Chaitin|Chaitin]]: Knuth: \" … we want ''good'' algorithms in some loosely defined aesthetic sense. One criterion … is the length of time taken to perform the algorithm …. Other criteria are adaptability of the algorithm to computers, its simplicity and elegance, etc\" Chaitin: \" … a program is 'elegant,' by which I mean that it's the smallest possible program for producing the output that it does\" Chaitin prefaces his definition with: \"I'll show you can't prove that a program is 'elegant—such a proof would solve the [[Halting problem]] (ibid). ''Algorithm versus function computable by an algorithm'': For a given function multiple algorithms may exist. This is true, even without expanding the available instruction set available to the programmer. Rogers observes that \"It is ... important to distinguish between the notion of ''algorithm'', i.e. procedure and the notion of ''function computable by algorithm'', i.e. mapping yielded by procedure. The same function may have several different algorithms\". Unfortunately, there may be a tradeoff between goodness (speed) and elegance (compactness)—an elegant program may take more steps to complete a computation than one less elegant. An example that uses Euclid's algorithm appears below. ''Computers (and computors), models of computation'': A computer (or human \"computor\") is a restricted type of machine, a \"discrete deterministic mechanical device\" that blindly follows its instructions. Melzak's and Lambek's primitive models reduced this notion to four elements: (i) discrete, distinguishable ''locations'', (ii) discrete, indistinguishable ''counters'' (iii) an agent, and (iv) a list of instructions that are ''effective'' relative to the capability of the agent.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Computer algorithms"], "text": "Minsky describes a more congenial variation of Lambek's \"abacus\" model in his \"Very Simple Bases for [[Computability]]\". [[Minsky machine|Minsky's machine]] proceeds sequentially through its five (or six, depending on how one counts) instructions unless either a conditional IF-THEN GOTO or an unconditional GOTO changes program flow out of sequence. Besides HALT, Minsky's machine includes three ''assignment'' (replacement, substitution) operations: ZERO (e.g. the contents of location replaced by 0: L ← 0), SUCCESSOR (e.g. L ← L+1), and DECREMENT (e.g. L ← L − 1). Rarely must a programmer write \"code\" with such a limited instruction set. But Minsky shows (as do Melzak and Lambek) that his machine is [[Turing complete]] with only four general ''types'' of instructions: conditional GOTO, unconditional GOTO, assignment/replacement/substitution, and HALT. However, a few different assignment instructions (e.g. DECREMENT, INCREMENT, and ZERO/CLEAR/EMPTY for a Minsky machine) are also required for Turing-completeness; their exact specification is somewhat up to the designer. The unconditional GOTO is a convenience; it can be constructed by initializing a dedicated location to zero e.g. the instruction \" Z ← 0 \"; thereafter the instruction IF Z=0 THEN GOTO xxx is unconditional. ''Simulation of an algorithm: computer (computor) language'': Knuth advises the reader that \"the best way to learn an algorithm is to try it . . . immediately take pen and paper and work through an example\". But what about a simulation or execution of the real thing? The programmer must translate the algorithm into a language that the simulator/computer/computor can ''effectively'' execute. Stone gives an example of this: when computing the roots of a quadratic equation the computor must know how to take a square root. If they don't, then the algorithm, to be effective, must provide a set of rules for extracting a square root. This means that the programmer must know a \"language\" that is effective relative to the target computing agent (computer/computor). But what model should be used for the simulation? Van Emde Boas observes \"even if we base [[Computational complexity theory|complexity theory]] on abstract instead of concrete machines, arbitrariness of the choice of a model remains. It is at this point that the notion of ''simulation'' enters\". When speed is being measured, the instruction set matters. For example, the subprogram in Euclid's algorithm to compute the remainder would execute much faster if the programmer had a \"[[modular arithmetic|modulus]]\" instruction available rather than just subtraction (or worse: just Minsky's \"decrement\").", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Computer algorithms"], "text": "''Structured programming, canonical structures'': Per the [[Church–Turing thesis]], any algorithm can be computed by a model known to be [[Turing complete]], and per Minsky's demonstrations, Turing completeness requires only four instruction types—conditional GOTO, unconditional GOTO, assignment, HALT. Kemeny and Kurtz observe that, while \"undisciplined\" use of unconditional GOTOs and conditional IF-THEN GOTOs can result in \"[[spaghetti code]]\", a programmer can write structured programs using only these instructions; on the other hand \"it is also possible, and not too hard, to write badly structured programs in a structured language\". Tausworthe augments the three [[Structured program theorem|Böhm-Jacopini canonical structures]]: SEQUENCE, IF-THEN-ELSE, and WHILE-DO, with two more: DO-WHILE and CASE. An additional benefit of a structured program is that it lends itself to [[proof of correctness|proofs of correctness]] using [[mathematical induction]]. ''Canonical flowchart symbols'': The graphical aide called a [[flowchart]], offers a way to describe and document an algorithm (and a computer program of one). Like the program flow of a Minsky machine, a flowchart always starts at the top of a page and proceeds down. Its primary symbols are only four: the directed arrow showing program flow, the rectangle (SEQUENCE, GOTO), the diamond (IF-THEN-ELSE), and the dot (OR-tie). The Böhm–Jacopini canonical structures are made of these primitive shapes. Sub-structures can \"nest\" in rectangles, but only if a single exit occurs from the superstructure. The symbols, and their use to build the canonical structures are shown in the diagram.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Examples", "Algorithm example"], "text": "One of the simplest algorithms is to find the largest number in a list of numbers of random order. Finding the solution requires looking at every number in the list. From this follows a simple algorithm, which can be stated in a high-level description in English prose, as: ''High-level description:'' (1) If there are no numbers in the set then there is no highest number. (2) Assume the first number in the set is the largest number in the set. (3) For each remaining number in the set: if this number is larger than the current largest number, consider this number to be the largest number in the set. (4) When there are no numbers left in the set to iterate over, consider the current largest number to be the largest number of the set. ''(Quasi-)formal description:'' Written in prose but much closer to the high-level language of a computer program, the following is the more formal coding of the algorithm in [[pseudocode]] or [[pidgin code]]: Input: A list of numbers ''L''. Output: The largest number in the list ''L''. '''if''' ''L.size'' = 0 '''return''' null ''largest'' ← ''L''[0] '''for each''' ''item'' '''in''' ''L'', '''do''' '''if''' ''item'' > ''largest'', '''then''' ''largest'' ← ''item'' '''return''' ''largest''", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Examples", "Euclid's algorithm"], "text": "[[Euclid]]'s algorithm to compute the [[greatest common divisor]] (GCD) to two numbers appears as Proposition II in Book VII (\"Elementary Number Theory\") of his ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]''. Euclid poses the problem thus: \"Given two numbers not prime to one another, to find their greatest common measure\". He defines \"A number [to be] a multitude composed of units\": a counting number, a positive integer not including zero. To \"measure\" is to place a shorter measuring length ''s'' successively (''q'' times) along longer length ''l'' until the remaining portion ''r'' is less than the shorter length ''s''. In modern words, remainder ''r'' = ''l'' − ''q''×''s'', ''q'' being the quotient, or remainder ''r'' is the \"modulus\", the integer-fractional part left over after the division. For Euclid's method to succeed, the starting lengths must satisfy two requirements: (i) the lengths must not be zero, AND (ii) the subtraction must be \"proper\"; i.e., a test must guarantee that the smaller of the two numbers is subtracted from the larger (or the two can be equal so their subtraction yields zero). Euclid's original proof adds a third requirement: the two lengths must not be prime to one another. Euclid stipulated this so that he could construct a [[reductio ad absurdum]] proof that the two numbers' common measure is in fact the ''greatest''. While Nicomachus' algorithm is the same as Euclid's, when the numbers are prime to one another, it yields the number \"1\" for their common measure. So, to be precise, the following is really Nicomachus' algorithm.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Examples", "Euclid's algorithm", "Computer language for Euclid's algorithm"], "text": "Only a few instruction ''types'' are required to execute Euclid's algorithm—some logical tests (conditional GOTO), unconditional GOTO, assignment (replacement), and subtraction. (-) A ''location'' is symbolized by upper case letter(s), e.g. S, A, etc. (-) The varying quantity (number) in a location is written in lower case letter(s) and (usually) associated with the location's name. For example, location L at the start might contain the number ''l'' = 3009.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Examples", "Euclid's algorithm", "An inelegant program for Euclid's algorithm"], "text": "The following algorithm is framed as Knuth's four-step version of Euclid's and Nicomachus', but, rather than using division to find the remainder, it uses successive subtractions of the shorter length ''s'' from the remaining length ''r'' until ''r'' is less than ''s''. The high-level description, shown in boldface, is adapted from Knuth 1973:2–4: '''INPUT''': [Into two locations L and S put the numbers ''l'' and ''s'' that represent the two lengths]: INPUT L, S [Initialize R: make the remaining length ''r'' equal to the starting/initial/input length ''l'']: R ← L '''E0: [Ensure ''r'' ≥ ''s''.]''' [Ensure the smaller of the two numbers is in S and the larger in R]: IF R > S THEN the contents of L is the larger number so skip over the exchange-steps [[#4|4]], [[#5|5]] and [[#6|6]]: GOTO step [[#7|7]] ELSE swap the contents of R and S. L ← R (this first step is redundant, but is useful for later discussion). R ← S S ← L '''E1: [Find remainder]''': Until the remaining length ''r'' in R is less than the shorter length ''s'' in S, repeatedly subtract the measuring number ''s'' in S from the remaining length ''r'' in R. IF S > R THEN done measuring so GOTO [[#10|10]] ELSE measure again, R ← R − S [Remainder-loop]: GOTO [[#7|7]]. '''E2: [Is the remainder zero?]''': EITHER (i) the last measure was exact, the remainder in R is zero, and the program can halt, OR (ii) the algorithm must continue: the last measure left a remainder in R less than measuring number in S. IF R = 0 THEN done so GOTO [[#15|step 15]] ELSE CONTINUE TO [[#11|step 11]], '''E3: [Interchange ''s'' and ''r'']''': The nut of Euclid's algorithm. Use remainder ''r'' to measure what was previously smaller number ''s''; L serves as a temporary location. L ← R R ← S S ← L [Repeat the measuring process]: GOTO [[#7|7]] '''OUTPUT''': [Done. S contains the [[greatest common divisor]]]: PRINT S '''DONE''': HALT, END, STOP.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Examples", "Euclid's algorithm", "An elegant program for Euclid's algorithm"], "text": "The flowchart of \"Elegant\" can be found at the top of this article. In the (unstructured) Basic language, the steps are numbered, and the instruction LET [] = [] is the assignment instruction symbolized by ←. 5 REM Euclid's algorithm for greatest common divisor 6 PRINT \"Type two integers greater than 0\" 10 INPUT A,B 20 IF B=0 THEN GOTO 80 30 IF A > B THEN GOTO 60 40 LET B=B-A 50 GOTO 20 60 LET A=A-B 70 GOTO 20 80 PRINT A 90 END ''How \"Elegant\" works'': In place of an outer \"Euclid loop\", \"Elegant\" shifts back and forth between two \"co-loops\", an A > B loop that computes A ← A − B, and a B ≤ A loop that computes B ← B − A. This works because, when at last the minuend M is less than or equal to the subtrahend S (Difference = Minuend − Subtrahend), the minuend can become ''s'' (the new measuring length) and the subtrahend can become the new ''r'' (the length to be measured); in other words the \"sense\" of the subtraction reverses. The following version can be used with [[List of C-family programming languages|programming languages from the C-family]]: // Euclid's algorithm for greatest common divisor int euclidAlgorithm (int A, int B){ A=abs(A); B=abs(B); while (B!=0){ if (A>B) A=A-B; else B=B-A; return A;", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Examples", "Testing the Euclid algorithms"], "text": "Does an algorithm do what its author wants it to do? A few test cases usually give some confidence in the core functionality. But tests are not enough. For test cases, one source uses 3009 and 884. Knuth suggested 40902, 24140. Another interesting case is the two [[relatively prime]] numbers 14157 and 5950. But \"exceptional cases\" must be identified and tested. Will \"Inelegant\" perform properly when R > S, S > R, R = S? Ditto for \"Elegant\": B > A, A > B, A = B? (Yes to all). What happens when one number is zero, both numbers are zero? (\"Inelegant\" computes forever in all cases; \"Elegant\" computes forever when A = 0.) What happens if ''negative'' numbers are entered? Fractional numbers? If the input numbers, i.e. the [[domain of a function|domain of the function]] computed by the algorithm/program, is to include only positive integers including zero, then the failures at zero indicate that the algorithm (and the program that [[instance (computer science)|instantiates]] it) is a [[partial function]] rather than a [[total function]]. A notable failure due to exceptions is the [[Ariane 5 Flight 501]] rocket failure (June 4, 1996). ''Proof of program correctness by use of mathematical induction'': Knuth demonstrates the application of [[mathematical induction]] to an \"extended\" version of Euclid's algorithm, and he proposes \"a general method applicable to proving the validity of any algorithm\". Tausworthe proposes that a measure of the complexity of a program be the length of its correctness proof.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Examples", "Measuring and improving the Euclid algorithms"], "text": "''Elegance (compactness) versus goodness (speed)'': With only six core instructions, \"Elegant\" is the clear winner, compared to \"Inelegant\" at thirteen instructions. However, \"Inelegant\" is ''faster'' (it arrives at HALT in fewer steps). [[Algorithm analysis]] indicates why this is the case: \"Elegant\" does ''two'' conditional tests in every subtraction loop, whereas \"Inelegant\" only does one. As the algorithm (usually) requires many loop-throughs, ''on average'' much time is wasted doing a \"B = 0?\" test that is needed only after the remainder is computed. ''Can the algorithms be improved?'': Once the programmer judges a program \"fit\" and \"effective\"—that is, it computes the function intended by its author—then the question becomes, can it be improved? The compactness of \"Inelegant\" can be improved by the elimination of five steps. But Chaitin proved that compacting an algorithm cannot be automated by a generalized algorithm; rather, it can only be done [[heuristic]]; i.e., by exhaustive search (examples to be found at [[Busy beaver]]), trial and error, cleverness, insight, application of [[inductive reasoning]], etc. Observe that steps 4, 5 and 6 are repeated in steps 11, 12 and 13. Comparison with \"Elegant\" provides a hint that these steps, together with steps 2 and 3, can be eliminated. This reduces the number of core instructions from thirteen to eight, which makes it \"more elegant\" than \"Elegant\", at nine steps. The speed of \"Elegant\" can be improved by moving the \"B=0?\" test outside of the two subtraction loops. This change calls for the addition of three instructions (B = 0?, A = 0?, GOTO). Now \"Elegant\" computes the example-numbers faster; whether this is always the case for any given A, B, and R, S would require a detailed analysis.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Algorithmic analysis"], "text": "It is frequently important to know how much of a particular resource (such as time or storage) is theoretically required for a given algorithm. Methods have been developed for the [[analysis of algorithms]] to obtain such quantitative answers (estimates); for example, the sorting algorithm above has a time requirement of O(''n''), using the [[big O notation]] with ''n'' as the length of the list. At all times the algorithm only needs to remember two values: the largest number found so far, and its current position in the input list. Therefore, it is said to have a space requirement of ''O(1)'', if the space required to store the input numbers is not counted, or O(''n'') if it is counted. Different algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more time, space, or '[[algorithmic efficiency|effort]]' than others. For example, a [[binary search]] algorithm (with cost O(log n) ) outperforms a sequential search (cost O(n) ) when used for [[lookup table|table lookups]] on sorted lists or arrays.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Algorithmic analysis", "Formal versus empirical"], "text": "The [[analysis of algorithms|analysis, and study of algorithms]] is a discipline of [[computer science]], and is often practiced abstractly without the use of a specific [[programming language]] or implementation. In this sense, algorithm analysis resembles other mathematical disciplines in that it focuses on the underlying properties of the algorithm and not on the specifics of any particular implementation. Usually [[pseudocode]] is used for analysis as it is the simplest and most general representation. However, ultimately, most algorithms are usually implemented on particular hardware/software platforms and their [[algorithmic efficiency]] is eventually put to the test using real code. For the solution of a \"one off\" problem, the efficiency of a particular algorithm may not have significant consequences (unless n is extremely large) but for algorithms designed for fast interactive, commercial or long life scientific usage it may be critical. Scaling from small n to large n frequently exposes inefficient algorithms that are otherwise benign. Empirical testing is useful because it may uncover unexpected interactions that affect performance. [[Benchmark (computing)|Benchmarks]] may be used to compare before/after potential improvements to an algorithm after program optimization. Empirical tests cannot replace formal analysis, though, and are not trivial to perform in a fair manner.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Algorithmic analysis", "Execution efficiency"], "text": "To illustrate the potential improvements possible even in well-established algorithms, a recent significant innovation, relating to [[Fast Fourier transform|FFT]] algorithms (used heavily in the field of image processing), can decrease processing time up to 1,000 times for applications like medical imaging. In general, speed improvements depend on special properties of the problem, which are very common in practical applications. Speedups of this magnitude enable computing devices that make extensive use of image processing (like digital cameras and medical equipment) to consume less power.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Classification"], "text": "There are various ways to classify algorithms, each with its own merits.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Classification", "By implementation"], "text": "One way to classify algorithms is by implementation means. (-) Recursion  A [[recursive algorithm]] is one that invokes (makes reference to) itself repeatedly until a certain condition (also known as termination condition) matches, which is a method common to [[functional programming]]. [[Iteration|Iterative]] algorithms use repetitive constructs like [[Program loops|loops]] and sometimes additional data structures like [[Stack (data structure)|stacks]] to solve the given problems. Some problems are naturally suited for one implementation or the other. For example, [[towers of Hanoi]] is well understood using recursive implementation. Every recursive version has an equivalent (but possibly more or less complex) iterative version, and vice versa. (-) Logical  An algorithm may be viewed as controlled [[Deductive reasoning|logical deduction]]. This notion may be expressed as: ''Algorithm = logic + control''. The logic component expresses the axioms that may be used in the computation and the control component determines the way in which deduction is applied to the axioms. This is the basis for the [[logic programming]] paradigm. In pure logic programming languages, the control component is fixed and algorithms are specified by supplying only the logic component. The appeal of this approach is the elegant [[Formal semantics of programming languages|semantics]]: a change in the axioms produces a well-defined change in the algorithm. (-) Serial, parallel or distributed  Algorithms are usually discussed with the assumption that computers execute one instruction of an algorithm at a time. Those computers are sometimes called serial computers. An [[algorithm design]] for such an environment is called a serial algorithm, as opposed to [[parallel algorithm]] or [[distributed algorithms]]. Parallel algorithms take advantage of computer architectures where several processors can work on a problem at the same time, whereas distributed algorithms utilize multiple machines connected with a [[computer network]]. Parallel or distributed algorithms divide the problem into more symmetrical or asymmetrical subproblems and collect the results back together. The resource consumption in such algorithms is not only processor cycles on each processor but also the communication overhead between the processors. Some sorting algorithms can be parallelized efficiently, but their communication overhead is expensive. Iterative algorithms are generally parallelizable. Some problems have no parallel algorithms and are called inherently serial problems. (-) Deterministic or non-deterministic  [[Deterministic algorithm]] solve the problem with exact decision at every step of the algorithm whereas [[non-deterministic algorithm]] solve problems via guessing although typical guesses are made more accurate through the use of [[heuristics]]. (-) Exact or approximate  While many algorithms reach an exact solution, [[approximation algorithm]] seek an approximation that is closer to the true solution. The approximation can be reached by either using a deterministic or a random strategy. Such algorithms have practical value for many hard problems. One of the examples of an approximate algorithm is the [[Knapsack problem]], where there is a set of given items. Its goal is to pack the knapsack to get the maximum total value. Each item has some weight and some value. Total weight that can be carried is no more than some fixed number X. So, the solution must consider weights of items as well as their value.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Classification", "By implementation"], "text": "(-) [[Quantum algorithm]]  They run on a realistic model of [[quantum computation]]. The term is usually used for those algorithms which seem inherently quantum, or use some essential feature of [[Quantum computing]] such as [[quantum superposition]] or [[quantum entanglement]].", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Classification", "By design paradigm"], "text": "Another way of classifying algorithms is by their design methodology or [[algorithmic paradigm|paradigm]]. There is a certain number of paradigms, each different from the other. Furthermore, each of these categories includes many different types of algorithms. Some common paradigms are: (-) [[Brute force search|Brute-force]] or exhaustive search  This is the [[Naïve algorithm|naive method]] of trying every possible solution to see which is best. (-) Divide and conquer  A [[divide and conquer algorithm]] repeatedly reduces an instance of a problem to one or more smaller instances of the same problem (usually [[recursion|recursively]]) until the instances are small enough to solve easily. One such example of divide and conquer is [[mergesort|merge sorting]]. Sorting can be done on each segment of data after dividing data into segments and sorting of entire data can be obtained in the conquer phase by merging the segments. A simpler variant of divide and conquer is called a ''decrease and conquer algorithm'', which solves an identical subproblem and uses the solution of this subproblem to solve the bigger problem. Divide and conquer divides the problem into multiple subproblems and so the conquer stage is more complex than decrease and conquer algorithms. An example of a decrease and conquer algorithm is the [[binary search algorithm]]. (-) Search and enumeration  Many problems (such as playing [[chess]]) can be modeled as problems on [[graph theory|graphs]]. A [[graph exploration algorithm]] specifies rules for moving around a graph and is useful for such problems. This category also includes [[search algorithm]], [[branch and bound]] enumeration and [[backtracking]]. (-) [[Randomized algorithm]]  Such algorithms make some choices randomly (or pseudo-randomly). They can be very useful in finding approximate solutions for problems where finding exact solutions can be impractical (see heuristic method below). For some of these problems, it is known that the fastest approximations must involve some [[randomness]]. Whether randomized algorithms with [[P (complexity)|polynomial time complexity]] can be the fastest algorithms for some problems is an open question known as the [[P versus NP problem]]. There are two large classes of such algorithms: (5) [[Monte Carlo algorithm]] return a correct answer with high-probability. E.g. [[RP (complexity)|RP]] is the subclass of these that run in [[polynomial time]]. (6) [[Las Vegas algorithm]] always return the correct answer, but their running time is only probabilistically bound, e.g. [[Zero-error Probabilistic Polynomial time|ZPP]]. (-) [[Reduction (complexity)|Reduction of complexity]]  This technique involves solving a difficult problem by transforming it into a better-known problem for which we have (hopefully) [[asymptotically optimal]] algorithms. The goal is to find a reducing algorithm whose [[Computational complexity theory|complexity]] is not dominated by the resulting reduced algorithm's. For example, one [[selection algorithm]] for finding the median in an unsorted list involves first sorting the list (the expensive portion) and then pulling out the middle element in the sorted list (the cheap portion). This technique is also known as ''[[Transform and conquer algorithm|transform and conquer]]''. (-) [[Back tracking]]  In this approach, multiple solutions are built incrementally and abandoned when it is determined that they cannot lead to a valid full solution.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Classification", "Optimization problems"], "text": "For [[optimization problem]] there is a more specific classification of algorithms; an algorithm for such problems may fall into one or more of the general categories described above as well as into one of the following: (-) [[Linear programming]]  When searching for optimal solutions to a linear function bound to linear equality and inequality constraints, the constraints of the problem can be used directly in producing the optimal solutions. There are algorithms that can solve any problem in this category, such as the popular [[simplex algorithm]]. Problems that can be solved with linear programming include the [[maximum flow problem]] for directed graphs. If a problem additionally requires that one or more of the unknowns must be an [[integer]] then it is classified in [[integer programming]]. A linear programming algorithm can solve such a problem if it can be proved that all restrictions for integer values are superficial, i.e., the solutions satisfy these restrictions anyway. In the general case, a specialized algorithm or an algorithm that finds approximate solutions is used, depending on the difficulty of the problem. (-) [[Dynamic programming]]  When a problem shows [[optimal substructure]]—meaning the optimal solution to a problem can be constructed from optimal solutions to subproblems—and [[overlapping subproblems]], meaning the same subproblems are used to solve many different problem instances, a quicker approach called ''dynamic programming'' avoids recomputing solutions that have already been computed. For example, [[Floyd–Warshall algorithm]], the shortest path to a goal from a vertex in a weighted [[graph (discrete mathematics)|graph]] can be found by using the shortest path to the goal from all adjacent vertices. Dynamic programming and [[memoization]] go together. The main difference between dynamic programming and divide and conquer is that subproblems are more or less independent in divide and conquer, whereas subproblems overlap in dynamic programming. The difference between dynamic programming and straightforward recursion is in caching or memoization of recursive calls. When subproblems are independent and there is no repetition, memoization does not help; hence dynamic programming is not a solution for all complex problems. By using memoization or maintaining a [[Mathematical table|table]] of subproblems already solved, dynamic programming reduces the exponential nature of many problems to polynomial complexity. (-) The greedy method  A [[greedy algorithm]] is similar to a dynamic programming algorithm in that it works by examining substructures, in this case not of the problem but of a given solution. Such algorithms start with some solution, which may be given or have been constructed in some way, and improve it by making small modifications. For some problems they can find the optimal solution while for others they stop at [[local optimum|local optima]], that is, at solutions that cannot be improved by the algorithm but are not optimum. The most popular use of greedy algorithms is for finding the minimal spanning tree where finding the optimal solution is possible with this method. [[Huffman coding|Huffman Tree]], [[kruskal's algorithm|Kruskal]], [[Prim's algorithm|Prim]], [[Sollin's algorithm|Sollin]] are greedy algorithms that can solve this optimization problem. (-) The heuristic method", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Classification", "Optimization problems"], "text": "In [[optimization problem]], [[heuristic algorithm]] can be used to find a solution close to the optimal solution in cases where finding the optimal solution is impractical. These algorithms work by getting closer and closer to the optimal solution as they progress. In principle, if run for an infinite amount of time, they will find the optimal solution. Their merit is that they can find a solution very close to the optimal solution in a relatively short time. Such algorithms include [[local search (optimization)|local search]], [[tabu search]], [[simulated annealing]], and [[genetic algorithm]]. Some of them, like simulated annealing, are non-deterministic algorithms while others, like tabu search, are deterministic. When a bound on the error of the non-optimal solution is known, the algorithm is further categorized as an [[approximation algorithm]].", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Classification", "By field of study"], "text": "Every field of science has its own problems and needs efficient algorithms. Related problems in one field are often studied together. Some example classes are [[search algorithm]], [[sorting algorithm]], [[merge algorithm]], [[numerical analysis|numerical algorithms]], [[graph theory|graph algorithms]], [[string algorithms]], [[computational geometry|computational geometric algorithms]], [[combinatorial|combinatorial algorithms]], [[medical algorithm]], [[machine learning]], [[cryptography]], [[data compression]] algorithms and [[parsing|parsing techniques]]. Fields tend to overlap with each other, and algorithm advances in one field may improve those of other, sometimes completely unrelated, fields. For example, dynamic programming was invented for optimization of resource consumption in industry but is now used in solving a broad range of problems in many fields.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Classification", "By complexity"], "text": "Algorithms can be classified by the amount of time they need to complete compared to their input size: (-) Constant time: if the time needed by the algorithm is the same, regardless of the input size. E.g. an access to an [[Array data structure|array]] element. (-) Logarithmic time: if the time is a logarithmic function of the input size. E.g. [[binary search algorithm]]. (-) Linear time: if the time is proportional to the input size. E.g. the traverse of a list. (-) Polynomial time: if the time is a power of the input size. E.g. the [[bubble sort]] algorithm has quadratic time complexity. (-) Exponential time: if the time is an exponential function of the input size. E.g. [[Brute-force search]]. Some problems may have multiple algorithms of differing complexity, while other problems might have no algorithms or no known efficient algorithms. There are also mappings from some problems to other problems. Owing to this, it was found to be more suitable to classify the problems themselves instead of the algorithms into equivalence classes based on the complexity of the best possible algorithms for them.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Continuous algorithms"], "text": "The adjective \"continuous\" when applied to the word \"algorithm\" can mean: (-) An algorithm operating on data that represents continuous quantities, even though this data is represented by discrete approximations—such algorithms are studied in [[numerical analysis]]; or (-) An algorithm in the form of a [[differential equation]] that operates continuously on the data, running on an [[analog computer]].", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["Legal issues"], "text": "Algorithms, by themselves, are not usually patentable. In the United States, a claim consisting solely of simple manipulations of abstract concepts, numbers, or signals does not constitute \"processes\" (USPTO 2006), and hence algorithms are not patentable (as in [[Gottschalk v. Benson]]). However practical applications of algorithms are sometimes patentable. For example, in [[Diamond v. Diehr]], the application of a simple [[feedback]] algorithm to aid in the curing of [[synthetic rubber]] was deemed patentable. The [[Software patent debate|patenting of software]] is highly controversial, and there are highly criticized patents involving algorithms, especially [[data compression]] algorithms, such as [[Unisys]]' [[Graphics Interchange Format#Unisys and LZW patent enforcement|LZW patent]]. Additionally, some cryptographic algorithms have export restrictions (see [[export of cryptography]]).", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["History: Development of the notion of \"algorithm\"", "Ancient Near East"], "text": "The earliest evidence of algorithms is found in the [[Babylonian mathematics]] of ancient [[Mesopotamia]] (modern Iraq). A [[Sumer]] clay tablet found in [[Shuruppak]] near [[Baghdad]] and dated to circa 2500 BC described the earliest [[division algorithm]]. During the [[First Babylonian dynasty|Hammurabi dynasty]] circa 1800-1600 BC, [[Babylonia]] clay tablets described algorithms for computing [[formulas]]. Algorithms were also used in [[Babylonian astronomy]]. Babylonian clay tablets describe and employ algorithmic procedures to compute the time and place of significant astronomical events. Algorithms for arithmetic are also found in ancient [[Egyptian mathematics]], dating back to the [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]] circa 1550 BC. Algorithms were later used in ancient [[Hellenistic mathematics]]. Two examples are the [[Sieve of Eratosthenes]], which was described in the ''[[Introduction to Arithmetic]]'' by [[Nicomachus]], and the [[Euclidean algorithm]], which was first described in ''[[Euclid's Elements]]'' (c. 300 BC).", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["History: Development of the notion of \"algorithm\"", "Discrete and distinguishable symbols"], "text": "Tally-marks: To keep track of their flocks, their sacks of grain and their money the ancients used tallying: accumulating stones or marks scratched on sticks or making discrete symbols in clay. Through the Babylonian and Egyptian use of marks and symbols, eventually [[Roman numerals]] and the [[abacus]] evolved (Dilson, p. 16–41). Tally marks appear prominently in [[unary numeral system]] arithmetic used in [[Turing machine]] and [[Post–Turing machine]] computations.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["History: Development of the notion of \"algorithm\"", "Manipulation of symbols as \"place holders\" for numbers: algebra"], "text": "[[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]], a [[Mathematics in medieval Islam|Persian mathematician]], wrote the ''[[Al-jabr]]'' in the 9th century. The terms \"[[algorism]]\" and \"algorithm\" are derived from the name al-Khwārizmī, while the term \"[[algebra]]\" is derived from the book ''Al-jabr''. In Europe, the word \"algorithm\" was originally used to refer to the sets of rules and techniques used by Al-Khwarizmi to solve algebraic equations, before later being generalized to refer to any set of rules or techniques. This eventually culminated in [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]]'s notion of the [[calculus ratiocinator]] (ca 1680):", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["History: Development of the notion of \"algorithm\"", "Cryptographic algorithms"], "text": "The first [[cryptographic]] algorithm for deciphering encrypted code was developed by [[Al-Kindi]], a 9th-century [[Mathematics in medieval Islam|Arab mathematician]], in ''A Manuscript On Deciphering Cryptographic Messages''. He gave the first description of [[cryptanalysis]] by [[frequency analysis]], the earliest [[codebreaking]] algorithm.", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["History: Development of the notion of \"algorithm\"", "Mechanical contrivances with discrete states"], "text": "''The clock'': Bolter credits the invention of the weight-driven [[clock]] as \"The key invention [of Europe in the Middle Ages]\", in particular, the [[verge escapement]] that provides us with the tick and tock of a mechanical clock. \"The accurate automatic machine\" led immediately to \"mechanical [[automata theory|automata]]\" beginning in the 13th century and finally to \"computational machines\"—the [[difference engine]] and [[analytical engine]] of [[Charles Babbage]] and Countess [[Ada Lovelace]], mid-19th century. Lovelace is credited with the first creation of an algorithm intended for processing on a computer—Babbage's analytical engine, the first device considered a real [[Turing-complete]] computer instead of just a [[calculator]]—and is sometimes called \"history's first programmer\" as a result, though a full implementation of Babbage's second device would not be realized until decades after her lifetime. ''Logical machines 1870 – [[Stanley Jevons]]' \"logical abacus\" and \"logical machine\"'': The technical problem was to reduce [[Boolean equation]] when presented in a form similar to what is now known as [[Karnaugh map]]. Jevons (1880) describes first a simple \"abacus\" of \"slips of wood furnished with pins, contrived so that any part or class of the [logical] combinations can be picked out mechanically ... More recently, however, I have reduced the system to a completely mechanical form, and have thus embodied the whole of the indirect process of inference in what may be called a ''Logical Machine''\" His machine came equipped with \"certain moveable wooden rods\" and \"at the foot are 21 keys like those of a piano [etc] ...\". With this machine he could analyze a \"[[syllogism]] or any other simple logical argument\". This machine he displayed in 1870 before the Fellows of the Royal Society. Another logician [[John Venn]], however, in his 1881 ''Symbolic Logic'', turned a jaundiced eye to this effort: \"I have no high estimate myself of the interest or importance of what are sometimes called logical machines ... it does not seem to me that any contrivances at present known or likely to be discovered really deserve the name of logical machines\"; see more at [[Algorithm characterizations]]. But not to be outdone he too presented \"a plan somewhat analogous, I apprehend, to Prof. Jevon's ''abacus'' ... [And] [a]gain, corresponding to Prof. Jevons's logical machine, the following contrivance may be described. I prefer to call it merely a logical-diagram machine ... but I suppose that it could do very completely all that can be rationally expected of any logical machine\".", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["History: Development of the notion of \"algorithm\"", "Mechanical contrivances with discrete states"], "text": "''Jacquard loom, Hollerith punch cards, telegraphy and telephony – the electromechanical relay'': Bell and Newell (1971) indicate that the [[Jacquard loom]] (1801), precursor to [[Hollerith cards]] (punch cards, 1887), and \"telephone switching technologies\" were the roots of a tree leading to the development of the first computers. By the mid-19th century the [[telegraph]], the precursor of the telephone, was in use throughout the world, its discrete and distinguishable encoding of letters as \"dots and dashes\" a common sound. By the late 19th century the [[ticker tape]] (ca 1870s) was in use, as was the use of Hollerith cards in the 1890 U.S. census. Then came the [[teleprinter]] (ca. 1910) with its punched-paper use of [[Baudot code]] on tape. ''Telephone-switching networks'' of electromechanical [[relay]] (invented 1835) was behind the work of [[George Stibitz]] (1937), the inventor of the digital adding device. As he worked in Bell Laboratories, he observed the \"burdensome' use of mechanical calculators with gears. \"He went home one evening in 1937 intending to test his idea... When the tinkering was over, Stibitz had constructed a binary adding device\". Davis (2000) observes the particular importance of the electromechanical relay (with its two \"binary states\" ''open'' and ''closed''):  It was only with the development, beginning in the 1930s, of electromechanical calculators using electrical relays, that machines were built having the scope Babbage had envisioned.\"", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["History: Development of the notion of \"algorithm\"", "Mathematics during the 19th century up to the mid-20th century"], "text": "''Symbols and rules'': In rapid succession, the mathematics of [[George Boole]] (1847, 1854), [[Gottlob Frege]] (1879), and [[Giuseppe Peano]] (1888–1889) reduced arithmetic to a sequence of symbols manipulated by rules. Peano's ''The principles of arithmetic, presented by a new method'' (1888) was \"the first attempt at an axiomatization of mathematics in a [[Symbolic language (programming)|symbolic language]]\". But Heijenoort gives Frege (1879) this kudos: Frege's is \"perhaps the most important single work ever written in logic. ... in which we see a \" 'formula language', that is a ''lingua characterica'', a language written with special symbols, \"for pure thought\", that is, free from rhetorical embellishments ... constructed from specific symbols that are manipulated according to definite rules\". The work of Frege was further simplified and amplified by [[Alfred North Whitehead]] and [[Bertrand Russell]] in their [[Principia Mathematica]] (1910–1913). ''The paradoxes'': At the same time a number of disturbing paradoxes appeared in the literature, in particular, the [[Burali-Forti paradox]] (1897), the [[Russell paradox]] (1902–03), and the [[Richard Paradox]]. The resultant considerations led to [[Kurt Gödel]]'s paper (1931)—he specifically cites the paradox of the liar—that completely reduces rules of [[recursion]] to numbers. ''Effective calculability'': In an effort to solve the [[Entscheidungsproblem]] defined precisely by Hilbert in 1928, mathematicians first set about to define what was meant by an \"effective method\" or \"effective calculation\" or \"effective calculability\" (i.e., a calculation that would succeed). In rapid succession the following appeared: [[Alonzo Church]], [[Stephen Kleene]] and [[J.B. Rosser]]'s [[λ-calculus]] a finely honed definition of \"general recursion\" from the work of Gödel acting on suggestions of [[Jacques Herbrand]] (cf. Gödel's Princeton lectures of 1934) and subsequent simplifications by Kleene. Church's proof that the Entscheidungsproblem was unsolvable, [[Emil Post]]'s definition of effective calculability as a worker mindlessly following a list of instructions to move left or right through a sequence of rooms and while there either mark or erase a paper or observe the paper and make a yes-no decision about the next instruction. Alan Turing's proof of that the Entscheidungsproblem was unsolvable by use of his \"a- [automatic-] machine\"—in effect almost identical to Post's \"formulation\", [[J. Barkley Rosser]]'s definition of \"effective method\" in terms of \"a machine\". Kleene's proposal of a precursor to \"[[Church thesis]]\" that he called \"Thesis I\", and a few years later Kleene's renaming his Thesis \"Church's Thesis\" and proposing \"Turing's Thesis\".", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["History: Development of the notion of \"algorithm\"", "Emil Post (1936) and Alan Turing (1936–37, 1939)"], "text": "[[Emil Post]] (1936) described the actions of a \"computer\" (human being) as follows: \"...two concepts are involved: that of a ''symbol space'' in which the work leading from problem to answer is to be carried out, and a fixed unalterable ''set of directions''. His symbol space would be \"a two-way infinite sequence of spaces or boxes... The problem solver or worker is to move and work in this symbol space, being capable of being in, and operating in but one box at a time... a box is to admit of but two possible conditions, i.e., being empty or unmarked, and having a single mark in it, say a vertical stroke. \"One box is to be singled out and called the starting point. ...a specific problem is to be given in symbolic form by a finite number of boxes [i.e., INPUT] being marked with a stroke. Likewise, the answer [i.e., OUTPUT] is to be given in symbolic form by such a configuration of marked boxes... \"A set of directions applicable to a general problem sets up a deterministic process when applied to each specific problem. This process terminates only when it comes to the direction of type (C ) [i.e., STOP]\". See more at [[Post–Turing machine]] [[Alan Turing]]'s work preceded that of Stibitz (1937); it is unknown whether Stibitz knew of the work of Turing. Turing's biographer believed that Turing's use of a typewriter-like model derived from a youthful interest: \"Alan had dreamt of inventing typewriters as a boy; Mrs. Turing had a typewriter, and he could well have begun by asking himself what was meant by calling a typewriter 'mechanical'\". Given the prevalence of Morse code and telegraphy, ticker tape machines, and teletypewriters we might conjecture that all were influences. Turing—his model of computation is now called a [[Turing machine]]—begins, as did Post, with an analysis of a human computer that he whittles down to a simple set of basic motions and \"states of mind\". But he continues a step further and creates a machine as a model of computation of numbers. \"Computing is normally done by writing certain symbols on paper. We may suppose this paper is divided into squares like a child's arithmetic book...I assume then that the computation is carried out on one-dimensional paper, i.e., on a tape divided into squares. I shall also suppose that the number of symbols which may be printed is finite... \"The behavior of the computer at any moment is determined by the symbols which he is observing, and his \"state of mind\" at that moment. We may suppose that there is a bound B to the number of symbols or squares which the computer can observe at one moment. If he wishes to observe more, he must use successive observations. We will also suppose that the number of states of mind which need be taken into account is finite... \"Let us imagine that the operations performed by the computer to be split up into 'simple operations' which are so elementary that it is not easy to imagine them further divided.\"", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["History: Development of the notion of \"algorithm\"", "Emil Post (1936) and Alan Turing (1936–37, 1939)"], "text": "Turing's reduction yields the following: \"The simple operations must therefore include: \"(a) Changes of the symbol on one of the observed squares \"(b) Changes of one of the squares observed to another square within L squares of one of the previously observed squares. \"It may be that some of these change necessarily invoke a change of state of mind. The most general single operation must, therefore, be taken to be one of the following: \"(A) A possible change (a) of symbol together with a possible change of state of mind. \"(B) A possible change (b) of observed squares, together with a possible change of state of mind\" \"We may now construct a machine to do the work of this computer.\" A few years later, Turing expanded his analysis (thesis, definition) with this forceful expression of it: \"A function is said to be \"effectively calculable\" if its values can be found by some purely mechanical process. Though it is fairly easy to get an intuitive grasp of this idea, it is nevertheless desirable to have some more definite, mathematical expressible definition ... [he discusses the history of the definition pretty much as presented above with respect to Gödel, Herbrand, Kleene, Church, Turing, and Post] ... We may take this statement literally, understanding by a purely mechanical process one which could be carried out by a machine. It is possible to give a mathematical description, in a certain normal form, of the structures of these machines. The development of these ideas leads to the author's definition of a computable function, and to an identification of computability † with effective calculability ... . \"† We shall use the expression \"computable function\" to mean a function calculable by a machine, and we let \"effectively calculable\" refer to the intuitive idea without particular identification with any one of these definitions\".", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["History: Development of the notion of \"algorithm\"", "J.B. Rosser (1939) and S.C. Kleene (1943)"], "text": "[[J. Barkley Rosser]] defined an 'effective [mathematical] method' in the following manner (italicization added): \"'Effective method' is used here in the rather special sense of a method each step of which is precisely determined and which is certain to produce the answer in a finite number of steps. With this special meaning, three different precise definitions have been given to date. [his footnote #5; see discussion immediately below]. The simplest of these to state (due to Post and Turing) says essentially that ''an effective method of solving certain sets of problems exists if one can build a machine which will then solve any problem of the set with no human intervention beyond inserting the question and (later) reading the answer''. All three definitions are equivalent, so it doesn't matter which one is used. Moreover, the fact that all three are equivalent is a very strong argument for the correctness of any one.\" (Rosser 1939:225–226) Rosser's footnote No. 5 references the work of (1) Church and Kleene and their definition of λ-definability, in particular Church's use of it in his ''An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory'' (1936); (2) Herbrand and Gödel and their use of recursion in particular Gödel's use in his famous paper ''On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems I'' (1931); and (3) Post (1936) and Turing (1936–37) in their mechanism-models of computation. [[Stephen C. Kleene]] defined as his now-famous \"Thesis I\" known as the [[Church–Turing thesis]]. But he did this in the following context (boldface in original): \"12. ''Algorithmic theories''... In setting up a complete algorithmic theory, what we do is to describe a procedure, performable for each set of values of the independent variables, which procedure necessarily terminates and in such manner that from the outcome we can read a definite answer, \"yes\" or \"no,\" to the question, \"is the predicate value true?\"\" (Kleene 1943:273)", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": ["History: Development of the notion of \"algorithm\"", "History after 1950"], "text": "A number of efforts have been directed toward further refinement of the definition of \"algorithm\", and activity is on-going because of issues surrounding, in particular, [[foundations of mathematics]] (especially the [[Church–Turing thesis]]) and [[philosophy of mind]] (especially arguments about [[artificial intelligence]]). For more, see [[Algorithm characterizations]].", "id": "775", "title": "Algorithm", "categories": ["Algorithms", "Articles with example pseudocode", "Mathematical logic", "Theoretical computer science"], "seealso": ["Abstract machine", "Computational complexity theory", "Algorithmic entities", "Algorithm characterizations", "Algorithm engineering", "Algorithmic synthesis", "Algorithmic technique", "Introduction to Algorithms", "List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms", "Theory of computation", "Computability theory", "Algorithmic topology", "List of algorithms", "Garbage in, garbage out", "List of algorithm general topics", "Regulation of algorithms", "Algorithmic composition"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "[[Image:Doperwt rijserwt peulen Pisum sativum.jpg|right|thumb|240px|[[Pea]]s are an annual plant.]] An '''annual plant''' is a plant that completes its [[biological life cycle|life cycle]], from [[germination]] to the production of [[seed]], within one [[growing season]], and then dies. The length of growing seasons and period in which they take place vary according to geographical location, and may not correspond to the four traditional seasonal divisions of the year. With respect to the traditional seasons annual plants are generally categorized into summer annuals and winter annuals. Summer annuals germinate during spring or early summer and mature by autumn of the same year. Winter annuals germinate during the autumn and mature during the spring or summer of the following calendar year. One seed-to-seed life cycle for an annual can occur in as little as a month in some species, though most last several months. [[Brassica rapa|Oilseed rapa]] can go from seed-to-seed in about five weeks under a bank of [[fluorescent lamp]]. This style of growing is often used in classrooms for education. Many desert annuals are [[therophyte]], because their seed-to-seed life cycle is only weeks and they spend most of the year as seeds to survive dry conditions.", "id": "777", "title": "Annual plant", "categories": ["Annual plants", "Garden plants"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Cultivation"], "text": "In cultivation, many food plants are, or are grown as, annuals, including virtually all domesticated [[Cereal|grain]]. Some [[perennial plant|perennials]] and [[biennial plant|biennials]] are grown in gardens as annuals for convenience, particularly if they are not considered [[cold hardy]] for the local climate. [[Carrot]], [[celery]] and [[parsley]] are true biennials (divarsiya) that are usually grown as annual crops for their edible roots, petioles and leaves, respectively. [[Tomato]], [[sweet potato]] and [[bell pepper]] are tender perennials usually grown as annuals. Ornamental perennials commonly grown as annuals are [[impatiens]], [[Mirabilis (plant)|mirabilis]], [[begonia|wax begonia]], [[Antirrhinum|snapdragon]], ''[[pelargonium]]'', [[coleus]] and [[petunia]]. Examples of true annuals include [[maize|corn]], [[wheat]], [[rice]], [[lettuce]], [[pea]], [[watermelon]], [[bean]], [[zinnia]] and [[Tagetes|marigold]].", "id": "777", "title": "Annual plant", "categories": ["Annual plants", "Garden plants"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Summer"], "text": "'''Summer annuals''' sprout, flower, produce seed, and die, during the warmer months of the year. The lawn weed [[crabgrass]] is a summer annual.", "id": "777", "title": "Annual plant", "categories": ["Annual plants", "Garden plants"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Winter"], "text": "'''Winter annuals''' germinate in autumn or winter, live through the winter, then bloom in winter or spring. The plants grow and bloom during the cool season when most other plants are dormant or other annuals are in seed form waiting for warmer weather to germinate. Winter annuals die after flowering and setting seed. The seeds germinate in the autumn or winter when the soil temperature is cool. Winter annuals typically grow low to the ground, where they are usually sheltered from the coldest nights by snow cover, and make use of warm periods in winter for growth when the snow melts. Some common winter annuals include [[Lamium amplexicaule|henbit]], [[deadnettle]], [[chickweed]], and [[winter cress]]. Winter annuals are important ecologically, as they provide vegetative cover that prevents soil erosion during winter and early spring when no other cover exists and they provide fresh vegetation for animals and birds that feed on them. Although they are often considered to be weeds in gardens, this viewpoint is not always necessary, as most of them die when the soil temperature warms up again in early to late spring when other plants are still dormant and have not yet leafed out. Even though they do not compete directly with cultivated plants, sometimes winter annuals are considered a pest in commercial agriculture, because they can be hosts for insect pests or fungal diseases (ovary smut – Microbotryum sp) which attack crops being cultivated. The property that they prevent the soil from drying out can also be problematic for commercial agriculture.", "id": "777", "title": "Annual plant", "categories": ["Annual plants", "Garden plants"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Molecular genetics"], "text": "In 2008, it was discovered that the inactivation of only two genes in one species of annual plant leads to the conversion into a [[perennial plant]]. Researchers deactivated the SOC1 and FUL genes in ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]'', which control flowering time. This switch established [[phenotypes]] common in perennial plants, such as wood formation.", "id": "777", "title": "Annual plant", "categories": ["Annual plants", "Garden plants"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "The '''anthophytes''' are a grouping of plant taxa bearing flower-like reproductive structures. They were formerly thought to be a [[clade]] comprising plants bearing flower-like structures. The group contained the [[Flowering plant|angiosperms]] - the extant flowering plants, such as [[Rosaceae|roses]] and [[Poaceae|grasses]] - as well as the [[Gnetales]] and the extinct [[Bennettitales]]. Detailed morphological and molecular studies have shown that the group is not actually [[monophyletic]], with proposed floral homologies of the [[gnetophyte]] and the [[angiosperm]] having evolved in parallel. This makes it easier to reconcile molecular clock data that suggests that the angiosperms diverged from the [[gymnosperm]] around . Some more recent studies have used the word anthophyte to describe a group which includes the angiosperms and a variety of fossils ([[Glossopteris|glossopterids]], ''[[Pentoxylon]]'', [[Bennettitales]], and ''[[Caytonia]]''), but not the Gnetales.", "id": "779", "title": "Anthophyta", "categories": ["Historically recognized plant taxa"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "An '''[[atlas]]''' is a collection of maps, originally named after the Ancient Greek deity. '''Atlas''' may also refer to:", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Mythology"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (mythology)]], an Ancient Greek Titanic deity who held up the celestial sphere (-) Atlas, the first legendary king of [[Atlantis]] and further variant of the mythical Titan (-) [[Atlas of Mauretania]], a legendary king of Mauretania and variant of the mythical Titan", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Places", "United States"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas, California]] (-) [[Atlas, Illinois]] (-) [[Atlas, Texas]] (-) [[Atlas, West Virginia]] (-) [[Atlas, Wisconsin]] (-) [[Atlas District]], an area in Washington, D.C. (-) [[Atlas Peak AVA]], a California wine region (-) [[Atlas Township, Michigan]]", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Places", "Other"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas Cinema]], a historic movie thatre in Istanbul, Turkey (-) [[Atlas Mountains]], a set of mountain ranges in northwestern Africa (-) [[Atlas, Nilüfer]], a village in Nilüfer district of Bursa Province, Turkey", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["People with the name"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (graffiti artist)]], American graffiti artist (-) [[Atlas DaBone]], American wrestler and football player (-) [[Charles Atlas]] (1892–1972), Italian-American bodybuilder (-) [[Charles Atlas (artist)]] (-) [[David Atlas]] (born 1924), American meteorologist who pioneered weather radar (-) [[James Atlas]] (1949-2019), American writer, editor and publisher (-) [[Meir Atlas]] (1848–1926), Lithuanian rabbi (-) [[Natacha Atlas]] (born 1964), Belgian singer (-) [[Nava Atlas]], American book artist and author (-) [[Omar Atlas]] (born 1938), former Venezuelan professional wrestler (-) [[Scott Atlas]] (born 1955), American conservative health care policy advisor (-) [[Teddy Atlas]] (born 1956), American boxing trainer and commentator (-) [[Tony Atlas]] (born 1954), American wrestler and bodybuilder", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Arts, entertainment, and media", "Comics"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (Drawn and Quarterly)|''Atlas'' (Drawn and Quarterly)]], a comic book series by Dylan Horrocks (-) ''[[Agents of Atlas]]'', a Marvel Comics mini-series (-) [[Atlas Comics (1950s)]], a publisher (-) [[Atlas/Seaboard Comics]], a 1970s line of comics", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Arts, entertainment, and media", "Fictional characters"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (DC Comics)]], the name of several of DC Comics' fictional characters, comic book superheroes, and deities (-) [[Atlas (Teen Titans)|Atlas (''Teen Titans'')]], ''Teen Titans'' character (-) Atlas, an [[Astro Boy (1980 TV series)#Atlas|''Astro Boy'' character]] (-) Atlas, a ''[[BioShock (series)|BioShock]]'' character (-) Atlas, a [[BattleMech]] in the ''BattleTech'' universe (-) Atlas, an antagonist in ''[[Mega Man ZX Advent]]'' (-) Atlas, a ''[[Portal 2]]'' character (-) Atlas, a ''[[PS238]]'' character (-) [[Erik Josten]], a.k.a. Atlas, a Marvel Comics supervillain (-) The Atlas, a strong driving force from ''[[No Man's Sky]]''", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Arts, entertainment, and media", "Literature"], "text": "(-) ''Atlas'', a photography book by [[Gerhard Richter]] (-) ''[[ATLAS of Finite Groups]]'', a group theory book (-) ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', a novel by Ayn Rand (-) [[The Atlas (novel)|''The Atlas'' (novel)]], by William T. Vollmann", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Arts, entertainment, and media", "Music", "Groups"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (band)]], a New Zealand rock band (-) [[Atlas Sound]], the solo musical project of Bradford Cox, lead singer and guitarist of the indie rock band Deerhunter", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Arts, entertainment, and media", "Music", "Albums"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (Kinky album)|''Atlas'' (Kinky album)]] (-) [[Atlas (Parkway Drive album)|''Atlas'' (Parkway Drive album)]], Parkway Drive's fourth album (-) [[Atlas (Real Estate album)|''Atlas'' (Real Estate album)]] (-) [[Atlas (RÜFÜS album)|''Atlas'' (RÜFÜS album)]]", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Arts, entertainment, and media", "Music", "Operas"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (opera)|''Atlas'' (opera)]], 1991 opera by Meredith Monk (-) ''[[Atlas: An Opera in Three Parts]]'', 1993 recording of Monk's opera", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Arts, entertainment, and media", "Music", "Songs"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (Battles song)|\"Atlas\" (Battles song)]], 2007 song by Battles on the album ''Mirrored'' (-) [[Atlas (Coldplay song)|\"Atlas\" (Coldplay song)]], 2013 song by Coldplay from ''The Hunger Games: Catching Fire'' soundtrack (-) \"Atlas\", a song by Caligula's Horse from the album ''[[The Tide, the Thief & River's End]]'' (-) \"Atlas\", the titular song from [[Parkway Drive]]'s fourth album (-) \"Atlas\", a song by Man Overboard from ''[[Man Overboard (Man Overboard album)|Man Overboard]]'' (-) \"Atlas\", a song by Jake Chudnow used as main theme in the YouTube series ''[[Mind Field]]''", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Arts, entertainment, and media", "Periodicals"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (magazine)|''Atlas'' (magazine)]] (-) [[The Atlas (newspaper)|''The Atlas'']], a newspaper published in England from 1826 to 1869", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Arts, entertainment, and media", "Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (film)|''Atlas'' (film)]] (-) [[Atlas (statue)|''Atlas'' (statue)]], iconic statue by Lee Lawrie in Rockefeller Center (-) Atlas, a book about flora and/or fauna of a region, such as [[atlases of the flora and fauna of Britain and Ireland]] (-) [[Atlas Entertainment]], a film production company (-) Atlas folio, a [[book size]] (-) [[Atlas Media Corp.]], a non-fiction entertainment company (-) [[Atlas Press]], a UK publisher (-) [[RTV Atlas]], a broadcaster in Montenegro (-) Atlas Sound, a solo musical project by [[Bradford Cox#Atlas Sound|Bradford Cox]] (-) [[The Atlas (video game)|''The Atlas'' (video game)]], a 1991 multiplatform strategy video game (-) [[Atlas (video game)|''Atlas'' (video game)]], an upcoming massively-multiplayer online video game (-) Atlas Corporation, a fictional arms manufacturer in the video game series ''[[Borderlands (series)]]''", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Brands and enterprises"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (appliance company)]], a Belarusian company (-) [[Atlas Consortium]], a group of technology companies (-) [[Atlas Copco]], Swedish company founded in 1873 (-) [[Atlas Corporation]], an investment company (-) [[Atlas Elektronik]], a German naval/marine electronics and systems business (-) [[Atlas Group]], a Pakistani business group (-) [[Atlas Mara Limited]], formerly Atlas Mara Co-Nvest Limited, a financial holding company that owns banks in Africa (-) [[Atlas Model Railroad]], American maker of model trains and accessories (-) [[Atlas Network]], formerly Atlas Economic Research Foundation (-) [[Atlas Press (tool company)]] (-) [[Atlas Solutions]], a subsidiary of Facebook for digital online advertising, formerly owned by Microsoft (-) [[Atlas Telecom]], a worldwide communications company (-) [[Atlas Van Lines]], a moving company (-) [[Atlas-Imperial]], an American diesel engine manufacturer (-) [[Dresser Atlas]], a provider of oilfield and factory automation services (-) [[Tele Atlas]], a Dutch mapping company (-) [[Western Atlas]], an oilfield services company", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Computing and technology"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (computer)]], an early supercomputer, built in the 1960s (-) [[Atlas (robot)]], a humanoid robot developed by Boston Dynamics and DARPA (-) Atlas, a computer used at the [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] in 2006 (-) [[Abbreviated Test Language for All Systems]], or ATLAS, a MILSPEC language for avionics equipment testing (-) [[Advanced Technology Leisure Application Simulator]], or ATLAS, a hydraulic motion simulator used in theme parks (-) [[ASP.NET AJAX]] (formerly \"Atlas\"), a set of ASP.NET extensions (-) [[ATLAS Transformation Language]], programming language (-) [[Atlas.ti]], a qualitative analysis program (-) [[Automatically Tuned Linear Algebra Software]], or ATLAS, (-) [[Texture atlas]], or image sprite sheet (-) [[UNIVAC 1101]], an early American computer, built in the 1950s", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Science", "Astronomy"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (comet)]] (C/2019 Y4) (-) [[Atlas (crater)]] on the near side of the Moon (-) [[Atlas (moon)]], a satellite of Saturn (-) [[Atlas (star)]], also designated 27 Tauri, a triple star system in the constellation of Taurus and a member of the Pleiades (-) [[Advanced Technology Large-Aperture Space Telescope]] (ATLAST) (-) Advanced Topographic Laser Altimeter System (ATLAS), a space-based lidar instrument on [[ICESat-2]] (-) [[Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System]] (ATLAS)", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Science", "Mathematics"], "text": "(-) [[Manifold#Atlases|Atlas (manifolds)]], a set of smooth charts (-) [[Atlas (topology)]], a set of charts (-) [[Smooth structure|Smooth atlas]]", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Science", "Physics"], "text": "(-) [[Argonne Tandem Linear Accelerator System]], or ATLAS, a linear accelerator at the Argonne National Laboratory (-) [[ATLAS experiment]], a particle detector for the Large Hadron Collider at CERN (-) [[Atomic-terrace low-angle shadowing]], or ATLAS, a nanofabrication technique", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Science", "Biology and healthcare"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (anatomy)]], part of the spine (-) [[Atlas personality]], a term used in psychology to describe the personality of someone whose childhood was characterized by excessive responsibilities (-) [[Brain atlas]], a neuroanatomical map of the brain of a human or other animal", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Science", "Biology and healthcare", "Animals and plants"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas bear]] (-) [[Atlas beetle]] (-) [[Atlas cedar]] (-) [[Atlas moth]] (-) [[Atlas pied flycatcher]], a bird (-) [[Atlas turtle]]", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Sport"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas Delmenhorst]], a German association football club (-) [[Atlas F.C.]], a Mexican professional football club (-) [[Club Atlético Atlas]], an Argentine amateur football club (-) [[KK Atlas]], a former men's professional basketball club based in Belgrade (today's Serbia)", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Transport", "Aerospace"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (rocket family)]] (-) [[SM-65 Atlas]] intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) (-) [[AeroVelo Atlas]], a human-powered helicopter (-) [[Airbus A400M Atlas]], a military aircraft produced 2007–present (-) [[Armstrong Whitworth Atlas]], a British military aeroplane produced 1927–1933 (-) [[Atlas Air]], an American cargo airline (-) [[Atlas Aircraft]], a 1940s aircraft manufacturer (-) [[Atlas Aircraft Corporation]], a South African military aircraft manufacturer (-) [[Atlas Aviation]], an aircraft maintenance firm (-) [[Atlas Blue]], a Moroccan low-cost airline (-) [[Atlasjet]], a Turkish airline (-) [[Birdman Atlas]], an ultralight aircraft (-) [[HMLAT-303]], U.S. Marine Corps helicopter training squadron (-) [[La Mouette Atlas]], a French hang glider design", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Transport", "Automotive"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (1951 automobile)]], a French mini-car (-) [[Atlas (light trucks)]], a Greek motor vehicle manufacturer (-) [[Atlas (Pittsburgh automobile)]], produced 1906–1907 (-) [[Atlas (Springfield automobile)]], produced 1907–1913 (-) Atlas, a British van by the [[Standard Motor Company]] produced 1958–1962 (-) Atlas Drop Forge Company, a parts subsidiary of [[REO Motor Car Company]] (-) [[Atlas Motor Buggy]], an American highwheeler produced in 1909 (-) [[General Motors Atlas engine]] (-) [[Honda Atlas Cars Pakistan]], a Pakistani car manufacturer (-) [[Nissan Atlas]], a Japanese light truck (-) [[Volkswagen Atlas]], a sport utility vehicle (-) [[Geely Atlas]], a sport utility vehicle", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Transport", "Ships and boats"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas Werke]], a former German shipbuilding company (-) , the name of several Royal Navy ships (-) [[ST Atlas|ST ''Atlas'']], a Swedish tugboat (-) , the name of several U.S. Navy ships", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Transport", "Trains"], "text": "(-) Atlas, an 1863–1885 [[South Devon Railway Dido class]] locomotive (-) Atlas, a 1927–1962 [[LMS Royal Scot Class]] locomotive (-) [[Atlas Car and Manufacturing Company]], a locomotive manufacturer (-) [[Atlas Model Railroad]]", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Other uses"], "text": "(-) [[Atlas (architecture)]] (-) [[ATLAS (simulation)]] (Army Tactical Level Advanced Simulation), a Thai military system (-) [[Atlas (storm)]], which hit the Midwestern United States in October 2013, named by The Weather Channel (-) [[Agrupación de Trabajadores Latinoamericanos Sindicalistas]], or ATLAS, a former Latin American trade union confederation in the early 1950s (-) [[Atlas languages]], Berber languages spoken in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco (-) [[ATLAS Network]], a network of European special police units (-) [[Atlas Uranium Mill]]", "id": "780", "title": "Atlas (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Altas (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Mouthwash''', '''mouth rinse''', '''oral rinse''', or '''mouth bath''' is a liquid which is held in the mouth passively or swilled around the mouth by contraction of the perioral muscles and/or movement of the head, and may be [[gargling|gargled]], where the head is tilted back and the liquid bubbled at the back of the mouth. Usually mouthwashes are [[antiseptic]] solutions intended to reduce the microbial load in the oral cavity, although other mouthwashes might be given for other reasons such as for their [[analgesic]], [[anti-inflammatory]] or [[anti-fungal medication|anti-fungal]] action. Additionally, some rinses act as saliva substitutes to neutralize acid and keep the mouth moist in [[xerostomia]] (dry mouth). Cosmetic mouthrinses temporarily control or reduce bad breath and leave the mouth with a pleasant taste. Rinsing with water or mouthwash after brushing with a [[Toothpaste#Fluorides|fluoride toothpaste]] can reduce the availability of salivary fluoride. This can lower the anti-cavity re-mineralization and antibacterial effects of fluoride. Fluoridated mouthwash may mitigate this effect or in high concentrations increase available fluoride, but is not as cost effective as leaving the fluoride toothpaste on the teeth after brushing. A group of experts discussing post brushing rinsing in 2012 found that although there was clear guidance given in many public health advice publications to \"spit, avoid rinsing with water/excessive rinsing with water\" they believed there was a limited evidence base for best practice.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Use"], "text": "Common use involves rinsing the mouth with about 20-50 [[milliliter|ml]] (2/3 [[fluid ounce|fl oz]]) of mouthwash. The wash is typically swished or gargled for about half a minute and then spat out. Most companies suggest not drinking water immediately after using mouthwash. In some brands, the [[expectorate]] is stained, so that one can see the bacteria and debris. Mouthwash should not be used immediately after brushing the teeth so as not to wash away the beneficial fluoride residue left from the toothpaste. Similarly, the mouth should not be rinsed out with water after brushing. Patients were told to \"spit don't rinse\" after toothbrushing as part of a [[National Health Service]] campaign in the UK. A fluoride mouthrinse can be used at a different time of the day to brushing. Gargling is where the head is tilted back, allowing the mouthwash to sit in the back of the mouth while exhaling, causing the liquid to bubble. Gargling is practiced in [[Japan]] for perceived prevention of viral infection. One commonly used way is with [[infusion]] or [[tea]]. In some cultures, gargling is usually done in private, typically in a [[bathroom]] at a sink so the liquid can be rinsed away.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Benefits and side effects"], "text": "The most common use of mouthwash is commercial antiseptics, which are used at home as part of an [[oral hygiene]] routine. Mouthwashes combine ingredients to treat a variety of oral conditions. Variations are common, and mouthwash has no standard formulation so its use and recommendation involves concerns about [[patient safety]]. Some manufacturers of mouthwash state that antiseptic and anti-plaque mouth rinse kill the [[Dental plaque|bacterial plaque]] that causes [[Dental caries|cavities]], [[gingivitis]], and [[bad breath]]. It is, however, generally agreed that the use of mouthwash does not eliminate the need for both [[toothbrush|brushing]] and [[flossing]]. The [[American Dental Association]] asserts that regular brushing and proper flossing are enough in most cases, in addition to regular dental check-ups, although they approve many mouthwashes. For many patients, however, the mechanical methods could be tedious and time-consuming and additionally some local conditions may render them especially difficult. Chemotherapeutic agents, including mouthrinses, could have a key role as adjuncts to daily home care, preventing and controlling supragingival plaque, gingivitis and oral malodor. Minor and transient side effects of mouthwashes are very common, such as [[Dysgeusia|taste disturbance]], tooth staining, [[xerostomia|sensation of a dry mouth]], etc. Alcohol-containing mouthwashes may make dry mouth and halitosis worse since it dries out the mouth. Soreness, ulceration and redness may sometimes occur (e.g. [[aphthous stomatitis]], [[allergic contact stomatitis]]) if the person is allergic or sensitive to mouthwash ingredients such as preservatives, coloring, flavors and fragrances. Such effects might be reduced or eliminated by diluting the mouthwash with water, using a different mouthwash (e.g. salt water), or foregoing mouthwash entirely. Prescription mouthwashes are used prior to and after oral surgery procedures such as [[tooth extraction]] or to treat the pain associated with [[mucositis]] caused by [[radiation therapy]] or [[chemotherapy]]. They are also prescribed for [[aphthous ulcer]], other [[oral ulcer]], and other mouth pain. Magic mouthwashes are prescription mouthwashes [[Compounding|compounded]] in a [[pharmacy]] from a list of ingredients specified by a doctor. Despite a lack of evidence that prescription mouthwashes are more effective in decreasing the pain of oral [[lesion]], many patients and prescribers continue to use them. There has been only one [[Controlled experiment|controlled study]] to evaluate the [[efficacy]] of magic mouthwash; it shows no difference in efficacy among the most common formulation and commercial mouthwashes such as [[chlorhexidine]] or a [[Saline (medicine)|saline]]/[[baking soda]] solution. Current guidelines suggest that saline solution is just as effective as magic mouthwash in pain relief or shortening of healing time of oral mucositis from cancer therapies.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "The first known references to mouth rinsing is in [[Ayurveda]] for treatment of gingivitis. Later, in the [[ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] periods, mouth rinsing following mechanical cleansing became common among the upper classes, and [[Hippocrates]] recommended a mixture of salt, [[alum]], and vinegar. The Jewish [[Talmud]], dating back about 1,800 years, suggests a cure for gum ailments containing \"dough water\" and olive oil. Before Europeans came to the Americas, Native North American and Mesoamerican cultures used mouthwashes, often made from plants such as ''[[Coptis trifolia]]''. Indeed, [[Aztec]] dentistry was more advanced than European dentistry of the age. Peoples of the Americas used salt water mouthwashes for sore throats, and other mouthwashes for problems such as [[teething]] and mouth ulcers. [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]], the famous 17th century [[Microscopy|microscopist]], discovered living organisms (living, because they were mobile) in deposits on the teeth (what we now call [[dental plaque]]). He also found organisms in water from the canal next to his home in Delft. He experimented with samples by adding vinegar or brandy and found that this resulted in the immediate immobilization or killing of the organisms suspended in water. Next he tried rinsing the mouth of himself and somebody else with a mouthwash containing vinegar or brandy and found that living organisms remained in the dental plaque. He concluded—correctly—that the mouthwash either did not reach, or was not present long enough, to kill the plaque organisms. In 1892, German [[Richard Seifert (inventor)|Richard Seifert]] invented mouthwash product [[Odol]], which was produced by company founder [[Karl August Lingner]] (1861–1916) in [[Dresden]]. That remained the state of affairs until the late 1960s when Harald Loe (at the time a professor at the [[Aarhus University|Royal Dental College]] in [[Aarhus]], [[Denmark]]) demonstrated that a [[chlorhexidine]] compound could prevent the build-up of dental plaque. The reason for chlorhexidine's effectiveness is that it strongly adheres to surfaces in the mouth and thus remains present in effective concentrations for many hours. Since then commercial interest in mouthwashes has been intense and several newer products claim effectiveness in reducing the build-up in dental plaque and the associated severity of gingivitis, in addition to fighting bad breath. Many of these solutions aim to control the Volatile Sulfur Compound (VSC)-creating anaerobic bacteria that live in the mouth and excrete substances that lead to bad breath and unpleasant mouth taste. For example, the number of mouthwash variants in the United States of America has grown from 15 (1970) to 66 (1998) to 113 (2012).", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Research"], "text": "Research in the field of [[Microbiota (microbiology)|microbiota]] shows that only a limited set of microbes cause tooth decay, with most of the bacteria in the human mouth being harmless. Focused attention on cavity-causing bacteria such as ''[[Streptococcus mutans]]'' has led research into new mouthwash treatments that prevent these bacteria from initially growing. While current mouthwash treatments must be used with a degree of frequency to prevent this bacteria from regrowing, future treatments could provide a viable long-term solution.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Alcohol"], "text": "Alcohol is added to mouthwash not to destroy bacteria but to act as a carrier agent for essential active ingredients such as menthol, eucalyptol and thymol which help to penetrate plaque. Sometimes a significant amount of [[ethanol|alcohol]] (up to 27% vol) is added, as a carrier for the [[flavor]], to provide \"bite\". Because of the alcohol content, it is possible to fail a [[breathalyzer]] test after rinsing although breath alcohol levels return to normal after 10 minutes. In addition, alcohol is a [[astringent|drying agent]], which encourages bacterial activity in the mouth, releasing more malodorous volatile sulfur compounds. Therefore, alcohol-containing mouthwash may temporarily worsen [[halitosis]] in those who already have it, or indeed be the sole cause of halitosis in other individuals. It is hypothesized that alcohol mouthwashes acts as a [[carcinogen]] (cancer-inducing). Generally, there is no scientific consensus about this. One review stated: The same researchers also state that the risk of acquiring oral cancer rises almost five times for users of alcohol-containing mouthwash who neither smoke nor drink (with a higher rate of increase for those who do). In addition, the authors highlight side effects from several mainstream mouthwashes that included [[dental erosion]] and accidental poisoning of children. The review garnered media attention and conflicting opinions from other researchers. Yinka Ebo of [[Cancer Research UK]] disputed the findings, concluding that \"there is still not enough evidence to suggest that using mouthwash that contains alcohol will increase the risk of mouth cancer\". Studies conducted in 1985, 1995, 2003, and 2012 did not support an association between alcohol-containing mouth rinses and oral cancer. Andrew Penman, chief executive of [[The Cancer Council New South Wales]], called for further research on the matter. In a March 2009 brief, the American Dental Association said \"the available evidence does not support a connection between oral cancer and alcohol-containing mouthrinse\". Many newer brands of mouthwash are alcohol free, not just in response to consumer concerns about oral cancer, but also to cater for religious groups who abstain from alcohol consumption.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Benzydamine/Difflam (analgesics)"], "text": "In painful oral conditions such as [[aphthous stomatitis]], analgesic mouthrinses (e.g. [[benzydamine]] mouthwash, or \"Difflam\") are sometimes used to ease pain, commonly used before meals to reduce discomfort while eating.