{"headers": [], "text": "'''Ambiguity''' is a type of [[meaning (linguistics)|meaning]] in which a phrase, statement or resolution is not explicitly defined, making several interpretations [[wikt:plausible#Adjective|plausible]]. A common aspect of ambiguity is [[uncertainty]]. It is thus an attribute of any idea or statement whose [[intention|intended]] meaning cannot be definitively resolved according to a rule or process with a finite number of steps. (The ''[[wikt:ambi-#Prefix|ambi]]-'' part of the [[Terminology|term]] reflects an idea of \"[[2 (number)|two]]\", as in \"two meanings\".) The concept of ambiguity is generally contrasted with [[vagueness]]. In ambiguity, specific and distinct interpretations are permitted (although some may not be immediately obvious), whereas with information that is vague, it is difficult to form any interpretation at the desired level of specificity. Context may play a role in resolving ambiguity. For example, the same piece of information may be ambiguous in one context and unambiguous in another.", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Linguistic forms"], "text": "Lexical ambiguity is contrasted with [[semantic ambiguity]]. The former represents a choice between a finite number of known and meaningful [[context (language use)|context]]-dependent interpretations. The latter represents a choice between any number of possible interpretations, none of which may have a standard agreed-upon meaning. This form of ambiguity is closely related to [[vagueness]]. Linguistic ambiguity [[Ambiguity (law)|can be a problem in law]], because the interpretation of written documents and oral agreements is often of paramount importance.", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Linguistic forms", "Lexical ambiguity"], "text": "The [[Polysemy|lexical ambiguity]] of a word or phrase pertains to its having more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs. \"Meaning\" here refers to whatever should be captured by a good dictionary. For instance, the word \"bank\" has several distinct lexical definitions, including \"[[Bank|financial institution]]\" and \"[[Bank (geography)|edge of a river]]\". Or consider \"[[apothecary]]\". One could say \"I bought herbs from the apothecary\". This could mean one actually spoke to the apothecary ([[pharmacist]]) or went to the apothecary ([[pharmacy]]). The context in which an ambiguous word is used often makes it evident which of the meanings is intended. If, for instance, someone says \"I buried $100 in the bank\", most people would not think someone used a shovel to dig in the mud. However, some linguistic contexts do not provide sufficient information to disambiguate a used word. Lexical ambiguity can be addressed by algorithmic methods that automatically associate the appropriate meaning with a word in context, a task referred to as [[word sense disambiguation]]. The use of multi-defined words requires the author or speaker to clarify their context, and sometimes elaborate on their specific intended meaning (in which case, a less ambiguous term should have been used). The goal of clear concise communication is that the receiver(s) have no misunderstanding about what was meant to be conveyed. An exception to this could include a politician whose \"[[weasel word]]\" and [[obfuscation]] are necessary to gain support from multiple [[Electoral district|constituents]] with [[mutually exclusive]] conflicting desires from their candidate of choice. Ambiguity is a powerful tool of [[political science]]. More problematic are words whose senses express closely related concepts. \"Good\", for example, can mean \"useful\" or \"functional\" (''That's a good hammer''), \"exemplary\" (''She's a good student''), \"pleasing\" (''This is good soup''), \"moral\" (''a good person'' versus ''the lesson to be learned from a story''), \"[[righteous]]\", etc. \"I have a good daughter\" is not clear about which sense is intended. The various ways to apply [[prefix]] and [[suffix]] can also create ambiguity (\"unlockable\" can mean \"capable of being unlocked\" or \"impossible to lock\").", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Linguistic forms", "Semantic and syntactic ambiguity"], "text": "[[Semantic ambiguity]] occurs when a word, phrase or sentence, taken out of context, has more than one interpretation. In \"We saw her duck\" (example due to Richard Nordquist), the words \"her duck\" can refer either (1) to the person's bird (the noun \"duck\", modified by the possessive pronoun \"her\"), or (2) to a motion she made (the verb \"duck\", the subject of which is the objective pronoun \"her\", object of the verb \"saw\"). [[Syntactic ambiguity]] arises when a sentence can have two (or more) different meanings because of the structure of the sentence—its syntax. This is often due to a modifying expression, such as a prepositional phrase, the application of which is unclear. \"He ate the cookies on the couch\", for example, could mean that he ate those cookies that were on the couch (as opposed to those that were on the table), or it could mean that he was sitting on the couch when he ate the cookies. \"To get in, you will need an entrance fee of $10 or your voucher and your drivers' license.\" This could mean that you need EITHER ten dollars OR BOTH your voucher and your license. Or it could mean that you need your license AND you need EITHER ten dollars OR a voucher. Only rewriting the sentence, or placing appropriate punctuation can resolve a syntactic ambiguity. For the notion of, and theoretic results about, syntactic ambiguity in artificial, [[formal languages]] (such as computer [[programming language]]), see [[Ambiguous grammar]]. Usually, semantic and syntactic ambiguity go hand in hand. The sentence \"We saw her duck\" is also syntactically ambiguous. Conversely, a sentence like \"He ate the cookies on the couch\" is also semantically ambiguous. Rarely, but occasionally, the different parsings of a syntactically ambiguous phrase result in the same meaning. For example, the command \"Cook, cook!\" can be parsed as \"Cook (noun used as vocative), cook (imperative verb form)!\", but also as \"Cook (imperative verb form), cook (noun used as vocative)!\". It is more common that a syntactically unambiguous phrase has a semantic ambiguity; for example, the lexical ambiguity in \"Your boss is a funny man\" is purely semantic, leading to the response \"Funny ha-ha or funny peculiar?\" [[Spoken language]] can contain many more types of ambiguities which are called phonological ambiguities, where there is more than one way to compose a set of sounds into words. For example, \"ice cream\" and \"I scream\". Such ambiguity is generally resolved according to the context. A mishearing of such, based on incorrectly resolved ambiguity, is called a [[mondegreen]].", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Linguistic forms", "Semantic and syntactic ambiguity"], "text": "[[Metonymy]] involves referring to one entity by the name of a different but closely related entity (for example, using \"wheels\" to refer to a car, or \"Wall Street\" to refer to the stock exchanges located on that street or even the entire US financial sector). In the modern vocabulary of critical semiotics, metonymy encompasses any potentially ambiguous word substitution that is based on contextual contiguity (located close together), or a function or process that an object performs, such as \"sweet ride\" to refer to a nice car. Metonym miscommunication is considered a primary mechanism of linguistic humor.", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Philosophy"], "text": "Philosophers (and other users of logic) spend a lot of time and effort searching for and removing (or intentionally adding) ambiguity in arguments because it can lead to incorrect conclusions and can be used to deliberately conceal bad arguments. For example, a politician might say, \"I oppose taxes which hinder economic growth\", an example of a glittering generality. Some will think s/he opposes taxes in general because they hinder economic growth. Others may think s/he opposes only those taxes that s/he believes will hinder economic growth. In writing, the sentence can be rewritten to reduce possible misinterpretation, either by adding a comma after \"taxes\" (to convey the first sense) or by changing \"which\" to \"that\" (to convey the second sense) or by rewriting it in other ways. The devious politician hopes that each constituent will interpret the statement in the most desirable way, and think the politician supports everyone's opinion. However, the opposite can also be true—an opponent can turn a positive statement into a bad one if the speaker uses ambiguity (intentionally or not). The logical fallacies of amphiboly and equivocation rely heavily on the use of ambiguous words and phrases.", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Philosophy"], "text": "In [[continental philosophy]] (particularly phenomenology and existentialism), there is much greater tolerance of ambiguity, as it is generally seen as an integral part of the human condition. [[Martin Heidegger]] argued that the relation between the subject and object is ambiguous, as is the relation of mind and body, and part and whole.[3] In Heidegger's phenomenology, Dasein is always in a meaningful world, but there is always an underlying background for every instance of signification. Thus, although some things may be certain, they have little to do with Dasein's sense of care and existential anxiety, e.g., in the face of death. In calling his work Being and Nothingness an \"essay in phenomenological ontology\" [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] follows Heidegger in defining the human essence as ambiguous, or relating fundamentally to such ambiguity. [[Simone de Beauvoir]] tries to base an ethics on Heidegger's and Sartre's writings (The Ethics of Ambiguity), where she highlights the need to grapple with ambiguity: \"as long as philosophers and they [men] have thought, most of them have tried to mask it... And the ethics which they have proposed to their disciples have always pursued the same goal. It has been a matter of eliminating the ambiguity by making oneself pure inwardness or pure externality, by escaping from the sensible world or being engulfed by it, by yielding to eternity or enclosing oneself in the pure moment.\" Ethics cannot be based on the authoritative certainty given by mathematics and logic, or prescribed directly from the empirical findings of science. She states: \"Since we do not succeed in fleeing it, let us, therefore, try to look the truth in the face. Let us try to assume our fundamental ambiguity. It is in the knowledge of the genuine conditions of our life that we must draw our strength to live and our reason for acting\". Other continental philosophers suggest that concepts such as life, nature, and sex are ambiguous. Corey Anton has argued that we cannot be certain what is separate from or unified with something else: language, he asserts, divides what is not, in fact, separate. Following Ernest Becker, he argues that the desire to 'authoritatively disambiguate' the world and existence has led to numerous ideologies and historical events such as genocide. On this basis, he argues that ethics must focus on 'dialectically integrating opposites' and balancing tension, rather than seeking a priori validation or certainty. Like the existentialists and phenomenologists, he sees the ambiguity of life as the basis of creativity.", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Literature and rhetoric"], "text": "In literature and rhetoric, ambiguity can be a useful tool. Groucho Marx's classic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for its humor, for example: \"Last night I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How he got in my pajamas, I'll never know\". Songs and poetry often rely on ambiguous words for artistic effect, as in the song title \"Don't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue\" (where \"blue\" can refer to the color, or to sadness). In the narrative, ambiguity can be introduced in several ways: motive, plot, character. [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] uses the latter type of ambiguity with notable effect in his novel ''The Great Gatsby''.", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Mathematical notation"], "text": "[[Mathematical notation]], widely used in [[physics]] and other [[science]], avoids many ambiguities compared to expression in natural language. However, for various reasons, several [[Lexical (semiotics)|lexical]], [[syntactic]] and [[semantic]] ambiguities remain.", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Mathematical notation", "Names of functions"], "text": "The '''ambiguity''' in the style of writing a [[Function (mathematics)|function]] should not be confused with a [[multivalued function]], which can (and should) be defined in a deterministic and unambiguous way. Several [[special function]] still do not have established notations. Usually, the conversion to another notation requires to scale the argument or the resulting value; sometimes, the same name of the function is used, causing confusions. Examples of such underestablished functions: (-) [[Sinc function]] (-) [[Elliptic integral#Complete elliptic integral of the third kind|Elliptic integral of the third kind]]; translating elliptic integral form [[MAPLE]] to [[Mathematica]], one should replace the second argument to its square, see [[Talk:Elliptic integral#List of notations]]; dealing with complex values, this may cause problems. (-) [[Exponential integral]] (-) [[Hermite polynomial]]", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Mathematical notation", "Expressions"], "text": "Ambiguous expressions often appear in physical and mathematical texts. It is common practice to omit multiplication signs in mathematical expressions. Also, it is common to give the same name to a variable and a function, for example, formula_1. Then, if one sees formula_2, there is no way to distinguish whether it means formula_1 '''multiplied''' by formula_4, or function formula_5 '''evaluated''' at argument equal to formula_4. In each case of use of such notations, the reader is supposed to be able to perform the deduction and reveal the true meaning. Creators of algorithmic languages try to avoid ambiguities. Many algorithmic languages ([[C++]] and [[Fortran]]) require the character * as symbol of multiplication. The [[Wolfram Language]] used in [[Mathematica]] allows the user to omit the multiplication symbol, but requires square brackets to indicate the argument of a function; square brackets are not allowed for grouping of expressions. Fortran, in addition, does not allow use of the same name (identifier) for different objects, for example, function and variable; in particular, the expression '''f=f(x)''' is qualified as an error. The order of operations may depend on the context. In most [[programming language]], the operations of division and multiplication have equal priority and are executed from left to right. Until the last century, many editorials assumed that multiplication is performed first, for example, formula_7 is interpreted as formula_8; in this case, the insertion of parentheses is required when translating the formulas to an algorithmic language. In addition, it is common to write an argument of a function without parenthesis, which also may lead to ambiguity. In the [[scientific journal]] style, one uses roman letters to denote elementary functions, whereas variables are written using italics. For example, in mathematical journals the expression formula_9 does not denote the [[sine function]], but the product of the three variables formula_10, formula_11, formula_12, although in the informal notation of a slide presentation it may stand for formula_13. Commas in multi-component subscripts and superscripts are sometimes omitted; this is also potentially ambiguous notation. For example, in the notation formula_14, the reader can only infer from the context whether it means a single-index object, taken with the subscript equal to product of variables formula_15, formula_12 and formula_17, or it is an indication to a trivalent [[tensor]].", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Mathematical notation", "Examples of potentially confusing ambiguous mathematical expressions"], "text": "An expression such as formula_18 can be understood to mean either formula_19 or formula_20. Often the author's intention can be understood from the context, in cases where only one of the two makes sense, but an ambiguity like this should be avoided, for example by writing formula_21 or formula_22. The expression formula_23 means formula_24 in several texts, though it might be thought to mean formula_25, since formula_26 commonly means formula_27. Conversely, formula_28 might seem to mean formula_29, as this [[exponentiation]] notation usually denotes [[function iteration]]: in general, formula_30 means formula_31. However, for [[trigonometric]] and [[hyperbolic functions]], this notation conventionally means exponentiation of the result of function application. The expression formula_32 can be interpreted as meaning formula_33, in particular if one thinks that the common acronym ''[[PEMDAS]]'' for the order of operations implies that M(ultiplication) takes precedence over D(ivision); however, it is more commonly understood to mean formula_34.", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Mathematical notation", "Notations in quantum optics and quantum mechanics"], "text": "It is common to define the [[coherent states]] in [[quantum optics]] with formula_35 and states with fixed number of photons with formula_36. Then, there is an \"unwritten rule\": the state is coherent if there are more Greek characters than Latin characters in the argument, and formula_37photon state if the Latin characters dominate. The ambiguity becomes even worse, if formula_38 is used for the states with certain value of the coordinate, and formula_39 means the state with certain value of the momentum, which may be used in books on [[quantum mechanics]]. Such ambiguities easily lead to confusions, especially if some normalized [[adimensional]], [[dimensionless]] variables are used. Expression formula_40 may mean a state with single photon, or the coherent state with mean amplitude equal to 1, or state with momentum equal to unity, and so on. The reader is supposed to guess from the context.", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Mathematical notation", "Ambiguous terms in physics and mathematics"], "text": "Some physical quantities do not yet have established notations; their value (and sometimes even [[dimension]], as in the case of the [[Einstein coefficients]]), depends on the system of notations. Many terms are ambiguous. Each use of an ambiguous term should be preceded by the definition, suitable for a specific case. Just like [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] states in [[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]: \"...Only in the context of a proposition has a name meaning.\" A highly confusing term is ''gain''. For example, the sentence \"the gain of a system should be doubled\", without context, means close to nothing. (-) It may mean that the ratio of the output voltage of an electric circuit to the input voltage should be doubled. (-) It may mean that the ratio of the output power of an electric or optical circuit to the input power should be doubled. (-) It may mean that the gain of the laser medium should be doubled, for example, doubling the population of the upper laser level in a quasi-two level system (assuming negligible absorption of the ground-state). The term ''intensity'' is ambiguous when applied to light. The term can refer to any of [[irradiance]], [[luminous intensity]], [[radiant intensity]], or [[radiance]], depending on the background of the person using the term. Also, confusions may be related with the use of [[atomic percent]] as measure of concentration of a [[dopant]], or [[Optical resolution|resolution]] of an imaging system, as measure of the size of the smallest detail which still can be resolved at the background of statistical noise. See also [[Accuracy and precision]] and its talk. The [[Berry paradox]] arises as a result of systematic ambiguity in the meaning of terms such as \"definable\" or \"nameable\". Terms of this kind give rise to [[Virtuous circle and vicious circle|vicious circle]] fallacies. Other terms with this type of ambiguity are: satisfiable, true, false, function, property, class, relation, cardinal, and ordinal.", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Mathematical interpretation of ambiguity"], "text": "In mathematics and logic, ambiguity can be considered to be an instance of the logical concept of [[underdetermination]]—for example, formula_41 leaves open what the value of ''X'' is—while its opposite is a [[self-contradiction]], also called [[inconsistency]], [[paradoxicalness]], or [[oxymoron]], or in mathematics an [[inconsistent system]]—such as formula_42, which has no solution. Logical ambiguity and self-contradiction is analogous to visual ambiguity and [[impossible object]], such as the Necker cube and impossible cube, or many of the drawings of [[M. C. Escher]].", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Constructed language"], "text": "Some [[Constructed language|languages have been created]] with the intention of avoiding ambiguity, especially [[Polysemy|lexical ambiguity]]. [[Lojban]] and [[Loglan]] are two related languages which have been created for this, focusing chiefly on syntactic ambiguity as well. The languages can be both spoken and written. These languages are intended to provide a greater technical precision over big natural languages, although historically, such attempts at language improvement have been criticized. Languages composed from many diverse sources contain much ambiguity and inconsistency. The many exceptions to [[syntax]] and [[semantic]] rules are time-consuming and difficult to learn.", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Biology"], "text": "In [[structural biology]], ambiguity has been recognized as a problem for studying [[Protein structure|protein conformations]]. The analysis of a protein three-dimensional structure consists in dividing the macromolecule into subunits called [[Protein domain|domains]]. The difficulty of this task arises from the fact that different definitions of what a domain is can be used (e.g. folding autonomy, function, thermodynamic stability, or domain motions), which sometimes results in a single protein having different—yet equally valid—domain assignments.", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Christianity and Judaism"], "text": "[[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]] employ the concept of paradox synonymously with \"ambiguity\". Many Christians and Jews endorse Rudolf Otto's description of the sacred as 'mysterium tremendum et fascinans', the awe-inspiring mystery which fascinates humans. The orthodox Catholic writer [[G. K. Chesterton]] regularly employed paradox to tease out the meanings in common concepts which he found ambiguous or to reveal meaning often overlooked or forgotten in common phrases. (The title of one of his most famous books, Orthodoxy, itself employing such a paradox.)", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Music"], "text": "In [[music]], pieces or sections which confound expectations and may be or are interpreted simultaneously in different ways are ambiguous, such as some [[polytonality]], [[polymeter]], other ambiguous [[metre|meters]] or [[rhythm]], and ambiguous [[phrase (music)|phrasing]], or (Stein 2005, p.79) any [[aspect of music]]. The [[music of Africa]] is often purposely ambiguous. To quote [[Donald Francis Tovey|Sir Donald Francis Tovey]] (1935, p.195), \"Theorists are apt to vex themselves with vain efforts to remove uncertainty just where it has a high aesthetic value.\"", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Visual art"], "text": "In visual art, certain images are visually ambiguous, such as the [[Necker cube]], which can be interpreted in two ways. Perceptions of such objects remain stable for a time, then may flip, a phenomenon called [[multistable perception]]. The opposite of such [[ambiguous image]] are [[impossible object]]. Pictures or photographs may also be ambiguous at the semantic level: the visual image is unambiguous, but the meaning and narrative may be ambiguous: is a certain facial expression one of excitement or fear, for instance?", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Social psychology and the bystander effect"], "text": "In [[social psychology]], ambiguity is a factor used in determining peoples' responses to various situations. High levels of ambiguity in an emergency (e.g. an unconscious man lying on a park bench) make witnesses less likely to offer any sort of assistance, due to the fear that they may have misinterpreted the situation and acted unnecessarily. Alternately, non-ambiguous emergencies (e.g. an injured person verbally asking for help) illicit more consistent intervention and assistance. With regard to the [[bystander effect]], studies have shown that emergencies deemed ambiguous trigger the appearance of the classic bystander effect (wherein more witnesses decrease the likelihood of any of them helping) far more than non-ambiguous emergencies.", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Computer science"], "text": "In [[computer science]], the [[SI prefix]] [[kilo-]], [[mega-]] and [[giga-]] were historically used in certain contexts to mean either the first three powers of 1024 (1024, 1024 and 1024) contrary to the [[metric system]] in which these units unambiguously mean one thousand, one million, and one billion. This usage is particularly prevalent with electronic memory devices (e.g. [[DRAM]]) addressed directly by a binary machine register where a decimal interpretation makes no practical sense. Subsequently, the Ki, Mi, and Gi prefixes were introduced so that [[metric prefix#Binary prefixes|binary prefixes]] could be written explicitly, also rendering k, M, and G ''unambiguous'' in texts conforming to the new standard—this led to a ''new'' ambiguity in engineering documents lacking outward trace of the binary prefixes (necessarily indicating the new style) as to whether the usage of k, M, and G remains ambiguous (old style) or not (new style). 1 M (where M is ambiguously 1,000,000 or 1,048,576) is ''less'' uncertain than the engineering value 1.0e6 (defined to designate the interval 950,000 to 1,050,000), and that as non-volatile storage devices began to commonly exceed 1 GB in capacity (where the ambiguity begins to routinely impact the second significant digit), GB and TB almost always mean 10 and 10 [[bytes]].", "id": "677", "title": "Ambiguity", "categories": ["Ambiguity", "Semantics", "Mathematical notation", "Concepts in epistemology", "Barriers to critical thinking"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Abel''' is a Biblical figure in the [[Book of Genesis]] within [[Abrahamic religion]]. He was the younger brother of [[Cain]], and the younger son of [[Adam]] and [[Eve]], the first couple within the Biblical tale. He was a [[shepherd]] who offered his firstborn flock up to God as an offering. God accepted his offering but not his brother's. Cain then killed Abel out of jealousy. According to Genesis, this was the first murder in the history of mankind.", "id": "678", "title": "Abel", "categories": ["Cain and Abel", "Bereshit (parashah)", "Biblical murder victims", "Book of Genesis people", "Children of Adam and Eve", "Male murder victims"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Interpretations", "Jewish and Christian interpretations"], "text": "According to the narrative in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], '''Abel''' ( ''Hével'', in [[pausa]] ''Hā́ḇel''; ''Hábel''; , ''Hābīl'') is Eve's second son. His name in Hebrew is composed of the same three consonants as a [[Semitic root|root]] meaning \"breath\". [[Julius Wellhausen]], have proposed that the name is independent of the root. [[Eberhard Schrader]] had previously put forward the [[Akkadian (language)|Akkadian]] (Old Assyrian dialect) ''ablu'' (\"son\") as a more likely etymology. In [[Christianity]], comparisons are sometimes made between the death of Abel and that of [[Jesus]], the former thus seen as being the first martyr. In Jesus speaks of Abel as \"righteous\", and the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] states that \"The blood of sprinkling ... [speaks] better things than that of Abel\" (). The blood of Jesus is interpreted as bringing mercy; but that of Abel as demanding vengeance (hence the curse and mark). Abel is invoked in the [[litany]] for the dying in the [[Roman Catholic Church]], and his sacrifice is mentioned in the [[Canon of the Mass]] along with those of [[Abraham]] and [[Melchizedek]]. The [[Alexandrian Rite]] commemorates him with a [[feast day]] on December 28. According to the Coptic [[Book of Adam and Eve]] (at 2:1–15), and the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] [[Cave of Treasures]], Abel's body, after many days of mourning, was placed in the ''Cave of Treasures'', before which Adam and Eve, and descendants, offered their prayers. In addition, the [[Seth]] line of the [[Generations of Adam]] swear by Abel's blood to segregate themselves from the ''unrighteous''. In the [[Book of Enoch]] (22:7), regarded by most Christian and Jewish traditions as extra-biblical, the soul of Abel is described as having been appointed as the chief of martyrs, crying for vengeance, for the destruction of the seed of Cain. This view is later repeated in the [[Testament of Abraham]] (A:13 / B:11), where Abel has been raised to the position as the judge of the souls.", "id": "678", "title": "Abel", "categories": ["Cain and Abel", "Bereshit (parashah)", "Biblical murder victims", "Book of Genesis people", "Children of Adam and Eve", "Male murder victims"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Interpretations", "Islamic interpretation"], "text": "According to [[Shia Islam|Shi'a Muslim]] belief, Abel (''\"Habeel\"'') is buried in the [[Nabi Habeel Mosque]], located on the west mountains of [[Damascus]], near the [[Zabadani]] Valley, overlooking the villages of the [[Barada]] river (Wadi Barada), in [[Syria]]. Shi'a are frequent visitors of this mosque for [[ziyarat]]. The mosque was built by [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Wali]] Ahmad Pasha in 1599.", "id": "678", "title": "Abel", "categories": ["Cain and Abel", "Bereshit (parashah)", "Biblical murder victims", "Book of Genesis people", "Children of Adam and Eve", "Male murder victims"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "An '''[[animal]]''' is a multicellular, eukaryotic organism of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. '''Animal''', '''Animals''', or '''The Animal''' may also refer to:", "id": "679", "title": "Animal (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Animalia (disambiguation)", "Animals, Animals, Animals", "Animalism (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["People"], "text": "(-) [[The Animal (nickname)]], a set index of people nicknamed \"The Animal\" or \"Animal\"", "id": "679", "title": "Animal (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Animalia (disambiguation)", "Animals, Animals, Animals", "Animalism (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["People", "Professional wrestlers"], "text": "(-) [[Road Warrior Animal]], commonly shortened to \"Animal\", the best-known ring persona of Joe Laurinaitis (1960–2020) (-) [[Animal Hamaguchi]], ring name of Japanese retired wrestler Heigo Hamaguchi (born 1947) (-) [[George Steele]] (1937–2017), American professional wrestler, author and actor known as \"The Animal\" (-) [[Dave Bautista]] (born 1969), American retired professional wrestler whose nickname is \"The Animal\"", "id": "679", "title": "Animal (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Animalia (disambiguation)", "Animals, Animals, Animals", "Animalism (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Books and publications"], "text": "(-) [[Animal (book)|''Animal'' (book)]], full title ''Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to The World's WildLife'', a 2003 non-fiction book by David Burnie and several co-authors (-) ''Animal'', 2012 novel by [[K'wan Foye]] (-) [[Animal (journal)|''Animal'' (journal)]], full title: ''Animal: An International Journal of Animal Bioscience'', British academic journal (-) [[Animals (novel)|''Animals'' (novel)]], a 2014 novel by Emma Jane Unsworth", "id": "679", "title": "Animal (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Animalia (disambiguation)", "Animals, Animals, Animals", "Animalism (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Film and television", "Film"], "text": "(-) [[Animal (1977 film)|''Animal'' (1977 film)]], French film (''L'Animal'') starring Jean-Paul Belmondo and Raquel Welch (-) [[Animal (2001 film)|''Animal'' (2001 film)]], Argentine comedy film by Sergio Bizzio with Carlos Roffé (-) [[Animal (2005 film)|''Animal'' (2005 film)]], US direct-to-video action drama film starring Ving Rhames and Terrance Howard (-) [[Animal (2014 film)|''Animal'' (2014 film)]], US horror film starring Keke Palmer (-) [[Animals (2003 film)|''Animals'' (2003 film)]], stand-up show written and performed by Ricky Gervais (-) [[Animals (2012 film)|''Animals'' (2012 film)]], Spanish film (-) [[Animals (2014 film)|''Animals'' (2014 film)]], UK drama film written by and starring David Dastmalchian (-) [[Animals (2017 film)|''Animals'' (2017 film)]], German film (-) [[Animals (2019 film)|''Animals'' (2019 film)]], Australian film (-) ''[[The Animal]]'', 2001 US comedy film featuring Rob Schneider (-) [[The Animals (film)|''The Animals'' (film)]], 2012 Filipino coming-of-age film by Gino M. Santos", "id": "679", "title": "Animal (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Animalia (disambiguation)", "Animals, Animals, Animals", "Animalism (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Film and television", "Television"], "text": "(-) [[Animals (U.S. TV series)|''Animals'' (U.S. TV series)]], a 2016 American animated television series (-) [[Animals (South Korean TV series)|''Animals'' (South Korean TV series)]], a South Korean TV series (-) [[Animals (The Goodies)|\"Animals\" (''The Goodies'')]], television series episode (-) \"Animals\", an [[List of Men Behaving Badly episodes#ep4|episode of ''Men Behaving Badly'']] (-) \"Animals\", an episode of ''[[Off the Air (TV series)#ep1|Off the Air]]'' (-) \"Animals\", an [[List of The Vicar of Dibley episodes#ep6|episode of ''The Vicar of Dibley'']] (-) [[Animal (audio drama)|''Animal'' (audio drama)]], an audio drama based on the television series ''Doctor Who''", "id": "679", "title": "Animal (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Animalia (disambiguation)", "Animals, Animals, Animals", "Animalism (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Film and television", "Characters"], "text": "(-) [[Animal (Muppet)]], a character from the television series ''The Muppet Show'' (-) Animal, a character in the television series ''[[Takeshi's Castle]]'' (-) Animal, played by Ken Hudson Campbell, a character on the TV sitcom ''[[Herman's Head]]''", "id": "679", "title": "Animal (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Animalia (disambiguation)", "Animals, Animals, Animals", "Animalism (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Music"], "text": "(-) [[The Animals]], a British rock band (-) [[A.N.I.M.A.L.]], an Argentinian heavy metal band (-) Animal (Nick Culmer) lead singer of the [[Anti-Nowhere League]]", "id": "679", "title": "Animal (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Animalia (disambiguation)", "Animals, Animals, Animals", "Animalism (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Music", "Albums"], "text": "(-) [[Animal (Animosity album)|''Animal'' (Animosity album)]], 2007 (-) [[Animal (Big Scary album)|''Animal'' (Big Scary album)]], 2016 (-) [[Animal (Kesha album)|''Animal'' (Kesha album)]], 2010 (-) [[Animal (Motor Ace album)|''Animal'' (Motor Ace album)]], 2005 (-) [[Animals (Pink Floyd album)|''Animals'' (Pink Floyd album)]], 1977 (-) [[Animals (This Town Needs Guns album)|''Animals'' (This Town Needs Guns album)]], 2008 (-) [[Animals (EP)|''Animals'' (EP)]] by Ryan Starx, 2013 (-) [[The Animals (American album)|''The Animals'' (American album)]], by The Animals, 1964 (-) [[The Animals (British album)|''The Animals'' (British album)]], by The Animals, 1964 (-) ''Animal'', a 2009 album by [[AutoKratz]] (-) ''Animal'', a 1988 album by [[the Bar-Kays]] (-) ''Animal'', a 2013 album by [[Berlin (band)|Berlin]] (-) ''Animal'', a 2008 album by [[Far East Movement]] (-) ''Animal!'', a 2008 album by [[Margot & the Nuclear So and So's]]", "id": "679", "title": "Animal (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Animalia (disambiguation)", "Animals, Animals, Animals", "Animalism (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Music", "Songs"], "text": "(-) [[Animal (Álvaro Soler song)|\"Animal\" (Álvaro Soler song)]], 2017 (-) [[Animal (Conor Maynard song)|\"Animal\" (Conor Maynard song)]], 2013 (-) [[Animal (Def Leppard song)|\"Animal\" (Def Leppard song)]], 1987 (-) [[Animal (Jebediah song)|\"Animal\" (Jebediah song)]], 1999 (-) [[Animal (Juvenile song)|\"Animal\" (Juvenile song)]], 2006 (-) [[Animal (Kesha song)|\"Animal\" (Kesha song)]], 2010 (-) [[Animal (Miike Snow song)|\"Animal\" (Miike Snow song)]], 2009 (-) [[Animal (Neon Trees song)|\"Animal\" (Neon Trees song)]], 2010 (-) [[Animal (Pearl Jam song)|\"Animal\" (Pearl Jam song)]], 1994 (-) [[Animal (R.E.M. song)|\"Animal\" (R.E.M. song)]], 2004 (-) [[Animal (Troye Sivan song)|\"Animal\" (Troye Sivan song)]], 2018 (-) [[Animal (R.I.O. song)|\"Animal\" (R.I.O. song)]], 2011 (-) [[Animals (Architects song)|\"Animals\" (Architects song)]], 2020 (-) [[Animals (Kevin Ayers song)|\"Animals\" (Kevin Ayers song)]], 1980 (-) \"[[Animal (F**k Like a Beast)]]\", by W.A.S.P., 1984 (-) [[Animals (Maroon 5 song)|\"Animals\" (Maroon 5 song)]], 2014 (-) [[Animals (Martin Garrix song)|\"Animals\" (Martin Garrix song)]], 2013 (-) [[Animals (Muse song)|\"Animals\" (Muse song)]], 2012 (-) [[Animals (Nickelback song)|\"Animals\" (Nickelback song)]], 2005 (-) [[The Animal (Disturbed song)|\"The Animal\" (Disturbed song)]], 2010 (-) \"Animal\", by Against Me! from ''[[New Wave (Against Me! album)|New Wave]]'' (-) \"Animal\", by Ani DiFranco from ''[[Educated Guess]]'' (-) \"Animal\", by Aurora from ''[[A Different Kind of Human (Step 2)]]'' (-) \"Animal\", by Black Light Burns from ''[[Cruel Melody]]'' (-) \"Animal\", by Ellie Goulding from ''[[Lights (Ellie Goulding album)|Lights]]'' (-) \"Animal\", by Karen O and the Kids from ''[[Where the Wild Things Are (soundtrack)|Where the Wild Things Are]]'' (-) \"Animal\", by Kat DeLuna from ''[[9 Lives (Kat DeLuna album)|9 Lives]]'' (-) \"Animal\", by Mindless Self Indulgence from ''[[If (Mindless Self Indulgence album)|If]]'' (-) \"Animal\", by [[Mudmen]] from ''Overrated'' (-) \"Animal\" by Subhumans from ''[[Demolition War]]'' (-) \"Animal\", by [[Sunhouse (band)|Sunhouse]] from ''Crazy On The Weekend'' (-) \"Animal\", by the Kinks from ''[[To the Bone (The Kinks album)|To the Bone]]'' (-) \"Animal\", by Toto from ''[[Past to Present 1977–1990]]'' (-) \"Animals\", by CocoRosie from ''[[The Adventures of Ghosthorse and Stillborn]]'' (-) \"Animals\", by Coldplay as one of the B-sides for \"[[Clocks (song)|Clocks]]\" (-) \"Animals\", by Dead Poetic from ''[[Vices (Dead Poetic album)|Vices]]'' (-) \"Animals\", by