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Betamethasone"], "text": "[[Betamethasone]] is sometimes used as an anti-inflammatory, corticosteroid mouthwash. It may be used for severe inflammatory conditions of the oral mucosa such as the severe forms of aphthous stomatitis.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Cetylpyridinium chloride (antiseptic, antimalodor)"], "text": "[[Cetylpyridinium chloride]] containing mouthwash (e.g. 0.05%) is used in some specialized mouthwashes for halitosis. Cetylpyridinium chloride mouthwash has less anti-plaque effect than chlorhexidine and may cause staining of teeth, or sometimes an oral burning sensation or [[mouth ulcer|ulceration]].", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Chlorhexidine digluconate and Hexetidine (antiseptic)"], "text": "[[Chlorhexidine#Dental use|Chlorhexidine digluconate]] is a chemical antiseptic and is used in a 0.12–0.2% solution as a mouthwash. However, there is no evidence to support that higher concentrations are more effective in controlling dental plaque and gingivitis. It has anti-plaque action, but also some anti-fungal action. It is especially effective against [[Gram-negative bacteria|Gram-negative]] [[Bacterial cellular morphologies#Bacillus|rod]]. The proportion of Gram-negative rods increase as [[gingivitis]] develops so it is also used to reduce gingivitis. It is sometimes used as an adjunct to prevent dental caries and to treat gingivitis [[Periodontitis|periodontal disease]], although it does not penetrate into periodontal pockets well. Chlorhexidine mouthwash alone is unable to prevent plaque, so it is not a substitute for regular toothbrushing and flossing. Instead, chlorhexidine is more effective used as an adjunctive treatment with tooth brushing and flossing. In the short term, if toothbrushing is impossible due to pain, as may occur in [[primary herpetic gingivostomatitis]], chlorhexidine is used as temporary substitute for other oral hygiene measures. It is not suited for use in [[acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis]], however. Rinsing with [[chlorhexidine]] mouthwash before a tooth extraction reduces the risk of [[dry socket]], a painful condition where the blood clot is lost from an extraction socket and bone is exposed to the oral cavity. Other uses of chlorhexidine mouthwash include prevention of oral candidiasis in [[Immunocompetence|immunocompromise]] persons, treatment of [[denture-related stomatitis]], mucosal ulceration/erosions and [[oral mucosa]] lesions, general burning sensation and many other uses. Chlorhexidine has good ''substantivity'' (the ability of a mouthwash to bind to hard and soft tissues in the mouth). However, chlorhexidine binds to [[tannin]], meaning that prolonged use in persons who consume coffee, tea or red wine is associated with extrinsic staining (i.e. removable staining) of teeth. Chlorhexidine mouthwash can also cause taste disturbance or alteration. Chlorhexidine is rarely associated with other issues like overgrowth of enterobacteria in persons with [[leukemia]], desquamation and irritation of oral mucosa, salivary gland pain and swelling, and hypersensitivity reactions including anaphylaxis. A randomized clinical trial conducted in Rabat university in [[Morocco]] found better results in [[Dental plaque|plaque]] inhibition when chlorohexidine with alcohol base 0.12% was used, when compared to an alcohol free 0.1% chlorhexidine mouthrinse. Chlorhexidine mouthrinses increase staining score of teeth over a period of time. However, many publications and, in recent times, also a systematic review (van Swaaij 2020) revealed that an AntiDiscoloration System (ADS) based on L-ascorbic acid and sodium metabisulphite is able to reduce tooth staining without affecting the antibacterial effect of chlorhexidine  [[Hexetidine]] also has anti-plaque, analgesic, astringent and anti-malodor properties but is considered as an inferior alternative to [[Chlorhexidine]].", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Edible oils"], "text": "In traditional [[Ayurvedic medicine]], the use of oil mouthwashes is called \"Kavala\" (\"oil swishing\") or \"Gandusha\", and this practice has more recently been re-marketed by the [[complementary and alternative medicine]] industry as \"[[oil pulling]]\". Its promoters claim it works by \"pulling out\" \"toxins\", which are known as [[ama (ayurveda)|ama]] in Ayurvedic medicine, and thereby reducing [[inflammation]]. Ayurvedic literature suggests oil pulling is capable of improving oral and systemic health, including a benefit in conditions such as [[headache]], [[migraine]], [[diabetes mellitus]], [[asthma]], and [[acne vulgaris|acne]], as well as [[Tooth whitening|whitening teeth]]. Oil pulling has received little study and there is little evidence to support claims made by the technique's advocates. When compared with chlorhexidine in one small study, it was found to be less effective at reducing oral bacterial load, otherwise the health claims of oil pulling have failed scientific verification or have not been investigated. There is a report of [[lipid pneumonia]] caused by accidental inhalation of the oil during oil pulling. The mouth is rinsed with approximately one tablespoon of oil for 10–20 minutes then spat out. [[Sesame oil]], [[coconut oil]] and [[ghee]] are traditionally used, but newer oils such as [[sunflower oil]] are also used.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Essential oils"], "text": "[[Phenols|Phenolic compounds]] and [[monoterpene]] include [[essential oil]] constituents that have some antibacterial properties, such as [[eucalyptol]], [[eugenol]], [[hinokitiol]], [[menthol]], [[phenol]], or [[thymol]]. [[Essential oil]] are oils which have been extracted from plants. Mouthwashes based on [[essential oil]] could be more effective than traditional mouthcare - for [[Gingivitis#Treatment|anti-gingival]] treatments. They have been found effective in [[Halitosis#Mouthwashes|reducing halitosis]], and are being used in several commercial mouthwashes.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Fluoride (anticavity)"], "text": "Anti-cavity mouth rinses use [[sodium fluoride]] to protect against [[tooth decay]]. Fluoride-containing mouth rinses are used as prevention for dental caries for individuals who are considered at higher risk for decay, due to xerostomia related to salivary dysfunction, or side effects of medication, those who do not drink fluoridated water, those who are physically unable to care for their oral needs (brushing and flossing), and treatment for those with dentinal hypersensitivity, gingival recession/ root exposure.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Flavoring agents and Xylitol"], "text": "[[Flavoring agent]] include sweeteners such as [[sorbitol]], [[sucralose]], [[Saccharin|sodium saccharin]], and [[xylitol]], which stimulate salivary function due to their sweetness and taste and helps restore the mouth to a neutral level of acidity. Xylitol rinses double as a bacterial inhibitor and have been used as substitute for Alcohol to avoid dryness of mouth associated with Alcohol.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Hydrogen peroxide"], "text": "[[Hydrogen peroxide]] can be used as an oxidizing mouthwash (e.g. Peroxyl, 1.5%). It kills anaerobic bacteria, and also has a mechanical cleansing action when it froths as it comes into contact with debris in mouth. It is often used in the short term to treat [[acute necrotising ulcerative gingivitis]]. Side effects with prolonged use might occur, including [[hypertrophy]] of the [[lingual papilla]].", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Lactoperoxidase (saliva substitute)"], "text": "[[Enzyme]] and proteins such as [[Lactoperoxidase#Oral care|Lactoperoxidase]], [[Lysozyme]], [[Lactoferrin]] have been used in mouthrinses (e.g. [[Biotene#Ingredients|Biotene]]) to reduce oral bacteria and hence the acid produced by bacteria.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "[[Lidocaine]]/[[xylocaine]]"], "text": "Oral lidocaine is useful for the treatment of [[mucositis]] symptoms ([[inflammation]] of [[mucous membrane]]) that is induced by radiation or chemotherapy. There is evidence that lidocaine anesthetic mouthwash has the potential to be systemically absorbed when it was tested in patients with oral mucositis who underwent a bone marrow transplant.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Methyl salicylate"], "text": "[[Methyl salicylate]] functions as an anti-septic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, flavoring, and fragrance. Methyl salicylate has some anti-plaque action, but less than chlorhexidine. Methyl salicylate does not stain teeth.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Nystatin"], "text": "[[Nystatin]] suspension is an [[Antifungal medication|antifungal]] ingredient used for the treatment of [[oral candidiasis]].", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Potassium oxalate"], "text": "A randomized clinical trial found promising results in controlling and reducing [[Dentin hypersensitivity|dentine hypersensitivity]] when potassium oxalate mouthrinse was used in conjugation with [[Tooth brushing|toothbrushing]].", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Povidone/iodine"], "text": "A 2005 study found that gargling three times a day with simple water or with a [[Povidone-iodine]] solution was effective in preventing [[upper respiratory infection]] and decreasing the severity of symptoms if contracted. Other sources attribute the benefit to a simple placebo effect.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Sanguinarine"], "text": "[[Sanguinarine]]-containing mouthwashes are marketed as anti-plaque and anti-malodor. It is a toxic alkaloid herbal extract, obtained from plants such as ''[[Sanguinaria canadensis]]'' (Bloodroot), ''[[Argemone mexicana]]'' (Mexican Prickly Poppy) and others. However, its use is strongly associated with development of [[leukoplakia]] (a white patch in the mouth), usually in the buccal sulcus. This type of leukoplakia has been termed \"sanguinaria-associated keratosis\" and more than 80% of people with leukoplakia in the [[vestibule of the mouth]] have used this substance. Upon stopping contact with the causative substance, the lesions may persist for years. Although this type of leukoplakia may show [[dysplasia]], the potential for [[malignancy|malignant]] transformation is unknown. Ironically, elements within the complementary and alternative medicine industry promote the use of sanguinaria as a therapy for cancer.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)"], "text": "[[Sodium bicarbonate]] is sometimes combined with salt to make a simple homemade mouthwash, indicated for any of the reasons that a salt water mouthwash might be used. Pre-mixed mouthwashes of 1% sodium bicarbonate and 1.5% sodium chloride in [[aqueous solution]] are marketed, although pharmacists will easily be able to produce such a formulation from the base ingredients when required. Sodium bicarbonate mouthwash is sometimes used to remove viscous saliva and to aid visualization of the oral tissues during examination of the mouth.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Sodium chloride (salt)"], "text": "Salt water mouth wash is made by dissolving 0.5–1 teaspoon of table salt into a cup of water, which is as hot as possible without causing discomfort in the mouth. Saline has a mechanical cleansing action and an antiseptic action as it is a [[hypertonic]] solution in relation to bacteria, which undergo [[lysis]]. The heat of the solution produces a therapeutic increase in blood flow ([[hyperemia]]) to the surgical site, promoting healing. Hot salt water mouthwashes also encourage the draining of [[pus]] from [[dental abscess]]. Conversely, if heat is applied on the side of the face (e.g., hot water bottle) rather than inside the mouth, it may cause a dental abscess to drain extra-orally, which is later associated with an area of [[fibrosis]] on the face (see [[cutaneous sinus of dental origin]]). Gargling with salt water is said to reduce the symptoms of a sore throat. Hot salt water mouth baths (or hot salt water mouth washes, sometimes abbreviated to \"HSWMW\") are also routinely used after oral surgery, to keep food debris out of healing wounds and to prevent infection. Some oral surgeons consider salt water mouthwashes the mainstay of wound cleanliness after surgery. In dental extractions, hot salt water mouthbaths should start about 24 hours after a dental extraction. The term ''mouth bath'' implies that the liquid is passively held in the mouth rather than vigorously swilled around, which could dislodge a blood clot. Once the blood clot has stabilized, the mouth wash can be used more vigorously. These mouthwashes tend to be advised about 6 times per day, especially after meals to remove food from the socket.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Sodium lauryl sulfate (foaming agent)"], "text": "[[Sodium lauryl sulfate]] (SLS) is used as a foaming agent in many oral hygiene products including many mouthwashes. Some may suggest that it is probably advisable to use mouthwash at least an hour after brushing with toothpaste when the toothpaste contains SLS, since the anionic compounds in the SLS [[toothpaste]] can deactivate cationic agents present in the mouthrinse.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Sucralfate"], "text": "[[Sucralfate]] is a mucosal coating agent, composed of an aluminum salt of sulfated [[sucrose]]. It is not recommended for use in the prevention of [[oral mucositis]] in head and neck cancer patients receiving [[radiotherapy]] or [[chemoradiation]] due to a lack of efficacy found in a well-designed, [[randomized controlled trial]].", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Tetracycline (antibiotic)"], "text": "[[Tetracycline]] is an antibiotic which may sometimes be used as a mouthwash in adults (it causes red staining of teeth in children). It is sometimes use for herpetiforme ulceration (an uncommon type of aphthous stomatitis), but prolonged use may lead to oral candidiasis as the fungal population of the mouth overgrows in the absence of enough competing bacteria. Similarly, Minocycline mouthwashes of 0.5% concentrations can relieve symptoms of [[recurrent aphthous stomatitis]]. [[Erythromycin]] is similar.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Tranexamic acid"], "text": "4.8% [[tranexamic acid]] solution is sometimes used as an [[antifibrinolytic]] mouthwash to prevent bleeding during and after oral surgery in persons with [[coagulopathy|coagulopathies]] (clotting disorders) or who are taking [[anticoagulant]] (blood thinners such as [[warfarin]]).", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Triclosan"], "text": "[[Triclosan]] is a non-ionic chlorinate bisphenol antiseptic found in some mouthwashes. When used in mouthwash (e.g. 0.03%), there is moderate substantivity, broad spectrum anti-bacterial action, some anti-fungal action and significant anti-plaque effect, especially when combined with [[copolymer]] or [[zinc citrate]]. Triclosan does not cause staining of the teeth. The safety of triclosan has been questioned.", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ingredients", "Zinc"], "text": "[[Astringents]] like zinc chloride provide a pleasant-tasting sensation and shrink tissues. [[Zinc#Topical use|Zinc]] when used in combination with other anti-septic agents can limit the build-up of [[Calculus (dental)#Prevention|tartar]]", "id": "782", "title": "Mouthwash", "categories": ["Dentifrices", "Oral hygiene", "Drug delivery devices", "Dosage forms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Alexander III of Macedon''' (, ; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as '''Alexander the Great''', was a king of the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] kingdom of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedon]]. A member of the [[Argead dynasty]], he was born in [[Pella]]—a city in [[Ancient Greece]]—in 356 BC. He succeeded his father [[Philip II of Macedon|King Philip II]] to the throne at the age of 20, and spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthy [[military campaign]] throughout [[Western Asia]] and [[Northeastern Africa]]. By the age of thirty, he had created one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires]] in history, stretching from [[Greece]] to northwestern [[Historical India|India]]. He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of history's most successful military commanders. During his youth, Alexander was tutored by [[Aristotle]] until the age of 16. His father [[Philip II of Macedon#Assassination|Philip was assassinated]] in 336 BC at his sister's wedding, and Alexander assumed the throne to the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Kingdom of Macedon]]. After sacking the city of [[Ancient Thebes (Boeotia)|Thebes]], Alexander was awarded the [[League of Corinth|generalship of Greece]]. He used his authority to launch his father's pan-Hellenic project, which involved him assuming the leadership position to all the Greeks in their conquest of [[Persia]]. In 334 BC he invaded the [[Achaemenid Empire]] (Persian Empire) and began a [[Wars of Alexander the Great|series of campaigns]] that lasted 10 years. Following his conquest of [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] (modern-day Turkey), Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, including those at [[Battle of Issus|Issus]] and [[Battle of Gaugamela|Gaugamela]]. He subsequently overthrew [[Darius III|King Darius III]] and conquered the [[Achaemenid Empire]] in its entirety. At that point, his empire stretched from the [[Adriatic Sea]] to the [[Beas River]]. Alexander endeavored to reach the \"ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea\" and [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|invaded India]] in 326 BC, achieving an important victory over [[Porus|King Porus]] at the [[Battle of the Hydaspes]]. He eventually turned back at the demand of his homesick troops, dying in [[Babylon]] in 323 BC; the city he planned to establish as his capital. He did not manage to execute a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]]. In the years following [[Death of Alexander the Great|his death]], a [[Wars of the Diadochi|series of civil wars]] tore his empire apart.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "Alexander's legacy includes the [[cultural diffusion]] and [[syncretism]] which his conquests engendered, such as [[Greco-Buddhism]]. He founded some [[List of cities founded by Alexander the Great|twenty cities that bore his name]], most notably [[Alexandria]] in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of [[Culture of Greece|Greek culture]] resulted in a new [[Hellenistic civilization]], aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of the [[Byzantine Empire]] in the mid-15th century AD and the presence of [[Cappadocian Greeks|Greek speakers in central]] and [[Pontic Greeks|far eastern Anatolia]] until the [[Greek genocide]] and [[Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations|the population exchange]] in the 1920s. Alexander became legendary as a [[Hero|classical hero]] in the mould of [[Achilles]], featuring prominently in the history and mythic traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. His military achievements and enduring, unprecedented success in battle make him the measure with which many modern military leaders compare themselves. [[Military academy|Military academies]] throughout the world still teach his tactics. He is often ranked among the most influential people in human history.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Early life", "Lineage and childhood"], "text": "Alexander was born in [[Pella]], the capital of the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Kingdom of Macedon]], on the sixth day of the ancient Greek month of [[Hekatombaion]], which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC, although the exact date is uncertain. He was the son of the king of Macedon, [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]], and his fourth wife, [[Olympias]], the daughter of [[Neoptolemus I of Epirus|Neoptolemus I]], king of [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]]. Although Philip had seven or eight wives, [[Olympias]] was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander. Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood. According to the ancient Greek biographer [[Plutarch]], on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunderbolt that caused a flame to spread \"far and wide\" before dying away. Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with a [[Seal (emblem)|seal]] engraved with a lion's image. Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was [[Zeus]]. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious. On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a [[siege]] on the city of [[Potidea]] on the peninsula of [[Chalcidice]]. That same day, Philip received news that his general [[Parmenion]] had defeated the combined [[Illyria]] and [[Paeonian]] armies and that his horses had won at the [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]]. It was also said that on this day, the [[Temple of Artemis]] in [[Ephesus]], one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World|Seven Wonders of the World]], burnt down. This led [[Hegesias of Magnesia]] to say that it had burnt down because [[Artemis]] was away, attending the birth of Alexander. Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception. In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, [[Lanike]], sister of Alexander's future general [[Cleitus the Black]]. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict [[Leonidas of Epirus|Leonidas]], a relative of his mother, and by [[Lysimachus of Acarnania]]. Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the [[lyre]], ride, fight, and hunt.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Early life", "Lineage and childhood"], "text": "When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from [[Thessaly]] brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen [[Attic talent|talents]]. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. Alexander, however, detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed. Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: \"My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you\", and bought the horse for him. Alexander named it [[Bucephalas]], meaning \"ox-head\". Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as [[India]]. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, [[Alexandria Bucephalous|Bucephala]].", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Early life", "Education"], "text": "When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a [[tutor]], and considered such academics as [[Isocrates]] and [[Speusippus]], the latter offering to resign from his stewardship of the [[Platonic Academy|Academy]] to take up the post. In the end, Philip chose [[Aristotle]] and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at [[Mieza, Macedonia|Mieza]] as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown of [[Stageira]], which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile. Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such as [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]], [[Hephaistion]], and [[Cassander]]. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the \"Companions\". Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of [[Homer]], and in particular the ''[[Iliad]]''; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns. Alexander was able to quote [[Euripides]] from memory. During his youth, Alexander was also acquainted with Persian exiles at the Macedonian court, who received the protection of Philip II for several years as they opposed [[Artaxerxes III]]. Among them were [[Artabazos II]] and his daughter [[Barsine]], future mistress of Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC, as well as [[Amminapes]], future [[satrap]] of Alexander, or a Persian nobleman named [[Sisines]]. This gave the Macedonian court a good knowledge of Persian issues, and may even have influenced some of the innovations in the management of the Macedonian state. [[Suda]] writes that, also, [[Anaximenes of Lampsacus]] was one of his teachers. Anaximenes, also accompanied him on his campaigns.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Philip's heir", "Regency and ascent of Macedon"], "text": "At the age of 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. Philip waged war against [[Byzantium|Byzantion]], leaving Alexander in charge as [[regent]] and [[heir apparent]]. During Philip's absence, the [[Thracians|Thracian]] [[Maedi]] revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly, driving them from their territory. He colonized it with Greeks, and founded a city named [[Alexandropolis Maedica|Alexandropolis]]. Upon Philip's return, he dispatched Alexander with a small force to subdue revolts in southern [[Thrace]]. Campaigning against the Greek city of [[Perinthus]], Alexander is reported to have saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city of [[Amphissa (city)|Amphissa]] began to work lands that were sacred to [[Apollo]] near [[Delphi]], a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. Still occupied in Thrace, he ordered Alexander to muster an army for a campaign in southern Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander. Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through [[Thermopylae]], taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of [[Elatea]], only a few days' march from both [[Athens]] and [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]]. The Athenians, led by [[Demosthenes]], voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes's favour, but Athens won the contest. Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the [[Amphictyonic League]]), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it. As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near [[Chaeronea]], [[Boeotia]]. During the ensuing [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]], Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenian [[hoplites]] to follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated. After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached [[Sparta]], they were refused, but did not resort to war. At [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]], Philip established a \"Hellenic Alliance\" (modelled on the old [[Second Persian invasion of Greece#Hellenic alliance|anti-Persian alliance]] of the [[Greco-Persian Wars]]), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named ''[[Hegemon]]'' (often translated as \"Supreme Commander\") of this league (known by modern scholars as the [[League of Corinth]]), and announced his plans to attack the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]].", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Philip's heir", "Exile and return"], "text": "When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married [[Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon|Cleopatra Eurydice]] in 338 BC, the niece of his general [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]]. The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian. During the [[Banquet|wedding banquet]], a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir. In 337 BC, Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King [[Alexander I of Epirus]] in [[Dodona]], capital of the [[Molossians]]. He continued to Illyria, where he sought refuge with one or more Illyrian kings, perhaps with [[Glaucias of Taulantii|Glaukias]], and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before. However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son. Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, [[Demaratus (hetairos)|Demaratus]], who mediated between the two parties. In the following year, the Persian [[satrap]] (governor) of [[Caria]], [[Pixodarus of Caria|Pixodarus]], offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother, [[Philip Arrhidaeus]]. Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir. Alexander reacted by sending an actor, [[Thessalus (actor)|Thessalus]] of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him. Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, [[Harpalus]], [[Nearchus]], [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] and [[Erigyius]], and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["King of Macedon", "Accession"], "text": "In summer 336 BC, while at [[Vergina|Aegae]] attending the wedding of his daughter [[Cleopatra of Macedon|Cleopatra]] to Olympias's brother, [[Alexander I of Epirus]], Philip was assassinated by the captain of his [[Somatophylax|bodyguards]], [[Pausanias of Orestis|Pausanias]]. As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, [[Perdiccas]] and [[Leonnatus]]. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and [[Ancient Macedonian military|army]] at the age of 20.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["King of Macedon", "Consolidation of power"], "text": "Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the former [[Amyntas IV of Macedon|Amyntas IV]], executed. He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of [[Lyncestis]] killed, but spared a third, [[Alexander Lyncestes]]. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus, who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle. Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave alive. Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias. News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between [[Mount Olympus]] and [[Mount Ossa (Greece)|Mount Ossa]], and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued south towards the [[Peloponnese]]. Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to [[Corinth]]. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famous [[Diogenes and Alexander|encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic]] occurred during Alexander's stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight. This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said \"But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes.\" At Corinth, Alexander took the title of ''Hegemon'' (\"leader\") and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["King of Macedon", "Balkan campaign"], "text": "Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from [[Amphipolis]], he travelled east into the country of the \"Independent Thracians\"; and at [[Haemus Mons|Mount Haemus]], the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights. The Macedonians marched into the country of the [[Triballi]], and defeated their army near the Lyginus river (a [[List of tributaries of the Danube|tributary of the Danube]]). Alexander then marched for three days to the [[Danube]], encountering the [[Getae]] tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry [[skirmish]]. News then reached Alexander that [[Cleitus (Dardania)|Cleitus]], King of Illyria, and [[King Glaukias]] of the [[Taulantii]] were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier. While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south. While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective, and Alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace. Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leaving [[Antipater]] as regent. According to ancient writers [[Demosthenes]] called Alexander \"Margites\" () and a boy. Greeks used the word Margites to describe fool and useless people, on account of the [[Margites]].", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Conquest of the Persian Empire", "Asia Minor"], "text": "After his victory at the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)]], [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] began the work of establishing himself as ''hēgemṓn'' () of a league which according to [[Diodorus]] was to wage a campaign against the Persians for the sundry grievances Greece suffered in [[Second Persian invasion of Greece|480]] and free the Greek cities of the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. In 336 he sent [[Parmenion]], with [[Amyntas (son of Andromenes)|Amyntas]], Andromenes and [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]], and an army of 10,000 men into [[Anatolia]] to make preparations for an invasion. At first, all went well. The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated near [[Magnesia on the Meander|Magnesia]] by the Achaemenids under the command of the mercenary [[Memnon of Rhodes]]. Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander's army crossed the [[Hellespont]] in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000, drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from [[Thrace]], [[Paionia]], and [[Illyria]]. He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy. After an initial victory against Persian forces at the [[Battle of the Granicus]], Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of [[Sardis]]; he then proceeded along the [[Ionia]] coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities. [[Miletus]], held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, at [[Halicarnassus]], in [[Caria]], Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale [[siege]], eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain [[Memnon of Rhodes]] and the Persian [[satrap]] of Caria, [[Orontobates]], to withdraw by sea. Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, [[Ada of Caria|Ada]], who adopted Alexander. From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous [[Lycia]] and the [[Pamphylia]] plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At [[Termessos]], Alexander humbled but did not storm the [[Pisidia]] city. At the ancient Phrygian capital of [[Gordium]], Alexander \"undid\" the hitherto unsolvable [[Gordian Knot]], a feat said to await the future \"king of [[Asia Minor|Asia]]\". According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Conquest of the Persian Empire", "The Levant and Syria"], "text": "In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the [[Taurus Mountains|Taurus]] into [[Cilicia]]. After a long pause due to an illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius's significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at [[Issus (Cilicia)|Issus]]. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother [[Sisygambis]], and a fabulous treasure. He offered a [[peace treaty]] that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 [[Attic talent|talents]] for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions. Alexander proceeded to take possession of [[Ancient Syria|Syria]], and most of the coast of the [[Levant]]. In the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attack [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], which he captured after a long and difficult [[Siege of Tyre (332 BC)|siege]]. The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold into [[slavery]].", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Conquest of the Persian Empire", "Egypt"], "text": "When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to [[Egypt]] quickly capitulated. However, Alexander met with resistance at [[Gaza City|Gaza]]. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When \"his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible... this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt\". After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery. Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a liberator. He was pronounced son of the deity [[Amun]] at the [[Oracle]] of [[Siwa Oasis]] in the [[Ancient Libya|Libyan]] desert. Henceforth, Alexander often referred to [[Zeus-Ammon]] as his true father, and after his death, currency depicted him adorned with the [[Horns of Ammon]] as a symbol of his divinity. During his stay in Egypt, he founded [[Alexandria|Alexandria-by-Egypt]], which would become the prosperous capital of the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] after his death.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Conquest of the Persian Empire", "Assyria and Babylonia"], "text": "Leaving Egypt in 331 BCE, Alexander marched eastward into [[Achaemenid Assyria]] in [[Upper Mesopotamia]] (now northern [[Iraq]]) and defeated Darius again at the [[Battle of Gaugamela]]. Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as [[Erbil|Arbela]]. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two. Darius fled over the mountains to [[Ecbatana]] (modern [[Hamadan]]) while Alexander captured [[Babylon]].", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Conquest of the Persian Empire", "Persia"], "text": "From Babylon, Alexander went to [[Susa]], one of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] capitals, and captured its treasury. He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of [[Persepolis]] via the Persian [[Royal Road]]. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of the [[Persian Gates]] (in the modern [[Zagros Mountains]]) which had been blocked by a Persian army under [[Ariobarzanes (satrap of Persis)|Ariobarzanes]] and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury. On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days. Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months. During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of [[Xerxes I]] and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the [[Acropolis of Athens]] during the [[Greco-Persian Wars|Second Persian War]] by Xerxes; [[Plutarch]] and [[Diodorus]] allege that Alexander's companion, the [[hetaera]] [[Thaïs]], instigated and started the fire. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision. [[Plutarch]] claims that he ordered his men to put out the fires, but that the flames had already spread to most of the city. [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius]] claims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning. Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person:", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Conquest of the Persian Empire", "Fall of the Empire and the East"], "text": "Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia. The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by [[Bessus]], his [[Bactria]] satrap and kinsman. As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius's successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] campaign against Alexander. Alexander buried Darius's remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral. He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne. The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius. Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern [[Kandahar]] in Afghanistan, and [[Alexandria Eschate]] (\"The Furthest\") in modern [[Tajikistan]]. The campaign took Alexander through [[Media (region)|Media]], [[Parthia]], [[Aria (satrapy)|Aria]] (West Afghanistan), [[Drangiana]], [[Arachosia]] (South and Central Afghanistan), [[Bactria]] (North and Central Afghanistan), and [[Scythia]]. In 329 BC, [[Spitamenes]], who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus to [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]], one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed. However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on the [[Syr Darya|Jaxartes]] dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the [[Battle of Jaxartes]] and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Conquest of the Persian Empire", "Problems and plots"], "text": "During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of ''[[proskynesis]]'', either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors. The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of [[deities]] and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it. A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, [[Philotas]], was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus [[Parmenion]], who had been charged with guarding the treasury at [[Ecbatana]], was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, [[Cleitus the Black]], during a violent drunken altercation at [[Maracanda]] (modern day [[Samarkand]] in [[Uzbekistan]]), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and most especially, of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle. Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal [[page (servant)|pages]]. His official historian, [[Callisthenes]] of [[Olynthus]], was implicated in the plot, and in the ''[[Anabasis of Alexander]]'', [[Arrian]] states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the [[rack (torture)|rack]] as punishment, and likely died soon after. It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Conquest of the Persian Empire", "Macedon in Alexander's absence"], "text": "When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general [[Antipater]], an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's \"Old Guard\", in charge of Macedon. Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence. The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king [[Agis III]] in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the [[battle of Megalopolis]]. Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them. There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other. In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia. Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire. However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's strength, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the [[Third Macedonian War]] (171–168 BC).", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Indian campaign", "Forays into the Indian subcontinent"], "text": "'' After the death of [[Spitamenes]] and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in [[Old Iranian]]) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the [[Indian subcontinent]]. He invited the [[tribal chief|chieftains]] of the former satrapy of [[Gandhara]] (a region presently straddling eastern [[Afghanistan]] and northern [[Pakistan]]), to come to him and submit to his authority. [[Omphis]] (Indian name [[Ambhi]]), the ruler of [[Taxila]], whose kingdom extended from the [[Indus]] to the [[Jhelum River|Hydaspes (Jhelum)]], complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the [[Aspasioi]] and [[Assakenoi]] sections of the [[Kambojas]] (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit. [[Ambhi]] hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all his forces at his disposal. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of \"Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold\". Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted [[Hephaestion]] and [[Perdiccas]] in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at [[Hund, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Hund]], supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality. On the subsequent advance of the [[Macedon]] king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5,000 men and took part in the [[battle of the Hydaspes River]]. After that victory he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of [[Porus]], to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, however, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; and Taxiles, after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of [[Philip (son of Machatas)|Philip]], son of Machatas; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at [[Treaty of Triparadisus|Triparadisus]], 321 BC. In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi of [[Kunar Valley|Kunar]] [[valley]], the Guraeans of the [[Panjkora|Guraeus]] valley, and the Assakenoi of the [[Swat (Pakistan)|Swat]] and [[Buner Valley|Buner]] valleys. A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and [[Aornos]].", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Indian campaign", "Forays into the Indian subcontinent"], "text": "The fort of Massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle. According to [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius]], \"Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble.\" A similar slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of [[Aornos]]. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days. After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle against [[Porus|King Porus]], who ruled a region lying between the [[Hydaspes]] and the Acesines ([[Chenab]]), in what is now the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], in the [[Battle of the Hydaspes]] in 326 BC. Alexander was impressed by Porus's bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus's territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis ([[Beas]]). Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece. Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the [[Jhelum River|Hydaspes]] river, naming one [[Alexandria Bucephalous|Bucephala]], in honour of his horse, who died around this time. The other was [[Nicaea (Punjab)|Nicaea]] (Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern-day [[Mong, Punjab]]. [[Philostratus the Elder]] in the [[Life of Apollonius of Tyana]] writes that in the army of Porus there was an elephant who fought brave against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to the [[Helios]] (Sun) and named it Ajax, because he thought that a so great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: \"Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios\" (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ).", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Indian campaign", "Revolt of the army"], "text": "East of Porus's kingdom, near the [[Ganges River]], was the [[Nanda dynasty|Nanda Empire]] of [[Magadha]], and further east, the [[Gangaridai|Gangaridai Empire]] of [[Bengal]] region of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the [[Beas River|Hyphasis River (Beas)]], refusing to march farther east. This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests. Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general [[Coenus (general)|Coenus]] pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, \"longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland\". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the [[Indus River|Indus]]. Along the way his army conquered the [[Malhi]] (in modern-day [[Multan]]) and other Indian tribes and Alexander sustained an injury during the siege. Alexander sent much of his army to [[Kerman province|Carmania]] (modern southern [[Iran]]) with general [[Craterus]], and commissioned a fleet to explore the [[Persian Gulf]] shore under his admiral [[Nearchus]], while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the [[Gedrosia|Gedrosian Desert]] and [[Makran]]. Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Last years in Persia"], "text": "Discovering that many of his [[satrap]] and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to [[Susa]]. As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of [[Opis]]. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units. After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet with several thousand of his men. In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander [[Susa weddings|held a mass marriage]] of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year. Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the [[tomb of Cyrus the Great]] in [[Pasargadae]] had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them. Alexander admired [[Cyrus the Great]], from an early age reading Xenophon's ''[[Cyropaedia]]'', which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator. During his visit to Pasargadae Alexander ordered his architect [[Aristobulus of Cassandreia|Aristobulus]] to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus's tomb. Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend and possible lover, [[Hephaestion]], died of illness or poisoning. Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander, and he ordered the preparation of an expensive [[funeral pyre]] in Babylon, as well as a decree for public mourning. Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them, as he died shortly after Hephaestion.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Death and succession"], "text": "On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], in [[Babylon]], at age 32. There are two different versions of Alexander's death and details of the death differ slightly in each. [[Plutarch]]'s account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral [[Nearchus]], and spent the night and next day drinking with [[Medius of Larissa]]. He developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them. In the second account, [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]] recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of [[Heracles]], followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever and died after some agony. [[Arrian]] also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim. Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination, foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and [[Justin (historian)|Justin]] all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication, while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness. The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating [[Antipater]], recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, and at odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence, and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas, Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer. There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated. The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available. However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (''[[Veratrum album]]''), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander. In a 2014 manuscript in the journal ''[[Clinical Toxicology]]'', Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with ''Veratrum album'', and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the ''[[Alexander Romance]]''. ''Veratrum album'' poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, ''Veratrum album'' offers the most plausible cause. Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern-day [[Mavroneri]] in Arcadia, Greece) that contained [[calicheamicin]], a dangerous compound produced by bacteria.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Death and succession"], "text": "Several [[natural causes]] (diseases) have been suggested, including [[malaria]] and [[typhoid fever]]. A 1998 article in the ''[[New England Journal of Medicine]]'' attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by [[bowel perforation]] and ascending [[paralysis]]. Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) [[spondylitis]] or [[meningitis]]. Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including [[acute pancreatitis]] and [[West Nile virus]]. Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after [[Hephaestion]]'s death may also have contributed to his declining health.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Death and succession", "After death"], "text": "Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid [[sarcophagus]] that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket. According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest \"would be happy and unvanquishable forever\". Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a [[royal prerogative]]. While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis. His successor, [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]], transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least [[late Antiquity]]. [[Ptolemy IX Lathyros]], one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage. The recent discovery of an [[Kasta Tomb|enormous tomb]] in northern Greece, at [[Amphipolis]], dating from the time of Alexander the Great has given rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the burial place of Alexander. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander's funeral cortege. However, the memorial was found to be dedicated to the dearest friend of Alexander the Great, [[Hephaestion]]. [[Pompey]], [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Augustus]] all visited the tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose off. [[Caligula]] was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. Around AD 200, Emperor [[Septimius Severus]] closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, [[Caracalla]], a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy. The so-called \"[[Alexander Sarcophagus]]\", discovered near [[Sidon]] and now in the [[Istanbul Archaeology Museum]], is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of [[Abdalonymus]] (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the [[battle of Issus]] in 331. However, more recently, it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus's death. [[Demades]] likened the Macedonian army, after the death of Alexander, to the blinded [[Cyclops]], due to the many random and disorderly movements that it made. In addition, Leosthenes, also, likened the anarchy between the generals, after Alexander's death, to the blinded Cyclops \"who after he had lost his eye went feeling and groping about with his hands before him, not knowing where to lay them\".", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Death and succession", "Division of the empire"], "text": "Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed. Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander's death. According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was \"tôi kratistôi\"—\"to the strongest\". Another theory is that his successors wilfully or erroneously misheard \"tôi Kraterôi\"—\"to Craterus\", the general leading his Macedonian troops home and newly entrusted with the regency of Macedonia. Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story. Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his [[Seal (device)|signet ring]] to [[Perdiccas]], a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him. Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male; with himself, [[Craterus]], Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of [[Meleager (general)|Meleager]], rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only. Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the Macedonians, however. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the [[Partition of Babylon]] became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between \"The Successors\" (''Diadochi'') ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocs: [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic Egypt]] , [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid Mesopotamia and Central Asia]], [[Attalid dynasty|Attalid Anatolia]], and [[Antigonid dynasty|Antigonid Macedon]]. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Death and succession", "Last plans"], "text": "[[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]] stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to [[Craterus]] some time before his death, which are known as Alexander's \"last plans\". [[Craterus]] started to carry out Alexander's commands, but the successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant. Furthermore, [[Perdiccas]] had read the notebooks containing Alexander's last plans to the Macedonian troops in Babylon, who voted not to carry them out. According to Diodorus, Alexander's last plans called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. It included: (-) Construction of 1,000 ships larger than triremes, along with harbours and a road running along the African coast all the way to the [[Pillars of Hercules]], to be used for an invasion of Carthage and the western Mediterranean; (-) Erection of great temples in [[Delos]], [[Delphi]], [[Dodona]], [[Dium]], [[Amphipolis]], all costing 1,500 [[Attic talent|talents]], and a monumental temple to [[Athena]] at [[Troy]] (-) Amalgamation of small settlements into larger cities (\"[[synoecism]]\") and the \"transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties\" (-) Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, \"to match the greatest of the [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids of Egypt]]\" (-) Conquest of Arabia (-) Circumnavigation of Africa The enormous scale of these plans has led many scholars to doubt their historicity. [[Ernst Badian]] argued that they were exaggerated by Perdiccas in order to ensure that the Macedonian troops voted not to carry them out. Other scholars have proposed that they were invented by later authors within the tradition of the [[Alexander Romance]].", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Character", "Generalship"], "text": "Alexander earned the epithet \"the Great\" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander. He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered. This was due to use of terrain, [[phalanx]] and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops. The [[Macedonian phalanx]], armed with the [[sarissa]], a spear long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and manoeuvrability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces. Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle, in the manner of a Macedonian king. In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000. Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about . By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' [[scimitars]] and [[javelins]]. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians. At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through. Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army. At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius's center, causing the latter to flee once again. When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, in [[Bactria]] and [[Sogdiana]], Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center. In India, confronted by Porus's elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Character", "Physical appearance"], "text": "Greek biographer [[Plutarch]] () describes Alexander's appearance as: The semi-legendary ''[[Alexander romance|Alexander Romance]]'' also suggests that Alexander exhibited [[heterochromia iridum]]: that one eye was dark and the other light. British historian [[Peter Green (historian)|Peter Green]] provided a description of Alexander's appearance, based on his review of statues and some ancient documents: Historian and [[Egyptologist]] [[Joann Fletcher]] has said that Alexander had blond hair. Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by [[Lysippos]] that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image. Lysippos had often used the [[contrapposto]] sculptural scheme to portray Alexander and other characters such as [[Apoxyomenos]], [[Hermes]] and [[Eros]]. Lysippos's sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Character", "Personality"], "text": "Some of Alexander's strongest personality traits formed in response to his parents. His mother had huge ambitions, and encouraged him to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire. Olympias's influence instilled a sense of destiny in him, and Plutarch tells how his ambition \"kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years\". However, his father Philip was Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds. Alexander's relationship with his father forged the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to outdo his father, illustrated by his reckless behaviour in battle. While Alexander worried that his father would leave him \"no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world\", he also downplayed his father's achievements to his companions. According to Plutarch, among Alexander's traits were a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature, which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions. Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate. He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader. This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn. His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general. He had great self-restraint in \"pleasures of the body\", in contrast with his lack of [[self-control]] with alcohol. Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences. However, he had little interest in sports or the [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic games]] (unlike his father), seeking only the [[Homeric]] ideals of honour (''timê'') and glory (''kudos''). He had great [[charisma]] and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader. His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death—only Alexander had the ability to do so. During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of [[megalomania]] and [[paranoia]]. His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect. His [[delusions of grandeur]] are readily visible in his [[#Will|will]] and in his desire to conquer the world, in as much as he is by various sources described as having ''boundless ambition'', an epithet, the meaning of which has descended into an historical cliché.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Character", "Personality"], "text": "He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself. Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus, a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa]]. He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon. Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notably ''[[proskynesis]]'', a practice of which Macedonians disapproved, and were loath to perform. This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen. However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in kingdoms where the king was divine. Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Character", "Personal relationships"], "text": "Alexander married three times: [[Roxana]], daughter of the [[Sogdia]] nobleman [[Oxyartes]] of [[Bactria]], out of love; and the Persian princesses [[Stateira II]] and [[Parysatis II]], the former a daughter of [[Darius III]] and latter a daughter of [[Artaxerxes III]], for political reasons. He apparently had two sons, [[Alexander IV of Macedon]] by Roxana and, possibly, [[Heracles of Macedon]] from his mistress [[Barsine]]. He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon. Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard [[Hephaestion]], the son of a Macedonian noble. Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander. This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached [[mental health|mental state]] during his final months. Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy in modern times. The Roman era writer [[Athenaeus]] says, based on the scholar [[Dicaearchus]], who was Alexander's contemporary, that the king \"was quite excessively keen on boys\", and that Alexander kissed the eunuch Bagoas in public. This episode is also told by Plutarch, probably based on the same source. None of Alexander's contemporaries, however, are known to have explicitly described Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion as sexual, though the pair was often compared to [[Achilles and Patroclus]], whom classical Greek culture painted as a couple. Aelian writes of Alexander's visit to [[Troy]] where \"Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles, and Hephaestion that of [[Patroclus]], the latter hinting that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles.\" Some modern historians (e.g., [[Robin Lane Fox]]) believe not only that Alexander's youthful relationship with Hephaestion was sexual, but that their sexual contacts may have continued into adulthood, which went against the social norms of at least some Greek cities, such as Athens, though some modern researchers have tentatively proposed that Macedonia (or at least the Macedonian court) may have been more tolerant of homosexuality between adults. Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life. However, Ogden calculates that Alexander, who impregnated his partners thrice in eight years, had a higher matrimonial record than his father at the same age. Two of these pregnancies — Stateira's and Barsine's — are of dubious legitimacy. According to Diodorus Siculus, Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, \"not wishing to offend the Macedonians\", showing great self-control in \"pleasures of the body\". Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her. Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including [[Ada of Caria]], who adopted him, and even Darius's mother [[Sisygambis]], who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy"], "text": "Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence. Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Hellenistic kingdoms"], "text": "Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some , and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The [[Hellenistic period#The successors|successor states]] that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the [[Hellenistic period]]. The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime. However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the [[Maurya Empire]]. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (referred to in Greek sources as \"Sandrokottos\"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], and with that power base proceeded to conquer the [[Nanda Empire]].", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Founding of cities"], "text": "Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some [[Alexandria (disambiguation)#West and Central Asia|twenty cities that bore his name]], most of them east of the [[Tigris]]. The first, and greatest, was [[Alexandria]] in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities. The cities' locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons. Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece. However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Funding of temples"], "text": "In 334 BC, Alexander the Great donated funds for the completion of the new temple of [[Athena Polias]] in [[Priene]], in modern-day western Turkey. An [[Priene Inscription|inscription from the temple]], now housed in the [[British Museum]], declares: \"King Alexander dedicated [this temple] to Athena Polias.\" This inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from Alexander's life. The temple was designed by [[Pythius of Priene|Pytheos]], one of the architects of the [[Mausoleum at Halicarnassus]]. [[Libanius]] wrote that Alexander founded the temple of Zeus Bottiaios (), in the place where later the city of [[Antioch]] was built.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Hellenization"], "text": "''Hellenization'' was coined by the German historian [[Johann Gustav Droysen]] to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest. That this export took place is undoubted, and can be seen in the great Hellenistic cities of, for instance, [[Alexandria]], [[Antioch]] and [[Seleucia]] (south of modern [[Baghdad]]). Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into [[Culture of Iran|Persian culture]] and attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture. This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe. However, his successors explicitly rejected such policies. Nevertheless, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states. The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially [[Athenian]]. The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely [[Attic Greek|Attic]]-based \"[[koine]]\", or \"common\" Greek dialect. Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the [[lingua franca]] of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of [[modern Greek]]. Furthermore, [[Urban planning|town planning]], education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic. Also, the [[New Testament]] was written in the [[Koine Greek]] language. Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Hellenization", "Hellenization in South and Central Asia"], "text": "Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-rising [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]] (250–125 BC) (in modern [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Tajikistan]]) and the [[Indo-Greeks|Indo-Greek Kingdom]] (180 BC – 10 AD) in modern Afghanistan and India. On the [[Silk Road]] trade routes, Hellenistic culture hybridized with Iranian and [[Buddhist]] cultures. The cosmopolitan art and mythology of [[Gandhara]] (a region spanning the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century AD are most evident of the direct contact between Hellenistic civilization and South Asia, as are the [[Edicts of Ashoka]], which directly mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as converting to Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the Hellenistic world. The resulting [[syncretism]] known as [[Greco-Buddhism]] influenced the development of Buddhism and created a culture of [[Greco-Buddhist art]]. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to [[China]], [[Sri Lanka]] and Hellenistic Asia and Europe ([[Greco-Buddhist monasticism]]). Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] appeared at this time, perhaps modelled on Greek statues of [[Apollo]] in the Greco-Buddhist style. Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the [[ancient Greek religion]]: the concept of [[Boddhisatvas]] is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes, and some [[Mahayana]] [[Offering (Buddhism)|ceremonial practices]] (burning [[incense]], gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practised by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. One Greek king, [[Menander I]], probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in [[Buddhist texts|Buddhist literature]] as 'Milinda'. The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west. For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the [[Greco-Bactrian]] city of [[Ai Khanoum]] in modern-day [[Afghanistan]], while the Greek concept of a [[spherical earth]] surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain (Mount Meru) like the petals of a flower. The [[Yavanajataka]] (lit. Greek astronomical treatise) and [[Paulisa Siddhanta]] texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, [[Hellenistic influence on Indian art]] was far-ranging. In the area of [[architecture]], a few examples of the [[Ionic order]] can be found as far as [[Pakistan]] with the [[Jandial|Jandial temple]] near [[Taxila]]. Several examples of [[capital (architecture)|capitals]] displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far as [[Patna]], especially with the [[Pataliputra capital]], dated to the 3rd century BC. The [[Corinthian order]] is also heavily represented in the [[Greco-Buddhist art|art of Gandhara]], especially through [[Indo-Corinthian capital]].", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Influence on Rome"], "text": "Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements. [[Polybius]] began his ''[[The Histories (Polybius)|Histories]]'' by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. [[Pompey the Great]] adopted the epithet \"Magnus\" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness. [[Julius Caesar]] dedicated a [[Lysippus|Lysippean]] [[equestrian statue|equestrian]] [[bronze]] statue but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while [[Octavian]] visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a [[sphinx]] to Alexander's profile. The emperor [[Trajan]] also admired Alexander, as did [[Nero]] and [[Caracalla]]. The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of [[Macrinus]] briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewellery, or embroidered into their clothes. On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how [[autocratic]] tendencies can be kept in check by [[Roman republic|republican]] values. Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as (friendship) and (clemency), but also (anger) and (over-desire for glory). [[Julian (emperor)|Emperor Julian]] in his satire called \"The Caesars\", describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors, with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant, in the presence of the assembled gods. The [[Itinerarium Alexandri]] is a 4th-century Latin [[Itinerarium]] which describes Alexander the Great's campaigns. [[Julius Caesar]] went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania after his wife's funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC. While there, he encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little. [[Pompey]] posed as the \"new Alexander\" since he was his boyhood hero. After Caracalla concluded his campaign against the Alamanni, it became evident that he was inordinately preoccupied with Alexander the Great. He began openly mimicking Alexander in his personal style. In planning his invasion of the Parthian Empire, Caracalla decided to arrange 16,000 of his men in Macedonian-style [[phalanx]], despite the Roman army having made the phalanx an obsolete tactical formation. The historian Christopher Matthew mentions that the term ''Phalangarii'' has two possible meanings, both with military connotations. The first refers merely to the Roman battle line and does not specifically mean that the men were armed with [[Pike (weapon)|pikes]], and the second bears similarity to the 'Marian Mules' of the late [[Roman Republic]] who carried their equipment suspended from a long pole, which were in use until at least the 2nd century AD. As a consequence, the ''Phalangarii'' of [[Legio II Parthica]] may not have been pikemen, but rather standard battle line troops or possibly ''[[Triarii]]''.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Influence on Rome"], "text": "Caracalla's mania for Alexander went so far that Caracalla visited Alexandria while preparing for his Persian invasion and persecuted philosophers of the [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] school based on a legend that [[Aristotle]] had poisoned Alexander. This was a sign of Caracalla's increasingly erratic behaviour. But this mania for Alexander, strange as it was, was overshadowed by subsequent events in Alexandria. In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary [[Pontoon bridge|floating bridge]] to be built using ships as [[Pontoon (boat)|pontoons]], stretching for over two miles from the resort of [[Baiae]] to the neighbouring port of [[Puteoli]]. It was said that the bridge was to rival the Persian king [[Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges|Xerxes' pontoon bridge]] crossing of the Hellespont. Caligula, who could not swim, then proceeded to ride his favourite horse [[Incitatus]] across, wearing the breastplate of [[Alexander the Great#After death|Alexander the Great]]. This act was in defiance of a prediction by Tiberius's soothsayer [[Thrasyllus of Mendes]] that Caligula had \"no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae\". The diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a \"precondition\" for the [[Mithridatic Wars|later Roman expansion]] into these territories and [[Byzantine Greeks|entire basis]] for the [[Byzantine Empire]], according to [[Robert Malcolm Errington|Errington]].", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Unsuccessful plan to cut a canal through the isthmus"], "text": "[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] writes that Alexander wanted to dig through the Mimas mountain (today at the [[Karaburun]] area), but he didn't succeed. He also mentions that this was the only unsuccessful project of Alexander. In addition, [[Pliny the Elder]] writes about this unsuccessful plan adding that the distance was , and the purpose was to cut a canal through the isthmus, so as to connect the Caystrian and Hermaean bays.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Naming of the Icarus island in the Persian Gulf"], "text": "[[Arrian]] wrote that [[Aristobulus of Cassandreia|Aristobulus]] said that the [[Ikaros (Failaka Island)|Icarus island]] (modern [[Failaka Island]]) in the [[Persian Gulf]] had this name because Alexander ordered the island to be named like this, after the [[Icaria|Icarus island]] in the [[Aegean Sea]].", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Legend"], "text": "Legendary accounts surround the life of Alexander the Great, many deriving from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself. His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in [[Cilicia]] as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, another participant, [[Onesicritus]], invented a [[Courtship|tryst]] between Alexander and [[Thalestris]], queen of the mythical [[Amazons]]. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King [[Lysimachus]] reportedly quipped, \"I wonder where I was at the time.\" In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the ''[[Alexander Romance]]'', later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as ''Pseudo-Callisthenes''. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the [[Middle Ages]], containing many dubious stories, and was translated into numerous languages.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "In ancient and modern culture"], "text": "Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day. The ''Alexander Romance'', in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek. Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more so than any other ancient figure. The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek (\"O Megalexandros\") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the [[Karagiozis]] shadow play. One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary [[mermaid]] who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain \"Is King Alexander alive?\" The correct answer is \"He is alive and well and rules the world!\" causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging [[Gorgon]] who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard. In pre-Islamic [[Middle Persian language|Middle Persian]] ([[Zoroastrian]]) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet ''gujastak'', meaning \"accursed\", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. In [[Sunni Islam]] Persia, under the influence of the ''[[Alexander Romance]]'' (in ''[[Iskandarnamah]]''), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges. [[Firdausi]]'s ''[[Shahnameh]]'' (\"The Book of Kings\") includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian [[shah]], a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the [[Fountain of Youth]]. In the ''Shahnameh'', Alexander's first journey is to [[Mecca]] to pray at the [[Kaaba]]. Alexander was depicted as performing a [[Hajj]] (pilgrimage to Mecca) many times in subsequent Islamic art and literature. Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such as [[Socrates]], [[Plato]] and Aristotle, in search of immortality. The figure of [[Dhul-Qarnayn]] (literally \"the Two-Horned One\") mentioned in the [[Quran]] is believed by scholars to be based on later legends of Alexander. In this tradition, he was a heroic figure who built a wall to defend against the nations of [[Gog and Magog]]. He then travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet. The [[Syriac language|Syriac]] version of the ''Alexander Romance'' portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to \"the one true God\". In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son of [[Nectanebo II]], the last [[pharaoh]] before the Persian conquest. His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt's salvation, \"proving\" Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian. According to [[Josephus]], Alexander was shown the [[Book of Daniel]] when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "In ancient and modern culture"], "text": "In [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]], the name \"Sikandar\", derived from the Persian name for Alexander, denotes a rising young talent, and the Delhi Sultanate ruler [[Alauddin Khalji|Aladdin Khajli]] stylized himself as \"Sikandar-i-Sani\" (the Second Alexander the Great). In [[medieval India]], Turkic and Afghan sovereigns from the Iranian-cultured region of Central Asia brought positive cultural connotations of Alexander to the Indian subcontinent, resulting in the efflorescence of ''Sikandernameh'' ([[Alexander romance|Alexander Romances]]) written by Indo-Persian poets such as [[Amir Khusrow]] and the prominence of Alexander the Great as a popular subject in Mughal-era Persian miniatures. In [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]], Alexander the Great was revered as a member of the [[Nine Worthies]], a group of heroes whose lives were believed to encapsulate all the ideal qualities of [[chivalry]]. During the first [[Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars|Italian campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars]], in a question from Bourrienne, asking whether he gave his preference to Alexander or Caesar, Napoleon said that he places Alexander The Great in the first rank, the main reason being his campaign on Asia. In [[Greek Anthology]] there are poems referring to Alexander. Throughout time, art objects related to Alexander were being created. In addition to speech works, sculptures and paintings, in modern times Alexander is still the subject of musical and cinematic works. The song 'Alexander the Great' by the British heavy metal band [[Iron Maiden]] is indicative. Some films that have been shot with the theme of Alexander are: (-) ''[[Sikandar (1941 film)|Sikandar]]'' (1941), an Indian production directed by [[Sohrab Modi]] about the conquest of India by Alexander (-) ''[[Alexander the Great (1956 film)|Alexander the Great]]'' (1956), produced by MGM and starring [[Richard Burton]] (-) ''Sikandar-e-Azam'' (1965), an Indian production directed by Kedar Kapoor (-) ''[[Alexander (2004 film)|Alexander]]'' (2004), directed by [[Oliver Stone]], starring [[Colin Farrell]] There are also many references to other movies and TV series. Newer novels about Alexander are: The trilogy \"Alexander the Great\" by [[Valerio Massimo Manfredi]] consisting of \"The son of the dream\", \"The sand of Amon\", and \"The ends of the world\". The trilogy of [[Mary Renault]] consisting of \"[[Fire from Heaven]]\", \"[[The Persian Boy]]\" and \"[[Funeral Games (novel)|Funeral Games]]\". (-) ''[[The Virtues of War]]'', about Alexander the Great (2004), and \"* ''[[The Afghan Campaign]]'', about Alexander the Great's conquests in Afghanistan (2006), \" by [[Steven Pressfield]]. Irish playwright [[Aubrey Thomas de Vere]] wrote ''[[Alexander the Great, a Dramatic Poem]]''.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Historiography"], "text": "Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost. Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and [[Nearchus]]; [[Aristobulus of Cassandreia|Aristobulus]], a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Their works are lost, but later works based on these [[primary source|original sources]] have survived. The earliest of these is [[Diodorus Siculus]] (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally [[Justin (historian)|Justin]], whose work dated as late as the 4th century. Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus.", "id": "783", "title": "Alexander the Great", "categories": ["Alexander the Great", "323 BC deaths", "356 BC births", "4th-century BC Babylonian kings", "4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs", "4th-century BC Macedonians", "4th-century BC Pharaohs", "4th-century BC rulers", "Ancient Greek generals", "Ancient Macedonian generals", "Ancient Pellaeans", "Argead kings of Macedonia", "City founders", "Deified people", "Hellenistic-era people", "Monarchs of Persia", "People in the deuterocanonical books", "Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty", "Shahnameh characters"], "seealso": ["Diogenes and Alexander", "Bucephalus", "List of people known as The Great", "Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources", "Ancient Macedonian army", "Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn", "Chronology of European exploration of Asia"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Alfred Habdank Skarbek Korzybski''' (, ; July 3, 1879 – March 1, 1950) was a Polish-American independent scholar who developed a field called [[general semantics]], which he viewed as both distinct from, and more encompassing than, the field of [[semantics]]. He argued that human knowledge of the world is limited both by the human nervous system and the languages humans have developed, and thus no one can have direct access to reality, given that the most we can know is that which is filtered through the brain's responses to reality. His best known dictum is \"[[Map–territory relation|The map is not the territory]]\".", "id": "784", "title": "Alfred Korzybski", "categories": ["1879 births", "1950 deaths", "Writers from Warsaw", "Clan Abdank", "Polish emigrants to the United States", "Polish engineers", "Polish philosophers", "Polish mathematicians", "Linguists from Poland", "Contemporary philosophers", "General semantics", "People from Lakeville, Connecticut"], "seealso": ["Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture", "E-Prime", "Institute of General Semantics", "Concept and object", "Structural differential", "Robert Pula"]}
{"headers": ["Early life and career"], "text": "Born in [[Warsaw]], [[Congress Poland|Poland]], then part of the [[Russian Empire]], Korzybski belonged to an aristocratic Polish family whose members had worked as mathematicians, scientists, and engineers for generations. He learned the [[Polish language]] at home and the [[Russian language]] in schools; and having a French and German [[governess]], he became fluent in four languages as a child. Korzybski studied engineering at the [[Warsaw University of Technology]]. During the [[First World War]] (1914–1918) Korzybski served as an [[Military intelligence|intelligence officer]] in the [[Russia]] Army. After being wounded in a leg and suffering other injuries, he moved to North America in 1916 (first to Canada, then to the United States) to coordinate the shipment of [[artillery]] to Russia. He also lectured to Polish-American audiences about the conflict, promoting the sale of [[war bonds]]. After the war he decided to remain in the United States, becoming a [[Naturalization|naturalized citizen]] in 1940. He met [[Mira Edgerly-Korzybska|Mira Edgerly]], a painter of portraits on ivory, shortly after the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918|1918 Armistice]]; They married in January 1919; the marriage lasted until his death. [[E. P. Dutton]] published Korzybski's first book, ''Manhood of Humanity'', in 1921. In this work he proposed and explained in detail a new theory of humankind: mankind as a \"[[General semantics#The major premises|time-binding]]\" class of life (humans perform time binding by the transmission of knowledge and [[abstraction]] through time which become accreted in cultures).", "id": "784", "title": "Alfred Korzybski", "categories": ["1879 births", "1950 deaths", "Writers from Warsaw", "Clan Abdank", "Polish emigrants to the United States", "Polish engineers", "Polish philosophers", "Polish mathematicians", "Linguists from Poland", "Contemporary philosophers", "General semantics", "People from Lakeville, Connecticut"], "seealso": ["Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture", "E-Prime", "Institute of General Semantics", "Concept and object", "Structural differential", "Robert Pula"]}
{"headers": ["General semantics"], "text": "Korzybski's work culminated in the initiation of a discipline that he named [[general semantics]] (GS). This should not be confused with [[semantics]]. The basic principles of general semantics, which include time-binding, are described in the publication ''Science and Sanity'', published in 1933. In 1938 Korzybski founded the [[Institute of General Semantics]] in Chicago. The post-World War II housing shortage in Chicago cost him the institute's building lease, so in 1946 he moved the institute to [[Lakeville (Salisbury, Connecticut)|Lakeville, Connecticut]], U.S., where he directed it until his death in 1950. Korzybski maintained that humans are limited in what they know by (1) the structure of their nervous systems, and (2) the [[structure]] of their languages. Humans cannot experience the world directly, but only through their \"abstractions\" (nonverbal impressions or \"gleanings\" derived from the nervous system, and verbal indicators expressed and derived from language). These sometimes mislead us about what is the truth. Our understanding sometimes lacks ''similarity of structure'' with what is actually happening. He sought to train our awareness of abstracting, using techniques he had derived from his study of mathematics and science. He called this awareness, this goal of his system, \"consciousness of abstracting\". His system included the promotion of attitudes such as \"I don't know; let's see,\" in order that we may better discover or reflect on its realities as revealed by modern science. Another technique involved becoming inwardly and outwardly quiet, an experience he termed, \"silence on the objective levels\".", "id": "784", "title": "Alfred Korzybski", "categories": ["1879 births", "1950 deaths", "Writers from Warsaw", "Clan Abdank", "Polish emigrants to the United States", "Polish engineers", "Polish philosophers", "Polish mathematicians", "Linguists from Poland", "Contemporary philosophers", "General semantics", "People from Lakeville, Connecticut"], "seealso": ["Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture", "E-Prime", "Institute of General Semantics", "Concept and object", "Structural differential", "Robert Pula"]}
{"headers": ["\"To be\""], "text": "Many devotees and critics of Korzybski reduced his rather complex system to a simple matter of what he said about the verb form \"is\" of the general verb \"to be.\" His system, however, is based primarily on such terminology as the different \"orders of abstraction,\" and formulations such as \"consciousness of abstracting.\" The contention that Korzybski ''opposed'' the use of the verb \"to be\" would be a profound exaggeration. He thought that ''certain uses'' of the verb \"to be\", called the \"is of identity\" and the \"is of [[E-Prime#Different functions of \"to be\"|predication]]\", were faulty in structure, e.g., a statement such as, \"Elizabeth is a fool\" (said of a person named \"Elizabeth\" who has done something that we regard as foolish). In Korzybski's system, one's assessment of Elizabeth belongs to a higher order of abstraction than Elizabeth herself. Korzybski's remedy was to ''deny'' identity; in this example, to be aware continually that \"Elizabeth\" is ''not'' what we ''call'' her. We find Elizabeth not in the verbal domain, the world of words, but the nonverbal domain (the two, he said, amount to different orders of abstraction). This was expressed by Korzybski's most famous premise, \"[[Map–territory relation|the map is not the territory]]\". Note that this premise uses the phrase \"is not\", a form of \"to be\"; this and many other examples show that he did not intend to abandon \"to be\" as such. In fact, he said explicitly that there were no structural problems with the verb \"to be\" when used as an [[E-prime#The different functions of 'to be'|auxiliary verb]] or when used to state existence or location. It was even acceptable at times to use the faulty forms of the verb \"to be,\" as long as one was aware of their structural limitations.", "id": "784", "title": "Alfred Korzybski", "categories": ["1879 births", "1950 deaths", "Writers from Warsaw", "Clan Abdank", "Polish emigrants to the United States", "Polish engineers", "Polish philosophers", "Polish mathematicians", "Linguists from Poland", "Contemporary philosophers", "General semantics", "People from Lakeville, Connecticut"], "seealso": ["Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture", "E-Prime", "Institute of General Semantics", "Concept and object", "Structural differential", "Robert Pula"]}
{"headers": ["Anecdotes"], "text": "One day, Korzybski was giving a lecture to a group of students, and he interrupted the lesson suddenly in order to retrieve a packet of biscuits, wrapped in white paper, from his briefcase. He muttered that he just had to eat something, and he asked the students on the seats in the front row if they would also like a biscuit. A few students took a biscuit. \"Nice biscuit, don't you think,\" said Korzybski, while he took a second one. The students were chewing vigorously. Then he tore the white paper from the biscuits, in order to reveal the original packaging. On it was a big picture of a dog's head and the words \"Dog Cookies.\" The students looked at the package, and were shocked. Two of them wanted to vomit, put their hands in front of their mouths, and ran out of the lecture hall to the toilet. \"You see,\" Korzybski remarked, \"I have just demonstrated that people don't just eat food, but also words, and that the taste of the former is often outdone by the taste of the latter.\" [[William Burroughs]] went to a Korzybski workshop in the Autumn of 1939. He was 25 years old, and paid $40. His fellow students—there were 38 in all—included young [[Samuel I. Hayakawa]] (later to become a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] member of the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]]), Ralph Moriarty deBit (later to become the spiritual teacher [[Vitvan]]) and [[Wendell Johnson]] (founder of the [[Monster Study]]).", "id": "784", "title": "Alfred Korzybski", "categories": ["1879 births", "1950 deaths", "Writers from Warsaw", "Clan Abdank", "Polish emigrants to the United States", "Polish engineers", "Polish philosophers", "Polish mathematicians", "Linguists from Poland", "Contemporary philosophers", "General semantics", "People from Lakeville, Connecticut"], "seealso": ["Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture", "E-Prime", "Institute of General Semantics", "Concept and object", "Structural differential", "Robert Pula"]}
{"headers": ["Influence"], "text": "Korzybski was well received in numerous disciplines, as evidenced by the positive reactions from leading figures in the sciences and humanities in the 1940s and 1950s. These include author [[Robert A. Heinlein]] naming a character after him in his 1940 short story \"[[Blowups Happen]]\", and science fiction writer [[A. E. van Vogt]] in his novel \"[[The World of Null-A]]\", published in 1948. Korzybski's ideas influenced philosopher [[Alan Watts]] who used his phrase \"the map is not the territory\" in lectures. As reported in the third edition of ''Science and Sanity'', in World War II the [[US Army]] used Korzybski's system to treat [[Combat stress reaction|battle fatigue]] in Europe, under the supervision of Dr. [[Douglas Kelley|Douglas M. Kelley]], who went on to become the psychiatrist in charge of the Nazi war criminals at [[Nuremberg trials|Nuremberg]]. Some of the General Semantics tradition was continued by [[Samuel I. Hayakawa]].", "id": "784", "title": "Alfred Korzybski", "categories": ["1879 births", "1950 deaths", "Writers from Warsaw", "Clan Abdank", "Polish emigrants to the United States", "Polish engineers", "Polish philosophers", "Polish mathematicians", "Linguists from Poland", "Contemporary philosophers", "General semantics", "People from Lakeville, Connecticut"], "seealso": ["Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture", "E-Prime", "Institute of General Semantics", "Concept and object", "Structural differential", "Robert Pula"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''''Asteroids''''' is a space-themed [[multidirectional shooter]] [[arcade game]] designed by [[Lyle Rains]] and [[Ed Logg]] released in [[1979 in video games|November 1979]] by [[Atari, Inc.]] The player controls a single spaceship in an [[Asteroid belt|asteroid field]] which is periodically traversed by [[flying saucer]]. The object of the game is to shoot and destroy the asteroids and saucers, while not colliding with either, or being hit by the saucers' counter-fire. The game becomes harder as the number of asteroids increases. ''Asteroids'' was one of the first major hits of the [[Golden age of arcade video games|golden age of arcade games]]; the game sold over 70,000 [[Video game arcade cabinet|arcade cabinets]] and proved both popular with players and influential with developers. In the 1980s it was ported to Atari's home systems, and the Atari VCS version sold over three million copies. The game was widely imitated, and it directly influenced ''[[Defender (1981 video game)|Defender]]'', ''[[Gravitar]]'', and many other video games. ''Asteroids'' was conceived during a meeting between Logg and Rains, who decided to use hardware developed by Howard Delman previously used for ''[[Lunar Lander (1979 video game)|Lunar Lander]]''. Asteroids was based on an unfinished game titled ''Cosmos''; its physics model, control scheme, and gameplay elements were derived from ''[[Spacewar!]]'', ''[[Computer Space]]'', and ''[[Space Invaders]]'' and refined through trial and error. The game is rendered on a [[vector display]] in a two-dimensional view that wraps around both screen axes.", "id": "785", "title": "Asteroids (video game)", "categories": ["1979 video games", "Arcade video games", "Atari 2600 games", "Atari 7800 games", "Atari 8-bit family games", "Atari arcade games", "Atari Lynx games", "Cancelled Atari 5200 games", "Cancelled Atari Jaguar games", "Ed Logg games", "Game Boy games", "Game Boy Color games", "Multidirectional shooters", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Science fiction video games", "Sega arcade games", "Taito arcade games", "Xbox 360 games", "Xbox 360 Live Arcade games", "Vector arcade video games", "Video games developed in the United States"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Gameplay"], "text": "[[Image:Asteroi1.png|thumb|left|A ship is surrounded by asteroids and a saucer.]] The objective of ''Asteroids'' is to destroy asteroids and saucers. The player controls a triangular [[spacecraft|ship]] that can rotate left and right, fire shots straight forward, and thrust forward. Once the ship begins moving in a direction, it will continue in that direction for a time without player intervention unless the player applies thrust in a different direction. The ship eventually comes to a stop when not thrusting. The player can also send the ship into hyperspace, causing it to disappear and reappear in a random location on the screen, at the risk of self-destructing or appearing on top of an asteroid. Each level starts with a few large asteroids drifting in various directions on the screen. Objects [[Wraparound (video games)|wrap around screen edges]] – for instance, an asteroid that drifts off the top edge of the screen reappears at the bottom and continues moving in the same direction. As the player shoots asteroids, they break into smaller asteroids that move faster and are more difficult to hit. Smaller asteroids are also worth more points. Two flying saucers appear periodically on the screen; the \"big saucer\" shoots randomly and poorly, while the \"small saucer\" fires frequently at the ship. After reaching a score of 40,000, only the small saucer appears. As the player's score increases, the angle range of the shots from the small saucer diminishes until the saucer fires extremely accurately. Once the screen has been cleared of all asteroids and flying saucers, a new set of large asteroids appears, thus starting the next level. The game gets harder as the number of asteroids increases until after the score reaches a range between 40,000 and 60,000. The player starts with 3–5 lives upon game start and gains an extra life per 10,000 points. Play continues to the last ship lost, which ends the game. Machine \"turns over\" at 99,990 points, which is the maximum high score that can be achieved.", "id": "785", "title": "Asteroids (video game)", "categories": ["1979 video games", "Arcade video games", "Atari 2600 games", "Atari 7800 games", "Atari 8-bit family games", "Atari arcade games", "Atari Lynx games", "Cancelled Atari 5200 games", "Cancelled Atari Jaguar games", "Ed Logg games", "Game Boy games", "Game Boy Color games", "Multidirectional shooters", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Science fiction video games", "Sega arcade games", "Taito arcade games", "Xbox 360 games", "Xbox 360 Live Arcade games", "Vector arcade video games", "Video games developed in the United States"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Gameplay", "Lurking exploit"], "text": "In the original game design, saucers were supposed to begin shooting as soon as they appeared, but this was changed. Additionally, saucers can only aim at the player's ship on-screen; they are not capable of aiming across a screen boundary. These behaviors allow a \"lurking\" strategy, in which the player stays near the edge of the screen opposite the saucer. By keeping just one or two rocks in play, a player can shoot across the boundary and destroy saucers to accumulate points indefinitely with little risk of being destroyed. Arcade operators began to complain about losing revenue due to this exploit. In response, Atari issued a patched [[EPROM]] and, due to the impact of this exploit, Atari (and other companies) changed their development and testing policies to try to prevent future games from having such exploits.", "id": "785", "title": "Asteroids (video game)", "categories": ["1979 video games", "Arcade video games", "Atari 2600 games", "Atari 7800 games", "Atari 8-bit family games", "Atari arcade games", "Atari Lynx games", "Cancelled Atari 5200 games", "Cancelled Atari Jaguar games", "Ed Logg games", "Game Boy games", "Game Boy Color games", "Multidirectional shooters", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Science fiction video games", "Sega arcade games", "Taito arcade games", "Xbox 360 games", "Xbox 360 Live Arcade games", "Vector arcade video games", "Video games developed in the United States"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Development", "Concept"], "text": "''Asteroids'' was conceived by Lyle Rains and programmed by Ed Logg with collaborations from other Atari staff. Logg was impressed with the Atari Video Computer System (later called the [[Atari 2600]]), and he joined Atari's coin-op division to work on ''Dirt Bike'', which was never released due to an unsuccessful field test. Paul Mancuso joined the development team as ''Asteroids'' technician and engineer Howard Delman contributed to the hardware. During a meeting in April 1979, Rains discussed ''Planet Grab'', a multiplayer arcade game later renamed to ''Cosmos''. Logg did not know the name of the game, thinking ''[[Computer Space]]'' as \"the inspiration for the two-dimensional approach\". Rains conceived of ''Asteroids'' as a mixture of ''[[Computer Space]]'' and ''[[Space Invaders]]'', combining the two-dimensional approach of ''Computer Space'' with ''Space Invaders'' addictive gameplay of \"completion\" and \"eliminate all threats\". The unfinished game featured a giant, indestructible asteroid, so Rains asked Logg: \"Well, why don’t we have a game where you shoot the rocks and blow them up?\" In response, Logg described a similar concept where the player selectively shoots at rocks that break into smaller pieces. Both agreed on the concept.", "id": "785", "title": "Asteroids (video game)", "categories": ["1979 video games", "Arcade video games", "Atari 2600 games", "Atari 7800 games", "Atari 8-bit family games", "Atari arcade games", "Atari Lynx games", "Cancelled Atari 5200 games", "Cancelled Atari Jaguar games", "Ed Logg games", "Game Boy games", "Game Boy Color games", "Multidirectional shooters", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Science fiction video games", "Sega arcade games", "Taito arcade games", "Xbox 360 games", "Xbox 360 Live Arcade games", "Vector arcade video games", "Video games developed in the United States"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Development", "Hardware"], "text": "''Asteroids'' was implemented on hardware developed by Delman and is a [[vector monitor|vector game]], in which the graphics are composed of lines drawn on a vector monitor. Rains initially wanted the game done in [[raster graphics]], but Logg, experienced in [[vector monitor|vector graphics]], suggested an XY monitor because the high image quality would permit precise aiming. The hardware is chiefly a [[MOS Technology 6502|MOS 6502]] executing the game program, and QuadraScan, a high-resolution vector graphics processor developed by Atari and referred to as an \"XY display system\" and the \"Digital Vector Generator (DVG)\". The original design concepts for QuadraScan came out of Cyan Engineering, Atari's off-campus research lab in [[Grass Valley, California]], in 1978. Cyan gave it to Delman, who finished the design and first used it for ''Lunar Lander''. Logg received Delman's modified board with five buttons, 13 sound effects, and additional RAM, and he used it to develop ''Asteroids''. The size of the board was 4 by 4 inches, and it was \"linked up\" to a monitor.", "id": "785", "title": "Asteroids (video game)", "categories": ["1979 video games", "Arcade video games", "Atari 2600 games", "Atari 7800 games", "Atari 8-bit family games", "Atari arcade games", "Atari Lynx games", "Cancelled Atari 5200 games", "Cancelled Atari Jaguar games", "Ed Logg games", "Game Boy games", "Game Boy Color games", "Multidirectional shooters", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Science fiction video games", "Sega arcade games", "Taito arcade games", "Xbox 360 games", "Xbox 360 Live Arcade games", "Vector arcade video games", "Video games developed in the United States"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Development", "Implementation"], "text": "Logg modeled the player's ship, the five-button control scheme, and the game physics after ''Spacewar!'', which he had played as a student at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], but made several changes to improve playability. The ship was programmed into the hardware and rendered by the monitor, and it was configured to move with thrust and inertia. The hyperspace button was not placed near Logg's right thumb, which he was dissatisfied with, as he had a problem \"tak[ing] his hand off the thrust button\". Drawings of asteroids in various shapes were incorporated into the game. Logg copied the idea of a high score table with initials from Exidy's ''[[Star Fire]]''. The two saucers were formulated to be different from each other. A steadily decreasing timer shortens intervals between saucer attacks to keep the player from not shooting asteroids and saucers. A \"heartbeat\" soundtrack quickens as the game progresses. The game does not have a sound chip. Delman created a hardware circuit for 13 sound effects by hand which was wired onto the board. A prototype of ''Asteroids'' was well received by several Atari staff and engineers, who \"wander[ed] between labs, passing comment and stopping to play as they went\". Logg was often asked when he would be leaving by employees eager to play the prototype, so he created a second prototype for staff to play. Atari tested the game in arcades in [[Sacramento, California]], and also observed players during focus group sessions at Atari. Players used to ''Spacewar!'' struggled to maintain grip on the thrust button and requested a joystick; players accustomed to ''[[Space Invaders]]'' noted they get no break in the game. Logg and other engineers observed proceedings and documented comments in four pages. ''Asteroids'' slows down as the player gains 50–100 lives, because there is no limit to the number of lives displayed. The player can \"lose\" the game after more than 250 lives are collected.", "id": "785", "title": "Asteroids (video game)", "categories": ["1979 video games", "Arcade video games", "Atari 2600 games", "Atari 7800 games", "Atari 8-bit family games", "Atari arcade games", "Atari Lynx games", "Cancelled Atari 5200 games", "Cancelled Atari Jaguar games", "Ed Logg games", "Game Boy games", "Game Boy Color games", "Multidirectional shooters", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Science fiction video games", "Sega arcade games", "Taito arcade games", "Xbox 360 games", "Xbox 360 Live Arcade games", "Vector arcade video games", "Video games developed in the United States"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ports"], "text": "''Asteroids'' was released for the Atari VCS (later renamed the [[Atari 2600]]) and [[Atari 8-bit family]] in 1981, then the [[Atari 7800]] in 1986. A port for the [[Atari 5200]], identical to the Atari 8-bit computer version, was in development in 1982, but was not published. The Atari 7800 version was a launch title and includes cooperative play; the asteroids have colorful textures and the \"heartbeat\" sound effect remains intact.  Programmers Brad Stewart and Bob Smith were unable to fit the Atari VCS port into a 4 KB cartridge. It became the first game for the console to use [[bank switching]], a technique that increases ROM size from 4 KB to 8 KB.", "id": "785", "title": "Asteroids (video game)", "categories": ["1979 video games", "Arcade video games", "Atari 2600 games", "Atari 7800 games", "Atari 8-bit family games", "Atari arcade games", "Atari Lynx games", "Cancelled Atari 5200 games", "Cancelled Atari Jaguar games", "Ed Logg games", "Game Boy games", "Game Boy Color games", "Multidirectional shooters", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Science fiction video games", "Sega arcade games", "Taito arcade games", "Xbox 360 games", "Xbox 360 Live Arcade games", "Vector arcade video games", "Video games developed in the United States"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Reception"], "text": "''Asteroids'' was immediately successful upon release. It displaced ''[[Space Invaders]]'' by popularity in the United States and became Atari's best selling arcade game of all time, with over 70,000 units sold. Atari earned an estimated $150 million in sales from the game, and arcade operators earned a further $500 million from coin drops. Atari had been in the process of manufacturing another vector game, ''Lunar Lander'', but demand for ''Asteroids'' was so high \"that several hundred ''Asteroids'' games were shipped in ''Lunar Lander'' cabinets\". ''Asteroids'' was so popular that some [[video arcade]] operators had to install large boxes to hold the number of coins spent by players. After replacing ''Space Invaders'' at the top of the US ''RePlay'' arcade charts in April 1980, it went on to become the highest-grossing [[1980 in video games|arcade video game of 1980]] in the United States. It shipped 70,000 arcade units worldwide in 1980, including over 60,000 sold in the United States that year, and grossed about worldwide ( adjusted for inflation) by 1980. The game remained at the top of the US ''RePlay'' charts through [[1981 in video games|March 1981]]. However, the game did not perform as well overseas in Europe and Asia. It sold 30,000 arcade units overseas, for a total of 100,000 arcade units sold worldwide. Atari manufactured 76,312 units from its US and Ireland plants, including 21,394 ''Asteroids Deluxe'' units. It was a commercial failure in Japan when it released there in 1980, partly due to its complex controls and partly due to the Japanese market beginning to lose interest in space shoot 'em ups at the time. ''Asteroids'' received positive reviews from video game critics and has been regarded as Logg's magnum opus. Richard A. Edwards reviewed the 1981 ''Asteroids'' home cartridge in ''[[The Space Gamer]]'' No. 46. Edwards commented that \"this home cartridge is a virtual duplicate of the ever-popular Atari arcade game. [...] If blasting asteroids is the thing you want to do then this is the game, but at this price I can't wholeheartedly recommend it\". ''Video Games Player'' magazine reviewed the Atari VCS version, rating the graphics and sound a B, while giving the game an overall B+ rating. ''[[Electronic Fun with Computers & Games]]'' magazine gave the Atari VCS version an A rating.", "id": "785", "title": "Asteroids (video game)", "categories": ["1979 video games", "Arcade video games", "Atari 2600 games", "Atari 7800 games", "Atari 8-bit family games", "Atari arcade games", "Atari Lynx games", "Cancelled Atari 5200 games", "Cancelled Atari Jaguar games", "Ed Logg games", "Game Boy games", "Game Boy Color games", "Multidirectional shooters", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Science fiction video games", "Sega arcade games", "Taito arcade games", "Xbox 360 games", "Xbox 360 Live Arcade games", "Vector arcade video games", "Video games developed in the United States"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Reception"], "text": "William Cassidy, writing for [[GameSpy]]'s \"Classic Gaming\", noticed its innovations, including being one of the first video games to track initials and allow players to enter their initials for appearing in the top 10 high scores, and commented, \"the vector graphics fit the futuristic outer space theme very well\". In 1996, ''[[Next Generation (magazine)|Next Generation]]'' listed it as number 39 on their \"Top 100 Games of All Time\", particularly lauding the control dynamics which require \"the constant juggling of speed, positioning, and direction\". In 1999, ''[[Next Generation (magazine)|Next Generation]]'' listed ''Asteroids'' as number 29 on their \"Top 50 Games of All Time\", commenting that \"''Asteroid'' was a classic the day it was released, and it has never lost any of its appeal\". ''Asteroids'' was ranked fourth on ''[[Retro Gamer]]''s list of \"Top 25 Arcade Games\"; the ''Retro Gamer'' staff cited its simplicity and the lack of a proper ending as allowances of revisiting the game. In 2012, ''Asteroids'' was listed on [[Time (magazine)|Time]]'s All-TIME 100 greatest video games list. ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]'' named ''Asteroids'' one of the top ten games for the Atari 2600 in 2013. It was added to the [[Museum of Modern Art]]'s collection of video games. By contrast, in March 1983 the Atari 8-bit port won sixth place in ''[[Softline (magazine)|Softline]]''s Dog of the Year awards \"for badness in computer games\", Atari division, based on reader submissions. Usage of the names of ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' characters \"Mr. Bill\" and \"Sluggo\" to refer to the saucers in an ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]'' article about the game led to Logg receiving a [[cease and desist]] letter from a lawyer with the \"Mr. Bill Trademark\".", "id": "785", "title": "Asteroids (video game)", "categories": ["1979 video games", "Arcade video games", "Atari 2600 games", "Atari 7800 games", "Atari 8-bit family games", "Atari arcade games", "Atari Lynx games", "Cancelled Atari 5200 games", "Cancelled Atari Jaguar games", "Ed Logg games", "Game Boy games", "Game Boy Color games", "Multidirectional shooters", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Science fiction video games", "Sega arcade games", "Taito arcade games", "Xbox 360 games", "Xbox 360 Live Arcade games", "Vector arcade video games", "Video games developed in the United States"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Arcade sequels"], "text": "Released in 1981, ''[[Asteroids Deluxe]]'' was the first sequel to ''Asteroids''. Dave Shepperd edited the code and made enhancements to the game without Logg's involvement. The onscreen objects are tinted blue, and hyperspace is replaced by a shield that depletes when used. The asteroids rotate, and new \"killer satellite\" enemies break into smaller ships that home in on the player's position. The arcade machine's monitor displays vector graphics overlaying a holographic backdrop. The game is more difficult than the original and enables saucers to shoot across the screen boundary, eliminating the lurking strategy for high scores in the original. It was followed by Owen Rubin's ''[[Space Duel]]'' in 1982, featuring colorful geometric shapes and co-op multiplayer gameplay. In 1987's ''[[Blasteroids]]'', Ed Rotberg added \"power-ups, ship morphing, branching levels, bosses, and the ability to dock your ships in multiplayer for added firepower\". ''Blasteroids'' uses raster graphics instead of vectors.", "id": "785", "title": "Asteroids (video game)", "categories": ["1979 video games", "Arcade video games", "Atari 2600 games", "Atari 7800 games", "Atari 8-bit family games", "Atari arcade games", "Atari Lynx games", "Cancelled Atari 5200 games", "Cancelled Atari Jaguar games", "Ed Logg games", "Game Boy games", "Game Boy Color games", "Multidirectional shooters", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Science fiction video games", "Sega arcade games", "Taito arcade games", "Xbox 360 games", "Xbox 360 Live Arcade games", "Vector arcade video games", "Video games developed in the United States"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Re-releases"], "text": "The game is half of the Atari Lynx pairing ''[[Super Asteroids & Missile Command]]'', and included in the 1993 ''[[Microsoft Arcade]]'' compilation. [[Activision]] published an enhanced version of ''Asteroids'' for the [[PlayStation (console)|PlayStation]] (1998), [[Nintendo 64]] (1999), [[Microsoft Windows]] (1998), [[Game Boy Color]] (1999), and [[Macintosh]] (2000). The [[Atari Flashback]] series of dedicated video game consoles have included both the 2600 and the arcade versions of ''Asteroids''. Published by [[Crave Entertainment]] on December 14, 1999, ''Asteroids Hyper 64'' made the ship and asteroids 3D and added new weapons and a multiplayer mode. A technical demo of ''Asteroids'' was developed by iThink for the [[Atari Jaguar]] but was never released. Unofficially referred to as ''Asteroids 2000'', it was demonstrated at E-JagFest 2000. In 2001, Infogrames released ''[[Atari Anniversary Edition]]'' for the Dreamcast, PlayStation, and Microsoft Windows. Developed by [[Digital Eclipse]], it includes emulated versions of ''Asteroids'' and other games. The arcade and Atari 2600 versions of ''Asteroids'' were included in ''[[Atari Anthology]]'' for both [[Xbox (console)|Xbox]] and [[PlayStation 2]]. Released on November 28, 2007, the Xbox Live Arcade port of ''Asteroids'' has revamped HD graphics along with an added intense \"throttle monkey\" mode. The arcade and 2600 versions were made available through [[Microsoft]] ''[[Game Room]]'' service in 2010. [[Glu Mobile]] released an enhanced mobile phone port. ''Asteroids'' is included on ''[[Atari Greatest Hits]] Volume 1'' for the [[Nintendo DS]]. An updated version of the game was announced in 2018 for the [[Intellivision Amico]].", "id": "785", "title": "Asteroids (video game)", "categories": ["1979 video games", "Arcade video games", "Atari 2600 games", "Atari 7800 games", "Atari 8-bit family games", "Atari arcade games", "Atari Lynx games", "Cancelled Atari 5200 games", "Cancelled Atari Jaguar games", "Ed Logg games", "Game Boy games", "Game Boy Color games", "Multidirectional shooters", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Science fiction video games", "Sega arcade games", "Taito arcade games", "Xbox 360 games", "Xbox 360 Live Arcade games", "Vector arcade video games", "Video games developed in the United States"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Clones"], "text": "[[Quality Software]]'s ''Asteroids in Space'' (1980) was one of the best selling games for the [[Apple II]] and voted one of the most popular software titles of 1978-80 by ''[[Softalk]]'' magazine. In December 1981, ''[[BYTE]]'' reviewed eight ''Asteroids'' clones for home computers. Three other Apple II ''Asteroids'' clones were reviewed together in the 1982 ''Creative Computing Software Buyers Guide'': ''The Asteroid Field'', ''Asteron'', and ''[[Apple-Oids]]''. In the last of these, the asteroids are in the shape of apples. Two independent clones, ''Asteroid'' for the Apple II and ''Fasteroids'' for TRS-80, were renamed to ''[[Planetoids (video game)|Planetoids]]'' and sold by Adventure International. Others clones include [[Acornsoft]]'s ''Meteors'', ''Moons of Jupiter'' for the [[VIC-20]], and ''[[MineStorm]]'' for the [[Vectrex]]. The [[Mattel]] [[Intellivision]] game ''Meteor!'' , an ''Asteroids'' clone, was cancelled to avoid a lawsuit, and was reworked as ''[[Astrosmash]]''. The game borrows elements from ''Asteroids'' and ''Space Invaders''.", "id": "785", "title": "Asteroids (video game)", "categories": ["1979 video games", "Arcade video games", "Atari 2600 games", "Atari 7800 games", "Atari 8-bit family games", "Atari arcade games", "Atari Lynx games", "Cancelled Atari 5200 games", "Cancelled Atari Jaguar games", "Ed Logg games", "Game Boy games", "Game Boy Color games", "Multidirectional shooters", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Science fiction video games", "Sega arcade games", "Taito arcade games", "Xbox 360 games", "Xbox 360 Live Arcade games", "Vector arcade video games", "Video games developed in the United States"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["World records"], "text": "On February 6, 1982, Leo Daniels of Carolina Beach, North Carolina, set a [[world record]] score of 40,101,910 points. On November 13 of the same year, 15-year-old [[Scott Safran]] of Cherry Hill, New Jersey, set a new record at 41,336,440 points. In 1998, to congratulate Safran on his accomplishment, the [[Twin Galaxies]] Intergalactic Scoreboard searched for him for four years until 2002, when it was discovered that he had died in an accident in 1989. In a ceremony in Philadelphia on April 27, 2002, Walter Day of Twin Galaxies presented an award to the surviving members of Safran's family, commemorating his achievement. On April 5, 2010, John McAllister broke Safran's record with a high score of 41,838,740 in a 58-hour Internet livestream. Some claim that the true world record for ''Asteroids'' was set in a laundromat in Hyde Park, New York, from June 30 to July 3, 1982, and that details of the score of over 48 million were published in the July 4th edition of the ''[[Poughkeepsie Journal]]''.", "id": "785", "title": "Asteroids (video game)", "categories": ["1979 video games", "Arcade video games", "Atari 2600 games", "Atari 7800 games", "Atari 8-bit family games", "Atari arcade games", "Atari Lynx games", "Cancelled Atari 5200 games", "Cancelled Atari Jaguar games", "Ed Logg games", "Game Boy games", "Game Boy Color games", "Multidirectional shooters", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Science fiction video games", "Sega arcade games", "Taito arcade games", "Xbox 360 games", "Xbox 360 Live Arcade games", "Vector arcade video games", "Video games developed in the United States"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Asparagales''' ('''asparagoid lilies''') is an [[order (biology)|order]] of plants in modern classification systems such as the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] (APG) and the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Web]]. The order takes its name from the [[type (biology)|type]] [[family (biology)|family]] [[Asparagaceae]] and is placed in the [[monocots]] amongst the [[lilioid monocots]]. The order has only recently been recognized in classification systems. It was first put forward by [[herbert Huber (botanist)|Huber]] in 1977 and later taken up in the [[Dahlgren system]] of 1985 and then the APG in 1998, 2003 and 2009. Before this, many of its families were assigned to the old order [[Liliales]], a very large order containing almost all monocots with colorful [[tepal]] and lacking [[starch]] in their [[endosperm]]. [[DNA sequencing|DNA sequence analysis]] indicated that many of the taxa previously included in Liliales should actually be redistributed over three orders, [[Liliales]], Asparagales, and [[Dioscoreales]]. The boundaries of the Asparagales and of its families have undergone a series of changes in recent years; future research may lead to further changes and ultimately greater stability. In the APG [[circumscription (taxonomy)|circumscription]], Asparagales is the largest order of monocots with 14 families, 1,122 [[Genus|genera]], and about 36,000 [[species]]. The order is clearly [[circumscribed]] on the basis of [[molecular phylogenetics]], but it is difficult to define [[plant morphology|morphologically]] since its members are structurally diverse. Most species of Asparagales are [[herbaceous]] [[perennial]], although some are [[vines|climbers]] and some are tree-like. The order also contains many [[geophyte]] (bulbs, corms, and various kinds of tuber). According to [[Telomere|telomere sequence]], at least two evolutionary switch-points happened within the order. The basal sequence is formed by TTTAGGG like in the majority of higher plants. Basal motif was changed to vertebrate-like TTAGGG and finally, the most divergent motif CTCGGTTATGGG appears in ''Allium''. One of the defining characteristics ([[Synapomorphy|synapomorphies]]) of the order is the presence of [[phytomelanin]], a black pigment present in the seed coat, creating a dark crust. Phytomelanin is found in most families of the Asparagales (although not in [[Orchidaceae]], thought to be the sister-group of the rest of the order). The [[Leaf|leaves]] of almost all species form a tight [[rosette (botany)|rosette]], either at the base of the plant or at the end of the [[plant stem|stem]], but occasionally along the stem. The [[flower]] are not particularly distinctive, being 'lily type', with six [[tepal]] and up to six [[stamen|stamina]]. The order is thought to have first [[genetic divergence|diverged]] from other related monocots some 120–130 million years ago (early in the [[Cretaceous period]]), although given the difficulty in classifying the families involved, estimates are likely to be uncertain. From an economic point of view, the order Asparagales is second in importance within the monocots to the order [[Poales]] (which includes [[grass]] and [[cereal]]). Species are used as food and flavourings (e.g. [[onion]], [[garlic]], [[leek]], [[asparagus]], [[vanilla]], [[saffron]]), in medicinal or cosmetic applications (''[[Aloe]]''), as [[cut flowers]] (e.g. [[freesia]], [[gladiolus]], [[iris (plant)|iris]], [[orchid]]), and as garden [[Ornamental plant|ornamentals]] (e.g. [[Hemerocallis|day lilies]], [[Convallaria|lily of the valley]], ''[[Agapanthus]]'').", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Description"], "text": "Although most species in the order are [[herbaceous plant|herbaceous]], some no more than 15 cm high, there are a number of [[vines|climbers]] (''e.g.'', some species of ''[[Asparagus (genus)|Asparagus]]''), as well as several genera forming [[tree]] (e.g. ''[[Agave]]'', ''[[Cordyline]]'', ''[[Yucca]]'', ''[[Dracaena (plant)|Dracaena]]'', ''[[Aloe]]'' ), which can exceed 10 m in height. [[Succulent]] genera occur in several families (e.g. ''Aloe''). Almost all species have a tight cluster of [[Leaf|leaves]] (a [[rosette (botany)|rosette]]), either at the base of the plant or at the end of a more-or-less woody [[plant stem|stem]] as with ''[[Yucca]]''. In some cases, the leaves are produced along the stem. The [[flower]] are in the main not particularly distinctive, being of a general 'lily type', with six [[tepal]], either free or fused from the base and up to six [[stamen|stamina]]. They are frequently clustered at the end of the plant stem. The Asparagales are generally distinguished from the [[Liliales]] by the lack of markings on the tepals, the presence of [[septal nectaries]] in the [[ovary (botany)|ovaries]], rather than the bases of the tepals or stamen filaments, and the presence of [[secondary growth]]. They are generally [[geophytes]], but with linear leaves, and a lack of fine [[reticular venation]]. The [[seed]] characteristically have the external epidermis either obliterated (in most species bearing fleshy fruit), or if present, have a layer of black carbonaceous [[phytomelanin]] in species with dry fruits (nuts). The inner part of the seed coat is generally collapsed, in contrast to Liliales whose seeds have a well developed outer epidermis, lack phytomelanin, and usually display a cellular inner layer. The orders which have been separated from the old Liliales are difficult to characterize. No single morphological character appears to be diagnostic of the order Asparagales. (-) The flowers of Asparagales are of a general type among the [[lilioid monocot]]. Compared to Liliales, they usually have plain [[tepal]] without markings in the form of dots. If [[nectary|nectaries]] are present, they are in the [[septum|septa]] of the [[ovary (plant)|ovaries]] rather than at the base of the tepals or [[stamen]]. (-) Those species which have relatively large dry seeds have a dark, crust-like (crustose) outer layer containing the pigment phytomelan. However, some species with hairy seeds (e.g. ''[[Eriospermum]]'', family Asparagaceae ''s.l.''), berries (e.g. ''[[Maianthemum]]'', family Asparagaceae ''s.l.''), or highly reduced seeds (e.g. orchids) lack this dark pigment in their seed coats. Phytomelan is not unique to Asparagales (i.e. it is not a [[synapomorphy]]) but it is common within the order and rare outside it. The inner portion of the seed coat is usually completely collapsed. In contrast, the morphologically similar seeds of Liliales have no phytomelan, and usually retain a cellular structure in the inner portion of the seed coat.", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Description"], "text": "(-) Most monocots are unable to thicken their stems once they have formed, since they lack the cylindrical [[meristem]] present in other angiosperm groups. Asparagales have a method of secondary thickening which is otherwise only found in''[[Dioscorea]]'' (in the order Disoscoreales). In a process called 'anomalous secondary growth', they are able to create new vascular bundles around which thickening growth occurs. ''[[Agave]]'', ''[[Yucca]]'', ''[[Aloe]]'', ''[[Dracaena (plant)|Dracaena]]'', ''[[Nolina]]'' and ''[[Cordyline]]'' can become massive trees, albeit not of the height of the tallest dicots, and with less branching. Other genera in the order, such as ''[[Lomandra]]'' and ''[[Aphyllanthes]]'', have the same type of secondary growth but confined to their underground stems. (-) [[Microsporogenesis]] (part of [[pollen]] formation) distinguishes some members of Asparagales from Liliales. Microsporogenesis involves a cell dividing twice ([[meiosis|meiotically]]) to form four daughter cells. There are two kinds of microsporogenesis: successive and simultaneous (although intermediates exist). In successive microsporogenesis, walls are laid down separating the daughter cells after each division. In simultaneous microsporogenesis, there is no wall formation until all four cell [[nucleus (cell)|nuclei]] are present. Liliales all have successive microsporogenesis, which is thought to be the primitive condition in monocots. It seems that when the Asparagales first diverged they developed simultaneous microsporogenesis, which the 'lower' Asparagale families retain. However, the 'core' Asparagales (see [[#Phylogeny]] section) have reverted to successive microsporogenesis. (-) The Asparagales appear to be unified by a mutation affecting their [[telomere]] (a region of repetitive [[DNA]] at the end of a [[chromosome]]). The typical '''Arabidopsis''-type' sequence of bases has been fully or partially replaced by other sequences, with the 'human-type' predominating. (-) Other apomorphic characters of the order according to Stevens are: the presence of chelidonic acid, anthers longer than wide, tapetal cells bi- to tetra-nuclear, tegmen not persistent, endosperm helobial, and loss of mitochondrial gene ''sdh3''.", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy"], "text": "As [[circumscription (taxonomy)|circumscribed]] within the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] system Asparagales is the largest [[Order (biology)|order]] within the [[monocotyledons]], with 14 families, 1,122 [[Genus|genera]] and about 25,000–42,000 [[species]], thus accounting for about 50% of all monocots and 10–15% of the [[flowering plant]] (angiosperms). The attribution of botanical authority for the name Asparagales belongs to [[Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link]] (1767–1851) who coined the word 'Asparaginae' in 1829 for a higher order taxon that included ''[[Asparagus]]'' although Adanson and Jussieau had also done so earlier (see History). Earlier circumscriptions of Asparagales attributed the name to [[Edward Bromhead|Bromhead]] (1838), who had been the first to use the term 'Asparagales'.", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "History", "Pre-Darwinian"], "text": "The [[type genus]], ''[[Asparagus]]'', from which the name of the order is derived, was described by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1753, with ten species. He placed ''Asparagus'' within the ''Hexandria Monogynia'' (six [[stamen]], one [[carpel]]) in his [[Linnaean taxonomy|sexual classification]] in the ''[[Species Plantarum]]''. The majority of [[taxa]] now considered to constitute Asparagales have historically been placed within the very large and diverse family, [[Liliaceae]]. The family Liliaceae was first described by [[Michel Adanson]] in 1763, and in [[Adanson system|his taxonomic scheme]] he created eight sections within it, including the Asparagi with ''Asparagus'' and three other genera. The system of organising genera into families is generally credited to [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu]] who formally described both the Liliaceae and the type family of Asparagales, the [[Asparagaceae]], as Lilia and Asparagi, respectively, in 1789. Jussieu established the [[hierarchical]] system of [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] ([[phylogeny]]), placing ''Asparagus'' and related genera within a [[division (botany)|division]] of [[Monocotyledons]], a [[Class (biology)|class]] (III) of ''Stamina Perigynia'' and 'order' Asparagi, divided into three subfamilies. The use of the term ''Ordo'' (order) at that time was closer to what we now understand as Family, rather than Order. In creating [[De Jussieu system|his scheme]] he used a modified form of Linnaeus' sexual classification but using the respective topography of stamens to carpels rather than just their numbers. While De Jussieu's ''Stamina Perigynia'' also included a number of 'orders' that would eventually form families within the Asparagales such as the Asphodeli ([[Asphodelaceae]]), Narcissi ([[Amaryllidaceae]]) and Irides ([[Iridaceae]]), the remainder are now allocated to other orders. Jussieu's Asparagi soon came to be referred to as ''Asparagacées'' in the French literature (Latin: Asparagaceae). Meanwhile, the 'Narcissi' had been renamed as the 'Amaryllidées' (Amaryllideae) in 1805, by [[Jean Henri Jaume Saint-Hilaire]], using ''[[Amaryllis]]'' as the type species rather than ''[[Narcissus (plant)|Narcissus]]'', and thus has the authority attribution for [[Amaryllidaceae]]. In 1810 [[Robert Brown (Scottish botanist from Montrose)|Brown]] proposed that a subgroup of Liliaceae be distinguished on the basis of the position of the [[Ovary (botany)|ovaries]] and be referred to as Amaryllideae and in 1813 [[de Candolle]] described Liliacées Juss. and Amaryllidées Brown as two quite separate families. The literature on the organisation of genera into families and higher ranks became available in the English language with [[Samuel Frederick Gray]]'s ''A natural arrangement of British plants'' (1821). Gray used a combination of Linnaeus' sexual classification and Jussieu's natural classification to group together a number of families having in common six equal stamens, a single style and a perianth that was simple and petaloid, but did not use formal names for these higher ranks. Within the grouping he separated families by the characteristics of their fruit and seed. He treated groups of genera with these characteristics as separate families, such as Amaryllideae, Liliaceae, Asphodeleae and Asparageae.", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "History", "Pre-Darwinian"], "text": "The [[Circumscription (taxonomy)|circumscription]] of Asparagales has been a source of difficulty for many botanists from the time of [[John Lindley]] (1846), the other important British taxonomist of the early nineteenth century. In his [[Lindley system|first taxonomic work]], ''An Introduction to the Natural System of Botany'' (1830) he partly followed Jussieu by describing a subclass he called Endogenae, or Monocotyledonous Plants (preserving de Candolle's ''Endogenæ phanerogamæ'') divided into two tribes, the [[Petaloidea]] and [[Glumaceae]]. He divided the former, often referred to as petaloid monocots, into 32 orders, including the Liliaceae (defined narrowly), but also most of the families considered to make up the Asparagales today, including the [[Amaryllideae]]. By 1846, in his final scheme Lindley had greatly expanded and refined the treatment of the monocots, introducing both an intermediate ranking (Alliances) and tribes within orders (''i.e.'' families). Lindley placed the Liliaceae within the [[Liliales]], but saw it as a [[Paraphyly|paraphyletic]] (\"catch-all\") family, being all Liliales not included in the other orders, but hoped that the future would reveal some characteristic that would group them better. The order Liliales was very large and had become a used to include almost all monocotyledons with colourful tepals and without starch in their endosperm (the [[lilioid monocot]]). The Liliales was difficult to divide into families because morphological characters were not present in patterns that clearly demarcated groups. This kept the Liliaceae separate from the Amaryllidaceae (Narcissales). Of these Liliaceae was divided into eleven tribes (with 133 genera) and Amaryllidaceae into four tribes (with 68 genera), yet both contained many genera that would eventually segregate to each other's contemporary orders (Liliales and Asparagales respectively). The Liliaceae would be reduced to a small 'core' represented by the tribe Tulipae, while large groups such [[Scilleae]] and [[Asparagaceae|Asparagae]] would become part of Asparagales either as part of the Amaryllidaceae or as separate families. While of the Amaryllidaceae, the [[Agavaceae|Agaveae]] would be part of Asparagaceae but the [[Alstroemeriaceae|Alstroemeriae]] would become a family within the [[Liliales]]. The number of known genera (and species) continued to grow and by the time of the next major British classification, that of the [[Bentham & Hooker system]] in 1883 (published in Latin) several of Lindley's other families had been absorbed into the Liliaceae. They used the term 'series' to indicate suprafamilial rank, with seven series of monocotyledons (including Glumaceae), but did not use Lindley's terms for these. However they did place the Liliaceous and Amaryllidaceous genera into separate series. The Liliaceae were placed in series Coronariae, while the Amaryllideae were placed in series Epigynae. The Liliaceae now consisted of twenty tribes (including Tulipeae, Scilleae and Asparageae), and the Amaryllideae of five (including Agaveae and Alstroemerieae). An important addition to the treatment of the Liliaceae was the recognition of the [[Allieae]] as a distinct tribe that would eventually find its way to the Asparagales as the subfamily [[Allioideae]] of the Amaryllidaceae.", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "History", "Post-Darwinian"], "text": "The appearance of [[Charles Darwin]]'s [[Origin of Species]] in 1859 changed the way that taxonomists considered plant classification, incorporating evolutionary information into their schemata. The [[Darwinian]] approach led to the concept of [[phylogeny]] (tree-like structure) in assembling classification systems, starting with [[Eichler system|Eichler]]. [[August Eichler|Eichler]], having established a [[hierarchical]] system in which the flowering plants ([[angiosperm]]) were divided into [[monocotyledons]] and [[dicotyledons]], further divided into former into seven orders. Within the [[Liliiflorae]] were seven families, including Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae. Liliaceae included ''[[Allium]]'' and ''[[Ornithogalum]]'' (modern [[Allioideae]]) and ''[[Asparagus]]''. [[Adolf Engler|Engler]], in his [[Engler system|system]] developed Eichler's ideas into a much more elaborate scheme which he treated in a number of works including ''[[Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien]]'' (Engler and [[Karl Anton Prantl|Prantl]] 1888) and ''[[Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien]]'' (1892–1924). In his treatment of Liliiflorae the Liliineae were a suborder which included both families Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae. The Liliaceae had eight subfamilies and the Amaryllidaceae four. In this rearrangement of Liliaceae, with fewer subdivisions, the core Liliales were represented as subfamily [[Lilioideae]] (with Tulipae and Scilleae as tribes), the Asparagae were represented as Asparagoideae and the [[Allioideae]] was preserved, representing the alliaceous genera. [[Allieae]], [[Agapantheae]] and [[Gilliesieae]] were the three tribes within this subfamily. In the Amaryllidacea, there was little change from the Bentham & Hooker. A similar approach was adopted by [[Richard Wettstein|Wettstein]].", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "History", "Twentieth century"], "text": "In the twentieth century the [[Wettstein system]] (1901–1935) placed many of the taxa in an order called 'Liliiflorae'. Next [[Johannes Paulus Lotsy]] (1911) proposed dividing the [[Liliiflorae]] into a number of smaller families including [[Asparagaceae]]. Then [[Herbert Huber (botanist)|Herbert Huber]] (1969, 1977), following Lotsy's example, proposed that the Liliiflorae be split into four groups including the 'Asparagoid' [[Liliiflorae]]. The widely used [[Cronquist system]] (1968–1988) used the very broadly defined order Liliales. These various proposals to separate small groups of genera into more homogeneous families made little impact till that of [[Dahlgren system|Dahlgren]] (1985) incorporating new information including [[synapomorphy]]. Dahlgren developed Huber's ideas further and popularised them, with a major deconstruction of existing families into smaller units. They created a new [[order (biology)|order]], calling it Asparagales. This was one of five orders within the superorder Liliiflorae. Where Cronquist saw one family, Dahlgren saw forty distributed over three orders (predominantly [[Liliales]] and Asparagales). Over the 1980s, in the context of a more general review of the classification of [[angiosperms]], the Liliaceae were subjected to more intense scrutiny. By the end of that decade, the [[Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew]], the [[British Museum of Natural History]] and the [[Edinburgh Botanical Gardens]] formed a committee to examine the possibility of separating the family at least for the organization of their [[herbaria]]. That committee finally recommended that 24 new families be created in the place of the original broad Liliaceae, largely by elevating subfamilies to the rank of separate families.", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "Phylogenetics"], "text": "The order Asparagales as currently [[circumscription (taxonomy)|circumscribed]] has only recently been recognized in classification systems, through the advent of [[phylogenetics]]. The 1990s saw considerable progress in plant phylogeny and phylogenetic theory, enabling a phylogenetic tree to be constructed for all of the flowering plants. The establishment of major new clades necessitated a departure from the older but widely used classifications such as Cronquist and Thorne based largely on morphology rather than genetic data. This complicated discussion about plant evolution and necessitated a major restructuring. ''rbc''L gene sequencing and cladistic analysis of monocots had redefined the [[Liliales]] in 1995. from four morphological orders ''sensu'' [[Rolf Dahlgren|Dahlgren]]. The largest clade representing the Liliaceae, all previously included in Liliales, but including both the Calochortaceae and Liliaceae ''sensu'' Tamura. This redefined family, that became referred to as core Liliales, but corresponded to the emerging circumscription of the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] (1998).", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "Phylogeny and APG system"], "text": "The 2009 revision of the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] system, [[APG III system|APG III]], places the order in the clade [[Monocotyledon|monocots]]. From the [[Dahlgren system]] of 1985 onwards, studies based mainly on morphology had identified the Asparagales as a distinct group, but had also included groups now located in Liliales, Pandanales and Zingiberales. Research in the 21st century has supported the [[monophyly]] of Asparagales, based on morphology, 18S rDNA, and other DNA sequences, although some phylogenetic reconstructions based on molecular data have suggested that Asparagales may be paraphyletic, with Orchidaceae separated from the rest. Within the monocots, Asparagales is the [[sister group]] of the [[commelinid]] clade. This [[cladogram]] shows the placement of Asparagales within the orders of [[Lilianae]] ''[[sensu]]'' Chase & Reveal (monocots) based on molecular phylogenetic evidence. The [[lilioid monocot]] orders are bracketed, namely [[Petrosaviales]], [[Dioscoreales]], [[Pandanales]], [[Liliales]] and Asparagales. These constitute a [[Paraphyly|paraphyletic]] assemblage, that is groups with a common ancestor that do not include all direct descendants (in this case commelinids as the sister group to Asparagales); to form a clade, all the groups joined by thick lines would need to be included. While Acorales and Alismatales have been collectively referred to as \"[[alismatid monocots]]\" (basal or early branching monocots), the remaining clades (lilioid and [[commelinid]] monocots) have been referred to as the \"core monocots\". The relationship between the orders (with the exception of the two sister orders) is [[wikt:pectinate|pectinate]], that is diverging in succession from the line that leads to the commelinids. Numbers indicate [[crown group]] (most recent common ancestor of the sampled species of the clade of interest) divergence times in [[mya (unit)|mya]] (million years ago).", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "Subdivision"], "text": "A [[phylogenetic tree]] for the Asparagales, generally to family level, but including groups which were recently and widely treated as families but which are now reduced to subfamily rank, is shown below. The tree shown above can be divided into a basal paraphyletic group, the 'lower Asparagales (asparagoids)', from Orchidaceae to Asphodelaceae, and a well-supported monophyletic group of 'core Asparagales' (higher asparagoids), comprising the two largest families, Amaryllidaceae ''sensu lato'' and Asparagaceae ''sensu lato''. Two differences between these two groups (although with exceptions) are: the mode of [[microsporogenesis]] and the position of the ovary. The 'lower Asparagales' typically have simultaneous microsporogenesis (i.e. cell walls develop only after both [[meiosis|meiotic]] divisions), which appears to be an [[apomorphy]] within the monocots, whereas the 'core Asparagales' have reverted to successive microsporogenesis (i.e. cell walls develop after each division). The 'lower Asparagales' typically have an [[inferior ovary]], whereas the 'core Asparagales' have reverted to a [[superior ovary]]. A 2002 morphological study by Rudall treated possessing an inferior ovary as a [[synapomorphy]] of the Asparagales, stating that reversions to a superior ovary in the 'core Asparagales' could be associated with the presence of nectaries below the ovaries. However, Stevens notes that superior ovaries are distributed among the 'lower Asparagales' in such a way that it is not clear where to place the evolution of different ovary morphologies. The position of the ovary seems a much more flexible character (here and in other [[angiosperm]]) than previously thought.", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "Subdivision", "Changes to family structure in APG III"], "text": "The [[APG III system]] when it was published in 2009, greatly expanded the families [[Xanthorrhoeaceae]], [[Amaryllidaceae]], and [[Asparagaceae]]. Thirteen of the families of the earlier [[APG II system]] were thereby reduced to subfamilies within these three families. The expanded Xanthorrhoeaceae is now called \"Asphodelaceae\". The APG II families (left) and their equivalent APG III subfamilies (right) are as follows:", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "Subdivision", "Structure of Asparagales", "Orchid clade"], "text": "[[Orchidaceae]] is the largest family of all [[angiosperm]] and hence by far the largest in the order. The [[Dahlgren system]] recognized three families of orchids, but DNA sequence analysis later showed that these families are [[polyphyletic]] and so should be combined. Several studies suggest (with high bootstrap support) that Orchidaceae is the sister of the rest of the Asparagales. Other studies have placed the orchids differently in the phylogenetic tree, generally among the [[Boryaceae]]-[[Hypoxidaceae]] clade. The position of Orchidaceae shown above seems the best current hypothesis, but cannot be taken as confirmed. Orchids have simultaneous microsporogenesis and inferior ovaries, two characters that are typical of the 'lower Asparagales'. However, their nectaries are rarely in the septa of the ovaries, and most orchids have dust-like seeds, atypical of the rest of the order. (Some members of [[Vanilloideae]] and [[Cypripedioideae]] have crustose seeds, probably associated with dispersal by birds and mammals that are attracted by fermenting fleshy fruit releasing fragrant compounds, e.g. [[vanilla]].) In terms of the number of species, Orchidaceae diversification is remarkable. However, although the other Asparagales may be less rich in species, they are more variable morphologically, including tree-like forms.", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "Subdivision", "Structure of Asparagales", "Boryaceae to Hypoxidaceae"], "text": "The four families excluding [[Boryaceae]] form a well-supported clade in studies based on DNA sequence analysis. All four contain relatively few species, and it has been suggested that they be combined into one family under the name Hypoxidaceae ''sensu lato''. The relationship between Boryaceae (which includes only two genera, ''[[Borya]]'' and ''[[Alania (plant)|Alania]]''), and other Asparagales has remained unclear for a long time. The Boryaceae are [[mycorrhiza]], but not in the same way as orchids. Morphological studies have suggested a close relationship between Boryaceae and Blandfordiaceae. There is relatively low support for the position of Boryaceae in the tree shown above.", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "Subdivision", "Structure of Asparagales", "Ixioliriaceae to Xeronemataceae"], "text": "The relationship shown between [[Ixioliriaceae]] and [[Tecophilaeaceae]] is still unclear. Some studies have supported a clade of these two families, others have not. The position of [[Doryanthaceae]] has also varied, with support for the position shown above, but also support for other positions. The clade from [[Iridaceae]] upwards appears to have stronger support. All have some genetic characteristics in common, having lost Arabidopsis-type [[telomere]]. Iridaceae is distinctive among the Asparagales in the unique structure of the [[inflorescence]] (a rhipidium), the combination of an inferior ovary and three stamens, and the common occurrence of unifacial leaves whereas bifacial leaves are the norm in other Asparagales. Members of the clade from [[Iridaceae]] upwards have infra-locular septal nectaries, which Rudall interpreted as a driver towards secondarily superior ovaries.", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "Subdivision", "Structure of Asparagales", "Asphodelaceae + 'core Asparagales'"], "text": "The next node in the tree (Xanthorrhoeaceae ''sensu lato'' + the 'core Asparagales') has strong support. 'Anomalous' secondary thickening occurs among this clade, e.g. in ''[[Xanthorrhoea]]'' (family Asphodelaceae) and ''[[Dracaena (plant)|Dracaena]]'' (family Asparagaceae ''sensu lato''), with species reaching tree-like proportions. The 'core Asparagales', comprising Amaryllidaceae ''sensu lato'' and Asparagaceae ''sensu lato'', are a strongly supported clade, as are clades for each of the families. Relationships within these broadly defined families appear less clear, particularly within the Asparagaceae ''sensu lato''. Stevens notes that most of its subfamilies are difficult to recognize, and that significantly different divisions have been used in the past, so that the use of a broadly defined family to refer to the entire clade is justified. Thus the relationships among subfamilies shown above, based on [[APWeb]] , is somewhat uncertain.", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "Evolution"], "text": "Several studies have attempted to date the evolution of the Asparagales, based on phylogenetic evidence. Earlier studies generally give younger dates than more recent studies, which have been preferred in the table below. A 2009 study suggests that the Asparagales have the highest diversification rate in the monocots, about the same as the order [[Poales]], although in both orders the rate is little over half that of the [[eudicot]] order [[Lamiales]], the clade with the highest rate.", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "Comparison of family structures"], "text": "The taxonomic diversity of the monocotyledons is described in detail by Kubitzki. Up-to-date information on the Asparagales can be found on the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Website]]. The APG III system's family circumscriptions are being used as the basis of the Kew-hosted ''World Checklist of Selected Plant Families''. With this circumscription, the order consists of 14 families (Dahlgren had 31) with approximately 1120 genera and 26000 species. Order Asparagales  (-) Family [[Amaryllidaceae]] (including Agapanthaceae , Alliaceae ) (-) Family [[Asparagaceae]] (including Agavaceae <nowiki>[which includes Anemarrhenaceae, Anthericaceae, Behniaceae and Herreriaceae]</nowiki>, Aphyllanthaceae , Hesperocallidaceae , Hyacinthaceae , Laxmanniaceae , Ruscaceae <nowiki>[which includes Convallariaceae]</nowiki> and Themidaceae ) (-) Family [[Asteliaceae]] (-) Family [[Blandfordiaceae]] (-) Family [[Boryaceae]] (-) Family [[Doryanthaceae]] (-) Family [[Hypoxidaceae]] (-) Family [[Iridaceae]] (-) Family [[Ixioliriaceae]] (-) Family [[Lanariaceae]] (-) Family [[Orchidaceae]] (-) Family [[Tecophilaeaceae]] (-) Family Xanthorrhoeaceae (including Asphodelaceae and Hemerocallidaceae ), now [[Asphodelaceae]] (-) Family [[Xeronemataceae]] The earlier 2003 version, [[APG II system|APG II]], allowed 'bracketed' families, i.e. families which could either be segregated from more comprehensive families or could be included in them. These are the families given under \"including\" in the list above. APG III does not allow bracketed families, requiring the use of the more comprehensive family; otherwise the circumscription of the Asparagales is unchanged. A separate paper accompanying the publication of the 2009 APG III system provided subfamilies to accommodate the families which were discontinued. The first APG system of [[APG system|1998]] contained some extra families, included in square brackets in the list above. Two older systems which use the order Asparagales are the [[Dahlgren system]] and the [[Kubitzki system]]. The families included in the circumscriptions of the order in these two systems are shown in the first and second columns of the table below. The equivalent family in the modern APG III system (see below) is shown in the third column. Note that although these systems may use the same name for a family, the genera which it includes may be different, so the equivalence between systems is only approximate in some cases.", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": ["Uses"], "text": "The Asparagales include many important [[crop plants]] and [[ornamental plants]]. Crops include [[Allium]], [[Asparagus]] and [[Vanilla (genus)|Vanilla]], while ornamentals include [[iris (plant)|irises]], [[hyacinths]] and [[orchids]].", "id": "786", "title": "Asparagales", "categories": ["Asparagales", "Angiosperm orders", "Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"], "seealso": ["Taxonomy of Liliaceae"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "The '''Alismatales''' ('''alismatids''') are an order of [[flowering plant]] including about 4500 species. Plants assigned to this order are mostly tropical or aquatic. Some grow in fresh water, some in marine habitats.", "id": "787", "title": "Alismatales", "categories": ["Alismatales", "Angiosperm orders"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Description"], "text": "The Alismatales comprise [[herbaceous]] flowering plants of often aquatic and marshy habitats, and the only monocots known to have green [[embryo]] other than the [[Amaryllidaceae]]. They also include the only marine angiosperms growing completely submerged, the [[seagrass]]. The [[flower]] are usually arranged in [[inflorescence]], and the mature seeds lack [[endosperm]]. Both marine and freshwater forms include those with staminate flowers that detach from the parent plant and float to the surface. There they can pollinate carpellate flowers floating on the surface via long pedicels. In others, pollination occurs underwater, where pollen may form elongated strands, increasing chance of success. Most aquatic species have a totally submerged juvenile phase, and flowers are either floating or emergent. Vegetation may be totally submersed, have floating leaves, or protrude from the water. Collectively, they are commonly known as \"water plantain\".", "id": "787", "title": "Alismatales", "categories": ["Alismatales", "Angiosperm orders"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy"], "text": "The Alismatales contain about 165 genera in 13 families, with a [[cosmopolitan distribution]]. [[Phylogenetically]], they are [[basal monocot]], diverging early in evolution relative to the [[lilioid]] and [[commelinid]] [[monocot]] lineages. Together with the [[Acorales]], the Alismatales are referred to informally as the alismatid monocots.", "id": "787", "title": "Alismatales", "categories": ["Alismatales", "Angiosperm orders"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "Early systems"], "text": "The [[Cronquist system]] (1981) places the Alismatales in subclass [[Alismatidae]], class [[Liliopsida]] [= monocotyledons] and includes only three families as shown: (-) [[Alismataceae]] (-) [[Butomaceae]] (-) [[Limnocharitaceae]] Cronquist's subclass Alismatidae conformed fairly closely to the order Alismatales as defined by APG, minus the Araceae. The [[Dahlgren system]] places the Alismatales in the superorder [[Alismatanae]] in the subclass [[Liliidae]] [= monocotyledons] in the class [[Magnoliopsida]] [= angiosperms] with the following families included: (-) [[Alismataceae]] (-) [[Aponogetonaceae]] (-) [[Butomaceae]] (-) [[Hydrocharitaceae]] (-) [[Limnocharitaceae]] In Tahktajan's classification (1997), the order Alismatales contains only the Alismataceae and Limnocharitaceae, making it equivalent to the Alismataceae as revised in APG-III. Other families included in the Alismatates as currently defined are here distributed among 10 additional orders, all of which are assigned, with the following exception, to the Subclass Alismatidae. Araceae in Tahktajan 1997 is assigned to the [[Arales]] and placed in the Subclass Aridae; Tofieldiaceae to the [[Melanthiales]] and placed in the [[Liliidae]].", "id": "787", "title": "Alismatales", "categories": ["Alismatales", "Angiosperm orders"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "Angiosperm Phylogeny Group"], "text": "The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system ([[APG system|APG]]) of 1998 and [[APG II system|APG II]] (2003) assigned the Alismatales to the monocots, which may be thought of as an unranked clade containing the families listed below. The biggest departure from [[list of systems of plant taxonomy|earlier systems]] (see below) is the inclusion of family Araceae. By its inclusion, the order has grown enormously in number of species. The family Araceae alone accounts for about a hundred genera, totaling over two thousand species. The rest of the families together contain only about five hundred species, many of which are in very small families. The [[APG III system]] (2009) differs only in that the [[Limnocharitaceae]] are combined with the Alismataceae; it was also suggested that the genus ''[[Maundia]]'' (of the [[Juncaginaceae]]) could be separated into a monogeneric family, the [[Maundiaceae]], but the authors noted that more study was necessary before the Maundiaceae could be recognized. (-) order Alismatales ''[[sensu]]'' APG III (-) family [[Alismataceae]] (''including'' [[Limnocharitaceae]]) (-) family [[Aponogetonaceae]] (-) family [[Araceae]] (-) family [[Butomus|Butomaceae]] (-) family [[Cymodoceaceae]] (-) family [[Hydrocharitaceae]] (-) family [[Juncaginaceae]] (-) family [[Posidoniaceae]] (-) family [[Potamogetonaceae]] (-) family [[Ruppiaceae]] (-) family [[Scheuchzeriaceae]] (-) family [[Tofieldiaceae]] (-) family [[Zosteraceae]] In [[APG IV]] (2016), it was decided that evidence was sufficient to elevate ''[[Maundia]]'' to family level as the [[monogeneric]] Maundiaceae. The authors considered including a number of the smaller orders within the Juncaginaceae, but an online survey of botanists and other users found little support for this \"[[lumping]]\" approach. Consequently, the family structure for APG IV is: (-) family [[Alismataceae]] (''including'' [[Limnocharitaceae]]) (-) family [[Aponogetonaceae]] (-) family [[Araceae]] (-) family [[Butomus|Butomaceae]] (-) family [[Cymodoceaceae]] (-) family [[Hydrocharitaceae]] (-) family [[Juncaginaceae]] (-) family [[Maundiaceae]] (-) family [[Posidoniaceae]] (-) family [[Potamogetonaceae]] (-) family [[Ruppiaceae]] (-) family [[Scheuchzeriaceae]] (-) family [[Tofieldiaceae]] (-) family [[Zosteraceae]]", "id": "787", "title": "Alismatales", "categories": ["Alismatales", "Angiosperm orders"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy", "Phylogeny"], "text": "[[Cladogram]] showing the orders of monocots ([[Lilianae]] ''[[sensu]]'' Chase & Reveal) based on molecular phylogenetic evidence:", "id": "787", "title": "Alismatales", "categories": ["Alismatales", "Angiosperm orders"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "The '''Apiales''' are an [[Order (biology)|order]] of [[flowering plant]]. The [[Family (biology)|families]] are those recognized in the [[APG III system]]. This is typical of the newer [[Biological classification|classifications]], though there is some slight variation and in particular, the Torriceliaceae may be divided. Under this definition, well-known members include [[carrot]], [[celery]], [[parsley]], and ''[[Hedera helix]]'' (English ivy). The order Apiales is placed within the [[asterid]] group of [[eudicots]] as circumscribed by the APG III system. Within the asterids, Apiales belongs to an [[Taxonomic rank|unranked]] group called the [[campanulids]], and within the campanulids, it belongs to a [[clade]] known in [[phylogenetic nomenclature]] as [[Apiidae]]. In 2010, a [[subclade]] of Apiidae named [[Dipsapiidae]] was defined to consist of the three orders: Apiales, [[Paracryphiales]], and [[Dipsacales]].", "id": "788", "title": "Apiales", "categories": ["Apiales", "Angiosperm orders", "Taxa named by Takenoshin Nakai"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy"], "text": "Under the [[Cronquist system]], only the Apiaceae and Araliaceae were included here, and the restricted order was placed among the rosids rather than the asterids. The [[Pittosporaceae]] were placed within the [[Rosales]], and many of the other forms within the family [[Cornaceae]]. ''[[Pennantia]]'' was in the family [[Icacinaceae]]. In the classification system of [[Rolf Dahlgren|Dahlgren]] the families Apiaceae and Araliaceae were placed in the order Ariales, in the [[superorder]] Araliiflorae (also called Aralianae). The present understanding of the Apiales is fairly recent and is based upon comparison of [[DNA sequences]] by [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetic]] methods. The [[Circumscription (taxonomy)|circumscriptions]] of some of the families have changed. In 2009, one of the subfamilies of Araliaceae was shown to be [[polyphyletic]].", "id": "788", "title": "Apiales", "categories": ["Apiales", "Angiosperm orders", "Taxa named by Takenoshin Nakai"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Gynoecia"], "text": "The largest and obviously closely related families of Apiales are [[Araliaceae]], [[Myodocarpaceae]] and [[Apiaceae]], which resemble each other in the structure of their [[gynoecium|gynoecia]]. In this respect however, the [[Pittosporaceae]] is notably distinct from them. Typical syncarpous gynoecia exhibit four vertical zones, determined by the extent of fusion of the carpels. In most plants the synascidiate (i.e. \"united bottle-shaped\") and symplicate zones are fertile and bear the ovules. Each of the first three families possess mainly bi- or multilocular ovaries in a gynoecium with a long synascidiate, but very short symplicate zone, where the ovules are inserted at their transition, the so-called cross-zone (or \"Querzone\"). In gynoecia of the Pittosporaceae, the symplicate is much longer than the synascidiate zone, and the ovules are arranged along the first. Members of the latter family consequently have [[Locule|unilocular]] ovaries with a single cavity between adjacent carpels.", "id": "788", "title": "Apiales", "categories": ["Apiales", "Angiosperm orders", "Taxa named by Takenoshin Nakai"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Asterales''' is an [[Order (biology)|order]] of [[dicotyledon]] [[flowering plant]] that includes the large [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Asteraceae]] (or Compositae) known for composite flowers made of [[Floret#floret|florets]], and ten families related to the Asteraceae. The order is a [[Cosmopolitan distribution|cosmopolite]] (plants found throughout most of the world including desert and frigid zones), and includes mostly [[Herbaceous plant|herbaceous]] species, although a small number of trees (such as the [[Lobelia deckenii|giant Lobelia]] and the [[Dendrosenecio|giant Senecio]]) and [[shrub]] are also present. Asterales are organisms that seem to have evolved from one common [[ancestor]]. Asterales share characteristics on [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] and biochemical levels. [[Synapomorphies]] (a character that is shared by two or more groups through evolutionary development) include the presence in the plants of [[oligosaccharide]] [[inulin]], a nutrient storage molecule used instead of [[starch]]; and unique [[stamen]] morphology. The stamens are usually found around the [[Gynoecium|style]], either aggregated densely or fused into a tube, probably an [[adaptation]] in association with the plunger (brush; or secondary) [[pollination]] that is common among the families of the order, wherein pollen is collected and stored on the length of the pistil.", "id": "789", "title": "Asterales", "categories": ["Asterales", "Angiosperm orders"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy"], "text": "The name and order Asterales is botanically venerable, dating back to at least 1926 in the [[Hutchinson system|Hutchinson system of plant taxonomy]] when it contained only five families, of which only two are retained in the APG III classification. Under the [[Cronquist system]] of taxonomic classification of flowering plants, [[Asteraceae]] was the only family in the group, but newer systems (such as [[APG II system|APG II]] and [[APG III system|APG III]]) have expanded it to 11. In the classification system of [[Rolf Dahlgren|Dahlgren]] the Asterales were in the [[superorder]] Asteriflorae (also called Asteranae). The order '''Asterales''' currently includes 11 families, the largest of which are the [[Asteraceae]], with about 25,000 species, and the [[Campanulaceae]] (\"bellflowers\"), with about 2,000 species. The remaining families count together for less than 1500 species. The two large families are cosmopolitan, with many of their species found in the Northern Hemisphere, and the smaller families are usually confined to Australia and the adjacent areas, or sometimes South America. Only the Asteraceae have composite flower heads; the other families do not, but share other characteristics such as storage of inulin that define the 11 families as more closely related to each other than to other plant families or orders such as the [[rosids]]. The phylogenetic tree according to APG III for the Campanulid clade is as below.", "id": "789", "title": "Asterales", "categories": ["Asterales", "Angiosperm orders"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Biogeography"], "text": "The core Asterales are Stylidiaceae (six [[Genus|genera]]), APA [[clade]] (Alseuosmiaceae, Phellinaceae and Argophyllaceae, together 7 genera), MGCA clade (Menyanthaceae, Goodeniaceae, Calyceraceae, in total twenty genera), and Asteraceae (about sixteen hundred genera). Other Asterales are Rousseaceae (four genera), Campanulaceae (eighty four genera) and Pentaphragmataceae (one genus). All Asterales families are represented in the Southern Hemisphere; however, Asteraceae and Campanulaceae are cosmopolitan and Menyanthaceae nearly so.", "id": "789", "title": "Asterales", "categories": ["Asterales", "Angiosperm orders"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Evolution"], "text": "Although most extant species of Asteraceae are herbaceous, the examination of the basal members in the family suggests that the common ancestor of the family was an arborescent plant, a tree or shrub, perhaps adapted to dry conditions, radiating from South America. Less can be said about the Asterales themselves with certainty, although since several families in Asterales contain trees, the ancestral member is most likely to have been a tree or shrub. Because all clades are represented in the southern hemisphere but many not in the northern hemisphere, it is natural to conjecture that there is a common southern origin to them. Asterales are [[angiosperms]], flowering plants that appeared about 140 million years ago. The Asterales order probably originated in the [[Cretaceous]] (145 – 66 [[Mya (unit)#Symbols y and yr|Mya]]) on the supercontinent [[Gondwana]] which broke up from 184 – 80 Mya, forming the area that is now Australia, South America, Africa, India and Antarctica. Asterales contain about 14% of [[eudicot]] diversity. From an analysis of relationships and diversities within the Asterales and with their superorders, estimates of the age of the beginning of the Asterales have been made, which range from 116 Mya to 82Mya. However few fossils have been found, of the Menyanthaceae-Asteraceae clade in the [[Oligocene]], about 29 Mya. Fossil evidence of the Asterales is rare and belongs to rather recent epochs, so the precise estimation of the order's age is quite difficult. An Oligocene (34 – 23 Mya) pollen is known for Asteraceae and Goodeniaceae, and seeds from Oligocene and [[Miocene]] (23 – 5.3 Mya) are known for Menyanthaceae and Campanulaceae respectively.", "id": "789", "title": "Asterales", "categories": ["Asterales", "Angiosperm orders"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Economic importance"], "text": "The Asterales, by dint of being a super-set of the family Asteraceae, include some species grown for food, including the [[sunflower]] (''Helianthus annuus''), lettuce (''Lactuca sativa'') and [[chicory]] (''Cichorium''). Many are also used as spices and traditional medicines. Asterales are common plants and have many known uses. For example, [[pyrethrum]] (derived from Old World members of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'') is a natural insecticide with minimal environmental impact. [[Artemisia (genus)|Wormwood]], derived from a genus that includes the [[sagebrush]], is used as a source of flavoring for [[absinthe]], a bitter classical liquor of European origin.", "id": "789", "title": "Asterales", "categories": ["Asterales", "Angiosperm orders"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "An '''asteroid''' is a [[minor planet]] of the [[Solar System#Inner solar system|inner Solar System]]. Historically, these terms have been applied to any astronomical object orbiting the [[Sun]] that did not resolve into a disc in a telescope and was not observed to have characteristics of an active [[comet]] such as a [[Comet tail|tail]]. As [[Distant minor planet|minor planets in the outer Solar System]] were discovered that were found to have [[Volatiles|volatile]]-rich surfaces similar to comets, these came to be distinguished from the objects found in the main [[asteroid belt]]. The term \"asteroid\" refers to the minor planets of the inner Solar System, including those co-orbital with [[Jupiter]]. Larger asteroids are often called '''planetoids'''.