Talking Heads from ''[[Fear of Music]]'' (-) \"Animals\", by the End from ''[[Elementary (The End album)|Elementary]]'' (-) \"Animals\", by Todrick Hall featuring Matt Bloyd from ''[[Forbidden (Todrick Hall album)|Forbidden]]'' (-) \"The Animal\", by Steve Vai from ''[[Passion and Warfare]]''", "id": "679", "title": "Animal (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Animalia (disambiguation)", "Animals, Animals, Animals", "Animalism (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": ["Other"], "text": "(-) [[ANIMAL (computer worm)]], an early self-replicating computer program (-) [[ANIMAL (image processing)]], an interactive software environment for image processing (-) [[Animal (clothing)]], a sportswear retailer and brand based in the United Kingdom (-) [[Animals (Israeli organization)]], an animal rights group based in Israel", "id": "679", "title": "Animal (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Animalia (disambiguation)", "Animals, Animals, Animals", "Animalism (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "The '''aardvark''' ( ; ''Orycteropus afer'') is a medium-sized, burrowing, [[nocturnal]] [[mammal]] native to [[Africa]]. It is the only living [[species]] of the order [[Tubulidentata]], although other prehistoric species and genera of Tubulidentata are known. Unlike most other [[insectivore]], it has a long [[pig]]-like snout, which is used to sniff out food. It roams over most of the southern two-thirds of the African continent, avoiding areas that are mainly rocky. A nocturnal feeder, it subsists on ants and termites, which it will dig out of their hills using its sharp claws and powerful legs. It also digs to create burrows in which to live and rear its young. It receives a \"least concern\" rating from the [[IUCN]], although its numbers seem to be decreasing. Aardvarks are [[afrothere]], a [[clade]] which also includes [[elephants]], [[manatees]], and [[hyraxes]].", "id": "680", "title": "Aardvark", "categories": ["Orycteropus", "Mammals of Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Mammals described in 1766", "Extant Zanclean first appearances", "Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Name and taxonomy", "Name"], "text": "The aardvark is sometimes colloquially called the \"African ant bear\", \"anteater\" (not to be confused with the [[anteater|South American anteater]]), or the \"Cape anteater\" after the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. The name \"aardvark\" is [[Afrikaans]] (), comes from earlier Afrikaans (erdvark) and means \"earth [[pig]]\" or \"ground pig\" (''aarde'': earth/ground, ''vark'': pig), because of its burrowing habits; it is also the first [[Syllable|polysyllabic]] word in many [[English language|English]] dictionaries. The name ''Orycteropus'' means burrowing foot, and the name ''afer'' refers to Africa. The name of the aardvarks's order, ''Tubulidentata,'' comes from the tubule-style teeth.", "id": "680", "title": "Aardvark", "categories": ["Orycteropus", "Mammals of Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Mammals described in 1766", "Extant Zanclean first appearances", "Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Name and taxonomy", "Taxonomy"], "text": "The aardvark is not closely related to the pig; rather, it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalian [[order (biology)|order]] [[Tubulidentata]], in which it is usually considered to form one variable species of the genus ''[[Orycteropus]]'', the sole surviving genus in the family [[Orycteropodidae]]. The aardvark is not closely related to the [[South America]] [[anteater]], despite sharing some characteristics and a superficial resemblance. The similarities are based on [[convergent evolution]]. The closest living relatives of the aardvark are the [[elephant shrew]], [[tenrecidae|tenrec]] and [[golden mole]]. Along with the [[sirenian]], [[hyrax]], [[elephant]], and their extinct relatives, these animals form the superorder [[Afrotheria]]. Studies of the brain have shown the similarities with [[Condylarthra]], and given the clade's status as a [[wastebasket taxon]] it may mean some species traditionally classified as \"condylarths\" are actually stem-aardvarks.", "id": "680", "title": "Aardvark", "categories": ["Orycteropus", "Mammals of Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Mammals described in 1766", "Extant Zanclean first appearances", "Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Name and taxonomy", "Evolutionary history"], "text": "Based on fossils, [[Bryan Patterson]] has concluded that early relatives of the aardvark appeared in [[Africa]] around the end of the [[Paleocene]]. The [[ptolemaiida]], a mysterious clade of mammals with uncertain affinities, may actually be stem-aardvarks, either as a sister clade to [[Tubulidentata]] or as a grade leading to true tubulidentates. The first unambiguous tubulidentate was probably ''[[Myorycteropus africanus]]'' from [[Kenya]] [[Miocene]] deposits. The earliest example from the genus ''[[Orycteropus]]'' was ''[[Orycteropus mauritanicus]]'', found in [[Algeria]] in deposits from the middle Miocene, with an equally old version found in Kenya. Fossils from the aardvark have been dated to 5 million years, and have been located throughout [[Europe]] and the [[Near East]]. The mysterious Pleistocene ''[[Plesiorycteropus]]'' from [[Madagascar]] was originally thought to be a tubulidentate that was descended from ancestors that entered the island during the [[Eocene]]. However, a number of subtle anatomical differences coupled with recent molecular evidence now lead researchers to believe that ''Plesiorycteropus'' is a relative of golden moles and tenrecs that achieved an aardvark-like appearance and ecological niche through convergent evolution.", "id": "680", "title": "Aardvark", "categories": ["Orycteropus", "Mammals of Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Mammals described in 1766", "Extant Zanclean first appearances", "Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Name and taxonomy", "Subspecies"], "text": "The aardvark has seventeen poorly defined subspecies listed: (-) ''[[Orycteropus afer afer]]'' (-) ''O. a. adametzi'' (-) ''O. a. aethiopicus'' (-) ''O. a. angolensis'' (-) ''O. a. erikssoni'' (-) ''O. a. faradjius'' (-) ''O. a. haussanus'' (-) ''O. a. kordofanicus'' (-) ''O. a. lademanni'' (-) ''O. a. leptodon'' (-) ''O. a. matschiei'' (-) ''O. a. observandus'' (-) ''O. a. ruvanensis'' (-) ''O. a. senegalensis'' (-) ''O. a. somalicus'' (-) ''O. a. wardi'' (-) ''O. a. wertheri'' The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica also mentions ''O. a. capensis'' or Cape ant-bear from South Africa.", "id": "680", "title": "Aardvark", "categories": ["Orycteropus", "Mammals of Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Mammals described in 1766", "Extant Zanclean first appearances", "Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Description"], "text": "The aardvark is vaguely pig-like in appearance. Its body is stout with a prominently arched back and is sparsely covered with coarse hairs. The limbs are of moderate length, with the rear legs being longer than the forelegs. The front feet have lost the pollex (or 'thumb'), resulting in four toes, while the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robust [[Nail (anatomy)|nail]] which is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between a [[claw]] and a hoof. Whereas the aardvark is considered [[digitigrade]], it appears at time to be [[plantigrade]]. This confusion happens because when it squats it stands on its soles. A contributing characteristic to the burrow digging capabilities of aardvarks is an endosteal tissue called compacted coarse cancellous bone (CCCB). The stress and strain resistance provided by CCCB allows aardvarks to create their burrows, ultimately leading to a favorable environment for plants and a variety of animals. An aardvark's weight is typically between . An aardvark's length is usually between , and can reach lengths of when its tail (which can be up to ) is taken into account. It is tall at the shoulder, and has a girth of about . It is the [[Largest organisms|largest]] member of the proposed clade [[Afroinsectiphilia]]. The aardvark is pale yellowish-gray in color and often stained reddish-brown by [[soil]]. The aardvark's coat is thin, and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin. Its hair is short on its head and tail; however its legs tend to have longer hair. The hair on the majority of its body is grouped in clusters of 3-4 hairs. The hair surrounding its nostrils is dense to help filter particulate matter out as it digs. Its tail is very thick at the base and gradually tapers.", "id": "680", "title": "Aardvark", "categories": ["Orycteropus", "Mammals of Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Mammals described in 1766", "Extant Zanclean first appearances", "Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Description", "Head"], "text": "The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck, and the end of the snout bears a disc, which houses the nostrils. It contains a thin but complete [[zygomatic arch]]. The head of the aardvark contains many unique and different features. One of the most distinctive characteristics of the Tubulidentata is their [[Tooth|teeth]]. Instead of having a [[pulp (tooth)|pulp cavity]], each tooth has a cluster of thin, hexagonal, upright, parallel tubes of vasodentin (a modified form of [[dentine]]), with individual pulp canals, held together by [[cementum]]. The number of columns is dependent on the size of the tooth, with the largest having about 1,500. The teeth have no [[Tooth enamel|enamel]] coating and are worn away and regrow continuously. The aardvark is born with conventional incisors and [[canine tooth|canines]] at the front of the jaw, which fall out and are not replaced. Adult aardvarks have only cheek teeth at the back of the [[jaw]], and have a [[dentition|dental formula]] of: These remaining teeth are peg-like and rootless and are of unique composition. The teeth consist of 14 upper and 12 lower jaw molars. The nasal area of the aardvark is another unique area, as it contains ten [[nasal concha]], more than any other placental mammal. The sides of the nostrils are thick with hair. The tip of the snout is highly mobile and is moved by modified [[mimetic muscles]]. The fleshy dividing tissue between its nostrils probably has sensory functions, but it is uncertain whether they are olfactory or vibratory in nature. Its nose is made up of more [[turbinate]] bones than any other mammal, with between 9 and 11, compared to dogs with 4 to 5. With a large quantity of turbinate bones, the aardvark has more space for the moist [[epithelium]], which is the location of the olfactory bulb. The nose contains nine [[olfactory bulb]], more than any other mammal. Its keen sense of smell is not just from the quantity of bulbs in the nose but also in the development of the brain, as its [[Olfactory bulb|olfactory lobe]] is very developed. The snout resembles an elongated pig snout. The mouth is small and tubular, typical of species that feed on [[ant]] and [[termite]]. The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding tongue (as much as long) and elaborate structures supporting a keen [[olfaction|sense of smell]]. The ears, which are very effective, are disproportionately long, about long. The eyes are small for its head, and consist only of [[rod cell|rods]].", "id": "680", "title": "Aardvark", "categories": ["Orycteropus", "Mammals of Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Mammals described in 1766", "Extant Zanclean first appearances", "Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Description", "Digestive system"], "text": "The aardvark's stomach has a muscular [[pyloric]] area that acts as a [[gizzard]] to grind swallowed food up, thereby rendering chewing unnecessary. Its [[cecum]] is large. Both sexes emit a strong smelling secretion from an anal gland. Its [[salivary gland]] are highly developed and almost completely ring the neck; their output is what causes the tongue to maintain its tackiness. The female has two pairs of [[teat]] in the inguinal region. [[Gene]] speaking, the aardvark is a [[living fossil]], as its [[chromosome]] are highly conserved, reflecting much of the early [[eutherian]] arrangement before the divergence of the major modern [[taxon|taxa]].", "id": "680", "title": "Aardvark", "categories": ["Orycteropus", "Mammals of Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Mammals described in 1766", "Extant Zanclean first appearances", "Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Habitat and range"], "text": "Aardvarks are found in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], where suitable [[habitat]] ([[savanna]], [[grassland]], [[woodland]] and [[bushland]]) and food (i.e., [[ants]] and [[termites]]) is available. They spend the daylight hours in dark burrows to avoid the heat of the day. The only major habitat that they are not present in is swamp forest, as the high water table precludes digging to a sufficient depth. They also avoid terrain rocky enough to cause problems with digging. They have been documented as high as in Ethiopia. They are present throughout sub-Saharan Africa all the way to South Africa with few exceptions. These exceptions include the coastal areas of [[Namibia]], [[Ivory Coast]], and [[Ghana]]. They are not found in Madagascar.", "id": "680", "title": "Aardvark", "categories": ["Orycteropus", "Mammals of Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Mammals described in 1766", "Extant Zanclean first appearances", "Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ecology and behaviour"], "text": "Aardvarks live for up to 23 years in [[captivity (animal)|captivity]]. Its keen hearing warns it of predators: [[lion]], [[leopard]], cheetahs, [[African wild dog]], [[hyena]], and [[pythonidae|pythons]]. Some humans also hunt aardvarks for meat. Aardvarks can dig fast or run in zigzag fashion to elude enemies, but if all else fails, they will strike with their claws, tail and shoulders, sometimes flipping onto their backs lying motionless except to lash out with all four feet. They are capable of causing substantial damage to unprotected areas of an attacker. They will also dig to escape as they can, when pressed, dig extremely quickly.", "id": "680", "title": "Aardvark", "categories": ["Orycteropus", "Mammals of Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Mammals described in 1766", "Extant Zanclean first appearances", "Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ecology and behaviour", "Feeding"], "text": "The aardvark is [[nocturnal]] and is a solitary creature that feeds almost exclusively on [[ant]] and [[termite]] ([[myrmecophagy]]); the only fruit eaten by aardvarks is the [[aardvark cucumber]]. In fact, the cucumber and the aardvark have a symbiotic relationship as they eat the subterranean fruit, then defecate the seeds near their burrows, which then grow rapidly due to the loose soil and fertile nature of the area. The time spent in the intestine of the aardvark helps the fertility of the seed, and the fruit provides needed moisture for the aardvark. They avoid eating the African [[driver ant]] and red ants. Due to their stringent diet requirements, they require a large range to survive. An aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range encompassing . While foraging for food, the aardvark will keep its nose to the ground and its ears pointed forward, which indicates that both smell and hearing are involved in the search for food. They zig-zag as they forage and will usually not repeat a route for 5–8 days as they appear to allow time for the termite nests to recover before feeding on it again. During a foraging period, they will stop and dig a \"V\" shaped trench with their forefeet and then sniff it profusely as a means to explore their location. When a concentration of ants or termites is detected, the aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs, keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators, and takes up an astonishing number of [[insect]] with its long, sticky tongue—as many as 50,000 in one night have been recorded. Its claws enable it to dig through the extremely hard crust of a termite or ant mound quickly. It avoids inhaling the dust by sealing the nostrils. When successful, the aardvark's long (up to ) tongue licks up the insects; the termites' biting, or the ants' stinging attacks are rendered futile by the tough skin. After an aardvark visit at a termite mound, other animals will visit to pick up all the leftovers. Termite mounds alone don't provide enough food for the aardvark, so they look for termites that are on the move. When these insects move, they can form columns long and these tend to provide easy pickings with little effort exerted by the aardvark. These columns are more common in areas of livestock or other hoofed animals. The trampled grass and dung attract termites from the ''[[Odontotermes]]'', ''[[Microtermes]]'', and ''[[Pseudacanthotermes]]'' genera. On a nightly basis they tend to be more active during the first portion of night (roughly the four hours between 8:00p.m. and 12:00a.m.); however, they don't seem to prefer bright or dark nights over the other. During adverse weather or if disturbed they will retreat to their burrow systems. They cover between per night; however, some studies have shown that they may traverse as far as in a night.", "id": "680", "title": "Aardvark", "categories": ["Orycteropus", "Mammals of Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Mammals described in 1766", "Extant Zanclean first appearances", "Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ecology and behaviour", "Vocalization"], "text": "The aardvark is a rather quiet animal. However, it does make soft grunting sounds as it forages and loud grunts as it makes for its tunnel entrance. It makes a bleating sound if frightened. When it is threatened it will make for one of its burrows. If one is not close it will dig a new one rapidly. This new one will be short and require the aardvark to back out when the coast is clear.", "id": "680", "title": "Aardvark", "categories": ["Orycteropus", "Mammals of Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Mammals described in 1766", "Extant Zanclean first appearances", "Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ecology and behaviour", "Movement"], "text": "The aardvark is known to be a good swimmer and has been witnessed successfully swimming in strong currents. It can dig a yard of tunnel in about five minutes, but otherwise moves fairly slowly. When leaving the burrow at night, they pause at the entrance for about ten minutes, sniffing and listening. After this period of watchfulness, it will bound out and within seconds it will be away. It will then pause, prick its ears, twisting its head to listen, then jump and move off to start foraging. Aside from digging out ants and termites, the aardvark also [[fossorial|excavates]] burrows in which to live, which generally fall into one of three categories: burrows made while foraging, refuge and resting location, and permanent homes. Temporary sites are scattered around the home range and are used as refuges, while the main [[burrow]] is also used for breeding. Main burrows can be deep and extensive, have several entrances and can be as long as . These burrows can be large enough for a man to enter. The aardvark changes the layout of its home burrow regularly, and periodically moves on and makes a new one. The old burrows are an important part of the African wildlife scene. As they are vacated, then they are inhabited by smaller animals like the [[African Wild Dog|African wild dog]], [[ant-eating chat]], ''[[Nycteris thebaica]]'' and [[warthog]]. Other animals that use them are hares, mongooses, hyenas, owls, pythons, and lizards. Without these refuges many animals would die during wildfire season. Only mothers and young share burrows; however, the aardvark is known to live in small family groups or as a solitary creature. If attacked in the tunnel, it will escape by digging out of the tunnel thereby placing the fresh fill between it and its predator, or if it decides to fight it will roll onto its back, and attack with its claws. The aardvark has been known to sleep in a recently excavated [[ant]] nest, which also serves as protection from its [[predator]].", "id": "680", "title": "Aardvark", "categories": ["Orycteropus", "Mammals of Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Mammals described in 1766", "Extant Zanclean first appearances", "Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ecology and behaviour", "Reproduction"], "text": "Aardvarks pair only during the breeding season; after a [[gestation]] period of seven months, one cub weighing around is born during May–July. When born, the young has flaccid ears and many wrinkles. When nursing, it will nurse off each teat in succession. After two weeks, the folds of skin disappear and after three, the ears can be held upright. After 5–6 weeks, body hair starts growing. It is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks and eats termites at 9 weeks, and is weaned between three months and 16 weeks. At six months of age, it is able to dig its own burrows, but it will often remain with the mother until the next [[mating season]], and is sexually mature from approximately two years of age.", "id": "680", "title": "Aardvark", "categories": ["Orycteropus", "Mammals of Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Mammals described in 1766", "Extant Zanclean first appearances", "Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Conservation"], "text": "Aardvarks were thought to have declining numbers, however, this is possibly because they are not readily seen. There are no definitive counts because of their nocturnal and secretive habits; however, their numbers seem to be stable overall. They are not considered common anywhere in Africa, but due to their large range, they maintain sufficient numbers. There may be a slight decrease in numbers in eastern, northern, and western Africa. Southern African numbers are not decreasing. It receives an official designation from the IUCN as [[least concern]]. However, they are a species in a precarious situation, as they are so dependent on such specific food; therefore if a problem arises with the abundance of termites, the species as a whole would be affected drastically. Aardvarks handle captivity well. The first zoo to have one was [[London Zoo]] in 1869, which had an animal from [[South Africa]].", "id": "680", "title": "Aardvark", "categories": ["Orycteropus", "Mammals of Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Mammals described in 1766", "Extant Zanclean first appearances", "Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Mythology and popular culture"], "text": "In [[African folklore]], the aardvark is much admired because of its diligent quest for food and its fearless response to [[army ant|soldier ants]]. [[Hausa people|Hausa]] magicians make a charm from the heart, skin, forehead, and nails of the aardvark, which they then proceed to pound together with the root of a certain tree. Wrapped in a piece of skin and worn on the chest, the charm is said to give the owner the ability to pass through walls or roofs at night. The charm is said to be used by burglars and those seeking to visit young girls without their parents' permission. Also, some tribes, such as the [[Mangbetu people|Margbetu]], [[Ayanda]], and [[Logo people|Logo]], will use aardvark teeth to make bracelets, which are regarded as good luck charms. The meat, which has a resemblance to pork, is eaten in certain cultures. The ancient [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptian god]] [[Set (mythology)|Set]] is usually depicted with the head of an [[Set animal|unidentified animal]], whose similarity to an aardvark has been noted in scholarship. The [[Arthur Read|titular character]] of ''[[Arthur (TV series)|Arthur]]'', an animated television series for children based on a book series and produced by [[WGBH-TV|WGBH]], shown in more than 180 countries, is an aardvark. In the first book of the series, ''Arthur's Nose'' (1976), he has a long, aardvark-like nose, but in later books, his face becomes more rounded. [[Otis the Aardvark]] was a puppet character used on [[Children's BBC]] programming. An aardvark features as the antagonist in the cartoon ''[[The Ant and the Aardvark]]'' as well as in the Canadian animated series ''[[The Raccoons]]''. The supersonic fighter-bomber [[General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark|F-111/FB-111]] was nicknamed the Aardvark because of its long nose resembling the animal. It also had similarities with its nocturnal missions flown at a very low level employing ordnance that could penetrate deep into the ground. In the US Navy, the squadron [[VF-114]] was nicknamed the Aardvarks, flying [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|F-4]] and then [[Grumman F-14 Tomcat|F-14]]. The squadron mascot was adapted from the animal in the comic strip ''[[B.C. (comic strip)#Animals and other non-human characters|B.C.]]'', which the F-4 was said to resemble. ''[[Cerebus the Aardvark]]'' is a 300-issue comic book series by Dave Sim.", "id": "680", "title": "Aardvark", "categories": ["Orycteropus", "Mammals of Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Mammals described in 1766", "Extant Zanclean first appearances", "Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "The '''aardwolf''' (''Proteles cristata'') is an [[insectivore|insectivorous]] [[mammal]], native to [[East Africa|East]] and [[Southern Africa]]. Its name means \"earth-wolf\" in [[Afrikaans]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. It is also called \"maanhaar-jackal\" (Afrikaans for \"[[:wikt:mane#English|mane]]-jackal\"), \"termite-eating hyena\" and \"civet hyena\", based on its habit of secreting substances from its [[anal gland]], a characteristic shared with the [[African civet]]. The aardwolf is in the same family as the [[hyena]]. Unlike many of its relatives in the order [[Carnivora]], the aardwolf does not hunt large [[animal]]. It eats [[insect]] and their [[larva]], mainly [[termite]]; one aardwolf can lap up as many as 250,000 termites during a single night using its long, sticky tongue. The aardwolf's tongue has adapted to be tough enough to withstand the strong bite of termites. The aardwolf lives in the [[shrubland]] of eastern and southern Africa – open lands covered with stunted trees and shrubs. It is [[nocturnal]], resting in [[burrow]] during the day and emerging at night to seek food.", "id": "681", "title": "Aardwolf", "categories": ["Mammals described in 1783", "Carnivorans of Africa", "Hyenas", "Mammals of Southern Africa", "Fauna of East Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Taxonomy"], "text": "The aardwolf is generally classified with the hyena family [[Hyaenidae]], though it was formerly placed in its own family Protelidae. Early on, scientists felt that it was merely mimicking the [[striped hyena]], which subsequently led to the creation of Protelidae. Recent studies have suggested that the aardwolf probably diverged from other hyaenids early on; how early is still unclear, as the fossil record and genetic studies disagree by 10 million years. The aardwolf is the only surviving species in the [[subfamily]] Protelinae. There is disagreement as to whether the species is [[Monotypic taxon|monotypic]]. or can be divided into [[subspecies]] ''P. c. cristatus'' of [[Southern Africa]] and ''P. c. septentrionalis'' of [[East Africa]].", "id": "681", "title": "Aardwolf", "categories": ["Mammals described in 1783", "Carnivorans of Africa", "Hyenas", "Mammals of Southern Africa", "Fauna of East Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The [[genus|generic]] name ''proteles'' comes from two words both of [[Greek language|Greek]] origin, ''protos'' and ''teleos'' which combined means \"complete in front\" based on the fact that they have five toes on their front feet and four on the rear. The specific name, ''cristatus'', comes from [[Latin]] and means \"provided with a comb\", relating to their mane.", "id": "681", "title": "Aardwolf", "categories": ["Mammals described in 1783", "Carnivorans of Africa", "Hyenas", "Mammals of Southern Africa", "Fauna of East Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Description"], "text": "[[Image:Aardwolf02.jpg|thumb|left|Detail of head – taken at the [[Cincinnati Zoo]]]] The aardwolf resembles a very thin [[striped hyena]], but with a more slender [[snout|muzzle]], black vertical stripes on a coat of yellowish fur, and a long, distinct [[wikt:mane|mane]] down the midline of the neck and back. It also has one or two diagonal stripes down the fore- and hind-quarters, along with several stripes on its legs. The mane is raised during confrontations to make the aardwolf appear larger. It is missing the throat spot that others in the family have. Its lower leg (from the knee down) is all black, and its tail is bushy with a black tip. The aardwolf is about long, excluding its bushy tail, which is about long, and stands about tall at the shoulders. An adult aardwolf weighs approximately , sometimes reaching . The aardwolves in the south of the continent tend to be smaller (about )than the eastern version (around ). This makes the aardwolf, the smallest extant member of the Hyaenidae family. The front feet have five toes each, unlike the four-toed hyena. The teeth and skull are similar to those of other hyenas, though smaller, and its cheek teeth are specialised for eating insects. It does still have canines, but, unlike other hyenas, these teeth are used primarily for fighting and defense. Its ears, which are large, are very similar to those of the striped hyena. As an aardwolf ages, it will normally lose some of its teeth, though this has little impact on its feeding habits due to the softness of the insects that it eats.", "id": "681", "title": "Aardwolf", "categories": ["Mammals described in 1783", "Carnivorans of Africa", "Hyenas", "Mammals of Southern Africa", "Fauna of East Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Distribution and habitat"], "text": "Aardwolves live in open, dry plains and [[bushland]], avoiding mountainous areas. Due to their specific food requirements, they are only found in regions where termites of the family [[Hodotermitidae]] occur. Termites of this family depend on dead and withered grass and are most populous in heavily grazed [[grassland]] and [[savannah]], including [[arable land|farmland]]. For most of the year, aardwolves spend time in shared territories consisting of up to a dozen dens, which are occupied for six weeks at a time. There are two distinct populations: one in Southern Africa, and another in East and Northeast Africa. The species does not occur in the intermediary [[miombo]] forests. An adult pair, along with their most-recent offspring, occupies a territory of .", "id": "681", "title": "Aardwolf", "categories": ["Mammals described in 1783", "Carnivorans of Africa", "Hyenas", "Mammals of Southern Africa", "Fauna of East Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Behavior"], "text": "[[Image:Aardwolf.jpg|thumb|left|Aardwolf at the [[San Antonio Zoo and Aquarium|San Antonio Zoo]]]] Aardwolves are shy and [[nocturnal animal|nocturnal]], sleeping in burrows by day. They will, on occasion during the winter, become diurnal feeders. This happens during the coldest periods as they then stay in at night to conserve heat. They have often been mistaken for solitary animals. In fact, they live as [[monogamous pairing in animals|monogamous pairs]] with their young. If their territory is infringed upon, they will chase the intruder up to or to the border. If the intruder is caught, which rarely happens, a fight will occur, which is accompanied by soft clucking, hoarse barking, and a type of roar. The majority of incursions occur during mating season, when they can occur once or twice per week. When food is scarce, the stringent territorial system may be abandoned and as many as three pairs may occupy a single territory. The territory is marked by both sexes, as they both have developed anal glands from which they extrude a black substance that is smeared on rocks or grass stalks in -long streaks. Aardwolves also have scent glands on the forefoot and penile pad. They often mark near termite mounds within their territory every 20 minutes or so. If they are patrolling their territorial boundaries, the marking frequency increases drastically, to once every . At this rate, an individual may mark 60 marks per hour, and upwards of 200 per night. An aardwolf pair may have up to 10 dens, and numerous feces [[Midden#Other definitions|midden]], within their territory. When they deposit excreta at their middens, they dig a small hole and cover it with sand. Their dens are usually abandoned [[aardvark]], [[springhare]], or [[Old World porcupine|porcupine]] dens, or on occasion they are crevices in rocks. They will also dig their own dens, or enlarge dens started by [[springhare]]. They typically will only use one or two dens at a time, rotating through all of their dens every six months. During the summer, they may rest outside their den during the night, and sleep underground during the heat of the day. Aardwolves are not fast runners nor are they particularly adept at fighting off predators. Therefore, when threatened, the aardwolf may attempt to mislead its foe by doubling back on its tracks. If confronted, it may raise its mane in an attempt to appear more menacing. It also emits a foul-smelling liquid from its anal glands.", "id": "681", "title": "Aardwolf", "categories": ["Mammals described in 1783", "Carnivorans of Africa", "Hyenas", "Mammals of Southern Africa", "Fauna of East Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Behavior", "Feeding"], "text": "The aardwolf feeds primarily on termites and more specifically on ''[[Trinervitermes]]''. This genus of termites has different species throughout the aardwolf's range. In East Africa, they eat ''[[Trinervitermes bettonianus]]'', in central Africa, they eat ''[[Trinervitermes rhodesiensis]]'', and in southern Africa, they eat ''[[Trinervitermes trinervoides|T. trinervoides]]''. Their technique consists of licking them off the ground as opposed to the [[aardvark]], which digs into the mound. They locate their food by sound and also from the scent secreted by the soldier termites. An aardwolf may consume up to 250,000 [[termites]] per night using its long, sticky tongue. They do not destroy the termite mound or consume the entire colony, thus ensuring that the termites can rebuild and provide a continuous supply of food. They often memorize the location of such nests and return to them every few months. During certain seasonal events, such as the onset of the rainy season and the cold of midwinter, the primary termites become scarce, so the need for other foods becomes pronounced. During these times, the southern aardwolf will seek out ''[[Hodotermes]] mossambicus'', a type of [[harvester termite]] active in the afternoon, which explains some of their diurnal behavior in the winter. The eastern aardwolf, during the rainy season, subsists on termites from the genera ''[[Odontotermes]]'' and ''[[Macrotermes]]''. They are also known to feed on other insects, larvae, eggs, and, some sources say, occasionally small mammals and birds, but these constitute a very small percentage of their total diet. Unlike other [[hyena]], aardwolves do not scavenge or kill larger animals. Contrary to popular myths, aardwolves do not eat carrion, and if they are seen eating while hunched over a dead carcass, they are actually eating larvae and beetles. Also, contrary to some sources, they do not like meat, unless it is finely ground or cooked for them. The adult aardwolf was formerly assumed to forage in small groups, but more recent research has shown that they are primarily solitary foragers, necessary because of the scarcity of their insect prey. Their primary source, ''Trinervitermes'', forages in small but dense patches of . While foraging, the aardwolf can cover about per hour, which translates to per summer night and per winter night.", "id": "681", "title": "Aardwolf", "categories": ["Mammals described in 1783", "Carnivorans of Africa", "Hyenas", "Mammals of Southern Africa", "Fauna of East Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Behavior", "Breeding"], "text": "The [[breeding season]] varies depending on location, but normally takes place during autumn or spring. In South Africa, breeding occurs in early July. During the breeding season, unpaired male aardwolves search their own territory, as well as others, for a female to mate with. Dominant males also mate opportunistically with the females of less dominant neighboring aardwolves, which can result in conflict between rival males. Dominant males even go a step further and as the breeding season approaches, they make increasingly greater and greater incursions onto weaker males' territories. As the female comes into [[oestrus]], they add pasting to their tricks inside of the other territories, sometimes doing so more in rivals' territories than their own. Females will also, when given the opportunity, mate with the dominant male, which increases the chances of the dominant male guarding \"his\" cubs with her. [[Copulation (zoology)|Copulation]] lasts between 1 and 4.5 hours. [[Gestation]] lasts between 89 and 92 days, producing two to five [[List of animal names|cubs]] (most often two or three) during the rainy season (November–December), when termites are more active. They are born with their eyes open, but initially are helpless, and weigh around . The first six to eight weeks are spent in the [[Burrow|den]] with their parents. The male may spend up to six hours a night watching over the cubs while the mother is out looking for food. After three months, they begin supervised foraging, and by four months are normally independent, though they often share a den with their mother until the next breeding season. By the time the next set of cubs is born, the older cubs have moved on. Aardwolves generally achieve [[sexual maturity]] at one and a half to two years of age.", "id": "681", "title": "Aardwolf", "categories": ["Mammals described in 1783", "Carnivorans of Africa", "Hyenas", "Mammals of Southern Africa", "Fauna of East Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Conservation"], "text": "The aardwolf has not seen decreasing numbers and is relatively widespread throughout eastern Africa. They are not common throughout their range, as they maintain a density of no more than 1 per square kilometer, if food is abundant. Because of these factors, the IUCN has rated the aardwolf as [[least concern]]. In some areas, they are persecuted because of the mistaken belief that they prey on livestock; however, they are actually beneficial to the farmers because they eat termites that are detrimental. In other areas, the farmers have recognized this, but they are still killed, on occasion, for their fur. Dogs and insecticides are also common killers of the aardwolf.", "id": "681", "title": "Aardwolf", "categories": ["Mammals described in 1783", "Carnivorans of Africa", "Hyenas", "Mammals of Southern Africa", "Fauna of East Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Interaction with humans"], "text": "Aardwolves are rare sights at zoos. [[Frankfurt Zoo]] in [[Germany]] was home to the oldest recorded aardwolf in captivity at 18 years and 11 months. [[Image:Aardwolf.png|thumb|Illustration of ''Proteles cristatus'']]", "id": "681", "title": "Aardwolf", "categories": ["Mammals described in 1783", "Carnivorans of Africa", "Hyenas", "Mammals of Southern Africa", "Fauna of East Africa", "Myrmecophagous mammals", "Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Adobe''' (; ) is a [[building material]] made from earth and organic materials. is Spanish for '[[mudbrick]]', but in some English-speaking regions of Spanish heritage the term is used to refer to any kind of earthen construction. Most adobe buildings are similar in appearance to [[cob (material)|cob]] and [[rammed earth]] buildings. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world.", "id": "682", "title": "Adobe", "categories": ["Soil-based building materials", "Masonry", "Adobe buildings and structures", "Appropriate technology", "Vernacular architecture", "Sustainable building", "Buildings and structures by construction material"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Description"], "text": "Adobe bricks are rectangular prisms small enough that they can quickly air dry individually without cracking. They can be subsequently assembled, with the application of adobe mud to bond the individual bricks into a structure. There is no standard size, with substantial variations over the years and in different regions. In some areas a popular size measured weighing about ; in other contexts the size is weighing about . The maximum sizes can reach up to ; above this weight it becomes difficult to move the pieces, and it is preferred to ram the mud ''in situ'', resulting in a different typology known as [[rammed earth]].", "id": "682", "title": "Adobe", "categories": ["Soil-based building materials", "Masonry", "Adobe buildings and structures", "Appropriate technology", "Vernacular architecture", "Sustainable building", "Buildings and structures by construction material"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Strength"], "text": "In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater [[thermal mass]], but they are known to be particularly susceptible to earthquake damage if they are not reinforced. Cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the [[1976 Guatemala earthquake]], the [[2003 Bam earthquake]], and the [[2010 Chile earthquake]].", "id": "682", "title": "Adobe", "categories": ["Soil-based building materials", "Masonry", "Adobe buildings and structures", "Appropriate technology", "Vernacular architecture", "Sustainable building", "Buildings and structures by construction material"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Distribution"], "text": "Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common throughout the world (Middle East, Western Asia, North Africa, West Africa, South America, southwestern North America, Spain, and Eastern Europe.) Adobe had been in use by [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]] in the Southwestern United States, [[Mesoamerica]], and the [[Andes]] for several thousand years. [[Puebloan peoples]] built their adobe structures with handsful or basketsful of adobe, until the Spanish introduced them to making bricks. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the [[Bronze Age#Age sub-divisions|Late Bronze]] and [[Iron Age]] (eighth century BCE onwards). Its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics. A distinction is sometimes made between the smaller ''adobes'', which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger ''adobines'', some of which may be one to two yards (1–2 m) long.", "id": "682", "title": "Adobe", "categories": ["Soil-based building materials", "Masonry", "Adobe buildings and structures", "Appropriate technology", "Vernacular architecture", "Sustainable building", "Buildings and structures by construction material"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The word ''adobe'' has existed for around 4000 years with relatively little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the [[Middle Egyptian language|Middle Egyptian]] (c. 2000 BC) word ''ɟbt'' \"mud brick\". Middle Egyptian evolved into [[Late Egyptian language|Late Egyptian]], [[Demotic (Egyptian)|Demotic]] or \"pre-Coptic\", and finally to Coptic (c. 600 BC), where it appeared as τωωβε . This was adopted into Arabic as ''aṭ-ṭawbu'' or ''aṭ-ṭūbu'', with the [[Article (grammar)#Definite article|definite article]] ''al-'' attached. ''tuba'', This was assimilated into the [[Old Spanish language]] as ''adobe'' , probably via [[Mozarabic language|Mozarabic]]. English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century, still referring to [[mudbrick]] construction. In more modern English usage, the term \"adobe\" has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America, especially in [[New Mexico]], regardless of the construction method.", "id": "682", "title": "Adobe", "categories": ["Soil-based building materials", "Masonry", "Adobe buildings and structures", "Appropriate technology", "Vernacular architecture", "Sustainable building", "Buildings and structures by construction material"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Composition"], "text": "An adobe brick is a [[composite material]] made of earth mixed with water and an organic material such as [[straw]] or [[Dung (matter)|dung]]. The [[soil]] composition typically contains [[sand]], [[silt]] and [[clay]]. Straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. Dung offers the same advantage. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, and 55–75% fine sand. Another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles , with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight. No more than half the clay content should be [[expansive clay]], with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the brick, resulting in cracking, while too much kaolinite will make a weak brick. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where such construction has been widely used, are an adequate composition.", "id": "682", "title": "Adobe", "categories": ["Soil-based building materials", "Masonry", "Adobe buildings and structures", "Appropriate technology", "Vernacular architecture", "Sustainable building", "Buildings and structures by construction material"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Material properties"], "text": "Adobe walls are load bearing, i.e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure, hence the adobe must have sufficient compressive strength. In the United States, most building codes call for a minimum compressive strength of 300 lbf/in (2.07 newton/mm) for the adobe block. Adobe construction should be designed so as to avoid lateral structural loads that would cause bending loads. The building codes require the building sustain a 1 g lateral acceleration earthquake load. Such an acceleration will cause lateral loads on the walls, resulting in shear and bending and inducing tensile stresses. To withstand such loads, the codes typically call for a tensile modulus of rupture strength of at least 50 lbf/in (0.345 newton/mm) for the finished block. In addition to being an inexpensive material with a small resource cost, adobe can serve as a significant heat reservoir due to the thermal properties inherent in the massive walls typical in adobe construction. In climates typified by hot days and cool nights, the high thermal mass of adobe mediates the high and low temperatures of the day, moderating the temperature of the living space. The massive walls require a large and relatively long input of heat from the sun ([[radiation]]) and from the surrounding air ([[convection]]) before they warm through to the interior. After the sun sets and the temperature drops, the warm wall will continue to transfer heat to the interior for several hours due to the time-lag effect. Thus, a well-planned adobe wall of the appropriate thickness is very effective at controlling inside temperature through the wide daily fluctuations typical of desert climates, a factor which has contributed to its longevity as a building material. Thermodynamic material properties have significant variation in the literature. Some experiments suggest that the standard consideration of conductivity is not adequate for this material, as its main thermodynamic property is inertia, and conclude that experimental tests should be performed over a longer period of time than usual - preferably with changing thermal jumps. There is an effective [[R-value (insulation)|R-value]] for a north facing 10-in wall of R0=10 hr ft °F/Btu, which corresponds to thermal conductivity k=10 in x 1 ft/12 in /R0=0.33 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.57 W/(m K) in agreement with the thermal conductivity reported from another source. To determine the total R-value of a wall, scale R by the thickness of the wall in inches. The thermal resistance of adobe is also stated as an [[R-value (insulation)|R-value]] for a 10-inch wall R=4.1 hr ft °F/Btu. Another source provides the following properties: conductivity=0.30 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.52 W/(m K); specific heat capacity=0.24 Btu/(lb °F) or 1 kJ/(kg K) and density=106 lb/ft or 1700 kg/m, giving heat capacity=25.4 Btu/(ft °F) or 1700 kJ/(m K). Using the average value of the thermal conductivity as k = 32 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.55 W/(m K), the thermal diffusivity is calculated to be 0.013 ft/h or 3.3x10 m/s.", "id": "682", "title": "Adobe", "categories": ["Soil-based building materials", "Masonry", "Adobe buildings and structures", "Appropriate technology", "Vernacular architecture", "Sustainable building", "Buildings and structures by construction material"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Uses", "Poured and puddled adobe walls"], "text": "Poured and [[Puddling (engineering)|puddled]] adobe (puddled clay, piled earth), today called ''cob'', is made by placing soft adobe in layers, rather than by making individual dried bricks or using a form. \"Puddle\" is a general term for a clay or clay and sand-based material worked into a dense, plastic state. These are the oldest methods of building with adobe in the Americas until holes in the ground were used as forms, and later wooden forms used to make individual bricks were introduced by the Spanish.", "id": "682", "title": "Adobe", "categories": ["Soil-based building materials", "Masonry", "Adobe buildings and structures", "Appropriate technology", "Vernacular architecture", "Sustainable building", "Buildings and structures by construction material"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Uses", "Adobe bricks"], "text": "Bricks made from adobe are usually made by pressing the mud mixture into an open timber frame. In North America, the brick is typically about in size. The mixture is molded into the frame, which is removed after initial setting. After drying for a few hours, the bricks are turned on edge to finish drying. Slow drying in shade reduces cracking. The same mixture, without straw, is used to make [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] and often [[plaster]] on interior and exterior walls. Some cultures used [[Lime (material)|lime]]-based cement for the plaster to protect against rain damage. Depending on the form into which the mixture is pressed, adobe can encompass nearly any shape or size, provided drying is even and the mixture includes reinforcement for larger bricks. Reinforcement can include manure, straw, cement, [[rebar]], or wooden posts. Straw, cement, or manure added to a standard adobe mixture can produce a stronger, more crack-resistant brick. A test is done on the soil content first. To do so, a sample of the soil is mixed into a clear container with some water, creating an almost completely saturated liquid. The container is shaken vigorously for one minute. It is then allowed to settle for a day until the soil has settled into layers. Heavier particles settle out first, sand above, silt above that, and very fine clay and organic matter will stay in suspension for days. After the water has cleared, percentages of the various particles can be determined. Fifty to 60 percent sand and 35 to 40 percent clay will yield strong bricks. The [[Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service]] at New Mexico State University recommends a mix of not more than ⅓ clay, not less than ½ sand, and never more than ⅓ silt.", "id": "682", "title": "Adobe", "categories": ["Soil-based building materials", "Masonry", "Adobe buildings and structures", "Appropriate technology", "Vernacular architecture", "Sustainable building", "Buildings and structures by construction material"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Uses", "Adobe wall construction"], "text": "The ground supporting an adobe structure should be compressed, as the weight of adobe wall is significant and foundation settling may cause cracking of the wall. Footing depth is to be below the ground frost level. The footing and stem wall are commonly 24 and 14 inches thick, respectively. Modern construction codes call for the use of reinforcing steel in the footing and stem wall. Adobe bricks are laid by course. Adobe walls usually never rise above two stories as they are load bearing and adobe has low structural strength. When creating window and door openings, a [[lintel]] is placed on top of the opening to support the bricks above. Atop the last courses of brick, bond beams made of heavy wood beams or modern reinforced concrete are laid to provide a horizontal bearing plate for the roof beams and to redistribute lateral earthquake loads to shear walls more able to carry the forces. To protect the interior and exterior adobe walls, finishes such as mud plaster, whitewash or stucco can be applied. These protect the adobe wall from water damage, but need to be reapplied periodically. Alternatively, the walls can be finished with other nontraditional plasters that provide longer protection. Bricks made with stabilized adobe generally do not need protection of plasters.", "id": "682", "title": "Adobe", "categories": ["Soil-based building materials", "Masonry", "Adobe buildings and structures", "Appropriate technology", "Vernacular architecture", "Sustainable building", "Buildings and structures by construction material"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Uses", "Adobe roof"], "text": "The traditional adobe roof has been constructed using a mixture of soil/clay, water, sand and organic materials. The mixture was then formed and pressed into wood forms, producing rows of dried earth bricks that would then be laid across a support structure of wood and plastered into place with more adobe. Depending on the materials available, a roof may be assembled using wood or metal beams to create a framework to begin layering adobe bricks. Depending on the thickness of the adobe bricks, the framework has been preformed using a steel framing and a layering of a metal fencing or wiring over the framework to allow an even load as masses of adobe are spread across the metal fencing like cob and allowed to air dry accordingly. This method was demonstrated with an adobe blend heavily impregnated with cement to allow even drying and prevent cracking. The more traditional flat adobe roofs are functional only in dry climates that are not exposed to snow loads. The heaviest wooden beams, called [[Viga (architecture)|vigas]], lie atop the wall. Across the vigas lie smaller members called latillas and upon those brush is then laid. Finally, the adobe layer is applied. To construct a flat adobe roof, beams of wood were laid to span the building, the ends of which were attached to the tops of the walls. Once the vigas, latillas and brush are laid, adobe bricks are placed. An adobe roof is often laid with bricks slightly larger in width to ensure a greater expanse is covered when placing the bricks onto the roof. Following each individual brick should be a layer of adobe mortar, recommended to be at least thick to make certain there is ample strength between the brick's edges and also to provide a relative moisture barrier during rain. Roof design evolved around 1850 in the American Southwest. Three inches of adobe mud was applied on top of the latillas, then 18 inches of dry adobe dirt applied to the roof. The dirt was contoured into a low slope to a downspout aka a 'canal'. When moisture was applied to the roof the clay particles expanded to create a waterproof membrane. Once a year it was necessary to pull the weeds from the roof and re-slope the dirt as needed. Depending on the materials, adobe roofs can be inherently fire-proof. The construction of a chimney can greatly influence the construction of the roof supports, creating an extra need for care in choosing the materials. The builders can make an adobe chimney by stacking simple adobe bricks in a similar fashion as the surrounding walls.", "id": "682", "title": "Adobe", "categories": ["Soil-based building materials", "Masonry", "Adobe buildings and structures", "Appropriate technology", "Vernacular architecture", "Sustainable building", "Buildings and structures by construction material"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Uses", "Adobe roof"], "text": "In 1927, the [[Uniform Building Code]] (UBC) was adopted in the United States. Local ordinances, referencing the UBC added requirements to building with adobe. These included: restriction of building height of adobe structures to 1-story, requirements for adobe mix (compressive and shear strength) and new requirements which stated that every building shall be designed to withstand seismic activity, specifically lateral forces. By the 1980s however, seismic related changes in the California Building Code effectively ended solid wall adobe construction in California; however Post-and-Beam adobe and veneers are still being used.", "id": "682", "title": "Adobe", "categories": ["Soil-based building materials", "Masonry", "Adobe buildings and structures", "Appropriate technology", "Vernacular architecture", "Sustainable building", "Buildings and structures by construction material"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Adobe around the world"], "text": "The largest structure ever made from adobe is the [[Arg-é Bam]] built by the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. Other large adobe structures are the [[Huaca del Sol]] in Peru, with 100 million signed bricks and the ''ciudellas'' of [[Chan Chan]] and [[Tambo Colorado]], both in Peru.", "id": "682", "title": "Adobe", "categories": ["Soil-based building materials", "Masonry", "Adobe buildings and structures", "Appropriate technology", "Vernacular architecture", "Sustainable building", "Buildings and structures by construction material"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "An '''adventure''' is an exciting experience that is typically bold, sometimes [[risk]] or undertaking. Adventures may be activities with some potential for physical danger such as [[traveling]], [[exploring]], [[skydiving]], [[mountain climbing]], [[scuba diving]], [[river rafting]] or participating in [[extreme sports]]. Adventures are often undertaken to create psychological [[arousal]] or in order to achieve a greater goal such as the pursuit of knowledge that can only be obtained in a risky manner.", "id": "683", "title": "Adventure", "categories": ["Adventure"], "seealso": ["Adventure travel", "Sports", "List of genres", "Adventure playground", "Exploration", "Adventure film", "Tourism", "Travel"]}
{"headers": ["Motivation"], "text": "Adventurous experiences create psychological [[arousal]], which can be interpreted as negative (e.g. [[fear]]) or positive (e.g. [[flow (psychology)|flow]]). For some people, adventures becomes a major pursuit in and of itself. According to adventurer [[André Malraux]], in his ''La Condition Humaine'' (1933), \"If a man is not ready to risk his life, where is his dignity?\". Similarly, [[Helen Keller]] stated that \"Life is either a daring adventure or nothing.\" Outdoor adventurous activities are typically undertaken for the purposes of [[recreation]] or [[wikt:excitement|excitement]]: examples are [[adventure racing]] and [[Adventure travel|adventure tourism]]. Adventurous activities can also lead to gains in knowledge, such as those undertaken by explorers and pioneers – the British adventurer [[Jason Lewis (adventurer)|Jason Lewis]], for example, uses adventures to draw global [[sustainability]] lessons from living within finite environmental constraints on expeditions to share with schoolchildren. [[Adventure education]] intentionally uses challenging experiences for [[learning]]. Author [[Jon Levy (behaviorist)|Jon Levy]] suggests that an experience should meet several criteria to be considered an adventure: (1) Be remarkable—that is, worth talking about (2) Involve adversity or perceived risk (3) Bring about personal growth", "id": "683", "title": "Adventure", "categories": ["Adventure"], "seealso": ["Adventure travel", "Sports", "List of genres", "Adventure playground", "Exploration", "Adventure film", "Tourism", "Travel"]}
{"headers": ["Mythology and fiction"], "text": "Some of the oldest and most widespread stories in the world are stories of adventure such as [[Homer]]'s ''[[The Odyssey]]''. The [[knight errant]] was the form the \"adventure seeker\" character took in the late Middle Ages. The [[adventure novel]] exhibits these \"protagonist on adventurous journey\" characteristics as do many popular feature [[Adventure film|films]], such as ''[[Star Wars (film)|Star Wars]]'' and ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''.", "id": "683", "title": "Adventure", "categories": ["Adventure"], "seealso": ["Adventure travel", "Sports", "List of genres", "Adventure playground", "Exploration", "Adventure film", "Tourism", "Travel"]}
{"headers": ["Mythology and fiction", "Outdoors"], "text": "Adventure books may have the theme of the hero or main character going to face the [[wilderness]] or [[Mother Nature]]. Examples include books such as ''[[Hatchet (book)|Hatchet]]'' or ''[[My Side of the Mountain]]''. These books are less about \"questing\", such as in mythology or other adventure novels, but more about surviving on their own, living off the land, gaining new experiences, and becoming closer to the natural world.", "id": "683", "title": "Adventure", "categories": ["Adventure"], "seealso": ["Adventure travel", "Sports", "List of genres", "Adventure playground", "Exploration", "Adventure film", "Tourism", "Travel"]}
{"headers": ["Mythology and fiction", "Questing"], "text": "Many adventures are based on the idea of a quest: the hero goes off in pursuit of a reward, whether it be a skill, prize, treasure or perhaps the safety of a person. On the way, the hero must overcome various obstacles to obtain it's reward.", "id": "683", "title": "Adventure", "categories": ["Adventure"], "seealso": ["Adventure travel", "Sports", "List of genres", "Adventure playground", "Exploration", "Adventure film", "Tourism", "Travel"]}
{"headers": ["Mythology and fiction", "Video games"], "text": "In [[video game culture|video-game culture]], an adventure game is a [[video game]] in which the player assumes the role of a protagonist in an interactive story driven by exploration and [[puzzle| puzzle-solving]]. The [[Video game genres|genre]]'s focus on story allows it to draw heavily from other [[narrative]]-based media, [[literature]] and [[film]], encompassing a wide variety of literary genres. Many adventure games ([[List of text-based computer games|text]] and [[List of graphic adventure games|graphic]]) are designed for a single player, since this emphasis on story and character makes multi-player design difficult.", "id": "683", "title": "Adventure", "categories": ["Adventure"], "seealso": ["Adventure travel", "Sports", "List of genres", "Adventure playground", "Exploration", "Adventure film", "Tourism", "Travel"]}
{"headers": ["Nonfiction works"], "text": "From ancient times, travelers and explorers have written about their adventures. Journals which became best-sellers in their day were written, such as [[Marco Polo]]'s journal ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]'' or [[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[Roughing It]]''. Others were personal journals, only later published, such as the journals of [[Meriwether Lewis|Lewis]] and [[William Clark|Clark]] or [[Captain James Cook]]'s journals. There are also books written by those not directly a part of the adventure in question, such as ''[[The Right Stuff (book)|The Right Stuff]]'' by [[Tom Wolfe]], or books written by those participating in the adventure but in a format other than that of a journal, such as ''Conquistadors of the Useless'' by [[Lionel Terray]]. Documentaries often use the theme of adventure as well.", "id": "683", "title": "Adventure", "categories": ["Adventure"], "seealso": ["Adventure travel", "Sports", "List of genres", "Adventure playground", "Exploration", "Adventure film", "Tourism", "Travel"]}
{"headers": ["Adventure sports"], "text": "There are many sports classified as [[adventure game]] or sports, due to their inherent danger and excitement. Some of these include [[mountain climbing]], [[skydiving]], or other [[extreme sports]].", "id": "683", "title": "Adventure", "categories": ["Adventure"], "seealso": ["Adventure travel", "Sports", "List of genres", "Adventure playground", "Exploration", "Adventure film", "Tourism", "Travel"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Asia''' () is [[Earth]]'s largest and most populous [[continent]], located primarily in the [[Eastern Hemisphere|Eastern]] and [[Northern Hemisphere|Northern]] [[Hemisphere of the Earth|Hemispheres]]. It shares the continental [[landmass]] of [[Eurasia]] with the continent of [[Europe]] and the continental landmass of [[Afro-Eurasia]] with both Europe and [[Africa]]. Asia covers an area of , about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the [[human population]], was the site of many of the [[first civilization]]. Its 4.5 billion people () constitute roughly 60% of the world's population. In general terms, Asia is bounded on the east by the [[Pacific Ocean]], on the south by the [[Indian Ocean]], and on the north by the [[Arctic Ocean]]. The border of Asia with Europe is a historical and [[cultural construct]], as there is no clear physical and geographical separation between them. It is somewhat arbitrary and has moved since its first conception in [[classical antiquity]]. The division of Eurasia into two continents reflects [[East–West dichotomy|East–West]] cultural, linguistic, and ethnic differences, some of which vary on a spectrum rather than with a sharp dividing line. The most commonly accepted boundaries place Asia to the east of the [[Suez Canal]] separating it from Africa; and to the east of the [[Turkish Straits]], the [[Ural Mountains]] and [[Ural River]], and to the south of the [[Caucasus Mountains]] and the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] and [[Black Sea]], separating it from Europe. [[China]] and [[India]] alternated in being the [[List of regions by past GDP (PPP)|largest economies in the world]] from 1 to 1800 CE. China was a major economic power and attracted many to the east, and for many the legendary wealth and prosperity of the ancient culture of India personified Asia, attracting European commerce, exploration and colonialism. The accidental discovery of a trans-Atlantic route from Europe to America by Columbus while in search for a route to India demonstrates this deep fascination. The [[Silk Road]] became the main east–west trading route in the Asian hinterlands while the [[Strait of Malacca|Straits of Malacca]] stood as a major sea route. Asia has exhibited economic dynamism as well as robust population growth during the 20th century, but overall population growth has since fallen. Asia was the birthplace of most of the world's mainstream religions including [[Hinduism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Judaism]], [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Sikhism]], as well as many other religions. Given its size and diversity, the concept of Asia—a [[toponymy|name]] dating back to [[classical antiquity]]—may actually have more to do with [[human geography]] than [[physical geography]]. Asia varies greatly across and within [[Regions of Asia|its regions]] with regard to ethnic groups, cultures, environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. It also has a mix of many different climates ranging from the equatorial south via the hot desert in the [[Middle East]], temperate areas in the east and the continental centre to vast subarctic and polar areas in [[Siberia]].", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Definition and boundaries", "Asia–Africa boundary"], "text": "The boundary between Asia and Africa is the [[Red Sea]], the [[Gulf of Suez]], and the [[Suez Canal]]. This makes Egypt a [[transcontinental country]], with the [[Sinai peninsula]] in Asia and the remainder of the country in Africa.", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Definition and boundaries", "Asia–Europe boundary"], "text": "The threefold division of the [[Old World]] into Europe, Asia and Africa has been in use since the 6th century BC, due to [[Greek geographers]] such as [[Anaximander]] and [[Hecataeus of Miletus|Hecataeus]]. Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia and Europe along the [[Phasis River]] (the modern Rioni river) in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] of Caucasus (from its mouth by [[Poti]] on the [[Black Sea]] coast, through the [[Surami Pass]] and along the [[Kura (Caspian Sea)|Kura River]] to the Caspian Sea), a convention still followed by [[Herodotus]] in the 5th century BC. During the [[Hellenistic period]], this convention was revised, and the boundary between Europe and Asia was now considered to be the [[Don River (Russia)|Tanais]] (the modern Don River). This is the convention used by Roman era authors such as [[Posidonius]], [[Strabo]] and [[Ptolemy]]. The border between Asia and Europe was historically defined by European academics. The [[Don River (Russia)|Don River]] became unsatisfactory to northern Europeans when [[Peter the Great]], king of the [[Tsardom of Russia]], defeating rival claims of [[Sweden]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]] to the eastern lands, and armed resistance by the tribes of [[Siberia]], synthesized a new [[Russian Empire]] extending to the [[Ural Mountains]] and beyond, founded in 1721. The major geographical theorist of the empire was a former Swedish prisoner-of-war, taken at the [[Battle of Poltava]] in 1709 and assigned to [[Tobolsk]], where he associated with Peter's Siberian official, [[Vasily Tatishchev]], and was allowed freedom to conduct geographical and anthropological studies in preparation for a future book. In Sweden, five years after Peter's death, in 1730 [[Philip Johan von Strahlenberg]] published a new atlas proposing the Ural Mountains as the border of Asia. Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg. The latter had suggested the [[Emba River]] as the lower boundary. Over the next century various proposals were made until the [[Ural River]] prevailed in the mid-19th century. The border had been moved perforce from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into which the Ural River projects. The border between the Black Sea and the Caspian is usually placed along the crest of the [[Caucasus Mountains]], although it is sometimes placed further north.", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Definition and boundaries", "Asia–Oceania boundary"], "text": "The border between Asia and the region of [[Oceania]] is usually placed somewhere in the [[Malay Archipelago]]. The [[Maluku Islands]] in Indonesia are often considered to lie on the border of southeast Asia, with [[New Guinea]], to the east of the islands, being wholly part of Oceania. The terms Southeast Asia and Oceania, devised in the 19th century, have had several vastly different geographic meanings since their inception. The chief factor in determining which islands of the Malay Archipelago are Asian has been the location of the colonial possessions of the various empires there (not all European). Lewis and Wigen assert, \"The narrowing of 'Southeast Asia' to its present boundaries was thus a gradual process.\"", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Definition and boundaries", "Ongoing definition"], "text": "Geographical Asia is a cultural artifact of European conceptions of the world, beginning with the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]], being imposed onto other cultures, an imprecise concept causing endemic contention about what it means. Asia does not exactly correspond to the cultural borders of its various types of constituents. From the time of [[Herodotus]] a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system (Europe, Africa, Asia) on the grounds that there is no substantial physical separation between them. For example, Sir [[Barry Cunliffe]], the emeritus professor of European archeology at Oxford, argues that Europe has been geographically and culturally merely \"the western excrescence of the continent of Asia\". Geographically, Asia is the major eastern constituent of the continent of [[Eurasia]] with Europe being a northwestern [[peninsula]] of the landmass. Asia, Europe and Africa make up a single continuous landmass—[[Afro-Eurasia]] (except for the Suez Canal)—and share a common [[continental shelf]]. Almost all of Europe and a major part of Asia sit atop the [[Eurasian Plate]], adjoined on the south by the [[Arabian Plate|Arabian]] and [[Indian Plate]] and with the easternmost part of Siberia (east of the [[Chersky Range]]) on the [[North American Plate]].", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The idea of a place called \"Asia\" was originally a concept of [[Greek civilization]], though this might not correspond to the entire continent currently known by that name. The English word comes from Latin literature, where it has the same form, \"Asia\". Whether \"Asia\" in other languages comes from Latin of the [[Roman Empire]] is much less certain, and the ultimate source of the Latin word is uncertain, though several theories have been published. One of the first classical writers to use Asia as a name of the whole continent was [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]. This [[metonymy|metonymical]] change in meaning is common and can be observed in some other geographical names, such as [[Scandinavia]] (from [[Scania]]).", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology", "Bronze Age"], "text": "Before Greek poetry, the [[Aegean Sea]] area was in a [[Greek Dark Age]], at the beginning of which syllabic writing was lost and alphabetic writing had not begun. Prior to then in the [[Bronze Age]] the records of the [[Assyrian Empire]], the [[Hittite Empire]] and the various [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] states of Greece mention a region undoubtedly Asia, certainly in Anatolia, including if not identical to Lydia. These records are administrative and do not include poetry. The Mycenaean states were destroyed about 1200 BCE by unknown agents although one school of thought assigns the [[Dorian invasion]] to this time. The burning of the palaces baked clay diurnal administrative records written in a Greek syllabic script called [[Linear B]], deciphered by a number of interested parties, most notably by a young World War II cryptographer, [[Michael Ventris]], subsequently assisted by the scholar, [[John Chadwick]]. A major cache discovered by [[Carl Blegen]] at the site of ancient [[Pylos]] included hundreds of male and female names formed by different methods. Some of these are of women held in servitude (as study of the society implied by the content reveals). They were used in trades, such as cloth-making, and usually came with children. The epithet ''lawiaiai'', \"captives\", associated with some of them identifies their origin. Some are ethnic names. One in particular, ''aswiai'', identifies \"women of Asia\". Perhaps they were captured in Asia, but some others, ''Milatiai'', appear to have been of [[Miletus]], a Greek colony, which would not have been raided for slaves by Greeks. Chadwick suggests that the names record the locations where these foreign women were purchased. The name is also in the singular, ''Aswia'', which refers both to the name of a country and to a female from there. There is a masculine form, . This ''Aswia'' appears to have been a remnant of a region known to the Hittites as Assuwa, centered on Lydia, or \"Roman Asia\". This name, ''Assuwa'', has been suggested as the origin for the name of the continent \"Asia\". The [[Assuwa league]] was a confederation of states in western Anatolia, defeated by the [[Hittites]] under [[Tudhaliya I]] around 1400 BCE. Alternatively, the [[etymology]] of the term may be from the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] word , which means 'to go outside' or 'to ascend', referring to the direction of the sun at sunrise in the Middle East and also likely connected with the Phoenician word ''asa'' meaning 'east'. This may be contrasted to a similar etymology proposed for ''Europe'', as being from Akkadian 'to enter' or 'set' (of the sun).", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology", "Bronze Age"], "text": "[[T.R. Reid]] supports this alternative etymology, noting that the ancient Greek name must have derived from ''asu'', meaning 'east' in [[Assyria]] (''ereb'' for ''Europe'' meaning 'west'). The ideas of ''Occidental'' (form [[Latin]] ''occidens'' 'setting') and ''Oriental'' (from Latin ''oriens'' for 'rising') are also European invention, synonymous with ''Western'' and ''Eastern''. Reid further emphasizes that it explains the Western point of view of placing all the peoples and cultures of Asia into a single classification, almost as if there were a need for setting the distinction between Western and [[Eastern world|Eastern civilizations]] on the [[Eurasia]] continent. [[Kazuo Ogura]] and [[Tenshin Okakura]] are two outspoken Japanese figures on the subject.", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology", "Classical antiquity"], "text": "Latin Asia and Greek Ἀσία appear to be the same word. Roman authors translated Ἀσία as Asia. The Romans named a province [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]], located in western Anatolia (in modern-day Turkey). There was an Asia Minor and an Asia Major located in modern-day [[Iraq]]. As the earliest evidence of the name is Greek, it is likely circumstantially that Asia came from Ἀσία, but ancient transitions, due to the lack of literary contexts, are difficult to catch in the act. The most likely vehicles were the ancient geographers and historians, such as [[Herodotus]], who were all Greek. [[Ancient Greek]] certainly evidences early and rich uses of the name. The first continental use of Asia is attributed to Herodotus (about 440 BCE), not because he innovated it, but because his ''Histories'' are the earliest surviving prose to describe it in any detail. He defines it carefully, mentioning the previous geographers whom he had read, but whose works are now missing. By it he means [[Anatolia]] and the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]], in contrast to [[Greece]] and [[Egypt]]. Herodotus comments that he is puzzled as to why three women's names were \"given to a tract which is in reality one\" ([[Europa (mythology)|Europa]], [[Asia (mythology)|Asia]], and [[Libya (mythology)|Libya]], referring to Africa), stating that most Greeks assumed that Asia was named after the wife of [[Prometheus]] (i.e. [[Hesione]]), but that the [[Lydia]] say it was named after Asies, son of Cotys, who passed the name on to a tribe at [[Sardis]]. In [[Greek mythology]], \"Asia\" (''Ἀσία'') or \"Asie\" (''Ἀσίη'') was the name of a \"[[Nymph]] or [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]] goddess of Lydia\". In ancient