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Overview"], "text": "Millions of asteroids exist: many are shattered remnants of [[planetesimal]], bodies within the young Sun's [[solar nebula]] that never grew large enough to become [[planet]]. The vast majority of known asteroids orbit within the main asteroid belt located between the orbits of [[Mars]] and Jupiter, or are co-orbital with Jupiter (the [[Jupiter trojan]]). However, other orbital families exist with significant populations, including the [[near-Earth object]]. Individual asteroids are classified by their characteristic [[Emission spectrum|spectra]], with the majority falling into three main groups: [[C-type asteroid|C-type]], [[M-type asteroid|M-type]], and [[S-type asteroid|S-type]]. These were named after and are generally identified with [[Carbon|carbon-rich]], [[metal]], and [[silicate]] (stony) compositions, respectively. The sizes of asteroids varies greatly; the largest, [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]], is almost across and massive enough to qualify as a [[dwarf planet]]. Asteroids are somewhat arbitrarily differentiated from [[comet]] and [[meteoroid]]. In the case of comets, the difference is one of composition: while asteroids are mainly composed of mineral and rock, comets are primarily composed of dust and ice. Furthermore, asteroids formed closer to the sun, preventing the development of cometary ice. The difference between asteroids and meteoroids is mainly one of size: meteoroids have a diameter of one meter or less, whereas asteroids have a diameter of greater than one meter. Finally, meteoroids can be composed of either cometary or asteroidal materials. Only one asteroid, [[4 Vesta]], which has a relatively [[Albedo|reflective surface]], is normally visible to the naked eye, and this is only in very dark skies when it is favorably positioned. Rarely, small asteroids passing close to Earth may be visible to the naked eye for a short time. , the [[Minor Planet Center]] had data on 930,000 minor planets in the inner and outer Solar System, of which about 545,000 had enough information to be given numbered designations. The United Nations declared 30 June as International [[Asteroid Day]] to educate the public about asteroids. The date of International Asteroid Day commemorates the anniversary of the [[Tunguska asteroid impact over Siberia]], Russian Federation, on 30 June 1908. In April 2018, the [[B612 Foundation]] reported \"It is 100 percent certain we'll be hit [by a devastating asteroid], but we're not 100 percent sure when.\" Also in 2018, [[physicist]] [[Stephen Hawking]], in his final book ''[[Brief Answers to the Big Questions]]'', considered an asteroid collision to be the biggest threat to the planet. In June 2018, the US [[National Science and Technology Council]] warned that America is unprepared for an asteroid impact event, and has developed and released the ''\"National Near-Earth Object Preparedness Strategy Action Plan\"'' to better prepare. According to expert testimony in the [[United States Congress]] in 2013, [[NASA]] would require at least five years of preparation before a mission to intercept an asteroid could be launched.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Discovery"], "text": "The first asteroid to be discovered, [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]], was originally considered to be a new planet. This was followed by the discovery of other similar bodies, which, with the equipment of the time, appeared to be points of light, like stars, showing little or no planetary disc, though readily distinguishable from stars due to their apparent motions. This prompted the astronomer [[William Herschel|Sir William Herschel]] to propose the term \"asteroid\", coined in Greek as ἀστεροειδής, or ''asteroeidēs'', meaning 'star-like, star-shaped', and derived from the Ancient Greek ''astēr'' 'star, planet'. In the early second half of the nineteenth century, the terms \"asteroid\" and \"planet\" (not always qualified as \"minor\") were still used interchangeably. Discovery timeline: (-) 10 by 1849 (-) [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|1 Ceres]], 1801 (-) [[2 Pallas]] 1802 (-) [[3 Juno]] 1804 (-) [[4 Vesta]] 1807 (-) [[5 Astraea]] 1845 (-) ''in 1846, planet Neptune was discovered'' (-) [[6 Hebe]] July 1847 (-) [[7 Iris]] August 1847 (-) [[8 Flora]] October 1847 (-) [[9 Metis]] 25 April 1848 (-) [[10 Hygiea]] 12 April 1849 ''tenth asteroid discovered'' (-) 100 asteroids by 1868 (-) 1,000 by 1921 (-) 10,000 by 1989 (-) 100,000 by 2005 (-) 1,000,000 by 2020", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Discovery", "Historical methods"], "text": "Asteroid discovery methods have dramatically improved over the past two centuries. In the last years of the 18th century, Baron [[Franz Xaver von Zach]] organized a group of 24 astronomers to search the sky for the missing planet predicted at about 2.8 [[Astronomical unit|AU]] from the Sun by the [[Titius-Bode law]], partly because of the discovery, by Sir [[William Herschel]] in 1781, of the planet [[Uranus]] at the distance predicted by the law. This task required that hand-drawn sky charts be prepared for all stars in the [[zodiac]] band down to an agreed-upon limit of faintness. On subsequent nights, the sky would be charted again and any moving object would, hopefully, be spotted. The expected motion of the missing planet was about 30 seconds of arc per hour, readily discernible by observers. The first object, [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]], was not discovered by a member of the group, but rather by accident in 1801 by [[Giuseppe Piazzi]], director of the observatory of [[Palermo]] in [[Sicily]]. He discovered a new star-like object in [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] and followed the displacement of this object during several nights. Later that year, [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] used these observations to calculate the orbit of this unknown object, which was found to be between the planets [[Mars]] and [[Jupiter]]. Piazzi named it after [[Ceres (Roman mythology)|Ceres]], the Roman goddess of agriculture. Three other asteroids ([[2 Pallas]], [[3 Juno]], and [[4 Vesta]]) were discovered over the next few years, with Vesta found in 1807. After eight more years of fruitless searches, most astronomers assumed that there were no more and abandoned any further searches. However, [[Karl Ludwig Hencke]] persisted, and began searching for more asteroids in 1830. Fifteen years later, he found [[5 Astraea]], the first new asteroid in 38 years. He also found [[6 Hebe]] less than two years later. After this, other astronomers joined in the search and at least one new asteroid was discovered every year after that (except the wartime year 1945). Notable asteroid hunters of this early era were [[John Russell Hind|J.R. Hind]], [[Annibale de Gasparis|A. de Gasparis]], [[Karl Theodor Robert Luther|R. Luther]], [[Hermann Mayer Salomon Goldschmidt|H.M.S. Goldschmidt]], [[Jean Chacornac|J. Chacornac]], [[James Ferguson (American astronomer)|J. Ferguson]], [[Norman Robert Pogson|N.R. Pogson]], [[Ernst Wilhelm Leberecht Tempel|E.W. Tempel]], [[James Craig Watson|J.C. Watson]], [[Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters|C.H.F. Peters]], [[Alphonse Louis Nicolas Borrelly|A. Borrelly]], [[Johann Palisa|J. Palisa]], [[Paul Henry and Prosper Henry|the Henry brothers]] and [[Auguste Charlois|A. Charlois]]. In 1891, [[Maximilian Franz Joseph Cornelius Wolf|Max Wolf]] pioneered the use of [[astrophotography]] to detect asteroids, which appeared as short streaks on long-exposure photographic plates. This dramatically increased the rate of detection compared with earlier visual methods: Wolf alone discovered 248 asteroids, beginning with [[323 Brucia]], whereas only slightly more than 300 had been discovered up to that point. It was known that there were many more, but most astronomers did not bother with them, some calling them \"vermin of the skies\", a phrase variously attributed to [[Eduard Suess|E. Suess]] and [[Edmund Weiss|E. Weiss]]. Even a century later, only a few thousand asteroids were identified, numbered and named.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Discovery", "Manual methods of the 1900s and modern reporting"], "text": "Until 1998, asteroids were discovered by a four-step process. First, a region of the sky was [[Astrophotography|photographed]] by a wide-field [[telescope]], or [[astrograph]]. Pairs of photographs were taken, typically one hour apart. Multiple pairs could be taken over a series of days. Second, the two films or [[photographic plate|plates]] of the same region were viewed under a [[stereoscope]]. Any body in orbit around the Sun would move slightly between the pair of films. Under the stereoscope, the image of the body would seem to float slightly above the background of stars. Third, once a moving body was identified, its location would be measured precisely using a digitizing microscope. The location would be measured relative to known star locations. These first three steps do not constitute asteroid discovery: the observer has only found an apparition, which gets a [[provisional designation in astronomy|provisional designation]], made up of the year of discovery, a letter representing the half-month of discovery, and finally a letter and a number indicating the discovery's sequential number (example: ). The last step of discovery is to send the locations and time of observations to the [[Minor Planet Center]], where computer programs determine whether an apparition ties together earlier apparitions into a single orbit. If so, the object receives a catalogue number and the observer of the first apparition with a calculated orbit is declared the discoverer, and granted the honor of naming the object subject to the approval of the [[International Astronomical Union]].", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Discovery", "Computerized methods"], "text": "There is increasing interest in identifying asteroids whose orbits cross [[Earth]]'s, and that could, given enough time, collide with Earth ''(see [[List of Earth-crossing minor planets|Earth-crosser asteroids]])''. The three most important groups of [[near-Earth asteroid]] are the [[Apollo asteroid|Apollos]], [[Amor asteroid|Amors]], and [[Aten asteroid|Atens]]. Various [[asteroid deflection strategies]] have been proposed, as early as the 1960s. The [[near-Earth object|near-Earth]] asteroid [[433 Eros]] had been discovered as long ago as 1898, and the 1930s brought a flurry of similar objects. In order of discovery, these were: [[1221 Amor]], [[1862 Apollo]], [[2101 Adonis]], and finally [[69230 Hermes]], which approached within 0.005 [[Astronomical unit|AU]] of [[Earth]] in 1937. Astronomers began to realize the possibilities of Earth impact. Two events in later decades increased the alarm: the increasing acceptance of the [[Alvarez hypothesis]] that an [[impact event]] resulted in the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event|Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction]], and the 1994 observation of [[Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9]] crashing into [[Jupiter]]. The U.S. military also declassified the information that its [[military satellite]], built to [[detect nuclear explosions]], had detected hundreds of upper-atmosphere impacts by objects ranging from one to ten meters across. All these considerations helped spur the launch of highly efficient surveys that consist of charge-coupled device ([[Charge-coupled device|CCD]]) cameras and computers directly connected to telescopes. , it was estimated that 89% to 96% of near-Earth asteroids one kilometer or larger in diameter had been discovered. A list of teams using such systems includes: (-) [[Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research]] (LINEAR) (-) [[Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking]] (NEAT) (-) [[Spacewatch]] (-) [[LONEOS|Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search]] (LONEOS) (-) [[Catalina Sky Survey]] (CSS) (-) [[Pan-STARRS]] (-) [[NEOWISE]] (-) [[Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System]] (ATLAS) (-) [[Campo Imperatore Near-Earth Object Survey]] (CINEOS) (-) [[Japanese Spaceguard Association]] (-) [[Asiago-DLR Asteroid Survey]] (ADAS) , the LINEAR system alone has discovered 147,132 asteroids. Among all the surveys, 19,266 near-Earth asteroids have been discovered including almost 900 more than in diameter.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Terminology"], "text": "[[file:Ceres and Vesta, Moon size comparison.jpg|thumb|The largest asteroid in the previous image, [[4 Vesta|Vesta]] (left), with [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]] (center) and the [[Moon]] (right) shown to scale.]] Traditionally, small bodies orbiting the Sun were classified as [[comet]], asteroids, or [[meteoroid]], with anything smaller than one meter across being called a meteoroid. Beech and Steel's 1995 paper proposed a meteoroid definition including size limits. The term \"asteroid\", from the Greek word for \"star-like\", never had a formal definition, with the broader term [[minor planet]] being preferred by the [[International Astronomical Union]]. However, following the discovery of asteroids below ten meters in size, Rubin and Grossman's 2010 paper revised the previous definition of meteoroid to objects between 10 [[micrometre|µm]] and 1 meter in size in order to maintain the distinction between asteroids and meteoroids. The smallest asteroids discovered (based on [[Absolute magnitude#Solar System bodies (H)|absolute magnitude]] ''H'') are with and with both with an estimated size of about 1 meter. In 2006, the term \"[[small Solar System body]]\" was also introduced to cover both most minor planets and comets. Other languages prefer \"planetoid\" (Greek for \"planet-like\"), and this term is occasionally used in English especially for larger minor planets such as the [[dwarf planet]] as well as an alternative for asteroids since they are not star-like. The word \"[[planetesimal]]\" has a similar meaning, but refers specifically to the small building blocks of the planets that existed when the Solar System was forming. The term \"planetule\" was coined by the geologist [[William Daniel Conybeare]] to describe minor planets, but is not in common use. The three largest objects in the asteroid belt, [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]], [[2 Pallas|Pallas]], and [[4 Vesta|Vesta]], grew to the stage of [[protoplanet]]. Ceres is a [[dwarf planet]], the only one in the inner Solar System. When found, asteroids were seen as a class of objects distinct from comets, and there was no unified term for the two until \"small Solar System body\" was coined in 2006. The main difference between an asteroid and a comet is that a comet shows a coma due to [[Outgassing|sublimation]] of near-surface ices by solar radiation. A few objects have ended up being dual-listed because they were first classified as minor planets but later showed evidence of cometary activity. Conversely, some (perhaps all) comets are eventually depleted of their surface [[volatiles|volatile ices]] and become asteroid-like. A further distinction is that comets typically have more eccentric orbits than most asteroids; most \"asteroids\" with notably eccentric orbits are probably dormant or extinct comets.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Terminology"], "text": "For almost two centuries, from the discovery of [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]] in 1801 until the discovery of the first [[centaur (minor planet)|centaur]], [[2060 Chiron|Chiron]] in 1977, all known asteroids spent most of their time at or within the orbit of Jupiter, though a few such as [[944 Hidalgo|Hidalgo]] ventured far beyond Jupiter for part of their orbit. Those located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter were known for many years simply as The Asteroids. When astronomers started finding more small bodies that permanently resided further out than Jupiter, now called [[centaur (minor planet)|centaurs]], they numbered them among the traditional asteroids, though there was debate over whether they should be considered asteroids or as a new type of object. Then, when the first [[trans-Neptunian object]] (other than [[Pluto]]), [[15760 Albion|Albion]], was discovered in 1992, and especially when large numbers of similar objects started turning up, new terms were invented to sidestep the issue: [[Kuiper belt|Kuiper-belt object]], [[trans-Neptunian object]], [[scattered-disc object]], and so on. These inhabit the cold outer reaches of the Solar System where ices remain solid and comet-like bodies are not expected to exhibit much cometary activity; if centaurs or trans-Neptunian objects were to venture close to the Sun, their volatile ices would sublimate, and traditional approaches would classify them as comets and not asteroids. The innermost of these are the [[Kuiper belt|Kuiper-belt objects]], called \"objects\" partly to avoid the need to classify them as asteroids or comets. They are thought to be predominantly comet-like in composition, though some may be more akin to asteroids. Furthermore, most do not have the highly eccentric orbits associated with comets, and the ones so far discovered are larger than traditional [[Comet nucleus|comet nuclei]]. (The much more distant [[Oort cloud]] is hypothesized to be the main reservoir of dormant comets.) Other recent observations, such as the analysis of the cometary dust collected by the [[Stardust (spacecraft)|''Stardust'']] probe, are increasingly blurring the distinction between comets and asteroids, suggesting \"a continuum between asteroids and comets\" rather than a sharp dividing line. The minor planets beyond Jupiter's orbit are sometimes also called \"asteroids\", especially in popular presentations. However, it is becoming increasingly common for the term \"asteroid\" to be restricted to minor planets of the inner Solar System. Therefore, this article will restrict itself for the most part to the classical asteroids: objects of the [[asteroid belt]], [[Jupiter trojan]], and [[near-Earth object]]. When the IAU introduced the class [[Small Solar System body|small Solar System bodies]] in 2006 to include most objects previously classified as minor planets and comets, they created the class of [[dwarf planet]] for the largest minor planets – those that have enough mass to have become ellipsoidal under their own gravity. According to the IAU, \"the term 'minor planet' may still be used, but generally, the term 'Small Solar System Body' will be preferred.\" Currently only the largest object in the asteroid belt, [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]], at about across, has been placed in the dwarf planet category.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Formation"], "text": "It is thought that [[planetesimal]] in the asteroid belt evolved much like the rest of the [[solar nebula]] until Jupiter neared its current mass, at which point excitation from [[orbital resonance]] with Jupiter ejected over 99% of planetesimals in the belt. Simulations and a discontinuity in spin rate and spectral properties suggest that asteroids larger than approximately in diameter [[Accretion (astrophysics)|accreted]] during that early era, whereas smaller bodies are fragments from collisions between asteroids during or after the Jovian disruption. Ceres and Vesta grew large enough to melt and [[Planetary differentiation|differentiate]], with heavy metallic elements sinking to the core, leaving rocky minerals in the crust. In the [[Nice model]], many [[Kuiper belt|Kuiper-belt objects]] are captured in the outer asteroid belt, at distances greater than 2.6 AU. Most were later ejected by Jupiter, but those that remained may be the [[D-type asteroid]], and possibly include Ceres.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Distribution within the Solar System"], "text": "Various dynamical groups of asteroids have been discovered orbiting in the inner Solar System. Their orbits are perturbed by the gravity of other bodies in the Solar System and by the [[Yarkovsky effect]]. Significant populations include:", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Distribution within the Solar System", "Asteroid belt"], "text": "The majority of known asteroids orbit within the asteroid belt between the orbits of [[Mars]] and [[Jupiter]], generally in relatively low-[[orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]] (i.e. not very elongated) orbits. This belt is now estimated to contain between 1.1 and 1.9 million asteroids larger than in diameter, and millions of smaller ones. These asteroids may be remnants of the [[protoplanetary disk]], and in this region the [[accretion (astrophysics)|accretion]] of [[planetesimal]] into planets during the formative period of the Solar System was prevented by large gravitational perturbations by [[Jupiter]].", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Distribution within the Solar System", "Trojans"], "text": "[[Trojan (astronomy)|Trojans]] are populations that share an orbit with a larger planet or moon, but do not collide with it because they orbit in one of the two [[Lagrangian point]] of stability, [[Trojan points|L4 and L5]], which lie 60° ahead of and behind the larger body. The most significant population of trojans are the [[Jupiter trojan]]. Although fewer Jupiter trojans have been discovered (), it is thought that they are as numerous as the asteroids in the asteroid belt. Trojans have been found in the orbits of other planets, including [[Venus trojan|Venus]], [[Earth trojan|Earth]], [[Mars trojan|Mars]], [[Uranus trojan|Uranus]], and [[Neptune trojan|Neptune]].", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Distribution within the Solar System", "Near-Earth asteroids"], "text": "Near-Earth asteroids, or NEAs, are asteroids that have orbits that pass close to that of Earth. Asteroids that actually cross Earth's orbital path are known as ''Earth-crossers''. , 14,464 near-Earth asteroids are known and approximately 900-1,000 have a diameter of over one kilometer.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Characteristics", "Size distribution"], "text": "Asteroids vary greatly in size, from almost for the largest down to rocks just 1 meter across. The three largest are very much like miniature planets: they are roughly spherical, have at least partly differentiated interiors, and are thought to be surviving [[protoplanet]]. The vast majority, however, are much smaller and are irregularly shaped; they are thought to be either battered [[planetesimal]] or fragments of larger bodies. The [[dwarf planet]] [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]] is by far the largest asteroid, with a diameter of . The next largest are [[4 Vesta]] and [[2 Pallas]], both with diameters of just over . Vesta is the only main-belt asteroid that can, on occasion, be visible to the naked eye. On some rare occasions, a near-Earth asteroid may briefly become visible without technical aid; see [[99942 Apophis]]. The mass of all the objects of the [[asteroid belt]], lying between the orbits of [[Mars]] and [[Jupiter]], is estimated to be in the range of , about 4% of the mass of the Moon. Of this, [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]] comprises , about a third of the total. Adding in the next three most massive objects, [[4 Vesta|Vesta]] (9%), [[2 Pallas|Pallas]] (7%), and [[10 Hygiea|Hygiea]] (3%), brings this figure up to half, whereas the three most-massive asteroids after that, [[511 Davida]] (1.2%), [[704 Interamnia]] (1.0%), and [[52 Europa]] (0.9%), constitute only another 3%. The number of asteroids increases rapidly as their individual masses decrease. The number of asteroids decreases markedly with size. Although this generally follows a [[power law]], there are 'bumps' at and , where more asteroids than expected from a [[logarithmic distribution]] are found.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Characteristics", "Size distribution", "Largest asteroids"], "text": "Although their location in the asteroid belt excludes them from planet status, the three largest objects, [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]], [[4 Vesta|Vesta]], and [[2 Pallas|Pallas]], are intact [[protoplanet]] that share many characteristics common to planets, and are atypical compared to the majority of irregularly shaped asteroids. The fourth-largest asteroid, [[10 Hygiea|Hygiea]], appears nearly spherical although it may have an undifferentiated interior, like the majority of asteroids. Between them, the four largest asteroids constitute half the mass of the asteroid belt. Ceres is the only asteroid with a fully ellipsoidal shape and hence the only one that is a [[dwarf planet]]. It has a much higher [[Absolute magnitude#Solar System bodies (H)|absolute magnitude]] than the other asteroids, of around 3.32, and may possess a surface layer of ice. Like the planets, Ceres is differentiated: it has a crust, a mantle and a core. No meteorites from Ceres have been found on Earth. Vesta, too, has a differentiated interior, though it formed inside the Solar System's [[Frost line (astrophysics)|frost line]], and so is devoid of water; its composition is mainly of basaltic rock with minerals such as olivine. Aside from the large crater at its southern pole, [[Rheasilvia]], Vesta also has an ellipsoidal shape. Vesta is the parent body of the [[Vestian family]] and other [[V-type asteroid]], and is the source of the [[HED meteorite]], which constitute 5% of all meteorites on Earth. Pallas is unusual in that, like [[Uranus]], it rotates on its side, with its axis of rotation tilted at high angles to its orbital plane. Its composition is similar to that of Ceres: high in carbon and silicon, and perhaps partially differentiated. Pallas is the parent body of the [[Palladian family]] of asteroids. Hygiea is the largest carbonaceous asteroid and, unlike the other largest asteroids, lies relatively close to the [[plane of the ecliptic]]. It is the largest member and presumed parent body of the [[Hygiean family]] of asteroids. Because there is no sufficiently large crater on the surface to be the source of that family, as there is on Vesta, it is thought that Hygiea may have been completely disrupted in the collision that formed the Hygiean family and recoalesced after losing a bit less than 2% of its mass. Observations taken with the [[Very Large Telescope]]'s [[VLT-SPHERE|SPHERE]] imager in 2017 and 2018, and announced in late 2019, revealed that Hygiea has a nearly spherical shape, which is consistent both with it being in [[hydrostatic equilibrium]] (and thus a [[dwarf planet]]), or formerly being in hydrostatic equilibrium, or with being disrupted and recoalescing.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Characteristics", "Rotation"], "text": "Measurements of the rotation rates of large asteroids in the asteroid belt show that there is an upper limit. Very few asteroids with a diameter larger than 100 meters have a rotation period smaller than 2.2 hours. For asteroids rotating faster than approximately this rate, the inertial force at the surface is greater than the gravitational force, so any loose surface material would be flung out. However, a solid object should be able to rotate much more rapidly. This suggests that most asteroids with a diameter over 100 meters are [[rubble pile]] formed through the accumulation of debris after collisions between asteroids.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Characteristics", "Composition"], "text": "The physical composition of asteroids is varied and in most cases poorly understood. Ceres appears to be composed of a rocky core covered by an icy mantle, where Vesta is thought to have a [[nickel-iron]] core, [[olivine]] mantle, and basaltic crust. [[10 Hygiea]], however, which appears to have a uniformly primitive composition of [[carbonaceous chondrite]], is thought to be the largest undifferentiated asteroid. Most of the smaller asteroids are thought to be piles of rubble held together loosely by gravity, though the largest are probably solid. Some asteroids have [[Asteroid moon|moons]] or are co-orbiting [[binary asteroid|binaries]]: Rubble piles, moons, binaries, and scattered [[asteroid family|asteroid families]] are thought to be the results of collisions that disrupted a parent asteroid, or, possibly, a [[disrupted planet|planet]]. Asteroids contain traces of [[amino acid]] and other organic compounds, and some speculate that asteroid impacts may have seeded the early Earth with the chemicals necessary to initiate life, or may have even brought life itself to Earth ''(also see [[panspermia]])''. In August 2011, a report, based on [[NASA]] studies with [[meteorite]] found on [[Earth]], was published suggesting [[DNA]] and [[RNA]] components ([[adenine]], [[guanine]] and related [[organic molecules]]) may have been formed on asteroids and [[comet]] in [[outer space]]. Composition is calculated from three primary sources: [[albedo]], surface spectrum, and density. The last can only be determined accurately by observing the orbits of moons the asteroid might have. So far, every asteroid with moons has turned out to be a rubble pile, a loose conglomeration of rock and metal that may be half empty space by volume. The investigated asteroids are as large as 280 km in diameter, and include [[121 Hermione]] (268×186×183 km), and [[87 Sylvia]] (384×262×232 km). Only half a dozen asteroids are [[List of notable asteroids#Largest by diameter|larger than 87 Sylvia]], though none of them have moons; however, some smaller asteroids are thought to be more massive, suggesting they may not have been disrupted, and indeed [[511 Davida]], the same size as Sylvia to within measurement error, is estimated to be two and a half times as massive, though this is highly uncertain. The fact that such large asteroids as Sylvia can be rubble piles, presumably due to disruptive impacts, has important consequences for the formation of the Solar System: Computer simulations of collisions involving solid bodies show them destroying each other as often as merging, but colliding rubble piles are more likely to merge. This means that the cores of the planets could have formed relatively quickly. On 7 October 2009, the presence of [[ice|water ice]] was confirmed on the surface of [[24 Themis]] using [[NASA]]'s [[Infrared Telescope Facility]]. The surface of the asteroid appears completely covered in ice. As this [[ice]] layer is [[Sublimation (phase transition)|sublimating]], it may be getting replenished by a reservoir of ice under the surface. Organic compounds were also detected on the surface. Scientists hypothesize that some of the first water brought to [[Earth]] was delivered by asteroid impacts after the collision that produced the [[Moon]]. The presence of ice on 24 Themis supports this theory.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Characteristics", "Composition"], "text": "In October 2013, water was detected on an extrasolar body for the first time, on an asteroid orbiting the [[white dwarf]] [[GD 61]]. On 22 January 2014, [[European Space Agency]] (ESA) scientists reported the detection, for the first definitive time, of [[water vapor]] on [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]], the largest object in the asteroid belt. The detection was made by using the [[Far-infrared astronomy|far-infrared abilities]] of the [[Herschel Space Observatory]]. The finding is unexpected because comets, not asteroids, are typically considered to \"sprout jets and plumes\". According to one of the scientists, \"The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids.\" In May 2016, significant asteroid data arising from the [[Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer]] and [[Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer#NEOWISE|NEOWISE]] missions have been questioned. Although the early original criticism had not undergone peer review, a more recent peer-reviewed study was subsequently published. In November 2019, scientists reported detecting, for the first time, [[Sugar|sugar molecules]], including [[ribose]], in [[meteorite]], suggesting that chemical processes on asteroids can produce some fundamentally essential bio-ingredients important to [[life]], and supporting the notion of an [[RNA world]] prior to a DNA-based [[Abiogenesis|origin of life]] on Earth, and possibly, as well, the notion of [[panspermia]]. Acfer 049, a meteorite discovered in Algeria in 1990, was shown in 2019 to have ice fossils inside it – the first direct evidence of water ice in the composition of asteroids.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Characteristics", "Surface features"], "text": "Most asteroids outside the \"[[List of exceptional asteroids#Largest by mass|big four]]\" (Ceres, Pallas, Vesta, and Hygiea) are likely to be broadly similar in appearance, if irregular in shape. 50 km (31 mi) [[253 Mathilde]] is a rubble pile saturated with craters with diameters the size of the asteroid's radius, and Earth-based observations of 300 km (186 mi) [[511 Davida]], one of the largest asteroids after the big four, reveal a similarly angular profile, suggesting it is also saturated with radius-size craters. Medium-sized asteroids such as Mathilde and [[243 Ida]] that have been observed up close also reveal a deep [[regolith]] covering the surface. Of the big four, Pallas and Hygiea are practically unknown. Vesta has compression fractures encircling a radius-size crater at its south pole but is otherwise a [[spheroid]]. Ceres seems quite different in the glimpses Hubble has provided, with surface features that are unlikely to be due to simple craters and impact basins, but details will be expanded with the ''[[Dawn (spacecraft)|Dawn spacecraft]]'', which entered Ceres orbit on 6 March 2015.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Characteristics", "Color"], "text": "Asteroids become darker and redder with age due to [[space weathering]]. However evidence suggests most of the color change occurs rapidly, in the first hundred thousand years, limiting the usefulness of spectral measurement for determining the age of asteroids.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Classification"], "text": "Asteroids are commonly categorized according to two criteria: the characteristics of their orbits, and features of their reflectance [[visible spectrum|spectrum]].", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Classification", "Orbital classification"], "text": "Many asteroids have been placed in groups and families based on their orbital characteristics. Apart from the broadest divisions, it is customary to name a group of asteroids after the first member of that group to be discovered. Groups are relatively loose dynamical associations, whereas families are tighter and result from the catastrophic break-up of a large parent asteroid sometime in the past. Families are more common and easier to identify within the main asteroid belt, but several small families have been reported among the [[Jupiter trojan]]. Main belt families were first recognized by [[Kiyotsugu Hirayama]] in 1918 and are often called [[Hirayama families]] in his honor. About 30–35% of the bodies in the asteroid belt belong to dynamical families each thought to have a common origin in a past collision between asteroids. A family has also been associated with the plutoid [[dwarf planet]] .", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Classification", "Orbital classification", "Quasi-satellites and horseshoe objects"], "text": "Some asteroids have unusual [[horseshoe orbit]] that are co-orbital with [[Earth]] or some other planet. Examples are [[3753 Cruithne]] and . The first instance of this type of orbital arrangement was discovered between [[Saturn]]'s moons [[Epimetheus (moon)|Epimetheus]] and [[Janus (moon)|Janus]]. Sometimes these horseshoe objects temporarily become [[quasi-satellite]] for a few decades or a few hundred years, before returning to their earlier status. Both Earth and [[Venus]] are known to have quasi-satellites. Such objects, if associated with Earth or Venus or even hypothetically [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]], are a special class of [[Aten asteroid]]. However, such objects could be associated with outer planets as well.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Classification", "Spectral classification"], "text": "In 1975, an asteroid [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomic]] system based on [[color]], [[albedo]], and [[spectral line|spectral shape]] was developed by [[Clark R. Chapman|Chapman]], [[David Morrison (astrophysicist)|Morrison]], and [[Ben Zellner|Zellner]]. These properties are thought to correspond to the composition of the asteroid's surface material. The original classification system had three categories: [[C-type asteroid|C-types]] for dark carbonaceous objects (75% of known asteroids), [[S-type asteroid|S-types]] for stony (silicaceous) objects (17% of known asteroids) and U for those that did not fit into either C or S. This classification has since been expanded to include many other asteroid types. The number of types continues to grow as more asteroids are studied. The two most widely used taxonomies now used are the [[Tholen classification]] and [[SMASS classification]]. The former was proposed in 1984 by [[David J. Tholen]], and was based on data collected from an eight-color asteroid survey performed in the 1980s. This resulted in 14 asteroid categories. In 2002, the Small Main-Belt Asteroid Spectroscopic Survey resulted in a modified version of the Tholen taxonomy with 24 different types. Both systems have three broad categories of C, S, and X asteroids, where X consists of mostly metallic asteroids, such as the [[M-type asteroid|M-type]]. There are also several smaller classes. The proportion of known asteroids falling into the various spectral types does not necessarily reflect the proportion of all asteroids that are of that type; some types are easier to detect than others, biasing the totals.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Classification", "Spectral classification", "Problems"], "text": "Originally, spectral designations were based on inferences of an asteroid's composition. However, the correspondence between spectral class and composition is not always very good, and a variety of classifications are in use. This has led to significant confusion. Although asteroids of different spectral classifications are likely to be composed of different materials, there are no assurances that asteroids within the same taxonomic class are composed of the same (or similar) materials.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Naming"], "text": "A newly discovered asteroid is given a [[Provisional designation in astronomy|provisional designation]] (such as ) consisting of the year of discovery and an alphanumeric code indicating the [[half-month]] of discovery and the sequence within that half-month. Once an asteroid's orbit has been confirmed, it is given a number, and later may also be given a name (e.g. ). The formal naming convention uses parentheses around the number – e.g. (433) Eros – but dropping the parentheses is quite common. Informally, it is common to drop the number altogether, or to drop it after the first mention when a name is repeated in running text. In addition, names can be proposed by the asteroid's discoverer, within guidelines established by the International Astronomical Union.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Naming", "Symbols"], "text": "The first asteroids to be discovered were assigned iconic symbols like the ones traditionally used to designate the planets. By 1855 there were two dozen asteroid symbols, which often occurred in multiple variants. In 1851, after the fifteenth asteroid ([[15 Eunomia|Eunomia]]) had been discovered, [[Johann Franz Encke]] made a major change in the upcoming 1854 edition of the ''[[Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch]]'' (BAJ, ''Berlin Astronomical Yearbook''). He introduced a disk (circle), a traditional symbol for a star, as the generic symbol for an asteroid. The circle was then numbered in order of discovery to indicate a specific asteroid (although he assigned ① to the fifth, [[5 Astraea|Astraea]], while continuing to designate the first four only with their existing iconic symbols). The numbered-circle convention was quickly adopted by astronomers, and the next asteroid to be discovered ([[16 Psyche]], in 1852) was the first to be designated in that way at the time of its discovery. However, Psyche was given an iconic symbol as well, as were a few other asteroids discovered over the next few years (see chart above). [[20 Massalia]] was the first asteroid that was not assigned an iconic symbol, and no iconic symbols were created after the 1855 discovery of [[37 Fides]]. That year Astraea's number was increased to ⑤, but the first four asteroids, Ceres to Vesta, were not listed by their numbers until the 1867 edition. The circle was soon abbreviated to a pair of parentheses, which were easier to typeset and sometimes omitted altogether over the next few decades, leading to the modern convention.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Exploration"], "text": "Until the age of [[Spaceflight|space travel]], objects in the asteroid belt were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes and their shapes and terrain remained a mystery. The best modern ground-based telescopes and the Earth-orbiting [[Hubble Space Telescope]] can resolve a small amount of detail on the surfaces of the largest asteroids, but even these mostly remain little more than fuzzy blobs. Limited information about the shapes and compositions of asteroids can be inferred from their [[light curve]] (their variation in brightness as they rotate) and their spectral properties, and asteroid sizes can be estimated by timing the lengths of star occultations (when an asteroid passes directly in front of a star). [[Radar]] imaging can yield good information about asteroid shapes and orbital and rotational parameters, especially for near-Earth asteroids. In terms of [[delta-v]] and propellant requirements, NEOs are more easily accessible than the Moon. The first close-up photographs of asteroid-like objects were taken in 1971, when the ''[[Mariner 9]]'' probe imaged [[Phobos (moon)|Phobos]] and [[Deimos (moon)|Deimos]], the two small moons of [[Mars]], which are probably captured asteroids. These images revealed the irregular, potato-like shapes of most asteroids, as did later images from the [[Voyager program|Voyager]] probes of the small moons of the [[gas giant]]. The first true asteroid to be photographed in close-up was [[951 Gaspra]] in 1991, followed in 1993 by [[243 Ida]] and its moon [[Dactyl (asteroid)|Dactyl]], all of which were imaged by the [[Galileo (spacecraft)|''Galileo'' probe]] en route to [[Jupiter]]. The first dedicated asteroid probe was ''[[NEAR Shoemaker]]'', which photographed [[253 Mathilde]] in 1997, before entering into orbit around [[433 Eros]], finally landing on its surface in 2001. Other asteroids briefly visited by spacecraft en route to other destinations include [[9969 Braille]] (by ''[[Deep Space 1]]'' in 1999), and [[5535 Annefrank]] (by ''[[Stardust (spacecraft)|Stardust]]'' in 2002). From September to November 2005, the Japanese ''[[Hayabusa (spacecraft)|Hayabusa]]'' probe studied [[25143 Itokawa]] in detail and was plagued with difficulties, but [[Sample return mission|returned samples]] of its surface to Earth on 13 June 2010. The European [[Rosetta (spacecraft)|''Rosetta'' probe]] (launched in 2004) flew by [[2867 Šteins]] in 2008 and [[21 Lutetia]], the third-largest asteroid visited to date, in 2010. In September 2007, [[NASA]] launched the [[Dawn (spacecraft)|''Dawn'' spacecraft]], which orbited [[4 Vesta]] from July 2011 to September 2012, and has been orbiting the dwarf planet [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|1 Ceres]] since 2015. 4 Vesta is the second-largest asteroid visited to date. On 13 December 2012, China's lunar orbiter ''[[Chang'e 2]]'' flew within of the asteroid [[4179 Toutatis]] on an extended mission. The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) launched the ''[[Hayabusa2]]'' probe in December 2014, and plans to return samples from [[162173 Ryugu]] in December 2020. In June 2018, the US [[National Science and Technology Council]] warned that America is unprepared for an [[Asteroid impact avoidance|asteroid impact event]], and has developed and released the ''\"National Near-Earth Object Preparedness Strategy Action Plan\"'' to better prepare.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Exploration"], "text": "In September 2016, NASA launched the [[OSIRIS-REx]] sample return mission to asteroid [[101955 Bennu]], which it reached in December 2018. , the probe is in orbit around the asteroid.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Exploration", "Planned and future missions"], "text": "In early 2013, NASA announced the planning stages of a mission to capture a near-Earth asteroid and move it into lunar orbit where it could possibly be visited by astronauts and later impacted into the Moon. On 19 June 2014, NASA reported that asteroid [[2011 MD]] was a prime candidate for capture by a robotic mission, perhaps in the early 2020s. It has been suggested that asteroids might be used as a source of materials that may be rare or exhausted on Earth ([[asteroid mining]]), or materials for constructing [[space habitat]] ''(see [[Colonization of the asteroids]])''. Materials that are heavy and expensive to launch from Earth may someday be mined from asteroids and used for [[space manufacturing]] and construction. In the U.S. [[Discovery program]] the [[Psyche (spacecraft)|''Psyche'' spacecraft]] proposal to [[16 Psyche]] and [[Lucy (spacecraft)|''Lucy'' spacecraft]] to [[Jupiter trojan]] made it to the semi-finalist stage of mission selection. In January 2017, ''Lucy'' and [[Psyche (spacecraft)|''Psyche'' mission]] were both selected as NASA's [[Discovery Program]] missions 13 and 14 respectively. Location of Ceres (within asteroid belt) compared to other bodies of the Solar System", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": ["Fiction"], "text": "Asteroids and the asteroid belt are a staple of science fiction stories. Asteroids play several potential roles in science fiction: as places human beings might colonize, resources for extracting minerals, hazards encountered by spacecraft traveling between two other points, and as a threat to life on Earth or other inhabited planets, dwarf planets, and natural satellites by potential impact.", "id": "791", "title": "Asteroid", "categories": ["Asteroids", "Minor planets"], "seealso": ["Aten asteroid", "Centaur (minor planet)", "Category:Asteroids", "List of minor planets", "ʻOumuamua", "Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite", "Category:Asteroid groups and families", "Apollo asteroid", "Category:Binary asteroids", "Amor asteroid", "Minor planet", "''Dawn'' (spacecraft)", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "Lost minor planet", "Mesoplanet", "List of minor planets named after people", "NEOShield", "Dwarf planet", "List of possible impact structures on Earth", "''Marco Polo'' (spacecraft)", "List of minor planets named after places", "Impact event", "Atira asteroid", "Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter", "Constellation program", "Active asteroid", "List of impact craters on Earth", "List of exceptional asteroids", "''Rosetta'' (spacecraft)", "Near-Earth object", "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth", "Pioneer 10", "BOOTES", "Asteroid Day", "Meanings of minor planet names"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "An '''allocution''', or '''allocutus''', is a formal statement made to the court by the defendant who has been found [[guilt (law)|guilty]] prior to being sentenced. It is part of the criminal procedure in some jurisdictions using [[common law]].", "id": "794", "title": "Allocution", "categories": ["Criminal procedure", "Evidence law"], "seealso": ["Confession (law)"]}
{"headers": ["Concept"], "text": "An allocution allows the defendant to explain why the sentence should be lenient. In [[plea bargain]], an allocution may be required of the defendant. The defendant explicitly admits specifically and in detail the actions and their reasons in exchange for a reduced sentence. In principle, that removes any doubt as to the exact nature of the defendant's guilt in the matter. The term \"allocution\" is used generally only in jurisdictions in the United States, but there are vaguely similar processes in other [[common law countries]]. In many other jurisdictions, it is for the defense lawyer to mitigate on his client's behalf, and the defendant rarely has the opportunity to speak. The right of victims to speak at sentencing is also sometimes referred to as allocution.", "id": "794", "title": "Allocution", "categories": ["Criminal procedure", "Evidence law"], "seealso": ["Confession (law)"]}
{"headers": ["Australia"], "text": "In [[Australia]], the term ''allocutus'' is used by the Clerk of Arraigns or another formal associate of the Court. It is generally phrased as, \"Prisoner at the Bar, you have been found Guilty by a jury of your peers of the offense of XYZ. Do you have anything to say as to why the sentence of this Court should not now be passed upon you?\" The defense counsel will then make a ''plea in mitigation'' (also called ''submissions on penalty'') in an attempt to mitigate the relative seriousness of the offense and heavily refer to and rely upon the defendant's previous good character and good works, if any. The right to make a plea in mitigation is absolute. If a judge or magistrate refuses to hear such a plea or does not properly consider it, the sentence can be overturned on appeal.", "id": "794", "title": "Allocution", "categories": ["Criminal procedure", "Evidence law"], "seealso": ["Confession (law)"]}
{"headers": ["United States"], "text": "In most of the [[United States]], defendants are allowed the opportunity to allocute before a sentence is passed. Some jurisdictions hold that as an absolute right. In its absence, a sentence but not the conviction may be overturned, resulting in the need for a new sentencing hearing. In the federal system, [[Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure]] 32(i)(4) provides that the court must \"address the defendant personally in order to permit the defendant to speak or present any information to mitigate the sentence.\" The [[Federal Public Defender]] recommends that defendants speak in terms of how a lenient sentence will be sufficient but not greater than necessary to comply with the statutory directives set forth in .", "id": "794", "title": "Allocution", "categories": ["Criminal procedure", "Evidence law"], "seealso": ["Confession (law)"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "An '''''' ( ; [[Medieval Latin]] for ''he has declared under oath'') is a written statement of fact voluntarily made by an ''affiant'' or ''[[Deposition (law)|deponent]]'' under an [[oath]] or affirmation which is administered by a person who is authorized to do so by law. Such a statement is witnessed as to the authenticity of the affiant's [[signature]] by a taker of oaths, such as a [[notary public]] or commissioner of oaths. An affidavit is a type of verified statement or showing, or in other words, it contains a verification, which means that it is made under oath on penalty of [[perjury]], and this serves as evidence for its veracity and is required in court proceedings. Affidavits may be written in the first or third person, depending on who drafted the document. The document's component parts are typically as follows: (-) a ''commencement'' which identifies the \"affiant of truth\", generally stating that everything in it is true, under penalty of perjury, fine, or imprisonment; (-) an ''attestation'' clause, usually a [[jurat (clause)|jurat]], at the end certifying that the affiant made oath and the date; (-) signatures of the author and witness. If an affidavit is notarized or authenticated, it will also include a caption with a venue and title in reference to judicial proceedings. In some cases, an introductory clause, called a ''preamble'', is added attesting that the affiant personally appeared before the authenticating authority.", "id": "795", "title": "Affidavit", "categories": ["Evidence law", "Legal documents", "Notary"], "seealso": ["Fishman Affidavit", "Statutory declaration", "Performativity", "Declaration (law)", "Deposition (law)", "Sworn declaration"]}
{"headers": ["Australia"], "text": "On 2 March 2016, the High Court of Australia held that the ACT Uniform Evidence Legislation is neutral in the way sworn evidence and unsworn evidence is treated as being of equal weight.", "id": "795", "title": "Affidavit", "categories": ["Evidence law", "Legal documents", "Notary"], "seealso": ["Fishman Affidavit", "Statutory declaration", "Performativity", "Declaration (law)", "Deposition (law)", "Sworn declaration"]}
{"headers": ["India"], "text": "In Indian law, although an affidavit may be taken as proof of the facts stated therein, the courts have no jurisdiction to admit evidence by way of affidavit. Affidavit is not treated as \"evidence\" within the meaning of Section 3 of the Evidence Act. However, it was held by the Supreme Court that an affidavit can be used as evidence only if the court so orders for sufficient reasons, namely, the right of the opposite party to have the deponent produced for cross-examination. Therefore, an affidavit cannot ordinarily be used as evidence in absence of a specific order of the court.", "id": "795", "title": "Affidavit", "categories": ["Evidence law", "Legal documents", "Notary"], "seealso": ["Fishman Affidavit", "Statutory declaration", "Performativity", "Declaration (law)", "Deposition (law)", "Sworn declaration"]}
{"headers": ["Sri Lanka"], "text": "In Sri Lanka, under the Oaths Ordinance, with the exception of a [[court-martial]], a person may submit an affidavit signed in the presence of a [[commissioner for oaths]] or a [[Justice of the peace#Sri Lanka|justice of the peace]].", "id": "795", "title": "Affidavit", "categories": ["Evidence law", "Legal documents", "Notary"], "seealso": ["Fishman Affidavit", "Statutory declaration", "Performativity", "Declaration (law)", "Deposition (law)", "Sworn declaration"]}
{"headers": ["Ireland"], "text": "Affidavits are made in a similar way as to England and Wales, although \"make oath\" is sometimes omitted. A declaration may be substituted for an affidavit in most cases for those opposed to swearing oaths. The person making the affidavit is known as the deponent but does not sign the affidavit. The affidavit concludes in the standard format \"sworn (declared) before me, [name of commissioner for oaths/solicitor], a commissioner for oaths (solicitor), on the [date] at [location] in the county/city of [county/city], and I know the deponent (declarant)\", and it is signed and stamped by the commissioner for oaths. In August 2020 a new method of filing affidavits came into force. Under Section 21 of the Civil Law and Criminal Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2020 witnesses are no longer required to swear before God or make an affirmation when filing an affidavit. Instead, witnesses will make a non-religious “statement of truth” and will be liable for up to one year in prison if it is breached.", "id": "795", "title": "Affidavit", "categories": ["Evidence law", "Legal documents", "Notary"], "seealso": ["Fishman Affidavit", "Statutory declaration", "Performativity", "Declaration (law)", "Deposition (law)", "Sworn declaration"]}
{"headers": ["United States"], "text": "In American [[jurisprudence]], under the rules for [[Hearsay in United States law|hearsay]], admission of an unsupported affidavit as evidence is unusual (especially if the affiant is not available for [[cross-examination]]) with regard to material facts which may be dispositive of the matter at bar. Affidavits from persons who are dead or otherwise incapacitated, or who cannot be located or made to appear, may be accepted by the court, but usually only in the presence of [[corroborating evidence]]. An affidavit which reflected a better grasp of the facts close in time to the actual events may be used to refresh a witness's recollection. Materials used to refresh recollection are admissible as evidence. If the affiant is a party in the case, the affiant's opponent may be successful in having the affidavit admitted as evidence, as statements by a party-opponent are admissible through an exception to the hearsay rule. Affidavits are typically included in the response to [[interrogatories]]. [[Requests for admissions]] under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 36, however, are not required to be sworn. When a person signs an affidavit, that person is eligible to take the stand at a trial or evidentiary hearing. One party may wish to summon the affiant to verify the contents of the affidavit, while the other party may want to cross-examine the affiant about the affidavit. Some types of motions will not be accepted by the court unless accompanied by an independent sworn statement or other evidence in support of the need for the motion. In such a case, a court will accept an affidavit from the filing attorney in support of the motion, as certain assumptions are made, to wit: The affidavit in place of sworn testimony promotes [[judicial economy]]. The lawyer is an [[officer of the court]] and knows that a false swearing by them, if found out, could be grounds for severe penalty up to and including [[disbarment]]. The lawyer if called upon would be able to present independent and more detailed evidence to prove the facts set forth in his affidavit. The acceptance of an affidavit by one society does not confirm its acceptance as a legal document in other jurisdictions. Equally, the acceptance that a lawyer is an officer of the court (for swearing the affidavit) is not a given. This matter is addressed by the use of the apostille, a means of certifying the legalization of a document for international use under the terms of the [[Apostille Convention|1961 Hague Convention Abolishing the Requirement of Legalization for Foreign Public Documents]]. Documents which have been notarized by a notary public, and certain other documents, and then certified with a conformant apostille, are accepted for legal use in all the nations that have signed the Hague Convention. Thus most affidavits now require to be apostilled if used for cross border issues.", "id": "795", "title": "Affidavit", "categories": ["Evidence law", "Legal documents", "Notary"], "seealso": ["Fishman Affidavit", "Statutory declaration", "Performativity", "Declaration (law)", "Deposition (law)", "Sworn declaration"]}
{"headers": ["Types of affidavit"], "text": "There are a various circumstances when a person may need an particular type of affidavit for a specific purpose such as the following: (-) Affidavit of Citizenship (-) Affidavit of Death (-) Affidavit of Heirship (-) Affidavit of Identity Theft (-) Affidavit of Name Change (-) Affidavit of Residence (-) Affidavit of Service (-) Affidavit of Small Estate (-) Affidavit of Support (-) Divorce Affidavit (-) Financial Affidavit", "id": "795", "title": "Affidavit", "categories": ["Evidence law", "Legal documents", "Notary"], "seealso": ["Fishman Affidavit", "Statutory declaration", "Performativity", "Declaration (law)", "Deposition (law)", "Sworn declaration"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Aries ''' is one of the [[constellation]] of the [[zodiac]]. It is located in the [[Northern celestial hemisphere]] between [[Pisces (constellation)|Pisces]] to the west and [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] to the east. The name Aries is [[Latin]] for [[sheep|ram]], and its symbol is (Unicode ♈), representing a ram's horns. It is one of the 48 constellations described by the 2nd century astronomer [[Ptolemy]], and remains one of the 88 modern constellations. It is a mid-sized constellation, ranking 39th overall size, with an area of 441 square degrees (1.1% of the [[celestial sphere]]). Aries has represented a ram since late Babylonian times. Before that, the stars of Aries formed a farmhand. Different cultures have incorporated the stars of Aries into different constellations including twin inspectors in China and a porpoise in the Marshall Islands. Aries is a relatively dim constellation, possessing only four bright stars: [[Hamal]] (Alpha Arietis, second magnitude), [[Sheratan]] (Beta Arietis, third magnitude), [[Mesarthim]] (Gamma Arietis, fourth magnitude), and [[41 Arietis]] (also fourth magnitude). The few [[deep-sky object]] within the constellation are quite faint and include several pairs of interacting galaxies. Several [[meteor shower]] appear to radiate from Aries, including the [[Daytime Arietids]] and the [[Epsilon Arietids]].", "id": "798", "title": "Aries (constellation)", "categories": ["Aries (constellation)", "Constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy", "Northern constellations"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History and mythology"], "text": "Aries is recognized as an official constellation now, albeit as a specific region of the sky, by the [[International Astronomical Union]]. It was originally defined in ancient texts as a specific pattern of stars, and has remained a constellation since ancient times; it now includes the ancient pattern as well as the surrounding stars. In the description of the [[Babylonian zodiac]] given in the clay tablets known as the [[MUL.APIN]], the constellation, now known as Aries, was the final station along the [[ecliptic]]. The MUL.APIN was a comprehensive table of the risings and settings of stars, which likely served as an agricultural calendar. Modern-day Aries was known as , \"The Agrarian Worker\" or \"The Hired Man\". Although likely compiled in the 12th or 11th century BC, the MUL.APIN reflects a tradition which marks the [[Pleiades]] as the [[Vernal equinox (Northern Hemisphere)|vernal equinox]], which was the case with some precision at the beginning of the [[Middle Bronze Age]]. The earliest identifiable reference to Aries as a distinct constellation comes from the [[boundary stone]] that date from 1350 to 1000 BC. On several boundary stones, a zodiacal ram figure is distinct from the other characters present. The shift in identification from the constellation as the Agrarian Worker to the Ram likely occurred in later Babylonian tradition because of its growing association with [[Dumuzi the Shepherd]]. By the time the MUL.APIN was created—by 1000 BC—modern Aries was identified with both Dumuzi's ram and a hired laborer. The exact timing of this shift is difficult to determine due to the lack of images of Aries or other ram figures. In [[ancient Egyptian astronomy]], Aries was associated with the god [[Amon-Ra]], who was depicted as a man with a ram's head and represented fertility and creativity. Because it was the location of the vernal equinox, it was called the \"Indicator of the Reborn Sun\". During the times of the year when Aries was prominent, priests would process statues of Amon-Ra to temples, a practice that was modified by [[Persian astronomy|Persian astronomers]] centuries later. Aries acquired the title of \"Lord of the Head\" in Egypt, referring to its symbolic and mythological importance. Aries was not fully accepted as a constellation until classical times. In [[Hellenistic astrology]], the constellation of Aries is associated with the golden ram of [[Greek mythology]] that rescued [[Phrixus]] and [[Helle (mythology)|Helle]] on orders from [[Hermes]], taking Phrixus to the land of [[Colchis]]. Phrixos and Helle were the son and daughter of King [[Athamas]] and his first wife [[Nephele]]. The king's second wife, [[Ino (Greek mythology)|Ino]], was jealous and wished to kill his children. To accomplish this, she induced a famine in [[Boeotia]], then falsified a message from the [[Oracle of Delphi]] that said Phrixos must be sacrificed to end the famine. Athamas was about to sacrifice his son atop [[Mount Laphystium]] when Aries, sent by Nephele, arrived. Helle fell off of Aries's back in flight and drowned in the [[Dardanelles]], also called the Hellespont in her honor.", "id": "798", "title": "Aries (constellation)", "categories": ["Aries (constellation)", "Constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy", "Northern constellations"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History and mythology"], "text": "Historically, Aries has been depicted as a crouched, wingless ram with its head turned towards Taurus. [[Ptolemy]] asserted in his ''[[Almagest]]'' that [[Hipparchus]] depicted [[Alpha Arietis]] as the ram's muzzle, though Ptolemy did not include it in his constellation figure. Instead, it was listed as an \"unformed star\", and denoted as \"the star over the head\". [[John Flamsteed]], in his ''[[Atlas Coelestis]]'', followed Ptolemy's description by mapping it above the figure's head. Flamsteed followed the general convention of maps by depicting Aries lying down. Astrologically, Aries has been associated with the head and its [[humorism|humors]]. It was strongly associated with [[Mars]], both the planet and the god. It was considered to govern Western Europe and Syria, and to indicate a strong temper in a person. The [[First Point of Aries]], the location of the [[Vernal equinox (Northern Hemisphere)|vernal equinox]], is named for the constellation. This is because the Sun crossed the [[celestial equator]] from south to north in Aries more than two millennia ago. Hipparchus defined it in 130 BC. as a point south of [[Gamma Arietis]]. Because of the [[precession of the equinoxes]], the First Point of Aries has since moved into [[Pisces (constellation)|Pisces]] and will move into [[Aquarius (constellation)|Aquarius]] by around 2600 AD. The Sun now appears in Aries from late April through mid May, though the constellation is still associated with the beginning of spring. [[Islamic astronomy|Medieval Muslim astronomers]] depicted Aries in various ways. Astronomers like [[al-Sufi]] saw the constellation as a ram, modeled on the precedent of Ptolemy. However, some Islamic celestial globes depicted Aries as a nondescript four-legged animal with what may be antlers instead of horns. Some early [[Bedouin]] observers saw a ram elsewhere in the sky; this constellation featured the [[Pleiades]] as the ram's tail. The generally accepted Arabic formation of Aries consisted of thirteen stars in a figure along with five \"unformed\" stars, four of which were over the animal's hindquarters and one of which was the disputed star over Aries's head. Al-Sufi's depiction differed from both other Arab astronomers' and Flamsteed's, in that his Aries was running and looking behind itself. The [[obsolete constellations]] of Aries ([[Apes (constellation)|Apes]]/[[Vespa (constellation)|Vespa]]/[[Lilium (constellation)|Lilium]]/[[Musca Borealis|Musca (Borealis)]]) all centred on the same the northern stars. In 1612, [[Petrus Plancius]] introduced Apes, a constellation representing a bee. In 1624, the same stars were used by [[Jakob Bartsch]] as for Vespa, representing a wasp. In 1679 [[Augustin Royer]] used these stars for his constellation Lilium, representing the [[fleur-de-lis]]. None of these constellation became widely accepted. [[Johann Hevelius]] renamed the constellation \"Musca\" in 1690 in his ''[[Firmamentum Sobiescianum]]''. To differentiate it from [[Musca]], the southern fly, it was later renamed Musca Borealis but it did not gain acceptance and its stars were ultimately officially reabsorbed into Aries. The asterism involved was [[33 Arietis|33]], [[35 Arietis|35]], [[39 Arietis|39]], and [[41 Arietis]].", "id": "798", "title": "Aries (constellation)", "categories": ["Aries (constellation)", "Constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy", "Northern constellations"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History and mythology"], "text": "In 1922, the International Astronomical Union defined its recommended three-letter abbreviation, \"Ari\". The official boundaries of Aries were defined in 1930 by [[Eugène Delporte]] as a polygon of 12 segments. Its [[right ascension]] is between 1 46.4 and 3 29.4 and its [[declination]] is between 10.36° and 31.22° in the [[equatorial coordinate system]].", "id": "798", "title": "Aries (constellation)", "categories": ["Aries (constellation)", "Constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy", "Northern constellations"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History and mythology", "In non-Western astronomy"], "text": "In traditional [[Chinese astronomy]], stars from Aries were used in several constellations. The brightest stars—Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Arietis—formed a constellation called ''Lou'' (婁), variously translated as \"bond\", \"lasso\", and \"sickle\", which was associated with the ritual sacrifice of cattle. This name was shared by the [[Twenty-eight mansions|16th lunar mansion]], the location of the full moon closest to the [[September equinox|autumnal equinox]]. This constellation has also been associated with harvest-time as it could represent a woman carrying a basket of food on her head. [[35 Arietis|35]], [[39 Arietis|39]], and [[41 Arietis]] were part of a constellation called ''Wei'' (胃), which represented a fat abdomen and was the namesake of the 17th lunar mansion, which represented [[granary|granaries]]. [[Delta Arietis|Delta]] and [[Zeta Arietis]] were a part of the constellation ''Tianyin'' (天陰), thought to represent the Emperor's hunting partner. ''Zuogeng'' (左更), a constellation depicting a marsh and pond inspector, was composed of [[Mu Arietis|Mu]], [[Nu Arietis|Nu]], [[Omicron Arietis|Omicron]], [[Pi Arietis|Pi]], and [[Sigma Arietis]]. He was accompanied by ''Yeou-kang'', a constellation depicting an official in charge of pasture distribution. In a similar system to the Chinese, the first lunar mansion in [[Hindu astronomy]] was called \"Aswini\", after the traditional names for Beta and Gamma Arietis, the [[Ashvins|Aswins]]. Because the Hindu new year began with the vernal equinox, the [[Rig Veda]] contains over 50 new-year's related hymns to the twins, making them some of the most prominent characters in the work. Aries itself was known as \"''Aja''\" and \"''Mesha''\". In [[Hebrew astronomy]] Aries was named \"''Taleh''\"; it signified either [[Tribe of Simeon|Simeon]] or [[Tribe of Gad|Gad]], and generally symbolizes the \"Lamb of the World\". The neighboring [[Syria]] named the constellation \"Amru\", and the bordering Turks named it \"Kuzi\". Half a world away, in the [[Marshall Islands]], several stars from Aries were incorporated into a constellation depicting a [[porpoise]], along with stars from [[Cassiopeia (constellation)|Cassiopeia]], [[Andromeda (constellation)|Andromeda]], and [[Triangulum]]. Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Arietis formed the head of the porpoise, while stars from Andromeda formed the body and the bright stars of Cassiopeia formed the tail. Other [[Polynesian people]] recognized Aries as a constellation. The [[Marquesas]] islanders called it ''Na-pai-ka''; the [[Māori people|Māori]] constellation ''Pipiri'' may correspond to modern Aries as well. In indigenous Peruvian astronomy, a constellation with most of the same stars as Aries existed. It was called the \"Market Moon\" and the \"Kneeling Terrace\", as a reminder for when to hold the annual harvest festival, [[Ayri Huay]].", "id": "798", "title": "Aries (constellation)", "categories": ["Aries (constellation)", "Constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy", "Northern constellations"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Features", "Stars"], "text": "Aries has three prominent stars forming an [[Asterism (astronomy)|asterism]], designated Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Arietis by [[Johann Bayer]]. Alpha (Hamal) and Beta (Sheratan) are commonly used for navigation. There is also one other star above the fourth magnitude, 41 Arietis (Bharani). [[Alpha Arietis|α Arietis]], called Hamal, is the brightest [[star]] in Aries. Its traditional name is derived from the Arabic word for \"lamb\" or \"head of the ram\" (''ras al-hamal''), which references Aries's mythological background. With a [[spectral class]] of K2 and a [[luminosity class]] of III, it is an [[orange giant]] with an [[apparent visual magnitude]] of 2.00, which lies 66 [[light-year]] from Earth. Hamal has a [[luminosity]] of and its [[absolute magnitude]] is −0.1. [[Beta Arietis|β Arietis]], also known as Sheratan, is a blue-white star with an apparent visual magnitude of 2.64. Its traditional name is derived from \"''sharatayn''\", the Arabic word for \"the two signs\", referring to both Beta and Gamma Arietis in their position as heralds of the vernal equinox. The two stars were known to the [[Bedouin]] as \"''qarna al-hamal''\", \"horns of the ram\". It is 59 light-years from Earth. It has a luminosity of and its absolute magnitude is 2.1. It is a [[spectroscopic binary]] star, one in which the companion star is only known through [[spectroscopy|analysis of the spectra]]. The spectral class of the primary is A5. [[Hermann Carl Vogel]] determined that Sheratan was a spectroscopic binary in 1903; its orbit was determined by [[Hans Ludendorff]] in 1907. It has since been studied for its eccentric orbit. [[Gamma Arietis|γ Arietis]], with a common name of Mesarthim, is a [[binary star]] with two white-hued components, located in a rich field of magnitude 8–12 stars. Its traditional name has conflicting derivations. It may be derived from a corruption of \"al-sharatan\", the Arabic word meaning \"pair\" or a word for \"fat ram\". However, it may also come from the Sanskrit for \"first star of Aries\" or the Hebrew for \"ministerial servants\", both of which are unusual languages of origin for star names. Along with Beta Arietis, it was known to the Bedouin as \"''qarna al-hamal''\". The primary is of magnitude 4.59 and the secondary is of magnitude 4.68. The system is 164 light-years from Earth. The two components are separated by 7.8 [[arcsecond]], and the system as a whole has an [[apparent magnitude]] of 3.9. The primary has a luminosity of and the secondary has a luminosity of ; the primary is an A-type star with an absolute magnitude of 0.2 and the secondary is a B9-type star with an absolute magnitude of 0.4. The angle between the two components is 1°. Mesarthim was discovered to be a double star by [[Robert Hooke]] in 1664, one of the earliest such telescopic discoveries. The primary, γ Arietis, is an [[Alpha² Canum Venaticorum variable]] star that has a range of 0.02 magnitudes and a period of 2.607 days. It is unusual because of its strong [[silicon]] [[emission lines]].", "id": "798", "title": "Aries (constellation)", "categories": ["Aries (constellation)", "Constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy", "Northern constellations"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Features", "Stars"], "text": "The constellation is home to several double stars, including Epsilon, Lambda, and Pi Arietis. [[Epsilon Arietis|ε Arietis]] is a binary star with two white components. The primary is of magnitude 5.2 and the secondary is of magnitude 5.5. The system is 290 light-years from Earth. Its overall magnitude is 4.63, and the primary has an absolute magnitude of 1.4. Its spectral class is A2. The two components are separated by 1.5 arcseconds. [[Lambda Arietis|λ Arietis]] is a wide double star with a white-hued primary and a yellow-hued secondary. The primary is of magnitude 4.8 and the secondary is of magnitude 7.3. The primary is 129 light-years from Earth. It has an absolute magnitude of 1.7 and a spectral class of F0. The two components are separated by 36 arcseconds at an angle of 50°; the two stars are located 0.5° east of [[7 Arietis]]. [[Pi Arietis|π Arietis]] is a close binary star with a blue-white primary and a white secondary. The primary is of magnitude 5.3 and the secondary is of magnitude 8.5. The primary is 776 light-years from Earth. The primary itself is a wide double star with a separation of 25.2 arcseconds; the tertiary has a magnitude of 10.8. The primary and secondary are separated by 3.2 arcseconds. Most of the other stars in Aries visible to the naked eye have magnitudes between 3 and 5. [[Delta Arietis|δ Ari]], called Boteïn, is a star of magnitude 4.35, 170 light-years away. It has an absolute magnitude of −0.1 and a spectral class of K2. [[Zeta Arietis|ζ Arietis]] is a star of magnitude 4.89, 263 light-years away. Its spectral class is A0 and its absolute magnitude is 0.0. [[14 Arietis]] is a star of magnitude 4.98, 288 light-years away. Its spectral class is F2 and its absolute magnitude is 0.6. [[39 Arietis]] (Lilii Borea) is a similar star of magnitude 4.51, 172 light-years away. Its spectral class is K1 and its absolute magnitude is 0.0. [[35 Arietis]] is a dim star of magnitude 4.55, 343 light-years away. Its spectral class is B3 and its absolute magnitude is −1.7. [[41 Arietis]], known both as c Arietis and Nair al Butain, is a brighter star of magnitude 3.63, 165 light-years away. Its spectral class is B8 and it has a luminosity of . Its absolute magnitude is −0.2. [[53 Arietis]] is a [[runaway star]] of magnitude 6.09, 815 light-years away. Its spectral class is B2. It was likely ejected from the [[Orion Nebula]] approximately five million years ago, possibly due to [[supernova]]. Finally, [[Teegarden's Star]] is the closest star to Earth in Aries. It is a [[brown dwarf]] of magnitude 15.14 and spectral class M6.5V. With a proper motion of 5.1 arcseconds per year, it is the 24th closest star to Earth overall.", "id": "798", "title": "Aries (constellation)", "categories": ["Aries (constellation)", "Constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy", "Northern constellations"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Features", "Stars"], "text": "Aries has its share of variable stars, including R and U Arietis, Mira-type variable stars, and T Arietis, a semi-regular variable star. [[R Arietis]] is a [[Mira variable]] star that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 13.7 to a maximum of 7.4 with a period of 186.8 days. It is 4,080 light-years away. [[U Arietis]] is another Mira variable star that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 15.2 to a maximum of 7.2 with a period of 371.1 days. [[T Arietis]] is a [[semiregular variable star]] that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 11.3 to a maximum of 7.5 with a period of 317 days. It is 1,630 light-years away. One particularly interesting variable in Aries is [[SX Arietis]], a rotating variable star considered to be the prototype of its class, [[helium variable]] stars. SX Arietis stars have very prominent emission lines of Helium I and Silicon III. They are normally main-sequence B0p—B9p stars, and their variations are not usually visible to the naked eye. Therefore, they are observed photometrically, usually having periods that fit in the course of one night. Similar to [[Alpha² Canum Venaticorum variable]], SX Arietis stars have periodic changes in their light and magnetic field, which correspond to the periodic rotation; they differ from the Alpha² Canum Venaticorum variables in their higher temperature. There are between 39 and 49 SX Arietis variable stars currently known; ten are noted as being \"uncertain\" in the [[General Catalog of Variable Stars]].", "id": "798", "title": "Aries (constellation)", "categories": ["Aries (constellation)", "Constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy", "Northern constellations"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Features", "Deep-sky objects"], "text": "[[NGC 772]] is a [[spiral galaxy]] with an [[integrated magnitude]] of 10.3, located southeast of β Arietis and 15 arcminutes west of [[15 Arietis]]. It is a relatively bright galaxy and shows obvious nebulosity and ellipticity in an amateur telescope. It is 7.2 by 4.2 arcminutes, meaning that its [[surface brightness]], magnitude 13.6, is significantly lower than its integrated magnitude. NGC 772 is a [[galaxy morphological classification|class SA(s)b galaxy]], which means that it is an unbarred spiral galaxy without a ring that possesses a somewhat prominent [[bulge (astronomy)|bulge]] and spiral arms that are wound somewhat tightly. The main arm, on the northwest side of the galaxy, is home to many [[star formation|star forming regions]]; this is due to previous [[galaxy merger|gravitational interactions]] with other galaxies. NGC 772 has a small companion galaxy, [[NGC 770]], that is about 113,000 light-years away from the larger galaxy. The two galaxies together are also classified as Arp 78 in the [[Arp number|Arp peculiar galaxy catalog]]. NGC 772 has a diameter of 240,000 light-years and the system is 114 million light-years from Earth. Another spiral galaxy in Aries is [[NGC 673]], a face-on class SAB(s)c galaxy. It is a weakly [[barred spiral galaxy]] with loosely wound arms. It has no ring and a faint bulge and is 2.5 by 1.9 arcminutes. It has two primary arms with fragments located farther from the core. 171,000 light-years in diameter, NGC 673 is 235 million light-years from Earth. [[NGC 678]] and [[NGC 680]] are a pair of galaxies in Aries that are only about 200,000 light-years apart. Part of the [[NGC 691]] group of galaxies, both are at a distance of approximately 130 million light-years. NGC 678 is an edge-on spiral galaxy that is 4.5 by 0.8 arcminutes. NGC 680, an [[elliptical galaxy]] with an asymmetrical boundary, is the brighter of the two at magnitude 12.9; NGC 678 has a magnitude of 13.35. Both galaxies have bright cores, but NGC 678 is the larger galaxy at a diameter of 171,000 light-years; NGC 680 has a diameter of 72,000 light-years. NGC 678 is further distinguished by its prominent [[dust lane]]. NGC 691 itself is a spiral galaxy slightly inclined to our line of sight. It has multiple spiral arms and a bright core. Because it is so diffuse, it has a low surface brightness. It has a diameter of 126,000 light-years and is 124 million light-years away. [[NGC 877]] is the brightest member of an 8-galaxy group that also includes NGC 870, NGC 871, and NGC 876, with a magnitude of 12.53. It is 2.4 by 1.8 arcminutes and is 178 million light-years away with a diameter of 124,000 light-years. Its companion is NGC 876, which is about 103,000 light-years from the core of NGC 877. They are interacting gravitationally, as they are connected by a faint stream of gas and dust. [[Arp 276]] is a different pair of interacting galaxies in Aries, consisting of NGC 935 and IC 1801.", "id": "798", "title": "Aries (constellation)", "categories": ["Aries (constellation)", "Constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy", "Northern constellations"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Features", "Deep-sky objects"], "text": "NGC 821 is an E6 elliptical galaxy. It is unusual because it has hints of an early spiral structure, which is normally only found in [[lenticular galaxy|lenticular]] and spiral galaxies. NGC 821 is 2.6 by 2.0 arcminutes and has a visual magnitude of 11.3. Its diameter is 61,000 light-years and it is 80 million light-years away. Another unusual galaxy in Aries is [[Segue 2 (dwarf galaxy)|Segue 2]], a [[dwarf galaxy|dwarf]] and [[List of Milky Way's satellite galaxies|satellite galaxy of the Milky Way]], recently discovered to be a potential relic of the [[epoch of reionization]].", "id": "798", "title": "Aries (constellation)", "categories": ["Aries (constellation)", "Constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy", "Northern constellations"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Features", "Meteor showers"], "text": "Aries is home to several [[meteor shower]]. The [[Daytime Arietid]] meteor shower is one of the strongest meteor showers that occurs during the day, lasting from 22 May to 2 July. It is an annual shower associated with the Marsden group of [[comet]] that peaks on 7 June with a maximum [[zenithal hourly rate]] of 54 meteors. Its parent body may be the asteroid [[1566 Icarus|Icarus]]. The meteors are sometimes visible before dawn, because the [[radiant (meteor shower)|radiant]] is 32 degrees away from the Sun. They usually appear at a rate of 1–2 per hour as \"earthgrazers\", meteors that last several seconds and often begin at the horizon. Because most of the Daytime Arietids are not visible to the naked eye, they are observed in the [[radio spectrum]]. This is possible because of the ionized gas they leave in their wake. Other meteor showers radiate from Aries during the day; these include the Daytime Epsilon Arietids and the Northern and Southern Daytime May Arietids. The [[Jodrell Bank Observatory]] discovered the Daytime Arietids in 1947 when James Hey and G. S. Stewart adapted the [[Battle of Britain#Control systems|World War II-era radar systems]] for meteor observations. The [[Delta Arietids]] are another meteor shower radiating from Aries. Peaking on 9 December with a low peak rate, the shower lasts from 8 December to 14 January, with the highest rates visible from 8 to 14 December. The average Delta Aquarid meteor is very slow, with an average velocity of per second. However, this shower sometimes produces bright [[Fireball (meteor)|fireball]]. This meteor shower has northern and southern components, both of which are likely associated with [[1990 HA]], a [[near-Earth asteroid]]. The [[Autumn Arietids]] also radiate from Aries. The shower lasts from 7 September to 27 October and peaks on 9 October. Its peak rate is low. The [[Epsilon Arietids]] appear from 12 to 23 October. Other meteor showers radiating from Aries include the October Delta Arietids, [[Daytime Epsilon Arietids]], [[Daytime May Arietids]], [[Sigma Arietids]], [[Nu Arietids]], and [[Beta Arietids]]. The Sigma Arietids, a class IV meteor shower, are visible from 12 to 19 October, with a maximum zenithal hourly rate of less than two meteors per hour on 19 October.", "id": "798", "title": "Aries (constellation)", "categories": ["Aries (constellation)", "Constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy", "Northern constellations"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Features", "Planetary systems"], "text": "Aries contains several stars with [[extrasolar planets]]. [[HIP 14810]], a G5 type star, is orbited by three [[giant planet]] (those more than ten times the [[mass of Earth]]). [[HD 12661]], like HIP 14810, is a G-type main sequence star, slightly larger than the Sun, with two orbiting planets. One planet is 2.3 times the mass of Jupiter, and the other is 1.57 times the mass of Jupiter. [[HD 20367]] is a G0 type star, approximately the size of the Sun, with one orbiting planet. The planet, discovered in 2002, has a mass 1.07 times that of Jupiter and orbits every 500 days. In 2019, scientists conducting the CARMENES survey at the [[Calar Alto Observatory]] announced evidence of two [[Earth analog|Earth-mass exoplanets]] orbiting the star within its [[Circumstellar habitable zone|habitable zone]].", "id": "798", "title": "Aries (constellation)", "categories": ["Aries (constellation)", "Constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy", "Northern constellations"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Aquarius''' is a [[constellation]] of the [[zodiac]], between [[Capricornus]] and [[Pisces (constellation)|Pisces]]. Its name is [[Latin]] for \"water-carrier\" or \"cup-carrier\", and its symbol is [[Image:Aquarius.svg|20px]] (Unicode ♒), a representation of water. Aquarius is one of the oldest of the recognized constellations along the [[zodiac]] (the [[Sun]]'s apparent path). It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer [[Ptolemy]], and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations. It is found in a region often called the [[Sea (astronomy)|Sea]] due to its profusion of constellations with watery associations such as [[Cetus]] the [[whale]], [[Pisces (constellation)|Pisces]] the [[fish]], and [[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]] the [[river]]. At [[apparent magnitude]] 2.9, [[Beta Aquarii]] is the brightest star in the constellation.", "id": "799", "title": "Aquarius (constellation)", "categories": ["Aquarius (constellation)", "Constellations", "Equatorial constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History and mythology"], "text": "Aquarius is identified as \"The Great One\" in the [[Babylonian star catalogues]] and represents the god [[Ea (god)|Ea]] himself, who is commonly depicted holding an overflowing vase. The Babylonian star-figure appears on entitlement stones and [[cylinder seals]] from the [[2nd millennium BC|second millennium]]. It contained the [[winter solstice]] in the Early Bronze Age. In [[Old Babylonian astronomy]], Ea was the ruler of the southernmost quarter of the Sun's path, the \"Way of Ea\", corresponding to the period of 45 days on either side of winter solstice. Aquarius was also associated with the destructive floods that the Babylonians regularly experienced, and thus was negatively connoted. In [[Egyptian astronomy#Ancient Egypt|Ancient Egypt astronomy]], Aquarius was associated with the annual [[flood of the Nile]]; the banks were said to flood when Aquarius put his jar into the river, beginning spring. In the [[Ancient Greek astronomy|Greek tradition]], the constellation came to be represented simply as a single vase from which a stream poured down to [[Piscis Austrinus]]. The name in the [[Hindu zodiac]] is likewise ''kumbha'' \"water-pitcher\". In Greek mythology, Aquarius is sometimes associated with [[Deucalion]], the son of [[Prometheus]] who built a ship with his wife [[Pyrrha]] to survive an imminent flood. They sailed for nine days before washing ashore on [[Mount Parnassus]]. Aquarius is also sometimes identified with beautiful [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]], a youth in [[Greek mythology]] and the son of [[Troy|Trojan]] king [[Tros (mythology)|Tros]], who was taken to [[Mount Olympus]] by [[Zeus]] to act as cup-carrier to the [[Greek pantheon|gods]]. Neighboring [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]] represents the eagle, under Zeus' command, that snatched the young boy; some versions of the myth indicate that the eagle was in fact Zeus transformed. An alternative version of the tale recounts Ganymede's kidnapping by the goddess of the dawn, [[Eos]], motivated by her affection for young men; Zeus then stole him from Eos and employed him as cup-bearer. Yet another figure associated with the water bearer is [[Cecrops I]], a king of [[Athens]] who [[sacrifice]] water instead of [[wine]] to the gods.", "id": "799", "title": "Aquarius (constellation)", "categories": ["Aquarius (constellation)", "Constellations", "Equatorial constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History and mythology", "Depictions"], "text": "In the first century, [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Almagest]]'' established the common Western depiction of Aquarius. His water jar, an asterism itself, consists of Gamma, Pi, Eta, and [[Zeta Aquarii]]; it pours water in a stream of more than 20 stars terminating with [[Fomalhaut]], now assigned solely to [[Piscis Austrinus]]. The water bearer's head is represented by 5th magnitude [[25 Aquarii]] while his left shoulder is [[Beta Aquarii]]; his right shoulder and forearm are represented by [[Alpha Aquarii|Alpha]] and [[Gamma Aquarii]] respectively.", "id": "799", "title": "Aquarius (constellation)", "categories": ["Aquarius (constellation)", "Constellations", "Equatorial constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History and mythology", "In Eastern astronomy"], "text": "In [[Chinese astronomy]], the stream of water flowing from the Water Jar was depicted as the \"Army of Yu-Lin\" (''Yu-lim-kiun'' or ''Yulinjun'', [[Hanzi]]: 羽林君). The name \"Yu-lin\" means \"feathers and forests\", referring to the numerous light-footed soldiers from the northern reaches of the empire represented by these faint stars. The constellation's stars were the most numerous of any Chinese constellation, numbering 45, the majority of which were located in modern Aquarius. The celestial army was protected by the wall ''Leibizhen'' (垒壁阵), which counted Iota, Lambda, Phi, and Sigma Aquarii among its 12 stars. 