Greek religion, places were under the care of female divinities, parallel to guardian angels. The poets detailed their doings and generations in allegoric language salted with entertaining stories, which subsequently playwrights transformed into classical Greek drama and became \"Greek mythology\". For example, [[Hesiod]] mentions the daughters of [[Tethys (mythology)|Tethys]] and [[Oceanus|Ocean]], among whom are a \"holy company\", \"who with the Lord [[Apollo]] and the Rivers have youths in their keeping\". Many of these are geographic: Doris, Rhodea, Europa, Asia. Hesiod explains: The [[Iliad]] (attributed by the ancient Greeks to [[Homer]]) mentions two Phrygians (the tribe that replaced the [[Luvians]] in Lydia) in the [[Trojan War]] named [[Asius (mythology)|Asios]] (an adjective meaning \"Asian\"); and also a marsh or lowland containing a marsh in Lydia as . According to many Muslims, the term came from [[Ancient Egypt]]'s Queen [[Asiya]], the adoptive mother of [[Moses]].", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "The history of Asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions: East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and the Middle East, linked by the interior mass of the Central Asian [[steppe]]. The coastal periphery was home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, each of them developing around fertile river valleys. The civilizations in [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Indus Valley]] and the [[Yellow River]] shared many similarities. These civilizations may well have exchanged technologies and ideas such as [[mathematics]] and the [[wheel]]. Other innovations, such as writing, seem to have been developed individually in each area. Cities, states and empires developed in these lowlands. The central steppe region had long been inhabited by horse-mounted nomads who could reach all areas of Asia from the [[steppe]]. The earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is that of the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-Europeans]], who spread their languages into the Middle East, South Asia, and the borders of China, where the [[Tocharians]] resided. The northernmost part of Asia, including much of [[Siberia]], was largely inaccessible to the steppe nomads, owing to the dense forests, climate and [[tundra]]. These areas remained very sparsely populated. The center and the peripheries were mostly kept separated by mountains and deserts. The [[Caucasus]] and [[Himalaya]] mountains and the [[Karakum Desert|Karakum]] and [[Gobi Desert|Gobi]] deserts formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could cross only with difficulty. While the urban city dwellers were more advanced technologically and socially, in many cases they could do little in a military aspect to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force; for this and other reasons, the [[nomad]] who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East often found themselves adapting to the local, more affluent societies. The Islamic [[Caliphate]]'s defeats of the Byzantine and Persian empires led to West Asia and southern parts of Central Asia and western parts of South Asia under its control during [[Early Muslim conquests|its conquests]] of the 7th century. The [[Mongol Empire]] conquered a large part of Asia in the 13th century, an area extending from China to Europe. Before the Mongol invasion, [[Song dynasty]] reportedly had approximately 120 million citizens; the 1300 census which followed the invasion reported roughly 60 million people. The [[Black Death]], one of the most devastating [[pandemic]] in human history, is thought to have originated in the arid plains of central Asia, where it then travelled along the [[Silk Road]].", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "The [[Russian Empire]] began to expand into Asia from the 17th century, and would eventually take control of all of Siberia and most of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. The [[Ottoman Empire]] controlled Anatolia, most of the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans from the mid 16th century onwards. In the 17th century, the [[Manchu people|Manchu]] conquered China and established the [[Qing dynasty]]. The Islamic [[Mughal Empire]] and the Hindu [[Maratha Empire]] controlled much of India in the 16th and 18th centuries respectively. The [[Empire of Japan]] controlled most of East Asia and much of Southeast Asia, New Guinea and the Pacific islands until the end of [[World War II]].", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Geography and climate"], "text": "Asia is the largest continent on Earth. It covers 9% of the Earth's total surface area (or 30% of its land area), and has the longest coastline, at . Asia is generally defined as comprising the eastern four-fifths of [[Eurasia]]. It is located to the east of the [[Suez Canal]] and the [[Ural Mountains]], and south of the [[Caucasus Mountains]] (or the [[Kuma–Manych Depression]]) and the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] and [[Black Sea]]. It is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. Asia is subdivided into 49 countries, five of them ([[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Russia]], [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Turkey]]) are [[List of transcontinental countries|transcontinental countries]] lying partly in Europe. Geographically, Russia is partly in Asia, but is considered a [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe|European nation]], both [[Russian culture|culturally]] and politically. The [[Gobi Desert]] is in [[Mongolia]] and the [[Arabian Desert]] stretches across much of the Middle East. The [[Yangtze River]] in China is the longest river in the continent. The [[Himalayas]] between Nepal and China is the tallest mountain range in the world. Tropical rainforests stretch across much of southern Asia and coniferous and deciduous forests lie farther north.", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Geography and climate", "Main regions"], "text": "There are various approaches to the regional division of Asia. The following subdivision into regions is used, among others, by the UN statistics agency [[UNSD]]. This division of Asia into regions by the United Nations is done solely for statistical reasons and does not imply any assumption about political or other affiliations of countries and territories. (-) [[North Asia]] ([[Siberia]]) (-) [[Central Asia]] ([[Central Asia|The 'stans]]) (-) [[Western Asia]] (The [[Middle East]] or [[Near East]]) (-) [[South Asia]] ([[Indian subcontinent]]) (-) [[East Asia]] ([[Far East]]) (-) [[Southeast Asia]] ([[East Indies]] and [[Mainland Southeast Asia|Indochina]])", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Geography and climate", "Climate"], "text": "Asia has extremely diverse climate features. Climates range from arctic and subarctic in Siberia to tropical in southern India and Southeast Asia. It is moist across southeast sections, and dry across much of the interior. Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia. The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections, due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer. Southwestern sections of the continent are hot. Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere, and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America. The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan. A survey carried out in 2010 by global risk analysis farm [[Maplecroft]] identified 16 countries that are extremely [[Climate change vulnerability|vulnerable to climate change]]. Each nation's vulnerability was calculated using 42 socio, economic and environmental indicators, which identified the likely climate change impacts during the next 30 years. The Asian countries of [[Bangladesh]], [[India]], [[Philippines|the Philippines]], [[Vietnam]], [[Thailand]], [[Pakistan]], [[China]] and [[Sri Lanka]] were among the 16 countries facing extreme risk from climate change. .Some shifts are already occurring. For example, in tropical parts of India with a [[semi-arid climate]], the temperature increased by 0.4 °C between 1901 and 2003. A 2013 study by the [[International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics]] (ICRISAT) aimed to find science-based, pro-poor approaches and techniques that would enable Asia's agricultural systems to cope with climate change, while benefitting poor and vulnerable farmers. The study's recommendations ranged from improving the use of climate information in local planning and strengthening weather-based agro-advisory services, to stimulating diversification of rural household incomes and providing incentives to farmers to adopt natural resource conservation measures to enhance forest cover, replenish groundwater and use [[renewable energy]].", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Economy"], "text": "Asia has the largest continental economy by both [[GDP]] [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|Nominal]] and [[purchasing power parity|PPP]] in the world, and is the fastest growing economic region. , the largest economies in Asia are China, Japan, India, South Korea, Indonesia and Turkey based on GDP in both nominal and PPP. Based on Global Office Locations 2011, Asia dominated the office locations with 4 of the top 5 being in Asia: [[Hong Kong]], [[Singapore]], [[Tokyo]] and [[Seoul]]. Singapore is also known for its upscale infrastructure and as an [[Changi Airport|aviation]], [[Singapore model|financial]] and technological hub. It is also one of the only few sovereign city-states to exist in contemporary history. Notwithstanding, it has been highly ranked as one of the most livable cities in the world, especially in regards to [[Education in Singapore|education]], [[Healthcare in Singapore|healthcare]], infrastructure and [[Crime in Singapore|safety]]. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the economies of China and India have been growing rapidly, both with an average annual growth rate of more than 8%. Other recent very-high-growth nations in Asia include [[Israel]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], and the [[Philippines]], and mineral-rich nations such as [[Kazakhstan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Iran]], [[Brunei]], the [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Qatar]], [[Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Bahrain]] and [[Oman]]. According to [[economic historian]] [[Angus Maddison]] in his book ''The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective'', India had the world's largest economy during 0 BCE and 1000 BCE. Historically, India was the largest economy in the world for most of the two millennia from the 1st until 19th century, contributing 25% of the world's industrial output. China was the [[Economic history of China|largest and most advanced economy]] on earth for much of recorded history and shared the mantle with India. For several decades in the late twentieth century Japan was the largest economy in Asia and second-largest of any single nation in the world, after surpassing the [[Soviet Union]] (measured in net material product) in 1990 and Germany in 1968. (NB: A number of supernational economies are larger, such as the [[European Union]] (EU), the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) or [[APEC]]). This ended in 2010 when China overtook Japan to become the world's second largest economy. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Japan's GDP was almost as large (current exchange rate method) as that of the rest of Asia combined. In 1995, Japan's economy nearly equaled that of the US as the largest economy in the world for a day, after the Japanese currency reached a record high of 79 [[Japanese yen|yen]]/US$. Economic growth in Asia since World War II to the 1990s had been concentrated in Japan as well as the four regions of South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore located in the [[Pacific Rim]], known as the [[Four Asian Tigers|Asian tigers]], which have now all received developed country status, having the highest [[GDP per capita]] in Asia.", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Economy"], "text": "It is forecasted that India will overtake Japan in terms of nominal GDP by 2025, such as what China did in 2010. By 2027, according to [[Goldman Sachs]], China will have the largest economy in the world. Several trade blocs exist, with the most developed being the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] and most recently the [[Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership]] (RCEP). Asia is the largest continent in the world by a considerable margin, and it is rich in natural resources, such as petroleum, forests, fish, water, rice, copper and silver. Manufacturing in Asia has traditionally been strongest in East and Southeast Asia, particularly in China, Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore, Japan and India. Japan, Singapore and South Korea continue to dominate in the area of [[multinational corporation]], but increasingly China and India are making significant inroads. Many companies from Europe, North America, South Korea, Singapore and Japan have operations in Asia's developing countries to take advantage of its abundant supply of cheap labour and relatively developed infrastructure. According to [[Citigroup]] 9 of 11 [[3G (countries)|Global Growth Generators]] countries came from Asia driven by population and income growth. They are [[Bangladesh]], China, India, Indonesia, [[Iraq]], Mongolia, the [[Philippines]], [[Sri Lanka]] and Vietnam. Asia has three main financial centers: Hong Kong, Tokyo and Singapore. [[Call center]] and [[business process outsourcing]] (BPOs) are becoming major employers in India and the Philippines due to the availability of a large pool of highly skilled, English-speaking workers. The increased use of outsourcing has assisted the rise of India and the China as financial centers. Due to its large and extremely competitive information technology industry, India has become a major hub for outsourcing. Trade between Asian countries and countries on other continents is largely carried out on the sea routes that are important for Asia. Individual main routes have emerged from this. The main route leads from the Chinese coast south via Hanoi to Jakarta, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur through the [[Strait of Malacca]] via the Sri Lankan Colombo to the southern tip of India via Malé to East Africa [[Mombasa]], from there to [[Djibouti]], then through the Red Sea over the [[Suez Canal]] into Mediterranean, there via Haifa, Istanbul and [[Athens]] to the upper Adriatic to the northern Italian hub of [[Trieste]] with its rail connections to Central and Eastern Europe or further to [[Barcelona]] and around Spain and France to the European northern ports. A far smaller part of the goods traffic runs via South Africa to Europe. A particularly significant part of the Asian goods traffic is carried out across the Pacific towards [[Los Angeles]] and [[Long Beach]]. In contrast to the sea routes, the Silk Road via the land route to Europe is on the one hand still under construction and on the other hand is much smaller in terms of scope. Intra-Asian trade, including sea trade, is growing rapidly. In 2010, Asia had 3.3 million millionaires (people with net worth over US$1 million excluding their homes), slightly below North America with 3.4 million millionaires. Last year Asia had toppled Europe.", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Economy"], "text": "Citigroup in The Wealth Report 2012 stated that Asian centa-millionaire overtook North America's wealth for the first time as the world's \"economic center of gravity\" continued moving east. At the end of 2011, there were 18,000 Asian people mainly in Southeast Asia, China and Japan who have at least $100 million in disposable assets, while North America with 17,000 people and Western Europe with 14,000 people.", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Tourism"], "text": "With growing Regional Tourism with domination of Chinese visitors, [[MasterCard]] has released Global Destination Cities Index 2013 with 10 of 20 are dominated by Asia and Pacific Region Cities and also for the first time a city of a country from Asia ([[Bangkok]]) set in the top-ranked with 15.98 international visitors.", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics"], "text": "East and Southeast Asia had by far the strongest overall [[Human Development Index]] (HDI) improvement of any region in the world, nearly doubling average HDI attainment over the past 40 years, according to the report's analysis of health, education and income data. China, the second highest achiever in the world in terms of HDI improvement since 1970, is the only country on the \"Top 10 Movers\" list due to income rather than health or education achievements. Its per capita income increased a stunning 21-fold over the last four decades, also lifting hundreds of millions out of income poverty. Yet it was not among the region's top performers in improving school enrollment and life expectancy. <br>[[Nepal]], a South Asian country, emerges as one of the world's fastest movers since 1970 mainly due to health and education achievements. Its present [[life expectancy]] is 25 years longer than in the 1970s. More than four of every five children of school age in Nepal now attend primary school, compared to just one in five 40 years ago. <br> Singapore ranked the highest among the [[sovereign]] countries grouped on the HDI (number 9 in the world, which is in the \"very high human development\" category), followed by Japan (19) and South Korea (22). [[Afghanistan]] (155) ranked lowest amongst Asian countries out of the 169 countries assessed.", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Languages"], "text": "Asia is home to several [[language family|language families]] and many [[language isolate]]. Most Asian countries have more than one language that is natively spoken. For instance, according to [[Ethnologue]], more than 600 languages are spoken in Indonesia, more than 800 languages spoken in India, and more than 100 are spoken in the Philippines. China has many languages and dialects in different provinces.", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Religions"], "text": "Many of the world's [[major religious groups|major religions]] have their origins in Asia, including the five most practiced in the world (excluding [[irreligion]]), which are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Chinese folk religion (classified as Confucianism and Taoism), and Buddhism respectively. Asian mythology is complex and diverse. The story of the [[Flood myth|Great Flood]] for example, as presented to Jews in the [[Hebrew Bible]] in the narrative of [[Noah]]—and later to Christians in the [[Old Testament]], and to [[Islam|Muslims]] in the [[Quran]]—is earliest found in [[Mesopotamian mythology]], in the [[Enûma Eliš]] and ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]''. [[Hindu mythology]] similarly tells about an [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]] in the form of a [[Matsya|fish]] who warned [[Sraddhadeva Manu|Manu]] of a terrible flood. Ancient [[Chinese mythology]] also tells of a [[Great Flood (China)|Great Flood]] spanning generations, one that required the combined efforts of emperors and divinities to control.", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Religions", "Abrahamic"], "text": "The [[Abrahamic religions]] including [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], [[Islam]] and [[Baháʼí Faith]] originated in West Asia. [[Judaism]], the oldest of the Abrahamic faiths, is practiced primarily in [[Israel]], the [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] homeland and historical birthplace of the [[Jews|Hebrew nation]]: which today consists both of those [[Jews]] who remained in [[Mizrahi Jews|the Middle East]] and those who returned from [[Jewish diaspora|diaspora]] in [[Ashkenazi Jews|Europe]], [[American Jews|North America]], and other regions; though various diaspora communities persist worldwide. Jews are the predominant ethnic group in [[Israel]] (75.6%) numbering at about 6.1 million, although the levels of adherence to Jewish religion vary. Outside of Israel there are small ancient Jewish communities in [[Turkey]] (17,400), [[Azerbaijan]] (9,100), Iran (8,756), India (5,000) and [[Uzbekistan]] (4,000), among many other places. In total, there are 14.4–17.5 million (2016, est.) Jews alive in the world today, making them one of the smallest Asian minorities, at roughly 0.3 to 0.4 percent of the total population of the continent. [[Christianity]] is a widespread religion in Asia with more than 286 million adherents according to [[Pew Research Center]] in 2010, and nearly 364 million according to [[Encyclopædia Britannica|Britannica]] Book of the Year 2014. Constituting around 12.6% of the total population of Asia. In the Philippines and [[East Timor]], Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion; it was introduced by the Spaniards and the Portuguese, respectively. In [[Armenia]] and Georgia, [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] is the predominant religion. In the Middle East, such as in the [[Levant]], [[Syriac Christianity]] ([[Church of the East]]) and [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] are prevalent minority denominations, which are both [[Eastern Christian]] sects mainly adhered to [[Assyrian people]] or Syriac Christians. [[Saint Thomas Christians]] in India trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of [[Thomas the Apostle]] in the 1st century. [[Islam]], which originated in the [[Hejaz]] located in modern-day Saudi Arabia, is the second largest and most widely-spread religion in Asia with at least 1 billion Muslims constituting around 23.8% of the total population of Asia. With 12.7% of the world Muslim population, the country currently with the largest Muslim population in the world is Indonesia, followed by Pakistan (11.5%), India (10%), [[Bangladesh]], Iran and Turkey. [[Mecca]], [[Medina]] and [[Holiest sites in Islam#Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] are the three holiest cities for Islam in all the world. The [[Hajj]] and [[Umrah]] attract large numbers of Muslim devotees from all over the world to Mecca and Medina. Iran is the largest [[Shi'a]] country. The [[Baháʼí Faith]] originated in Asia, in Iran (Persia), and spread from there to the Ottoman Empire, Central Asia, India, and Burma during the lifetime of Bahá'u'lláh. Since the middle of the 20th century, growth has particularly occurred in other Asian countries, because Baháʼí activities in many Muslim countries has been [[Persecution of Baháʼís|severely suppressed]] by authorities. [[Lotus Temple]] is a big Baháʼí Temple in India.", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Religions", "Indian and East Asian religions"], "text": "Almost all Asian religions have philosophical character and Asian philosophical traditions cover a large spectrum of philosophical thoughts and writings. [[Indian philosophy]] includes [[Hindu philosophy]] and [[Buddhist philosophy]]. They include elements of nonmaterial pursuits, whereas another school of thought from India, [[Cārvāka]], preached the enjoyment of the material world. The religions of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]] originated in India, South Asia. In East Asia, particularly in China and Japan, [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]] and [[Zen|Zen Buddhism]] took shape. , Hinduism has around 1.1 billion adherents. The faith represents around 25% of Asia's population and is the largest religion in Asia. However, it is mostly concentrated in South Asia. Over 80% of the populations of both India and Nepal adhere to Hinduism, alongside significant communities in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and [[Bali]], Indonesia. Many overseas Indians in countries such as Burma, Singapore and Malaysia also adhere to Hinduism. Buddhism has a great following in mainland Southeast Asia and East Asia. Buddhism is the religion of the majority of the populations of [[Cambodia]] (96%), [[Thailand]] (95%), [[Burma]] (80–89%), Japan (36–96%), [[Bhutan]] (75–84%), [[Sri Lanka]] (70%), [[Laos]] (60–67%) and [[Mongolia]] (53–93%). Large Buddhist populations also exist in Singapore (33–51%), [[Taiwan]] (35–93%), South Korea (23–50%), [[Malaysia]] (19–21%), [[Nepal]] (9–11%), [[Vietnam]] (10–75%), China (20–50%), [[North Korea]] (2–14%), and small communities in India and [[Bangladesh]]. The Communist-governed countries of China, Vietnam and North Korea are officially atheist, thus the number of Buddhists and other religious adherents may be under-reported. [[Jainism]] is found mainly in India and in oversea Indian communities such as the United States and Malaysia. [[Sikhism]] is found in Northern India and amongst overseas Indian communities in other parts of Asia, especially Southeast Asia. [[Confucianism]] is found predominantly in Mainland China, South Korea, Taiwan and in overseas Chinese populations. [[Taoism]] is found mainly in Mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia and Singapore. In many Chinese communities, Taoism is easily syncretized with [[Mahayana Buddhism]], thus exact religious statistics are difficult to obtain and may be understated or overstated.", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Modern conflicts"], "text": "Some of the events pivotal in the Asia territory related to the relationship with the outside world in the post-[[Second World War]] were: (-) The [[Partition of India]] (-) The [[Chinese Civil War]] (-) The [[Kashmir conflict]] (-) The [[Insurgency in Balochistan|Balochistan Conflict]] (-) The [[Naxalite–Maoist insurgency|Naxalite–Maoist insurgency in India]] (-) The [[Korean War]] (-) The [[First Indochina War|French-Indochina War]] (-) The [[Vietnam War]] (-) The [[Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation]] (-) The [[1959 Tibetan uprising]] (-) The [[Proclamation of Singapore]] (-) The [[Sino-Vietnamese War]] (-) The [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] (-) The [[Yom Kippur War]] (-) The [[Xinjiang conflict]] (-) The [[Iranian Revolution]] (-) The [[Soviet–Afghan War]] (-) The [[Iran–Iraq War]] (-) The [[Killing Fields|Cambodian Killing Fields]] (-) The [[Insurgency in Laos]] (-) The [[Lebanese Civil War]] (-) The [[Sri Lankan Civil War]] (-) The [[1988 Maldives coup d'état]] (-) The [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union]] (-) The [[Gulf War]] (-) The [[Nepalese Civil War]] (-) The [[Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts]] (-) The [[Papua conflict|West Papua conflict]] (-) The [[First Nagorno-Karabakh War]] (-) The [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests]] (-) The [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor]] (-) The [[1999 Pakistani coup d'état]] (-) The [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|War in Afghanistan]] (-) The [[Iraq War]] (-) The [[South Thailand insurgency]] (-) The [[2006 Thai coup d'état]] (-) The [[Burmese Civil War]] (-) The [[Saffron Revolution]] (-) The [[Kurdish–Turkish conflict (1978–present)|Kurdish-Turkish conflict]] (-) The [[Arab Spring]] (-) The [[Arab–Israeli conflict]] (-) The [[Syrian Civil War]] (-) The [[Sino-Indian War]] (-) The [[2014 Thai coup d'état]] (-) The [[Moro conflict|Moro conflict in the Philippines]] (-) The [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] (-) The [[Turkish invasion of Syria]] (-) The [[2015 Rohingya refugee crisis|Rohingya crisis in Myanmar]] (-) The [[Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen]] (-) The [[2019–20 Hong Kong protests|Hong Kong protests]] (-) The [[Japan–South Korea trade dispute]] (-) The [[2020 China–India skirmishes]] (-) The [[2021 Myanmar protests]]", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Nobel prizes"], "text": "The [[polymath]] [[Rabindranath Tagore]], a [[Bengali literature|Bengali]] poet, dramatist, and writer from [[Santiniketan]], now in [[West Bengal]], India, became in 1913 the first Asian [[Nobel Prize|Nobel laureate]]. He won his [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] for notable impact his prose works and poetic thought had on English, French, and other national literatures of Europe and the Americas. He is also the writer of the national anthems of [[Bangladesh]] and India. Other Asian writers who won Nobel Prize for literature include [[Yasunari Kawabata]] (Japan, 1968), [[Kenzaburō Ōe]] (Japan, 1994), [[Gao Xingjian]] (China, 2000), [[Orhan Pamuk]] (Turkey, 2006), and [[Mo Yan]] (China, 2012). Some may consider the American writer, [[Pearl S. Buck]], an honorary Asian Nobel laureate, having spent considerable time in China as the daughter of missionaries, and based many of her novels, namely ''[[The Good Earth]]'' (1931) and ''[[The Mother (1934 novel)|The Mother]]'' (1933), as well as the biographies of her parents of their time in China, ''[[The Exile (1936 book)|The Exile]]'' and ''[[Fighting Angel]]'', all of which earned her the Literature prize in 1938. Also, [[Mother Teresa]] of India and [[Shirin Ebadi]] of Iran were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their significant and pioneering efforts for democracy and human rights, especially for the rights of women and children. Ebadi is the first Iranian and the first Muslim woman to receive the prize. Another Nobel Peace Prize winner is [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] from [[Myanmar|Burma]] for her peaceful and non-violent struggle under a military dictatorship in Burma. She is a nonviolent pro-democracy activist and leader of the National League for Democracy in Burma (Myanmar) and a noted prisoner of conscience. She is a [[Buddhist]] and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. Chinese dissident [[Liu Xiaobo]] was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for \"his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China\" on 8 October 2010. He is the first Chinese citizen to be awarded a Nobel Prize of any kind while residing in China. In 2014, [[Kailash Satyarthi]] from India and [[Malala Yousafzai]] from Pakistan were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize \"for their struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education\". Sir [[C.V. Raman]] is the first Asian to get a Nobel prize in Sciences. He won the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] \"for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the [[Raman scattering|effect named after him]]\". Japan has won the most Nobel Prizes of any Asian nation with 24 followed by India which has won 13. Amartya Sen, (born 3 November 1933) is an Indian economist who was awarded the 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to welfare economics and [[social choice theory]], and for his interest in the problems of society's poorest members.", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Nobel prizes"], "text": "Other Asian Nobel Prize winners include [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]], [[Abdus Salam]], [[Malala Yousafzai]], [[Robert Aumann]], [[Menachem Begin]], [[Aaron Ciechanover]], [[Avram Hershko]], [[Daniel Kahneman]], [[Shimon Peres]], [[Yitzhak Rabin]], [[Ada Yonath]], [[Yasser Arafat]], [[José Ramos-Horta]] and Bishop [[Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo]] of [[Timor Leste]], [[Kim Dae-jung]], and 13 Japanese scientists. Most of the said awardees are from Japan and [[Israel]] except for Chandrasekhar and Raman (India), Abdus Salam and Malala yousafzai, (Pakistan), Arafat (Palestinian Territories), Kim (South Korea), and Horta and Belo (Timor Leste). In 2006, Dr. [[Muhammad Yunus]] of [[Bangladesh]] was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for the establishment of [[Grameen Bank]], a community development bank that lends money to poor people, especially women in Bangladesh. Dr. Yunus received his PhD in economics from Vanderbilt University, United States. He is internationally known for the concept of micro credit which allows poor and destitute people with little or no collateral to borrow money. The borrowers typically pay back money within the specified period and the incidence of default is very low. The Dalai Lama has received approximately eighty-four awards over his spiritual and political career. On 22 June 2006, he became one of only four people ever to be recognized with Honorary Citizenship by the Governor General of Canada. On 28 May 2005, he received the Christmas Humphreys Award from the Buddhist Society in the United Kingdom. Most notable was the Nobel Peace Prize, presented in [[Oslo]], [[Norway]] on 10 December 1989.", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": ["Political geography"], "text": "Within the above-mentioned states are several partially recognized countries with [[List of states with limited recognition|limited to no international recognition]]. None of them are members of the UN:", "id": "689", "title": "Asia", "categories": ["Asia", "Continents"], "seealso": ["Chinese economic reform", "Singapore model", "Asian cuisine", "Prehistoric Asia", "Asian culture", "Flags of Asia", "Asian Monetary Unit", "Asian Highway Network", "India as a potential superpower", "Asian values", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population", "Fauna of Asia", "List of Asian television stations", "Chinese Century", "List of Asian cities by population within city limits", "List of metropolitan areas in Asia", "Pax Sinica", "Economy of Asia", "List of Asian countries by GDP", "Four Asian Tigers", "Trans-Asian Railway", "Asian Century", "List of sovereign states by date of formation", "History of Asia", "Pan-Asianism", "Asian Para Games", "Asian Games", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Asian furniture", "Names of Asian cities in different languages", "List of cities in Asia"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Aruba''' ( , , ) is an island and a [[Constituent state|constituent country]] of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]] in the mid-south of the [[Caribbean Sea]], about north of the [[Venezuela]] peninsula of [[Paraguaná Peninsula|Paraguaná]] and northwest of [[Curaçao]]. It measures long from its northwestern to its southeastern end and across at its widest point. Together with [[Bonaire]] and [[Curaçao]], Aruba forms a group referred to as the [[ABC islands (Leeward Antilles)|ABC islands]]. Collectively, these and the other three Dutch substantial islands in the [[Caribbean]] are often called the [[Dutch Caribbean]], of which Aruba has about one-third of the population. Aruba is one of the four countries that form the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], along with the [[Netherlands]], [[Curaçao]], and [[Sint Maarten]]; the citizens of these countries are all Dutch nationals. Aruba has no administrative subdivisions, but, for census purposes, is divided into eight regions. Its capital is [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]]. Unlike much of the Caribbean region, Aruba has a dry climate and an arid or desert, [[cactus]]-strewn landscape. This climate has helped tourism as visitors to the island can reliably expect warm, sunny clear skies year-round. Its land covers and is quite densely populated, by 101,484 inhabitants, as at the 2010 Census. Current estimates of the population place it at 116,600 (July 2018 est.) It is south of [[Hurricane Alley|the typical latitudes of hurricanes]] but was affected [[2020 Atlantic hurricane season|by two in their early stages in late 2020]].", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "There are different theories as to the origin of the name Aruba: (-) From the Spanish ''Oro hubo'' which means \"there was gold\" (-) From the [[Island Carib language|Island Carib]] word ''Oruba'' which means \"well-placed\" (-) From the Island Carib words ''Ora'' (\"shell\") and ''Oubao'' (\"island\")", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Pre-colonial era"], "text": "There has been a human presence on Aruba from as early as circa 2000 BC. The first identifiable group are the [[Arawak]] [[Caquetios Indian|Caquetío Amerindians]] who migrated from [[South America]] about 1000 AD. Archaeological evidence suggests continuing links between these native Arubans and Amerindian peoples of mainland South America.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Spanish Colonization"], "text": "The first Europeans to visit Aruba were [[Amerigo Vespucci]] and [[Alonso de Ojeda]] in 1499, who claimed the island for [[Spain]]. Both men described Aruba as an \"island of giants\", remarking on the comparatively large stature of the native Caquetíos. Vespucci returned to Spain with stocks of cotton and [[Caesalpinia echinata|brazilwood]] from the island and described houses built into the ocean. Vespucci and Ojeda's tales spurred interest in Aruba, and the Spanish began colonising the island. Alonso de Ojeda was appointed the island's first governor in 1508. From 1513 the Spanish began enslaving the Caquetíos, sending many to a life of forced labour in the mines of [[Hispaniola]]. The island's low rainfall and arid landscape meant that it was not considered profitable for a slave-based plantation system, so the type of large-scale slavery so common on other Caribbean islands never became established on Aruba.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Early Dutch period"], "text": "The Netherlands seized Aruba from Spain in 1636 in the course of the [[Thirty Years' War]]. [[Peter Stuyvesant]], later appointed to [[New Amsterdam]] (New York), was the first Dutch governor. Those Arawak who had survived the depredations of the Spanish were allowed to farm and graze livestock, with the Dutch using the island as a source of meat for their other possessions in the Caribbean. Aruba's proximity to [[South America]] resulted in interactions with the cultures of the coastal areas; for example, architectural similarities can be seen between the 19th-century parts of Oranjestad and the nearby Venezuelan city of [[Santa Ana de Coro|Coro]] in [[Falcón State]]. Historically, Dutch was not widely spoken on the island outside of colonial administration; its use increased in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Students on Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire were taught predominantly in Spanish until the late 18th century. During the [[Napoleonic Wars]] the [[British Empire]] took control of the island, occupying it between 1806 and 1816, before handing it back to the Dutch as per the terms of the [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814]]. Aruba subsequently became part of the [[Colony of Curaçao and Dependencies]] along with [[Bonaire]]. During the 19th century an economy based on [[gold mining]], [[phosphate]] production and [[aloe vera]] plantations developed, however the island remained a relatively poor backwater.