88, 89, and 98 Aquarii represent ''Fou-youe'', the axes used as weapons and for hostage executions. Also in Aquarius is ''Loui-pi-tchin'', the ramparts that stretch from 29 and 27 Piscium and 33 and 30 Aquarii through Phi, Lambda, Sigma, and Iota Aquarii to Delta, Gamma, Kappa, and Epsilon Capricorni. Near the border with [[Cetus]], the axe ''Fuyue'' was represented by three stars; its position is disputed and may have instead been located in [[Sculptor (constellation)|Sculptor]]. ''Tienliecheng'' also has a disputed position; the 13-star castle replete with ramparts may have possessed Nu and Xi Aquarii but may instead have been located south in Piscis Austrinus. The Water Jar asterism was seen to the ancient Chinese as the tomb, ''Fenmu''. Nearby, the emperors' [[mausoleum]] ''Xiuliang'' stood, demarcated by Kappa Aquarii and three other collinear stars. ''Ku'' (\"crying\") and ''Qi'' (\"weeping\"), each composed of two stars, were located in the same region. Three of the Chinese [[lunar mansion]] shared their name with constellations. ''Nu'', also the name for the 10th lunar mansion, was a [[handmaiden]] represented by Epsilon, Mu, 3, and 4 Aquarii. The 11th lunar mansion shared its name with the constellation ''Xu'' (\"emptiness\"), formed by Beta Aquarii and Alpha Equulei; it represented a bleak place associated with death and funerals. ''Wei'', the rooftop and 12th lunar mansion, was a V-shaped constellation formed by Alpha Aquarii, Theta Pegasi, and Epsilon Pegasi; it shared its name with two other Chinese constellations, in modern-day [[Scorpius (constellation)|Scorpius]] and [[Aries (constellation)|Aries]].", "id": "799", "title": "Aquarius (constellation)", "categories": ["Aquarius (constellation)", "Constellations", "Equatorial constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Features", "Stars"], "text": "[[Image:AquariusCC.jpg|thumb|The constellation Aquarius as it can be seen by the naked eye]] Despite both its prominent position on the zodiac and its large size, Aquarius has no particularly bright stars, its four brightest stars being less than magnitude 2. However, recent research has shown that there are several stars lying within its borders that possess [[extrasolar planet|planetary systems]]. The two brightest stars, [[Alpha Aquarii|Alpha]] and [[Beta Aquarii]], are luminous yellow supergiants, of spectral types G0Ib and G2Ib respectively, that were once hot blue-white B-class main sequence stars 5 to 9 times as massive as the Sun. The two are also moving through space perpendicular to the plane of the Milky Way. Just shading Alpha, Beta Aquarii is the brightest star in Aquarius with an apparent magnitude of 2.91. It also has the proper name of Sadalsuud. Having cooled and swollen to around 50 times the Sun's diameter, it is around 2200 times as luminous as the Sun. It is around 6.4 times as massive as the Sun and around 56 million years old. Sadalsuud is 540 ± 20 light-years from Earth. Alpha Aquarii, also known as Sadalmelik, has an apparent magnitude of 2.94. It is 520 ± 20 light-years distant from Earth, and is around 6.5 times as massive as the Sun and 3000 times as luminous. It is 53 million years old. [[Gamma Aquarii|γ Aquarii]], also called Sadachbia, is a white main sequence star of spectral type star of spectral type A0V that is between 158 and 315 million years old and is around two and a half times the Sun's mass, and double its radius. Of magnitude 3.85, it is 164 ± 9 light years away. It has a luminosity of . The name Sadachbia comes from the Arabic for \"lucky stars of the tents\", ''sa'd al-akhbiya''. [[delta Aquarii|δ Aquarii]], also known as Skat or Scheat is a blue-white A2 spectral type star of magnitude 3.27 and luminosity of . [[epsilon Aquarii|ε Aquarii]], also known as Albali, is a blue-white A1 spectral type star with an apparent magnitude of 3.77, an absolute magnitude of 1.2, and a luminosity of . [[zeta Aquarii|ζ Aquarii]] is an F2 spectral type [[double star]]; both stars are white. Overall, it appears to be of magnitude 3.6 and luminosity of . The primary has a magnitude of 4.53 and the secondary a magnitude of 4.31, but both have an absolute magnitude of 0.6. Its orbital period is 760 years; the two components are currently moving farther apart. [[theta Aquarii|θ Aquarii]], sometimes called Ancha, is a G8 spectral type star with an apparent magnitude of 4.16 and an absolute magnitude of 1.4. [[Kappa Aquarii|κ Aquarii]], also called Situla. [[lambda Aquarii|λ Aquarii]], also called Hudoor or Ekchusis, is an [[M-type star|M2 spectral type star]] of magnitude 3.74 and luminosity of . [[xi Aquarii|ξ Aquarii]], also called Bunda, is an [[A-type star|A7 spectral type star]] with an apparent magnitude of 4.69 and an absolute magnitude of 2.4.", "id": "799", "title": "Aquarius (constellation)", "categories": ["Aquarius (constellation)", "Constellations", "Equatorial constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Features", "Stars"], "text": "[[pi Aquarii|π Aquarii]], also called Seat, is a [[B-type star|B0 spectral type star]] with an apparent magnitude of 4.66 and an absolute magnitude of −4.1.", "id": "799", "title": "Aquarius (constellation)", "categories": ["Aquarius (constellation)", "Constellations", "Equatorial constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Features", "Planetary systems"], "text": "Twelve exoplanet systems have been found in Aquarius as of 2013. [[Gliese 876]], one of the nearest stars to Earth at a distance of 15 light-years, was the first [[red dwarf]] star to be found to possess a [[planetary system]]. It is orbited by four planets, including one [[terrestrial planet]] 6.6 times the mass of Earth. The planets vary in orbital period from 2 days to 124 days. [[91 Aquarii]] is an [[orange giant]] star orbited by one planet, [[91 Aquarii b|91 Aquarii b]]. The planet's mass is 2.9 times the mass of Jupiter, and its orbital period is 182 days. [[Gliese 849]] is a red dwarf star orbited by the first known long-period Jupiter-like planet, [[Gliese 849 b|Gliese 849 b]]. The planet's mass is 0.99 times that of Jupiter and its orbital period is 1,852 days. There are also less-prominent systems in Aquarius. [[WASP-6]], a type G8 star of magnitude 12.4, is host to one exoplanet, [[WASP-6 b]]. The star is 307 [[parsec]] from Earth and has a mass of 0.888 [[solar mass]] and a radius of 0.87 [[solar radius|solar radii]]. WASP-6 b was discovered in 2008 by the [[transit method]]. It orbits its parent star every 3.36 days at a distance of 0.042 [[astronomical unit]] (AU). It is 0.503 [[Jupiter mass]] but has a proportionally larger radius of 1.224 [[Jupiter radius|Jupiter radii]]. [[HD 206610]], a K0 star located 194 parsecs from Earth, is host to one planet, [[HD 206610 b]]. The host star is larger than the Sun; more massive at 1.56 solar masses and larger at 6.1 solar radii. The planet was discovered by the radial velocity method in 2010 and has a mass of 2.2 Jupiter masses. It orbits every 610 days at a distance of 1.68 AU. Much closer to its sun is [[WASP-47 b]], which orbits every 4.15 days only 0.052 AU from its sun, yellow dwarf (G9V) [[WASP-47]]. WASP-47 is close in size to the Sun, having a radius of 1.15 solar radii and a mass even closer at 1.08 solar masses. WASP-47 b was discovered in 2011 by the transit method, like WASP-6 b. It is slightly larger than Jupiter with a mass of 1.14 Jupiter masses and a radius of 1.15 Jupiter masses.", "id": "799", "title": "Aquarius (constellation)", "categories": ["Aquarius (constellation)", "Constellations", "Equatorial constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Features", "Planetary systems"], "text": "There are several more single-planet systems in Aquarius. [[HD 210277]], a magnitude 6.63 yellow star located 21.29 parsecs from Earth, is host to one known planet: [[HD 210277 b]]. The 1.23 Jupiter mass planet orbits at nearly the same distance as Earth orbits the Sun1.1 AU, though its orbital period is significantly longer at around 442 days. HD 210277 b was discovered earlier than most of the other planets in Aquarius, detected by the radial velocity method in 1998. The star it orbits resembles the Sun beyond their similar [[spectral class]]; it has a radius of 1.1 solar radii and a mass of 1.09 solar masses. [[HD 212771 b]], a larger planet at 2.3 Jupiter masses, orbits host star [[HD 212771]] at a distance of 1.22 AU. The star itself, barely below the threshold of naked-eye visibility at magnitude 7.6, is a G8IV (yellow subgiant) star located 131 parsecs from Earth. Though it has a similar mass to the Sun1.15 solar massesit is significantly less dense with its radius of 5 solar radii. Its lone planet was discovered in 2010 by the radial velocity method, like several other exoplanets in the constellation. As of 2013, there were only two known multiple-planet systems within the bounds of Aquarius: the Gliese 876 and [[HD 215152]] systems. The former is quite prominent; the latter has only two planets and has a host star farther away at 21.5 parsecs. The HD 215152 system consists of the planets [[HD 215152 b]] and [[HD 215152 c]] orbiting their K0-type, magnitude 8.13 sun. Both discovered in 2011 by the radial velocity method, the two tiny planets orbit very close to their host star. HD 215152 c is the larger at 0.0097 Jupiter masses (still significantly larger than the Earth, which weighs in at 0.00315 Jupiter masses); its smaller sibling is barely smaller at 0.0087 Jupiter masses. The [[error]] in the mass measurements (0.0032 and respectively) is large enough to make this discrepancy statistically insignificant. HD 215152 c also orbits further from the star than HD 215152 b, 0.0852 AU compared to 0.0652. On 23 February 2017, NASA announced that [[Ultra-cool dwarf|ultracool dwarf star]] [[TRAPPIST-1]] in Aquarius has seven [[Exoplanet|Earth-like rocky planets]]. Of these, three are in the system's habitable zone, and may contain water. The discovery of the TRAPPIST-1 system is seen by astronomers as a significant step toward finding life beyond Earth.", "id": "799", "title": "Aquarius (constellation)", "categories": ["Aquarius (constellation)", "Constellations", "Equatorial constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Features", "Deep sky objects"], "text": "Because of its position away from the galactic plane, the majority of deep-sky objects in Aquarius are galaxies, globular clusters, and planetary nebulae. Aquarius contains three [[deep sky object]] that are in the [[Messier object|Messier catalog]]: the globular clusters [[Messier 2|Messier 2]], [[Messier 72|Messier 72]], and the open cluster [[Messier 73|Messier 73]]. Two well-known [[planetary nebula]] are also located in Aquarius: the [[Saturn Nebula]] (NGC 7009), to the southeast of [[Mu Aquarii|μ Aquarii]]; and the famous [[Helix Nebula]] (NGC 7293), southwest of [[δ Aquarii|δ Aquarii]]. M2, also catalogued as NGC 7089, is a rich globular cluster located approximately 37,000 light-years from Earth. At magnitude 6.5, it is viewable in small-[[aperture]] instruments, but a 100 mm aperture [[telescope]] is needed to resolve any stars. M72, also catalogued as NGC 6981, is a small 9th magnitude globular cluster located approximately 56,000 light-years from Earth. M73, also catalogued as NGC 6994, is an open cluster with highly disputed status. Aquarius is also home to several planetary nebulae. [[NGC 7009]], also known as the Saturn Nebula, is an 8th magnitude planetary nebula located 3,000 light-years from Earth. It was given its moniker by the 19th century astronomer [[Lord Rosse]] for its resemblance to the planet [[Saturn]] in a telescope; it has faint protrusions on either side that resemble [[Saturn's rings]]. It appears blue-green in a telescope and has a central star of magnitude 11.3. Compared to the Helix Nebula, another planetary nebula in Aquarius, it is quite small. [[NGC 7293]], also known as the Helix Nebula, is the closest planetary nebula to Earth at a distance of 650 light-years. It covers 0.25 square degrees, making it also the largest planetary nebula as seen from Earth. However, because it is so large, it is only viewable as a very faint object, though it has a fairly high [[integrated magnitude]] of 6.0. One of the visible galaxies in Aquarius is [[NGC 7727]], of particular interest for amateur astronomers who wish to discover or observe [[supernovae]]. A [[spiral galaxy]] ([[galaxy morphological classification|type S]]), it has an [[integrated magnitude]] of 10.7 and is 3 by 3 arcseconds. [[NGC 7252]] is a tangle of stars resulting from the collision of two large galaxies and is known as the Atoms-for-Peace galaxy because of its resemblance to a cartoon atom.", "id": "799", "title": "Aquarius (constellation)", "categories": ["Aquarius (constellation)", "Constellations", "Equatorial constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Features", "Meteor showers"], "text": "There are three major meteor showers with [[radiant (meteor shower)|radiant]] in Aquarius: the [[Eta Aquariids]], the [[Delta Aquariids]], and the Iota Aquariids. The Eta Aquariids are the strongest meteor shower radiating from Aquarius. It peaks between 5 and 6 May with a rate of approximately 35 meteors per hour. Originally discovered by Chinese astronomers in 401, Eta Aquariids can be seen coming from the Water Jar beginning on 21 April and as late as 12 May. The [[parent body]] of the shower is [[Halley's Comet]], a [[periodic comet]]. [[Meteoroid#Fireball|Fireball]] are common shortly after the peak, approximately between 9 May and 11 May. The normal meteors appear to have yellow trails. The Delta Aquariids is a double radiant meteor shower that peaks first on 29 July and second on 6 August. The first radiant is located in the south of the constellation, while the second radiant is located in the northern circlet of Pisces asterism. The southern radiant's peak rate is about 20 meteors per hour, while the northern radiant's peak rate is about 10 meteors per hour. The Iota Aquariids is a fairly weak meteor shower that peaks on 6 August, with a rate of approximately 8 meteors per hour.", "id": "799", "title": "Aquarius (constellation)", "categories": ["Aquarius (constellation)", "Constellations", "Equatorial constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Astrology"], "text": ", the Sun appears in the constellation Aquarius from 16 February to 11 March. In [[tropical astrology]], the Sun is considered to be in the sign [[Aquarius (astrology)|Aquarius]] from 20 January to 19 February, and in [[sidereal astrology]], from 15 February to 14 March. Aquarius is also associated with the [[Age of Aquarius]], a concept popular in [[1960s counterculture]]. Despite this prominence, the Age of Aquarius will not dawn until the year 2597, as an astrological age does not begin until the Sun is in a particular constellation on the [[Vernal equinox (Northern Hemisphere)|vernal equinox]].", "id": "799", "title": "Aquarius (constellation)", "categories": ["Aquarius (constellation)", "Constellations", "Equatorial constellations", "Constellations listed by Ptolemy"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "is [[Traditional animation|hand-drawn]] and [[computer animation]] originating from [[Japan]]. In Japan and in Japanese, (a term derived from the [[English language|English]] word ''animation'') describes all animated works, regardless of style or origin. However, outside of Japan and in English, ''anime'' is [[colloquialism|colloquial]] for ''Japanese animation'' and refers specifically to animation produced in Japan. Animation produced outside of Japan with similar style to Japanese animation is referred to as ''[[anime-influenced animation]]''. The earliest commercial Japanese animations date to 1917. A characteristic art style emerged in the 1960s with the works of cartoonist [[Osamu Tezuka]] and spread in following decades, developing a large domestic audience. Anime is distributed theatrically, through television broadcasts, [[Original video animation|directly to home media]], and [[Original net animation|over the Internet]]. In addition to original works, anime are often adaptations of Japanese comics ([[manga]]), [[light novels]], or [[Video games in Japan|video games]]. It is classified into numerous genres targeting various broad and niche audiences. Anime is a diverse medium with distinctive production methods that have adapted in response to emergent technologies. It combines graphic art, characterization, cinematography, and other forms of imaginative and individualistic techniques. Compared to Western animation, anime production generally focuses less on movement, and more on the detail of settings and use of \"camera effects\", such as panning, zooming, and angle shots. Diverse art styles are used, and character proportions and features can be quite varied, with a common characteristic feature being large and emotive eyes. The anime industry consists of over [[List of anime companies|430 production companies]], including major studios like [[Studio Ghibli]], [[Sunrise (company)|Sunrise]], and [[Toei Animation]]. Since the 1980s, the medium has also seen international success with the rise of foreign [[dubbing (filmmaking)|dubbed]] and [[Subtitles|subtitled]] programming. As of 2016, Japanese anime is accounted for 60% of the world's [[Animated series|animated television shows]].", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "As a type of [[animation]], anime is an art form that comprises many [[genre]] found in other mediums; it is sometimes mistakenly classified as a genre itself. In Japanese, the term ''anime'' is used to refer to all animated works, regardless of style or origin. English-language dictionaries typically define ''anime'' (, ) as \"a style of Japanese animation\" or as \"a style of animation originating in Japan\". Other definitions are based on origin, making production in Japan a requisite for a work to be considered \"anime\". The etymology of the term ''anime'' is disputed. The English word \"animation\" is written in Japanese ''[[katakana]]'' as () and as (, ) in its shortened form. Some sources claim that the term is derived from the French term for animation ''dessin animé'' (\"cartoon\", literally 'animated design'), but others believe this to be a myth derived from the popularity of anime in France in the late 1970s and 1980s. In English, ''anime''—when used as a common [[noun]]—normally functions as a [[mass noun]]. (For example: \"Do you watch anime?\" or \"How much anime have you collected?\") As with a few other Japanese words, such as ''[[saké]]'' and ''[[Pokémon]]'', English texts sometimes spell ''anime'' as ''animé'' (as in French), with an [[acute accent]] over the final ''e'', to cue the reader to pronounce the letter, not to leave it silent as English orthography may suggest. Prior to the widespread use of ''anime'', the term ''Japanimation'' was prevalent throughout the 1970s and 1980s. In the mid-1980s, the term ''anime'' began to supplant ''Japanimation''; in general, the latter term now only appears in period works where it is used to distinguish and identify Japanese animation.", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Precursors"], "text": "''[[Emakimono]]'' and [[Shadow play|''kagee'']] are considered precursors of Japanese animation. ''Emakimono'' was common in the eleventh century. Traveling storytellers narrated legends and anecdotes while the ''emakimono'' was unrolled from the right to left with chronological order, as a moving panorama. ''Kagee'' was popular during the Edo period and originated from the shadows play of China. [[Magic lantern|Magic lanterns]] from the Netherlands were also popular in the eighteenth century. The paper play called ''[[Kamishibai]]'' surged in the twelfth century and remained popular in the street theater until the 1930s. Puppets of the ''[[bunraku]]'' theater and ''[[ukiyo-e]]'' prints are considered ancestors of characters of most Japanese animations. Finally, mangas were a heavy inspiration for Japanese anime. Cartoonists [[Kitazawa Rakuten|Kitzawa Rakuten]] and [[Okamoto Ippei]] used film elements in their strips.", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Pioneers"], "text": "Animation in Japan began in the early 20th century, when [[Film director|filmmakers]] started to experiment with techniques pioneered in France, Germany, the United States, and Russia. A claim for the earliest Japanese animation is ''[[Katsudō Shashin]]'' (), a private work by an unknown creator. In 1917, the first professional and publicly displayed works began to appear; animators such as [[Ōten Shimokawa]], [[Seitarō Kitayama]], and [[Jun'ichi Kōuchi]] (considered the \"fathers of anime\") produced numerous films, the oldest surviving of which is Kōuchi's ''[[Namakura Gatana]]''. Many early works were lost with the destruction of Shimokawa's warehouse in the [[1923 Great Kantō earthquake]]. By the mid-1930s animation was well-established in Japan as an alternative format to the live-action industry. It suffered competition from foreign producers, such as [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]], and many animators, including [[Noburō Ōfuji]] and [[Yasuji Murata]], continued to work with cheaper [[cutout animation]] rather than [[cel animation]]. Other creators, including [[Kenzō Masaoka]] and [[Mitsuyo Seo]], nevertheless made great strides in technique, benefiting from the patronage of the government, which employed animators to produce educational shorts and [[Japanese propaganda during World War II|propaganda]]. In 1940, the government dissolved several artists' organizations to form the The first [[talkie]] anime was ''[[Chikara to Onna no Yo no Naka]]'' (1933), a short film produced by Masaoka. The first feature-length anime film was ''[[Momotaro: Sacred Sailors]]'' (1945), produced by Seo with a sponsorship from the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]]. The 1950s saw a proliferation of short, animated advertisements created for television.", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Modern era"], "text": "In the 1960s, [[manga]] artist and animator [[Osamu Tezuka]] adapted and simplified Disney animation techniques to reduce costs and limit frame counts in his productions. Originally intended as temporary measures to allow him to produce material on a tight schedule with an inexperienced staff, many of his [[limited animation]] practices came to define the medium's style. ''[[Three Tales (anime)|Three Tales]]'' (1960) was the first anime film broadcast on television; the first anime television series was ''[[Instant History]]'' (1961–64). An early and influential success was [[Astro Boy (1963 TV series)|''Astro Boy'']] (1963–66), a television series directed by Tezuka based on [[Astro Boy|his manga of the same name]]. Many animators at Tezuka's [[Mushi Production]] later established major anime studios (including [[Madhouse (company)|Madhouse]], [[Sunrise (company)|Sunrise]], and [[Pierrot (company)|Pierrot]]). The 1970s saw growth in the popularity of manga, many of which were later animated. Tezuka's work—and that of other pioneers in the field—inspired characteristics and genres that remain fundamental elements of anime today. The giant robot genre (also known as \"[[mecha]]\"), for instance, took shape under Tezuka, developed into the [[Super Robot|super robot]] genre under [[Go Nagai]] and others, and was revolutionized at the end of the decade by [[Yoshiyuki Tomino]], who developed the [[Real Robot|real robot]] genre. Robot anime series such as ''[[Gundam]]'' and ''[[Super Dimension Fortress Macross]]'' became instant classics in the 1980s, and the genre remained one of the most popular in the following decades. The [[Japanese asset price bubble|bubble economy]] of the 1980s spurred a new era of high-budget and experimental anime films, including ''[[Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (film)|Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind]]'' (1984), ''[[Royal Space Force: The Wings of Honnêamise]]'' (1987), and ''[[Akira (1988 film)|Akira]]'' (1988). ''[[Neon Genesis Evangelion]]'' (1995), a television series produced by [[Gainax]] and directed by [[Hideaki Anno]], began another era of experimental anime titles, such as ''[[Ghost in the Shell (1995 film)|Ghost in the Shell]]'' (1995) and ''[[Cowboy Bebop]]'' (1998). In the 1990s, anime also began attracting greater interest in Western countries; major international successes include ''[[Sailor Moon (TV series)|Sailor Moon]]'' and ''[[Dragon Ball Z]]'', both of which were [[Dubbing (filmmaking)|dubbed]] into more than a dozen languages worldwide. In 2003, ''[[Spirited Away]]'', a [[Studio Ghibli]] feature film directed by [[Hayao Miyazaki]], won the [[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature]] at the [[75th Academy Awards]]. It later became the [[List of highest-grossing anime films|highest-grossing anime film]], earning more than $355 million. Since the 2000s, an increased number of anime works have been adaptations of [[light novel]] and [[visual novel]]; successful examples include ''[[The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya]]'' and ''[[Fate/stay night]]'' (both 2006).", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["Attributes"], "text": "Anime differs greatly from other forms of animation by its diverse art styles, methods of animation, its production, and its process. Visually, anime works exhibit a wide variety of art styles, differing between creators, artists, and studios. While no single art style predominates anime as a whole, they do share some similar attributes in terms of animation technique and character design.", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["Attributes", "Technique"], "text": "Modern anime follows a typical animation production process, involving [[storyboard]], [[voice acting]], [[Character creation|character design]], and [[cel animation|cel production]]. Since the 1990s, animators have increasingly used [[computer animation]] to improve the efficiency of the production process. Early anime works were experimental, and consisted of images drawn on blackboards, [[stop motion]] animation of paper cutouts, and [[silhouette animation]]. Cel animation grew in popularity until it came to dominate the medium. In the 21st century, the use of other animation techniques is mostly limited to independent [[Short subject|short films]], including the stop motion puppet animation work produced by [[Tadahito Mochinaga]], [[Kihachirō Kawamoto]] and Tomoyasu Murata. Computers were integrated into the animation process in the 1990s, with works such as ''[[Ghost in the Shell (1995 film)|Ghost in the Shell]]'' and ''[[Princess Mononoke]]'' mixing cel animation with computer-generated images. [[Fujifilm|Fuji Film]], a major cel production company, announced it would stop cel production, producing an industry panic to procure cel imports and hastening the switch to digital processes. Prior to the digital era, anime was produced with [[traditional animation]] methods using a pose to pose approach. The majority of mainstream anime uses fewer expressive [[key frame]] and more [[Inbetweening|in-between]] animation. Japanese animation studios were pioneers of many [[limited animation]] techniques, and have given anime a distinct set of conventions. Unlike [[Disney]] animation, where the emphasis is on the movement, anime emphasizes the art quality and let limited animation techniques make up for the lack of time spent on movement. Such techniques are often used not only to meet deadlines but also as artistic devices. Anime scenes place emphasis on achieving three-dimensional views, and backgrounds are instrumental in creating the atmosphere of the work. The backgrounds are not always invented and are occasionally based on real locations, as exemplified in ''[[Howl's Moving Castle (film)|Howl's Moving Castle]]'' and ''[[The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya (anime)|The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya]]''. Oppliger stated that anime is one of the rare mediums where putting together an all-star cast usually comes out looking \"tremendously impressive\". The cinematic effects of anime differentiates itself from the stage plays found in American animation. Anime is cinematically shot as if by camera, including panning, zooming, distance and angle shots to more complex dynamic shots that would be difficult to produce in reality. In anime, the animation is produced before the voice acting, contrary to American animation which does the voice acting first; this can cause [[lip sync]] errors in the Japanese version.", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["Attributes", "Characters"], "text": "The body proportions of human anime characters tend to accurately reflect the proportions of the human body in reality. The height of the head is considered by the artist as the base unit of proportion. Head heights can vary, but most anime characters are about seven to eight heads tall. Anime artists occasionally make deliberate modifications to body proportions to produce [[super deformed]] characters that feature a disproportionately small body compared to the head; many super deformed characters are two to four heads tall. Some anime works like ''[[Crayon Shin-chan]]'' completely disregard these proportions, in such a way that they resemble [[caricature]] Western [[cartoon]]. A common anime character design convention is exaggerated eye size. The animation of characters with large eyes in anime can be traced back to Osamu Tezuka, who was deeply influenced by such early animation characters as [[Betty Boop]], who was drawn with disproportionately large eyes. Tezuka is a central figure in anime and manga history, whose iconic art style and character designs allowed for the entire range of human emotions to be depicted solely through the eyes. The artist adds variable color shading to the eyes and particularly to the cornea to give them greater depth. Generally, a mixture of a light shade, the tone color, and a dark shade is used. Cultural anthropologist [[Matt Thorn]] argues that Japanese animators and audiences do not perceive such stylized eyes as inherently more or less foreign. However, not all anime characters have large eyes. For example, the works of [[Hayao Miyazaki]] are known for having realistically proportioned eyes, as well as realistic hair colors on their characters. Hair in anime is often unnaturally lively and colorful or uniquely styled. The movement of hair in anime is exaggerated and \"hair action\" is used to emphasize the action and emotions of characters for added visual effect. Poitras traces hairstyle color to cover illustrations on manga, where eye-catching artwork and colorful tones are attractive for children's manga. Despite being produced for a domestic market, anime features characters whose race or nationality is not always defined, and this is often a deliberate decision, such as in the ''[[Pokémon (anime)|Pokémon]]'' animated series. Anime and manga artists often draw from a common canon of iconic facial expression illustrations to denote particular moods and thoughts. These techniques are often different in form than their counterparts in Western animation, and they include a fixed [[manga iconography|iconography]] that is used as shorthand for certain emotions and moods. For example, a male character may develop a [[nosebleed]] when aroused. A variety of visual symbols are employed, including sweat drops to depict nervousness, visible blushing for embarrassment, or glowing eyes for an intense glare. Another recurring sight gag is the use of [[Chibi (slang)|chibi]] (deformed, simplified character designs) figures to comedically punctuate emotions like confusion or embarrassment.", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["Attributes", "Music"], "text": "The opening and credits sequences of most anime television series are accompanied by [[J-pop]] or [[Japanese rock|rock]] songs, often by reputed bands—as written with the series in mind—but are also aimed at the general music market, therefore it is often alluded once vaguely or not all to the thematic settings or plot of the series. Also, they are often used as incidental music (\"insert songs\") for each episode to highlight particularly important scenes.", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["Attributes", "Genres"], "text": "Anime are often classified by target demographic, including , , and a diverse range of genres targeting an adult audience. Shoujo and shounen anime sometimes contain elements popular with children of both sexes in an attempt to gain crossover appeal. Adult anime may feature a slower pace or greater plot complexity that younger audiences may typically find unappealing, as well as adult themes and situations. A subset of adult anime works featuring pornographic elements are labeled \"R18\" in Japan, and are internationally known as ''[[hentai]]'' (originating from ). By contrast, some anime subgenres incorporate ''[[ecchi]]'', sexual themes or undertones without depictions of [[sexual intercourse]], as typified in the comedic or [[Harem (genre)|harem]] genres; due to its popularity among adolescent and adult anime enthusiasts, the inclusion of such elements is considered a form of [[fan service]]. Some genres explore homosexual romances, such as ''[[yaoi]]'' (male homosexuality) and ''[[yuri (genre)|yuri]]'' (female homosexuality). While often used in a pornographic context, the terms ''yaoi'' and ''yuri'' can also be used broadly in a wider context to describe or focus on the themes or the development of the relationships themselves. Anime's genre classification differs from other types of animation and does not lend itself to simple classification. [[Gilles Poitras]] compared the labeling ''[[Gundam 0080]]'' and its complex depiction of war as a \"giant robot\" anime akin to simply labeling ''[[War and Peace]]'' a \"war novel\". [[Science fiction genre|Science fiction]] is a major anime genre and includes important historical works like Tezuka's ''[[Astro Boy]]'' and [[Mitsuteru Yokoyama|Yokoyama]]'s ''[[Tetsujin 28-go]]''. A major subgenre of science fiction is [[mecha]], with the ''Gundam'' [[metaseries]] being iconic. The diverse [[fantasy genre]] includes works based on Asian and Western traditions and folklore; examples include the Japanese feudal fairytale ''[[InuYasha]]'', and the depiction of Scandinavian goddesses who move to Japan to maintain a computer called [[Yggdrasil]] in ''[[Oh My Goddess!|Ah! My Goddess]]''. Genre crossing in anime is also prevalent, such as the blend of fantasy and comedy in ''[[Dragon Half]]'', and the incorporation of slapstick humor in the crime anime film ''[[Castle of Cagliostro]]''. Other subgenres found in anime include [[magical girl]], harem, sports, martial arts, literary adaptations, [[medievalism]], and war.", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["Attributes", "Formats"], "text": "Early anime works were made for theatrical viewing, and required played musical components before sound and vocal components were added to the production. In 1958, [[Nippon Television]] aired ''Mogura no Abanchūru'' (\"[[Mole's Adventure]]\"), both the first televised and first color anime to debut. It was not until the 1960s when the first televised series were broadcast and it has remained a popular medium since. Works released in a direct to video format are called \"[[original video animation]]\" (OVA) or \"original animation video\" (OAV); and are typically not released theatrically or televised prior to home media release. The emergence of the Internet has led some animators to distribute works online in a format called \"[[original net animation|original net anime]]\" (ONA). The home distribution of anime releases were popularized in the 1980s with the VHS and [[LaserDisc]] formats. The VHS [[NTSC]] video format used in both Japan and the United States is credited as aiding the rising popularity of anime in the 1990s. The LaserDisc and VHS formats were transcended by the DVD format which offered the unique advantages; including multiple subtitling and dubbing tracks on the same disc. The DVD format also has its drawbacks in its usage of [[DVD region code|region coding]]; adopted by the industry to solve licensing, piracy and export problems and restricted region indicated on the DVD player. The [[Video CD]] (VCD) format was popular in Hong Kong and Taiwan, but became only a minor format in the United States that was closely associated with [[counterfeit|bootleg]] copies.", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["Industry"], "text": "The animation industry consists of more than 430 production companies with some of the major studios including [[Toei Animation]], [[Gainax]], [[Madhouse (company)|Madhouse]], [[Gonzo (company)|Gonzo]], [[Sunrise (company)|Sunrise]], [[Bones (studio)|Bones]], [[TMS Entertainment]], [[Nippon Animation]], [[P.A.Works]], [[Studio Pierrot]] and [[Studio Ghibli]]. Many of the studios are organized into a [[trade association]], [[The Association of Japanese Animations]]. There is also a labor union for workers in the industry, the [[Japanese Animation Creators Association]]. Studios will often work together to produce more complex and costly projects, as done with Studio Ghibli's ''[[Spirited Away]]''. An anime episode can cost between US$100,000 and US$300,000 to produce. In 2001, animation accounted for 7% of the Japanese film market, above the 4.6% market share for live-action works. The popularity and success of anime is seen through the profitability of the DVD market, contributing nearly 70% of total sales. According to a 2016 article on Nikkei Asian Review, Japanese television stations have bought over worth of anime from production companies \"over the past few years\", compared with under from overseas. There has been a rise in sales of shows to television stations in Japan, caused by [[late night anime]] with [[adult animation|adults as the target demographic]]. This type of anime is less popular outside Japan, being considered \"more of a [[niche market|niche product]]\". ''[[Spirited Away]]'' (2001) is the [[List of highest-grossing films in Japan|all-time highest-grossing film in Japan]]. It was also the [[List of highest-grossing anime films|highest-grossing anime film worldwide]] until it was overtaken by [[Makoto Shinkai]]'s 2016 film ''[[Your Name]]''. Anime films represent a large part of the highest-grossing Japanese films yearly in Japan, with 6 out of the top 10 [[List of Japanese films of 2014#Highest-grossing films|in 2014]], [[List of Japanese films of 2015#Highest-grossing films|in 2015]] and also in [[List of Japanese films of 2016#Highest-grossing films|2016]]. Anime has to be licensed by companies in other countries in order to be legally released. While anime has been licensed by its Japanese owners for use outside Japan since at least the 1960s, the practice became well-established in the United States in the late 1970s to early 1980s, when such TV series as ''[[Gatchaman]]'' and ''[[Captain Harlock]]'' were licensed from their Japanese parent companies for distribution in the US market. The trend towards American distribution of anime continued into the 1980s with the licensing of titles such as ''[[Voltron (1984 TV series)|Voltron]]'' and the 'creation' of new series such as ''[[Robotech]]'' through use of source material from several original series. In the early 1990s, several companies began to experiment with the licensing of less children-oriented material. Some, such as [[A.D. Vision]], and [[Central Park Media]] and its imprints, achieved fairly substantial commercial success and went on to become major players in the now very lucrative American anime market. Others, such as [[AnimEigo]], achieved limited success. Many companies created directly by Japanese parent companies did not do as well, most releasing only one or two titles before completing their American operations.", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["Industry"], "text": "Licenses are expensive, often hundreds of thousands of dollars for one series and tens of thousands for one movie. The prices vary widely; for example, ''[[Jinki: Extend]]'' cost only $91,000 to license while ''[[Kurau Phantom Memory]]'' cost $960,000. Simulcast Internet streaming rights can be cheaper, with prices around $1,000-$2,000 an episode, but can also be more expensive, with some series costing more than per episode. The anime market for the United States was worth approximately $2.74 billion in 2009. Dubbed animation began airing in the United States in 2000 on networks like [[The WB Television Network|The WB]] and [[Cartoon Network]]'s [[Adult Swim]]. In 2005, this resulted in five of the top ten anime titles having previously aired on Cartoon Network. As a part of localization, some [[Editing of anime in American distribution|editing]] of cultural references may occur to better follow the references of the non-Japanese culture. The cost of English localization averages US$10,000 per episode. The industry has been subject to both praise and condemnation for [[fansubs]], the addition of unlicensed and unauthorized subtitled translations of anime series or films. Fansubs, which were originally distributed on VHS bootlegged cassettes in the 1980s, have been freely available and disseminated online since the 1990s. Since this practice raises concerns for copyright and piracy issues, fansubbers tend to adhere to an unwritten moral code to destroy or no longer distribute an anime once an official translated or subtitled version becomes licensed. They also try to encourage viewers to buy an official copy of the release once it comes out in English, although fansubs typically continue to circulate through file-sharing networks. Even so, the laid back regulations of the Japanese animation industry tend to overlook these issues, allowing it to grow underground and thus increasing the popularity until there is a demand for official high-quality releases for animation companies. This has led to an increase in global popularity with Japanese animations, reaching $40 million in sales in 2004. Legal international availability of anime on the Internet has changed in recent years, with [[simulcast]] of series available on websites like [[Crunchyroll]]. However, such services are still mostly limited to the Western, English-speaking countries, resulting in many fans in the developing world turning to online piracy.", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["Industry", "Markets"], "text": "[[Japan External Trade Organization]] (JETRO) valued the domestic anime market in Japan at (), including from licensed products, in 2005. JETRO reported sales of overseas anime exports in 2004 to be (). JETRO valued the anime market in the United States at (), including in [[home video]] sales and over from licensed products, in 2005. JETRO projected in 2005 that the worldwide anime market, including sales of licensed products, would grow to (). The anime market in China was valued at in 2017, and is projected to reach by 2020. [[Netflix]] reported that, between October 2019 and September 2020, more than member households worldwide had watched at least one anime title on the platform.", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["Industry", "Awards"], "text": "The anime industry has several annual awards that honor the year's best works. Major annual awards in Japan include the [[Ōfuji Noburō Award]], the [[Mainichi Film Award for Best Animation Film]], the [[Animation Kobe]] Awards, the [[Japan Media Arts Festival]] animation awards, the [[Tokyo Anime Award]] and the [[Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year]]. In the United States, anime films compete in the [[Crunchyroll Anime Awards]]. There were also the [[American Anime Awards]], which were designed to recognize excellence in anime titles nominated by the industry, and were held only once in 2006. Anime productions have also been nominated and won awards not exclusively for anime, like the [[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature]] or the [[Golden Bear]].", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["Globalization"], "text": "Anime has become commercially profitable in [[Western world|Western countries]], as demonstrated by early commercially successful Western adaptations of anime, such as ''[[Astro Boy (1963 TV series)|Astro Boy]]'' and ''[[Speed Racer]]''. Early American adaptions in the 1960s made Japan expand into the continental European market, first with productions aimed at European and Japanese children, such as [[Heidi, Girl of the Alps|''Heidi'']], ''[[Vicky the Viking]]'' and ''[[Barbapapa]]'', which aired in various countries. Particularly Italy, Spain and France grew an interest into Japan's output, due to its cheap selling price and productive output. In fact, Italy imported the most anime outside of Japan. These mass imports influenced anime popularity in South American, Arabic and German markets. The beginning of 1980 saw the introduction of Japanese anime series into the American culture. In the 1990s, Japanese animation slowly gained popularity in America. Media companies such as Viz and Mixx began publishing and releasing animation into the American market. The 1988 film ''[[Akira (1988 film)|Akira]]'' is largely credited with popularizing anime in the Western world during the early 1990s, before anime was further popularized by television shows such as ''[[Pokémon (anime)|Pokémon]]'' and ''[[Dragon Ball Z]]'' in the late 1990s. The growth of the Internet later provided international audiences an easy way to access Japanese content. Early on, online piracy played a major role in this, through over time legal alternatives appeared. This is especially the case with net services such as [[Netflix]] and [[Crunchyroll]] which have large catalogs in Western countries, although as of 2020 anime fans in many non-Western countries, such as India or Southeast Asia, have difficulty obtaining access to legal content, and therefore still turn to online piracy.", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["Globalization", "Fan response"], "text": "[[Anime club]] gave rise to [[anime convention]] in the 1990s with the \"anime boom\", a period marked by increased popularity of anime. These conventions are dedicated to anime and manga and include elements like [[cosplay]] contests and industry talk panels. Cosplay, a [[portmanteau]] of \"costume play\", is not unique to anime and has become popular in contests and masquerades at anime conventions. Japanese culture and words have entered English usage through the popularity of the medium, including ''[[otaku]]'', an unflattering Japanese term commonly used in English to denote an obsessive fan of anime and manga. Another word that has arisen describing obsessive fans in the United States is ''wapanese'' meaning 'white individuals who want to be Japanese', or later known as [[Japanophile|''weeaboo'']], individuals who demonstrate an obsession in Japanese anime subculture, a term that originated from abusive content posted on the popular bulletin board website [[4chan.org]]. Anime enthusiasts have produced [[fan fiction]] and [[fan art]], including computer wallpapers and [[anime music video]] (AMVs). As of the 2010s, many anime fans use online communities and databases such as [[MyAnimeList]] to discuss anime and track their progress watching respective series.", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["Globalization", "Anime style"], "text": "One of the key points that made anime different from a handful of Western cartoons is the potential for visceral content. Once the expectation that the aspects of visual intrigue or animation being just for children is put aside, the audience can realize that themes involving violence, suffering, sexuality, pain, and death can all be storytelling elements utilized in anime as much as other types of media. However, as anime itself became increasingly popular, its styling has been inevitably the subject of both satire and serious creative productions. ''[[South Park]]''s \"[[Chinpokomon]]\" and \"[[Good Times with Weapons]]\" episodes, [[Adult Swim]]'s ''[[Perfect Hair Forever]]'', and [[Nickelodeon]]'s ''[[Kappa Mikey]]'' are Western examples of satirical depictions of Japanese culture and anime, but anime tropes have also been satirized by some anime, such as ''[[KonoSuba]]''. Traditionally only Japanese works have been considered anime, but some works have sparked debate for blurring the lines between anime and cartoons, such as the American anime style production ''[[Avatar: The Last Airbender]]''. These anime styled works have become defined as [[anime-influenced animation]], in an attempt to classify all anime styled works of non-Japanese origin. Some creators of these works cite anime as a source of inspiration, for example the French production team for ''[[Ōban Star-Racers]]'' that moved to Tokyo to collaborate with a Japanese production team. When anime is defined as a \"style\" rather than as a national product it leaves open the possibility of anime being produced in other countries, but this has been contentious amongst fans, with John Oppliger stating, \"The insistence on referring to original American art as Japanese \"anime\" or \"manga\" robs the work of its cultural identity.\" A [[United Arab Emirates|U.A.E.]]-[[Philippines|Filipino]] produced TV series called ''Torkaizer'' is dubbed as the \"Middle East's First Anime Show\", and is currently in production and looking for funding. Netflix has produced multiple anime series in collaboration with Japanese animation studios, and in doing so, has offered a more accessible channel for distribution to Western markets. The web-based series ''[[RWBY]]'', produced by Texas-based company [[Rooster Teeth]], is produced using an anime art style, and the series has been described as \"anime\" by multiple sources. For example, ''[[Adweek]]'', in the headline to one of its articles, described the series as \"American-made anime\", and in another headline, ''[[HuffPost|The Huffington Post]]'' described it as simply \"anime\", without referencing its country of origin. In 2013, [[Monty Oum]], the creator of ''RWBY'', said \"Some believe just like Scotch needs to be made in Scotland, an American company can't make anime. I think that's a narrow way of seeing it. Anime is an art form, and to say only one country can make this art is wrong.\" ''RWBY'' has been released in Japan with a Japanese language dub; the CEO of [[Rooster Teeth]], [[Matt Hullum]], commented \"This is the first time any American-made anime has been marketed to Japan. It definitely usually works the other way around, and we're really pleased about that.\"", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": ["Globalization", "Media franchises"], "text": "In [[Japanese culture]] and entertainment, media mix is a strategy to disperse content across multiple representations: different [[broadcast media]], gaming technologies, cell phones, toys, [[amusement park]], and other methods. It is the Japanese term for a [[Media franchise#Transmedia franchise|transmedia franchise]]. The term gained its circulation in late 1980s, but the origins of the strategy can be traced back to the 1960s with the proliferation of anime, with its interconnection of media and commodity goods. A number of anime [[media franchise]] have gained considerable global popularity, and are among the world's [[List of highest-grossing media franchises|highest-grossing media franchises]]. ''[[Pokémon]]'' in particular is the highest-grossing media franchise of all time, bigger than ''[[Star Wars]]'' and ''[[Marvel Cinematic Universe]]''.", "id": "800", "title": "Anime", "categories": ["Anime", "1917 introductions", "Anime and manga terminology", "Japanese inventions"], "seealso": ["Fandom culture in South Korea", "Animation director", "Japanophilia", "Mechademia", "WP:SEEALSO", "Korean animation", "Chinese animation", "Voice acting in Japan"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Asterism''' may refer to: (-) [[Asterism (astronomy)]], a pattern of stars (-) [[Asterism (gemology)]], an optical phenomenon in gemstones (-) [[Asterism (typography)]], (⁂) a moderately rare typographical symbol denoting a break in passages", "id": "801", "title": "Asterism", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Aster (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Ankara''' ( , ; ), historically known as '''Ancyra''' and '''Angora''', is the [[list of national capitals|capital]] of [[Turkey]]. Located in the [[Central Anatolia Region|central part]] of [[Anatolia]], the city has a population of 4.5 million in its urban centre and over 5.6 million in [[Ankara Province]], making it Turkey's [[List of cities in Turkey|second-largest city]] after [[Istanbul]]. Serving as the capital of the ancient [[Celts|Celt]] state of [[Galatia]] (280–64 BC), and later of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] province with the [[Galatia (Roman province)|same name]] (25 BC–7th century), the city is very old with various [[Hattians|Hattian]], [[Hittites|Hittite]], [[Lydia]], [[Phrygia]], [[Galatians (people)|Galatian]], [[Hellenistic civilization|Greek]], [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]], [[Ancient Rome|Roman]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[archaeological site]]. The Ottomans made the city the capital first of the [[Anatolia Eyalet]] (1393–late 15th century), and then the [[Angora Vilayet]] (1867–1922). The historical center of Ankara is a rocky hill rising over the left bank of the [[Ankara River]], a tributary of the [[Sakarya River]]. The hill remains crowned by the ruins of [[Ankara Castle]]. Although few of its outworks have survived, there are well-preserved examples of [[Roman architecture|Roman]] and [[Ottoman architecture]] throughout the city, the most remarkable being the 20 BC [[Augusteum|Temple of Augustus and Rome]] that boasts the [[Monumentum Ancyranum]], the inscription recording the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]''. On 23 April 1920, the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]] was established in Ankara, which became the headquarters of the [[Turkish National Movement]] during the [[Turkish War of Independence]]. Ankara became the new Turkish capital upon the establishment of the Republic on 29 October 1923, succeeding in this role the former Turkish capital Istanbul following the [[Defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|fall of the Ottoman Empire]]. The [[Government of Turkey|government]] is a prominent employer, but Ankara is also an important commercial and industrial city, located at the centre of Turkey's road and railway networks. The city gave its name to the [[Angora wool]] shorn from [[Angora rabbit]], the long-haired [[Angora goat]] (the source of [[mohair]]), and the [[Turkish Angora|Angora cat]]. The area is also known for its pears, honey and [[muscat (grape and wine)|muscat]] grapes. Although situated in one of the driest regions of Turkey and surrounded mostly by [[steppe]] vegetation (except for the forested areas on the southern periphery), Ankara can be considered a [[green city]] in terms of green areas per inhabitant, at per head.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The orthography of the name Ankara has varied over the ages. It has been identified with the [[Hittites|Hittite]] cult center ''Ankuwaš'', although this remains a matter of debate. In classical antiquity and during the medieval period, the city was known as ''Ánkyra'' (,  \"[[anchor]]\") in [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] and ''Ancyra'' in [[Latin]]; the [[Galatian language|Galatian Celtic]] name was probably a similar variant. Following its annexation by the [[Seljuk Turks]] in 1073, the city became known in many European languages as ''Angora''; it was also known in [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] as ''Engürü''. The form \"Angora\" is preserved in the names of breeds of many different kinds of animals, and in the names of several locations in the US (see [[Angora (disambiguation)|Angora]]).", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "The region's history can be traced back to the [[Bronze Age]] [[Hattians|Hattic]] [[Hattic language|civilization]], which was succeeded in the 2nd millennium BC by the [[Hittites]], in the 10th century BC by the [[Phrygia]], and later by the [[Lydia]], [[Achaemenid Empire|Persia]], [[Greeks]], [[Galatia]], [[Roman Empire|Romans]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], and [[Turkish people|Turks]] (the [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuk]] [[Sultanate of Rûm]], the [[Ottoman Empire]] and finally republican [[Turkey]]).", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Ancient history"], "text": "The oldest settlements in and around the city center of Ankara belonged to the [[Hattians|Hattic]] [[Hattic language|civilization]] which existed during the [[Bronze Age]] and was gradually absorbed c. 2000 – 1700 BC by the [[Hittite language|Indo-European]] [[Hittites]]. The city grew significantly in size and importance under the [[Phrygia]] starting around 1000 BC, and experienced a large expansion following the mass migration from [[Gordium|Gordion]], (the capital of [[Phrygia]]), after an earthquake which severely damaged that city around that time. In Phrygian tradition, King [[Midas]] was venerated as the founder of Ancyra, but [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] mentions that the city was actually far older, which accords with present archaeological knowledge. Phrygian rule was succeeded first by [[Lydia]] and later by [[Iran|Persia]] rule, though the strongly Phrygian character of the peasantry remained, as evidenced by the gravestones of the much later Roman period. Persian sovereignty lasted until the Persians' defeat at the hands of [[Alexander the Great]] who conquered the city in 333 BC. Alexander came from [[Gordium|Gordion]] to Ankara and stayed in the city for a short period. After his death at [[Babylon]] in 323 BC and the subsequent divisionJerome|St. Jerome of his empire among his generals, Ankara, and its environs fell into the share of [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]]. Another important expansion took place under the [[Pontic Greeks|Greeks]] of [[Pontus (region)|Pontos]] who came there around 300 BC and developed the city as a trading center for the commerce of goods between the [[Black Sea]] ports and Crimea to the north; Assyria, Cyprus, and Lebanon to the south; and Georgia, Armenia and Persia to the east. By that time the city also took its name Ἄγκυρα (''Ánkyra'', meaning ''[[anchor]]'' in [[Greek language|Greek]]) which, in slightly modified form, provides the modern name of ''Ankara''.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Celtic history"], "text": "In 278 BC, the city, along with the rest of central Anatolia, was occupied by a [[Celts|Celt]] group, the [[Galatia]], who were the first to make Ankara one of their main tribal centers, the headquarters of the [[Tectosages]] tribe. Other centers were [[Pessinus]], today's Ballıhisar, for the [[Trocmi]] tribe, and [[Tavium]], to the east of Ankara, for the [[Tolistobogii]] tribe. The city was then known as ''Ancyra''. The Celtic element was probably relatively small in numbers; a warrior aristocracy which ruled over [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]]-speaking peasants. However, the [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]] continued to be spoken in Galatia for many centuries. At the end of the 4th century, [[Jerome|St. Jerome]], a native of Dalmatia, observed that the language spoken around Ankara was very similar to that being spoken in the northwest of the Roman world near [[Trier]].", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Roman history"], "text": "The city was subsequently passed under the control of the [[Roman Empire]]. In 25 BC, Emperor [[Augustus]] raised it to the status of a ''[[polis]]'' and made it the capital city of the [[Roman province]] of [[Galatia (Roman province)|Galatia]]. Ankara is famous for the ''[[Monumentum Ancyranum]]'' (''Temple of Augustus and Rome'') which contains the official record of the ''Acts of Augustus'', known as the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]'', an inscription cut in marble on the walls of this temple. The ruins of Ancyra still furnish today valuable [[relief|bas-relief]], inscriptions and other architectural fragments. Two other Galatian tribal centers, [[Tavium]] near [[Yozgat]], and [[Pessinus]] (Balhisar) to the west, near Sivrihisar, continued to be reasonably important settlements in the Roman period, but it was Ancyra that grew into a grand metropolis. An estimated 200,000 people lived in Ancyra in good times during the Roman Empire, a far greater number than was to be the case from after the fall of the Roman Empire until the early 20th century. The small [[Ankara River]] ran through the center of the Roman town. It has now been covered and diverted, but it formed the northern boundary of the old town during the Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman periods. Çankaya, the rim of the majestic hill to the south of the present city center, stood well outside the Roman city, but may have been a summer resort. In the 19th century, the remains of at least one [[Roman villa]] or large house were still standing not far from where the Çankaya Presidential Residence stands today. To the west, the Roman city extended until the area of the Gençlik Park and Railway Station, while on the southern side of the hill, it may have extended downwards as far as the site presently occupied by [[Hacettepe University]]. It was thus a sizeable city by any standards and much larger than the Roman towns of [[Gaul]] or [[Britannia]]. Ancyra's importance rested on the fact that it was the junction point where the roads in northern Anatolia running north–south and east–west intersected, giving it major strategic importance for Rome's eastern frontier. The great imperial road running east passed through Ankara and a succession of emperors and their armies came this way. They were not the only ones to use the Roman highway network, which was equally convenient for invaders. In the second half of the 3rd century, Ancyra was invaded in rapid succession by the [[Goths]] coming from the west (who rode far into the heart of [[Cappadocia]], taking slaves and pillaging) and later by the [[Arab people|Arab]]. For about a decade, the town was one of the western outposts of one of Palmyrean empress [[Zenobia]] in the [[Syrian Desert]], who took advantage of a period of weakness and disorder in the Roman Empire to set up a short-lived state of her own.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Roman history"], "text": "The town was reincorporated into the Roman Empire under Emperor [[Aurelian]] in 272. The [[tetrarchy]], a system of multiple (up to four) emperors introduced by [[Diocletian]] (284–305), seems to have engaged in a substantial programme of rebuilding and of road construction from Ankara westwards to Germe and [[Dorylaeum]] (now [[Eskişehir]]). In its heyday, Roman Ankara was a large market and trading center but it also functioned as a major administrative capital, where a high official ruled from the city's Praetorium, a large administrative palace or office. During the 3rd century, life in Ancyra, as in other Anatolian towns, seems to have become somewhat militarized in response to the invasions and instability of the town.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Byzantine history"], "text": "The city is well known during the 4th century as a centre of Christian activity (see also [[#Ecclesiastical history|below]]), due to frequent imperial visits, and through the letters of the pagan scholar [[Libanius]]. Bishop [[Marcellus of Ancyra]] and [[Basil of Ancyra]] were active in the theological controversies of their day, and the city was the site of no less than three church synods in [[Synod of Ancyra|314]], 358 and 375, the latter two in favour of [[Arianism]]. The city was visited by Emperor [[Constans I]] (r. 337–350) in 347 and 350, [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] (r. 361–363) during his Persian campaign in 362, and Julian's successor [[Jovian (emperor)|Jovian]] (r. 363–364) in winter 363/364 (he entered his [[Roman consul|consulship]] while in the city). After Jovian's death soon after, [[Valentinian I]] (r. 364–375) was acclaimed emperor at Ancyra, and in the next year his brother [[Valens]] (r. 364–378) used Ancyra as his base against the usurper [[Procopius (usurper)|Procopius]]. When the province of Galatia was divided sometime in 396/99, Ancyra remained the civil capital of Galatia I, as well as its ecclesiastical centre ([[metropolitan see]]). Emperor [[Arcadius]] (r. 383–408) frequently used the city as his summer residence, and some information about the ecclesiastical affairs of the city during the early 5th century is found in the works of [[Palladius of Galatia]] and Nilus of Galatia. In 479, the rebel [[Marcian (usurper)|Marcian]] attacked the city, without being able to capture it. In 610/11, [[Comentiolus (brother of Phocas)|Comentiolus]], brother of Emperor [[Phocas]] (r. 602–610), launched his own unsuccessful rebellion in the city against [[Heraclius]] (r. 610–641). Ten years later, in 620 or more likely 622, it was captured by the [[Sassanid Persia]] during the [[Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628]]. Although the city returned to Byzantine hands after the end of the war, the Persian presence left traces in the city's archaeology, and likely began the process of its transformation from a [[late antique]] city to a medieval fortified settlement.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Byzantine history"], "text": "In 654, the city was captured for the first time by the [[Arabs]] of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], under [[Muawiyah]], the future founder of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]. At about the same time, the [[theme (Byzantine district)|theme]] were established in Anatolia, and Ancyra became capital of the [[Opsician Theme]], which was the largest and most important theme until it was split up under Emperor [[Constantine V]] (r. 741–775); Ancyra then became the capital of the new [[Bucellarian Theme]]. The city was captured at least temporarily by the Umayyad prince [[Maslama ibn Hisham]] in 739/40, the last of the Umayyads' territorial gains from the Byzantine Empire. Ancyra was attacked without success by [[Abbasid]] forces in 776 and in 798/99. In 805, Emperor [[Nikephoros I]] (r. 802–811) strengthened its fortifications, a fact which probably saved it from sack during the [[Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (806)|large-scale invasion]] of Anatolia by Caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]] in the next year. Arab sources report that Harun and his successor [[al-Ma'mun]] (r. 813–833) took the city, but this information is later invention. In 838, however, during the [[Sack of Amorium|Amorium campaign]], the armies of Caliph [[al-Mu'tasim]] (r. 833–842) converged and met at the city; abandoned by its inhabitants, Ancara was razed to the ground, before the Arab armies went on to besiege and destroy [[Amorium]]. In 859, Emperor [[Michael III]] (r. 842–867) came to the city during a campaign against the Arabs, and ordered its fortifications restored. In 872, the city was menaced, but not taken, by the [[Paulicians]] under [[Chrysocheir]]. The last Arab raid to reach the city was undertaken in 931, by the Abbasid governor of [[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]], [[Thamal al-Dulafi]], but the city again was not captured.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Ecclesiastical history"], "text": "Early Christian martyrs of Ancyra, about whom little is known, included Proklos and Hilarios who were natives of the otherwise unknown nearby village of Kallippi, and suffered repression under the emperor [[Trajan]] (98–117). In the 280s we hear of Philumenos, a Christian corn merchant from southern Anatolia, being captured and martyred in Ankara, and Eustathius. As in other Roman towns, the reign of [[Diocletian]] marked the culmination of the persecution of the Christians. In 303, Ancyra was one of the towns where the co-emperors Diocletian and his deputy [[Galerius]] launched their anti-Christian persecution. In Ancyra, their first target was the 38-year-old Bishop of the town, whose name was Clement. Clement's life describes how he was taken to Rome, then sent back, and forced to undergo many interrogations and hardship before he, and his brother, and various companions were put to death. The remains of the church of [[Clement of Ancyra|St. Clement]] can be found today in a building just off Işıklar Caddesi in the Ulus district. Quite possibly this marks the site where Clement was originally buried. Four years later, a doctor of the town named Plato and his brother Antiochus also became celebrated martyrs under Galerius. [[Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)|Theodotus of Ancyra]] is also venerated as a saint. However, the persecution proved unsuccessful and in 314 Ancyra was the center of [[Synod of Ancyra|an important council]] of the [[Early Christianity|early church]]; its 25 disciplinary canons constitute one of the most important documents in the early history of the administration of the [[Confession (religion)|Sacrament of Penance]]. The synod also considered ecclesiastical policy for the reconstruction of the [[Christian Church]] after the persecutions, and in particular the treatment of ''[[Lapsi (Christianity)|lapsi]]''—Christians who had given in to forced [[paganism]] (sacrifices) to avoid [[martyrdom]] during these persecutions. Though paganism was probably tottering in Ancyra in Clement's day, it may still have been the majority religion. Twenty years later, Christianity and [[monotheism]] had taken its place. Ancyra quickly turned into a Christian city, with a life dominated by monks and priests and theological disputes. The town council or senate gave way to the bishop as the main local figurehead. During the middle of the 4th century, Ancyra was involved in the complex theological disputes over the nature of Christ, and a form of [[Arianism]] seems to have originated there. In 362–363, Emperor Julian passed through Ancyra on his way to an ill-fated campaign against the Persians, and according to Christian sources, engaged in a persecution of various holy men. The stone base for a statue, with an inscription describing Julian as \"Lord of the whole world from the British Ocean to the barbarian nations\", can still be seen, built into the eastern side of the inner circuit of the walls of Ankara Castle. The Column of Julian which was erected in honor of the emperor's visit to the city in 362 still stands today. In 375, Arian bishops met at Ancyra and deposed several bishops, among them [[Gregory of Nyssa|St. Gregory of Nyssa]].", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Ecclesiastical history"], "text": "In the late 4th century, Ancyra became something of an imperial [[resort|holiday resort]]. After [[Constantinople]] became the [[Byzantine Empire|East Roman]] capital, emperors in the 4th and 5th centuries would retire from the humid summer weather on the [[Bosphorus|Bosporus]] to the drier mountain atmosphere of Ancyra. [[Theodosius II]] (408–450) kept his court in Ancyra in the summers. Laws issued in Ancyra testify to the time they spent there. The [[Metropolis of Ancyra]] continued to be a residential [[episcopal see|see]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] until the 20th century, with about 40,000 faithful, mostly Turkish-speaking, but that situation ended as a result of the 1923 [[Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations]]. The earlier [[Armenian Genocide]] put an end to the residential eparchy of Ancyra of the [[Armenian Catholic Church]], which had been established in 1850. It is also a titular metropolis of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]]. Both the Ancient Byzantine Metropolitan archbishopric and the 'modern' Armenian eparchy are now listed by the [[Catholic Church]] as [[titular see]], with separate [[apostolic succession]].", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Seljuk and Ottoman history"], "text": "After the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, the [[Seljuk Turks]] overran much of Anatolia. By 1073, the Turkish settlers had reached the vicinity of Ancyra, and the city was captured shortly after, at the latest by the time of the rebellion of [[Nikephoros Melissenos]] in 1081. In 1101, when the [[Crusade of 1101|Crusade]] under [[Raymond IV of Toulouse]] arrived, the city had been under [[Danishmend]] control for some time. The Crusaders captured the city, and handed it over to the Byzantine emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] (r. 1081–1118). Byzantine rule did not last long, and the city was captured by the Seljuk [[Sultanate of Rum]] at some unknown point; in 1127, it returned to Danishmend control until 1143, when the Seljuks of Rum retook it. After the [[Battle of Köse Dağ]] in 1243, in which the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] defeated the Seljuks, most of Anatolia became part of the dominion of the Mongols. Taking advantage of Seljuk decline, a semi-religious cast of craftsmen and trade people named ''[[Ahis|Ahiler]]'' chose Angora as their independent city-state in 1290. [[Orhan I]], the second [[Bey]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], captured the city in 1356. [[Timur]] defeated [[Bayezid I]] at the [[Battle of Ankara]] in 1402 and took the city, but in 1403 Angora was again under Ottoman control. The [[Levant Company]] maintained a factory in the town from 1639 to 1768. In the 19th century, its population was estimated at 20,000 to 60,000. It was sacked by [[Khedivate of Egypt|Egyptian]] under [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]] in 1832. From 1867 to 1922, the city served as the capital of the [[Angora Vilayet]], which included most of ancient Galatia. Prior to [[World War I]], the town had a [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] [[consul (representative)|consulate]] and a population of around 28,000, roughly of whom were Christian.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Turkish republican capital"], "text": "Following the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] defeat in [[World War I]], the Ottoman capital [[Ottoman Constantinople|Constantinople]] (modern Istanbul) and much of [[Anatolia]] was occupied by the Allies, who planned to share these lands between [[First Republic of Armenia|Armenia]], [[French Third Republic|France]], [[Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)|Greece]], [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]], leaving for the Turks the core piece of land in central Anatolia. In response, the leader of the Turkish nationalist movement, [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], established the headquarters of his [[Turkish National Movement|resistance movement]] in Angora in 1920. After the [[Turkish War of Independence]] was won and the [[Treaty of Sèvres]] was superseded by the [[Treaty of Lausanne (1923)]], the Turkish nationalists replaced the Ottoman Empire with the [[Republic of Turkey]] on 29 October 1923. A few days earlier, Angora had officially replaced Constantinople as the new Turkish capital city, on 13 October 1923, and Republican officials declared that the city's name is Ankara. After Ankara became the capital of the newly founded Republic of Turkey, new development divided the city into an old section, called ''Ulus'', and a new section, called ''Yenişehir''. Ancient buildings reflecting Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman history and narrow winding streets mark the old section. The new section, now centered on [[Kızılay Meydanı|Kızılay Square]], has the trappings of a more modern city: wide streets, hotels, theaters, shopping malls, and high-rises. Government offices and foreign embassies are also located in the new section. Ankara has experienced a phenomenal growth since it was made Turkey's capital in 1923, when it was \"a small town of no importance\". In 1924, the year after the government had moved there, Ankara had about 35,000 residents. By 1927 there were 44,553 residents and by 1950 the population had grown to 286,781. Ankara continued to grow rapidly during the latter half of the 20th century and eventually outranked [[Izmir]] as Turkey's second-largest city, after [[Istanbul]]. Ankara's urban population reached 4,587,558 in 2014, while the population of [[Ankara Province]] reached 5,150,072 in 2015. After 1930, it became known officially in Western languages as Ankara. After the late 1930s the public stopped using the name \"Angora\".", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Economy and infrastructure"], "text": "The city has exported [[mohair]] (from the [[Angora goat]]) and [[Angora wool]] (from the [[Angora rabbit]]) internationally for centuries. In the 19th century, the city also exported substantial amounts of [[Goatskin (material)|goat]] and cat skins, [[gum arabic|gum]], [[beeswax|wax]], [[honey]], berries, and [[madder root]]. It was connected to [[Istanbul]] by railway before the [[First World War]], continuing to export mohair, wool, berries, and [[grain]]. The [[Central Anatolia Region]] is one of the primary locations of grape and [[Turkish wine|wine production in Turkey]], and Ankara is particularly famous for its [[Kalecik Karası]] and [[Muscat (grape and wine)|Muscat grapes]]; and its [[Kavaklıdere (winery)|Kavaklıdere wine]], which is produced in the [[Kavaklıdere, Ankara|Kavaklıdere]] neighbourhood within the [[Çankaya, Ankara|Çankaya]] district of the city. Ankara is also famous for its pears. Another renowned natural product of Ankara is its indigenous type of [[honey]] (''Ankara Balı'') which is known for its light color and is mostly produced by the [[Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo]] in the Gazi district, and by other facilities in the Elmadağ, Çubuk and Beypazarı districts. [[Çubuk-1 Dam|Çubuk-1]] and [[Çubuk-2 Dam|Çubuk-2]] [[dam]] on the Çubuk Brook in Ankara were among the first dams constructed in the Turkish Republic. Ankara is the center of the state-owned and private Turkish [[Arms industry|defence]] and [[Aerospace manufacturer|aerospace]] companies, where the industrial plants and headquarters of the [[Turkish Aerospace Industries]], [[Mechanical and Chemical Industry Corporation (Turkey)|MKE]], [[ASELSAN]], [[HAVELSAN]], [[ROKETSAN]], [[FNSS Defence Systems|FNSS]], [[Nurol Makina]], and numerous other firms are located. Exports to foreign countries from these defence and aerospace firms have steadily increased in the past decades. The [[International Defence Industry Fair|IDEF]] in Ankara is one of the largest international expositions of the global [[arms industry]]. A number of the global [[automotive industry|automotive companies]] also have production facilities in Ankara, such as the German bus and truck manufacturer [[MAN SE]]. Ankara hosts the [[OSTIM Industrial Zone]], Turkey's largest [[industrial park]]. A large percentage of the complicated employment in Ankara is provided by the state institutions; such as the [[ministry (government department)|ministries]], subministries, and other administrative bodies of the Turkish government. There are also many foreign citizens working as diplomats or clerks in the [[embassy|embassies]] of their respective countries.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Geography"], "text": "Ankara and [[Ankara Province|its province]] are located in the [[Central Anatolia Region]] of Turkey. The Çubuk Brook flows through the city center of Ankara. It is connected in the western suburbs of the city to the [[Ankara River]], which is a [[tributary]] of the [[Sakarya River]].", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Climate"], "text": "Ankara has a [[cold semi-arid climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]]: ''BSk''). Under the [[Trewartha climate classification]], Ankara has a temperate [[continental climate]] (''Dc''). Due to its elevation and inland location, Ankara has cold and snowy winters, and hot and dry summers. Rainfall occurs mostly during the spring and autumn. The city lies in [[USDA]] [[Hardiness zone]] 7b, and its annual average precipitation is fairly low at , nevertheless precipitation can be observed throughout the year. Monthly mean temperatures range from in January to in July, with an annual mean of .", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Demographics"], "text": "Ankara had a population of 75,000 in 1927. As of 2019, Ankara Province has a population of 5,639,076. When Ankara became the capital of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, it was designated as a planned city for 500,000 future inhabitants. During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, the city grew in a planned and orderly pace. However, from the 1950s onward, the city grew much faster than envisioned, because unemployment and poverty forced people to migrate from the countryside into the city in order to seek a better standard of living. As a result, many illegal houses called [[gecekondu]] were built around the city, causing the unplanned and uncontrolled urban landscape of Ankara, as not enough planned housing could be built fast enough. Although precariously built, the vast majority of them have electricity, running water and modern household amenities. Nevertheless, many of these gecekondus have been replaced by huge public housing projects in the form of [[tower block]] such as Elvankent, [[Eryaman, Etimesgut|Eryaman]] and [[Güzelkent, Etimesgut|Güzelkent]]; and also as mass housing compounds for military and civil service accommodation. Although many gecekondus still remain, they too are gradually being replaced by mass housing compounds, as empty land plots in the city of Ankara for new construction projects are becoming impossible to find. Çorum and Yozgat, which are located in Central Anatolia and whose population is decreasing, are the provinces with the highest net migration to Ankara. About one third of the Central Anatolia population of 15,608,868 people resides in Ankara. The population of Ankara has a higher education level than the country average. According to 2008 data, 15-years-higher literacy rate creates 88% of the total provincial population (91% in men and 86% in women). This ratio was 83% for Turkey (88% males, 79% females). This difference is particularly evident in the university educated segment of the population. The ratio of university and high school graduates to total population is 10.6% in Ankara, while 5.4% in Turkey.