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["History", "20th and 21st centuries"], "text": "The first oil refinery in Aruba was built in 1928 by [[Royal Dutch Shell]]. The facility was built just to the west of the capital city Oranjestad and was commonly called the Eagle. Immediately following this, another refinery was built by [[Lago Oil and Transport Company]] in an area now known as San Nicolas on the east end of Aruba. These refineries processed crude oil from the vast Venezuelan oil fields, bringing greater prosperity to the island. The refinery on Aruba grew to become one of the largest in the world. During World War II, the Netherlands was [[German occupation of the Netherlands|occupied by Nazi Germany]]. In 1940, the oil facilities in Aruba came under the administration of the [[Dutch government-in-exile]] in London, causing them to be [[Attack on Aruba|attacked]] by the German navy in 1942. In August 1947, Aruba presented its first ''Staatsreglement'' (constitution) for Aruba's ''[[Independence|status aparte]]'' as an autonomous state within the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], prompted by the efforts of [[Henny Eman (AVP founder)|Henny Eman]], a noted Aruban politician. By 1954, the [[Charter of the Kingdom of the Netherlands]] was established, providing a framework for relations between Aruba and the rest of the Kingdom. This created the [[Netherlands Antilles]], which united all of the Dutch colonies in the Caribbean into one administrative structure. Many Arubans were unhappy at the arrangement, however, as the new polity was perceived as being dominated by Curaçao. In 1972, at a conference in [[Suriname]], [[Betico Croes]], a politician from Aruba, proposed the creation of a Dutch Commonwealth of four states: Aruba, the Netherlands, Suriname, and the [[Netherlands Antilles]], each to have its own nationality. Backed by his newly created party (the [[People's Electoral Movement (Aruba)|Movimiento Electoral di Pueblo]]), Croes sought greater autonomy for Aruba, with the long-term goal of independence, adopting the trappings of an independent state in 1976 with the creation of a flag and national anthem. In March 1977, a [[1977 Aruban independence referendum|referendum]] was held with the support of the United Nations; 82% of the participants voted for complete independence from the Netherlands. Tensions mounted as Croes stepped up the pressure on the Dutch government by organising a general strike in 1977. Croes later met with Dutch Prime Minister [[Joop den Uyl]], with the two sides agreeing to assign the Institute of Social Studies in [[The Hague]] to prepare a study for independence, entitled ''Aruba en Onafhankelijkheid, achtergronden, modaliteiten, en mogelijkheden; een rapport in eerste aanleg'' (Aruba and independence, backgrounds, modalities, and opportunities; a preliminary report) (1978).", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Autonomy"], "text": "In March 1983, Aruba reached an official agreement within the Kingdom for its independence, to be developed in a series of steps as the Crown granted increasing autonomy. In August 1985, Aruba drafted a constitution that was unanimously approved. On 1 January 1986, after elections were held for its first parliament, Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles, officially becoming a country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, with full independence planned for 1996. However, Croes was seriously injured in a traffic accident in 1985, slipping into a coma; he died in 1986, never seeing the enaction of ''status aparte'' for Aruba for which he had worked over many years. After his death in 1986, Croes was proclaimed ''Libertador di Aruba''. Thus [[Henny Eman]] of the [[Aruban People's Party]] (AVP) became the first [[Prime Minister of Aruba]]. Meanwhile, Aruba's oil refinery shut, negatively impacting the economy. As a result, Aruba pushed for a dramatic increase in tourism, with this sector growing to become the island's largest industry. At a convention in The Hague in 1990, at the request of Aruba's Prime Minister [[Nelson Oduber]], the governments of Aruba, the Netherlands, and the Netherlands Antilles postponed indefinitely Aruba's transition to full independence. The article scheduling Aruba's complete independence was rescinded in 1995, although the process could be revived after another referendum.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Geography"], "text": "Aruba is a generally flat, riverless island in the [[Leeward Antilles]] island arc of the [[Lesser Antilles]] in the southern part of the Caribbean. It lies west of [[Curaçao]] and north of [[Venezuela]]'s [[Paraguaná Peninsula]]. Aruba has white sandy beaches on the western and southern coasts of the island, relatively sheltered from fierce ocean currents. This is where the bulk of the population live and where most tourist development has occurred. The northern and eastern coasts, lacking this protection, are considerably more battered by the sea and have been left largely untouched. The hinterland of the island features some rolling hills, such as [[Hooiberg]] at and [[Mount Jamanota]], the highest on the island at above sea level. Oranjestad, the capital, is located at . The [[Aruba Natural Bridge|Natural Bridge]] was a large, naturally formed limestone bridge on the island's north shore. It was a popular tourist destination until its collapse in 2005.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Cities and towns"], "text": "The island, with a population of about 116,600 people (July 2018 est.) does not have major cities. It is divided into six districts. Most of the island's population resides in or around the two major city-like districts of [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]] (the capital) and [[San Nicolaas]]. Oranjestad and San Nicolaas are both divided into two districts for census purposes only. The districts are as follows: (-) [[Noord]] (-) [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]] (East and West) (-) [[Paradera]] (-) [[San Nicolaas]] (North and South) (-) [[Santa Cruz, Aruba|Santa Cruz]] (-) [[Savaneta]]", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Fauna"], "text": "The isolation of Aruba from the mainland of South America has fostered the [[evolution]] of multiple endemic animals. The island provides a habitat for the endemic [[Cnemidophorus arubensis|Aruban Whiptail]] and [[Crotalus unicolor|Aruba Rattlesnake]], as well as an endemic subspecies of [[Athene cunicularia|Burrowing Owl]] and [[Eupsittula pertinax|Brown-throated Parakeet]].", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Flora"], "text": "The flora of Aruba differs from the typical tropical island vegetation. [[Xeric scrublands]] are common, with various forms of [[cacti]], thorny shrubs, and evergreens. [[Aloe vera]] is also present, its economic importance earning it a place on the [[Coat of Arms of Aruba]]. [[Cacti]] like ''[[Melocactus]]'' and ''[[Opuntia]]'' are represented on Aruba by species like ''[[Opuntia stricta]]''. Trees like ''[[Caesalpinia coriaria]]'' and ''[[Vachellia tortuosa]]'' are drought tolerant.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Climate"], "text": "By the [[Köppen climate classification]], Aruba has a [[hot semi-arid climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] ''BSh''). Mean monthly temperature in Oranjestad varies little from to , moderated by constant [[trade winds]] from the Atlantic Ocean, which come from the north-east. Yearly rainfall barely exceeds in Oranjestad, although it is extremely variable and can range from as little as during strong [[El Niño]] years (e.g. 1911/1912, 1930/1931, 1982/1983, 1997/1998) to over in [[La Niña]] years like 1933/1934, 1970/1971 or 1988/1989.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics"], "text": "In terms of country of birth, the population is estimated to be 66% Aruban, 9.1% [[Colombians|Colombian]], 4.3% [[Dutch people|Dutch]], 4.1% [[People of the Dominican Republic|Dominican]], 3.2% [[Venezuelans|Venezuelan]], 2.2% [[Curaçaoans|Curaçaoan]], 1.5% [[Haitians|Haitian]], 1.2% [[Surinamese people|Surinamese]], 1.1% [[Peruvians|Peruvian]], 1.1% [[Chinese people|Chinese]], 6.2% other. In terms of ethnic composition, the population is estimated to be 75% mestizo, 15% black and 10% other ethnicities. Arawak heritage is stronger on Aruba than on most Caribbean islands; although no full-blooded [[Native American (Americas)|Aboriginals]] remain, the features of the islanders clearly indicate their genetic [[Arawak peoples|Arawak]] heritage. Most of the population is descended from Caquetio Indians, African slaves, and Dutch settlers, and to a lesser extent the various other groups that have settled on the island over time, such as the Spanish, Portuguese, English, French, and Sephardic Jews. Recently, there has been substantial immigration to the island from neighbouring South American and Caribbean nations, attracted by the higher paid jobs. In 2007, new immigration laws were introduced to help control the growth of the population by restricting [[foreign worker]] to a maximum of three years residency on the island. Most notable are those from Venezuela, which lies just to the south.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Language"], "text": "The official languages are [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[Papiamento]]. However, whilst Dutch is the sole language for all administration and legal matters, Papiamento is the predominant language used on Aruba. It is a [[creole language]], spoken on Aruba, [[Bonaire]], and [[Curaçao]], that incorporates words from Portuguese, various West African languages, Dutch, and Spanish. [[English language|English]] is also spoken, its usage having grown due to tourism. Other common languages spoken, based on the size of their community, are Spanish, Portuguese, Cantonese, French and German. In recent years, the government of Aruba has shown an increased interest in acknowledging the cultural and historical importance of Papiamento. Although spoken Papiamento is fairly similar among the several Papiamento-speaking islands, there is a big difference in written Papiamento. The orthography differs per island, with Aruba using etymological spelling, and Curaçao and Bonaire a phonetic spelling. Some are more oriented towards Portuguese and use the equivalent spelling (e.g. \"y\" instead of \"j\"), where others are more oriented towards Dutch. The book ''[[History of the Buccaneers of America|Buccaneers of America]]'', first published in 1678, states through eyewitness account that the natives on Aruba spoke Spanish already. Spanish became an important language in the 18th century due to the close economic ties with Spanish colonies in what are now Venezuela and Colombia. [[Venezuela]] TV networks are received on the island, and Aruba also has significant Venezuelan and Colombian communities. Around 12.6% of the population today speaks Spanish natively. Use of English dates to the early 19th century, when the British took Curaçao, Aruba, and [[Bonaire]]. When Dutch rule resumed in 1815, officials already noted wide use of the language. Aruba has newspapers published in Papiamento: ''Diario'', ''Bon Dia'', ''Solo di Pueblo'', and ''Awe Mainta'', English: ''Aruba Daily'', ''Aruba Today'', and ''The News'', and Dutch: ''Amigoe''. Aruba has 18 radio stations (two AM and 16 FM) and two television stations ([[Telearuba]] and Channel 22).", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Religion"], "text": "[[Roman Catholicism]] is the dominant religion, practiced by about 75% of the population. Various Protestant denominations are also present on the island.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Regions"], "text": "Aruba is cartographically split into eight for censuses; these regions have no administrative function; some allude to parishes which include a few charitable community facilities:", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Government"], "text": "Along with the [[Netherlands]], [[Curaçao]], and [[Sint Maarten]], Aruba is a [[Countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands|constituent country]] of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], with internal autonomy. Matters such as foreign affairs and defense are handled by the Netherlands. Aruba's politics take place within a framework of a 21-member Staten ([[parliamentary democracy|Parliament]]) and an eight-member Cabinet; the Staten's 21 members are elected by direct, popular vote to serve a four-year term. The [[governor of Aruba]] is appointed for a six-year term by the [[Monarch of the Netherlands|monarch]], and the [[Prime Minister of Aruba|prime minister]] and deputy prime minister are indirectly elected by the Staten for four-year terms. Aruba was formerly a part of the (now-defunct) [[Netherlands Antilles]]; however, it separated from that entity in 1986, gaining its own [[Constitution of Aruba|constitution]]. Aruba is designated as a member of the Overseas Countries and Territories (OCT) and is thus officially not a part of the [[European Union]], though Aruba can and does receive support from the European Development Fund.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Government", "Politics"], "text": "The Aruban legal system is based on the [[Politics of the Netherlands|Dutch model]]. In Aruba, legal jurisdiction lies with the ''Gerecht in Eerste Aanleg'' ([[Court of First Instance]]) on Aruba, the ''Gemeenschappelijk Hof van Justitie van Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten, en van Bonaire, Sint Eustatius en Saba'' ([[Joint Court of Justice of Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten, and of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba]]) and the ''[[Hoge Raad der Nederlanden]]'' (Supreme Court of Justice of the Netherlands). The ''Korps Politie Aruba'' ([[Aruba Police Force]]) is the island's law enforcement agency and operates district precincts in Oranjestad, Noord, San Nicolaas, and Santa Cruz, where it is headquartered. [[Deficit spending]] has been a staple in Aruba's history, and modestly high inflation has been present as well. By 2006, the government's debt had grown to 1.883 billion Aruban florins. In 2006, the Aruban government changed several tax laws to reduce the deficit. [[Direct tax]] have been converted to indirect taxes as proposed by the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]].", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Government", "Foreign relations"], "text": "Aruba is one of the [[Special member state territories and the European Union#Dutch overseas territories|overseas countries and territories (OCT)]] of the [[European Union]] and maintains economic and cultural relations with the European Union and the [[United States of America]]. Aruba is also a member of several International organizations such as the [[International Monetary Fund]] and [[Interpol]].", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Government", "Military"], "text": "Defence on Aruba is the responsibility of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. The [[Military of the Netherlands|Dutch Armed Forces]] that protect the island include the [[Royal Netherlands Navy|Navy]], [[Netherlands Marine Corps|Marine Corps]], and the [[Netherlands Coastguard|Coastguard]] including a platoon sized national guard. All forces are stationed at Marines base in Savaneta. Furthermore, in 1999, the [[United States Department of Defense|U.S. Department of Defense]] established a [[Forward Operating Site|Forward Operating Location]] (FOL) at the airport.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Education"], "text": "Aruba's educational system is patterned after the [[Education in the Netherlands|Dutch system of education]]. The government of Aruba finances the public national education system. Schools are a mixture of public and private, including the [[International School of Aruba]], the Schakel College and mostly the [[Colegio Arubano]]. There are three [[medical schools]], American University School of Medicine Aruba (AUSOMA), [[Aureus University School of Medicine]] and [[Xavier University School of Medicine]], as well as its own national university, the [[University of Aruba]].", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Economy"], "text": "The island's economy is dominated by four main industries: tourism, [[aloe]] export, [[Oil refinery|petroleum refining]], and offshore banking. Aruba has one of the highest standards of living in the Caribbean region. The GDP per capita (PPP) for Aruba was estimated to be $37,500 in 2017. Its main trading partners are Colombia, the United States, Venezuela, and the Netherlands. The agriculture and manufacturing sectors are fairly minimal. [[Gold mining]] was important in the 19th century. [[Aloe]] was introduced to Aruba in 1840 but did not become a big export until 1890. Cornelius Eman founded Aruba Aloe Balm, and over time the industry became very important to the economy. At one point, two-thirds of the island was covered in Aloe Vera fields, and Aruba became the largest exporter of aloe in the world. The industry continues today, though on a smaller scale. Access to [[biocapacity]] in Aruba is much lower than world average. In 2016, Aruba had 0.57 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Aruba used 6.5 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their [[ecological footprint]] of consumption. This means they use almost 12 times the biocapacity that Aruba contains. This is the extent of Aruba's biocapacity deficit. The official exchange rate of the [[Aruban florin]] is pegged to the US dollar at 1.79 florins to US$1. This fact, and the majority of tourists being US, means businesses of hotel and resort districts prefer to bank and trade with the consumer in US dollars. Aruba is a prosperous country. Unemployment is low (although the government has not published statistics since 2013) and per capita income is one of the highest in the Caribbean (approximately $24,087). At the end of 2018, the labor force participation rate was 56.6% for women. Until the mid-1980s, Aruba's main industry was oil refining. Then the refinery was shut down and the island's economy shifted towards tourism. Currently, Aruba receives about 1,235,673 (2007) guests per year, of which three-quarters are Americans. Tourism is mainly focused on the beaches and the sea. The refinery has been closed and restarted repeatedly during the last decades. In recent years a letter of intent was signed with CITGO (the US subsidiary of the Venezuelan state oil company PDVSA) to explore the possibility of reopening the refinery again. Until 2009, the Netherlands granted development aid to Aruba. This aid was mainly for law enforcement, education, administrative development, health care and sustainable economic development. This aid was discontinued at Aruba's request in 2009. Since 2015, however, a form of financial supervision has been reintroduced because Aruba's debt has risen sharply to over 80% of GDP. Aruba also has two free trade zones ([[Barcadera]] and Bushiri), where import and export and the movement of services are tax-free.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Tourism"], "text": "About of the Aruban [[gross national product]] is earned through tourism and related activities. Most tourists are from North America, with a market-share of 73.3%, followed by Latin America with 15.2% and Europe with 8.3%. For private aircraft passengers bound for the United States, the [[United States Department of Homeland Security]] (DHS), [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection]] (CBP) has a full pre-clearance facility since 1 February 2001 when Queen Beatrix Airport expanded. Since 2008, Aruba has been the only island to have this service for private flights. Aruba has a large and well-developed tourism industry, receiving 1,082,000 tourists who stayed overnight in its territory in 2018. The largest number of tourists come from North America (mainly the [[United States]]), with a market share of 73.3%, in addition to 15.2% from Latin America (mainly [[Venezuela]]) and 8.3% from Europe. In 2018 there were 40,231 visitors from the [[Netherlands]]. There are many luxury and lesser luxury hotels, concentrated mainly on the west coast beaches. In Palm Beach are the luxury hotels aimed at American tourists. This area is also called \"Highrise-area\", because most of the hotels are located in (by Aruban standards) high-rise buildings. Eagle Beach, a short distance from Palm Beach in the direction of Oranjestad, offers hotels on a somewhat smaller and more intimate scale in low-rise buildings, hence the name \"lowrise-area\". Oranjestad is, in addition to the capital, an important place in the tourist industry. Here is the port for the many cruise ships that visit Aruba. The cruise industry is a very important pillar of tourism in Aruba, since during a cruise a large part of the passengers go ashore to visit the island. With 334 \"cruise calls\", Aruba received 815,161 cruise tourists in 2018. According to some sources the 2017/2018 [[Cruise ship|cruise season]] brought $102.8 million to Aruba's economy. Oranjestad is also home to several luxury hotels, upscale shopping malls, and tourist-oriented shopping streets, including \"Mainstreet,\" and hospitality facilities. The main street, called Caya G.F. (Betico) Croes, has been redesigned in recent years, including new paving, new palm trees and a streetcar line for tourists. Also elsewhere on the island you can find the necessary tourist accommodation, even in (private) apartment buildings.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Culture"], "text": "Aruba has a varied culture. According to the ''Bureau Burgelijke Stand en Bevolkingsregister'' (BBSB), in 2005 there were ninety-two different nationalities living on the island. Dutch influence can still be seen, as in the celebration of \"[[Sinterklaas]]\" on 5 and 6 December and other national holidays like 27 April, when in Aruba and the rest of the Kingdom of the Netherlands the King's birthday or \"Dia di Rey\" ([[Koningsdag]]) is celebrated. On 18 March, Aruba celebrates its National Day. Christmas and [[New Year's Eve]] are celebrated with the typical music and songs for [[Gaita flutes|gaita]] for Christmas and the Dande for New Year, and ''[[Hallaca|ayaca]]'', ''[[ponche crema]]'', ham, and other typical foods and drinks. On 25 January, [[Betico Croes]]' birthday is celebrated. [[St John's Eve|Dia di San Juan]] is celebrated on 24 June. Besides Christmas, the religious holy days of the [[Feast of the Ascension]] and [[Good Friday]] are also holidays on the island. The festival of [[Carnival|Carnaval]] is also an important one in Aruba, as it is in many Caribbean and Latin American countries. Its celebration in Aruba started in the 1950s, influenced by the inhabitants from Venezuela and the nearby islands (Curaçao, St. Vincent, Trinidad, Barbados, St. Maarten, and Anguilla) who came to work for the oil refinery. Over the years, the Carnival Celebration has changed and now starts from the beginning of January until the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday, with a large parade on the last Sunday of the festivities (the Sunday before Ash Wednesday). Tourism from the United States has recently increased the visibility of American culture on the island, with such celebrations as [[Halloween]] in October and Thanksgiving Day in November.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Architecture"], "text": "From the beginning of the colonization of the [[Netherlands]] until the beginning of the 20th century, the architecture in the most inhabited areas of Aruba was influenced by the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] colonial style and also some [[Spanish Empire|Spanish elements]] from the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] present in Aruba who later settled in [[Venezuela]] as well. After the boom of the oil industry and the tourist sector in the 20th century the architectural style of the island incorporated a more [[United States|American]] and international influence. In addition, elements of the [[Art Deco]] style can still be seen in several buildings in San Nicolas. Therefore, it can be said that the island's architecture is a mixture of Spanish, Dutch, American and [[Caribbean]] influences.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Infrastructure"], "text": "Aruba's [[Queen Beatrix International Airport]] is near Oranjestad. Aruba has three ports: [[Barcadera]], the main cargo port, [[Paardenbaai]], the port of Oranjestad for passengers, and Commander's Bay in [[Savaneta]]. Paardenbaai services all the cruise-ship lines such as [[Royal Caribbean International|Royal Caribbean]], [[Carnival Cruise Lines|Carnival]], [[Norwegian Cruise Line|NCL]], [[Holland America Line|Holland America]], [[MSC Cruises|MSC Cruises]], [[Costa Cruises|Costa Cruises]], [[P&O Cruises|P&O Cruises]] and [[Disney Cruise Line|Disney]]. Nearly one million tourists enter this port per year. Aruba Ports Authority, owned and operated by the Aruban government, runs these seaports. ''Arubus'' is a government-owned bus company. Its buses operate from 3:30 a.m. until 12:30 a.m., 365 days a year. Private minibuses/people movers service zones such as the Hotel Area, San Nicolaas, Santa Cruz and Noord. A streetcar service runs on rails on the Mainstreet.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Infrastructure", "Utilities"], "text": "Water- en Energiebedrijf Aruba, N.V. (W.E.B.) produces potable water; its eponymous plant was one of the world's largest desalination plants as of 2007. Average daily consumption in Aruba is about . [[N.V. Elmar]] is the sole provider of electricity on the island of Aruba.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Infrastructure", "Communications"], "text": "There are two telecommunications providers: [[SetarNV|Setar]], government-based, and [[Digicel]], privately owned. Setar is the provider of services such as internet, video conferencing, [[GSM]] wireless technology and land lines. [[Digicel]] is Setar's competitor in wireless technology using the GSM platform.", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": ["Notable people"], "text": "(-) [[Dave Benton]], Aruban-Estonian musician (-) [[Alfonso Boekhoudt]], 4th [[Governor of Aruba]] (-) [[Xander Bogaerts]], [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] shortstop for the [[Boston Red Sox]] (-) [[Betico Croes]], political activist (-) [[Henny Eman]], 1st [[Prime Minister of Aruba]] (-) [[Mike Eman]], 3rd Prime Minister of Aruba (-) [[Bobby Farrell]], musician (-) [[Frans Figaroa]], Lieutenant Governor of Aruba 1979-1982 (-) [[Henry Habibe]], poet (-) [[Andrew Holleran]], novelist (-) [[Olindo Koolman]], 2nd Governor of Aruba (-) [[Hedwiges Maduro]], Footballer (or Soccer player) in [[UEFA]], [[La Liga]] and [[FIFA World Cup]] (-) [[Jossy Mansur]], editor of the [[Papiamento]] language newspaper, ''[[Diario (Aruba)|Diario]]'' (-) [[Diederick Charles Mathew]], politician (-) [[Nelson Oduber]], 2nd Prime Minister of Aruba (-) [[Olga Orman]], writer and poet. (-) [[Calvin Maduro]], [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] pitcher for the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] and [[Baltimore Orioles]] (-) [[Sidney Ponson]], [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] pitcher for the [[Baltimore Orioles]], [[San Francisco Giants]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], [[New York Yankees]], [[Minnesota Twins]], [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] and [[Kansas City Royals]] (-) [[Fredis Refunjol]], 3rd Governor of Aruba (-) [[Julia Renfro]], newspaper editor and photographer (-) [[Jeannette Richardson-Baars]], Director of the Police Academy of Aruba (-) [[Felipe Tromp]], 1st Governor of Aruba (-) [[Evelyn Wever-Croes]], 4th Prime Minister of Aruba, first female Prime Minister", "id": "690", "title": "Aruba", "categories": ["Aruba", "Island countries", "10th-century establishments in Aruba", "1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire", "1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1799 establishments in the British Empire", "1802 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire", "1804 establishments in the British Empire", "1816 disestablishments in the British Empire", "1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire", "1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles", "1986 establishments in Aruba", "Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dutch-speaking countries and territories", "Former Dutch colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former British colonies", "Islands of the Netherlands Antilles", "Populated places established in the 10th century", "Small Island Developing States", "Special territories of the European Union", "States and territories established in 1986", "Dependent territories in the Caribbean"], "seealso": ["List of monuments of Aruba", "Index of Aruba-related articles", "Outline of Aruba", "Military of Aruba", "Central Bank of Aruba"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "The '''Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union''' was an agreement among the [[U.S. state|13 original states]] of the [[United States|United States of America]] that served as its first constitution. It was approved after much debate (between July 1776 and November 1777) by the [[Second Continental Congress]] on November 15, 1777, and sent to the states for [[ratification]]. The Articles of Confederation [[Coming into force|came into force]] on March 1, 1781, after ratification by all the states. A guiding principle of the Articles was to preserve the [[independence]] and [[sovereignty]] of the states. The weak [[central government]] established by the Articles received only those powers which the [[Thirteen Colonies|former colonies]] had recognized as belonging to king and parliament. The document provided clearly written rules for how the states' \"league of friendship\" would be organized. During the ratification process, the Congress looked to the Articles for guidance as it conducted business, directing the [[American Revolutionary War|war effort]], conducting diplomacy with foreign states, addressing territorial issues and dealing with Native American relations. Little changed politically once the Articles of Confederation went into effect, as ratification did little more than legalize what the Continental Congress had been doing. That body was renamed the Congress of the Confederation; but most Americans continued to call it the ''Continental Congress'', since its organization remained the same. As the Confederation Congress attempted to govern the continually growing American states, delegates discovered that the limitations placed upon the central government rendered it ineffective at doing so. As the government's weaknesses became apparent, especially after [[Shays' Rebellion]], some prominent political thinkers in the fledgling union began asking for changes to the Articles. Their hope was to create a stronger government. Initially, some states met to deal with their trade and economic problems. However, as more states became interested in meeting to change the Articles, a meeting was set in Philadelphia on May 25, 1787. This became the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]]. It was quickly agreed that changes would not work, and instead the entire Articles needed to be replaced. On March 4, 1789, the government under the Articles was replaced with the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] under the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]]. The new Constitution provided for a much stronger federal government by establishing a chief executive (the [[President of the United States|President]]), courts, and taxing powers.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Background and context"], "text": "The political push to increase cooperation among the then-loyal colonies began with the [[Albany Congress]] in 1754 and [[Benjamin Franklin]]'s proposed [[Albany Plan]], an inter-colonial collaboration to help solve mutual local problems. Over the next two decades, some of the basic concepts it addressed would strengthen; others would weaken, especially in the degree of loyalty (or lack thereof) owed the Crown. [[Boston Tea Party|Civil disobedience]] resulted in coercive and quelling measures, such as the passage of what the colonials referred to as the [[Intolerable Acts]] in the British Parliament, and [[Battle of Bunker Hill|armed skirmishes]] which resulted in dissidents being [[Proclamation of Rebellion|proclaimed rebels]]. These actions eroded the number of Crown Loyalists ([[Tory|Tories]]) among the colonials and, together with the highly effective propaganda campaign of the Patriot leaders, caused an increasing number of colonists to begin agitating for independence from the mother country. In 1775, with events outpacing communications, the [[Second Continental Congress]] began acting as the [[provisional government]]. It was an era of constitution writing—most states were busy at the task—and leaders felt the new nation must have a written constitution; a \"rulebook\" for how the new nation should function. During the war, Congress exercised an unprecedented level of political, diplomatic, military and economic authority. It adopted trade restrictions, established and maintained an army, issued [[fiat money]], created a military code and negotiated with foreign governments. To transform themselves from outlaws into a legitimate nation, the colonists needed international recognition for their cause and foreign allies to support it. In early 1776, [[Thomas Paine]] argued in the closing pages of the first edition of ''[[Common Sense (pamphlet)|Common Sense]]'' that the \"custom of nations\" demanded a formal declaration of American independence if any European power were to mediate a peace between the Americans and Great Britain. The monarchies of France and Spain, in particular, could not be expected to aid those they considered rebels against another legitimate monarch. Foreign courts needed to have American grievances laid before them persuasively in a \"manifesto\" which could also reassure them that the Americans would be reliable trading partners. Without such a declaration, Paine concluded, \"[t]he custom of all courts is against us, and will be so, until, by an independence, we take rank with other nations.\"", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Background and context"], "text": "Beyond improving their existing [[Continental Association|association]], the records of the [[Second Continental Congress]] show that the need for a declaration of independence was intimately linked with the demands of international relations. On June 7, 1776, [[Richard Henry Lee]] introduced [[Lee Resolution|a resolution]] before the Continental Congress declaring the colonies independent; at the same time, he also urged Congress to resolve \"to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances\" and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states. Congress then created three overlapping committees to draft the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration]], a [[Model Treaty|model treaty]], and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation, which established \"a firm league\" among the thirteen free and independent states, constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for the conduct of vital domestic and foreign affairs.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Drafting"], "text": "On June 12, 1776, a day after appointing a committee to prepare a draft of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], the Second Continental Congress resolved to appoint a committee of 13 to prepare a draft of a constitution for a union of the states. The committee met frequently, and chairman [[John Dickinson (Pennsylvania and Delaware)|John Dickinson]] presented their results to the Congress on July 12, 1776. Afterward, there were long debates on such issues as state [[sovereignty]], the exact powers to be given to Congress, whether to have a judiciary, [[State cessions|western land claims]] and voting procedures. To further complicate work on the constitution, Congress was forced to leave Philadelphia twice, for [[Baltimore]], Maryland, in the winter of 1776, and later for [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania|Lancaster]] then [[York, Pennsylvania]], in the fall of 1777, to evade advancing [[British troops]]. Even so, the committee continued with its work. The final draft of the ''Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union'' was completed on November 15, 1777. Consensus was achieved by: including language guaranteeing that each state retained its sovereignty, leaving the matter of western land claims in the hands of the individual states, including language stating that votes in Congress would be ''en bloc'' by state, and establishing a [[unicameral]] legislature with limited and clearly delineated powers.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Ratification"], "text": "The Articles of Confederation was submitted to the states for ratification in late November 1777. The first state to ratify was [[Virginia]] on December 16, 1777; 12 states had ratified the Articles by February 1779, 14 months into the process. The lone holdout, Maryland, refused to go along until the landed states, especially [[Virginia]], had indicated they were prepared to [[State cession|cede their claims]] west of the [[Ohio River]] to the Union. It would be two years before the [[Maryland General Assembly]] became satisfied that the various states would follow through, and voted to ratify. During this time, Congress observed the Articles as its [[de facto]] frame of government. Maryland finally ratified the Articles on February 2, 1781. Congress was informed of Maryland's assent on March 1, and officially proclaimed the Articles of Confederation to be the law of the land. The several states ratified the Articles of Confederation on the following dates:", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Article summaries"], "text": "The Articles of Confederation contain a [[preamble]], thirteen articles, a [[Eschatocol|conclusion]], and a signatory section. The individual articles set the rules for current and future operations of the confederation's central government. Under the Articles, the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions not specifically relinquished to the national Congress, which was empowered to make war and peace, negotiate diplomatic and commercial agreements with foreign countries, and to resolve disputes between the states. The document also stipulates that its provisions \"shall be inviolably observed by every state\" and that \"[[perpetual Union|the Union shall be perpetual]]\". Summary of the purpose and content of each of the 13 articles: (1) Establishes the name of the confederation with these words: \"The stile of this confederacy shall be 'The United States of America.'\" (2) Asserts the sovereignty of each state, except for the specific powers delegated to the confederation government: \"Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated.\" (3) Declares the purpose of the confederation: \"The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever.\" (4) Elaborates upon the intent \"to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this union,\" and to establish [[Equality before the law|equal treatment]] and [[freedom of movement]] for the free inhabitants of each state to pass unhindered between the states, excluding \"[[pauper]], [[vagabond (person)|vagabonds]], and [[fugitive]] from justice.