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Transportation"], "text": "The ''Electricity, Gas, Bus General Directorate'' (EGO) operates the [[Ankara Metro]] and other forms of public transportation. Ankara is served by a [[Commuter rail|suburban rail]] named [[Ankaray]] (A1) and three [[Rapid transit|subway]] lines (M1, M2, M3) of the Ankara Metro with about 300,000 total daily commuters, while an additional subway line (M4) is under construction. A long [[gondola lift]] with four stations connects the district of Şentepe to the [[Yenimahalle, Ankara|Yenimahalle metro station]]. The [[Ankara Central Station]] is a major rail hub in Turkey. The [[Turkish State Railways]] operates passenger train service from Ankara to other major cities, such as: [[Istanbul]], [[Eskişehir]], [[Balıkesir]], [[Kütahya]], [[İzmir]], [[Kayseri]], [[Adana]], [[Kars]], [[Elâzığ]], [[Malatya]], [[Diyarbakır]], [[Karabük]], [[Zonguldak]] and [[Sivas]]. Commuter rail also runs between the stations of [[Sincan-Kayaş Line|Sincan and Kayaş]]. On 13 March 2009, the new [[Yüksek Hızlı Tren]] (YHT) [[High-speed rail in Turkey|high-speed rail service]] began operation between Ankara and Eskişehir. On 23 August 2011, another YHT high-speed line commercially started its service [[Ankara-Konya high-speed railway|between Ankara and Konya]]. On 25 July 2014, the [[Ankara-Istanbul high-speed railway|Ankara–Istanbul high-speed line]] of YHT entered service. [[Esenboğa International Airport]], located in the north-east of the city, is Ankara's main airport.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Transportation", "Ankara public transportation statistics"], "text": "The average amount of time people spend commuting on public transit in Ankara on a weekday is 71 minutes. 17% of public transit passengers, ride for more than two hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is sixteen minutes, while 28% of users wait for over twenty minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is , while 27% travel for over in a single direction.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Politics"], "text": "Ankara is politically a triple battleground between the ruling conservative [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|Justice and Development Party]] (AKP), the opposition [[Kemalism|Kemalist]] centre-left [[Republican People's Party (Turkey)|Republican People's Party]] (CHP) and the nationalist far-right [[Nationalist Movement Party]] (MHP). The [[Ankara Province|province of Ankara]] is divided into 25 districts. The CHP's key and almost only political stronghold in Ankara lies within the central area of [[Çankaya, Ankara (district)|Çankaya]], which is the city's most populous district. While the CHP has always gained between 60 and 70% of the vote in Çankaya since 2002, political support elsewhere throughout Ankara is minimal. The high population within Çankaya, as well as [[Yenimahalle]] to an extent, has allowed the CHP to take overall second place behind the AKP in both local and general elections, with the MHP a close third, despite the fact that the MHP is politically stronger than the CHP in almost every other district. Overall, the AKP enjoys the most support throughout the city. The electorate of Ankara thus tend to vote in favour of the political right, far more so than the other main cities of [[Istanbul]] and [[İzmir]]. In retrospect, the [[2013–14 protests in Turkey|2013–14 protests against the AKP government]] were particularly strong in Ankara, proving to be fatal on multiple occasions.The city suffered from a series of terrorist attacks in 2015 and 2016, most notably on [[2015 Ankara bombings|10 October 2015]]; [[February 2016 Ankara bombing|17 February 2016]]; [[March 2016 Ankara bombing|13 March 2016]]; and [[2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt|15 July 2016]]. [[Melih Gökçek]] was the Metropolitan Mayor of Ankara between 1994 and 2017. Initially elected in the [[1994 Turkish local elections|1994 local elections]], he was re-elected in [[1999 Turkish local elections|1999]], [[2004 Turkish local elections|2004]] and [[2009 Turkish local elections|2009]]. In the [[2014 Turkish local elections|2014 local elections]], Gökçek stood for a fifth term. The MHP's metropolitan mayoral candidate for the 2009 local elections, [[Mansur Yavaş]], stood as the CHP's candidate against Gökçek in 2014. In a heavily controversial election, Gökçek was declared the winner by just 1% ahead of Yavaş amid allegations of systematic electoral fraud. With the [[Supreme Electoral Council of Turkey|Supreme Electoral Council]] and courts rejecting his appeals, Yavaş declared his intention to take the irregularities to the [[European Court of Human Rights]]. Although Gökçek was inaugurated for a fifth term, most election observers believe that Yavaş was the winner of the election. Gökçek resigned on 28 October 2017 and was replaced by the former mayor of [[Sincan, Ankara|Sincan]] district, [[Mustafa Tuna]]. Since 8 April 2019, the Mayor of Ankara is [[Mansur Yavaş]] from the [[Republican People's Party (Turkey)|Republican People's Party (CHP)]], who won the [[2019 Ankara mayoral election|mayoral election in 2019]].", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Ancient/archeological sites", "Ankara Citadel"], "text": "The foundations of the [[Ankara Castle|Ankara castle and citadel]] were laid by the Galatians on a prominent [[lava]] outcrop (), and the rest was completed by the Romans. The Byzantines and Seljuks further made restorations and additions. The area around and inside the citadel, being the oldest part of Ankara, contains many fine examples of traditional architecture. There are also recreational areas to relax. Many restored traditional Turkish houses inside the citadel area have found new life as restaurants, serving local cuisine. The citadel was depicted in various Turkish banknotes during 1927–1952 and 1983–1989.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Ancient/archeological sites", "Roman Theatre"], "text": "The remains, the stage, and the backstage of the Roman theatre can be seen outside [[Ankara Castle|the castle]]. Roman statues that were found here are exhibited in the [[Museum of Anatolian Civilizations]]. The seating area is still under excavation.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Ancient/archeological sites", "Temple of Augustus and Rome"], "text": "The Augusteum, now known as the Temple of Augustus and Rome, was built 25  20 BC following the conquest of Central Anatolia by the [[Roman Empire]]. Ancyra then formed the capital of the new [[Roman province|province]] of [[Galatia]]. After the death of [[Augustus]] in AD 14, a copy of the text of the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]'' (the ''[[Monumentum Ancyranum]]'') was inscribed on the interior of the temple's '''' in Latin and a Greek translation on an exterior wall of the ''''. The temple on the ancient acropolis of Ancyra was enlarged in the 2nd century and converted into a church in the 5th century. It is located in the Ulus quarter of the city. It was subsequently publicized by the [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]] ambassador [[Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq]] in the 16th century.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Ancient/archeological sites", "Roman Baths"], "text": "The [[Roman Baths of Ankara]] have all the typical features of a classical [[Thermae|Roman bath complex]]: a ''[[frigidarium]]'' (cold room), a ''[[tepidarium]]'' (warm room) and a ''[[caldarium]]'' (hot room). The baths were built during the reign of the Roman emperor [[Caracalla]] in the early 3rd century to honor [[Asclepius|Asclepios]], the God of Medicine. Today, only the basement and first floors remain. It is situated in the Ulus quarter.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Ancient/archeological sites", "Roman Road"], "text": "The [[Roman Road of Ankara]] or ''Cardo Maximus'' was found in 1995 by Turkish archaeologist Cevdet Bayburtluoğlu. It is long and wide. Many ancient artifacts were discovered during the excavations along the road and most of them are displayed at the [[Museum of Anatolian Civilizations]].", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Ancient/archeological sites", "Column of Julian"], "text": "The Column of Julian or Julianus, now in the Ulus district, was erected in honor of the Roman emperor [[Julian the Apostate]]'s visit to Ancyra in 362.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Mosques", "Kocatepe Mosque"], "text": "[[Kocatepe Mosque]] is the largest mosque in the city. Located in the Kocatepe quarter, it was constructed between 1967 and 1987 in classical [[Ottoman architecture|Ottoman style]] with four minarets. Its size and prominent location have made it a landmark for the city.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Mosques", "Ahmet Hamdi Akseki Mosque"], "text": "Ahmet Hamdi Akseki Mosque is located near the Presidency of Religious Affairs on the [[Eskişehir]] Road. Built in the Turkish neoclassical style, it is one of the largest new mosques in the city, completed and opened in 2013. It can accommodate 6 thousand people during general prayers, and up to 30 thousand people during funeral prayers. The mosque was decorated with [[Sultanate of Rum|Anatolian]] [[Seljuk architecture|Seljuk style]] patterns.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Mosques", "Yeni (Cenab Ahmet) Mosque"], "text": "It is the largest Ottoman mosque in Ankara and was built by the famous architect Sinan in the 16th century. The mimber (pulpit) and mihrap (prayer niche) are of white marble, and the mosque itself is of Ankara stone, an example of very fine workmanship.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Mosques", "Hacı Bayram Mosque"], "text": "This mosque, in the Ulus quarter next to the [[Monumentum Ancyranum|Temple of Augustus]], was built in the early 15th century in [[Seljuk architecture|Seljuk style]] by an unknown architect. It was subsequently restored by architect [[Mimar Sinan]] in the 16th century, with [[Kütahya]] tiles being added in the 18th century. The mosque was built in honor of [[Hacı Bayram-ı Veli]], whose tomb is next to the mosque, two years before his death (1427–28). The usable space inside this mosque is on the first floor and on the second floor.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Mosques", "Ahi Elvan Mosque"], "text": "It was founded in the Ulus quarter near the Ankara Citadel and was constructed by the [[Ahis|Ahi fraternity]] during the late 14th and early 15th centuries. The finely carved walnut mimber (pulpit) is of particular interest.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Mosques", "Alâeddin Mosque"], "text": "The Alâeddin Mosque is the oldest mosque in Ankara. It has a [[wood carving|carved]] [[Juglans|walnut]] [[minbar|mimber]], the inscription on which records that the mosque was completed in early [[Islamic calendar|AH 574]] (which corresponds to the summer of 1178 AD) and was built by the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk]] prince Muhiddin Mesud Şah (died 1204), the [[Bey]] of Ankara, who was the son of the [[Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate|Anatolian Seljuk sultan]] [[Kilij Arslan II|Kılıç Arslan II]] (reigned 1156–1192.)", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Modern monuments", "Victory Monument"], "text": "The '' [[Victory Monument (Ankara)|Victory Monument]]'' ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''[[:tr:Ankara Zafer Anıtı|Zafer Anıtı]]'') was crafted by Austrian sculptor Heinrich Krippel in 1925 and was erected in 1927 at [[Ulus Square]]. The monument is made of [[marble]] and [[bronze]] and features an [[equestrian statue]] of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], who wears a Republic era modern military uniform, with the rank [[Field Marshal]].", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Modern monuments", "Statue of Atatürk"], "text": "Located at Zafer Square ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Zafer Meydanı''), the [[marble]] and [[bronze]] statue was crafted by the renowned Italian sculptor [[Pietro Canonica]] in 1927 and depicts a standing Atatürk who wears a Republic era modern military uniform, with the rank [[Field Marshal]].", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Modern monuments", "Monument to a Secure, Confident Future"], "text": "This monument, located in Güven Park near Kızılay Square, was erected in 1935 and bears Atatürk's advice to his people: \"Turk! Be proud, work hard, and believe in yourself.\" The monument was depicted on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the Turkish 5 [[Turkish lira|lira]] banknote of 1937–1952 and of the 1000 lira banknotes of 1939–1946.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Modern monuments", "Hatti Monument"], "text": "Erected in 1978 at [[Sıhhiye Square]], this impressive monument symbolizes the [[Hattians|Hatti]] Sun Disc (which was later adopted by the [[Hittites]]) and commemorates Anatolia's earliest known civilization. The Hatti Sun Disc has been used in the previous logo of Ankara Metropolitan Municipality. It was also used in the previous logo of the Ministry of Culture & Tourism.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Inns", "Suluhan"], "text": "[[Suluhan]] is a historical Inn in Ankara. It is also called the ''Hasanpaşa Han''. It is about southeast of [[Ulus Square]] and situated in the Hacıdoğan neighbourhood. According to the ''vakfiye'' (inscription) of the building, the Ottoman era ''han'' was commissioned by Hasan Pasha, a regional [[beylerbey]], and was constructed between 1508 and 1511, during the final years of the reign of Sultan [[Bayezid II]]. There are 102 rooms (now shops) which face the two yards. In each room there is a window, a niche and a chimney.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Main sights", "Inns", "Çengelhan Rahmi Koç Museum"], "text": "[[Çengelhan Rahmi Koç Museum]] is a museum of industrial technology situated in [[:tr:Çengel Han|Çengel Han]], an Ottoman era Inn which was completed in 1523, during the early years of the reign of Sultan [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]. The exhibits include industrial/technological artifacts from the 1850s onwards. There are also sections about Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey; Vehbi Koç, Rahmi Koç's father and one of the first industrialists of Turkey, and Ankara city.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Shopping"], "text": "Foreign visitors to Ankara usually like to visit the old shops in ''Çıkrıkçılar Yokuşu'' (Weavers' Road) near Ulus, where myriad things ranging from traditional fabrics, hand-woven carpets and leather products can be found at bargain prices. ''Bakırcılar Çarşısı'' (Bazaar of Coppersmiths) is particularly popular, and many interesting items, not just of copper, can be found here like jewelry, carpets, costumes, antiques and embroidery. Up the hill to the castle gate, there are many shops selling a huge and fresh collection of spices, [[dried fruit]], nuts, and other produce. Modern shopping areas are mostly found in [[Kızılay, Ankara|Kızılay]], or on Tunalı Hilmi Avenue, including the modern mall of [[List of shopping malls in Turkey#Ankara|Karum]] (named after the ancient [[Assyria]] merchant colonies called [[Kültepe#Kârum Kaneš|''Kârum'']] that were established in [[Central Anatolia Region|central]] [[Anatolia]] at the beginning of the [[2nd millennium BC]]) which is located towards the end of the Avenue; and in [[Çankaya, Ankara|Çankaya]], the quarter with the highest elevation in the city. [[Atakule|Atakule Tower]] next to [[Atakule#Atrium shopping mall|Atrium Mall]] in Çankaya has views over Ankara and also has a [[revolving restaurant]] at the top. The symbol of the [[List of shopping malls in Turkey#Ankara|Armada Shopping Mall]] is an [[anchor]], and there's a large anchor monument at its entrance, as a reference to the ancient Greek name of the city, Ἄγκυρα (Ánkyra), which means anchor. Likewise, the anchor monument is also related with the Spanish name of the mall, Armada, which means [[naval fleet]]. As Ankara started expanding westward in the 1970s, several modern, suburbia-style developments and mini-cities began to rise along the western highway, also known as the [[Eskişehir]] Road. The ''Armada'', ''CEPA'' and ''Kentpark'' malls on the highway, the ''Galleria'', ''Arcadium'' and ''Gordion'' in Ümitköy, and a huge mall, ''Real'' in Bilkent Center, offer North American and European style shopping opportunities (these places can be reached through the Eskişehir Highway.) There is also the newly expanded ''[[ANKAmall]]'' at the outskirts, on the Istanbul Highway, which houses most of the well-known international brands. This mall is the largest throughout the Ankara region. In 2014 a few more shopping malls were open in Ankara. They are ''Next Level'' and ''Taurus'' on the Boulevard of [[Mevlana]] (also known as [[Konya]] Road).", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "The arts"], "text": "[[Turkish State Opera and Ballet]], the national directorate of opera and ballet companies of Turkey, has its headquarters in Ankara, and serves the city with three venues: (-) [[Ankara Opera House]] (''Opera Sahnesi'', also known as ''Büyük Tiyatro'') is the largest of the three venues for opera and ballet in Ankara.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "The arts", "Music"], "text": "Ankara is host to five classical music orchestras: (-) [[Presidential Symphony Orchestra]] (Turkish Presidential Symphony Orchestra) (-) [[Bilkent Symphony Orchestra]] (BSO) is a major symphony orchestra of Turkey. (-) [[Hacettepe Symphony Orchestra]] was founded in 2003 and is conducted by Erol Erdinç. (-) Başkent Oda Orkestrası (Chamber Orchestra of the Capital) There are four concert halls in the city: (-) [[CSO Concert Hall]] (-) [[Bilkent Concert Hall]] is a performing arts center in Ankara. It is located in the Bilkent University campus. (-) [[MEB Şura Salonu]] (also known as the Festival Hall), It is noted for its tango performances. (-) [[Çankaya Çağdaş Sanatlar Merkezi Concert Hall]] was founded in 1994. The city has been host to several well-established, annual theatre, music, film festivals: (-) [[Ankara International Music Festival]], a music festival organized in the Turkish capital presenting classical music and ballet programmes. Ankara also has a number of concert venues such as ''Eskiyeni'', ''[[IF Performance Hall]]'', ''[[Jolly Joker (venues chain)|Jolly Joker]]'', ''Kite'', ''Nefes Bar'', ''Noxus Pub'', ''Passage Pub'' and ''Route'', which host the live performances and events of popular musicians.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "The arts", "Theatre"], "text": "The [[Turkish State Theatres]] also has its head office in Ankara and runs the following stages in the city: (-) [[125. Yıl Çayyolu Sahnesi]] (-) [[:tr:Ankara Devlet Tiyatrosu|Büyük Tiyatro]], (-) [[Küçük Tiyatro]], (-) [[Şinasi Sahnesi]], (-) [[Akün Sahnesi]], (-) [[Altındağ Tiyatrosu]], (-) [[İrfan Şahinbaş Atölye Sahnesi]], (-) [[Oda Tiyatrosu]], (-) [[Mahir Canova Sahnesi]], (-) [[Muhsin Ertuğrul Sahnesi]]. In addition, the city is served by several private theatre companies, among which [[:tr:Ankara Sanat Tiyatrosu|Ankara Sanat Tiyatrosu]], who have their own stage in the city center, is a notable example.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Museums", "Museum of Anatolian Civilizations"], "text": "The [[Museum of Anatolian Civilizations]] (''Anadolu Medeniyetleri Müzesi'') is situated at the entrance of the [[Ankara Castle]]. It is an old 15th century [[bedesten]] (covered bazaar) that has been restored and now houses a collection of [[Paleolithic]], [[Neolithic]], [[Hittite empire|Hatti]], [[Hittites|Hittite]], [[Phrygia]], [[Urartu|Urartian]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] works as well as a major section dedicated to [[Lydia]] treasures.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Museums", "Anıtkabir"], "text": "[[Anıtkabir]] is located on an imposing hill, which forms the ''Anıttepe'' quarter of the city, where the mausoleum of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], founder of the Republic of Turkey, stands. Completed in 1953, it is an impressive fusion of ancient and modern architectural styles. An adjacent museum houses a wax statue of Atatürk, his writings, letters and personal items, as well as an exhibition of photographs recording important moments in his life and during the establishment of the Republic. Anıtkabir is open every day, while the adjacent museum is open every day except Mondays.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Museums", "Ankara Ethnography Museum"], "text": "[[Ethnography Museum of Ankara|Ankara Ethnography Museum]] (''Etnoğrafya Müzesi'') is located opposite to the [[Ankara Opera House]] on Talat Paşa Boulevard, in the Ulus district. There is a fine collection of folkloric items, as well as artifacts from the Seljuk and Ottoman periods. In front of the museum building, there is a [[marble]] and [[bronze]] [[equestrian statue]] of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] (who wears a Republic era modern military uniform, with the rank [[Field Marshal]]) which was crafted in 1927 by the renowned Italian sculptor [[Pietro Canonica]].", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Museums", "State Art and Sculpture Museum"], "text": "The [[State Art and Sculpture Museum]] (''Resim-Heykel Müzesi'') which opened to the public in 1980 is close to the Ethnography Museum and houses a rich collection of Turkish art from the late 19th century to the present day. There are also galleries which host guest exhibitions.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Museums", "Cer Modern"], "text": "Cer Modern is the modern-arts museum of Ankara, inaugurated on 1 April 2010. It is situated in the renovated building of the historic [[Turkish State Railways|TCDD]] Cer Atölyeleri, formerly a workshop of the [[Turkish State Railways]]. The museum incorporates the largest exhibition hall in Turkey. The museum holds periodic exhibitions of modern and contemporary art as well as hosting other contemporary arts events.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Museums", "War of Independence Museum"], "text": "The [[War of Independence Museum]] (''Kurtuluş Savaşı Müzesi'') is located on [[Ulus Square]]. It was originally the first Parliament building (TBMM) of the Republic of Turkey. The War of Independence was planned and directed here as recorded in various photographs and items presently on exhibition. In another display, [[wax sculpture|wax figure]] of former presidents of the Republic of Turkey are on exhibit.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Museums", "Mehmet Akif Literature Museum Library"], "text": "The [[Mehmet Akif Literature Museum Library]] is an important literary museum and archive opened in 2011 and dedicated to [[Mehmet Akif Ersoy]] (1873–1936), the poet of the [[Turkish National Anthem]].", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Museums", "TCDD Open Air Steam Locomotive Museum"], "text": "The [[TCDD Open Air Steam Locomotive Museum]] is an [[open-air museum]] which traces the history of [[steam locomotive]].", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Museums", "Ankara Aviation Museum"], "text": "Ankara Aviation Museum (''Hava Kuvvetleri Müzesi Komutanlığı'') is located near the Istanbul Road in Etimesgut. The museum opened to the public in September 1998. It is home to various missiles, avionics, aviation materials and aircraft that have served in the [[Turkish Air Force]] (e.g. combat aircraft such as the [[F-86 Sabre]], [[F-100 Super Sabre]], [[F-102 Delta Dagger]], [[F-104 Starfighter]], [[Northrop F-5|F-5 Freedom Fighter]], [[F-4 Phantom II|F-4 Phantom]]; and cargo planes such as the [[Transall C-160]].) Also a Hungarian [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21|MiG-21]], a Pakistani [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19|MiG-19]], and a Bulgarian [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17|MiG-17]] are on display at the museum.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Museums", "METU Science and Technology Museum"], "text": "The [[METU Science and Technology Museum]] (''ODTÜ Bilim ve Teknoloji Müzesi'') is located inside the [[METU|Middle East Technical University]] campus.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Sports"], "text": "As with all other cities of Turkey, football is the most popular sport in Ankara. The city has two [[football team|football clubs]] competing in the [[Süper Lig|Turkish Süper Lig]]: [[MKE Ankaragücü|Ankaragücü]], founded in 1910, is the oldest club in Ankara and is associated with Ankara's military arsenal manufacturing company [[Mechanical and Chemical Industry Corporation|MKE]]. They were the [[Türkiye Kupası|Turkish Cup]] winners in 1972 and 1981. [[Gençlerbirliği S.K.|Gençlerbirliği]], founded in 1923, are known as the ''Ankara Gale'' or the ''Poppies'' because of their colors: red and black. They were the Turkish Cup winners in 1987 and 2001. Gençlerbirliği's B team, [[Hacettepe S.K.]] (formerly known as Gençlerbirliği OFTAŞ) played in the Süper Lig but currently plays in the [[TFF Second League]]. A fourth team, [[Büyükşehir Belediye Ankaraspor]], played in the Süper Lig until 2010, when they were expelled. The club was reconstituted in 2014 as [[Osmanlıspor]] but have since returned to their old identity as [[Ankaraspor]]. Ankaraspor currently play in the [[TFF First League]] at the [[Osmanlı Stadium]] in the [[Sincan, Ankara|Sincan]] district of Yenikent, outside the city center. [[Keçiörengücü]] also currently play in the [[TFF First League]]. Ankara has a large number of minor teams, playing at regional levels. In the [[TFF Second League]]: [[Mamak FK]] in Mamak, [[Ankara Demirspor]] in Çankaya, [[Etimesgut Belediyespor]] in Etimesgut; in the [[TFF Third League]]: [[Çankaya FK]] in Keçiören; Altındağspor in Altındağ; in the [[Turkish Regional Amateur League|Amateur League]]: [[Turanspor]] in Etimesgut, [[Türk Telekomspor]] owned by the phone company in Yenimahalle, Çubukspor in Çubuk, and [[Bağlumspor]] in Keçiören. In the [[Turkish Basketball League]], Ankara is represented by [[Türk Telekom]], whose home is the [[Ankara Arena]], and [[TED Kolejliler|CASA TED Kolejliler]], whose home is the TOBB Sports Hall. [[Halkbank Ankara]] is the leading domestic powerhouse in men's volleyball, having won many championships and cups in the [[Turkish Men's Volleyball League]] and even the [[CEV Cup]] in 2013. [[Ankara Ice Palace|Ankara Buz Pateni Sarayı]] is where the [[ice skating]] and [[ice hockey]] competitions take place in the city. There are many popular spots for [[skateboarding]] which is active in the city since the 1980s. Skaters in Ankara usually meet in the park near the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]. The 2012-built [[THF Sport Hall]] hosts the [[Turkish Handball Super League|Handball Super League]] and [[Turkish Women's Handball Super League|Women's Handball Super League]] matches scheduled in Ankara.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Parks"], "text": "Ankara has many parks and open spaces mainly established in the early years of the Republic and well maintained and expanded thereafter. The most important of these parks are: [[Gençlik Parkı]] (houses an [[amusement park]] with a large pond for rowing), the [[Botanical garden]], Seğmenler Park, Anayasa Park, [[Kuğulu Park]] (famous for the swans received as a gift from the [[PRC|Chinese]] government), [[Abdi İpekçi]] Park, [[Esertepe Parkı]], Güven Park (see above for the monument), Kurtuluş Park (has an ice-skating rink), [[Altınpark]] (also a prominent exposition/fair area), Harikalar Diyarı (claimed to be Biggest Park of Europe inside city borders) and Göksu Park. [[Dikmen Vadisi]] (Dikmen Valley) is a park and recreation area situated in Çankaya district. Gençlik Park was depicted on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the Turkish 100 [[Turkish lira|lira]] banknotes of 1952–1976. [[Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo]] (''Atatürk Orman Çiftliği'') is an expansive recreational farming area which houses a [[zoo]], several small agricultural farms, [[greenhouse]], restaurants, a [[dairy farming|dairy farm]] and a brewery. It is a pleasant place to spend a day with family, be it for having picnics, hiking, biking or simply enjoying good food and nature. There is also an exact replica of the house where Atatürk was born in 1881, in [[Thessaloniki]], Greece. Visitors to the \"Çiftlik\" (farm) as it is affectionately called by Ankarans, can sample such famous products of the farm such as old-fashioned beer and [[ice cream]], fresh [[dairy product]] and meat rolls/kebaps made on charcoal, at a traditional restaurant (''Merkez Lokantası'', Central Restaurant), cafés and other establishments scattered around the farm.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Education", "Universities"], "text": "Ankara is noted, within Turkey, for the multitude of universities it is home to. These include the following, several of them being among the most reputable in the country: (-) [[Ankara University]] (-) [[Atılım University]] (-) [[Başkent University]] (-) [[Bilkent University]] (-) [[Çankaya University]] (-) [[Gazi University]] (-) [[:tr:Gülhane Askerî Tıp Akademisi|Gülhane Military Medical Academy]] (-) [[Hacettepe University]] (-) [[İpek University]] (-) [[Middle East Technical University]] (-) [[:tr:TED Üniversitesi|TED University]] (-) [[TOBB University of Economics and Technology]] (-) [[:tr:Türk Hava Kurumu Üniversitesi|Turkish Aeronautical Association University]] (-) [[Turkish Military Academy]] (-) [[Turkish National Police Academy]] (-) [[Ufuk University]] (-) [[Yıldırım Beyazıt University]]", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Fauna", "Angora cat"], "text": "Ankara is home to a world-famous domestic [[cat breed]] – the [[Turkish Angora]], called ''Ankara kedisi'' (Ankara cat) in Turkish. Turkish Angoras are one of the ancient, naturally occurring cat breeds, having originated in Ankara and its surrounding region in central Anatolia. They mostly have a white, silky, medium to long length coat, no undercoat and a fine bone structure. There seems to be a connection between the Angora Cats and [[Persian (cat)|Persians]], and the Turkish Angora is also a distant cousin of the [[Turkish Van]]. Although they are known for their shimmery white coat, there are more than twenty varieties including black, blue and reddish fur. They come in [[tabby cat|tabby]] and tabby-white, along with smoke varieties, and are in every color other than pointed, lavender, and cinnamon (all of which would indicate breeding to an outcross.) Eyes may be blue, green, or amber, or even one blue and one amber or green. The [[Cat coat genetics#White spotting and epistatic white|W gene]] which is responsible for the white coat and blue eye is closely related to the hearing ability, and the presence of a blue eye can indicate that the cat is deaf to the side the blue eye is located. However, a great many blue and [[odd-eyed cat|odd-eyed]] white cats have normal hearing, and even deaf cats lead a very normal life if kept indoors. Ears are pointed and large, eyes are almond shaped and the head is massive with a two plane profile. Another characteristic is the tail, which is often kept parallel to the back.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Fauna", "Angora goat"], "text": "The [[Angora goat]] () is a breed of [[goat|domestic goat]] that originated in Ankara and its surrounding region in central Anatolia. This breed was first mentioned in the time of [[Moses]], roughly in 1500 BC. The first Angora goats were brought to Europe by [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]], about 1554, but, like later imports, were not very successful. Angora goats were first introduced in the United States in 1849 by Dr. James P. Davis. Seven adult goats were a gift from Sultan [[Abdülmecid I]] in appreciation for his services and advice on the raising of cotton. The [[Pile (textile)|fleece]] taken from an Angora goat is called [[mohair]]. A single goat produces between of hair per year. Angoras are shorn twice a year, unlike [[Domestic sheep|sheep]], which are shorn only once. Angoras have high nutritional requirements due to their rapid hair growth. A poor quality diet will curtail mohair development. The United States, [[Turkey]], and South Africa are the top producers of mohair. For a long period of time, Angora goats were bred for their white coat. In 1998, the Colored Angora Goat Breeders Association was set up to promote breeding of colored Angoras. Today, Angora goats produce white, black (deep black to greys and silver), red (the color fades significantly as the goat gets older), and brownish fiber. Angora goats were depicted on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the Turkish 50 [[Turkish lira|lira]] banknotes of 1938–1952.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["Fauna", "Angora rabbit"], "text": "The [[Angora rabbit]] () is a variety of domestic rabbit bred for its long, soft hair. The Angora is one of the oldest types of domestic rabbit, originating in Ankara and its surrounding region in central Anatolia, along with the [[Turkish Angora|Angora cat]] and [[Angora goat]]. The rabbits were popular pets with French royalty in the mid-18th century, and spread to other parts of Europe by the end of the century. They first appeared in the United States in the early 20th century. They are bred largely for their long [[Angora wool]], which may be removed by [[sheep shearing|shear]], combing, or [[plucking (hair removal)|pluck]] (gently pulling loose wool.) Angoras are bred mainly for their wool because it is silky and soft. They have a humorous appearance, as they oddly resemble a fur ball. Most are calm and docile but should be handled carefully. Grooming is necessary to prevent the fiber from matting and felting on the rabbit. A condition called \"wool block\" is common in Angora rabbits and should be treated quickly. Sometimes they are shorn in the summer as the long fur can cause the rabbits to overheat.", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": ["International relations", "Twin towns and sister cities"], "text": "Ankara is [[Twin towns and sister cities|twinned]] with: (-) [[Seoul]], South Korea (since 1971) (-) [[Islamabad]], Pakistan (since 1982) (-) [[Kuala Lumpur]], Malaysia (since 1984) (-) [[Beijing]], China (since 1990) (-) [[Amman]], Jordan (since 1992) (-) [[Bishkek]], Kyrgyzstan (since 1992) (-) [[Budapest]], Hungary (since 1992) (-) [[Khartoum]], Sudan (since 1992) (-) [[Moscow]], Russia (since 1992) (-) [[Sofia]], Bulgaria (since 1992) (-) [[Havana]], Cuba (since 1993) (-) [[Kyiv]], Ukraine (since 1993) (-) [[Ashgabat]], Turkmenistan (since 1994) (-) [[Kuwait City]], Kuwait (since 1994) (-) [[Sarajevo]], Bosnia and Herzegovina (since 1994) (-) [[Tirana]], Albania (since 1995) (-) [[Tbilisi]], Georgia (since 1996) (-) [[Ufa]], [[Bashkortostan]], Russia (since 1997) (-) [[Bucharest]], Romania (since 1998) (-) [[Hanoi]], Vietnam (since 1998) (-) [[Manama]], Bahrain (since 2000) (-) [[Mogadishu]], Somalia (since 2000) (-) [[Santiago]], Chile (since 2000) (-) [[Nur-Sultan]], Kazakhstan (since 2001) (-) [[Dushanbe]], Tajikistan (since 2003) (-) [[Kabul]], Afghanistan (since 2003) (-) [[Ulan Bator]], Mongolia (since 2003) (-) [[Cairo]], Egypt (since 2004) (-) [[Chișinău]], Moldova (since 2004) (-) [[Sana'a]], Yemen (since 2004) (-) [[Tashkent]], Uzbekistan (since 2004) (-) [[Pristina]], Kosovo (since 2005) (-) [[Kazan]], [[Tatarstan]], Russia (since 2005) (-) [[Kinshasa]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (since 2005) (-) [[Addis Ababa]], Ethiopia (since 2006) (-) [[Minsk]], Belarus (since 2007) (-) [[Zagreb]], Croatia (since 2008) (-) [[Damascus]], Syria (since 2010) (-) [[Bissau]], Guinea-Bissau (since 2011) (-) [[Washington, D.C.]], USA (since 2011) (-) [[Bangkok]], Thailand (since 2012) (-) [[Tehran]], Iran (since 2013) (-) [[Doha]], Qatar (since 2016) (-) [[Podgorica]], [[Montenegro]] (since 7 March 2019) (-) [[Djibouti City]], [[Djibouti]] (since 2017)", "id": "802", "title": "Ankara", "categories": ["Ankara", "Capitals in Asia", "Populated places in Ankara Province"], "seealso": ["Clement of Ancyra", "Angora goat", "Ankara Metro", "Ankara Province", "List of hospitals in Ankara Province", "Timeline of Ankara", "ATO Congresium", "Ankara Central Station", "Battle of Ankara", "Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)", "Gemellus of Ancyra", "Marcellus of Ancyra", "Angora cat", "List of people from Ankara", "Roman Baths of Ankara", "List of mayors of Ankara", "List of tallest buildings in Ankara", "Basil of Ancyra", "History of Ankara", "Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation)", "Ankara Arena", "List of municipalities in Ankara Province", "Theodotus of Ancyra (bishop)", "Ankara Agreement", "Synod of Ancyra", "Ankara Esenboğa International Airport", "Nilus of Ancyra", "List of districts of Ankara", "Angora rabbit", "Victory Monument (Ankara)", "Ankara University", "Monumentum Ancyranum", "Battle of Ancyra"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Arabic''' (, '''' or , '''' or ) is a [[Semitic languages|Semitic language]] that first emerged in the 1st to 4th centuries CE. It is now the [[lingua franca]] of the [[Arab world]]. It is named after the [[Arabs]], a term initially used to describe peoples living in the [[Arabian Peninsula]] bounded by eastern Egypt in the west, [[Mesopotamia]] in the east, and the [[Anti-Lebanon Mountains|Anti-Lebanon mountains]] and Northern [[Syria]] in the north, as perceived by [[History of cartography#Ancient Greece|ancient Greek geographers]] The [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] assigns language codes to thirty [[varieties of Arabic]], including its standard form, [[Modern Standard Arabic]], also referred to as Literary Arabic, which is modernized [[Classical Arabic]]. This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as ( \"the eloquent Arabic\") or simply '''' (). [[Modern Standard Arabic]] is an official language of [[List of countries where Arabic is an official language|26 states]] and 1 disputed territory, the third most after English and French. Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government and the media. Arabic, in its [[Standard Arabic|standard form]], is the official language of 26 states, as well as the [[liturgical language]] of the religion of [[Islam]], since the [[Quran]] and [[Hadith]] were written in Arabic. During the Middle Ages, Arabic was a major vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As a result, many European languages have also [[loanword|borrowed]] many words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in [[Languages of Europe|European languages]]—mainly [[Arabic language influence on the Spanish language|Spanish]] and to a lesser extent [[Influence of Arabic on other languages#Portuguese|Portuguese]], [[Influence of Arabic on other languages#Catalan|Catalan]], and [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]]—owing to both the proximity of Christian European and Muslim Arab civilizations and the long-lasting Arabic culture and language presence mainly in Southern Iberia during the [[Al-Andalus]] era. The [[Maltese language]] is a [[Semitic languages|Semitic language]] developed from a dialect of Arabic and written in the [[Latin alphabet]]. The [[Balkans|Balkan]] languages, including [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], have also acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]]. Arabic has influenced many other languages around the globe throughout its history. Some of the most influenced languages are [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]]), [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]], [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Malay language|Malay]] ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] and [[Malaysian language|Malaysian]]), [[Maldivian language|Maldivian]], [[Pashto]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Oriya Language|Odia]] and [[Hausa language|Hausa]] and some languages in parts of Africa. Conversely, Arabic has borrowed words from other languages, including Hebrew, Greek, Aramaic, and Persian in medieval times and languages such as English and [[French language|French]] in modern times.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "Arabic is the [[Sacred language|liturgical language]] of 1.8 billion [[Muslims]], and Arabic is one of six [[official languages of the United Nations]]. All varieties of Arabic combined are spoken by perhaps as many as 422 million speakers (native and non-native) in the Arab world, making it the fifth [[List of languages by number of native speakers|most spoken language in the world]]. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet, which is an [[abjad]] script and is written from [[Right-to-left|right to left]], although the spoken varieties are sometimes [[Arabic chat alphabet|written in ASCII Latin]] from [[left to right]] with no standardized orthography.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Classification"], "text": "Arabic is usually, but not universally, classified as a [[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]] language. It is related to languages in other subgroups of the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] language group ([[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]], [[South Semitic]], [[East Semitic]], [[West Semitic]]), such as [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Ugaritic language|Ugaritic]], [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]], [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]], [[Amorite]], [[Ammonite language|Ammonite]], [[Eblaite]], [[Ancient North Arabian|epigraphic Ancient North Arabian]], [[Ancient South Arabian|epigraphic Ancient South Arabian]], [[Ethiopic]], [[Modern South Arabian]], and numerous other dead and modern languages. Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups. The [[Semitic languages]] changed a great deal between [[Proto-Semitic]] and the emergence of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: (1) The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation (''jalas-'') into a past tense. (2) The conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation (''yajlis-'') into a present tense. (3) The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms (e.g., a present tense formed by doubling the middle root, a perfect formed by infixing a after the first root consonant, probably a jussive formed by a stress shift) in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms (e.g., ''-u'' for indicative, ''-a'' for subjunctive, no ending for jussive, ''-an'' or ''-anna'' for energetic). (4) The development of an internal passive. There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the [[Safaitic]] and [[Hismaic (Old Arabic)|Hismaic]] inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the [[Dadanitic]] and [[Taymanitic]] languages of the [[Hijaz|northern Hejaz]]. These features are evidence of common descent from a [[Proto-language|hypothetical ancestor]], [[Proto-Arabic]]. The following features can be reconstructed with confidence for Proto-Arabic: (1) negative particles '''' * ; '''' * to Classical Arabic (2) G-passive participle (3) prepositions and adverbs '''', '''', '''', '''', '''' (4) a subjunctive in -'''' (5) ''''-demonstratives (6) leveling of the -'''' allomorph of the feminine ending (7) '''' complementizer and subordinator (8) the use of ''''- to introduce modal clauses (9) independent object pronoun in '''' (10) vestiges of ''[[nunation]]''", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Old Arabic"], "text": "Arabia boasted a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. In the southwest, various [[Central Semitic languages]] both belonging to and outside of the [[Old South Arabian|Ancient South Arabian]] family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It is also believed that the ancestors of the [[Modern South Arabian languages]] (non-Central Semitic languages) were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern [[Hejaz]], [[Dadanitic]] and [[Taymanitic]] held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In [[Najd]] and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested. In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in a script derived from ASA attest to a language known as [[Hasaitic dialect|Hasaitic]]. Finally, on the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B, Thamudic D, [[Safaitic]], and [[Hismaic]] are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are in fact early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered [[Old Arabic]]. Linguists generally believe that \"Old Arabic\" (a collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic) first emerged around the 1st century CE. Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in [[Sabaic|Sabaic script]] at [[Qaryat al-Faw|Qaryat Al-Faw]], in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as the conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Old Arabic"], "text": "It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced--[[epigraphic]] [[Ancient North Arabian]] (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from \"Arabic\". Scholars named its variant dialects after the towns where the inscriptions were discovered ([[Dadanitic]], [[Taymanitic]], [[Hismaic]], [[Safaitic]]). However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable. Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered [[Old Arabic]] due to the fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic.The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an [[Nabataean alphabet|ancestor of the modern Arabic script]] are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in [[Avdat|En Avdat, Israel]], and dated to around 125 CE. This is followed by the [[Namara inscription]], an epitaph of the [[Lakhmids|Lakhmid]] king Mar 'al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at [[Namara inscription|Namaraa]], Syria. From the 4th to the 6th centuries, the [[Nabataean alphabet|Nabataean script]] evolves into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era. There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria ([[Zabad, Syria|Zabad]], Jabal 'Usays, [[Harran, as-Suwayda|Harran]], [[Umm el-Jimal|Umm al-Jimaal]]). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of the Qur'an are referred to by linguists as \"[[Quranic Arabic]]\", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into \"[[Classical Arabic]]\".", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Old Hejazi and Classical Arabic"], "text": "In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the [[Hejaz]] which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the [[Islamic calendar|Hijra]], most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from the \"learned\" tradition (Classical Arabic). This variety and both its classicizing and \"lay\" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an [[Old Higazi]] register. It is clear that the orthography of the [[Quran|Qur'an]] was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi. In the late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal \"poetic koine\" distinct from the [[Vernacular|spoken vernaculars]] developed based on the [[Bedouin]] dialects of [[Najd]], probably in connection with the court of [[Al-Hirah|al-Ḥīra]]. During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized [[Classical Arabic]] elements in morphology and syntax. Following the [[early Muslim conquests]], Arabic gained vocabulary from [[Middle Persian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]]. In the early [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid period]], many [[Ancient Greek|Classical Greek]] terms entered Arabic through translations carried out at [[Baghdad|Baghdad's]] [[House of Wisdom]]. The standardization of Classical Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ''ʿarabiyya'' \"Arabic\", [[Sibawayh|Sībawayhi's]] ''al''-''Kitāb'', is based first of all upon a corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ''ʿarabiyya''. By the 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Neo-Arabic"], "text": "Charles Ferguson's [[koiné language|koine]] theory (Ferguson 1959) claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on the eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories. According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from [[pidgin]] Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent [[creolization]] among Arabs and [[Arabization|arabized]] peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA. In around the 11th and 12th centuries in [[al-Andalus]], the ''[[zajal]]'' and [[Muwashshah|''muwashah'']] poetry forms developed in the [[Andalusian Arabic|dialectical Arabic of Cordoba]] and the Maghreb.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Nahda"], "text": "In the wake of the [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]] and European [[hegemony]] and [[colonialism]], pioneering Arabic presses, such as the [[Amiri Press]] established by [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic [[Arabic literature|literature]] and publications. The ''[[Nahda]]'' cultural renaissance saw the creation of a number of Arabic academies modeled after the ''[[Académie française]]'' that aimed to develop the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations, first in [[Arab Academy of Damascus|Damascus]] (1919), then in [[Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo|Cairo]] (1932), [[Iraqi Academy of Sciences|Baghdad]] (1948), [[Institute for Studies and Research on Arabization|Rabat]] (1960), [[Jordan Academy of Arabic|Amman]] (1977), (1993), and [[Tunisian Academy of Sciences, Letters, and Arts|Tunis]] (1993). In 1997, a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the [[Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization|Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization]] of the [[Arab League]]. These academies and organizations have worked toward the [[Arabization]] of the sciences, [[Neologism|creating terms]] in Arabic to describe new concepts, toward the standardization of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world, and toward the development of Arabic as a [[world language]]. This gave rise to what Western scholars call [[Modern Standard Arabic]]. From the 1950s, [[Arabization]] became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Sudan. ", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Classical, Modern Standard and spoken Arabic"], "text": "''Arabic'' usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into [[Classical Arabic]] and [[Modern Standard Arabic]]. It could also refer to any of a variety of regional vernacular [[Varieties of Arabic|Arabic dialects]], which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. Classical Arabic is the language found in the [[Quran]], used from the period of [[Pre-Islamic Arabia]] to that of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]. Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the [[syntactic]] and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as [[Sibawayh]]) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as the [[Ibn Manzur#Lisān al-ʿArab|''Lisān al-ʻArab'']]). Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the [[Industrial Revolution|industrial]] and [[Post-industrial society|post-industrial era]], especially in modern times. Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while the latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children. The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of [[Classical Latin]] and [[Vulgar Latin]] vernaculars (which became [[Romance languages]]) in medieval and early modern Europe. This view though does not take into account the widespread use of Modern Standard Arabic as a medium of audiovisual communication in today's mass media—a function Latin has never performed. MSA is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. \"Literary Arabic\" and \"Standard Arabic\" ( '''') are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic. Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows: (-) Certain grammatical constructions of CA that have no counterpart in any modern vernacular dialect (e.g., the [[energetic mood]]) are almost never used in [[Modern Standard Arabic]].", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Classical, Modern Standard and spoken Arabic"], "text": "(-) [[Grammatical case|Case]] distinctions are very rare in Arabic vernaculars. As a result, MSA is generally composed without case distinctions in mind, and the proper cases are added after the fact, when necessary. Because most case endings are noted using final short vowels, which are normally left unwritten in the Arabic script, it is unnecessary to determine the proper case of most words. The practical result of this is that MSA, like English and [[Standard Chinese]], is written in a strongly determined word order and alternative orders that were used in CA for emphasis are rare. In addition, because of the lack of case marking in the spoken varieties, most speakers cannot consistently use the correct endings in extemporaneous speech. As a result, spoken MSA tends to drop or regularize the endings except when reading from a prepared text. (-) The numeral system in CA is complex and heavily tied in with the case system. This system is never used in MSA, even in the most formal of circumstances; instead, a significantly simplified system is used, approximating the system of the conservative spoken varieties. MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., '''' 'to go') that is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve. Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., '''' 'film' or '''' 'democracy'). However, the current preference is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use [[loan translation]] (e.g., '''' 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; '''' 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing [[Semitic root|roots]] ( '''' '[[apoptosis]]', using the root ''m/w/t'' 'death' put into the [[Arabic verbs#Form X|Xth form]], or '''' 'university', based on '''' 'to gather, unite'; '''' 'republic', based on '''' 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., '''' 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; '''' 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk'). ''Colloquial'' or ''dialectal'' Arabic refers to the many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language and evolved from Classical Arabic. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be [[mutual intelligibility|mutually unintelligible]], and some linguists consider them distinct languages. However, research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations. The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as [[soap opera]] and [[talk show]], as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Classical, Modern Standard and spoken Arabic"], "text": "The only variety of modern Arabic to have acquired official language status is [[Maltese language|Maltese]], which is spoken in (predominantly [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) [[Malta]] and written with the [[Maltese alphabet|Latin script]]. It is descended from Classical Arabic through [[Siculo-Arabic]], but is not mutually intelligible with any other variety of Arabic. Most linguists list it as a separate language rather than as a dialect of Arabic. Even during Muhammad's lifetime, there were dialects of spoken Arabic. Muhammad spoke in the dialect of [[Mecca]], in the western [[Arabian peninsula]], and it was in this dialect that the Quran was written down. However, the dialects of the eastern Arabian peninsula were considered the most prestigious at the time, so the language of the Quran was ultimately converted to follow the eastern [[phonology]]. It is this phonology that underlies the modern pronunciation of Classical Arabic. The phonological differences between these two dialects account for some of the complexities of Arabic writing, most notably the writing of the [[glottal stop]] or ''[[hamzah]]'' (which was preserved in the eastern dialects but lost in western speech) and the use of '''' (representing a sound preserved in the western dialects but merged with '''' in eastern speech).", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Language and dialect"], "text": "The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of [[diglossia]], which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. ''Tawleed'' is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, ''al-hatif'' lexicographically, means the one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term ''al-hatif'' is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of ''tawleed'' can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native, mutually unintelligible \"dialects\"; these dialects linguistically constitute separate languages which may have dialects of their own. When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers [[Code-switching|code-switch]] back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. Arabic speakers often improve their familiarity with other dialects via music or film. The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the [[varieties of Chinese]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]] and [[Urdu language|Urdu]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] and [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Scots language|Scots]] and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a significant complicating factor: A single written form, significantly different from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites a number of sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak a single language, despite significant issues of mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions. From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the [[Romance languages]]. This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for the Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the [[Maghreb]], a linguistically innovative variety such as [[Moroccan Arabic]] is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the [[Mashriq]], much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Influence of Arabic on other languages"], "text": "The influence of Arabic has been most important in Islamic countries, because it is the language of the Islamic sacred book, the Quran. Arabic is also an important source of vocabulary for languages such as [[Amharic language|Amharic]], [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], [[Baluchi language|Baluchi]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Chaldean Neo-Aramaic|Chaldean]], [[Chechen language|Chechen]], [[Chittagonian language|Chittagonian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Dagestani language|Dagestani]], [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Hindi]], [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Kutchi Language|Kutchi]], [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]], [[Malay language|Malay]] ([[Malaysian language|Malaysian]] and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]), [[Pashto language|Pashto]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Rohingya language|Rohingya]], [[Romance languages]] ([[French language|French]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], etc.) [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Somali language|Somali]], [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]], [[Urdu]], [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]], [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]], [[Visayan languages|Visayan]] and [[Wolof language|Wolof]], as well as other languages in countries where these languages are spoken. The Education Minister of France [[Jean-Michel Blanquer]] has emphasized the learning and usage of Arabic in French schools. In addition, English has many Arabic loanwords, some directly, but most via other Mediterranean languages. Examples of such words include admiral, adobe, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, algorithm, alkaline, almanac, amber, arsenal, assassin, candy, carat, cipher, coffee, cotton, ghoul, hazard, jar, kismet, lemon, loofah, magazine, mattress, sherbet, sofa, sumac, tariff, and zenith. Other languages such as Maltese and [[Kinubi]] derive ultimately from Arabic, rather than merely borrowing vocabulary or grammatical rules. Terms borrowed range from religious terminology (like Berber ''taẓallit'', \"prayer\", from ''[[salat]]'' ( '''')), academic terms (like [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] ''mentiq'', \"logic\"), and economic items (like English ''coffee'') to [[placeholder name|placeholders]] (like Spanish ''fulano'', \"so-and-so\"), everyday terms (like Hindustani ''lekin'', \"but\", or Spanish ''taza'' and French ''tasse'', meaning \"cup\"), and expressions (like Catalan ''a betzef'', \"galore, in quantity\"). Most Berber varieties (such as [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]]), along with Swahili, borrow some numbers from Arabic. Most Islamic religious terms are direct borrowings from Arabic, such as (''salat''), \"prayer\", and (''imam''), \"prayer leader.\" In languages not directly in contact with the Arab world, Arabic loanwords are often transferred indirectly via other languages rather than being transferred directly from Arabic. For example, most Arabic loanwords in Hindustani and Turkish entered though Persian is an [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian language]]. Older Arabic loanwords in Hausa were borrowed from [[Kanuri language|Kanuri]]. Arabic words also made their way into several West African languages as Islam spread across the Sahara. Variants of Arabic words such as ''kitāb'' (\"book\") have spread to the languages of African groups who had no direct contact with Arab traders. Since throughout the Islamic world, Arabic occupied a position similar to that of Latin in Europe, many of the Arabic concepts in the fields of science, philosophy, commerce, etc. were coined from Arabic roots by non-native Arabic speakers, notably by Aramaic and Persian translators, and then found their way into other languages. This process of using Arabic roots, especially in Kurdish and Persian, to translate foreign concepts continued through to the 18th and 19th centuries, when swaths of Arab-inhabited lands were under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rule]].", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Influence of other languages on Arabic"], "text": "The most important sources of borrowings into (pre-Islamic) Arabic are from the related (Semitic) languages [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], which used to be the principal, international language of communication throughout the ancient Near and Middle East, and [[Ge'ez language|Ethiopic]]. In addition, many cultural, religious and political terms have entered Arabic from [[Iranian languages]], notably [[Middle Persian]], [[Parthian language|Parthian]], and (Classical) Persian, and Hellenistic Greek (''kīmiyāʼ'' has as origin the Greek ''khymia'', meaning in that language the melting of metals; see [[Roger Dachez]], ''Histoire de la Médecine de l'Antiquité au XXe siècle'', Tallandier, 2008, p. 251), ''alembic'' (distiller) from ''ambix'' (cup), ''almanac'' (climate) from ''almenichiakon'' (calendar). (For the origin of the last three borrowed words, see Alfred-Louis de Prémare, ''Foundations of Islam'', Seuil, L'Univers Historique, 2002.) Some Arabic borrowings from Semitic or Persian languages are, as presented in De Prémare's above-cited book: (-) ''madīnah''/[[medina]] (مدينة, city or city square), a word of Aramaic origin (in which it means \"a state\") (-) ''jazīrah'' (جزيرة), as in the well-known form الجزيرة \"Al-Jazeera,\" means \"island\" and has its origin in the Syriac ܓܙܝܪܗ ''gazīra''. (-) ''lāzaward'' (لازورد) is taken from Persian لاژورد ''lājvard'', the name of a blue stone, lapis lazuli. This word was borrowed in several European languages to mean (light) blue – azure in English, ''azur'' in French and ''azul'' in Portuguese and Spanish. A comprehensive overview of the influence of other languages on Arabic is found in Lucas & Manfredi (2020).", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Arabic alphabet and nationalism"], "text": "There have been many instances of national movements to convert Arabic script into Latin script or to Romanize the language. Currently, the only language derived from [[Classical Arabic]] to use Latin script is [[Maltese language|Maltese]].", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Arabic alphabet and nationalism", "Lebanon"], "text": "The Beirut newspaper ''La Syrie'' pushed for the change from Arabic script to Latin letters in 1922. The major head of this movement was [[Louis Massignon]], a French Orientalist, who brought his concern before the Arabic Language Academy in Damascus in 1928. Massignon's attempt at Romanization failed as the Academy and population viewed the proposal as an attempt from the Western world to take over their country. [[Sa'id al-Afghani|Sa'id Afghani]], a member of the Academy, mentioned that the movement to Romanize the script was a [[Zionism|Zionist]] plan to dominate Lebanon.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Arabic alphabet and nationalism", "Egypt"], "text": "After the period of colonialism in Egypt, Egyptians were looking for a way to reclaim and re-emphasize Egyptian culture. As a result, some Egyptians pushed for an Egyptianization of the Arabic language in which the formal Arabic and the colloquial Arabic would be combined into one language and the Latin alphabet would be used. There was also the idea of finding a way to use [[Hieroglyphics]] instead of the Latin alphabet, but this was seen as too complicated to use. A scholar, [[Salama Musa]] agreed with the idea of applying a Latin alphabet to Arabic, as he believed that would allow Egypt to have a closer relationship with the West. He also believed that Latin script was key to the success of Egypt as it would allow for more advances in science and technology. This change in alphabet, he believed, would solve the problems inherent with Arabic, such as a lack of written vowels and difficulties writing foreign words that made it difficult for non-native speakers to learn. Ahmad Lutfi As Sayid and Muhammad Azmi, two Egyptian intellectuals, agreed with Musa and supported the push for Romanization. The idea that Romanization was necessary for modernization and growth in Egypt continued with Abd Al-Aziz Fahmi in 1944. He was the chairman for the Writing and Grammar Committee for the Arabic Language Academy of Cairo. However, this effort failed as the Egyptian people felt a strong cultural tie to the Arabic alphabet. In particular, the older Egyptian generations believed that the Arabic alphabet had strong connections to Arab values and history, due to the long history of the Arabic alphabet (Shrivtiel, 189) in Muslim societies.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["The language of the Quran and its influence on poetry"], "text": "The [[Quran]] introduced a new way of writing to the world. People began studying and applying the unique styles they learned from the Quran to not only their own writing, but also their culture. Writers studied the unique structure and [[Text formatting|format]] of the Quran in order to identify and apply the figurative devices and their impact on the reader.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["The language of the Quran and its influence on poetry", "Quran's figurative devices"], "text": "The Quran inspired musicality in poetry through the internal rhythm of the verses. The arrangement of words, how certain sounds create harmony, and the agreement of rhymes create the sense of rhythm within each verse. At times, the chapters of the Quran only have the rhythm in common. The repetition in the Quran introduced the true power and impact repetition can have in poetry. The repetition of certain words and phrases made them appear more firm and explicit in the Quran. The Quran uses constant metaphors of blindness and deafness to imply unbelief. Metaphors were not a new concept to poetry, however the strength of extended metaphors was. The explicit imagery in the Quran inspired many poets to include and focus on the feature in their own work. The poet [[Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz|ibn al-Mu'tazz]] wrote a book regarding the figures of speech inspired by his study of the Quran. Poets such as badr Shakir al sayyab expresses his political opinion in his work through imagery inspired by the forms of more harsher imagery used in the Quran. The Quran uses figurative devices in order to express the meaning in the most beautiful form possible. The study of the pauses in the Quran as well as other rhetoric allow it to be approached in a multiple ways.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["The language of the Quran and its influence on poetry", "Structure"], "text": "Although the Quran is known for its [[fluency]] and [[harmony]], the structure can be best described as not always being inherently chronological, but can also flow thematically instead (the chapters in the Quran have segments that flow in chronological order, however segments can transition into other segments not related in chronology, but could be related in topic). The [[suras]], also known as chapters of the Quran, are not placed in chronological order. The only constant in their structure is that the longest are placed first and shorter ones follow. The topics discussed in the chapters can also have no direct relation to each other (as seen in many suras) and can share in their sense of [[rhyme]]. The Quran introduces to poetry the idea of abandoning order and scattering narratives throughout the text. Harmony is also present in the sound of the Quran. The elongations and accents present in the Quran create a harmonious flow within the writing. Unique sound of the Quran recited, due to the [[Diacritic|accents]], create a deeper level of understanding through a deeper emotional connection. The Quran is written in a language that is simple and understandable by people. The simplicity of the writing inspired later poets to write in a more clear and clear-cut style. The words of the Quran, although unchanged, are to this day understandable and frequently used in both formal and informal Arabic. The simplicity of the language makes memorizing and reciting the Quran a slightly easier task.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["The language of the Quran and its influence on poetry", "Culture and the Quran"], "text": "The writer [[I'jaz|al-Khattabi]] explains how culture is a required element to create a sense of art in work as well as understand it. He believes that the fluency and harmony which the Quran possess are not the only elements that make it beautiful and create a bond between the reader and the text. While a lot of poetry was deemed comparable to the Quran in that it is equal to or better than the composition of the Quran, a debate rose that such statements are not possible because humans are incapable of composing work comparable to the Quran. Because the structure of the Quran made it difficult for a clear timeline to be seen, [[Hadith]] were the main source of chronological order. The Hadith were passed down from generation to generation and this tradition became a large resource for understanding the context. Poetry after the Quran began possessing this element of [[tradition]] by including ambiguity and background information to be required to understand the meaning. After the Quran came down to the people, the tradition of memorizing the [[Verse (poetry)|verses]] became present. It is believed that the greater the amount of the Quran memorized, the greater the faith. As technology improved over time, hearing [[recitation]] of the Quran became more available as well as more tools to help memorize the verses. The tradition of Love Poetry served as a symbolic representation of a Muslim's desire for a closer contact with their Lord. While the influence of the Quran on Arabic poetry is explained and defended by numerous writers, some writers such as [[Al-Baqillani]] believe that poetry and the Quran are in no conceivable way related due to the [[uniqueness]] of the Quran. Poetry's imperfections prove his points that they cannot be compared with the fluency the Quran holds.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["The language of the Quran and its influence on poetry", "Arabic and Islam"], "text": "Classical Arabic is the language of poetry and literature (including news); it is also mainly the language of the [[Quran]]. Classical Arabic is closely associated with the religion of Islam because the Quran was written in it. Most of the world's Muslims do not speak Classical Arabic as their native language, but many can read the Quranic script and recite the Quran. Among non-Arab Muslims, translations of the Quran are most often accompanied by the original text. At present, Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is also used in modernized versions of literary forms of the Quran. Some Muslims present a [[Proto-Human language|monogenesis]] of languages and claim that the Arabic language was the language revealed by God for the benefit of mankind and the original language as a prototype system of symbolic communication, based upon its system of triconsonantal roots, spoken by man from which all other languages were derived, having first been corrupted. [[Judaism]] has a similar account with the [[Tower of Babel]].", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Dialects and descendants"], "text": "''Colloquial Arabic'' is a collective term for the spoken dialects of Arabic used throughout the [[Arab world]], which differ radically from the [[literary language]]. The main dialectal division is between the varieties within and outside of the [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabian peninsula]], followed by that between [[Varieties of Arabic#Sedentary vs. Bedouin|sedentary]] varieties and the much more conservative [[Bedouin]] varieties. All the varieties outside of the Arabian peninsula (which include the large majority of speakers) have many features in common with each other that are not found in Classical Arabic. This has led researchers to postulate the existence of a prestige [[Koiné language|koine]] dialect in the one or two centuries immediately following the [[Arab conquest]], whose features eventually spread to all newly conquered areas. These features are present to varying degrees inside the Arabian peninsula. Generally, the Arabian peninsula varieties have much more diversity than the non-peninsula varieties, but these have been understudied. Within the non-peninsula varieties, the largest difference is between the non-Egyptian [[Maghrebi Arabic|North African dialects]] (especially [[Moroccan Arabic]]) and the others. Moroccan Arabic in particular is hardly comprehensible to Arabic speakers east of [[Libya]] (although the converse is not true, in part due to the popularity of Egyptian films and other media). One factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas, which have typically provided a significant number of new words and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order; however, a much more significant factor for most dialects is, as among [[Romance languages]], retention (or change of meaning) of different classical forms. Thus [[Iraqi Arabic|Iraqi]] ''aku'', [[Levantine Arabic|Levantine]] ''fīh'' and [[North African Arabic|North African]] ''kayən'' all mean 'there is', and all come from Classical Arabic forms (''yakūn'', ''fīhi'', ''kā'in'' respectively), but now sound very different.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Dialects and descendants", "Examples"], "text": "Transcription is a [[broad transcription|broad IPA transcription]], so minor differences were ignored for easier comparison. Also, the [[Arabic phonology|pronunciation]] of [[Modern Standard Arabic]] differs significantly from region to region.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Dialects and descendants", "Koiné"], "text": "According to [[Charles A. Ferguson]], the following are some of the characteristic features of the [[Koiné language|koiné]] that underlies all the modern dialects outside the Arabian peninsula. Although many other features are common to most or all of these varieties, Ferguson believes that these features in particular are unlikely to have evolved independently more than once or twice and together suggest the existence of the koine: (-) Loss of the [[dual (grammatical number)|dual number]] except on nouns, with consistent plural agreement (cf. feminine singular agreement in plural inanimates). (-) Change of ''a'' to ''i'' in many affixes (e.g., non-past-tense prefixes ''ti- yi- ni-''; ''wi-'' 'and'; ''il-'' 'the'; feminine ''-it'' in the [[construct state]]). (-) Loss of third-weak verbs ending in ''w'' (which merge with verbs ending in ''y''). (-) Reformation of geminate verbs, e.g., '''' 'I untied' → ''''. (-) Conversion of separate words ''lī'' 'to me', ''laka'' 'to you', etc. into indirect-object [[clitic]] suffixes. (-) Certain changes in the [[cardinal number (linguistics)|cardinal number]] system, e.g., '''' 'five days' → '''', where certain words have a special plural with prefixed ''t''. (-) Loss of the feminine [[elative (gradation)|elative]] (comparative). (-) Adjective plurals of the form '''' 'big' → ''''. (-) Change of [[Arabic grammar#Nisba|nisba]] suffix '''' > ''''. (-) Certain [[Lexical item|lexical items]], e.g., '''' 'bring' < '''' 'come with'; '''' 'see'; '''' 'what' (or similar) < '''' 'which thing'; '''' (relative pronoun). (-) Merger of and .", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Dialects and descendants", "Dialect groups"], "text": "(-) [[Egyptian Arabic]] is spoken by around 53 million people in [[Egypt]] (55 million worldwide). It is one of the most understood varieties of Arabic, due in large part to the widespread distribution of Egyptian films and television shows throughout the Arabic-speaking world (-) [[Levantine Arabic]] includes [[North Levantine Arabic]], [[South Levantine Arabic]] and [[Cypriot Arabic]]. It is spoken by about 21 million people in [[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], [[Jordan]], [[State of Palestine|Palestine]], [[Israel]], [[Cyprus]] and [[Turkey]]. (-) [[Lebanese Arabic]] is a [[Varieties of Arabic|variety]] of [[Levantine Arabic]] spoken primarily in [[Lebanon]]. (-) [[Jordanian Arabic]] is a continuum of mutually intelligible varieties of [[Levantine Arabic]] spoken by the population of the [[Kingdom of Jordan]]. (-) [[Palestinian Arabic]] is a name of several dialects of the subgroup of [[Levantine Arabic]] spoken by the Palestinians in [[Palestinian National Authority|Palestine]], by [[Arab citizens of Israel]] and in most Palestinian populations around the world. (-) [[Samaritan alphabet|Samaritan Arabic]], spoken by only several hundred in the [[Nablus]] region (-) [[Cypriot Maronite Arabic]], spoken in [[Cyprus]] (-) [[Maghrebi Arabic]], also called \"Darija\" spoken by about 70 million people in [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]] and [[Libya]]. It also forms the basis of [[Maltese language|Maltese]] via the extinct [[Siculo-Arabic|Sicilian Arabic]] dialect. [[Maghrebi Arabic]] is very hard to understand for Arabic speakers from the [[Mashriq]] or [[Mesopotamia]], the most comprehensible being [[Libyan Arabic]] and the most difficult [[Moroccan Arabic]]. The others such as [[Algerian Arabic]] can be considered in between the two in terms of difficulty. (-) [[Libyan Arabic]] spoken in [[Libya]] and neighboring countries. (-) [[Tunisian Arabic]] spoken in [[Tunisia]] and North-eastern [[Algeria]] (-) [[Algerian Arabic]] spoken in [[Algeria]] (-) [[Judeo-Arabic|Judeo-Algerian Arabic]] was spoken by [[History of the Jews in Algeria|Jews]] in [[Algeria]] until 1962 (-) [[Moroccan Darija|Moroccan Arabic]] spoken in [[Morocco]] (-) [[Hassaniya Arabic]] (3 million speakers), spoken in [[Mauritania]], [[Western Sahara]], some parts of the [[Azawad]] in northern [[Mali]], southern [[Morocco]] and south-western [[Algeria]]. (-) [[Andalusian Arabic]], spoken in [[Spain]] until the 16th century. (-) [[Siculo-Arabic]] ([[Sicilian Arabic]]), was spoken in [[Sicily]] and [[Malta]] between the end of the 9th century and the end of the 12th century and eventually evolved into the [[Maltese language]].", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Dialects and descendants", "Dialect groups"], "text": "(-) [[Maltese language|Maltese]], spoken on the [[Malta|island of Malta]], is the only fully separate standardized language to have originated from an Arabic dialect (the extinct [[Siculo-Arabic]] dialect), with independent literary norms. Maltese has evolved independently of [[Modern Standard Arabic|Literary Arabic]] and its varieties into a standardized language over the past 800 years in a gradual process of [[Romanization of Arabic|Latinisation]]. Maltese is therefore considered an exceptional descendant of Arabic that has no [[diglossia|diglossic]] relationship with [[Standard Arabic]] or [[Classical Arabic]]. Maltese is also different from Arabic and other [[Semitic languages]] since its [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] has been deeply influenced by [[Romance languages]], [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]]. It is also the only Semitic language written in the [[Latin script]]. In terms of basic everyday language, speakers of Maltese are reported to be able to understand less than a third of what is said to them in [[Tunisian Arabic]], which is related to Siculo-Arabic, whereas speakers of Tunisian are able to understand about 40% of what is said to them in Maltese. This [[mutual intelligibility|asymmetric intelligibility]] is considerably lower than the [[mutual intelligibility]] found between Maghrebi Arabic dialects. Maltese has its own dialects, with urban varieties of Maltese being closer to Standard Maltese than rural varieties. (-) [[Mesopotamian Arabic]], spoken by about 32 million people in [[Iraq]] (where it is called \"Aamiyah\"), eastern [[Syria]] and southwestern [[Iran]] ([[Khuzestan Province|Khuzestan]]). (-) [[Baghdad Arabic]] is the Arabic dialect spoken in [[Baghdad]], the capital of Iraq. It is a subvariety of [[Mesopotamian Arabic]]. (-) [[Kuwaiti Arabic]] is a [[Gulf Arabic]] [[dialect]] spoken in [[Kuwait]]. (-) [[Khuzestani Arabic]] spoken in the Iranian province of [[Khuzestan]]. (-) [[Khorasani Arabic]] spoken in the Iranian province of [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]]. (-) [[Sudanese Arabic]] is spoken by 17 million people in [[Sudan]] and some parts of southern [[Egypt]]. Sudanese Arabic is quite distinct from the dialect of its neighbor to the north; rather, the Sudanese have a dialect similar to the Hejazi dialect. (-) [[Juba Arabic]] spoken in [[South Sudan]] and southern [[Sudan]] (-) [[Gulf Arabic]], spoken by around four million people, predominantly in [[Kuwait]], [[Bahrain]], some parts of [[Oman]], eastern [[Saudi Arabia]] coastal areas and some parts of [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]] and [[Qatar]]. Also spoken in [[Iran]]'s [[Bushehr Province|Bushehr]] and [[Hormozgan Province|Hormozgan]] provinces. Although Gulf Arabic is spoken in [[Qatar]], most Qatari citizens speak [[Najdi Arabic]] (Bedawi). (-) [[Omani Arabic]], distinct from the [[Gulf Arabic]] of [[Eastern Arabia]] and [[Bahrain]], spoken in Central [[Oman]]. With recent oil wealth and mobility has spread over other parts of the Sultanate. (-) [[Hadhrami Arabic]], spoken by around 8 million people, predominantly in [[Hadhramaut]], and in parts of the [[Arabian Peninsula]], [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]], and [[East Africa]] by [[Hadhrami people|Hadhrami]] descendants. (-) [[Yemeni Arabic]] spoken in [[Yemen]], and southern [[Saudi Arabia]] by 15 million people. Similar to [[Gulf Arabic]]. (-) [[Najdi Arabic]], spoken by around 10 million people, mainly spoken in [[Najd]], central and northern [[Saudi Arabia]]. Most Qatari citizens speak Najdi Arabic (Bedawi). (-) [[Hejazi Arabic]] (6 million speakers), spoken in [[Hejaz]], western [[Saudi Arabia]]", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Dialects and descendants", "Dialect groups"], "text": "(-) [[Saharan Arabic]] spoken in some parts of [[Algeria]], [[Niger]] and [[Mali]] (-) [[Baharna Arabic]] (600,000 speakers), spoken by [[Bahrani people|Bahrani Shiʻah]] in [[Bahrain]] and [[Qatif]], the dialect exhibits many big differences from [[Gulf Arabic]]. It is also spoken to a lesser extent in [[Oman]]. (-) [[Judeo-Arabic languages|Judeo-Arabic]] dialects – these are the dialects spoken by the [[Jews]] that had lived or continue to live in the [[Arab world|Arab World]]. As Jewish migration to Israel took hold, the language did not thrive and is now considered endangered. So-called [[Qәltu]] Arabic. (-) [[Chadian Arabic]], spoken in [[Chad]], [[Sudan]], some parts of [[South Sudan]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]] (-) [[Central Asian Arabic]], spoken in [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]] and [[Afghanistan]], is highly endangered (-) [[Shirvani Arabic]], spoken in [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Dagestan]] until the 1930s, now extinct.