\" All these people are entitled to equal rights established by the state into which they travel. If a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state, he will be [[extradition|extradited]] to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed. (5) Allocates one vote in the [[Congress of the Confederation]] (the \"United States in Congress Assembled\") to each state, which is entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members. Members of Congress are to be appointed by state legislatures. No congressman may serve more than three out of any six years. (6) Only the central government may declare war, or conduct foreign political or commercial relations. No state or official may accept foreign gifts or titles, and granting any title of nobility is forbidden to all. No states may form any sub-national groups. No state may tax or interfere with treaty stipulations [[Model Treaty|already proposed]]. No state may wage war without permission of Congress, unless invaded or under imminent attack on the frontier; no state may maintain a peacetime standing army or navy, unless infested by pirates, but every State is required to keep ready, a well-trained, disciplined, and equipped [[Militia (United States)|militia]].", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Article summaries"], "text": "(7) Whenever an army is raised for common defense, the state legislatures shall assign military ranks of colonel and below. (8) Expenditures by the United States of America will be paid with funds raised by state legislatures, and apportioned to the states in proportion to the real property values of each. (9) Powers and functions of the United States in Congress Assembled. (-) Grants to the United States in Congress assembled the sole and exclusive right and power to determine peace and war; to exchange ambassadors; to enter into treaties and alliances, with some provisos; to establish rules for deciding all cases of captures or prizes on land or water; to grant [[Letter of marque|letters of marque and reprisal]] (documents authorizing [[privateer]]) in times of peace; to appoint courts for the trial of pirates and crimes committed on the high seas; to establish [[Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture|courts for appeals in all cases of captures]], but no member of Congress may be appointed a judge; to set weights and measures (including coins), and for Congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states. (-) The court will be composed of jointly appointed commissioners or Congress shall appoint them. Each commissioner is bound by oath to be impartial. The court's decision is final. (-) Congress shall regulate the [[post office]]; appoint officers in the military; and regulate the armed forces. (-) The United States in Congress assembled may appoint a president who shall not serve longer than one year per three-year term of the Congress. (-) Congress may request requisitions (demands for payments or supplies) from the states in proportion with their population, or take credit. (-) Congress may not declare war, enter into treaties and alliances, appropriate money, or appoint a [[commander in chief]] without nine states assented. Congress shall keep a journal of proceedings and adjourn for periods not to exceed six months. (10) When Congress is in recess, any of the powers of Congress may be executed by \"The committee of the states, or any nine of them\", except for those powers of Congress which require nine states ''in'' Congress to execute. (11) If Canada [referring to the British [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]]] accedes to this confederation, it will be admitted. No other colony could be admitted without the consent of nine states. (12) Affirms that the Confederation will honor all [[Engagements Clause#The precursor in the Articles of Confederation|bills of credit incurred, monies borrowed, and debts contracted by Congress]] before the existence of the Articles. (13) Declares that the Articles shall be perpetual, and may be altered only with the approval of Congress and the ratification of all the state legislatures.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Congress under the Articles", "The army"], "text": "Under the Articles, Congress had the authority to regulate and fund the [[Continental Army]], but it lacked the power to compel the States to comply with requests for either troops or funding. This left the military vulnerable to inadequate funding, supplies, and even food. Further, although the Articles enabled the states to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers, as a tool to build a centralized war-making government, they were largely a failure; Historian Bruce Chadwick wrote: Phelps wrote: The Continental Congress, before the Articles were approved, had promised soldiers a pension of half pay for life. However Congress had no power to compel the states to fund this obligation, and as the war wound down after the victory at Yorktown the sense of urgency to support the military was no longer a factor. No progress was made in Congress during the winter of 1783–84. General [[Henry Knox]], who would later become the first [[Secretary of War]] under the Constitution, blamed the weaknesses of the Articles for the inability of the government to fund the army. The army had long been supportive of a strong union.Knox wrote: As Congress failed to act on the petitions, Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris, four years before the Philadelphia Convention was convened, \"As the present Constitution is so defective, why do not you great men call the people together and tell them so; that is, to have a convention of the States to form a better Constitution.\" Once the war had been won, the [[Continental Army]] was largely disbanded. A very small [[First American Regiment|national force]] was maintained to man the frontier forts and to protect against [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, [[George Washington]] defused the [[Newburgh conspiracy]], but riots by unpaid [[Pennsylvania]] veterans forced Congress to leave Philadelphia temporarily. The Congress from time to time during the Revolutionary War requisitioned troops from the states. Any contributions were voluntary, and in the debates of 1788, the Federalists (who supported the proposed new Constitution) claimed that state politicians acted unilaterally, and contributed when the Continental army protected their state's interests. The Anti-Federalists claimed that state politicians understood their duty to the Union and contributed to advance its needs. Dougherty (2009) concludes that generally the States' behavior validated the Federalist analysis. This helps explain why the Articles of Confederation needed reforms.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Congress under the Articles", "Foreign policy"], "text": "The 1783 [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]], which ended hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for several months because too few delegates were present at any one time to constitute a [[quorum]] so that it could be ratified. Afterward, the problem only got worse as Congress had no power to enforce attendance. Rarely did more than half of the roughly sixty delegates attend a session of Congress at the time, causing difficulties in raising a [[quorum]]. The resulting paralysis embarrassed and frustrated many American nationalists, including George Washington. Many of the most prominent national leaders, such as Washington, [[John Adams]], [[John Hancock]], and [[Benjamin Franklin]], retired from public life, served as foreign delegates, or held office in state governments; and for the general public, local government and self-rule seemed quite satisfactory. This served to exacerbate Congress's impotence. Inherent weaknesses in the confederation's frame of government also frustrated the ability of the government to conduct foreign policy. In 1786, [[Thomas Jefferson]], concerned over the failure of Congress to fund an American naval force to confront the [[Barbary pirates]], wrote in a [[Proposals for concerted operation among the powers at war with the Pyratical states of Barbary|diplomatic correspondence]] to [[James Monroe]] that, \"It will be said there is no money in the treasury. There never will be money in the treasury till the Confederacy shows its teeth.\" Furthermore, the 1786 [[Jay–Gardoqui Treaty]] with [[Spain]] also showed weakness in foreign policy. In this treaty, which was never ratified, the United States was to give up rights to use the [[Mississippi River]] for 25 years, which would have economically strangled the settlers west of the [[Appalachian Mountains]]. Finally, due to the Confederation's military weakness, it could not compel the [[British army]] to leave frontier forts which were on American soil — forts which, in 1783, the British promised to leave, but which they delayed leaving pending U.S. implementation of other provisions such as ending action against [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] and allowing them to seek compensation. This incomplete British implementation of the Treaty of Paris would later be resolved by the implementation of [[Jay's Treaty]] in 1795 after the federal Constitution came into force.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Congress under the Articles", "Taxation and commerce"], "text": "Under the Articles of Confederation, the central government's power was kept quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions but lacked enforcement powers. Implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures. Congress was denied any powers of [[taxation]]: it could only request money from the states. The states often failed to meet these requests in full, leaving both Congress and the Continental Army chronically short of money. As more money was printed by Congress, the continental dollars depreciated. In 1779, George Washington wrote to [[John Jay]], who was serving as the president of the Continental Congress, \"that a wagon load of money will scarcely purchase a wagon load of provisions.\" Mr. Jay and the Congress responded in May by requesting $45 million from the States. In an appeal to the States to comply, Jay wrote that the taxes were \"the price of liberty, the peace, and the safety of yourselves and posterity.\" He argued that Americans should avoid having it said \"that America had no sooner become independent than she became insolvent\" or that \"her infant glories and growing fame were obscured and tarnished by broken contracts and violated faith.\" The States did not respond with any of the money requested from them. Congress had also been denied the power to regulate either foreign trade or [[interstate commerce]] and, as a result, all of the States maintained control over their own trade policies. The states and the Confederation Congress both incurred large debts during the Revolutionary War, and how to repay those debts became a major issue of debate following the War. Some States paid off their war debts and others did not. Federal assumption of the states' war debts became a major issue in the deliberations of the Constitutional Convention.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Congress under the Articles", "Accomplishments"], "text": "Nevertheless, the Confederation Congress did take two actions with long-lasting impact. The [[Land Ordinance of 1785]] and [[Northwest Ordinance]] created territorial government, set up protocols for the [[admission to the Union|admission of new states]] and the division of land into useful units, and set aside land in each township for [[public domain (land)|public use]]. This system represented a sharp break from imperial colonization, as in Europe, and it established the precedent by which the national (later, federal) government would be sovereign and expand westward—as opposed to the existing states doing so under their sovereignty. The [[Land Ordinance of 1785]] established both the general practices of land surveying in the west and northwest and the land ownership provisions used throughout the later westward expansion beyond the [[Mississippi River]]. Frontier lands were surveyed into the now-familiar squares of land called the [[township]] (36 square miles), the [[Section (United States land surveying)|section]] (one square mile), and the quarter section (160 [[acre]]). This system was carried forward to most of the States west of the Mississippi (excluding areas of [[Texas]] and [[California]] that had already been surveyed and divided up by the [[Spanish Empire]]). Then, when the [[Southern Homestead Act of 1866|Homestead Act]] was enacted in 1867, the quarter section became the basic unit of land that was granted to new settler-farmers. The [[Northwest Ordinance]] of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up [[state cession|northwestern land claims]], organized the [[Northwest Territory]] and laid the groundwork for the eventual creation of new states. While it didn't happen under the articles, the land north of the [[Ohio River]] and west of the (present) western border of Pennsylvania ceded by [[Massachusetts]], [[Connecticut]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Virginia]], eventually became the states of: [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]], [[Illinois]], [[Michigan]], and [[Wisconsin]], and the part of [[Minnesota]] east of the Mississippi River. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also made great advances in the abolition of slavery. New states admitted to the union in this territory would never be slave states. No new states were admitted to the Union under the Articles of Confederation. The Articles provided for a blanket acceptance of the [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] (referred to as \"Canada\" in the Articles) into the United States if it chose to do so. It did not, and the subsequent Constitution carried no such special provision of admission. Additionally, ordinances to admit [[State of Franklin|Frankland]] (later modified to Franklin), [[Kentucky]], and [[Vermont Republic|Vermont]] to the Union were considered, but none were approved.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Congress under the Articles", "Presidents of Congress"], "text": "Under the Articles of Confederation, the presiding officer of Congress—referred to in many official records as ''President of the United States in Congress Assembled''—chaired the [[Committee of the States]] when Congress was in recess, and performed other administrative functions. He was not, however, an executive in the way the later [[President of the United States]] is a chief executive, since all of the functions he executed were under the direct control of Congress. There were 10 presidents of Congress under the Articles. The first, [[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]], had been serving as president of the Continental Congress since September 28, 1779.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["The U.S. under the Articles"], "text": "The peace treaty left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Articles envisioned a permanent confederation but granted to the Congress—the only federal institution—little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. There was no president, no executive agencies, no judiciary, and no tax base. The absence of a tax base meant that there was no way to pay off state and national debts from the war years except by requesting money from the states, which seldom arrived. Although historians generally agree that the Articles were too weak to hold the fast-growing nation together, they do give credit to the settlement of the western issue, as the states voluntarily turned over their lands to national control. By 1783, with the end of the British blockade, the new nation was regaining its prosperity. However, trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilism of the British and French empires. The ports of the British West Indies were closed to all staple products which were not carried in British ships. France and Spain established similar policies. Simultaneously, new manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which were suddenly available again. Political unrest in several states and efforts by debtors to use popular government to erase their debts increased the anxiety of the political and economic elites which had led the Revolution. The apparent inability of the Congress to redeem the public obligations (debts) incurred during the war, or to become a forum for productive cooperation among the states to encourage commerce and economic development, only aggravated a gloomy situation. In 1786–87, [[Shays' Rebellion]], an uprising of dissidents in western Massachusetts against the state court system, threatened the stability of state government. The Continental Congress printed paper money which was so depreciated that it ceased to pass as currency, spawning the expression \"not worth a continental\". Congress could not levy taxes and could only make requisitions upon the States. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the treasury between 1781 and 1784, although the governors had been asked for two million in 1783 alone. When [[John Adams]] went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States, he found it impossible to secure a treaty for unrestricted commerce. Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty. Adams stated it was necessary for the States to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress, or that the States themselves pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over navigation laws. Meanwhile, each State acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When other New England states closed their ports to British shipping, Connecticut hastened to profit by opening its ports.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["The U.S. under the Articles"], "text": "By 1787 Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population. The idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. [[Alexander Hamilton]] realized while serving as Washington's top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like-minded nationalists, won Washington's endorsement, and convened the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis Convention]] in 1786 to petition Congress to call a constitutional convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long-term crisis.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Signatures"], "text": "The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution to the states on November 15, 1777. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the [[Continental Congress|Congress]]. On November 28, the copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and the cover letter, dated November 17, had only the signatures of [[Henry Laurens]] and [[Charles Thomson]], who were the [[President of the Continental Congress|President]] and Secretary to the Congress. The Articles, however, were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27, 1778. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification. On July 9, 1778, the prepared copy was ready. They dated it and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from [[New Hampshire]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Connecticut]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Virginia]] and [[South Carolina]] signed the Articles to indicate that their states had ratified. [[New Jersey]], [[Delaware]] and [[Maryland]] could not, since their states had not ratified. [[North Carolina]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] also were unable to sign that day, since their delegations were absent. After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example, John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8. John Penn was the first of North Carolina's delegates to arrive (on July 10), and the delegation signed the Articles on July 21, 1778. The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on July 24, New Jersey on November 26, and Delaware on February 12, 1779. Maryland [[History of Maryland#The Revolutionary period|refused to ratify]] the Articles until every state had ceded its western land claims. [[Anne-César, Chevalier de la Luzerne|Chevalier de La Luzerne]], French [[Diplomatic rank|Minister]] to the United States, felt that the Articles would help strengthen the American government. In 1780 when Maryland requested France provide naval forces in the [[Chesapeake Bay]] for protection from the British (who were conducting raids in the lower part of the bay), he indicated that French Admiral [[Charles René Dominique Sochet, Chevalier Destouches|Destouches]] would do what he could but La Luzerne also “sharply pressed” Maryland to ratify the Articles, thus suggesting the two issues were related.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Signatures"], "text": "On February 2, 1781, the much-awaited decision was taken by the [[Maryland General Assembly]] in [[Annapolis]]. As the last piece of business during the afternoon Session, \"among engrossed Bills\" was \"signed and sealed by Governor [[Thomas Sim Lee]] in the Senate Chamber, in the presence of the members of both Houses... an Act to empower the delegates of this state in Congress to subscribe and ratify the articles of confederation\" and perpetual union among the states. The Senate then adjourned \"to the first Monday in August next.\" The decision of Maryland to ratify the Articles was reported to the Continental Congress on February 12. The confirmation signing of the Articles by the two Maryland delegates took place in Philadelphia at noon time on March 1, 1781, and was celebrated in the afternoon. With these events, the Articles were entered into force and the United States of America came into being as a sovereign federal state. Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Signatures", "Signers"], "text": "The signers and the states they represented were: (-) [[Connecticut]] (-) [[Roger Sherman]] (-) [[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]] (-) [[Oliver Wolcott]] (-) [[Titus Hosmer]] (-) [[Andrew Adams (congressman)|Andrew Adams]] (-) [[Delaware]] (-) [[Thomas McKean]] (-) [[John Dickinson (delegate)|John Dickinson]] (-) [[Nicholas Van Dyke (governor)|Nicholas Van Dyke]] (-) [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] (-) [[John Walton (1738–1783)|John Walton]] (-) [[Edward Telfair]] (-) [[Edward Langworthy]] (-) [[Maryland]] (-) [[John Hanson]] (-) [[Daniel Carroll]] (-) [[Massachusetts|Massachusetts Bay]] (-) [[John Hancock]] (-) [[Samuel Adams]] (-) [[Elbridge Gerry]] (-) [[Francis Dana]] (-) [[James Lovell (delegate)|James Lovell]] (-) [[Samuel Holten]] (-) [[New Hampshire]] (-) [[Josiah Bartlett]] (-) [[John Wentworth Jr.]] (-) [[New Jersey]] (-) [[John Witherspoon]] (-) [[Nathaniel Scudder]] (-) [[New York (state)|New York]] (-) [[James Duane]] (-) [[Francis Lewis]] (-) [[William Duer (delegate)|William Duer]] (-) [[Gouverneur Morris]] (-) [[North Carolina]] (-) [[John Penn (delegate)|John Penn]] (-) [[Cornelius Harnett]] (-) [[John Williams (delegate)|John Williams]] (-) [[Pennsylvania]] (-) [[Robert Morris (merchant)|Robert Morris]] (-) [[Daniel Roberdeau]] (-) [[Jonathan Bayard Smith]] (-) [[William Clingan]] (-) [[Joseph Reed (politician)|Joseph Reed]] (-) [[Rhode Island|Rhode Island and Providence Plantations]] (-) [[William Ellery]] (-) [[Henry Marchant]] (-) [[John Collins (delegate)|John Collins]] (-) [[South Carolina]] (-) [[Henry Laurens]] (-) [[William Henry Drayton]] (-) [[John Mathews (lawyer)|John Mathews]] (-) [[Richard Hutson]] (-) [[Thomas Heyward Jr.]] (-) [[Virginia]] (-) [[Richard Henry Lee]] (-) [[John Banister (lawyer)|John Banister]] (-) [[Thomas Adams (politician)|Thomas Adams]] (-) [[John Harvie]] (-) [[Francis Lightfoot Lee]] Roger Sherman (Connecticut) was the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States: the [[Continental Association]], the [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the Articles of Confederation and the [[United States Constitution]]. Robert Morris (Pennsylvania) signed three of the great state papers of the United States: the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution. John Dickinson (Delaware), Daniel Carroll (Maryland) and Gouverneur Morris (New York), along with Sherman and Robert Morris, were the only five people to sign both the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution (Gouverneur Morris represented Pennsylvania when signing the Constitution).", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Parchment pages"], "text": "Original [[parchment]] pages of the Articles of Confederation, [[National Archives and Records Administration]].", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Revision and replacement"], "text": "On January 21, 1786, the Virginia Legislature, following [[James Madison]]'s recommendation, invited all the states to send delegates to Annapolis, Maryland, to discuss ways to reduce interstate conflict. At what came to be known as the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis Convention]], the few state delegates in attendance endorsed a motion that called for all states to meet in [[Philadelphia]] in May 1787 to discuss ways to improve the Articles of Confederation in a \"Grand Convention.\" Although the states' representatives to the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]] in Philadelphia were only authorized to amend the Articles, the representatives held secret, closed-door sessions and wrote a new constitution. The new Constitution gave much more power to the central government, but characterization of the result is disputed. The general goal of the authors was to get close to a [[republic]] as defined by the philosophers of the [[Age of Enlightenment]], while trying to address the many difficulties of the interstate relationships. Historian [[Forrest McDonald]], using the ideas of James Madison from ''Federalist 39'', described the change this way: In May 1786, [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney]] of [[South Carolina]] proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting [[United States Congress|Congress]] power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus. The weakness of the Articles in establishing an effective unifying government was underscored by the threat of internal conflict both within and between the states, especially after [[Shays' Rebellion]] threatened to topple the state government of Massachusetts. Historian Ralph Ketcham commented on the opinions of [[Patrick Henry]], [[George Mason]], and other [[Anti-Federalism|Anti-Federalists]] who were not so eager to give up the local autonomy won by the revolution: Historians have given many reasons for the perceived need to replace the articles in 1787. Jillson and Wilson (1994) point to the financial weakness as well as the norms, rules and institutional structures of the Congress, and the propensity to divide along sectional lines. Rakove identifies several factors that explain the collapse of the Confederation. The lack of compulsory direct taxation power was objectionable to those wanting a strong centralized state or expecting to benefit from such power. It could not collect customs after the war because tariffs were vetoed by [[Rhode Island]]. Rakove concludes that their failure to implement national measures \"stemmed not from a heady sense of independence but rather from the enormous difficulties that all the states encountered in collecting taxes, mustering men, and gathering supplies from a war-weary populace.\" The second group of factors Rakove identified derived from the substantive nature of the problems the Continental Congress confronted after 1783, especially the inability to create a strong foreign policy. Finally, the Confederation's lack of coercive power reduced the likelihood for profit to be made by political means, thus potential rulers were uninspired to seek power.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Revision and replacement"], "text": "When the war ended in 1783, certain special interests had incentives to create a new \"merchant state,\" much like the British state people had rebelled against. In particular, holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay off scrip at face value and to legalize western land holdings with disputed claims. Also, manufacturers wanted a high tariff as a barrier to foreign goods, but competition among states made this impossible without a central government.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Revision and replacement", "Legitimacy of closing down"], "text": "Two prominent political leaders in the Confederation, [[John Jay]] of New York and [[Thomas Burke (governor)|Thomas Burke]] of North Carolina believed that \"the authority of the congress rested on the prior acts of the several states, to which the states gave their voluntary consent, and until those obligations were fulfilled, neither nullification of the authority of congress, exercising its due powers, nor secession from the compact itself was consistent with the terms of their original pledges.\" According to Article XIII of the Confederation, any alteration had to be approved unanimously: [T]he Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State. On the other hand, Article VII of the proposed Constitution stated that it would become effective after ratification by a mere nine states, without unanimity: The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same. The apparent tension between these two provisions was addressed at the time, and remains a topic of scholarly discussion. In 1788, [[James Madison]] remarked (in ''[[Federalist No. 40]]'') that the issue had become moot: \"As this objection… has been in a manner waived by those who have criticised the powers of the convention, I dismiss it without further observation.\" Nevertheless, it is a historical and legal question whether opponents of the Constitution could have plausibly attacked the Constitution on that ground. At the time, there were state legislators who argued that the Constitution was not an alteration of the Articles of Confederation, but rather would be a complete replacement so the unanimity rule did not apply. Moreover, the Confederation had proven woefully inadequate and therefore was supposedly no longer binding. Modern scholars such as Francisco Forrest Martin agree that the Articles of Confederation had lost its binding force because many states had violated it, and thus \"other states-parties did not have to comply with the Articles' unanimous consent rule\". In contrast, law professor [[Akhil Amar]] suggests that there may not have really been any conflict between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution on this point; Article VI of the Confederation specifically allowed side deals among states, and the Constitution could be viewed as a side deal until all states ratified it.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": ["Revision and replacement", "Final months"], "text": "On July 3, 1788, the Congress received [[New Hampshire]]'s all-important ninth ratification of the proposed Constitution, thus, according to its terms, establishing it as the new framework of governance for the ratifying states. The following day delegates considered a bill to admit Kentucky into the Union as a sovereign state. The discussion ended with Congress making the determination that, in light of this development, it would be \"unadvisable\" to admit Kentucky into the Union, as it could do so \"under the Articles of Confederation\" only, but not \"under the Constitution\". By the end of July 1788, 11 of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution. Congress continued to convene under the Articles with a quorum until October. On Saturday, September 13, 1788, the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to implement the new Constitution, and on Monday, September 15 published an announcement that the new Constitution had been ratified by the necessary nine states, set the first Wednesday in January 1789 for appointing electors, set the first Wednesday in February 1789 for the presidential electors to meet and vote for a new president, and set the first Wednesday of March 1789 as the day \"for commencing proceedings\" under the new Constitution. On that same September 13, it determined that New York would remain the national capital.", "id": "691", "title": "Articles of Confederation", "categories": ["Signers of the Articles of Confederation", "1777 in the United States", "1781 in law", "1781 in the United States", "Defunct constitutions", "Documents of the American Revolution", "Federalism in the United States", "History of York County, Pennsylvania", "Legal history of the United States", "Ordinances of the Continental Congress", "Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Political charters", "United States documents", "York, Pennsylvania", "1777 in Pennsylvania"], "seealso": ["Perpetual Union", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "Vetocracy", "Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Asia Minor''' is an alternative name for [[Anatolia]], the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey. '''Asia Minor''' may also refer to: (-) [[Asia Minor (album)|''Asia Minor'' (album)]], an album by Jamaican-born jazz trumpeter Dizzy Reece (-) [[Asia Minor (instrumental)|\"Asia Minor\" (instrumental)]], a 1961 instrumental recording by Jimmy Wisner (operating under the name Kokomo)", "id": "694", "title": "Asia Minor (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Asia Major (disambiguation)"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "The '''Atlantic Ocean''' is the second-largest of the world's [[ocean]], with an area of about . It covers approximately 20 percent of [[Earth#Surface|Earth's surface]] and about 29 percent of its water surface area. It is known to separate the \"[[Old World]]\" from the \"[[New World]]\" in the [[Europe]] perception of [[Earth|the World]]. The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between [[Europe]] and [[Africa]] to the east, and the [[Americas]] to the west. As one component of the interconnected [[World Ocean]], it is connected in the north to the [[Arctic Ocean]], to the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the southwest, the [[Indian Ocean]] in the southeast, and the [[Southern Ocean]] in the south (other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to [[Antarctica]]). The Atlantic Ocean is divided into two parts, by the [[Equatorial Counter Current]], with the '''North(ern) Atlantic Ocean''' and the '''South(ern) Atlantic Ocean''' at about [[8th parallel north|8°N]]. Scientific explorations of the Atlantic include the [[Challenger expedition|''Challenger'' expedition]], the [[German Meteor expedition|German ''Meteor'' expedition]], [[Columbia University]]'s [[Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory]] and the [[United States Navy Hydrographic Office]].", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The oldest known mentions of an \"Atlantic\" sea come from [[Stesichorus]] around mid-sixth century BC (Sch. A. R. 1. 211): (Greek: ; English: 'the Atlantic sea'; etym. 'Sea of [[Atlantis]]') and in ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|The Histories]]'' of [[Herodotus]] around 450 BC (Hdt. 1.202.4): (Greek: ; English: 'Sea of Atlantis' or 'the Atlantis sea') where the name refers to \"the sea beyond the [[pillars of Heracles]]\" which is said to be part of the sea that surrounds all land. In these uses, the name refers to [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]], the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]] in [[Greek mythology]], who supported the heavens and who later appeared as a frontispiece in Medieval maps and also lent his name to modern [[Atlas (geography)|atlases]]. On the other hand, to early [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] sailors and in Ancient Greek mythological literature such as the ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Odyssey]]'', this all-encompassing ocean was instead known as [[Oceanus]], the gigantic river that encircled the world; in contrast to the enclosed seas well known to the Greeks: the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. In contrast, the term \"Atlantic\" originally referred specifically to the [[Atlas Mountains]] in Morocco and the sea off the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] and the North African coast. The Greek word has been reused by scientists for the huge [[Panthalassa]] ocean that surrounded the supercontinent [[Pangaea]] hundreds of millions of years ago. The term \"'''[[Aethiopian Ocean]]'''\", derived from [[Aethiopia|Ancient Ethiopia]], was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century. During the [[Age of Discovery]], the Atlantic was also known to English cartographers as the '''Great Western Ocean'''. '''The Pond''' is a term often used by British and American speakers in reference to the [[Northern Atlantic Ocean]], as a form of [[Meiosis (figure of speech)|meiosis]], or sarcastic understatement. The term dates to as early as 1640, first appearing in print in pamphlet released during the reign of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], and reproduced in 1869 in [[Nehemiah Wallington]]'s ''Historical Notices of Events Occurring Chiefly in The Reign of Charles I'', where \"great Pond\" is used in reference to the Atlantic Ocean by [[Francis Windebank]], Charles I's [[Secretary of State (England)|Secretary of State]].", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Extent and data"], "text": "The [[International Hydrographic Organization]] (IHO) defined the limits of the oceans and seas in 1953, but some of these definitions have been revised since then and some are not used by various authorities, institutions, and countries, see for example the [[CIA World Factbook]]. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas vary. The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the [[Denmark Strait]], [[Greenland Sea]], [[Norwegian Sea]] and [[Barents Sea]]. To the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe: the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] (where it connects with the [[Mediterranean Sea]]—one of its [[marginal sea]]—and, in turn, the [[Black Sea]], both of which also touch upon Asia) and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean. The [[20th meridian east|20° East meridian]], running south from [[Cape Agulhas]] to [[Antarctica]] defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the [[60th parallel south|60° parallel]] by the Southern Ocean. The Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs and seas. These include the [[Baltic Sea]], [[Black Sea]], [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Davis Strait]], [[Denmark Strait]], part of the [[Drake Passage]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Labrador Sea]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[North Sea]], [[Norwegian Sea]], almost all of the [[Scotia Sea]], and other tributary water bodies. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures compared to for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of or 23.5% of the global ocean and has a volume of or 23.3% of the total volume of the earth's oceans. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers and has a volume of . The North Atlantic covers (11.5%) and the South Atlantic (11.1%). The average depth is and the maximum depth, the [[Milwaukee Deep]] in the [[Puerto Rico Trench]], is .", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Biggest seas in Atlantic Ocean"], "text": "Top large seas: (1) [[Sargasso Sea]] - 3.5 million km (2) [[Caribbean Sea]] - 2.754 million km (3) [[Mediterranean Sea]] - 2.510 million km (4) [[Gulf of Guinea]] - 2.35 million km (5) [[Gulf of Mexico]] - 1.550 million km (6) [[Norwegian Sea]] - 1.383 million km (7) [[Hudson Bay]] - 1.23 million km (8) [[Greenland Sea]] - 1.205 million km (9) [[Argentine Sea]] - 1 million km (10) [[Labrador Sea]] - 841,000 km (11) [[Irminger Sea]] - 780,000 km (12) [[Baffin Bay]] - 689,000 km (13) [[North Sea]] - 575,000 km (14) [[Black Sea]] - 436,000 km (15) [[Baltic Sea]] - 377,000 km (16) [[Libyan Sea]] - 350,000 km (17) [[Levantine Sea]] - 320,000 km (18) [[Celtic Sea]] - 300,000 km (19) [[Tyrrhenian Sea]] - 275,000 km (20) [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]] - 226,000 km (21) [[Bay of Biscay]] - 223,000 km (22) [[Aegean Sea]] - 214,000 km (23) [[Ionian Sea]] - 169,000 km (24) [[Balearic Sea]] - 150,000 km (25) [[Adriatic Sea]] - 138,000 km (26) [[Gulf of Bothnia]] - 116,300 km (27) [[Sea of Crete]] - 95,000 km (28) [[Gulf of Maine]] - 93,000 km (29) [[Ligurian Sea]] - 80,000 km (30) [[English Channel]] - 75,000 km (31) [[James Bay]] - 68,300 km (32) [[Bothnian Sea]] - 66,000 km (33) [[Gulf of Sidra]] - 57,000 km (34) [[Sea of the Hebrides]] - 47,000 km (35) [[Irish Sea]] - 46,000 km (36) [[Sea of Azov]] - 39,000 km (37) [[Bothnian Bay]] - 36,800 km (38) [[Gulf of Venezuela]] - 17,840 km (39) [[Bay of Campeche]] - 16,000 km (40) [[Gulf of Lion]] - 15,000 km (41) [[Sea of Marmara]] - 11,350 km (42) [[Wadden Sea]] - 10,000 km (43) [[Archipelago Sea]] - 8,300 km", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Bathymetry"], "text": "The [[bathymetry]] of the Atlantic is dominated by a [[Mid-ocean ridge|submarine mountain range]] called the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]] (MAR). It runs from 87°N or south of the [[North Pole]] to the subantarctic [[Bouvet Island]] at [[54th parallel south|54°S]].", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Bathymetry", "Mid-Atlantic Ridge"], "text": "The MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above along most of its length, but is interrupted by larger transform faults at two places: the [[Romanche Trench]] near the Equator and the [[Gibbs Fracture Zone]] at [[53rd parallel north|53°N]]. The MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other. The MAR rises above the surrounding ocean floor and its [[rift valley]] is the [[divergent boundary]] between the [[North American Plate|North American]] and [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]] plates in the North Atlantic and the [[South American Plate|South American]] and [[African Plate|African]] plates in the South Atlantic. The MAR produces [[Basaltic lava|basaltic volcanoes]] in [[Eyjafjallajökull]], Iceland, and [[pillow lava]] on the ocean floor. The depth of water at the apex of the ridge is less than in most places, while the bottom of the ridge is three times as deep. The MAR is intersected by two perpendicular ridges: the [[Azores–Gibraltar Transform Fault]], the boundary between the [[Nubian Plate|Nubian]] and [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian plates]], intersects the MAR at the [[Azores Triple Junction]], on either side of the Azores microplate, near the [[40th parallel north|40°N]]. A much vaguer, nameless boundary, between the [[North American Plate|North American]] and [[South American Plate|South American]] plates, intersects the MAR near or just north of the [[Fifteen-Twenty Fracture Zone]], approximately at [[16th parallel north|16°N]]. In the 1870s, the [[Challenger expedition|''Challenger'' expedition]] discovered parts of what is now known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, or: The remainder of the ridge was discovered in the 1920s by the [[German Meteor expedition|German ''Meteor'' expedition]] using echo-sounding equipment. The exploration of the MAR in the 1950s led to the general acceptance of [[seafloor spreading]] and [[plate tectonics]]. Most of the MAR runs under water but where it reaches the surfaces it has produced volcanic islands. While nine of these have collectively been nominated a [[World Heritage Site]] for their geological value, four of them are considered of \"Outstanding Universal Value\" based on their cultural and natural criteria: [[Þingvellir National Park|Þingvellir]], Iceland; [[Landscape of the Pico Island Vineyard Culture]], Portugal; [[Gough and Inaccessible Islands]], United Kingdom; and Brazilian Atlantic Islands: [[Fernando de Noronha]] and [[Atol das Rocas]] Reserves, Brazil.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Bathymetry", "Ocean floor"], "text": "Continental shelves in the Atlantic are wide off Newfoundland, southernmost South America, and north-eastern Europe. In the western Atlantic [[carbonate platform]] dominate large areas, for example, the [[Blake Plateau]] and [[Bermuda Rise]]. The Atlantic is surrounded by [[passive margin]] except at a few locations where [[active margin]] form deep [[oceanic trench|trenches]]: the [[Puerto Rico Trench]] ( maximum depth) in the western Atlantic and [[South Sandwich Trench]] () in the South Atlantic. There are numerous submarine canyons off north-eastern North America, western Europe, and north-western Africa. Some of these canyons extend along the continental rises and farther into the abyssal plains as deep-sea channels. In 1922 a historic moment in cartography and oceanography occurred. The USS ''Stewart'' used a Navy Sonic Depth Finder to draw a continuous map across the bed of the Atlantic. This involved little guesswork because the idea of sonar is straightforward with pulses being sent from the vessel, which bounce off the ocean floor, then return to the vessel. The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat with occasional deeps, [[abyssal plain]], [[oceanic trench|trenches]], [[seamount]], [[Oceanic basin|basins]], [[Oceanic plateau|plateaus]], [[Submarine canyon|canyons]], and some [[guyot]]. Various shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography with few deep channels cut across the continental rise. The mean depth between [[60th parallel north|60°N]] and [[60th parallel south|60°S]] is , or close to the average for the global ocean, with a modal depth between . In the South Atlantic the [[Walvis Ridge]] and [[Rio Grande Rise]] form barriers to ocean currents. The [[Laurentian Abyss]] is found off the eastern coast of Canada.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Water characteristics"], "text": "Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from below to over . Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by . From October to June the surface is usually covered with sea ice in the [[Labrador Sea]], [[Denmark Strait]], and Baltic Sea. The [[Coriolis effect]] circulates North Atlantic water in a clockwise direction, whereas South Atlantic water circulates counter-clockwise. The south [[tide]] in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-diurnal; that is, two high tides occur every 24 lunar hours. In latitudes above [[40th parallel north|40° North]] some east–west oscillation, known as the [[North Atlantic oscillation]], occurs.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Water characteristics", "Salinity"], "text": "On average, the Atlantic is the saltiest major ocean; surface water [[salinity]] in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand (3.3–3.7%) by mass and varies with latitude and season. Evaporation, precipitation, river inflow and [[sea ice]] melting influence surface salinity values. Although the lowest salinity values are just north of the equator (because of heavy tropical rainfall), in general, the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers enter. Maximum salinity values occur at about [[25th parallel north|25° north]] and [[25th parallel south|south]], in [[subtropical]] regions with low rainfall and high evaporation. The high surface salinity in the Atlantic, on which the Atlantic [[thermohaline circulation]] is dependent, is maintained by two processes: the [[Agulhas Current#Agulhas leakage and rings|Agulhas Leakage/Rings]], which brings salty Indian Ocean waters into the South Atlantic, and the \"Atmospheric Bridge\", which evaporates subtropical Atlantic waters and exports it to the Pacific.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Water characteristics", "Water masses"], "text": "The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major, upper [[water mass]] with distinct temperature and salinity. The Atlantic Subarctic Upper Water in the northernmost North Atlantic is the source for Subarctic Intermediate Water and North Atlantic Intermediate Water. North Atlantic Central Water can be divided into the Eastern and Western North Atlantic central Water since the western part is strongly affected by the Gulf Stream and therefore the upper layer is closer to underlying fresher subpolar intermediate water. The eastern water is saltier because of its proximity to Mediterranean Water. North Atlantic Central Water flows into South Atlantic Central Water at [[15th parallel north|15°N]]. There are five intermediate waters: four low-salinity waters formed at subpolar latitudes and one high-salinity formed through evaporation. Arctic Intermediate Water, flows from north to become the source for North Atlantic Deep Water south of the Greenland-Scotland sill. These two intermediate waters have different salinity in the western and eastern basins. The wide range of salinities in the North Atlantic is caused by the asymmetry of the northern subtropical [[gyre]] and the large number of contributions from a wide range of sources: Labrador Sea, Norwegian-Greenland Sea, Mediterranean, and South Atlantic Intermediate Water. The [[North Atlantic Deep Water]] (NADW) is a complex of four water masses, two that form by deep convection in the open ocean — Classical and Upper Labrador Sea Water — and two that form from the inflow of dense water across the Greenland-Iceland-Scotland sill — Denmark Strait and Iceland-Scotland Overflow Water. Along its path across Earth the composition of the NADW is affected by other water masses, especially [[Antarctic Bottom Water]] and Mediterranean Overflow Water. The NADW is fed by a flow of warm shallow water into the northern North Atlantic which is responsible for the anomalous warm climate in Europe. Changes in the formation of NADW have been linked to global climate changes in the past. Since man-made substances were introduced into the environment, the path of the NADW can be traced throughout its course by measuring tritium and radiocarbon from [[nuclear weapon test]] in the 1960s and [[chlorofluorocarbon|CFCs]].", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Water characteristics", "Gyres"], "text": "The clockwise warm-water [[North Atlantic Gyre]] occupies the northern Atlantic, and the counter-clockwise warm-water [[South Atlantic Gyre]] appears in the southern Atlantic. In the North Atlantic, surface circulation is dominated by three inter-connected currents: the [[Gulf Stream]] which flows north-east from the North American coast at [[Cape Hatteras]]; the [[North Atlantic Current]], a branch of the Gulf Stream which flows northward from the [[Grand Banks of Newfoundland|Grand Banks]]; and the [[Subpolar Front]], an extension of the North Atlantic Current, a wide, vaguely defined region separating the subtropical gyre from the subpolar gyre. This system of currents transport warm water into the North Atlantic, without which temperatures in the North Atlantic and Europe would plunge dramatically. North of the North Atlantic Gyre, the cyclonic [[North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre]] plays a key role in climate variability. It is governed by ocean currents from marginal seas and regional topography, rather than being steered by wind, both in the deep ocean and at sea level. The subpolar gyre forms an important part of the global [[thermohaline circulation]]. Its eastern portion includes [[Eddy (fluid dynamics)|eddying]] branches of the [[North Atlantic Current]] which transport warm, saline waters from the subtropics to the north-eastern Atlantic. There this water is cooled during winter and forms return currents that merge along the eastern continental slope of Greenland where they form an intense (40–50 [[Sverdrup|Sv]]) current which flows around the continental margins of the [[Labrador Sea]]. A third of this water becomes part of the deep portion of the [[North Atlantic Deep Water]] (NADW). The NADW, in its turn, feeds the [[meridional overturning circulation]] (MOC), the northward heat transport of which is threatened by anthropogenic climate change. Large variations in the subpolar gyre on a decade-century scale, associated with the [[North Atlantic oscillation]], are especially pronounced in [[Labrador Sea Water]], the upper layers of the MOC. The South Atlantic is dominated by the anti-cyclonic southern subtropical gyre. The [[South Atlantic Central Water]] originates in this gyre, while [[Antarctic Intermediate Water]] originates in the upper layers of the circumpolar region, near the [[Drake Passage]] and the Falkland Islands. Both these currents receive some contribution from the Indian Ocean. On the African east coast, the small cyclonic [[Angola Gyre]] lies embedded in the large subtropical gyre. The southern subtropical gyre is partly masked by a wind-induced [[Ekman layer]]. The residence time of the gyre is 4.4–8.5 years. [[North Atlantic Deep Water]] flows southward below the [[thermocline]] of the subtropical gyre.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Water characteristics", "Sargasso Sea"], "text": "The Sargasso Sea in the western North Atlantic can be defined as the area where two species of ''[[Sargassum]]'' (''S. fluitans'' and ''natans'') float, an area wide and encircled by the [[Gulf Stream]], [[North Atlantic Drift]], and [[North Equatorial Current]]. This population of seaweed probably originated from Tertiary ancestors on the European shores of the former [[Tethys Ocean]] and has, if so, maintained itself by [[Vegetative reproduction|vegetative growth]], floating in the ocean for millions of years. Other species endemic to the Sargasso Sea include the [[sargassum fish]], a predator with algae-like appendages which hovers motionless among the ''Sargassum''. Fossils of similar fishes have been found in fossil bays of the former Tethys Ocean, in what is now the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian]] region, that were similar to the Sargasso Sea. It is possible that the population in the Sargasso Sea migrated to the Atlantic as the Tethys closed at the end of the Miocene around 17 Ma. The origin of the Sargasso fauna and flora remained enigmatic for centuries. The fossils found in the Carpathians in the mid-20th century often called the \"quasi-Sargasso assemblage\", finally showed that this assemblage originated in the [[Carpathian Basin]] from where it migrated over [[Sicily]] to the Central Atlantic where it evolved into modern species of the Sargasso Sea. The location of the spawning ground for European eels [[Eel life history#Search for the spawning grounds|remained unknown for decades]]. In the early 19th century it was discovered that the southern Sargasso Sea is the spawning ground for both the [[European eel|European]] and [[American eel]] and that the former migrate more than and the latter . Ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream transport eel larvae from the Sargasso Sea to foraging areas in North America, Europe, and Northern Africa. Recent but disputed research suggests that eels possibly use [[Earth's magnetic field]] to navigate through the ocean both as larvae and as adults.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Climate"], "text": "Climate is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as winds. Because of the ocean's great capacity to store and release heat, maritime climates are more moderate and have less extreme seasonal variations than inland climates. [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from water temperatures. The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents influence the climate by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. The winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents influence adjacent land areas. The [[Gulf Stream]] and its northern extension towards Europe, the [[North Atlantic Current|North Atlantic Drift]] is thought to have at least some influence on climate. For example, the Gulf Stream helps moderate winter temperatures along the coastline of southeastern North America, keeping it warmer in winter along the coast than inland areas. The Gulf Stream also keeps extreme temperatures from occurring on the Florida Peninsula. In the higher latitudes, the North Atlantic Drift, warms the atmosphere over the oceans, keeping the British Isles and north-western Europe mild and cloudy, and not severely cold in winter like other locations at the same high latitude. The cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of eastern Canada (the [[Grand Banks of Newfoundland]] area) and Africa's north-western coast. In general, winds transport moisture and air over land areas.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Climate", "Natural hazards"], "text": "Every winter, the [[Icelandic Low]] produces frequent storms. [[Iceberg]] are common from early February to the end of July across the shipping lanes near the [[Grand Banks of Newfoundland]]. The ice season is longer in the polar regions, but there is little shipping in those areas. [[Atlantic hurricane|Hurricanes]] are a hazard in the western parts of the North Atlantic during the summer and autumn. Due to a consistently strong [[wind shear]] and a weak [[Intertropical Convergence Zone]], [[South Atlantic tropical cyclone]] are rare.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Geology and plate tectonics"], "text": "The Atlantic Ocean is underlain mostly by dense [[mafic]] oceanic crust made up of [[basalt]] and [[gabbro]] and overlain by fine clay, silt and siliceous ooze on the abyssal plain. The continental margins and continental shelf mark lower density, but greater thickness [[felsic]] continental rock that often much older than that of the seafloor. The oldest oceanic crust in the Atlantic is up to 145 million years and situated off the west coast of Africa and east coast of North America, or on either side of the South Atlantic. In many places, the continental shelf and continental slope are covered in thick sedimentary layers. For instance, on the North American side of the ocean, large carbonate deposits formed in warm shallow waters such as Florida and the Bahamas, while coarse river outwash sands and silt are common in shallow shelf areas like the [[Georges Bank]]. Coarse sand, boulders, and rocks were transported into some areas, such as off the coast of Nova Scotia or the [[Gulf of Maine]] during the [[Pleistocene]] ice ages.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Geology and plate tectonics", "Central Atlantic"], "text": "The break-up of Pangaea began in the Central Atlantic, between North America and Northwest Africa, where rift basins opened during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. This period also saw the first stages of the uplift of the Atlas Mountains. The exact timing is controversial with estimates ranging from 200 to 170 Ma. The opening of the Atlantic Ocean coincided with the initial break-up of the supercontinent [[Pangaea]], both of which were initiated by the eruption of the [[Central Atlantic Magmatic Province]] (CAMP), one of the most extensive and voluminous [[large igneous province]] in Earth's history associated with the [[Triassic–Jurassic extinction event]], one of Earth's major [[extinction event]]. Theoliitic [[Dike (geology)|dikes]], [[Aquatic sill|sills]], and lava flows from the CAMP eruption at 200 Ma have been found in West Africa, eastern North America, and northern South America. The extent of the volcanism has been estimated to of which covered what is now northern and central Brazil. The formation of the [[Central American Isthmus]] closed the [[Central American Seaway]] at the end of the Pliocene 2.8 Ma ago. The formation of the isthmus resulted in the migration and extinction of many land-living animals, known as the [[Great American Interchange]], but the closure of the seaway resulted in a \"Great American Schism\" as it affected ocean currents, salinity, and temperatures in both the Atlantic and Pacific. Marine organisms on both sides of the isthmus became isolated and either diverged or went extinct. Geologically, the Northern Atlantic is the area delimited to the south by two conjugate margins, Newfoundland and Iberia, and to the north by the Arctic [[Eurasian Basin]]. The opening of the Northern Atlantic closely followed the margins of its predecessor, the [[Iapetus Ocean]], and spread from the Central Atlantic in six stages: [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]]–[[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], [[Porcupine Bank|Porcupine]]–North America, Eurasia–Greenland, Eurasia–North America. Active and inactive spreading systems in this area are marked by the interaction with the [[Iceland hotspot]]. Seafloor spreading led to the extension of the crust and formations of troughs and sedimentary basins. The Rockall Trough opened between 105 and 84 million years ago although along the rift failed along with one leading into the [[Bay of Biscay]]. Spreading began opening the [[Labrador Sea]] around 61 million years ago, continuing until 36 million years ago. Geologists distinguish two magmatic phases. One from 62 to 58 million years ago predates the separation of Greenland from northern Europe while the second from 56 to 52 million years ago happened as the separation occurred.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Geology and plate tectonics", "Central Atlantic"], "text": "Iceland began to form 62 million years ago due to a particularly concentrated mantle plume. Large quantities of [[basalt]] erupted at this time period are found on Baffin Island, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and Scotland, with ash falls in Western Europe acting as a stratigraphic marker. The opening of the North Atlantic caused significant uplift of continental crust along the coast. For instance, in spite of 7 km thick basalt, Gunnbjorn Field in East Greenland is the highest point on the island, elevated enough that it exposes older Mesozoic sedimentary rocks at its base, similar to old lava fields above sedimentary rocks in the uplifted Hebrides of western Scotland.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Geology and plate tectonics", "South Atlantic"], "text": "West Gondwana (South America and Africa) broke up in the Early Cretaceous to form the South Atlantic. The apparent fit between the coastlines of the two continents was noted on the first maps that included the South Atlantic and it was also the subject of the first computer-assisted plate tectonic reconstructions in 1965. This magnificent fit, however, has since then proven problematic and later reconstructions have introduced various deformation zones along the shorelines to accommodate the northward-propagating break-up. Intra-continental rifts and deformations have also been introduced to subdivide both continental plates into sub-plates. Geologically the South Atlantic can be divided into four segments: Equatorial segment, from 10°N to the Romanche Fracture Zone (RFZ);; Central segment, from RFZ to Florianopolis Fracture Zone (FFZ, north of Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande Rise); Southern segment, from FFZ to the Agulhas-Falkland Fracture Zone (AFFZ); and Falkland segment, south of AFFZ. In the southern segment the Early Cretaceous (133–130 Ma) intensive [[magmatism]] of the [[Paraná and Etendeka traps|Paraná–Etendeka Large Igneous Province]] produced by the [[Tristan hotspot]] resulted in an estimated volume of . It covered an area of in Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay and in Africa. [[Dyke swarm]] in Brazil, Angola, eastern Paraguay, and Namibia, however, suggest the LIP originally covered a much larger area and also indicate failed rifts in all these areas. Associated offshore basaltic flows reach as far south as the Falkland Islands and South Africa. Traces of magmatism in both offshore and onshore basins in the central and southern segments have been dated to 147–49 Ma with two peaks between 143 and 121 Ma and 90–60 Ma. In the Falkland segment rifting began with dextral movements between the Patagonia and Colorado sub-plates between the Early Jurassic (190 Ma) and the Early Cretaceous (126.7 Ma). Around 150 Ma sea-floor spreading propagated northward into the southern segment. No later than 130 Ma rifting had reached the Walvis Ridge–Rio Grande Rise. In the central segment rifting started to break Africa in two by opening the [[Benue Trough]] around 118 Ma. Rifting in the central segment, however, coincided with the [[Geomagnetic reversal#Superchrons|Cretaceous Normal Superchron]] (also known as the Cretaceous quiet period), a 40 Ma period without magnetic reversals, which makes it difficult to date sea-floor spreading in this segment. The equatorial segment is the last phase of the break-up, but, because it is located on the Equator, magnetic anomalies cannot be used for dating. Various estimates date the propagation of sea-floor spreading in this segment to the period 120–96 Ma. This final stage, nevertheless, coincided with or resulted in the end of continental extension in Africa. About 50 Ma the opening of the [[Drake Passage]] resulted from a change in the motions and separation rate of the South American and Antarctic plates. First small ocean basins opened and a shallow gateway appeared during the Middle Eocene. 34–30 Ma a deeper seaway developed, followed by an [[Eocene–Oligocene extinction event|Eocene–Oligocene climatic deterioration]] and the growth of the [[Antarctic ice sheet]].", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Geology and plate tectonics", "Closure of the Atlantic"], "text": "An embryonic subduction margin is potentially developing west of Gibraltar. The [[Gibraltar Arc]] in the western Mediterranean is migrating westward into the Central Atlantic where it joins the converging African and Eurasian plates. Together these three tectonic forces are slowly developing into a new subduction system in the eastern Atlantic Basin. Meanwhile, the [[Scotia Arc]] and [[Caribbean Plate]] in the western Atlantic Basin are eastward-propagating subduction systems that might, together with the Gibraltar system, represent the beginning of the closure of the Atlantic Ocean and the final stage of the Atlantic [[Wilson cycle]].", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Human origin"], "text": "[[Human evolution|Humans evolved]] in Africa; first by diverging from other apes around 7 mya; then developing stone tools around 2.6 mya; to finally evolve as [[Anatomically modern human|modern humans]] around 200 kya. The earliest evidence for the complex behavior associated with this [[behavioral modernity]] has been found in the Greater [[Cape Floristic Region]] (GCFR) along the coast of South Africa. During the latest glacial stages, the now-submerged plains of the [[Agulhas Bank]] were exposed above sea level, extending the South African coastline farther south by hundreds of kilometers. A small population of modern humans — probably fewer than a thousand reproducing individuals — survived glacial maxima by exploring the high diversity offered by these Palaeo-Agulhas plains. The GCFR is delimited to the north by the [[Cape Fold Belt]] and the limited space south of it resulted in the development of social networks out of which complex Stone Age technologies emerged. Human history thus begins on the coasts of South Africa where the Atlantic [[Benguela Current|Benguela Upwelling]] and Indian Ocean [[Agulhas Current]] meet to produce an intertidal zone on which shellfish, fur seal, fish and sea birds provided the necessary protein sources. The African origin of this modern behaviour is evidenced by 70,000 years-old engravings from [[Blombos Cave]], South Africa.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Old World"], "text": "[[Mitochondrial DNA]] (mtDNA) studies indicate that 80–60,000 years ago a major demographic expansion within Africa, derived from a single, small population, coincided with the emergence of behavioral complexity and the rapid [[Marine isotope stage|MIS]] 5–4 environmental changes. This group of people not only expanded over the whole of Africa, but also started to disperse [[Recent African origin of modern humans|out of Africa]] into Asia, Europe, and Australasia around 65,000 years ago and quickly replaced the archaic humans in these regions. During the [[Last Glacial Maximum]] (LGM) 20,000 years ago humans had to abandon their initial settlements along the European North Atlantic coast and retreat to the Mediterranean. Following rapid climate changes at the end of the LGM this region was repopulated by [[Magdalenian]] culture. Other hunter-gatherers followed in waves interrupted by large-scale hazards such as the [[Laacher See]] volcanic eruption, the inundation of [[Doggerland]] (now the [[North Sea]]), and the formation of the [[Baltic Sea]]. The European coasts of the North Atlantic were permanently populated about 9–8.5 thousand years ago. This human dispersal left abundant traces along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. 50 kya-old, deeply stratified [[shell midden]] found in [[Ysterfontein]] on the western coast of South Africa are associated with the Middle Stone Age (MSA). The MSA population was small and dispersed and the rate of their reproduction and exploitation was less intense than those of later generations. While their middens resemble 12–11 kya-old Late Stone Age (LSA) middens found on every inhabited continent, the 50–45 kya-old [[Enkapune Ya Muto]] in Kenya probably represents the oldest traces of the first modern humans to disperse out of Africa. The same development can be seen in Europe. In [[La Riera Cave]] (23–13 kya) in Asturias, Spain, only some 26,600 molluscs were deposited over 10 kya. In contrast, 8–7 kya-old shell middens in Portugal, Denmark, and Brazil generated thousands of tons of debris and artefacts. The [[Ertebølle culture|Ertebølle]] middens in Denmark, for example, accumulated of shell deposits representing some 50 million molluscs over only a thousand years. This intensification in the exploitation of marine resources has been described as accompanied by new technologies — such as boats, harpoons, and fish-hooks — because many caves found in the Mediterranean and on the European Atlantic coast have increased quantities of marine shells in their upper levels and reduced quantities in their lower. The earliest exploitation, however, took place on the now submerged shelves, and most settlements now excavated were then located several kilometers from these shelves. The reduced quantities of shells in the lower levels can represent the few shells that were exported inland.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["History", "New World"], "text": "During the LGM the [[Laurentide Ice Sheet]] covered most of northern North America while [[Beringia]] connected Siberia to Alaska. In 1973 late American geoscientist [[Paul S. Martin]] proposed a \"blitzkrieg\" colonization of the Americas by which [[Clovis culture|Clovis hunters]] migrated into North America around 13,000 years ago in a single wave through an ice-free corridor in the ice sheet and \"spread southward explosively, briefly attaining a density sufficiently large to overkill much of their prey.\" Others later proposed a \"three-wave\" migration over the [[Bering Land Bridge]]. These hypotheses remained the long-held view regarding the [[Prehistoric migration and settlement of the Americas from Asia|settlement of the Americas]], a view challenged by more recent archaeological discoveries: the oldest archaeological sites in the Americas have been found in South America; sites in north-east Siberia report virtually no human presence there during the LGM; and most Clovis artefacts have been found in eastern North America along the Atlantic coast. Furthermore, colonisation models based on mtDNA, [[yDNA]], and [[atDNA]] data respectively support neither the \"blitzkrieg\" nor the \"three-wave\" hypotheses but they also deliver mutually ambiguous results. Contradictory data from archaeology and genetics will most likely deliver future hypotheses that will, eventually, confirm each other. A proposed route across the Pacific to South America could explain early South American finds and another hypothesis proposes a northern path, through the Canadian Arctic and down the North American Atlantic coast. Early settlements across the Atlantic have been suggested by alternative theories, ranging from purely hypothetical to mostly disputed, including the [[Solutrean hypothesis]] and some of the [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories]]. The [[Norse colonization of North America|Norse settlement]] of the [[Faroe Islands]] and [[Iceland]] began during the 9th and 10th centuries. A settlement on [[Greenland]] was established before 1000 CE, but contact with it was lost in 1409 and it was finally abandoned during the early [[Little Ice Age]]. This setback was caused by a range of factors: an unsustainable economy resulted in erosion and denudation, while conflicts with the local [[Inuit]] resulted in the failure to adapt their Arctic technologies; a colder climate resulted in starvation, and the colony got economically marginalized as the [[Great Plague]] and [[Barbary pirates]] harvested its victims on Iceland in the 15th century. Iceland was initially settled 865–930 CE following a warm period when winter temperatures hovered around which made farming favorable at high latitudes. This did not last, however, and temperatures quickly dropped; at 1080 CE summer temperatures had reached a maximum of . The ''[[Landnámabók]]'' (''Book of Settlement'') records disastrous famines during the first century of settlement — \"men ate [[fox]] and [[raven]]\" and \"the old and helpless were killed and thrown over cliffs\" — and by the early 1200s hay had to be abandoned for short-season crops such as [[barley]].", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Atlantic World"], "text": "[[Christopher Columbus]] [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus|reached the Americas]] in 1492 under Spanish flag. Six years later [[Vasco da Gama]] reached India under the Portuguese flag, by navigating south around the [[Cape of Good Hope]], thus proving that the Atlantic and Indian Oceans are connected. In 1500, in his voyage to India following Vasco da Gama, [[Pedro Alvares Cabral]] reached Brazil, taken by the currents of the [[South Atlantic Gyre]]. Following these explorations, Spain and Portugal quickly [[Colonization of the Americas|conquered and colonized]] large territories in the New World and forced the Amerindian population into slavery in order to explore the vast quantities of silver and gold they found. Spain and Portugal monopolized this trade in order to keep other European nations out, but conflicting interests nevertheless led to a series of Spanish-Portuguese wars. A peace treaty mediated by the Pope divided the conquered territories into Spanish and Portuguese sectors while keeping other colonial powers away. England, France, and the Dutch Republic enviously watched the Spanish and Portuguese wealth grow and allied themselves with [[Piracy in the Atlantic World|pirates]] such as [[Henry Mainwaring]] and [[Alexandre Exquemelin]]. They could explore the convoys leaving the Americas because prevailing winds and currents made the transport of heavy metals slow and predictable. In the colonies of the Americas, depredation, [[smallpox]] and others diseases, and [[slavery]] quickly reduced the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous population of the Americas]] to the extent that the [[Atlantic slave trade]] had to be introduced to replace them — a trade that became the norm and an integral part of the colonization. Between the 15th century and 1888, when [[Slavery in Brazil|Brazil]] became the last part of the Americas to end the slave trade, an estimated ten million Africans were exported as slaves, most of them destined for agricultural labour. The slave trade was officially abolished in the [[Slavery in the British Isles|British Empire]] and the [[Slavery in the United States|United States]] in 1808, and slavery itself was abolished in the British Empire in 1838 and in the United States in 1865 after the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. From Columbus to the [[Industrial Revolution]] Trans-Atlantic trade, including colonialism and slavery, became crucial for Western Europe. For European countries with direct access to the Atlantic (including Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain) 1500–1800 was a period of sustained growth during which these countries grew richer than those in Eastern Europe and Asia. Colonialism evolved as part of the Trans-Atlantic trade, but this trade also strengthened the position of merchant groups at the expense of monarchs. Growth was more rapid in non-absolutist countries, such as Britain and the Netherlands, and more limited in [[Absolute monarchy|absolutist monarchies]], such as Portugal, Spain, and France, where profit mostly or exclusively benefited the monarchy and its allies.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Atlantic World"], "text": "Trans-Atlantic trade also resulted in increasing urbanization: in European countries facing the Atlantic, urbanization grew from 8% in 1300, 10.1% in 1500, to 24.5% in 1850; in other European countries from 10% in 1300, 11.4% in 1500, to 17% in 1850. Likewise, GDP doubled in Atlantic countries but rose by only 30% in the rest of Europe. By end of the 17th century, the volume of the Trans-Atlantic trade had surpassed that of the Mediterranean trade.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Economy"], "text": "The Atlantic has contributed significantly to the development and economy of surrounding countries. Besides major transatlantic transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the [[sedimentary rock]] of the continental shelves. The Atlantic harbors petroleum and gas fields, fish, [[marine mammal]] ([[Pinniped|seals]] and whales), [[sand]] and [[gravel]] aggregates, [[placer deposit]], [[polymetallic nodules]], and precious stones. Gold deposits are a mile or two under water on the ocean floor, however, the deposits are also encased in rock that must be mined through. Currently, there is no cost-effective way to mine or extract gold from the ocean to make a profit. Various international treaties attempt to reduce pollution caused by environmental threats such as oil spills, [[marine debris]], and the [[incineration]] of toxic wastes at sea.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Fisheries"], "text": "The [[Continental shelf|shelves]] of the Atlantic hosts one of the world's richest [[Wild fisheries|fishing resources]]. The most productive areas include the [[Grand Banks of Newfoundland]], the [[Scotian Shelf]], [[Georges Bank]] off [[Cape Cod]], the [[Bahama Banks]], the waters around Iceland, the [[Irish Sea]], the [[Bay of Fundy]], the [[Dogger Bank]] of the North Sea, and the Falkland Banks. Fisheries have, however, undergone significant changes since the 1950s and global catches can now be divided into three groups of which only two are observed in the Atlantic: fisheries in the Eastern Central and South-West Atlantic oscillate around a globally stable value, the rest of the Atlantic is in overall decline following historical peaks. The third group, \"continuously increasing trend since 1950\", is only found in the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific. In the North-East Atlantic total catches decreased between the mid-1970s and the 1990s and reached 8.7 million tons in 2013. [[Blue whiting]] reached a 2.4 million tons peak in 2004 but was down to 628,000 tons in 2013. Recovery plans for cod, sole, and plaice have reduced mortality in these species. [[Arctic cod]] reached its lowest levels in the 1960s–1980s but is now recovered. [[Pollachius virens|Arctic saithe]] and [[haddock]] are considered fully fished; [[Sand eel]] is overfished as was [[capelin]] which has now recovered to fully fished. Limited data makes the state of [[redfish]] and deep-water species difficult to assess but most likely they remain vulnerable to overfishing. Stocks of [[northern shrimp]] and [[Norwegian lobster]] are in good condition. In the North-East Atlantic 21% of stocks are considered overfished. In the North-West Atlantic landings have decreased from 4.2 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.9 million tons in 2013. During the 21st century some species have shown weak signs of recovery, including [[Greenland halibut]], [[yellowtail flounder]], [[Atlantic halibut]], [[haddock]], [[spiny dogfish]], while other stocks shown no such signs, including cod, [[Witch (righteye flounder)|witch flounder]], and redfish. Stocks of invertebrates, in contrast, remain at record levels of abundance. 