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Phonology", "History"], "text": "Of the 29 Proto-Semitic consonants, only one has been lost: , which merged with , while became (see [[Semitic languages#Phonology|Semitic languages]]). Various other consonants have changed their sound too, but have remained distinct. An original lenited to , and – consistently attested in pre-Islamic Greek transcription of Arabic languages – became palatalized to or by the time of the Quran and , , or after [[early Muslim conquests]] and in MSA (see [[Arabic phonology#Local variations]] for more detail). An original [[voiceless alveolar lateral fricative]] became . Its [[emphatic consonant|emphatic]] counterpart was considered by Arabs to be the most unusual sound in Arabic (Hence the Classical Arabic's appellation '''' or \"language of the ''''\"); for most modern dialects, it has become an emphatic stop with loss of the laterality or with complete loss of any pharyngealization or velarization, . (The classical '''' pronunciation of [[pharyngealization]] still occurs in the [[Mehri language]], and the similar sound without velarization, , exists in other [[Modern South Arabian languages]].) Other changes may also have happened. Classical Arabic pronunciation is not thoroughly recorded and different [[comparative method (linguistics)|reconstructions]] of the sound system of Proto-Semitic propose different phonetic values. One example is the emphatic consonants, which are pharyngealized in modern pronunciations but may have been velarized in the eighth century and glottalized in Proto-Semitic. Reduction of and between vowels occurs in a number of circumstances and is responsible for much of the complexity of third-weak (\"defective\") verbs. Early Akkadian transcriptions of Arabic names shows that this reduction had not yet occurred as of the early part of the 1st millennium BC. The Classical Arabic language as recorded was a poetic [[Koiné|koine]] that reflected a consciously archaizing dialect, chosen based on the tribes of the western part of the [[Arabian Peninsula]], who spoke the most conservative variants of Arabic. Even at the time of Muhammed and before, other dialects existed with many more changes, including the loss of most glottal stops, the loss of case endings, the reduction of the diphthongs and into monophthongs , etc. Most of these changes are present in most or all modern varieties of Arabic. An interesting feature of the writing system of the Quran (and hence of Classical Arabic) is that it contains certain features of Muhammad's native dialect of Mecca, corrected through diacritics into the forms of standard Classical Arabic. Among these features visible under the corrections are the loss of the glottal stop and a differing development of the reduction of certain final sequences containing : Evidently, final became as in the Classical language, but final became a different sound, possibly (rather than again in the Classical language). This is the apparent source of the ''alif maqṣūrah'' 'restricted alif' where a final is reconstructed: a letter that would normally indicate or some similar high-vowel sound, but is taken in this context to be a logical variant of ''alif'' and represent the sound .", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Phonology", "History"], "text": "Although Classical Arabic was a unitary language and is now used in Quran, its pronunciation varies somewhat from country to country and from region to region within a country. It is influenced by [[varieties of Arabic#Phonetics|colloquial dialects]].", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Phonology", "Literary Arabic"], "text": "The \"colloquial\" spoken dialects of Arabic are learned at home and constitute the native languages of Arabic speakers. \"Formal\" [[Modern Standard Arabic|Literary Arabic]] (usually specifically Modern Standard Arabic) is learned at school; although many speakers have a native-like command of the language, it is technically not the native language of any speakers. Both varieties can be both written and spoken, although the colloquial varieties are rarely written down and the formal variety is spoken mostly in formal circumstances, e.g., in radio and TV broadcasts, formal lectures, parliamentary discussions and to some extent between speakers of different colloquial dialects. Even when the literary language is spoken, however, it is normally only spoken in its pure form when reading a prepared text out loud and communication between speakers of different colloquial dialects. When speaking [[extemporaneous]] (i.e. making up the language on the spot, as in a normal discussion among people), speakers tend to deviate somewhat from the strict literary language in the direction of the colloquial varieties. In fact, there is a continuous range of \"in-between\" spoken varieties: from nearly pure Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), to a form that still uses MSA grammar and vocabulary but with significant colloquial influence, to a form of the colloquial language that imports a number of words and grammatical constructions in MSA, to a form that is close to pure colloquial but with the \"rough edges\" (the most noticeably \"vulgar\" or non-Classical aspects) smoothed out, to pure colloquial. The particular variant (or ''[[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]]'') used depends on the social class and education level of the speakers involved and the level of formality of the speech situation. Often it will vary within a single encounter, e.g., moving from nearly pure MSA to a more mixed language in the process of a radio interview, as the interviewee becomes more comfortable with the interviewer. This type of variation is characteristic of the [[diglossia]] that exists throughout the Arabic-speaking world.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Phonology", "Literary Arabic"], "text": "Although Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is a unitary language, its pronunciation varies somewhat from country to country and from region to region within a country. The variation in individual \"accents\" of MSA speakers tends to mirror corresponding variations in the colloquial speech of the speakers in question, but with the distinguishing characteristics moderated somewhat. It is important in descriptions of \"Arabic\" phonology to distinguish between pronunciation of a given colloquial (spoken) dialect and the pronunciation of MSA by these same speakers. Although they are related, they are not the same. For example, the phoneme that derives from Classical Arabic has many different pronunciations in the modern spoken varieties, e.g., including the proposed original . Speakers whose native variety has either or will use the same pronunciation when speaking MSA. Even speakers from Cairo, whose native Egyptian Arabic has , normally use when speaking MSA. The of Persian Gulf speakers is the only variant pronunciation which isn't found in MSA; is used instead, but may use [j] in MSA for comfortable pronunciation. Another reason of different pronunciations is influence of [[varieties of Arabic#Phonetics|colloquial dialects]]. The differentiation of [[varieties of Arabic#phonetics|pronunciation of colloquial dialects]] is the influence from other languages previously spoken and some still presently spoken in the regions, such as [[Coptic language|Coptic]] in Egypt, [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Punic language|Punic]], or [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] in North Africa, [[Himyaritic language|Himyaritic]], [[Modern South Arabian]], and [[Old South Arabian]] in Yemen and Oman, and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] and [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]] languages (including [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]]) in the Levant and Mesopotamia. Another example: Many colloquial varieties are known for a type of [[vowel harmony]] in which the presence of an \"emphatic consonant\" triggers backed [[allophone]] of nearby vowels (especially of the low vowels , which are backed to in these circumstances and very often fronted to in all other circumstances). In many spoken varieties, the backed or \"emphatic\" vowel allophones spread a fair distance in both directions from the triggering consonant; in some varieties (most notably Egyptian Arabic), the \"emphatic\" allophones spread throughout the entire word, usually including prefixes and suffixes, even at a distance of several syllables from the triggering consonant. Speakers of colloquial varieties with this vowel harmony tend to introduce it into their MSA pronunciation as well, but usually with a lesser degree of spreading than in the colloquial varieties. (For example, speakers of colloquial varieties with extremely long-distance harmony may allow a moderate, but not extreme, amount of spreading of the harmonic allophones in their MSA speech, while speakers of colloquial varieties with moderate-distance harmony may only harmonize immediately adjacent vowels in MSA.)", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Phonology", "Literary Arabic", "Vowels"], "text": "Modern Standard Arabic has six pure [[vowel]] (while most modern dialects have eight pure vowels which includes the long vowels ), with short and corresponding long vowels . There are also two [[diphthongs]]: and . The pronunciation of the vowels differs from speaker to speaker, in a way that tends to reflect the pronunciation of the corresponding colloquial variety. Nonetheless, there are some common trends. Most noticeable is the differing pronunciation of and , which tend towards fronted , or in most situations, but a back in the neighborhood of [[emphatic consonant]]. Some accents and dialects, such as those of the [[Hijaz|Hejaz]] region, have an open or a central in all situations. The vowel varies towards too. Listen to the final vowel in the recording of '''' at the beginning of this article, for example. The point is, Arabic has only three short vowel phonemes, so those phonemes can have a very wide range of allophones. The vowels and are often affected somewhat in emphatic neighborhoods as well, with generally more back or centralized [[allophone]], but the differences are less great than for the low vowels. The pronunciation of short and tends towards and , respectively, in many dialects. The definition of both \"emphatic\" and \"neighborhood\" vary in ways that reflect (to some extent) corresponding variations in the spoken dialects. Generally, the consonants triggering \"emphatic\" allophones are the [[pharyngealization|pharyngealized]] consonants ; ; and , if not followed immediately by . Frequently, the [[fricative]] also trigger emphatic allophones; occasionally also the [[pharyngeal consonant]] (the former more than the latter). Many dialects have multiple emphatic allophones of each vowel, depending on the particular nearby consonants. In most MSA accents, emphatic coloring of vowels is limited to vowels immediately adjacent to a triggering consonant, although in some it spreads a bit farther: e.g., '''' 'time'; '''' 'homeland'; '''' 'downtown' (sometimes or similar). In a non-emphatic environment, the vowel in the diphthong tends to be fronted even more than elsewhere, often pronounced or : hence '''' 'sword' but '''' 'summer'. However, in accents with no emphatic allophones of (e.g., in the [[Hijaz|Hejaz]]), the pronunciation or occurs in all situations.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Phonology", "Literary Arabic", "Consonants"], "text": "The phoneme is represented by the Arabic letter '''' () and has many standard pronunciations. is characteristic of north Algeria, Iraq, and most of the Arabian peninsula but with an allophonic in some positions; occurs in most of the [[Levant]] and most of North Africa; and is used in most of Egypt and some regions in Yemen and Oman. Generally this corresponds with the pronunciation in the colloquial dialects. In some regions in Sudan and Yemen, as well as in some Sudanese and Yemeni dialects, it may be either or , representing the original pronunciation of Classical Arabic. Foreign words containing may be transcribed with , , , , , or , mainly depending on the regional spoken variety of Arabic or the commonly diacriticized Arabic letter. In northern Egypt, where the Arabic letter '''' () is normally pronounced , a separate phoneme , which may be transcribed with , occurs in a small number of mostly non-Arabic loanwords, e.g., 'jacket'. () can be pronounced as . In some places of Maghreb it can be also pronounced as . and () are velar, post-velar, or uvular. In many varieties, () are [[epiglottal consonant|epiglottal]] in Western Asia. is pronounced as velarized in الله , the name of God, q.e. Allah, when the word follows ''a'', ''ā'', ''u'' or ''ū'' (after ''i'' or ''ī'' it is unvelarized: ''bismi l–lāh'' ). Some speakers velarize other occurrences of in MSA, in imitation of their spoken dialects. The emphatic consonant was actually pronounced , or possibly —either way, a highly unusual sound. The medieval Arabs actually termed their language '''' 'the language of the [[Ḍād]]' (the name of the letter used for this sound), since they thought the sound was unique to their language. (In fact, it also exists in a few other minority Semitic languages, e.g., Mehri.) Arabic has consonants traditionally termed \"emphatic\" (), which exhibit simultaneous [[pharyngealization]] as well as varying degrees of [[velarization]] (depending on the region), so they may be written with the \"Velarized or pharyngealized\" diacritic () as: . This simultaneous articulation is described as \"Retracted Tongue Root\" by phonologists. In some transcription systems, emphasis is shown by capitalizing the letter, for example, is written ; in others the letter is underlined or has a dot below it, for example, . Vowels and consonants can be phonologically short or long. Long ([[gemination|geminate]]) consonants are normally written doubled in Latin transcription (i.e. bb, dd, etc.), reflecting the presence of the [[Arabic diacritics|Arabic diacritic]] mark '''', which indicates doubled consonants. In actual pronunciation, doubled consonants are held twice as long as short consonants. This consonant lengthening is phonemically contrastive: '''' 'he accepted' vs. '''' 'he kissed'.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Phonology", "Literary Arabic", "Syllable structure"], "text": "Arabic has two kinds of syllables: open syllables (CV) and (CVV)—and closed syllables (CVC), (CVVC) and (CVCC). The syllable types with two [[morae]] (units of time), i.e. CVC and CVV, are termed ''[[heavy syllable]]'', while those with three morae, i.e. CVVC and CVCC, are ''[[superheavy syllable]]''. Superheavy syllables in Classical Arabic occur in only two places: at the end of the sentence (due to [[pausa]] pronunciation) and in words such as '''' 'hot', '''' 'stuff, substance', '''' 'they disputed with each other', where a long '''' occurs before two identical consonants (a former short vowel between the consonants has been lost). (In less formal pronunciations of Modern Standard Arabic, superheavy syllables are common at the end of words or before [[clitic]] suffixes such as '''' 'us, our', due to the deletion of final short vowels.) In surface pronunciation, every vowel must be preceded by a consonant (which may include the [[glottal stop]] ). There are no cases of [[hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]] within a word (where two vowels occur next to each other, without an intervening consonant). Some words do have an underlying vowel at the beginning, such as the definite article ''al-'' or words such as '''' 'he bought', '''' 'meeting'. When actually pronounced, one of three things happens: (-) If the word occurs after another word ending in a consonant, there is a smooth transition from final consonant to initial vowel, e.g., '''' 'meeting' . (-) If the word occurs after another word ending in a vowel, the initial vowel of the word is [[elision|elided]], e.g., '''' 'house of the director' . (-) If the word occurs at the beginning of an utterance, a glottal stop is added onto the beginning, e.g., '''' 'The house is ...' .", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Phonology", "Literary Arabic", "Stress"], "text": "Word stress is not phonemically contrastive in Standard Arabic. It bears a strong relationship to vowel length. The basic rules for Modern Standard Arabic are: (-) A final vowel, long or short, may not be stressed. (-) Only one of the last three syllables may be stressed. (-) Given this restriction, the last [[heavy syllable]] (containing a long vowel or ending in a consonant) is stressed, if it is not the final syllable. (-) If the final syllable is super heavy and closed (of the form CVVC or CVCC) it receives stress. (-) If no syllable is heavy or super heavy, the first possible syllable (i.e. third from end) is stressed. (-) As a special exception, in Form VII and VIII verb forms stress may not be on the first syllable, despite the above rules: Hence '''' 'he subscribed' (whether or not the final short vowel is pronounced), '''' 'he subscribes' (whether or not the final short vowel is pronounced), '''' 'he should subscribe (juss.)'. Likewise Form VIII '''' 'he bought', '''' 'he buys'. Examples:'''' 'book', '''' 'writer', '''' 'desk', '''' 'desks', '''' 'library' (but '''' 'library' in short pronunciation), '''' (Modern Standard Arabic) 'they wrote' = '''' (dialect), '''' (Modern Standard Arabic) 'they wrote it' = '''' (dialect), '''' (Modern Standard Arabic) 'they (dual, fem) wrote', '''' (Modern Standard Arabic) 'I wrote' = '''' (short form or dialect). Doubled consonants count as two consonants: '''' 'magazine', '''' \"place\". These rules may result in differently stressed syllables when final case endings are pronounced, vs. the normal situation where they are not pronounced, as in the above example of '''' 'library' in full pronunciation, but '''' 'library' in short pronunciation. The restriction on final long vowels does not apply to the spoken dialects, where original final long vowels have been shortened and secondary final long vowels have arisen from loss of original final ''-hu/hi''. Some dialects have different stress rules. In the Cairo (Egyptian Arabic) dialect a heavy syllable may not carry stress more than two syllables from the end of a word, hence '''' 'school', '''' 'Cairo'. This also affects the way that Modern Standard Arabic is pronounced in Egypt. In the Arabic of [[Sana'a|Sanaa]], stress is often retracted: '''' 'two houses', '''' 'their table', '''' 'desks', '''' 'sometimes', '''' 'their school'. (In this dialect, only syllables with long vowels or diphthongs are considered heavy; in a two-syllable word, the final syllable can be stressed only if the preceding syllable is light; and in longer words, the final syllable cannot be stressed.)", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Phonology", "Literary Arabic", "Levels of pronunciation"], "text": "The final short vowels (e.g., the case endings ''-a -i -u'' and mood endings ''-u -a'') are often not pronounced in this language, despite forming part of the formal paradigm of nouns and verbs. The following levels of pronunciation exist:", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Phonology", "Literary Arabic", "Levels of pronunciation", "Full pronunciation with pausa"], "text": "This is the most formal level actually used in speech. All endings are pronounced as written, except at the end of an utterance, where the following changes occur: (-) Final short vowels are not pronounced. (But possibly an exception is made for feminine plural ''-na'' and shortened vowels in the jussive/imperative of defective verbs, e.g., ''irmi!'' 'throw!'\".) (-) The entire indefinite noun endings ''-in'' and ''-un'' (with [[nunation]]) are left off. The ending ''-an'' is left off of nouns preceded by a ''[[tāʾ marbūṭah]]'' ة (i.e. the ''-t'' in the ending ''-at-'' that typically marks feminine nouns), but pronounced as ''-ā'' in other nouns (hence its writing in this fashion in the Arabic script). (-) The ''tāʼ marbūṭah'' itself (typically of feminine nouns) is pronounced as ''h''. (At least, this is the case in extremely formal pronunciation, e.g., some Quranic recitations. In practice, this ''h'' is usually omitted.)", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Phonology", "Literary Arabic", "Levels of pronunciation", "Formal short pronunciation"], "text": "This is a formal level of pronunciation sometimes seen. It is somewhat like pronouncing all words as if they were in pausal position (with influence from the [[varieties of Arabic|colloquial varieties]]). The following changes occur: (-) Most final short vowels are not pronounced. However, the following short vowels ''are'' pronounced: (-) feminine plural ''-na'' (-) shortened vowels in the jussive/imperative of defective verbs, e.g., ''irmi!'' 'throw!' (-) second-person singular feminine past-tense ''-ti'' and likewise ''anti'' 'you (fem. sg.)' (-) sometimes, first-person singular past-tense ''-tu'' (-) sometimes, second-person masculine past-tense ''-ta'' and likewise ''anta'' 'you (masc. sg.)' (-) final ''-a'' in certain short words, e.g., ''laysa'' 'is not', ''sawfa'' (future-tense marker) (-) The [[nunation]] endings ''-an -in -un'' are not pronounced. However, they ''are'' pronounced in adverbial accusative formations, e.g., '''' تَقْرِيبًا 'almost, approximately', '''' عَادَةً 'usually'. (-) The ''[[tāʾ marbūṭah]]'' ending ة is unpronounced, ''except'' in [[construct state]] nouns, where it sounds as ''t'' (and in adverbial accusative constructions, e.g., '''' عَادَةً 'usually', where the entire ''-tan'' is pronounced). (-) The masculine singular [[Arabic grammar#Nisba|nisbah]] ending '''' is actually pronounced '''' and is unstressed (but plural and feminine singular forms, i.e. when followed by a suffix, still sound as ''''). (-) ''Full endings'' (including case endings) occur when a [[clitic]] object or [[possessive suffix]] is added (e.g., '''' 'us/our').", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Phonology", "Literary Arabic", "Levels of pronunciation", "Informal short pronunciation"], "text": "This is the pronunciation used by speakers of Modern Standard Arabic in [[extemporaneous]] speech, i.e. when producing new sentences rather than simply reading a prepared text. It is similar to formal short pronunciation except that the rules for dropping final vowels apply ''even'' when a [[clitic]] suffix is added. Basically, short-vowel case and mood endings are never pronounced and certain other changes occur that echo the corresponding colloquial pronunciations. Specifically: (-) All the rules for formal short pronunciation apply, except as follows. (-) The past tense singular endings written formally as ''-tu -ta -ti'' are pronounced ''-t -t -ti''. But masculine '''' is pronounced in full. (-) Unlike in formal short pronunciation, the rules for dropping or modifying final endings are also applied when a [[clitic]] object or possessive suffix is added (e.g., '''' 'us/our'). If this produces a sequence of three consonants, then one of the following happens, depending on the speaker's native colloquial variety: (-) A short vowel (e.g., ''-i-'' or ''-ǝ-'') is consistently added, either between the second and third or the first and second consonants. (-) Or, a short vowel is added only if an otherwise unpronounceable sequence occurs, typically due to a violation of the [[sonority hierarchy]] (e.g., ''-rtn-'' is pronounced as a three-consonant cluster, but ''-trn-'' needs to be broken up). (-) Or, a short vowel is never added, but consonants like ''r l m n'' occurring between two other consonants will be pronounced as a [[syllabic consonant]] (as in the English words \"butter bottle bottom button\"). (-) When a doubled consonant occurs before another consonant (or finally), it is often shortened to a single consonant rather than a vowel added. (However, Moroccan Arabic never shortens doubled consonants or inserts short vowels to break up clusters, instead tolerating arbitrary-length series of arbitrary consonants and hence Moroccan Arabic speakers are likely to follow the same rules in their pronunciation of Modern Standard Arabic.) (-) The clitic suffixes themselves tend also to be changed, in a way that avoids many possible occurrences of three-consonant clusters. In particular, ''-ka -ki -hu'' generally sound as ''-ak -ik -uh''. (-) Final long vowels are often shortened, merging with any short vowels that remain. (-) Depending on the level of formality, the speaker's education level, etc., various grammatical changes may occur in ways that echo the colloquial variants: (-) Any remaining case endings (e.g. masculine plural nominative ''-ūn'' vs. oblique ''-īn'') will be leveled, with the oblique form used everywhere. (However, in words like '''' 'father' and '''' 'brother' with special long-vowel case endings in the [[construct state]], the nominative is used everywhere, hence '''' 'father of', '''' 'brother of'.) (-) Feminine plural endings in verbs and clitic suffixes will often drop out, with the masculine plural endings used instead. If the speaker's native variety has feminine plural endings, they may be preserved, but will often be modified in the direction of the forms used in the speaker's native variety, e.g. ''-an'' instead of ''-na''.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Phonology", "Literary Arabic", "Levels of pronunciation", "Informal short pronunciation"], "text": "(-) Dual endings will often drop out except on nouns and then used only for emphasis (similar to their use in the colloquial varieties); elsewhere, the plural endings are used (or feminine singular, if appropriate).", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Phonology", "Colloquial varieties", "Vowels"], "text": "As mentioned above, many spoken dialects have a process of ''emphasis spreading'', where the \"emphasis\" ([[pharyngealization]]) of [[emphatic consonant]] spreads forward and back through adjacent syllables, pharyngealizing all nearby consonants and triggering the back allophone in all nearby [[low vowel]]. The extent of emphasis spreading varies. For example, in Moroccan Arabic, it spreads as far as the first full vowel (i.e. sound derived from a long vowel or diphthong) on either side; in many Levantine dialects, it spreads indefinitely, but is blocked by any or ; while in Egyptian Arabic, it usually spreads throughout the entire word, including prefixes and suffixes. In Moroccan Arabic, also have emphatic allophones and , respectively. Unstressed short vowels, especially , are deleted in many contexts. Many sporadic examples of short vowel change have occurred (especially → and interchange ↔). Most Levantine dialects merge short /i u/ into in most contexts (all except directly before a single final consonant). In Moroccan Arabic, on the other hand, short triggers [[labialization]] of nearby consonants (especially [[velar consonant]] and [[uvular consonant]]), and then short /a i u/ all merge into , which is deleted in many contexts. (The labialization plus is sometimes interpreted as an underlying phoneme .) This essentially causes the wholesale loss of the short-long vowel distinction, with the original long vowels remaining as half-long , phonemically , which are used to represent ''both'' short and long vowels in borrowings from Literary Arabic. Most spoken dialects have [[monophthongized]] original to in most circumstances, including adjacent to emphatic consonants, while keeping them as the original diphthongs in others e.g. . In most of the [[Moroccan Arabic|Moroccan]], [[Algerian Arabic|Algerian]] and [[Tunisian Arabic|Tunisian]] (except [[Sahel]] and Southeastern) Arabic dialects, they have subsequently merged into original .", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Phonology", "Colloquial varieties", "Consonants"], "text": "In most dialects, there may be more or fewer phonemes than those listed in the chart above. For example, is considered a native phoneme in most Arabic dialects except in Levantine dialects like Syrian or Lebanese where is pronounced and is pronounced . or () is considered a native phoneme in most dialects except in Egyptian and a number of Yemeni and Omani dialects where is pronounced . or and are distinguished in the dialects of Egypt, Sudan, the Levant and the Hejaz, but they have merged as in most dialects of the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq and Tunisia and have merged as in Morocco and Algeria. The usage of non-native and depends on the usage of each speaker but they might be more prevalent in some dialects than others. The Iraqi and Gulf Arabic also has the sound and writes it and with the Persian letters and , as in \"plum\"; \"truffle\". Early in the expansion of Arabic, the separate emphatic phonemes and coalesced into a single phoneme . Many dialects (such as Egyptian, Levantine, and much of the Maghreb) subsequently lost [[fricative]], converting into . Most dialects borrow \"learned\" words from the Standard language using the same pronunciation as for inherited words, but some dialects without interdental fricatives (particularly in Egypt and the Levant) render original in borrowed words as . Another key distinguishing mark of Arabic dialects is how they render the original velar and uvular plosives , (Proto-Semitic ), and : (-) retains its original pronunciation in widely scattered regions such as Yemen, Morocco, and urban areas of the Maghreb. It is pronounced as a [[glottal stop]] in several [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige dialects]], such as those spoken in Cairo, Beirut and Damascus. But it is rendered as a voiced velar plosive in Persian Gulf, Upper Egypt, parts of the Maghreb, and less urban parts of the Levant (e.g. Jordan). In Iraqi Arabic it sometimes retains its original pronunciation and is sometimes rendered as a voiced velar plosive, depending on the word. Some traditionally Christian villages in rural areas of the Levant render the sound as , as do Shiʻi Bahrainis. In some Gulf dialects, it is palatalized to or . It is pronounced as a voiced uvular constrictive in Sudanese Arabic. Many dialects with a modified pronunciation for maintain the pronunciation in certain words (often with religious or educational overtones) borrowed from the Classical language. (-) is pronounced as an affricate in Iraq and much of the Arabian Peninsula but is pronounced in most of North Egypt and parts of Yemen and Oman, in Morocco, Tunisia, and the Levant, and , in most words in much of the Persian Gulf. (-) usually retains its original pronunciation but is palatalized to in many words in Israel and the Palestinian Territories, Iraq, and countries in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula. Often a distinction is made between the suffixes ('you', masc.) and ('you', fem.), which become and , respectively. In Sana'a, Omani, and Bahrani is pronounced .", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Phonology", "Colloquial varieties", "Consonants"], "text": "Pharyngealization of the emphatic consonants tends to weaken in many of the spoken varieties, and to spread from emphatic consonants to nearby sounds. In addition, the \"emphatic\" allophone automatically triggers pharyngealization of adjacent sounds in many dialects. As a result, it may difficult or impossible to determine whether a given [[coronal consonant]] is phonemically emphatic or not, especially in dialects with long-distance emphasis spreading. (A notable exception is the sounds vs. in Moroccan Arabic, because the former is pronounced as an [[affricate]] but the latter is not.)", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Grammar", "Literary Arabic"], "text": "As in other Semitic languages, Arabic has a complex and unusual [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] (i.e. method of constructing words from a basic [[root (linguistics)|root]]). Arabic has a [[nonconcatenative morphology|nonconcatenative]] \"root-and-pattern\" morphology: A root consists of a set of bare consonants (usually [[triliteral|three]]), which are fitted into a discontinuous pattern to form words. For example, the word for 'I wrote' is constructed by combining the root '''''' 'write' with the pattern '''''' 'I Xed' to form '''' 'I wrote'. Other verbs meaning 'I Xed' will typically have the same pattern but with different consonants, e.g. '''' 'I read', '''' 'I ate', '''' 'I went', although other patterns are possible (e.g. '''' 'I drank', '''' 'I said', '''' 'I spoke', where the subpattern used to signal the past tense may change but the suffix '''' is always used). From a single root '''''', numerous words can be formed by applying different patterns: (-) كَتَبْتُ '''' 'I wrote' (-) كَتَّبْتُ '''' 'I had (something) written' (-) كَاتَبْتُ '''' 'I corresponded (with someone)' (-) أَكْتَبْتُ '''' 'I dictated' (-) اِكْتَتَبْتُ '''' 'I subscribed' (-) تَكَاتَبْنَا '''' 'we corresponded with each other' (-) أَكْتُبُ '''' 'I write' (-) أُكَتِّبُ '''' 'I have (something) written' (-) أُكَاتِبُ '''' 'I correspond (with someone)' (-) أُكْتِبُ '''' 'I dictate' (-) أَكْتَتِبُ '''' 'I subscribe' (-) نَتَكَتِبُ '''' 'we correspond each other' (-) كُتِبَ '''' 'it was written' (-) أُكْتِبَ '''' 'it was dictated' (-) مَكْتُوبٌ '''' 'written' (-) مُكْتَبٌ '''' 'dictated' (-) كِتَابٌ '''' 'book' (-) كُتُبٌ '''' 'books' (-) كَاتِبٌ '''' 'writer' (-) كُتَّابٌ '''' 'writers' (-) مَكْتَبٌ '''' 'desk, office' (-) مَكْتَبَةٌ '''' 'library, bookshop' (-) etc.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Grammar", "Literary Arabic", "Nouns and adjectives"], "text": "Nouns in Literary Arabic have three grammatical [[noun case|cases]] ([[nominative case|nominative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], and [[genitive case|genitive]] [also used when the noun is governed by a preposition]); three [[grammatical number|numbers]] (singular, dual and plural); two [[gender (grammar)|genders]] (masculine and feminine); and three \"states\" (indefinite, definite, and [[Status constructus|construct]]). The cases of singular nouns (other than those that end in long ā) are indicated by [[suffix]] short vowels (/-u/ for nominative, /-a/ for accusative, /-i/ for genitive). The feminine singular is often marked by ـَة /-at/, which is pronounced as /-ah/ before a pause. Plural is indicated either through endings (the [[sound plural]]) or internal modification (the [[broken plural]]). Definite nouns include all proper nouns, all nouns in \"construct state\" and all nouns which are [[prefix]] by the definite article اَلْـ /al-/. Indefinite singular nouns (other than those that end in long ā) add a final /-n/ to the case-marking vowels, giving /-un/, /-an/ or /-in/ (which is also referred to as [[nunation]] or [[tanwīn]]). [[Adjective]] in Literary Arabic are marked for case, number, gender and state, as for nouns. However, the plural of all non-human nouns is always combined with a singular feminine adjective, which takes the ـَة /-at/ suffix. [[Pronoun]] in Literary Arabic are marked for person, number and gender. There are two varieties, independent pronouns and [[Enclitic#Enclitic|enclitics]]. Enclitic pronouns are attached to the end of a verb, noun or preposition and indicate verbal and prepositional objects or possession of nouns. The first-person singular pronoun has a different enclitic form used for verbs (ـنِي /-nī/) and for nouns or prepositions (ـِي /-ī/ after consonants, ـيَ /-ya/ after vowels). Nouns, verbs, pronouns and adjectives agree with each other in all respects. However, non-human plural nouns are grammatically considered to be feminine singular. Furthermore, a verb in a verb-initial sentence is marked as singular regardless of its semantic number when the subject of the verb is explicitly mentioned as a noun. Numerals between three and ten show \"chiasmic\" agreement, in that grammatically masculine numerals have feminine marking and vice versa.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Grammar", "Literary Arabic", "Verbs"], "text": "Verbs in Literary Arabic are marked for person (first, second, or third), gender, and number. They are [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugated]] in two major paradigms ([[past]] and [[non-past]]); two [[grammatical voice|voices]] (active and passive); and six [[grammatical mood|moods]] ([[indicative]], [[imperative mood|imperative]], [[subjunctive]], [[Irrealis mood#Jussive|jussive]], shorter [[energetic mood|energetic]] and longer energetic), the fifth and sixth moods, the energetics, exist only in Classical Arabic but not in MSA. There are also two [[participle]] (active and passive) and a [[verbal noun]], but no [[infinitive]]. The past and non-past paradigms are sometimes also termed [[perfective]] and [[imperfective]], indicating the fact that they actually represent a combination of [[Grammatical tense|tense]] and [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]]. The moods other than the [[indicative]] occur only in the non-past, and the [[future tense]] is signaled by prefixing سَـ '''' or سَوْفَ '''' onto the non-past. The past and non-past differ in the form of the stem (e.g., past كَتَبـ'''' vs. non-past ـكْتُبـ ''''), and also use completely different sets of affixes for indicating person, number and gender: In the past, the person, number and gender are fused into a single [[suffix]] morpheme, while in the non-past, a combination of [[prefix]] (primarily encoding person) and suffixes (primarily encoding gender and number) are used. The passive voice uses the same person/number/gender affixes but changes the vowels of the stem. The following shows a paradigm of a regular Arabic verb, كَتَبَ '''' 'to write'. In Modern Standard, the energetic mood (in either long or short form, which have the same meaning) is almost never used.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Grammar", "Literary Arabic", "Derivation"], "text": "Like other [[Semitic languages]], and unlike most other languages, Arabic makes much more use of [[nonconcatenative morphology]] (applying many templates applied roots) to [[Morphological derivation|derive]] words than adding prefixes or suffixes to words. For verbs, a given root can occur in many different [[Derived stem|derived verb stems]] (of which there are about fifteen), each with one or more characteristic meanings and each with its own templates for the past and non-past stems, active and passive participles, and verbal noun. These are referred to by Western scholars as \"Form I\", \"Form II\", and so on through \"Form XV\" (although Forms XI to XV are rare). These stems encode grammatical functions such as the [[causative]], [[intensive]] and [[reflexive verb|reflexive]]. Stems sharing the same root consonants represent separate verbs, albeit often semantically related, and each is the basis for its own [[Verb conjugation|conjugational]] paradigm. As a result, these derived stems are part of the system of [[derivational morphology]], not part of the [[inflection]] system. Examples of the different verbs formed from the root كتب '''' 'write' (using حمر '''' 'red' for Form IX, which is limited to colors and physical defects): Form II is sometimes used to create transitive [[denominative verb]] (verbs built from nouns); Form V is the equivalent used for intransitive denominatives. The associated participles and verbal nouns of a verb are the primary means of forming new lexical nouns in Arabic. This is similar to the process by which, for example, the [[English gerund]] \"meeting\" (similar to a verbal noun) has turned into a noun referring to a particular type of social, often work-related event where people gather together to have a \"discussion\" (another lexicalized verbal noun). Another fairly common means of forming nouns is through one of a limited number of patterns that can be applied directly to roots, such as the \"nouns of location\" in ''ma-'' (e.g. '''' 'desk, office' < '''' 'write', '''' 'kitchen' < '''' 'cook'). The only three genuine suffixes are as follows: (-) The feminine suffix ''-ah''; variously derives terms for women from related terms for men, or more generally terms along the same lines as the corresponding masculine, e.g. '''' 'library' (also a writing-related place, but different from '''', as above). (-) The [[Arabic grammar#Nisba|nisbah]] suffix ''-iyy-''. This suffix is extremely productive, and forms adjectives meaning \"related to X\". It corresponds to English adjectives in ''-ic, -al, -an, -y, -ist'', etc. (-) The feminine [[Arabic grammar#Nisba|nisbah]] suffix ''-iyyah''. This is formed by adding the feminine suffix ''-ah'' onto nisba adjectives to form abstract nouns. For example, from the basic root '''' 'share' can be derived the Form VIII verb '''' 'to cooperate, participate', and in turn its verbal noun '''' 'cooperation, participation' can be formed. This in turn can be made into a nisbah adjective '''' 'socialist', from which an abstract noun '''' 'socialism' can be derived. Other recent formations are '''' 'republic' (lit. \"public-ness\", < '''' 'multitude, general public'), and the [[Gaddafi]]-specific variation '''' 'people's republic' (lit. \"masses-ness\", < '''' 'the masses', pl. of '''', as above).", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Grammar", "Colloquial varieties"], "text": "The spoken dialects have lost the case distinctions and make only limited use of the dual (it occurs only on nouns and its use is no longer required in all circumstances). They have lost the mood distinctions other than imperative, but many have since gained new moods through the use of prefixes (most often /bi-/ for indicative vs. unmarked subjunctive). They have also mostly lost the indefinite \"nunation\" and the internal passive. The following is an example of a regular verb paradigm in Egyptian Arabic.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Writing system"], "text": "The Arabic alphabet derives from the Aramaic through [[Nabatean alphabet|Nabatean]], to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]] or [[Cyrillic script]] to [[Greek alphabet|Greek script]]. Traditionally, there were several differences between the Western (North African) and Middle Eastern versions of the alphabet—in particular, the ''faʼ'' had a dot underneath and ''qaf'' a single dot above in the Maghreb, and the order of the letters was slightly different (at least when they were used as numerals). However, the old Maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the Maghreb itself, and remains in use mainly in the Quranic schools ([[zaouia]]) of West Africa. Arabic, like all other Semitic languages (except for the Latin-written Maltese, and the languages with the [[Ge'ez script]]), is written from right to left. There are several styles of scripts such as thuluth, muhaqqaq, tawqi, rayhan and notably [[Naskh (script)|naskh]], which is used in print and by computers, and [[Ruq'ah|ruqʻah]], which is commonly used for correspondence. Originally Arabic was made up of only ''rasm'' without diacritical marks Later diacritical points (which in Arabic are referred to as ''nuqaṯ'') were added (which allowed readers to distinguish between letters such as b, t, th, n and y). Finally signs known as ''[[Arabic diacritics#Tashkil (marks used as phonetic guides)|Tashkil]]'' were used for short vowels known as ''[[Arabic diacritics#Harakat (short vowel marks)|harakat]]'' and other uses such as final postnasalized or long vowels.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Writing system", "Calligraphy"], "text": "After [[Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi]] finally fixed the Arabic script around 786, many styles were developed, both for the writing down of the Quran and other books, and for inscriptions on monuments as decoration. Arabic calligraphy has not fallen out of use as calligraphy has in the Western world, and is still considered by [[Arabs]] as a major art form; calligraphers are held in great esteem. Being cursive by nature, unlike the Latin script, Arabic script is used to write down a [[ayah|verse]] of the Quran, a [[hadith]], or simply a [[proverb]]. The composition is often abstract, but sometimes the writing is shaped into an actual form such as that of an animal. One of the current masters of the genre is [[Hassan Massoudy]]. In modern times the intrinsically calligraphic nature of the written Arabic form is haunted by the thought that a typographic approach to the language, necessary for digitized unification, will not always accurately maintain meanings conveyed through calligraphy.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Writing system", "Romanization"], "text": "There are a number of different standards for the [[romanization of Arabic]], i.e. methods of accurately and efficiently representing Arabic with the Latin script. There are various conflicting motivations involved, which leads to multiple systems. Some are interested in [[transliteration]], i.e. representing the ''spelling'' of Arabic, while others focus on [[Phonetic transcription|transcription]], i.e. representing the ''pronunciation'' of Arabic. (They differ in that, for example, the same letter is used to represent both a consonant, as in \"'''y'''ou\" or \"'''y'''et\", and a vowel, as in \"m'''e'''\" or \"'''ea'''t\".) Some systems, e.g. for scholarly use, are intended to accurately and unambiguously represent the phonemes of Arabic, generally making the phonetics more explicit than the original word in the Arabic script. These systems are heavily reliant on [[diacritic]] marks such as \"š\" for the sound equivalently written ''sh'' in English. Other systems (e.g. the [[Bahá'í orthography]]) are intended to help readers who are neither Arabic speakers nor linguists with intuitive pronunciation of Arabic names and phrases. These less \"scientific\" systems tend to avoid [[diacritics]] and use [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] (like ''sh'' and ''kh''). These are usually simpler to read, but sacrifice the definiteness of the scientific systems, and may lead to ambiguities, e.g. whether to interpret ''sh'' as a single sound, as in ''gash'', or a combination of two sounds, as in ''gashouse''. The [[ALA-LC]] romanization solves this problem by separating the two sounds with a [[Prime (symbol)|prime]] symbol ( ′ ); e.g., ''as′hal'' 'easier'. During the last few decades and especially since the 1990s, Western-invented text communication technologies have become prevalent in the Arab world, such as [[personal computer]], the [[World Wide Web]], [[email]], [[bulletin board system]], [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]], [[instant messaging]] and [[mobile phone text messaging]]. Most of these technologies originally had the ability to communicate using the Latin script only, and some of them still do not have the Arabic script as an optional feature. As a result, Arabic speaking users communicated in these technologies by transliterating the Arabic text using the Latin script, sometimes known as IM Arabic. To handle those Arabic letters that cannot be accurately represented using the Latin script, numerals and other characters were appropriated. For example, the numeral \"3\" may be used to represent the Arabic letter . There is no universal name for this type of transliteration, but some have named it [[Arabic Chat Alphabet]]. Other systems of transliteration exist, such as using dots or capitalization to represent the \"emphatic\" counterparts of certain consonants. For instance, using capitalization, the letter , may be represented by '''d'''. Its emphatic counterpart, , may be written as '''D'''.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Writing system", "Numerals"], "text": "In most of present-day North Africa, the [[Western Arabic numerals]] (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) are used. However, in Egypt and Arabic-speaking countries to the east of it, the [[Eastern Arabic numerals]] ( – – – – – – – – – ) are in use. When representing a number in Arabic, the lowest-valued [[positional notation|position]] is placed on the right, so the order of positions is the same as in left-to-right scripts. Sequences of digits such as telephone numbers are read from left to right, but numbers are spoken in the traditional Arabic fashion, with units and tens reversed from the modern English usage. For example, 24 is said \"four and twenty\" just like in the German language (''vierundzwanzig'') and [[Classical Hebrew]], and 1975 is said \"a thousand and nine-hundred and five and seventy\" or, more eloquently, \"a thousand and nine-hundred five seventy\"", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Language-standards regulators"], "text": "[[Academy of the Arabic Language (disambiguation)|Academy of the Arabic Language]] is the name of a number of language-regulation bodies formed in the Arab League. The most active are in [[Academy of the Arabic Language in Damascus|Damascus]] and Cairo. They review language development, monitor new words and approve inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["As a foreign language"], "text": "Arabic has been taught worldwide in many [[elementary school|elementary]] and [[secondary school|secondary]] schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around the world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their [[Foreign Languages|foreign languages]], [[Middle Eastern studies]], and [[religious studies]] courses. [[Arabic language school]] exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic [[language school]] in the Arab world and other [[Muslim world|Muslim]] countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all [[Glossary of Islam|Islamic terms]] are in Arabic, millions of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study the language. Software and books with tapes are also important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations. A number of websites on the [[Internet]] provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries.", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": ["Status in the Arab world vs. other languages"], "text": "With the sole example of Medieval linguist [[Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati]] – who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab – Medieval scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior. In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. [[Yasir Suleiman]] wrote in 2011 that \"studying and knowing English or French in most of the Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and ... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code-switching practises.\"", "id": "803", "title": "Arabic", "categories": ["Arabic language", "Languages attested from the 9th century BC", "Articles containing video clips", "Central Semitic languages", "Fusional languages", "Languages of Algeria", "Languages of Bahrain", "Languages of Cameroon", "Languages of Chad", "Languages of the Comoros", "Languages of Djibouti", "Languages of Eritrea", "Languages of Gibraltar", "Languages of Israel", "Languages of Iran", "Languages of Iraq", "Languages of Jordan", "Languages of Kurdistan", "Languages of Kuwait", "Languages of Lebanon", "Languages of Libya", "Languages of Mali", "Languages of Mauritania", "Languages of Morocco", "Languages of Niger", "Languages of Oman", "Languages of the State of Palestine", "Languages of Qatar", "Languages of Saudi Arabia", "Languages of Senegal", "Languages of South Sudan", "Languages of Sicily", "Languages of Somalia", "Languages of Sudan", "Languages of Syria", "Languages of the United Arab Emirates", "Languages of Tunisia", "Languages of Yemen", "Stress-timed languages", "Subject–verb–object languages", "Verb–subject–object languages"], "seealso": ["List of Arabic given names", "Arabist", "List of Arabic-language television channels", "List of French words of Arabic origin", "Arabic Ontology", "Arabic literature", "International Association of Arabic Dialectology", "Arabic influence on the Spanish language", "List of Arab newspapers", "Arabic diglossia", "List of arabophones", "List of countries where Arabic is an official language", "Glossary of Islam", "Arabic–English Lexicon", "Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "List of replaced loanwords in Turkish"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock''' (13 August 1899 – 29 April 1980) was an English film director, producer, and screenwriter. He is one of the most influential and widely studied filmmakers in the history of cinema. Known as the \"'''Master of Suspense'''\", he directed over 50 feature films in a career spanning six decades, becoming as well known as any of his actors thanks to his many interviews, his [[List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances|cameo roles]] in most of his films, and his hosting and producing the television anthology ''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'' (1955–65). His films garnered 46 [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]] nominations including six wins, although he never won for [[Academy Award for Best Director|Best Director]] despite having had five nominations. Born in [[Leytonstone]], London, Hitchcock entered the film industry in 1919 as a [[Intertitle|title card]] designer after training as a technical clerk and copy writer for a telegraph-cable company. He made his directorial debut with the British-German silent film ''[[The Pleasure Garden (1925 film)|The Pleasure Garden]]'' (1925). His first successful film, ''[[The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog]]'' (1927), helped to shape the [[Thriller film|thriller]] genre, while his 1929 film, ''[[Blackmail (1929 film)|Blackmail]]'', was the first British \"[[Sound film#Transition: Europe|talkie]]\". Two of his 1930s thrillers, ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)|The 39 Steps]]'' (1935) and ''[[The Lady Vanishes]]'' (1938), are ranked among the [[BFI Top 100 British films|greatest British films]] of the 20th century. By 1939, Hitchcock was a filmmaker of international importance, and film producer [[David O. Selznick]] persuaded him to move to Hollywood. A string of successful films followed, including ''[[Rebecca (1940 film)|Rebecca]]'' (1940), ''[[Foreign Correspondent (film)|Foreign Correspondent]]'' (1940), ''[[Suspicion (1941 film)|Suspicion]]'' (1941), ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'' (1943), and ''[[Notorious (1946 film)|Notorious]]'' (1946). ''Rebecca'' won the [[Academy Award for Best Picture#1940s|Academy Award for Best Picture]], although Hitchcock himself was only nominated as [[Academy Award for Best Director|Best Director]]; he was also nominated for ''[[Lifeboat (1944 film)|Lifeboat]]'' (1944) and ''[[Spellbound (1945 film)|Spellbound]]'' (1945). The \"[[Hitchcockian]]\" style includes the use of camera movement to mimic a person's gaze, thereby turning viewers into [[voyeurism|voyeurs]], and framing [[Shot (filmmaking)|shots]] to maximise anxiety and fear. The film critic [[Robin Wood (critic)|Robin Wood]] wrote that the meaning of a Hitchcock film \"is there in the method, in the progression from shot to shot. A Hitchcock film is an organism, with the whole implied in every detail and every detail related to the whole.\" Hitchcock made multiple films with some of the biggest stars of Hollywood, including four with [[Cary Grant]] in the 1940s and 50s, three with [[Ingrid Bergman]] in the last half of the 1940s, four with [[James Stewart]] over a ten-year span commencing in 1948, and three with [[Grace Kelly]] in the mid-1950s.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "After a brief lull of commercial success in the late 1940s, Hitchcock returned to form with ''[[Strangers on a Train (film)|Strangers on a Train]]'' (1951) and ''[[Dial M For Murder]]'' (1954). Between 1954 and 1960, Hitchcock directed four films [[List of films considered the best|often ranked]] among the greatest of all time: ''[[Rear Window]]'' (1954), ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' (1958), ''[[North by Northwest]]'' (1959), and ''[[Psycho (1960 film)|Psycho]]'' (1960), the first and last of these garnering him Best Director nominations. In 2012, his psychological thriller ''Vertigo'', starring Stewart, displaced [[Orson Welles]]' ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' (1941) as the [[British Film Institute]]'s greatest film ever made based on its world-wide poll of hundreds of film critics. By 2018 eight of his films had been selected for preservation in the United States [[National Film Registry]], including ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963) and his personal favourite, ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'' (1943). He received the [[BAFTA Fellowship]] in 1971, the [[AFI Life Achievement Award]] in 1979 and was [[Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire|knighted]] in December that year, four months before he died.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Early life: 1899–1919", "Early childhood and education"], "text": "Hitchcock was born on 13 August 1899 in the flat above his parents' leased grocer's shop at 517 High Road, [[Leytonstone]], on the outskirts of [[east London]] (then part of [[Essex]]), the youngest of three children: William Daniel (1890–1943), Ellen Kathleen (\"Nellie\") (1892–1979), and Alfred Joseph (1899-1980). His parents, Emma Jane Hitchcock ('''' Whelan; 1863–1942), and William Edgar Hitchcock (1862–1914), were both [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]], with partial roots in Ireland; William was a greengrocer as his father had been. There was a large extended family, including Uncle John Hitchcock with his five-bedroom Victorian house on Campion Road, [[Putney]], complete with maid, cook, chauffeur and gardener. Every summer John rented a seaside house for the family in [[Cliftonville]], Kent. Hitchcock said that he first became class-conscious there, noticing the differences between tourists and locals. Describing himself as a well-behaved boy—his father called him his \"little lamb without a spot\"—Hitchcock said he could not remember ever having had a playmate. One of his favourite stories for interviewers was about his father sending him to the local police station with a note when he was five; the policeman looked at the note and locked him in a cell for a few minutes, saying, \"This is what we do to naughty boys.\" The experience left him, he said, with a lifelong fear of policemen; in 1973 he told [[Tom Snyder]] that he was \"scared stiff of anything ... to do with the law\" and wouldn't even drive a car in case he got a parking ticket. When he was six, the family moved to [[Limehouse]] and leased two stores at 130 and 175 Salmon Lane, which they ran as a [[fish and chips|fish-and-chips]] shop and fishmongers' respectively; they lived above the former. Hitchcock attended his first school, the Howrah House Convent in [[Poplar, London|Poplar]], which he entered in 1907, at age 7. According to biographer [[Patrick McGilligan (biographer)|Patrick McGilligan]], he stayed at Howrah House for at most two years. He also attended a convent school, the Wode Street School \"for the daughters of gentlemen and little boys\", run by the [[Faithful Companions of Jesus]]. He then attended a primary school near his home and was for a short time a boarder at [[Salesian College, Battersea|Salesian College]] in [[Battersea]]. The family moved again when he was 11, this time to [[Stepney]], and on 5 October 1910 Hitchcock was sent to [[St Ignatius' College|St Ignatius College]] in Stamford Hill, Tottenham (now in the London Borough of [[London Borough of Haringey|Haringey]]), a [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] grammar school with a reputation for discipline. The priests used a hard rubber cane on the boys, always at the end of the day, so the boys had to sit through classes anticipating the punishment if they had been written up for it. He later said that this is where he developed his sense of fear. The school register lists his year of birth as 1900 rather than 1899; biographer [[Donald Spoto]] says he was deliberately enrolled as a 10-year-old because he was a year behind with his schooling.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Early life: 1899–1919", "Early childhood and education"], "text": "While biographer Gene Adair reports that Hitchcock was \"an average, or slightly above-average, pupil\", Hitchcock said that he was \"usually among the four or five at the top of the class\"; at the end of his first year, his work in Latin, English, French and [[religious education]] was noted. His favourite subject was [[geography]], and he became interested in maps, and railway and bus timetables; according to [[John Russell Taylor]], he could recite all the stops on the [[Orient Express]]. He told [[Peter Bogdanovich]]: \"The Jesuits taught me organization, control and, to some degree, analysis.\"", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Early life: 1899–1919", "Henley's"], "text": "Hitchcock told his parents that he wanted to be an engineer, and on 25 July 1913, he left St Ignatius and enrolled in night classes at the London County Council School of Engineering and Navigation in Poplar. In a [[Hitchcock/Truffaut|book-length interview]] in 1962, he told [[François Truffaut]] that he had studied \"mechanics, electricity, acoustics, and navigation\". Then on 12 December 1914 his father, who had been suffering from [[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|emphysema]] and kidney disease, died at the age of 52. To support himself and his mother—his older siblings had left home by then—Hitchcock took a job, for 15 [[Shilling (British coin)|shillings]] a week (£ in 2017), as a technical clerk at the [[William Thomas Henley|Henley Telegraph and Cable Company]] in Blomfield Street near [[London Wall]]. He continued night classes, this time in art history, painting, economics, and political science. His older brother ran the family shops, while he and his mother continued to live in Salmon Lane. Hitchcock was too young to enlist when the [[First World War]] started in July 1914, and when he reached the required age of 18 in 1917, he received a C3 classification (\"free from serious organic disease, able to stand service conditions in garrisons at home ... only suitable for sedentary work\"). He joined a cadet regiment of the [[Royal Engineers]] and took part in theoretical briefings, weekend drills, and exercises. John Russell Taylor wrote that, in one session of practical exercises in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]], Hitchcock was required to wear [[puttees]]. He could never master wrapping them around his legs, and they repeatedly fell down around his ankles. After the war, Hitchcock took an interest in creative writing. In June 1919 he became a founding editor and business manager of Henley's in-house publication, ''The Henley Telegraph'' (sixpence a copy), to which he submitted several short stories. Henley's promoted him to the advertising department, where he wrote copy and drew graphics for advertisements for electric cable. He enjoyed the job and would stay late at the office to examine the proofs; he told Truffaut that this was his \"first step toward cinema\". He enjoyed watching films, especially American cinema, and from the age of 16 read the trade papers; he watched [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[D. W. Griffith]] and [[Buster Keaton]], and particularly liked [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Destiny (1921 film)|Der müde Tod]]'' (1921).", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Inter-war career: 1919–1939", "Famous Players-Lasky"], "text": "While still at Henley's, he read in a trade paper that [[Famous Players-Lasky]], the production arm of [[Paramount Pictures]], was opening a studio in London. They were planning to film ''[[The Sorrows of Satan]]'' by [[Marie Corelli]], so he produced some drawings for the [[Intertitle|title cards]] and sent his work to the studio. They hired him, and in 1919 he began working for [[Islington Studios]] in Poole Street, [[Hoxton]], as a title-card designer. Donald Spoto wrote that most of the staff were Americans with strict job specifications, but the English workers were encouraged to try their hand at anything, which meant that Hitchcock gained experience as a co-writer, art director and production manager on at least 18 silent films. ''The Times'' wrote in February 1922 about the studio's \"special art title department under the supervision of Mr. A. J. Hitchcock\". His work included ''[[Number 13 (film)|Number 13]]'' (1922), also known as ''Mrs. Peabody;'' it was cancelled because of financial problems—the few finished scenes are [[Lost film|lost]]—and ''[[Always Tell Your Wife]]'' (1923), which he and [[Seymour Hicks]] finished together when Hicks was about to give up on it. Hicks wrote later about being helped by \"a fat youth who was in charge of the property room ... [n]one other than Alfred Hitchcock\".", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Inter-war career: 1919–1939", "Gainsborough Pictures and work in Germany"], "text": "When Paramount pulled out of London in 1922, Hitchcock was hired as an assistant director by a new firm run in the same location by [[Michael Balcon]], later known as [[Gainsborough Pictures]]. Hitchcock worked on ''[[Woman to Woman (1923 film)|Woman to Woman]]'' (1923) with the director [[Graham Cutts]], designing the set, writing the script and producing. He said: \"It was the first film that I had really got my hands onto.\" The editor and \"script girl\" on ''Woman to Woman'' was [[Alma Reville]], his future wife. He also worked as an assistant to Cutts on ''[[The White Shadow (film)|The White Shadow]]'' (1924), ''[[The Passionate Adventure]]'' (1924), ''[[The Blackguard]]'' (1925), and ''[[The Prude's Fall]]'' (1925). ''The Blackguard'' was produced at the [[Babelsberg Studios]] in Potsdam, where Hitchcock watched part of the making of [[F. W. Murnau]]'s film ''[[The Last Laugh (1924 film)|The Last Laugh]]'' (1924). He was impressed with Murnau's work and later used many of his techniques for the set design in his own productions. In the summer of 1925, Balcon asked Hitchcock to direct ''[[The Pleasure Garden (1925 film)|The Pleasure Garden]]'' (1925), starring [[Virginia Valli]], a co-production of Gainsborough and the German firm [[Emelka]] at the [[Bavaria Studios|Geiselgasteig studio]] near Munich. Reville, by then Hitchcock's fiancée, was assistant director-editor. Although the film was a commercial flop, Balcon liked Hitchcock's work; a ''Daily Express'' headline called him the \"Young man with a master mind\". Production of ''The Pleasure Garden'' encountered obstacles which Hitchcock would later learn from: on arrival to [[Brenner Pass]], he failed to declare his [[film stock]] to customs and it was confiscated; one actress could not enter the water for a scene because she was on her [[Menstrual cycle|period]]; budget overruns meant that he had to borrow money from the actors. Hitchcock also needed a translator to give instructions to the cast and crew. In Germany, Hitchcock observed the nuances of [[Cinema of Germany|German cinema]] and filmmaking which had a big influence on him. When he was not working, he would visit Berlin's art galleries, concerts and museums. He would also meet with actors, writers, and producers to build connections. Balcon asked him to direct a second film in Munich, ''[[The Mountain Eagle]]'' (1926), based on an original story titled ''Fear o' God''. The film is lost, and Hitchcock called it \"a very bad movie\". A year later, Hitchcock wrote and directed ''[[The Ring (1927 film)|The Ring]]''; although the screenplay was credited solely to his name, [[Eliot Stannard|Elliot Stannard]] assisted him with the writing. ''The Ring'' garnered positive reviews; the ''Bioscope'' magazine critic called it \"the most magnificent British film ever made\". When he returned to England, Hitchcock was one of the early members of the London Film Society, newly formed in 1925. Through the Society, he became fascinated by the work by Soviet filmmakers: [[Dziga Vertov]], [[Lev Kuleshov]], [[Sergei Eisenstein]], and [[Vsevolod Pudovkin]]. He would also socialise with fellow English filmmakers [[Ivor Montagu]] and [[Adrian Brunel]], and [[Walter C. Mycroft]].", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Inter-war career: 1919–1939", "Gainsborough Pictures and work in Germany"], "text": "Hitchcock's luck came with his first thriller, ''[[The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog]]'' (1927), about the hunt for a serial killer, wearing a black cloak and carrying a black bag, is murdering young blonde women in London, and only on Tuesdays. A landlady suspects that her lodger is the killer, but he turns out to be innocent. To convey the impression footsteps were being heard from an upper floor, Hitchcock had a glass floor made so that the viewer could see the lodger pacing up and down in his room above the landlady. Hitchcock had wanted the leading man to be guilty, or for the film at least to end ambiguously, but the star was [[Ivor Novello]], a [[matinée idol]], and the \"[[star system (filmmaking)|star system]]\" meant that Novello could not be the villain. Hitchcock told Truffaut: \"You have to clearly spell it out in big letters: 'He is innocent.'\" (He had the same problem years later with [[Cary Grant]] in ''[[#Suspicion|Suspicion]]'' (1941).) Released in January 1927, ''The Lodger'' was a commercial and critical success in the UK. Hitchcock told Truffaut that the film was the first of his to be influenced by [[German Expressionism]]: \"In truth, you might almost say that ''The Lodger'' was my first picture.\" He made his first [[Cameo appearance|cameo]] appearances in the film; he was depicted sitting in a newsroom, and in the second, standing in a crowd as the leading man is arrested.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Inter-war career: 1919–1939", "Marriage"], "text": "On 2 December 1926, Hitchcock married the English-American screenwriter [[Alma Reville]] (1899–1982) at the [[Church of the Immaculate Heart of Mary|Brompton Oratory]] in [[South Kensington]]. The couple honeymooned in Paris, [[Lake Como]] and St. Moritz, before returning to London to live in a leased flat on the top two floors of 153 [[Cromwell Road]], Kensington. Reville, who was born just hours after Hitchcock, converted from Protestantism to Catholicism, apparently at the insistence of Hitchcock's mother; she was baptised on 31 May 1927 and confirmed at [[Westminster Cathedral]] by Cardinal [[Francis Bourne]] on 5 June. In 1928, when they learned that Reville was pregnant, the Hitchcocks purchased \"Winter's Grace\", a [[Tudor architecture|Tudor]] farmhouse set in 11 acres on Stroud Lane, [[Wonersh#Shamley Green|Shamley Green]], Surrey, for £2,500. Their daughter and only child, [[Patricia Hitchcock|Patricia Alma Hitchcock]], was born on 7 July that year. Reville became her husband's closest collaborator; [[Charles Champlin]] wrote in 1982: \"The Hitchcock touch had four hands, and two were Alma's.\" When Hitchcock accepted the [[AFI Life Achievement Award]] in 1979, he said that he wanted to mention \"four people who have given me the most affection, appreciation and encouragement, and constant collaboration. The first of the four is a film editor, the second is a scriptwriter, the third is the mother of my daughter, Pat, and the fourth is as fine a cook as ever performed miracles in a domestic kitchen. And their names are Alma Reville.\" Reville wrote or co-wrote on many of Hitchcock's films, including ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'', [[Suspicion (1941 film)|''Suspicion'']] and [[The 39 Steps (1935 film)|''The 39 Steps'']].", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Inter-war career: 1919–1939", "Early sound films"], "text": "Hitchcock began work on his tenth film, ''[[Blackmail (1929 film)|Blackmail]]'' (1929), when its production company, [[Associated British Picture Corporation|British International Pictures]] (BIP), converted its [[Elstree Studios (Shenley Road)|Elstree studios]] to [[Sound film|sound]]. The film was the first British \"[[Sound film#Transition: Europe|talkie]]\"; this followed the rapid development of sound films in the United States, from the use of brief sound segments in ''[[The Jazz Singer]]'' (1927) to the first full sound feature ''[[The Lights of New York]]'' (1928). ''Blackmail'' began the Hitchcock tradition of using famous landmarks as a backdrop for suspense sequences, with the climax taking place on the dome of the [[British Museum]]. It also features one of his longest cameo appearances, which shows him being bothered by a small boy as he reads a book on the [[London Underground]]. In the [[PBS]] series ''The Men Who Made The Movies'', Hitchcock explained how he used early sound recording as a special element of the film, stressing the word \"knife\" in a conversation with the woman suspected of murder. During this period, Hitchcock directed segments for a BIP [[revue]], ''[[Elstree Calling]]'' (1930), and directed a short film, ''[[An Elastic Affair]]'' (1930), featuring two ''Film Weekly'' scholarship winners. ''An Elastic Affair'' is one of the lost films. In 1933 Hitchcock signed a multi-film contract with [[Gaumont-British]], once again working for Michael Balcon. His first film for the company, ''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)|The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'' (1934), was a success; his second, ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)|The 39 Steps]]'' (1935), was acclaimed in the UK and gained him recognition in the United States. It also established the quintessential English \"Hitchcock blonde\" ([[Madeleine Carroll]]) as the template for his succession of ice-cold, elegant leading ladies. Screenwriter [[Robert Towne]] remarked, \"It's not much of an exaggeration to say that all contemporary escapist entertainment begins with ''The 39 Steps''\". This film was one of the first to introduce the \"[[MacGuffin]]\" plot device, a term coined by the English screenwriter [[Angus MacPhail]]. The MacGuffin is an item or goal the protagonist is pursuing, one that otherwise has no narrative value; in ''The 39 Steps'', the MacGuffin is a stolen set of design plans. Hitchcock released two spy thrillers in 1936. ''[[Sabotage (1936 film)|Sabotage]]'' was loosely based on [[Joseph Conrad]]'s novel, ''[[The Secret Agent]]'' (1907), about a woman who discovers that her husband is a terrorist, and ''[[Secret Agent (1936 film)|Secret Agent]]'', based on two stories in ''[[Ashenden: Or the British Agent]]'' (1928) by [[W. Somerset Maugham]].", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Inter-war career: 1919–1939", "Early sound films"], "text": "At this time, Hitchcock also became notorious for pranks against the cast and crew. These jokes ranged from simple and innocent to crazy and maniacal. For instance, he hosted a dinner party where he dyed all the food blue because he claimed there weren't enough blue foods. He also had a horse delivered to the dressing room of his friend, actor [[Gerald du Maurier]]. Hitchcock followed up with ''[[Young and Innocent]]'' in 1937, a crime thriller based on the 1936 novel ''[[A Shilling for Candles]]'' by [[Josephine Tey]]. Starring [[Nova Pilbeam]] and [[Derrick De Marney]], the film was relatively enjoyable for the cast and crew to make. To meet distribution purposes in America, the film's runtime was cut and this included removal of one of Hitchcock's favourite scenes: a children's tea party which becomes menacing to the protagonists. Hitchcock's next major success was ''[[The Lady Vanishes]]'' (1938), \"one of the greatest train movies from the genre's golden era\", according to [[Philip French]], in which Miss Froy ([[May Whitty]]), a British spy posing as a governess, disappears on a train journey through the fictional European country of Bandrika. The film saw Hitchcock receive the [[1938 New York Film Critics Circle Awards|1938 New York Film Critics Circle Award]] for Best Director. Benjamin Crisler of the ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' wrote in June 1938: \"Three unique and valuable institutions the British have that we in America have not: [[Magna Carta]], the [[Tower Bridge]] and Alfred Hitchcock, the greatest director of screen melodramas in the world.\" By 1938 Hitchcock was aware that he had reached his peak in Britain. He had received numerous offers from producers in the United States, but he turned them all down because he disliked the contractual obligations or thought the projects were repellent. However, producer [[David O. Selznick]] offered him a concrete proposal to make a film based on the sinking of [[Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']], which was eventually shelved, but Selznick persuaded Hitchcock to come to [[Hollywood]]. In July 1938, Hitchcock flew to New York, and found that he was already a celebrity; he was featured in magazines and gave interviews to radio stations. In Hollywood, Hitchcock met Selznick for the first time. Selznick offered him a four-film contract, approximately $40,000 for each picture ().", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Early Hollywood years: 1939–1945", "Selznick contract"], "text": "Selznick signed Hitchcock to a seven-year contract beginning in April 1939, and the Hitchcocks moved to Hollywood. The Hitchcocks lived in a spacious flat on [[Wilshire Boulevard]], and slowly acclimatised themselves to the Los Angeles area. He and his wife Alma kept a low profile, and were not interested in attending parties or being celebrities. Hitchcock discovered his taste for fine food in West Hollywood, but still carried on his way of life from England. He was impressed with Hollywood's filmmaking culture, expansive budgets and efficiency, compared to the limits that he had often faced in Britain. In June that year, ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine called him the \"greatest master of melodrama in screen history\". Although Hitchcock and Selznick respected each other, their working arrangements were sometimes difficult. Selznick suffered from constant financial problems, and Hitchcock was often unhappy about Selznick's creative control and interference over his films. Selznick was also displeased with Hitchcock's method of shooting just what was in the script, and nothing more, which meant that the film could not be cut and remade differently at a later time. As well as complaining about Hitchcock's \"goddamn jigsaw cutting\", their personalities were mismatched: Hitchcock was reserved whereas Selznick was flamboyant. Eventually, Selznick generously lent Hitchcock to the larger film studios. Selznick made only a few films each year, as did fellow independent producer [[Samuel Goldwyn]], so he did not always have projects for Hitchcock to direct. Goldwyn had also negotiated with Hitchcock on a possible contract, only to be outbid by Selznick. In a later interview, Hitchcock said: \"[Selznick] was the Big Producer. ... Producer was king. The most flattering thing Mr. Selznick ever said about me—and it shows you the amount of control—he said I was the 'only director' he'd 'trust with a film'.\" Hitchcock approached American cinema cautiously; his first American film was set in England in which the \"Americanness\" of the characters was incidental: ''[[Rebecca (1940 film)|Rebecca]]'' (1940) was set in a Hollywood version of England's Cornwall and based on a novel by English novelist [[Daphne du Maurier]]. Selznick insisted on a faithful adaptation of the book, and disagreed with Hitchcock with the use of humour. The film, starring [[Laurence Olivier]] and [[Joan Fontaine]], concerns an unnamed naïve young woman who marries a widowed aristocrat. She lives in his large [[English country house]], and struggles with the lingering reputation of his elegant and worldly first wife Rebecca, who died under mysterious circumstances. The film won [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] at the [[13th Academy Awards]]; the statuette was given to producer Selznick. Hitchcock received his first nomination for [[Academy Award for Best Director|Best Director]], his first of five such nominations.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Early Hollywood years: 1939–1945", "Selznick contract"], "text": "Hitchcock's second American film was the thriller ''[[Foreign Correspondent (film)|Foreign Correspondent]]'' (1940), set in Europe, based on [[Vincent Sheean]]'s book ''Personal History'' (1935) and produced by [[Walter Wanger]]. It was nominated for Best Picture that year. Hitchcock felt uneasy living and working in Hollywood while Britain was at [[World War II|war]]; his concern resulted in a film that overtly supported the British war effort. Filmed in 1939, it was inspired by the rapidly changing events in Europe, as covered by an American newspaper reporter played by [[Joel McCrea]]. By mixing footage of European scenes with scenes filmed on a Hollywood [[backlot]], the film avoided direct references to [[Nazism]], [[Nazi Germany]], and Germans, to comply with the [[Motion Picture Production Code]] at the time.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Early Hollywood years: 1939–1945", "Early war years"], "text": "In September 1940 the Hitchcocks bought the Cornwall Ranch near [[Scotts Valley]], California, in the [[Santa Cruz Mountains]]. Their primary residence was an English-style home in [[Bel Air, Los Angeles|Bel Air]], purchased in 1942. Hitchcock's films were diverse during this period, ranging from the romantic comedy ''[[Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941 film)|Mr. & Mrs. Smith]]'' (1941) to the bleak [[film noir]] ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'' (1943). ''[[Suspicion (1941 film)|Suspicion]]'' (1941) marked Hitchcock's first film as a producer and director. It is set in England; Hitchcock used the north coast of [[Santa Cruz, California|Santa Cruz]] for the English coastline sequence. The film is the first of four in which [[Cary Grant]] was cast by Hitchcock, and it is one of the rare occasions that Grant plays a sinister character. Grant plays Johnnie Aysgarth, an English [[Confidence trick|conman]] whose actions raise suspicion and anxiety in his shy young English wife, Lina McLaidlaw ([[Joan Fontaine]]). In one scene, Hitchcock placed a light inside a glass of milk, perhaps poisoned, that Grant is bringing to his wife; the light ensures that the audience's attention is on the glass. Grant's character is actually a killer, as per written in the book, ''[[Before the Fact]]'' by [[Francis Iles]], but the studio felt that Grant's image would be tarnished by that. Hitchcock therefore settled for an ambiguous finale, although he would have preferred to end with the wife's murder. Fontaine won [[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] for her performance. ''[[Saboteur (film)|Saboteur]]'' (1942) is the first of two films that Hitchcock made for [[Universal Pictures|Universal Studios]] during the decade. Hitchcock was forced by Universal to use Universal contract player [[Robert Cummings]] and [[Priscilla Lane]], a freelancer who signed a one-picture deal with the studio, both known for their work in comedies and light dramas. The story depicts a confrontation between a suspected saboteur (Cummings) and a real saboteur ([[Norman Lloyd]]) atop the [[Statue of Liberty]]. Hitchcock took a three-day tour of New York City to scout for ''Saboteur''s filming locations. He also directed ''Have You Heard?'' (1942), a photographic dramatisation for ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine of the [[Loose lips sink ships|dangers of rumours during wartime]]. In 1943 he wrote a mystery story for ''[[Look (American magazine)|Look]]'' magazine, \"The Murder of [[Monty Woolley]]\", a sequence of captioned photographs inviting the reader to find clues to the murderer's identity; Hitchcock cast the performers as themselves, such as Woolley, Doris Merrick, and make-up man Guy Pearce.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Early Hollywood years: 1939–1945", "Early war years"], "text": "Back in England, Hitchcock's mother Emma was severely ill; she died on 26 September 1942 at age 79. Hitchcock never spoke publicly about his mother, but his assistant said that he admired her. Four months later, on 4 January 1943, his brother William died of an overdose at age 52. Hitchcock was not very close to William, but his death made Hitchcock conscious about his own eating and drinking habits. He was overweight and suffering from back aches. His New Year's resolution in 1943 was to take his diet seriously with the help of a physician. In January that year, ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'' was released, which Hitchcock had fond memories of making. In the film, Charlotte \"Charlie\" Newton ([[Teresa Wright]]) suspects her beloved uncle Charlie Oakley ([[Joseph Cotten]]) of being a serial killer. Hitchcock filmed extensively on location, this time in the Northern California city of [[Santa Rosa, California|Santa Rosa]]. At [[20th Century Fox]], Hitchcock approached [[John Steinbeck]] with an idea for a film, which recorded the experiences of the survivors of a German [[U-boat]] attack. Steinbeck began work on the script which would become the ''[[Lifeboat (1944 film)|Lifeboat]]'' (1944). However, Steinbeck was unhappy with the film and asked that his name be removed from the credits, to no avail. The idea was rewritten as a short story by [[Harry Sylvester]] and published in ''[[Collier's]]'' in 1943. The action sequences were shot in a small boat in the studio water tank. The locale posed problems for Hitchcock's traditional cameo appearance; it was solved by having Hitchcock's image appear in a newspaper that [[William Bendix]] is reading in the boat, showing the director in a before-and-after advertisement for \"Reduco-Obesity Slayer\". He told Truffaut in 1962: Hitchcock's typical dinner before his weight loss had been a roast chicken, boiled ham, potatoes, bread, vegetables, relishes, salad, dessert, a bottle of wine and some brandy. To lose weight, his diet consisted of black coffee for breakfast and lunch, and steak and salad for dinner, but it was hard to maintain; Donald Spoto wrote that his weight fluctuated considerably over the next 40 years. At the end of 1943, despite the weight loss, the Occidental Insurance Company of Los Angeles refused his application for life insurance.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Early Hollywood years: 1939–1945", "Wartime non-fiction films"], "text": "Hitchcock returned to the UK for an extended visit in late 1943 and early 1944. While there he made two short [[propaganda film]], ''[[Bon Voyage (1944 film)|Bon Voyage]]'' (1944) and ''[[Aventure Malgache]]'' (1944), for the [[Ministry of Information (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Information]]. In June and July 1945, Hitchcock served as \"treatment advisor\" on a [[Holocaust]] documentary that used [[Allies of World War II|Allied Forces]] footage of the liberation of [[Nazi concentration camps]]. The film was assembled in London and produced by [[Sidney Bernstein, Baron Bernstein|Sidney Bernstein]] of the Ministry of Information, who brought Hitchcock (a friend of his) on board. It was originally intended to be broadcast to the Germans, but the British government deemed it too traumatic to be shown to a shocked post-war population. Instead, it was transferred in 1952 from the [[British War Office]] film vaults to London's [[Imperial War Museum]] and remained unreleased until 1985, when an edited version was broadcast as an episode of [[PBS]] ''[[Frontline (U.S. TV series)|Frontline]]'', under the title the Imperial War Museum had given it: ''Memory of the Camps''. The full-length version of the film, ''[[German Concentration Camps Factual Survey]]'', was restored in 2014 by scholars at the Imperial War Museum.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Post-war Hollywood years: 1945–1953", "Later Selznick films"], "text": "Hitchcock worked for David Selznick again when he directed ''[[Spellbound (1945 film)|Spellbound]]'' (1945), which explores [[psychoanalysis]] and features a [[dream sequence]] designed by [[Salvador Dalí]]. The dream sequence as it appears in the film is ten minutes shorter than was originally envisioned; Selznick edited it to make it \"play\" more effectively. [[Gregory Peck]] plays amnesiac Dr. Anthony Edwardes under the treatment of analyst Dr. Peterson ([[Ingrid Bergman]]), who falls in love with him while trying to unlock his repressed past. Two [[Point-of-view shot|point-of-view]] shots were achieved by building a large wooden hand (which would appear to belong to the character whose point of view the camera took) and out-sized props for it to hold: a bucket-sized glass of milk and a large wooden gun. For added novelty and impact, the climactic gunshot was hand-coloured red on some copies of the black-and-white film. The original musical score by [[Miklós Rózsa]] makes use of the [[theremin]], and some of it was later adapted by the composer into Rozsa's Piano Concerto Op. 31 (1967) for piano and orchestra. The spy film ''[[Notorious (1946 film)|Notorious]]'' was followed next in 1946. Hitchcock told François Truffaut that Selznick sold him, Ingrid Bergman, Cary Grant, and [[Ben Hecht]]'s screenplay, to RKO Radio Pictures as a \"package\" for $500,000 () because of cost overruns on Selznick's ''[[Duel in the Sun (film)|Duel in the Sun]]'' (1946). ''Notorious'' stars Bergman and Grant, both Hitchcock collaborators, and features a plot about Nazis, [[uranium]] and South America. His prescient use of uranium as a plot device led to him being briefly placed under surveillance by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]. According to Patrick McGilligan, in or around March 1945, Hitchcock and Hecht consulted [[Robert Millikan]] of the [[California Institute of Technology]] about the development of a uranium bomb. Selznick complained that the notion was \"science fiction\", only to be confronted by the news of the detonation of two atomic bombs on [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] in Japan in August 1945.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Post-war Hollywood years: 1945–1953", "Transatlantic Pictures"], "text": "Hitchcock formed an independent production company, [[Transatlantic Pictures]], with his friend [[Sidney Bernstein, Baron Bernstein|Sidney Bernstein]]. He made two films with Transatlantic, one of which was his first colour film. With ''[[Rope (film)|Rope]]'' (1948), Hitchcock experimented with marshalling suspense in a confined environment, as he had done earlier with ''Lifeboat''. The film appears as a very limited number of continuous shots, but it was actually shot in 10 ranging from 4- to 10 minutes each; a 10-minute length of film was the most that a camera's film magazine could hold at the time. Some transitions between reels were hidden by having a dark object fill the entire screen for a moment. Hitchcock used those points to hide the cut, and began the next take with the camera in the same place. The film features [[James Stewart]] in the leading role, and was the first of four films that Stewart made with Hitchcock. It was inspired by the [[Leopold and Loeb]] case of the 1920s. Critical response at the time was mixed. ''[[Under Capricorn]]'' (1949), set in 19th-century Australia, also uses the short-lived technique of long takes, but to a more limited extent. He again used [[Technicolor]] in this production, then returned to [[Black and white|black-and-white]] for several years. Transatlantic Pictures became inactive after the last two films. Hitchcock filmed ''[[Stage Fright (1950 film)|Stage Fright]]'' (1950) at [[Elstree Studios|Elstree]] studios in England, where he had worked during his British International Pictures contract many years before. He paired one of [[Warner Bros.]]' most popular stars, [[Jane Wyman]], with the expatriate German actor [[Marlene Dietrich]] and used several prominent British actors, including [[Michael Wilding (actor)|Michael Wilding]], [[Richard Todd]] and [[Alastair Sim]]. This was Hitchcock's first proper production for Warner Bros., which had distributed ''Rope'' and ''Under Capricorn'', because Transatlantic Pictures was experiencing financial difficulties. His thriller ''[[Strangers on a Train (film)|Strangers on a Train]]'' (1951) was based on the [[Strangers on a Train (novel)|novel of the same name]] by [[Patricia Highsmith]]. Hitchcock combined many elements from his preceding films. He approached [[Dashiell Hammett]] to write the dialogue, but [[Raymond Chandler]] took over, then left over disagreements with the director. In the film, two men casually meet, one of whom speculates on a foolproof method to murder; he suggests that two people, each wishing to do away with someone, should each perform the other's murder. [[Farley Granger]]'s role was as the innocent victim of the scheme, while [[Robert Walker (actor, born 1918)|Robert Walker]], previously known for \"boy-next-door\" roles, played the villain. ''[[I Confess (film)|I Confess]]'' (1953) was set in [[Quebec City|Quebec]] with [[Montgomery Clift]] as a Catholic priest.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Peak years: 1954–1964", "''Dial M for Murder'' and ''Rear Window''"], "text": "''I Confess'' was followed by three colour films starring [[Grace Kelly]]: ''[[Dial M for Murder]]'' (1954), ''[[Rear Window]]'' (1954), and ''[[To Catch a Thief]]'' (1955). In ''Dial M for Murder'', [[Ray Milland]] plays the villain who tries to murder his unfaithful wife (Kelly) for her money. She kills the hired assassin in self-defence, so Milland manipulates the evidence to make it look like murder. Her lover, Mark Halliday ([[Robert Cummings]]), and Police Inspector Hubbard ([[John Williams (actor)|John Williams]]) save her from execution. Hitchcock experimented with [[3-D film|3D cinematography]] for ''Dial M for Murder''. Hitchcock moved to [[Paramount Pictures]] and filmed ''[[Rear Window]]'' (1954), starring James Stewart and Grace Kelly again, as well as [[Thelma Ritter]] and [[Raymond Burr]]. Stewart's character is a photographer called Jeff (based on [[Robert Capa]]) who must temporarily use a wheelchair. Out of boredom, he begins observing his neighbours across the courtyard, then becomes convinced that one of them (Raymond Burr) has murdered his wife. Jeff eventually manages to convince his policeman buddy ([[Wendell Corey]]) and his girlfriend (Kelly). As with ''Lifeboat'' and ''Rope'', the principal characters are depicted in confined or cramped quarters, in this case Stewart's studio apartment. Hitchcock uses close-ups of Stewart's face to show his character's reactions, \"from the comic voyeurism directed at his neighbours to his helpless terror watching Kelly and Burr in the villain's apartment\".", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Peak years: 1954–1964", "''Alfred Hitchcock Presents''"], "text": "From 1955 to 1965, Hitchcock was the host of the television series ''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]''. With his droll delivery, gallows humour and iconic image, the series made Hitchcock a celebrity. The title-sequence of the show pictured a minimalist caricature of his profile (he drew it himself; it is composed of only nine strokes), which his real silhouette then filled. The series theme tune was ''Funeral March of a Marionette'' by the French composer [[Charles Gounod]] (1818–1893). His introductions always included some sort of wry humour, such as the description of a recent multi-person execution hampered by having only one [[electric chair]], while two are shown with a sign \"Two chairs—no waiting!\" He directed 18 episodes of the series, which aired from 1955 to 1965. It became ''[[The Alfred Hitchcock Hour]]'' in 1962, and NBC broadcast the final episode on 10 May 1965. In the 1980s, a [[Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1985 TV series)|new version]] of ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' was produced for television, making use of Hitchcock's original introductions in a [[colourised]] form. Hitchcock's success in television spawned a set of short-story collections in his name; these included ''[[Alfred Hitchcock's Anthology]]'', ''Stories They Wouldn't Let Me Do on TV,'' and ''Tales My Mother Never Told Me''. In 1956 HSD Publications also licensed the director's name to create ''[[Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine]]'', a monthly [[Digest size|digest]] specialising in crime and detective fiction. Hitchcock's television series' were very profitable, and his foreign-language versions of books were bringing revenues of up to $100,000 a year ().", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Peak years: 1954–1964", "From ''To Catch a Thief'' to ''Vertigo''"], "text": "In 1955 Hitchcock became a United States citizen. In the same year, his third Grace Kelly film, ''[[To Catch a Thief]]'', was released; it is set in the [[French Riviera]], and stars Kelly and Cary Grant. Grant plays retired thief John Robie, who becomes the prime suspect for a spate of robberies in the Riviera. A thrill-seeking American heiress played by Kelly surmises his true identity and tries to seduce him. \"Despite the obvious age disparity between Grant and Kelly and a lightweight plot, the witty script (loaded with double entendres) and the good-natured acting proved a commercial success.\" It was Hitchcock's last film with Kelly; she married [[Prince Rainier]] of Monaco in 1956, and ended her film career afterward. Hitchcock then remade his own [[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)|1934 film]] ''The Man Who Knew Too Much'' [[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956 film)|in 1956]]. This time, the film starred James Stewart and [[Doris Day]], who sang the theme song \"[[Que Sera, Sera (Whatever Will Be, Will Be)|Que Sera, Sera]]\", which won the [[Academy Award for Best Original Song]] and became a big hit. They play a couple whose son is kidnapped to prevent them from interfering with an assassination. As in the 1934 film, the climax takes place at the [[Royal Albert Hall]]. ''[[The Wrong Man]]'' (1957), Hitchcock's final film for Warner Bros., is a low-key black-and-white production based on a real-life case of [[mistaken identity]] reported in ''Life'' magazine in 1953. This was the only film of Hitchcock to star [[Henry Fonda]], playing a [[Stork Club]] musician mistaken for a liquor store thief, who is arrested and tried for robbery while his wife ([[Vera Miles]]) emotionally collapses under the strain. Hitchcock told Truffaut that his lifelong fear of the police attracted him to the subject and was embedded in many scenes. While directing episodes for ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' during the summer of 1957, Hitchcock was admitted to hospital for [[hernia]] and [[gallstone]], and had to have his [[gallbladder]] removed. Following a successful surgery, he immediately returned to work to prepare for his next project. Hitchcock's next film, ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' (1958) again starred James Stewart, with [[Kim Novak]] and [[Barbara Bel Geddes]]. He had wanted [[Vera Miles]] to play the lead, but she was pregnant. He told [[Oriana Fallaci]]: \"I was offering her a big part, the chance to become a beautiful sophisticated blonde, a real actress. We'd have spent a heap of dollars on it, and she has the bad taste to get pregnant. I hate pregnant women, because then they have children.\"", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Peak years: 1954–1964", "From ''To Catch a Thief'' to ''Vertigo''"], "text": "In ''Vertigo'', Stewart plays Scottie, a former police investigator suffering from [[acrophobia]], who develops an obsession with a woman he has been hired to shadow (Novak). Scottie's obsession leads to tragedy, and this time Hitchcock does not opt for a happy ending. Some critics, including Donald Spoto and [[Roger Ebert]], agree that ''Vertigo'' is the director's most personal and revealing film, dealing with the ''[[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]]''-like obsessions of a man who crafts a woman into the woman he desires. ''Vertigo'' explores more frankly and at greater length his interest in the relation between sex and death, than any other work in his filmography. ''Vertigo'' contains a camera technique developed by Irmin Roberts, commonly referred to as a [[dolly zoom]], which has been copied by many filmmakers. The film premiered at the [[San Sebastián International Film Festival]], and Hitchcock won the Silver Seashell prize. ''Vertigo'' is considered a classic, but it attracted mixed reviews and poor box-office receipts at the time; the critic from ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'' magazine opined that the film was \"too slow and too long\". [[Bosley Crowther]] of the ''New York Times'' thought it was \"devilishly far-fetched\", but praised the cast performances and Hitchcock's direction. The picture was also the last collaboration between Stewart and Hitchcock. In the 2002 ''[[Sight & Sound]]'' polls, it ranked just behind ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' (1941); ten years later, in the same magazine, critics chose it as the best film ever made.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Peak years: 1954–1964", "''North by Northwest'' and ''Psycho''"], "text": "After ''Vertigo'', the rest of 1958 had been a difficult year for Hitchcock. During [[pre-production]] of ''[[North by Northwest]]'' (1959), which was a \"slow\" and \"agonising\" process, his wife Alma was diagnosed with cancer. While Alma was in hospital, Hitchcock kept himself occupied with his television work and would visit her everyday. Alma underwent surgery and made a full recovery but it caused Hitchcock to imagine, for the first time, life without her. Hitchcock followed up with three more successful films, which are also recognised as among his best: ''North by Northwest'', ''[[Psycho (1960 film)|Psycho]]'' (1960) and ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963). In ''North by Northwest'', Cary Grant portrays Roger Thornhill, a [[Madison Avenue]] advertising executive who is mistaken for a government secret agent. He is hotly pursued across the United States by enemy agents, including Eve Kendall ([[Eva Marie Saint]]). At first, Thornhill believes Kendall is helping him, but then realises that she is an enemy agent; he learns that she is working undercover for the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]. During its opening two-week run at [[Radio City Music Hall]], the film grossed $404,056 (), setting a record in that theatre's non-holiday gross. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine called the film \"smoothly troweled and thoroughly entertaining\". ''[[Psycho (1960 film)|Psycho]]'' (1960) is arguably Hitchcock's best-known film. Based on [[Robert Bloch]]'s 1959 novel ''[[Psycho (novel)|Psycho]]'', which was inspired by the case of [[Ed Gein]], the film was produced on a tight budget of $800,000 () and shot in black-and-white on a spare set using crew members from ''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]''. The unprecedented violence of the shower scene, the early death of the heroine, and the innocent lives extinguished by a disturbed murderer became the hallmarks of a new horror-film genre. The film proved popular with audiences, with queues stretching outside theatres as viewers waited for the next showing. It broke box-office records in the United Kingdom, France, South America, the United States and Canada and was a moderate success in Australia for a brief period. ''Psycho'' was the most profitable of Hitchcock's career, and he personally earned in excess of $15 million (equivalent to $ million in ). He subsequently swapped his rights to ''Psycho'' and his TV anthology for 150,000 shares of [[MCA Inc.|MCA]], making him the third largest shareholder and his own boss at Universal, in theory at least, although that did not stop them from interfering with him. Following the first film, ''Psycho'' became an American horror [[Media franchise|franchise]]: ''[[Psycho II (film)|Psycho II]]'', ''[[Psycho III]]'', ''[[Bates Motel (film)|Bates Motel]]'', ''[[Psycho IV: The Beginning]]'', and a colour [[Psycho (1998 film)|1998 remake]] of the original.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Peak years: 1954–1964", "Truffaut interview"], "text": "On 13 August 1962, Hitchcock's 63rd birthday, the French director [[François Truffaut]] began a 50-hour interview of Hitchcock, filmed over eight days at Universal Studios, during which Hitchcock agreed to answer 500 questions. It took four years to transcribe the tapes and organise the images; it was published as a book in 1967, which Truffaut nicknamed the \"Hitchbook\". The audio tapes were used as the basis of a documentary in 2015. Truffaut sought the interview because it was clear to him that Hitchcock was not simply the mass-market entertainer the American media made him out to be. It was obvious from his films, Truffaut wrote, that Hitchcock had \"given more thought to the potential of his art than any of his colleagues\". He compared the interview to \"Oedipus' consultation of the oracle\".", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Peak years: 1954–1964", "''The Birds''"], "text": "The film scholar Peter William Evans wrote that ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963) and ''[[Marnie (film)|Marnie]]'' (1964) are regarded as \"undisputed masterpieces\". Hitchcock had intended to film ''Marnie'' first, and in March 1962 it was announced that Grace Kelly, Princess Grace of Monaco since 1956, would come out of retirement to star in it. When Kelly asked Hitchcock to postpone ''Marnie'' until 1963 or 1964, he recruited [[Ed McBain|Evan Hunter]], author of ''The Blackboard Jungle'' (1954), to develop a screenplay based on a [[Daphne du Maurier]] short story, \"[[The Birds (story)|The Birds]]\" (1952), which Hitchcock had republished in his ''My Favorites in Suspense'' (1959). He hired [[Tippi Hedren]] to play the lead role. It was her first role; she had been a model in New York when Hitchcock saw her, in October 1961, in an NBC television advert for [[Sego (diet drink)|Sego]], a diet drink: \"I signed her because she is a classic beauty. Movies don't have them any more. Grace Kelly was the last.\" He insisted, without explanation, that her first name be written in single quotation marks: 'Tippi'. In ''The Birds'', Melanie Daniels, a young socialite, meets lawyer Mitch Brenner ([[Rod Taylor]]) in a bird shop; [[Jessica Tandy]] plays his possessive mother. Hedren visits him in [[Bodega Bay, California|Bodega Bay]] (where ''The Birds'' was filmed) carrying a pair of [[lovebird]] as a gift. Suddenly waves of birds start gathering, watching, and attacking. The question: \"What do the birds want?\" is left unanswered. Hitchcock made the film with equipment from the Revue Studio, which made ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents''. He said it was his most technically challenging film, using a combination of trained and mechanical birds against a backdrop of wild ones. Every shot was sketched in advance. An [[HBO]]/[[BBC]] television film, ''[[The Girl (2012 TV film)|The Girl]]'' (2012), depicted Hedren's experiences on set; she said that Hitchcock [[Tippi Hedren#Troubled relations|became obsessed with her]] and sexually harassed her. He reportedly isolated her from the rest of the crew, had her followed, whispered obscenities to her, had her handwriting analysed, and had a ramp built from his private office directly into her trailer. [[Diane Baker]], her co-star in ''Marnie'', said: \"[N]othing could have been more horrible for me than to arrive on that movie set and to see her being treated the way she was.\" While filming the attack scene in the attic—which took a week to film—she was placed in a caged room while two men wearing elbow-length protective gloves threw live birds at her. Toward the end of the week, to stop the birds' flying away from her too soon, one leg of each bird was attached by nylon thread to elastic bands sewn inside her clothes. She broke down after a bird cut her lower eyelid, and filming was halted on doctor's orders.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Peak years: 1954–1964", "''Marnie''"], "text": "In June 1962, Grace Kelly announced that she had decided against appearing in ''[[Marnie (film)|Marnie]]'' (1964). Hedren had signed an exclusive seven-year, $500-a-week contract with Hitchcock in October 1961, and he decided to cast her in the lead role opposite [[Sean Connery]]. In 2016, describing Hedren's performance as \"one of the greatest in the history of cinema\", [[Richard Brody]] called the film a \"story of sexual violence\" inflicted on the character played by Hedren: \"The film is, to put it simply, sick, and it's so because Hitchcock was sick. He suffered all his life from furious sexual desire, suffered from the lack of its gratification, suffered from the inability to transform fantasy into reality, and then went ahead and did so virtually, by way of his art.\" A 1964 [[The New York Times|''New York Times'']] film review called it Hitchcock's \"most disappointing film in years\", citing Hedren's and Connery's lack of experience, an amateurish script and \"glaringly fake cardboard backdrops\". In the film, Marnie Edgar (Hedren) steals $10,000 from her employer and goes on the run. She applies for a job at Mark Rutland's (Connery) company in Philadelphia and steals from there too. Earlier she is shown having a panic attack during a thunderstorm and fearing the colour red. Mark tracks her down and blackmails her into marrying him. She explains that she does not want to be touched, but during the \"honeymoon\", Mark rapes her. Marnie and Mark discover that Marnie's mother had been a prostitute when Marnie was a child, and that, while the mother was fighting with a client during a thunderstorm—the mother believed the client had tried to molest Marnie—Marnie had killed the client to save her mother. Cured of her fears when she remembers what happened, she decides to stay with Mark. Hitchcock told cinematographer [[Robert Burks]] that the camera had to be placed as close as possible to Hedren when he filmed her face. [[Ed McBain|Evan Hunter]], the screenwriter of ''The Birds'' who was writing ''Marnie'' too, explained to Hitchcock that, if Mark loved Marnie, he would comfort her, not rape her. Hitchcock reportedly replied: \"Evan, when he sticks it in her, I want that camera right on her face!\" When Hunter submitted two versions of the script, one without the rape scene, Hitchcock replaced him with [[Jay Presson Allen]].", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Later years: 1966–1980", "Final films"], "text": "Failing health reduced Hitchcock's output during the last two decades of his life. Biographer [[Stephen Rebello]] claimed Universal imposed two films on him, ''[[Torn Curtain]]'' (1966) and ''[[Topaz (1969 film)|Topaz]]'' (1969), the latter of which is based on a [[Leon Uris]] novel, partly set in Cuba. Both were spy thrillers with [[Cold War]]-related themes. ''Torn Curtain'', with [[Paul Newman]] and [[Julie Andrews]], precipitated the bitter end of the 12-year collaboration between Hitchcock and composer [[Bernard Herrmann]]. Hitchcock was unhappy with Herrmann's score and replaced him with [[John Addison]], [[Jay Livingston]] and [[Ray Evans]]. Upon release, ''Torn Curtain'' was a box office failure, and ''Topaz'' was disliked by critics and the studio. Hitchcock returned to Britain to make his penultimate film, ''[[Frenzy]]'' (1972), based on the novel ''[[Goodbye Piccadilly, Farewell Leicester Square]]'' (1966). After two espionage films, the plot marked a return to the murder-thriller genre. Richard Blaney ([[Jon Finch]]), a volatile barman with a history of explosive anger, becomes the prime suspect in the investigation into the \"Necktie Murders\", which are actually committed by his friend Bob Rusk ([[Barry Foster (actor)|Barry Foster]]). This time, Hitchcock makes the victim and villain kindreds, rather than opposites as in ''Strangers on a Train''. In ''Frenzy'', Hitchcock allowed nudity for the first time. Two scenes show naked women, one of whom is being raped and strangled; Donald Spoto called the latter \"one of the most repellent examples of a detailed murder in the history of film\". Both actors, [[Barbara Leigh-Hunt]] and [[Anna Massey]], refused to do the scenes, so models were used instead. Biographers have noted that Hitchcock had always pushed the limits of film censorship, often managing to fool [[Joseph Breen]], the head of the [[Motion Picture Production Code]]. Hitchcock would add subtle hints of improprieties forbidden by censorship until the mid-1960s. Yet Patrick McGilligan wrote that Breen and others often realised that Hitchcock was inserting such material and were actually amused, as well as alarmed by Hitchcock's \"inescapable inferences\". ''[[Family Plot]]'' (1976) was Hitchcock's last film. It relates the escapades of \"Madam\" Blanche Tyler, played by [[Barbara Harris (actress)|Barbara Harris]], a fraudulent spiritualist, and her taxi-driver lover [[Bruce Dern]], making a living from her phony powers. While ''Family Plot'' was based on the [[Victor Canning]] novel ''[[The Rainbird Pattern]]'' (1972), the novel's tone is more sinister. Screenwriter [[Ernest Lehman]] originally wrote the film, under the working title Deception, with a dark tone but was pushed to a lighter, more comical tone by Hitchcock where it took the name Deceit, then finally, Family Plot.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Biography", "Later years: 1966–1980", "Knighthood and death"], "text": " Toward the end of his life, Hitchcock was working on the script for a spy thriller, ''[[The Short Night]]'', collaborating with [[James Costigan]], [[Ernest Lehman]] and [[David Freeman (screenwriter)|David Freeman]]. Despite preliminary work, it was never filmed. Hitchcock's health was declining and he was worried about his wife, who had suffered a stroke. The screenplay was eventually published in Freeman's book ''The Last Days of Alfred Hitchcock'' (1999). Having refused a [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] in 1962, Hitchcock was appointed a [[Order of the British Empire|Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire]] (KBE) in the [[1980 New Year Honours]]. He was too ill to travel to London—he had a [[Artificial cardiac pacemaker|pacemaker]] and was being given [[cortisone]] injections for his arthritis—so on 3 January 1980 the British consul general presented him with the papers at Universal Studios. Asked by a reporter after the ceremony why it had taken the Queen so long, Hitchcock quipped, \"I suppose it was a matter of carelessness.\" Cary Grant, Janet Leigh, and others attended a luncheon afterwards. His last public appearance was on 16 March 1980, when he introduced the next year's winner of the American Film Institute award. He died of kidney failure the following month, on 29 April, in his [[Bel Air, Los Angeles|Bel Air]] home. [[Donald Spoto]], one of Hitchcock's biographers, wrote that Hitchcock had declined to see a priest, but according to Jesuit priest Mark Henninger, he and another priest, Tom Sullivan, celebrated Mass at the filmmaker's home, and Sullivan heard his [[Sacrament of Penance|confession]]. Hitchcock was survived by his wife and daughter. His funeral was held at Good Shepherd Catholic Church in Beverly Hills on 30 April, after which his body was cremated. His remains were scattered over the Pacific Ocean on 10 May 1980.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Filmmaking", "Style and themes"], "text": "Hitchcock's film production career evolved from small-scale silent films to financially significant sound films. Hitchock remarked that he was influenced by early filmmakers George Méliès, D.W. Griffith and Alice Guy-Blaché. His silent films between 1925 and 1929 were in the crime and suspense genres, but also included melodramas and comedies. Whilst [[Visual narrative|visual storytelling]] was pertinent during the silent era, even after the arrival of sound, Hitchcock still relied on visuals in cinema. In Britain, he honed his craft so that by the time he moved to Hollywood, the director had perfected his style and camera techniques. Hitchcock later said that his British work was the \"sensation of cinema\", whereas the American phase was when his \"ideas were fertilised\". Scholar [[Robin Wood (critic)|Robin Wood]] writes that the director's first two films, ''The Pleasure Garden'' and ''The Mountain Eagle'', were influenced by [[German Expressionism]]. Afterward, he discovered [[Cinema of the Soviet Union|Soviet cinema]], and [[Sergei Eisenstein]]'s and [[Vsevolod Pudovkin]]'s theories of [[Soviet montage theory|montage]]. 1926's ''The Lodger'' was inspired by both German and Soviet aesthetics, styles which solidified the rest of his career. Although Hitchcock's work in the 1920s found some success, several British reviewers criticised Hitchcock's films for being unoriginal and conceited. [[Raymond Durgnat]] opined that Hitchcock's films were carefully and intelligently constructed, but thought they can be shallow and rarely present a \"coherent worldview\". Earning the title \"Master of Suspense\", the director experimented with ways to generate tension in his work. He said, \"My suspense work comes out of creating nightmares for the audience. And I ''play'' with an audience. I make them gasp and surprise them and shock them. When you have a nightmare, it's awfully vivid if you're dreaming that you're being led to the electric chair. Then you're as happy as can be when you wake up because you're relieved.\" During filming of ''North by Northwest'', Hitchcock explained his reasons for recreating the set of [[Mount Rushmore]]: \"The audience responds in proportion to how realistic you make it. One of the dramatic reasons for this type of photography is to get it looking so natural that the audience gets involved and believes, for the time being, what's going on up there on the screen.\"", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Filmmaking", "Style and themes"], "text": "Hitchcock's films, from the silent to the sound era, contained a number of recurring themes that he is famous for. His films explored audience as a [[Voyeurism|voyeur]], notably in ''Rear Window'', ''Marnie'' and ''Psycho''. He understood that human beings enjoy voyeuristic activities and made the audience participate in it through the character's actions. Of his fifty-three films, eleven revolved around stories of [[mistaken identity]], where an innocent protagonist is accused of a crime and is pursued by police. In most cases, it is an ordinary, everyday person who finds themselves in a dangerous situation. Hitchcock told Truffaut: \"That's because the theme of the innocent man being accused, I feel, provides the audience with a greater sense of danger. It's easier for them to identify with him than with a guilty man on the run.\" One of his constant themes were the struggle of a personality torn between \"order and chaos\"; known as the notion of \"double\", which is a comparison or contrast between two characters or objects: the double representing a dark or evil side. According to Robin Wood, Hitchcock had mixed feelings towards homosexuality despite working with gay actors in his career. Donald Spoto suggests that Hitchcock's [[Sexual repression|sexually repressive]] childhood may have contributed to his exploration of [[Deviance (sociology)|deviancy]]. During the 1950s, the [[Motion Picture Production Code]] prohibited direct references to homosexuality but the director was known for his subtle references, and pushing the boundaries of the censors. Moreover, ''Shadow of a Doubt'' has a double [[incest]] theme through the storyline, expressed implicitly through images. Author Jane Sloan argues that Hitchcock was drawn to both conventional and unconventional sexual expression in his work, and the theme of marriage was usually presented in a \"bleak and skeptical\" manner. It was also not until after his mother's death in 1942, that Hitchcock portrayed motherly figures as \"notorious monster-mothers\". The [[espionage]] backdrop, and murders committed by characters with [[Psychopathy|psychopathic]] tendencies were common themes too. In Hitchcock's depiction of villains and murderers, they were usually charming and friendly, forcing viewers to identify with them. The director's strict childhood and Jesuit education may have led to his distrust of authoritarian figures such as policemen and politicians; a theme which he has explored. Also, he used the “[[MacGuffin]]”—the use of an object, person or event to keep the plot moving along even if it was non-essential to the story. Some examples include the microfilm in ''North by Northwest'' and the $40,000 stolen money in ''Psycho''. Hitchcock appears briefly in most of his own films. For example, he is seen struggling to get a double bass onto a train (''[[Strangers on a Train (film)|Strangers on a Train]]''), walking dogs out of a pet shop (''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]''), fixing a neighbour's clock (''[[Rear Window]]''), as a shadow (''[[Family Plot]]''), sitting at a table in a photograph (''[[Dial M for Murder]]''), and riding a bus (''[[North by Northwest]]'','' [[To Catch a Thief]]'').", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Filmmaking", "Representation of women"], "text": "Hitchcock's portrayal of women has been the subject of much scholarly debate. [[Bidisha]] wrote in ''The Guardian'' in 2010: \"There's the vamp, the tramp, the snitch, the witch, the slink, the double-crosser and, best of all, the demon mommy. Don't worry, they all get punished in the end.\" In a widely cited essay in 1975, [[Laura Mulvey]] introduced the idea of the [[male gaze]]; the view of the spectator in Hitchcock's films, she argued, is that of the heterosexual male protagonist. \"The female characters in his films reflected the same qualities over and over again\", [[Roger Ebert]] wrote in 1996. \"They were blonde. They were icy and remote. They were imprisoned in costumes that subtly combined fashion with fetishism. They mesmerised the men, who often had physical or psychological handicaps. Sooner or later, every Hitchcock woman was humiliated.\" The victims in ''The Lodger'' are all blondes. In ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)|The 39 Steps]]'', [[Madeleine Carroll]] is put in handcuffs. [[Ingrid Bergman]], whom Hitchcock directed three times (''[[Spellbound (1945 film)|Spellbound]]'', ''[[Notorious (1946 film)|Notorious]]'', and ''[[Under Capricorn]]''), is dark blonde. In ''Rear Window'', Lisa ([[Grace Kelly]]) risks her life by breaking into Lars Thorwald's apartment. In ''To Catch a Thief'', Francie (also Kelly) offers to help a man she believes is a burglar. In ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' and ''North by Northwest'' respectively, [[Kim Novak]] and [[Eva Marie Saint]] play the blonde heroines. In ''[[Psycho (1960 film)|Psycho]]'', [[Janet Leigh]]'s character steals $40,000 and is murdered by [[Norman Bates]], a reclusive psychopath. [[Tippi Hedren]], a blonde, appears to be the focus of the attacks in ''The Birds''. In ''[[Marnie (film)|Marnie]]'', the title character, again played by Hedren, is a thief. In ''[[Topaz (1969 film)|Topaz]]'', French actresses [[Dany Robin]] as Stafford's wife and [[Claude Jade]] as Stafford's daughter are blonde heroines, the mistress was played by brunette [[Karin Dor]]. Hitchcock's last blonde heroine was [[Barbara Harris (actress)|Barbara Harris]] as a phony psychic turned amateur sleuth in ''[[Family Plot]]'' (1976), his final film. In the same film, the diamond smuggler played by [[Karen Black]] wears a long blonde wig in several scenes. His films often feature characters struggling in their relationships with their mothers, such as Norman Bates in ''Psycho''. In ''North by Northwest'', Roger Thornhill ([[Cary Grant]]) is an innocent man ridiculed by his mother for insisting that shadowy, murderous men are after him. In ''The Birds'', the Rod Taylor character, an innocent man, finds his world under attack by vicious birds, and struggles to free himself from a clinging mother ([[Jessica Tandy]]). The killer in ''Frenzy'' has a loathing of women but idolises his mother. The villain Bruno in ''Strangers on a Train'' hates his father, but has an incredibly close relationship with his mother (played by [[Marion Lorne]]). Sebastian ([[Claude Rains]]) in ''Notorious'' has a clearly conflicting relationship with his mother, who is (rightly) suspicious of his new bride, Alicia Huberman ([[Ingrid Bergman]]).", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Filmmaking", "Relationship with actors"], "text": "Hitchcock became known for having remarked that \"actors should be treated like cattle\". During the filming of ''[[Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941 film)|Mr. & Mrs. Smith]]'' (1941), [[Carole Lombard]] brought three cows onto the set wearing the name tags of Lombard, [[Robert Montgomery (actor)|Robert Montgomery]], and [[Gene Raymond]], the stars of the film, to surprise him. In an episode of ''[[The Dick Cavett Show]]'', originally broadcast on 8 June 1972, [[Dick Cavett]] stated as fact that Hitchcock had once called actors cattle. Hitchcock responded by saying that, at one time, he had been accused of calling actors cattle. “I said that I would never say such an unfeeling, rude thing about actors at all. What I probably said, was that all actors should be treated like cattle...In a nice way of course.” He then described Carole Lombard's joke, with a smile. Hitchcock believed that actors should concentrate on their performances and leave work on script and character to the directors and screenwriters. He told [[Bryan Forbes]] in 1967: \"I remember discussing with a method actor how he was taught and so forth. He said, 'We're taught using improvisation. We are given an idea and then we are turned loose to develop in any way we want to.' I said 'That's not acting. That's writing.' “ Recalling their experiences on ''Lifeboat'' for Charles Chandler, author of ''It's Only a Movie: Alfred Hitchcock A Personal Biography,'' [[Walter Slezak]] said that Hitchcock “knew more about how to help an actor than any director I ever worked with”, and [[Hume Cronyn]] dismissed the idea that Hitchcock was not concerned with his actors as “utterly fallacious”, describing at length the process of rehearsing and filming ''Lifeboat''. Critics observed that, despite his reputation as a man who disliked actors, actors who worked with him often gave brilliant performances. He used the same actors in many of his films; Cary Grant and James Stewart both worked with Hitchcock four times, and Ingrid Bergman and Grace Kelly three. [[James Mason]] said that Hitchcock regarded actors as \"animated props\". For Hitchcock, the actors were part of the film's setting. He told François Truffaut: \"The chief requisite for an actor is the ability to do nothing well, which is by no means as easy as it sounds. He should be willing to be used and wholly integrated into the picture by the director and the camera. He must allow the camera to determine the proper emphasis and the most effective dramatic highlights.\"", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Filmmaking", "Writing, storyboards and production"], "text": "Hitchcock planned his scripts in detail with his writers. In ''Writing with Hitchcock'' (2001), Steven DeRosa noted that Hitchcock supervised them through every draft, asking that they tell the story visually. Hitchcock told [[Roger Ebert]] in 1969: Hitchcock's films were extensively [[storyboard]] to the finest detail. He was reported to have never even bothered looking through the [[viewfinder]], since he did not need to, although in publicity photos he was shown doing so. He also used this as an excuse to never have to change his films from his initial vision. If a studio asked him to change a film, he would claim that it was already shot in a single way, and that there were no alternative takes to consider. This view of Hitchcock as a director who relied more on pre-production than on the actual production itself has been challenged by Bill Krohn, the American correspondent of French film magazine ''[[Cahiers du cinéma]]'', in his book ''Hitchcock at Work''. After investigating script revisions, notes to other production personnel written by or to Hitchcock, and other production material, Krohn observed that Hitchcock's work often deviated from how the screenplay was written or how the film was originally envisioned. He noted that the myth of storyboards in relation to Hitchcock, often regurgitated by generations of commentators on his films, was to a great degree perpetuated by Hitchcock himself or the publicity arm of the studios. For example, the celebrated crop-spraying sequence of ''North by Northwest'' was not storyboarded at all. After the scene was filmed, the publicity department asked Hitchcock to make storyboards to promote the film, and Hitchcock in turn hired an artist to match the scenes in detail. Even when storyboards were made, scenes that were shot differed from them significantly. Krohn's analysis of the production of Hitchcock classics like ''Notorious'' reveals that Hitchcock was flexible enough to change a film's conception during its production. Another example Krohn notes is the American remake of ''The Man Who Knew Too Much,'' whose shooting schedule commenced without a finished script and moreover went over schedule, something that, as Krohn notes, was not an uncommon occurrence on many of Hitchcock's films, including ''[[Strangers on a Train (film)|Strangers on a Train]]'' and ''[[Topaz (1969 film)|Topaz]]''. While Hitchcock did do a great deal of preparation for all his films, he was fully cognisant that the actual film-making process often deviated from the best-laid plans and was flexible to adapt to the changes and needs of production as his films were not free from the normal hassles faced and common routines used during many other film productions.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Filmmaking", "Writing, storyboards and production"], "text": "Krohn's work also sheds light on Hitchcock's practice of generally shooting in chronological order, which he notes sent many films over budget and over schedule and, more importantly, differed from the standard operating procedure of Hollywood in the Studio System Era. Equally important is Hitchcock's tendency to shoot alternative takes of scenes. This differed from coverage in that the films were not necessarily shot from varying angles so as to give the editor options to shape the film how they chose (often under the producer's aegis). Rather they represented Hitchcock's tendency to give himself options in the editing room, where he would provide advice to his editors after viewing a rough cut of the work. According to Krohn, this and a great deal of other information revealed through his research of Hitchcock's personal papers, script revisions and the like refute the notion of Hitchcock as a director who was always in control of his films, whose vision of his films did not change during production, which Krohn notes has remained the central long-standing myth of Alfred Hitchcock. Both his fastidiousness and attention to detail also found their way into each [[film poster]] for his films. Hitchcock preferred to work with the best talent of his day—film poster designers such as [[Bill Gold]] and [[Saul Bass]]—who would produce posters that accurately represented his films.", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Awards and honours"], "text": "Hitchcock was inducted into the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] on 8 February 1960 with two stars: one for television and a second for his motion pictures. In 1978 [[John Russell Taylor]] described him as \"the most universally recognizable person in the world\" and \"a straightforward middle-class Englishman who just happened to be an artistic genius\". In 2002 ''[[MovieMaker Magazine|MovieMaker]]'' named him the most influential director of all time, and a 2007 ''The Daily Telegraph'' critics' poll ranked him Britain's greatest director. David Gritten, the newspaper's film critic, wrote: \"Unquestionably the greatest filmmaker to emerge from these islands, Hitchcock did more than any director to shape modern cinema, which would be utterly different without him. His flair was for narrative, cruelly withholding crucial information (from his characters and from us) and engaging the emotions of the audience like no one else.\" In 1992, the ''[[Sight & Sound]]'' Critics' Top Ten Poll ranked Hitchcock at No. 4 in its list of \"Top 10 Directors\" of all time. In 2002, Hitchcock was ranked 2nd in the critics' top ten poll and 5th in the director's top ten poll in the list of greatest directors of all time compiled by the same magazine. He won two [[Golden Globes]], eight [[Laurel Awards]], and five [[lifetime achievement awards]], including the first [[BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award]] and, in 1979, an [[AFI Life Achievement Award]]. He was nominated five times for an [[Academy Award for Best Director]]. ''[[Rebecca (1940 film)|Rebecca]]'', nominated for 11 Oscars, won the [[Academy Award for Best Picture#1940s|Academy Award for Best Picture of 1940]]; another Hitchcock film, ''[[Foreign Correspondent (film)|Foreign Correspondent]]'', was also nominated that year. By 2018, eight of his films had been selected for preservation by the US [[National Film Registry]]: ''Rebecca'' (1940; inducted 2018), ''Shadow of a Doubt'' (1943; inducted 1991), ''Notorious'' (1946; inducted 2006), ''Rear Window'' (1954; inducted 1997), ''Vertigo'' (1958; inducted 1989), ''North by Northwest'' (1959; inducted 1995), ''Psycho'' (1960; inducted 1992), and ''The Birds'' (1963; inducted 2016). In 2012 Hitchcock was selected by artist [[Peter Blake (artist)|Sir Peter Blake]], author of the Beatles' ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' album cover, to appear in a new version of the cover, along with other British cultural figures, and he was featured that year in a [[BBC Radio 4]] series, ''[[The New Elizabethans]]'', as someone \"whose actions during the reign of Elizabeth II have had a significant impact on lives in these islands and given the age its character\". In June 2013 nine restored versions of Hitchcock's early silent films, including ''The Pleasure Garden'' (1925), were shown at the [[Brooklyn Academy of Music]]'s Harvey Theatre; known as \"The Hitchcock 9\", the travelling tribute was organised by the [[British Film Institute]].", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Archives"], "text": "The Alfred Hitchcock Collection is housed at the [[Academy Film Archive]] in Hollywood, California. It includes home movies, 16mm film shot on the set of ''Blackmail'' (1929) and ''Frenzy'' (1972), and the earliest known colour footage of Hitchcock. The Academy Film Archive has preserved many of his home movies. The Alfred Hitchcock Papers are housed at the Academy's [[Margaret Herrick Library]]. The David O. Selznick and the Ernest Lehman collections housed at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center in Austin, Texas, contain material related to Hitchcock's work on the production of ''The Paradine Case'', ''Rebecca'', ''Spellbound'', ''North by Northwest'' and ''Family Plot.''", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Hitchcock portrayals"], "text": "(-) [[Anthony Hopkins]] in ''[[Hitchcock (film)|Hitchcock]]'' (2012) (-) [[Toby Jones]] in ''[[The Girl (2012 TV film)|The Girl]]'' (2012) (-) [[Roger Ashton-Griffiths]] in ''[[Grace of Monaco (film)|Grace of Monaco]]'' (2014)", "id": "808", "title": "Alfred Hitchcock", "categories": ["Alfred Hitchcock", "1899 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century English people", "Articles containing video clips", "BAFTA fellows", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Deaths from kidney failure", "Directors Guild of America Award winners", "Edgar Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English film producers", "English people of Irish descent", "English Roman Catholics", "English television directors", "Film directors from London", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film producers from London", "German-language film directors", "Horror film directors", "Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield", "People from Bel Air, Los Angeles", "People from Leytonstone", "People with acquired American citizenship", "American people of Irish descent", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Silent film directors", "Silent film screenwriters", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "English film directors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "Royal Engineers soldiers"], "seealso": ["List of film director and actor collaborations", "List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances", "Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Anacondas''' or '''water boas''' are a group of large [[snake]] of the [[genus]] ''[[Eunectes]]''. They are found in tropical [[South America]]. Four [[species]] are currently recognized.", "id": "809", "title": "Anaconda", "categories": ["Boidae", "Snake common names"], "seealso": ["South American jaguar"]}
{"headers": ["Description"], "text": "Although the name applies to a group of snakes, it is often used to refer only to one species, in particular, the common or [[green anaconda]] (''Eunectes murinus''), which is the largest snake in the world by weight, and the second longest.", "id": "809", "title": "Anaconda", "categories": ["Boidae", "Snake common names"], "seealso": ["South American jaguar"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The South American names ''anacauchoa'' and ''anacaona'' were suggested in an account by [[Peter Martyr d'Anghiera]], but the idea of a South American origin was questioned by [[Henry Walter Bates]] who, in his travels in South America, failed to find any similar name in use. The word anaconda is derived from the name of a snake from Ceylon ([[Sri Lanka]]) that [[John Ray]] described in Latin in his ''Synopsis Methodica Animalium'' (1693) as ''serpens indicus bubalinus anacandaia zeylonibus, ides bubalorum aliorumque jumentorum membra conterens''. Ray used a catalogue of snakes from the [[Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie|Leyden museum]] supplied by Dr. [[Tancred Robinson]], but the description of its habit was based on [[Andreas Cleyer]] who in 1684 described a gigantic snake that crushed large animals by coiling around their bodies and crushing their bones. [[Henry Yule]] in his [[Hobson-Jobson]] notes that the word became more popular due to a piece of fiction published in 1768 in the Scots Magazine by a certain R. Edwin. Edwin described a '[[tiger]]' being crushed to death by an anaconda, when there actually never were any tigers in Sri Lanka. Yule and [[Frank Wall (herpetologist)|Frank Wall]] noted that the snake was in fact a python and suggested a [[Tamil language|Tamil]] origin ''anai-kondra'' meaning elephant killer. A [[Sinhala language|Sinhalese]] origin was also suggested by Donald Ferguson who pointed out that the word ''Henakandaya'' (''hena'' lightning/large and ''kanda'' stem/trunk) was used in Sri Lanka for the small whip snake (''[[Ahaetulla pulverulenta]]'') and somehow got misapplied to the python before myths were created. The name commonly used for the anaconda in Brazil is ''sucuri'', ''sucuriju'' or ''sucuriuba''.", "id": "809", "title": "Anaconda", "categories": ["Boidae", "Snake common names"], "seealso": ["South American jaguar"]}
{"headers": ["Species and other uses of the term \"anaconda\""], "text": "The term \"anaconda\" has been used to refer to: (-) Any member of the genus ''[[Eunectes]]'', a group of large, aquatic snakes found in South America: (-) ''[[Eunectes murinus]]'', the green anaconda – the largest species, found east of the Andes in Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil and [[Trinidad and Tobago]] (-) ''[[Eunectes notaeus]]'', the yellow anaconda – a small species, found in eastern Bolivia, southern Brazil, Paraguay, and northeastern Argentina (-) ''[[Eunectes deschauenseei]]'', the darkly-spotted anaconda – a rare species, found in northeastern Brazil and coastal French Guiana (-) ''[[Eunectes beniensis]]'', the Bolivian anaconda – the most recently defined species, found in the Departments of Beni and Pando in [[Bolivia]] (-) The term was previously applied imprecisely, indicating any large snake that [[constriction|constricts]] its prey, though this usage is now archaic. (-) \"Anaconda\" is also used as a metaphor for an action aimed at constricting and suffocating an opponent – for example, the [[Anaconda Plan]] proposed at the beginning of the [[American Civil War]], in which the Union Army was to effectively \"suffocate\" the Confederacy. Another example is the [[Arm triangle choke#Anaconda choke|anaconda choke]] in the martial art [[Brazilian jiu-jitsu]], which is performed by wrapping your arms under the opponent's neck and through the armpit, and grasping the biceps of the opposing arm, when caught in this move, you will lose consciousness if you do not tap out.", "id": "809", "title": "Anaconda", "categories": ["Boidae", "Snake common names"], "seealso": ["South American jaguar"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Altaic''' (; also called '''Transeurasian''') is a ''[[sprachbund]]'' (i.e. a linguistic area) and proposed [[language family]] that would include the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]], [[Mongolic languages|Mongolian]] and [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic language families]] and possibly also the [[Japonic languages|Japonic]] and [[Koreanic languages]]. Speakers of these languages are currently scattered over most of [[Asia]] north of 35 °N and in some eastern parts of [[Europe]], extending in longitude from [[Turkey]] to [[Japan]]. The group is named after the [[Altai Mountains|Altai mountain range]] in the center of Asia. The hypothetical language family has long been rejected by most [[Comparative linguistics|comparative linguists]], although it continues to be supported by a small but stable scholarly minority. The Altaic family was first proposed in the 18th century. It was widely accepted until the 1960s and is still listed in many encyclopedias and handbooks. Since the 1950s, many comparative linguists have rejected the proposal, after supposed [[cognate]] were found not to be valid, hypothesized sound shifts were not found and Turkic and Mongolic languages were found to be converging rather than diverging over the centuries. Opponents of the theory proposed that the similarities are due to [[language contact|mutual linguistic influences]] between the groups concerned. Modern supporters of Altaic acknowledge that many shared features are the result of contact and [[Language convergence|convergence]] and thus cannot be taken as evidence for a genetic relationship, but nevertheless argue that a core of existing correspondences goes back to a common ancestor. The original hypothesis unified only the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic groups. Later proposals to include the Korean and Japanese languages into a \"Macro-Altaic\" family have always been controversial. (The original proposal was sometimes called \"Micro-Altaic\" by [[retronym]].) Most proponents of Altaic continue to support the inclusion of Korean. A common ancestral [[Proto-Altaic language]] for the \"Macro\" family has been tentatively reconstructed by [[Sergei Starostin]] and others. Micro-Altaic includes about 66 living languages, to which Macro-Altaic would add Korean, [[Jeju language|Jeju]], Japanese and the [[Ryukyuan languages]], for a total of 74 (depending on what is considered a language and what is considered a [[Language or dialect|dialect]]). These numbers do not include earlier states of languages, such as [[Middle Mongol language|Middle Mongol]], [[Old Korean]] or [[Old Japanese]].", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["Earliest attestations of the languages"], "text": "The earliest known texts in a Turkic language are the [[Orkhon inscriptions]], 720–735 AD. They were deciphered in 1893 by the Danish linguist [[Vilhelm Thomsen]] in a scholarly race with his rival, the German–Russian linguist [[Vasily Radlov|Wilhelm Radloff]]. However, Radloff was the first to publish the inscriptions. The first Tungusic language to be attested is [[Jurchen language|Jurchen]], the language of the ancestors of the [[Qing dynasty|Manchus]]. A writing system for it was devised in 1119 AD and an inscription using this system is known from 1185 (see [[List of Jurchen inscriptions]]). The earliest [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] language of which we have written evidence is known as [[Middle Mongol language|Middle Mongol]]. It is first attested by an inscription dated to 1224 or 1225 AD, the [[Stele of Yisüngge]], and by the ''[[Secret History of the Mongols]]'', written in 1228 (see [[Mongolic languages]]). The earliest Para-Mongolic text is the [[Memorial for Yelü Yanning]], written in the [[Khitan large script]] and dated to 986 AD. However, the [[Inscription of Hüis Tolgoi]], discovered in 1975 and analysed as being in an early form of Mongolic, has been dated to 604-620 AD. The [[Bugut inscription]] dates back to 584 AD. Japanese is first attested in the form of names contained in a few short inscriptions in [[Classical Chinese]] from the 5th century AD, such as found on the [[Inariyama Sword]]. The first substantial text in Japanese, however, is the [[Kojiki]], which dates from 712 AD. It is followed by the [[Nihon Shoki|Nihon shoki]], completed in 720, and then by the [[Man'yōshū]], which dates from [[circa|c.]] 771–785, but includes material that is from about 400 years earlier. The most important text for the study of early Korean is the [[Hyangga]], a collection of 25 poems, of which some go back to the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea|Three Kingdoms]] period (57 BC–668 AD), but are preserved in an [[orthography]] that only goes back to the 9th century AD. Korean is copiously attested from the mid-15th century on in the phonetically precise [[Hangul]] system of writing.", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["History of the Altaic family concept", "Origins"], "text": "A proposed grouping of the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages was published in 1730 by [[Philip Johan von Strahlenberg]], a Swedish officer who traveled in the eastern [[Russian Empire]] while a prisoner of war after the [[Great Northern War]]. However, he may not have intended to imply a closer relationship among those languages.", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["History of the Altaic family concept", "Uralo-Altaic hypothesis"], "text": "In 1844, the Finnish [[Philology|philologist]] [[Matthias Castrén]] proposed a broader grouping, that later came to be called the [[Ural–Altaic languages|Ural–Altaic family]], which included Turkic, Mongolian, and Manchu-Tungus (=Tungusic) as an \"Altaic\" branch, and also the [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] and [[Samoyedic languages]] as the \"Uralic\" branch (though Castrén himself used the terms \"Tataric\" and \"Chudic\"). The name \"Altaic\" referred to the [[Altai Mountains]] in East-Central Asia, which are approximately the center of the geographic range of the three main families. The name \"Uralic\" referred to the [[Ural Mountains]]. While the Ural-Altaic family hypothesis can still be found in some encyclopedias, atlases, and similar general references, after the 1960s it has been heavily criticized. Even linguists who accept the basic Altaic family, like [[Sergei Starostin]], completely discard the inclusion of the \"Uralic\" branch.", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["History of the Altaic family concept", "Korean and Japanese languages"], "text": "In 1857, the Austrian scholar [[Anton Boller]] suggested adding [[Japanese language|Japanese]] to the Ural–Altaic family. In the 1920s, [[Gustaf John Ramstedt|G.J. Ramstedt]] and [[Yevgeny Polivanov|E.D. Polivanov]] advocated the inclusion of Korean. Decades later, in his 1952 book, Ramstedt rejected the Ural–Altaic hypothesis but again included Korean in Altaic, an inclusion followed by most leading Altaicists (supporters of the theory) to date. His book contained the first comprehensive attempt to identify regular correspondences among the sound systems within the Altaic language families. In 1960, Nicholas Poppe published what was in effect a heavily revised version of Ramstedt's volume on phonology that has since set the standard in Altaic studies. Poppe considered the issue of the relationship of Korean to Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic not settled. In his view, there were three possibilities: (1) Korean did not belong with the other three genealogically, but had been influenced by an Altaic substratum; (2) Korean was related to the other three at the same level they were related to each other; (3) Korean had split off from the other three before they underwent a series of characteristic changes. [[Roy Andrew Miller]]'s 1971 book ''Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages'' convinced most Altaicists that Japanese also belonged to Altaic. Since then, the \"Macro-Altaic\" has been generally assumed to include Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese. In 1990, Unger advocated a family consisting of Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic languages, but not Turkic or Mongolic. However, many linguists dispute the alleged affinities of Korean and Japanese to the other three groups. Some authors instead tried to connect Japanese to the [[Austronesian languages]]. In 2017 [[Martine Robbeets]] proposed that Japanese (and possibly Korean) originated as a [[creole language|hybrid language]]. She proposed that the [[urheimat|ancestral home]] of the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages was somewhere in northwestern [[Manchuria]]. A group of those proto-Altaic (\"Transeurasian\") speakers would have migrated south into the modern [[Liaoning]] province, where they would have been mostly assimilated by an agricultural community with an [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]]-like language. The fusion of the two languages would have resulted in proto-Japanese and proto-Korean. In a typological study that does not directly evaluate the validity of the Altaic hypothesis, Yurayong and Szeto (2020) discuss for Koreanic and Japonic the stages of convergence to the Altaic typological model and subsequent divergence from that model, which resulted in the present typological similarity between Koreanic and Japonic. They state that both are \"still so different from the Core Altaic languages that we can even speak of an independent Japanese-Korean type of grammar. Given also that there is neither a strong proof of common Proto-Altaic lexical items nor solid regular sound correspondences but, rather, only lexical and structural borrowings between languages of the Altaic typology, our results indirectly speak in favour of a “Paleo-Asiatic” origin of the Japonic and Koreanic languages.\"", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["History of the Altaic family concept", "The Ainu language"], "text": "In 1962 John C. Street proposed an alternative classification, with Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic in one grouping and Korean-Japanese-[[Ainu language|Ainu]] in another, joined in what he designated as the \"North Asiatic\" family. The inclusion of Ainu was adopted also by [[James Patrie]] in 1982. The Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic and Korean-Japanese-Ainu groupings were also posited in 2000–2002 by [[Joseph Greenberg]]. However, he treated them as independent members of a larger family, which he termed [[Eurasiatic languages|Eurasiatic]]. The inclusion of Ainu is not widely accepted by Altaicists. In fact, no convincing genealogical relationship between Ainu and any other language family has been demonstrated, and it is generally regarded as a [[language isolate]].", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["History of the Altaic family concept", "Early criticism and rejection"], "text": "Starting in the late 1950s, some linguists became increasingly critical of even the minimal Altaic family hypothesis, disputing the alleged evidence of genetic connection between Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic languages. Among the earlier critics were [[Gerard Clauson]] (1956), [[Gerhard Doerfer]] (1963), and [[Alexander Shcherbak]]. They claimed that the words and features shared by Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages were for the most part borrowings and that the rest could be attributed to chance resemblances. In 1988, Doerfer again rejected all the genetic claims over these major groups.", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["History of the Altaic family concept", "Modern controversy"], "text": "A major continuing supporter of the Altaic hypothesis has been S. Starostin, who published a comparative lexical analysis of the Altaic languages in (1991). He concluded that the analysis supported the Altaic grouping, although it was \"older than most other language families in Eurasia, such as Indo-European or Finno-Ugric, and this is the reason why the modern Altaic languages preserve few common elements\". In 1991 and again in 1996, Roy Miller defended the Altaic hypothesis and claimed that the criticisms of Clauson and Doerfer apply exclusively to the lexical correspondences, whereas the most pressing evidence for the theory is the similarities in verbal morphology. In 2003, Claus Schönig published a critical overview of the history of the Altaic hypothesis up to that time, siding with the earlier criticisms of Clauson, Doerfer, and Shcherbak. In 2003, Starostin, [[Anna Dybo]] and Oleg Mudrak published the ''[[Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages]]'', which expanded the 1991 lexical lists and added other phonological and grammatical arguments. Starostin's book was criticized by Stefan Georg in 2004 and 2005, and by Alexander Vovin in 2005. Other defenses of the theory, in response to the criticisms of Georg and Vovin, were published by Starostin in 2005, Blažek in 2006, Robbeets in 2007, and Dybo and G. Starostin in 2008 In 2010, [[Lars Johanson]] echoed Miller's 1996 rebuttal to the critics, and called for a muting of the polemic.", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["History of the Altaic family concept", "List of supporters and critics of the Altaic hypothesis"], "text": "The list below comprises linguists who have worked specifically on the Altaic problem since the publication of the first volume of Ramstedt's ''Einführung'' in 1952. The dates given are those of works concerning Altaic. For supporters of the theory, the version of Altaic they favor is given at the end of the entry, if other than the prevailing one of Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean–Japanese.", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["History of the Altaic family concept", "List of supporters and critics of the Altaic hypothesis", "Major supporters"], "text": "(-) [[Pentti Aalto]] (1955). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean. (-) [[Anna V. Dybo]] (S. Starostin et al. 2003, A. Dybo and G. Starostin 2008). (-) [[Frederik Kortlandt]] (2010). (-) [[Karl H. Menges]] (1975). Common ancestor of Korean, Japanese and traditional Altaic dated back to the 7th or 8th millennium BC (1975: 125). (-) [[Roy Andrew Miller]] (1971, 1980, 1986, 1996). Supported the inclusion of Korean and Japanese. (-) [[Oleg A. Mudrak]] (S. Starostin et al. 2003). (-) [[Nicholas Poppe]] (1965). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and perhaps Korean. (-) [[Alexis Manaster Ramer]]. (-) [[Martine Robbeets]] (2004, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2015) (in the form of \"Transeurasian\"). (-) [[Gustaf John Ramstedt|G. J. Ramstedt]] (1952–1957). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean. (-) [[Georgiy Starostin|George Starostin]] (A. Dybo and G. Starostin 2008). (-) [[Sergei Starostin]] (1991, S. Starostin et al. 2003). (-) [[John C. Street]] (1962). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and Korean–Japanese–Ainu, grouped as \"North Asiatic\". (-) [[Talat Tekin]] (1994). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean.", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["History of the Altaic family concept", "List of supporters and critics of the Altaic hypothesis", "Major critics"], "text": "(-) [[Gerard Clauson]] (1956, 1959, 1962). (-) [[Gerhard Doerfer]] (1963, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1981, 1985, 1988, 1993). (-) [[Susumu Ōno]] (1970, 2000) (-) [[Juha Janhunen]] (1992, 1995) (tentative support of Mongolic-Tungusic). (-) [[Claus Schönig]] (2003). (-) [[Stefan Georg]] (2004, 2005). (-) [[Alexander Vovin]] (2005, 2010). Formerly an advocate of Altaic (1994, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001), now a critic. (-) [[Alexander Shcherbak]]. (-) [[Alexander B. M. Stiven]] (2008, 2010).", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["History of the Altaic family concept", "List of supporters and critics of the Altaic hypothesis", "Advocates of alternative hypotheses"], "text": "(-) [[James Patrie]] (1982) and [[Joseph Greenberg]] (2000–2002). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and Korean–Japanese–Ainu, grouped in a common [[taxon]] (cf. John C. Street 1962), called [[Eurasiatic languages|Eurasiatic]] by Greenberg. (-) [[J. Marshall Unger]] (1990). Tungusic–Korean–Japanese (\"'''Macro-Tungusic'''\"), with Turkic and Mongolic as separate language families. (-) [[Lars Johanson]] (2010). Agnostic, proponent of a \"Transeurasian\" verbal morphology not necessarily genealogically linked.", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["Arguments", "For the Altaic grouping", "Phonological and grammatical features"], "text": "The original arguments for grouping the \"micro-Altaic\" languages within a Uralo-Altaic family were based on such shared features as [[vowel harmony]] and [[agglutinative language|agglutination]]. According to Roy Miller, the most pressing evidence for the theory is the similarities in [[verb]] [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]]. The ''Etymological Dictionary'' by Starostin and others (2003) proposes a set of sound change laws that would explain the evolution from Proto-Altaic to the descendant languages. For example, although most of today's Altaic languages have vowel harmony, Proto-Altaic as reconstructed by them lacked it; instead, various vowel assimilations between the first and second syllables of words occurred in Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic. They also included a number of grammatical correspondences between the languages.", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["Arguments", "For the Altaic grouping", "Shared lexicon"], "text": "Starostin claimed in 1991 that the members of the proposed Altaic group shared about 15–20% of apparent cognates within a 110-word [[Swadesh list#Shorter lists|Swadesh-Yakhontov list]]; in particular, Turkic–Mongolic 20%, Turkic–Tungusic 18%, Turkic–Korean 17%, Mongolic–Tungusic 22%, Mongolic–Korean 16%, and Tungusic–Korean 21%. The 2003 ''Etymological Dictionary'' includes a list of 2,800 proposed [[cognate]] sets, as well as a few important changes to the reconstruction of Proto-Altaic. The authors tried hard to distinguish loans between Turkic and Mongolic and between Mongolic and Tungusic from cognates; and suggest words that occur in Turkic and Tungusic but not in Mongolic. All other combinations between the five branches also occur in the book. It lists 144 items of shared basic vocabulary, including words for such items as 'eye', 'ear', 'neck', 'bone', 'blood', 'water', 'stone', 'sun', and 'two'. [[Martine Robbeets|Robbeets]] and Bouckaert (2018) use [[Bayesian phylogeny|Bayesian phylolinguistic methods]] to argue for the coherence of the \"narrow\" Altaic languages (Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic) together with Japonic and Koreanic, which they refer to as the ''Transeurasian'' languages. Their results include the following phylogenetic tree: [[Martine Robbeets]] (2020) argues that early Transeurasian speakers were originally agriculturalists in northeastern China, only becoming pastoralists later on. Some lexical reconstructions of agricultural terms by Robbeets (2020) are listed below. (-) Abbreviations (-) PTEA = Proto-Transeurasian (-) PA = Proto-Altaic (-) PTk = Proto-Turkic (-) PMo = Proto-Mongolic (-) PTg = Proto-Tungusic (-) PJK = Proto-Japano-Koreanic (-) PK = Proto-Koreanic (-) PJ = Proto-Japonic Additional family-level reconstructions of agricultural vocabulary from Robbeets et al. (2020): (-) Proto-Turkic *ek- ‘to sprinkle with the hand; sow’ > *ek-e.g. ‘plow’ (-) Proto-Turkic *tarï- ‘to cultivate (the ground)’ > *tarï-g ‘what is cultivated; crops, main crop, cultivated land’ (-) Proto-Turkic *ko- ‘to put’ > *koːn- ‘to settle down (of animals), to take up residence (of people), to be planted (of plants)’ > *konak ‘foxtail millet (''[[Setaria italica]]'')’ (-) Proto-Turkic *tög- ‘to hit, beat; to pound, crush (food in a mortar); to husk, thresh (cereals)’ > *tögi ‘husked millet; husked rice’ (-) Proto-Turkic *ügür ‘(broomcorn) millet’ (-) Proto-Turkic *arpa ‘barley (''[[Hordeum vulgare]]'')' < ? Proto-Iranian *arbusā ‘barley’ (-) Proto-Mongolic *amun ‘cereals; broomcorn millet (''[[Panicum miliaceum]]'')’ (Nugteren 2011: 268) (-) Proto-Mongolic *konag ‘foxtail millet’ < PTk *konak ‘foxtail millet (''[[Setaria italica]]'')’ (-) Proto-Mongolic *budaga ‘cooked cereals; porridge; meal’ (-) Proto-Mongolic *tari- ‘to sow, plant’ (Nugteren 2011: 512–13) (-) Proto-Macro-Mongolic *püre ‘seed; descendants’ (-) Proto-Tungusic *pisi-ke ‘broomcorn millet (''[[Panicum miliaceum]]'')’ (-) Proto-Tungusic *jiya- ‘foxtail millet (''[[Setaria italica]]'')’ (-) Proto-Tungusic *murgi ‘barley (''[[Hordeum vulgare]]'')’ (-) Proto-Tungusic *üse- ~ *üsi- ‘to plant’ üse ~ üsi ‘seed, seedling’, üsi-n ‘field for cultivation’ (-) Proto-Tungusic *tari- ‘to sow, to plant’ (-) Proto-Koreanic *pisi ‘seed’, *pihi ‘[[barnyard millet]]’ < Proto-Transeurasian (PTEA) *pisi-i (sow-NMLZ) ‘seed’ ~ *pisi-ke (sow-RES.NMLZ) ‘what is sown, major crop’ (-) Proto-Koreanic *patʌ-k ‘dry field’ < Proto-Japano-Koreanic (PJK) *pata ‘dry field’ < PTEA *pata ‘field for cultivation’ (-) Proto-Koreanic *mutʌ-k ‘dry land’ < PJK *muta ‘land’ < PTEA *mudu ‘uncultivated land’ (-) Proto-Koreanic *mat-ʌk ‘garden plot’ < PJK *mat ‘plot of land for cultivation’ (-) Proto-Koreanic *non ‘rice paddy field’ < PJK *non ‘field’", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["Arguments", "For the Altaic grouping", "Shared lexicon"], "text": "(-) Proto-Koreanic *pap ‘any boiled preparation of cereal; boiled rice’ (-) Proto-Koreanic *pʌsal ‘hulled (of any grain); hulled corn of grain; hulled rice’ < Proto-Japonic *wasa-ra ‘early ripening (of any grain)’ (-) Proto-Koreanic *ipi > *pi > *pye ‘(unhusked) rice’ < Proto-Japonic *ip-i (eat-NMLZ) ‘cooked millet, steamed rice’ (-) Proto-Japonic *nuka ‘rice bran’ < PJ *nuka- (remove.NMLZ) (-) Proto-Japonic *məmi ‘hulled rice’ < PJ *məm-i (move.back.and.forth.with.force-NMLZ) (-) Proto-Japonic *ipi ‘cooked millet, steamed rice’ < *ip-i (eat-NMLZ) < PK *me(k)i ‘rice offered to a higher rank’ < *mek-i (eat-NMLZ) ‘what you eat, food’ < Proto-Austronesian *ka-en eat-OBJ.NMLZ (-) Proto-Japonic *wasa- ~ *wəsə- ‘to be early ripening (of crops); an early ripening variety (of any crop); early-ripening rice plant’ (-) Proto-Japonic *usu ‘(rice and grain) mortar’ < Para-Austronesian *lusuŋ ‘(rice) mortar’; cf. [[Proto-Austronesian]] *lusuŋ ‘(rice) mortar’ (-) Proto-Japonic *kəmai ‘dehusked rice’ < Para-Austronesian *hemay < Proto-Macro-Austronesian *Semay ‘cooked rice’; cf. [[Proto-Austronesian]] *Semay ‘cooked rice’", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["Arguments", "For the Altaic grouping", "Archaeolinguistic support"], "text": "A study published in February 2020 in the ''Evolutionary Human Sciences'' supports the coherence of the Transeurasian (Altaic) family through archaeolinguistic evidence. It posits that the sophisticated [[textile]] technology and [[millet]] [[Agriculture|farming]] expansion from Northeast China in [[East Asia]] can be linked with the expansion of the Transeurasian languages. The researchers were also able to reconstruct a textile vocabulary for the proto-Transeurasian language. However, Kim and Park (2020) in the same journal criticized the conclusions and favoured the rice farming hypothesis for Korean and Japanese. According to their results, Koreanic (and Japonic) language spread can be linked to the spread of rice-cultivation and rice farming related vocabulary as opposed to millet farming which was practiced in a geographical nearby region in Manchuria. The authors point out that isotopic studies clearly show that sea resources and wild plants were the main diet of the people in Korea during the [[Jeulmun pottery period|Chulmun period]] (period including the arrival of millet agriculture), that introduction of millet agriculture didn't heavily affect the material culture and subsistence economy of the Chulmun culture and noted with a summary of previous demographic studies that the population seems to suddenly decrease in a period coinciding with the arrival of millet whereas it should increase in the context of a people migration. They suggest two scenarios explaining the spread of Koreanic and Japonic (which they agree to reunite in the [[Comparison of Japanese and Korean|Japano-Koreanic family]]) : The first one is that Proto-Japonic and Proto-Koreanic already split before their entrance in [[Korean peninsula]] and migrated together, bringing with them the dry farming of rice and giving way to the [[Mumun pottery period|Mumun period]]; Proto-Japonic speakers would later have aggregated in southern Korea and developed the [[Songguk-ri|Songgukri culture]]. The second one suggests that Proto-Japano-Koreanic speakers migrated to Korea and that Proto-Japonic and Proto-Koreanic respectively developed in the southwestern and central parts of the peninsula. However they admit themselves that both scenarios have problems, the first one is difficult to reconcile with the fact that Early Mumun archeological was homogenous throughout the peninsula, the two groups cannot be clearly distinguished; the second scenario assumes a relatively recent split between Japonic and Koreanic whereas the linguistic distance is too great to assume it. Anyway they support a rice farming dispersal and argue that they can not be linked to the millet farming cultures, rejecting Robbeets' proposal of a Northeast China origin for Koreanic and Japonic (on which the modern Transeurasian theory is based ).", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["Arguments", "For the Altaic grouping", "Archaeolinguistic support"], "text": "However, Hudson and Robbeets (2020) responded to this study and still maintain that archaeological elements relating to sedentism, pottery, stone tools and weaving technology supports a Northeast China agricultural origin for proto-Koreanic and proto-Japonic. They pointed out several problems in the arguments of Kim and Park. Many of the isotope studies are from coastal shell middens, where human bones are better preserved, and not inland sites. The farming/language hypotheses doesn't require that farming was the only nor the largest component of a subsistence economy. A language shift does not require a massive initial influx of speakers and the possibility of a small number of speakers which later grew is not evaluated, it has been proved in previous studies that even small technological advantages can heavily impact the language shift; Kim and Park placed the introduction of millet agriculture in 3500 BC and interpreted its arrival as a population decrease whereas previous studies they didn't consider showed several evidences for an arrival of millet one or two centuries earlier, which is actually consistent with a population increase, recent studies have even noted an 'explosive' and rapid demographic increase with the arrival of millet agriculture in Korea. Hudson and Robbeets suggest that a ''[[Yersina pestis]]'' epidemic was probably the main reason of this drastic decrease, pointing out many evidences. They argue that there is in fact no common rice vocabulary shared between proto-Koreanic and proto-Japonic, indicating that the separation between the two families would have occurred before the introduction of rice farming and placing it in Northeast China rather than Korea. In addition to the problems cited by Kim and Park for their scenarios, Hudson and Robbeets also support that Proto-Japonic was spoken in the north of the peninsula and not the south, arguing that the [[Puyŏ languages]] — spoken in Northern Korea and Liaodong peninsula by the beginning of the [[Eastern Han dynasty]] — were more closely related to Japanese than to Korean.", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["Arguments", "Against the grouping", "Weakness of lexical and typological data"], "text": "According to G. Clauson (1956), G. Doerfer (1963), and A. Shcherbak (1963), many of the [[linguistic typology|typological]] features of the supposed Altaic languages, particularly [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] strongly suffixing [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and [[subject–object–verb]] (SOV) word order, often occur together in languages. Those critics also argued that the words and features shared by Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages were for the most part borrowings and that the rest could be attributed to chance resemblances. They noted that there was little vocabulary shared by Turkic and Tungusic languages, though more shared with Mongolic languages. They reasoned that, if all three families had a common ancestor, we should expect losses to happen at random, and not only at the geographical margins of the family; and that the observed pattern is consistent with borrowing. According to C. Schönig (2003), after accounting for areal effects, the shared lexicon that could have a common genetic origin was reduced to a small number of monosyllabic lexical roots, including the personal pronouns and a few other deictic and auxiliary items, whose sharing could be explained in other ways; not the kind of sharing expected in cases of genetic relationship.", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["Arguments", "Against the grouping", "The Sprachbund hypothesis"], "text": "Instead of a common genetic origin, Clauson, Doerfer, and Shcherbak proposed (in 1956–1966) that Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages form a ''[[Sprachbund]]'': a set of languages with similarities due to [[Language convergence|convergence]] through intensive borrowing and long contact, rather than common origin. [[Asya Pereltsvaig]] further observed in 2011 that, in general, [[genetic relationship (linguistics)|genetically related]] languages and families tend to diverge over time: the earlier forms are more similar than modern forms. However, she claims that an analysis of the earliest written records of Mongolic and Turkic languages shows the opposite, suggesting that they do not share a common traceable ancestor, but rather have become more similar through language contact and areal effects.", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}
{"headers": ["Hypothesis about the original homeland"], "text": "The prehistory of the peoples speaking the \"Altaic\" languages is largely unknown. Whereas for certain other language families, such as the speakers of [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]], [[Proto-Uralic language|Uralic]], and [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]], it is possible to frame substantial hypotheses, in the case of the proposed Altaic family much remains to be done. Some scholars have hypothesised a possible Uralic and Altaic homeland in the [[Central Asian steppes]]. According to [[Juha Janhunen]], the ancestral languages of Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese were spoken in a relatively small area comprising present-day North Korea, Southern Manchuria, and Southeastern Mongolia. However Janhunen is sceptical about an affiliation of Japanese to Altaic, while [[András Róna-Tas]] remarked that a relationship between Altaic and Japanese, if it ever existed, must be more remote than the relationship of any two of the Indo-European languages. Ramsey stated that \"the genetic relationship between Korean and Japanese, if it in fact exists, is probably more complex and distant than we can imagine on the basis of our present state of knowledge\". Supporters of the Altaic hypothesis formerly set the date of the Proto-Altaic language at around 4000 BC, but today at around 5000 BC or 6000 BC. This would make Altaic a language family about as old as [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] (around 3000 to 7000 BC according to several hypotheses) but considerably younger than [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] (c. 10,000 BC or 11,000 to 16,000 BC according to different sources).", "id": "824", "title": "Altaic languages", "categories": ["Altaic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Central Asia", "Proposed language families"], "seealso": ["Comparison of Japanese and Korean", "Nostratic languages", "Classification of the Japonic languages", "Xiongnu", "Turco-Mongol", "Pan-Turanism", "Uralo-Siberian languages"]}