31% of stocks are overfished in the North-west Atlantic.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Fisheries"], "text": "In 1497 [[John Cabot]] became the first [[Western European]] since the [[Vikings]] to explore mainland North America and one of his major discoveries was the abundant resources of [[Atlantic cod]] off [[Newfoundland]]. Referred to as \"Newfoundland Currency\" this discovery yielded some 200 million tons of fish over five centuries. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries new fisheries started to exploit [[haddock]], [[mackerel]], and [[lobster]]. From the 1950s to the 1970s the introduction of European and Asian distant-water fleets in the area dramatically increased the fishing capacity and the number of exploited species. It also expanded the exploited areas from near-shore to the open sea and to great depths to include deep-water species such as [[Sebastes|redfish]], [[Greenland halibut]], witch flounder, and [[Grenadiers (fish)|grenadiers]]. [[Overfishing]] in the area was recognised as early as the 1960s but, because this was occurring on [[international waters]], it took until the late 1970s before any attempts to regulate was made. In the early 1990s, this finally resulted in the [[collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery]]. The population of a number of deep-sea fishes also collapsed in the process, including [[American plaice]], redfish, and Greenland halibut, together with flounder and grenadier. In the Eastern Central Atlantic small [[pelagic fish]] constitute about 50% of landings with sardine reaching 0.6–1.0 million tons per year. Pelagic fish stocks are considered fully fished or overfished, with sardines south of [[Cape Bojador]] the notable exception. Almost half of the stocks are fished at biologically unsustainable levels. Total catches have been fluctuating since the 1970s; reaching 3.9 million tons in 2013 or slightly less than the peak production in 2010. In the Western Central Atlantic, catches have been decreasing since 2000 and reached 1.3 million tons in 2013. The most important species in the area, [[Gulf menhaden]], reached a million tons in the mid-1980s but only half a million tons in 2013 and is now considered fully fished. [[Round sardinella]] was an important species in the 1990s but is now considered overfished. [[Grouper]] and [[Lutjanidae|snappers]] are overfished and [[northern brown shrimp]] and [[Eastern oyster|American cupped oyster]] are considered fully fished approaching overfished. 44% of stocks are being fished at unsustainable levels. In the South-East Atlantic catches have decreased from 3.3 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.3 million tons in 2013. [[Horse mackerel]] and [[hake]] are the most important species, together representing almost half of the landings. Off South Africa and Namibia [[Merluccius paradoxus|deep-water hake]] and [[Merluccius capensis|shallow-water Cape hake]] have recovered to sustainable levels since regulations were introduced in 2006 and the states of [[Southern African pilchard]] and [[Southern African anchovy|anchovy]] have improved to fully fished in 2013.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Fisheries"], "text": "In the South-West Atlantic, a peak was reached in the mid-1980s and catches now fluctuate between 1.7 and 2.6 million tons. The most important species, the [[Illex argentinus|Argentine shortfin squid]], which reached half a million tons in 2013 or half the peak value, is considered fully fished to overfished. Another important species was the [[Brazilian sardinella]], with a production of 100,000 tons in 2013 it is now considered overfished. Half the stocks in this area are being fished at unsustainable levels: [[Whitehead's round herring]] has not yet reached fully fished but [[Cunene horse mackerel]] is overfished. The sea snail [[Haliotis midae|perlemoen abalone]] is targeted by illegal fishing and remain overfished.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Environmental issues", "Endangered species"], "text": "Endangered marine species include the [[manatee]], [[Pinniped|seals]], sea lions, turtles, and whales. [[Drift net]] fishing can kill dolphins, [[albatross]] and other seabirds ([[petrel]], [[auk]]), hastening the fish stock decline and contributing to international disputes.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Environmental issues", "Waste and pollution"], "text": "[[Marine pollution]] is a generic term for the entry into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemicals or particles. The biggest culprits are rivers and with them many agriculture [[fertilizer]] chemicals as well as livestock and human waste. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals leads to [[Hypoxia (environmental)|hypoxia]] and the creation of a [[dead zone (ecology)|dead zone]]. [[Marine debris]], which is also known as marine litter, describes human-created waste floating in a body of water. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of [[Oceanic gyres|gyres]] and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter. The [[North Atlantic garbage patch]] is estimated to be hundreds of kilometers across in size. Other pollution concerns include agricultural and municipal waste. Municipal pollution comes from the eastern United States, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; [[oil pollution]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Lake Maracaibo]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], and [[North Sea]]; and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea. A USAF [[C-124 Globemaster II|C-124]] aircraft from [[Dover Air Force Base]], Delaware was carrying three [[nuclear bombs]] over the Atlantic Ocean when it experienced a loss of power. For their own safety, the crew jettisoned two nuclear bombs, which were never recovered.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": ["Environmental issues", "Climate change"], "text": "North Atlantic hurricane activity has increased over past decades because of increased sea surface temperature (SST) at tropical latitudes, changes that can be attributed to either the natural [[Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation]] (AMO) or to [[anthropogenic climate change]]. A 2005 report indicated that the Atlantic [[meridional overturning circulation]] (AMOC) slowed down by 30% between 1957 and 2004. If the AMO were responsible for SST variability, the AMOC would have increased in strength, which is apparently not the case. Furthermore, it is clear from statistical analyses of annual tropical cyclones that these changes do not display multidecadal cyclicity. Therefore, these changes in SST must be caused by human activities. The ocean [[mixed layer]] plays an important role in heat storage over seasonal and decadal time-scales, whereas deeper layers are affected over millennia and have a heat capacity about 50 times that of the mixed layer. This heat uptake provides a time-lag for climate change but it also results in thermal expansion of the oceans which contributes to [[sea level rise]]. 21st-century global warming will probably result in an [[equilibrium level|equilibrium sea-level]] rise five times greater than today, whilst melting of glaciers, including that of the Greenland ice-sheet, expected to have virtually no effect during the 21st century, will probably result in a sea-level rise of 3–6 m over a millennium.", "id": "698", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["Atlantic Ocean", "Oceans", "History of the Atlantic Ocean", "Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": ["Transatlantic crossing", "Seven Seas", "Gulf Stream shutdown", "Atlantic hurricanes", "Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc", "List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean", "Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Arthur Schopenhauer''' (; ; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a [[Germans|German]] [[philosopher]]. He is best known for his 1818 work ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'' (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the [[Phenomenon|phenomenal]] world as the product of a blind and insatiable [[Schopenhauer#The world as will|noumenal will]]. Building on the [[transcendental idealism]] of [[Immanuel Kant]], Schopenhauer developed an [[atheistic]] metaphysical and ethical system that rejected the contemporaneous ideas of [[German idealism]]. He was among the first thinkers in [[Western philosophy]] to share and affirm significant tenets of [[Indian philosophy]], such as [[asceticism]], denial of the [[self (philosophy)|self]], and the notion of the [[Maya (religion)|world-as-appearance]]. His work has been described as an exemplary manifestation of [[philosophical pessimism]]. Though his work failed to garner substantial attention during his lifetime, Schopenhauer had a posthumous impact across various disciplines, including [[philosophy]], [[literature]], and [[science]]. His writing on [[Schopenhauer's aesthetics|aesthetics]], [[morality]], and [[psychology]] have influenced many thinkers and artists. Those who have cited his influence include philosophers such as [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], and [[Anthony Ludovici]], scientists such as [[Erwin Schrödinger]] and [[Albert Einstein]], psychoanalysts such as [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[Carl Jung]], writers such as [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Herman Melville]], [[Thomas Mann]], [[Hermann Hesse]], [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Machado de Assis]], [[Jorge Luis Borges]], [[John Patric]], [[Marcel Proust]], [[Thomas Hardy]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke]] and [[Samuel Beckett]] as well as composers such as [[Richard Wagner]], [[Johannes Brahms]], [[Arnold Schoenberg]] and [[Gustav Mahler]].", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "Early life"], "text": "Schopenhauer was born on 22 February 1788, in Danzig (then part of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]; present-day [[Gdańsk]], [[Poland]]) on Heiligegeistgasse (present day Św. Ducha 47), the son of [[Johanna Schopenhauer]] (née Trosiener) (1766-1838) and Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer (1747-1805), both descendants of wealthy German-Dutch [[Patrician (post-Roman Europe)|patrician]] families. Neither of them was very religious; both supported the [[French Revolution]], and were [[Republicanism|republicans]], [[Cosmopolitanism|cosmopolitans]] and [[Anglophilia|Anglophiles]]. When Danzig became part of [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] in 1793, Heinrich moved to [[Hamburg]]—a free city with a republican constitution —although his firm continued trading in Danzig where most of their extended families remained. [[Adele Schopenhauer|Adele]], Arthur's only sibling, was born on 12 July 1797. In 1797 Arthur was sent to [[Le Havre]] to live for two years with the family of his father's business associate, Grégoire de Blésimaire. He seemed to enjoy his stay there, learned to speak French fluently and started a friendship with Jean Anthime Grégoire de Blésimaire, his peer, which lasted for a large part of their lives. As early as 1799, Arthur started playing the flute. In 1803 he joined his parents on their long tour of [[Netherlands|Holland]], Britain, [[France]], [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]] and [[Prussia]]; it was mostly a pleasure tour although Heinrich also visited some of his business associates. Heinrich gave his son a choice: he could stay at home and start preparations for university education, or he could travel with them and then continue his merchant education. Arthur later deeply regretted his choice because he found his merchant training tedious. He spent twelve weeks of the tour attending a school in [[Wimbledon, London|Wimbledon]] where he was very unhappy and appalled by strict but intellectually shallow [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] religiosity, which he continued to sharply criticize later in life despite his general Anglophilia. He was also under pressure from his father, who became very critical of his educational results. Heinrich became so fussy that even his wife started to doubt his mental health. In 1805, Heinrich died by drowning in a canal by their home in Hamburg. Although it was possible that his death was accidental, his wife and son believed that it was suicide because he was very prone to unsociable behavior, [[anxiety]] and [[Major depressive disorder|depression]] which became especially pronounced in his last months of life. Arthur showed similar moodiness since his youth and often acknowledged that he inherited it from his father; there were also several other instances of serious mental health issues on his father's side of the family. His mother Johanna was generally described as vivacious and sociable. Despite the hardships, Schopenhauer seemed to like his father and later always mentioned him in a positive light. Heinrich Schopenhauer left the family with a significant inheritance that was split in three among Johanna and the children. Arthur Schopenhauer was entitled to control of his part when he reached the age of majority. He invested it conservatively in government bonds and earned annual interest that was more than double the salary of a university professor.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "Early life"], "text": "Arthur spent two years as a merchant in honor of his dead father, and because of his own doubts about being too old to start a life of a scholar. Most of his prior education was practical merchant training and he had some trouble with learning Latin, which was a prerequisite for any academic career. His mother moved, with her daughter Adele, to [[Weimar]] the centre of [[German literature]] enjoy social life among writers and artists. Arthur and his mother were not on good terms. In one letter to him she wrote: \"You are unbearable and burdensome, and very hard to live with; all your good qualities are overshadowed by your conceit, and made useless to the world simply because you cannot restrain your propensity to pick holes in other people.\" Arthur left his mother, and they never met again before she died 24 years later. Some negative opinions of the later philosopher about women may be rooted in his troubled relationship with his mother. Arthur lived in Hamburg with his friend Jean Anthime, who was also studying to become a merchant. After quitting his merchant apprenticeship, with some encouragement from his mother, he dedicated himself to studies at the [[Ernestine Gymnasium, Gotha]], in [[Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg]], but he also enjoyed social life among the local nobility, spending large amounts of money, which caused concern to his frugal mother. He left the Gymnasium after writing a satirical poem about one of the schoolmasters. Although Arthur claimed that he left voluntarily, his mother's letter indicates that he was expelled.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "Education"], "text": "He moved to Weimar but did not live with his mother, who even tried to discourage him from coming by explaining that they would not get along very well. Their relationship deteriorated even further due to their temperamental differences. He accused his mother of being financially irresponsible, flirtatious and seeking to remarry, which he considered an insult to his father's memory. His mother, while professing her love to him, criticized him sharply for being moody, tactless, and argumentative, and urged him to improve his behavior so that he would not alienate people. Arthur concentrated on his studies, which were now going very well, and he also enjoyed the usual social life such as balls, parties and theater. By that time Johanna's famous salon was well established among local intellectuals and dignitaries, the most celebrated of them being [[Goethe]]. Arthur attended her parties, usually when he knew that Goethe would be therealthough the famous writer and statesman seemed not even to notice the young and unknown student. It is possible that Goethe kept a distance because Johanna warned him about her son's depressive and combative nature, or because Goethe was then on bad terms with Arthur's language instructor and roommate, [[Franz Passow]]. Schopenhauer was also captivated by the beautiful [[Karoline Jagemann]], mistress of [[Karl August, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach]], and he wrote to her his only known love poem. Despite his later celebration of asceticism and negative views of sexuality, Schopenhauer occasionally had sexual affairsusually with women of lower social status, such as servants, actresses, and sometimes even paid prostitutes. In a letter to his friend Anthime he claims that such affairs continued even in his mature age and admits that he had two out-of-wedlock daughters (born in 1819 and 1836), both of whom died in infancy. In their youthful correspondence Arthur and Anthime were somewhat boastful and competitive about their sexual exploits—but Schopenhauer seemed aware that women usually didn't find him very charming or physically attractive, and his desires often remained unfulfilled.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "Education"], "text": "He left Weimar to become a student at the [[Georg August University of Göttingen|University of Göttingen]] in 1809. There are no written reasons about why Schopenhauer chose that university instead of the then more famous [[University of Jena]], but Göttingen was known as more modern and scientifically oriented, with less attention given to theology. Law or medicine were usual choices for young men of Schopenhauer's status who also needed career and income; he chose [[medicine]] due to his [[Natural science|scientific interests]]. Among his notable professors were [[Bernhard Friedrich Thibaut]], [[Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren]], [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]], [[Friedrich Stromeyer]], [[Heinrich Adolf Schrader]], [[Johann Tobias Mayer]] and [[Konrad Johann Martin Langenbeck]]. He studied [[metaphysics]], [[psychology]] and [[logic]] under [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]], the author of ''[[Aenesidemus (book)|Aenesidemus]]'', who made a strong impression and advised him to concentrate on [[Plato]] and [[Immanuel Kant]]. He decided to switch from medicine to philosophy around 1810–11 and he left Göttingen, which did not have a strong philosophy program: besides Schulze, the only other philosophy professor was [[Friedrich Bouterwek]], whom Schopenhauer disliked. He did not regret his medicinal and scientific studies; he claimed that they were necessary for a philosopher, and even in Berlin he attended more lectures in sciences than in philosophy. During his days at Göttingen, he spent considerable time studying, but also continued his flute playing and social life. His friends included [[Friedrich Gotthilf Osann]], [[Karl Witte]], [[Christian Charles Josias von Bunsen]], and [[William Backhouse Astor Sr.]] He arrived at the newly founded [[University of Berlin]] for the winter semester of 1811–12. At the same time, his mother had just begun her literary career; she published her first book in 1810, a biography of her friend [[Karl Ludwig Fernow]], which was a critical success. Arthur attended lectures by the prominent [[post-Kantian]] philosopher [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]], but quickly found many points of disagreement with his ''Wissenschaftslehre''; he also found Fichte's lectures tedious and hard to understand. He later mentioned Fichte only in critical, negative termsseeing his philosophy as a lower quality version of Kant's and considering it useful only because Fichte's poor arguments unintentionally highlighted some failings of Kantianism. He also attended the lectures of the famous Protestant theologian [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]], whom he also quickly came to dislike. His notes and comments on Schleiermacher's lectures show that Schopenhauer was becoming very [[Criticism of religion|critical of religion]] and moving towards [[atheism]]. He learned by self-directed reading; besides Plato, Kant and Fichte he also read the works of [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]], [[Jakob Friedrich Fries|Fries]], [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi|Jacobi]], [[Francis Bacon|Bacon]], [[John Locke|Locke]], and much current scientific literature. He attended philological courses by [[August Böckh]] and [[Friedrich August Wolf]] and continued his naturalistic interests with courses by [[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]], [[Paul Erman]], [[Johann Elert Bode]], [[Ernst Gottfried Fischer]], [[Johann Horkel]], [[Friedrich Christian Rosenthal]] and [[Hinrich Lichtenstein]] (Lichtenstein was also a friend whom he met at one of his mother's parties in Weimar).", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "Early work"], "text": "Schopenhauer left Berlin in a rush in 1813, fearing that the city could be attacked and that he could be pressed into military service as Prussia had just joined the [[War of the Sixth Coalition|war against France]]. He returned to Weimar, but left after less than a month disgusted by the fact that his mother was now living with her supposed lover, Georg Friedrich Konrad Ludwig Müller von Gerstenbergk (1778–1838), a civil servant twelve years younger than her; he considered the relationship an act of infidelity to his father's memory. He settled for a while in [[Rudolstadt]], hoping that no army would pass through the small town. He spent his time in solitude, [[hiking]] in the mountains and the [[Thuringian forest]] and writing his dissertation, ''[[On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason]]''. He completed his dissertation at about the same time as the French army was defeated at the [[Battle of Leipzig]]. He became irritated by the arrival of soldiers in the town and accepted his mother's invitation to visit her in Weimar. She tried to convince him that her relationship with Gerstenbergk was platonic and that she had no intention of remarrying. But Schopenhauer remained suspicious and often came in conflict with Gerstenbergk because he considered him untalented, pretentious, and [[German nationalism|nationalistic]]. His mother had just published her second book, ''Reminiscences of a Journey in the Years 1803, 1804, and 1805'', a description of their family tour of Europe, which quickly became a hit. She found his dissertation incomprehensible and said it was unlikely that anyone would ever buy a copy. In a fit of temper Arthur told her that people would read his work long after the \"rubbish\" she wrote was totally forgotten. In fact, although they considered her novels of dubious quality, the [[F.A. Brockhaus AG|Brockhaus publishing firm]] held her in high esteem because they consistently sold well. Hans Brockhaus (1888–1965) later claimed that his predecessors \"saw nothing in this manuscript, but wanted to please one of our best-selling authors by publishing her son's work. We published more and more of her son Arthur's work and today nobody remembers Johanna, but her son's works are in steady demand and contribute to Brockhaus'[s] reputation.\" He kept large portraits of the pair in his office in [[Leipzig]] for the edification of his new editors.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "Early work"], "text": "Also contrary to his mother's prediction, Schopenhauer's dissertation made an impression on Goethe, to whom he sent it as a gift. Although it is doubtful that Goethe agreed with Schopenhauer's philosophical positions, he was impressed by his intellect and extensive scientific education. Their subsequent meetings and correspondence were a great honor to a young philosopher, who was finally acknowledged by his intellectual hero. They mostly discussed Goethe's newly published (and somewhat lukewarmly received) work on [[Theory of Colours|color theory]]. Schopenhauer soon started writing his own treatise on the subject, ''[[On Vision and Colors]]'', which in many points differed from his teacher's. Although they remained polite towards each other, their growing theoretical disagreementsand especially Schopenhauer's extreme self-confidence and tactless criticismssoon made Goethe become distant again and after 1816 their correspondence became less frequent. Schopenhauer later admitted that he was greatly hurt by this rejection, but he continued to praise Goethe, and considered his color theory a great introduction to his own. Another important experience during his stay in Weimar was his acquaintance with Friedrich Majera [[historian of religion]], [[Oriental studies|orientalist]] and disciple of [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]] introduced him to [[Eastern philosophy]] (see also [[Arthur Schopenhauer#Indology|Indology]]). Schopenhauer was immediately impressed by the ''[[Upanishads]]'' (he called them \"the production of the highest human wisdom\", and believed that they contained superhuman concepts) and the [[Buddha]], and put them on a par with Plato and Kant. He continued his studies by reading the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', an amateurish German journal ''Asiatisches Magazin'' and ''Asiatick Researches'' by [[the Asiatic Society]]. Schopenhauer held a profound respect for [[Indian philosophy]]; although he loved [[Hindu texts]], he was more interested in [[Buddhism]], which he came to regard as the best religion. However, his studies on Hindu and Buddhist texts were constrained by the lack of adequate literature, and the latter were mostly restricted to [[Early Buddhism]]. He also claimed that he formulated most of his ideas independently, and only later realized the similarities with Buddhism. [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]] read the Latin translation and praised the Upanishads in his main work, ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'' (1819), as well as in his ''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'' (1851) and commented,In the whole world there is no study so beneficial and so elevating as that of the Upanishads. It has been the solace of my life, it will be the solace of my death. [[Image:Arthur Schopenhauer Portrait by Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl 1815.jpeg|thumb|Schopenhauer in 1815. Portrait by Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl]]", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "Early work"], "text": "As the relationship with his mother fell to a new low, in May 1814 he left Weimar and moved to [[Dresden]]. He continued his philosophical studies, enjoyed the cultural life, socialized with intellectuals and engaged in sexual affairs. His friends in Dresden were [[Johann Gottlob von Quandt]], [[Friedrich Laun]], [[Karl Christian Friedrich Krause]] and Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl, a young painter who made a romanticized portrait of him in which he improved some of Schopenhauer's unattractive physical features. His criticisms of local artists occasionally caused public quarrels when he ran into them in public. However, his main occupation during his stay in Dresden was his seminal philosophical work, ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', which he started writing in 1814 and finished in 1818. He was recommended to the publisher [[Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus]] by Baron Ferdinand von Biedenfeld, an acquaintance of his mother. Although Brockhaus accepted his manuscript, Schopenhauer made a poor impression because of his quarrelsome and fussy attitude, as well as very poor sales of the book after it was published in December 1818. In September 1818, while waiting for his book to be published and conveniently escaping an affair with a maid that caused an unwanted pregnancy, Schopenhauer left Dresden for a year-long vacation in [[Italy]]. He visited [[Venice]], [[Bologna]], [[Florence]], [[Naples]] and [[Milan]], travelling alone or accompanied by mostly English tourists he met. He spent the winter months in [[Rome]], where he accidentally met his acquaintance [[Karl Witte]] and engaged in numerous quarrels with German tourists in [[Antico Caffè Greco|Caffe Greco]], among them [[Johann Friedrich Böhmer]], who also mentioned his insulting remarks and unpleasant character. He enjoyed art, architecture, and ancient ruins, attended plays and operas, and continued his philosophical contemplation and love affairs. One of his affairs supposedly became serious, and for a while he contemplated marriage to a rich Italian noblewomanbut, despite his mentioning this several times, no details are known and it may have been Schopenhauer exaggerating. He corresponded regularly with his sister Adele and became close to her as her relationship with Johanna and Gerstenbergk also deteriorated. She informed him about their financial troubles as the banking house of A. L. Muhl in Danzigin which her mother invested their whole savings and Arthur a third of hiswas near bankruptcy. Arthur offered to share his assets, but his mother refused and became further enraged by his insulting comments. The women managed to receive only thirty percent of their savings while Arthur, using his business knowledge, took a suspicious and aggressive stance towards the banker and eventually received his part in full. The affair additionally worsened the relationships among all three members of the Schopenhauer family.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "Early work"], "text": "He shortened his stay in Italy because of the trouble with Muhl and returned to Dresden. Disturbed by the financial risk and the lack of responses to his book he decided to take an academic position since it provided him with both income and an opportunity to promote his views. He contacted his friends at universities in Heidelberg, Göttingen and Berlin and found [[Humboldt University of Berlin|Berlin]] most attractive. He scheduled his lectures to coincide with those of the famous philosopher [[G. W. F. Hegel]], whom Schopenhauer described as a \"clumsy charlatan\". He was especially appalled by Hegel's supposedly poor knowledge of natural sciences and tried to engage him in a quarrel about it already at his test lecture in March 1820. Hegel was also facing political suspicions at the time, when many progressive professors were [[Carlsbad Decrees|fired]], while Schopenhauer carefully mentioned in his application that he had no interest in politics. Despite their differences and the arrogant request to schedule lectures at the same time as his own, Hegel still voted to accept Schopenhauer to the university. However, only five students turned up to Schopenhauer's lectures, and he dropped out of [[academia]]. A late essay, \"On University Philosophy\", expressed his resentment towards the work conducted in academies.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "Later life"], "text": "After his academic failure he continued to travel extensively, visiting [[Leipzig]], [[Nuremberg]], [[Stuttgart]], [[Schaffhausen]], [[Vevey]], [[Milan]] and spending eight months in Florence. However, before he left for his three-year travel, he had an incident with his Berlin neighbor, 47-year-old seamstress Caroline Louise Marquet. The details of the August 1821 incident are unknown. He claimed that he had just pushed her from his entrance after she had rudely refused to leave, and that she had purposely fallen to the ground so that she could sue him. She claimed that he had attacked her so violently that she had become paralyzed on her right side and unable to work. She immediately sued him, and the process lasted until May 1827, when a court found Schopenhauer guilty and forced him to pay her an annual pension until her death in 1842. Schopenhauer enjoyed Italy, where he studied art and socialized with Italian and English nobles. It was his last visit to the country. He left for [[Munich]] and stayed there for a year, mostly recuperating from various health issues, some of them possibly caused by venereal diseases (the treatment his doctor used suggests [[syphilis]]). He contacted publishers, offering to translate Hume into German and Kant into English, but his proposals were declined. Returning to Berlin, he began to study Spanish so he could read some of his favorite authors in their original language. He liked [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca]], [[Lope de Vega]], [[Miguel de Cervantes]], and especially [[Baltasar Gracián]]. He also made failed attempts to publish his translations of their works. Few attempts to revive his lecturesagain scheduled at the same time as Hegel'salso failed, as did his inquiries about relocating to other universities. During his Berlin years, Schopenhauer occasionally mentioned his desire to marry and have a family. For a while he was unsuccessfully courting 17-year-old Flora Weiss, who was 22 years younger than himself. His unpublished writings from that time show that he was already very critical of [[monogamy]] but still not advocating [[polygyny]] musing about a [[Polyamory|polyamorous]] relationship that he called \"tetragamy\". He had an on-and-off relationship with a young dancer, [[Caroline Medon|Caroline Richter]] (she also used the surname Medon after one of her ex-lovers). They met when he was 33 and she was 19 and working at the Berlin Opera. She had already had numerous lovers and a son out of wedlock, and later gave birth to another son, this time to an unnamed foreign diplomat (she soon had another pregnancy but the child was stillborn). As Schopenhauer was preparing to escape from Berlin in 1831, due to a [[cholera]] epidemic, he offered to take her with him on the condition that she left her young son behind. She refused and he went alone; in his will he left her a significant sum of money, but insisted that it should not be spent in any way on her second son.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "Later life"], "text": "Schopenhauer claimed that, in his last year in Berlin, he had a [[Premonition|prophetic dream]] that urged him to escape from the city. As he arrived in his new home in [[Frankfurt]], he supposedly had another [[Supernatural|supernatural experience]], an apparition of his dead father and his mother, who was still alive. This experience led him to spend some time investigating [[paranormal]] phenomena and [[Magic (supernatural)|magic]]. He was quite critical of the available studies and claimed that they were mostly ignorant or fraudulent, but he did believe that there are authentic cases of such phenomena and tried to explain them through his metaphysics as manifestations of the will. Upon his arrival in Frankfurt, he experienced a period of depression and declining health. He renewed his correspondence with his mother, and she seemed concerned that he might commit suicide like his father. By now Johanna and Adele were living very modestly. Johanna's writing did not bring her much income, and her popularity was waning. Their correspondence remained reserved, and Arthur seemed undisturbed by her death in 1838. His relationship with his sister grew closer and he corresponded with her until she died in 1849. In July 1832 Schopenhauer left Frankfurt for [[Mannheim]] but returned in July 1833 to remain there for the rest of his life, except for a few short journeys. He lived alone except for a succession of pet [[poodle]] named [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] and Butz. In 1836, he published ''On the Will in Nature''. In 1836 he sent his essay \"[[On the Freedom of the Will]]\" to the contest of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and won the prize for the following year. He sent another essay, \"[[On the Basis of Morality]]\", to the Royal Danish Society for Scientific Studies, but did not win the prize despite being the only contestant. The Society was appalled that several distinguished contemporary philosophers were mentioned in a very offensive manner, and claimed that the essay missed the point of the set topic and that the arguments were inadequate. Schopenhauer, who had been very confident that he would win, was enraged by this rejection. He published both essays as ''The Two Basic Problems of Ethics''. The first edition, published in 1841, again failed to draw attention to his philosophy. In the preface to the second edition, in 1860, he was still pouring insults on the Royal Danish Society. Two years later, after some negotiations, he managed to convince his publisher, Brockhaus, to print the second, updated edition of ''The World as Will and Representation''. That book was again mostly ignored and the few reviews were mixed or negative.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "Later life"], "text": "However, Schopenhauer did start to attract some followers, mostly outside academia, among practical professionals (several of them were lawyers) who pursued private philosophical studies. He jokingly referred to them as \"evangelists\" and \"apostles\". One of the most active early followers was [[Julius Frauenstädt]], who wrote numerous articles promoting Schopenhauer's philosophy. He was also instrumental in finding another publisher after Brockhaus declined to publish ''Parerga and Paralipomena'', believing that it would be another failure. Though Schopenhauer later stopped corresponding with him, claiming that he did not adhere closely enough to his ideas, Frauenstädt continued to promote Schopenhauer's work. They renewed their communication in 1859 and Schopenhauer named him heir for his literary estate. Frauenstädt also became the editor of the first collected works of Schopenhauer. In 1848 Schopenhauer witnessed [[German revolutions of 1848–49|violent upheaval]] in Frankfurt after General [[Hans Adolf Erdmann von Auerswald]] and Prince [[Felix Lichnowsky]] were murdered. He became worried for his own safety and property. Even earlier in life he had had such worries and kept a sword and loaded pistols near his bed to defend himself from thieves. He gave a friendly welcome to Austrian soldiers who wanted to shoot revolutionaries from his window and as they were leaving he gave one of the officers his opera glasses to help him monitor rebels. The rebellion passed without any loss to Schopenhauer and he later praised [[Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz]] for restoring order. He even modified his will, leaving a large part of his property to a Prussian fund that helped soldiers who became invalids while fighting rebellion in 1848 or the families of soldiers who died in battle. As [[Young Hegelians]] were advocating change and progress, Schopenhauer claimed that misery is natural for humans and that, even if some utopian society were established, people would still fight each other out of boredom, or would starve due to overpopulation. In 1851 Schopenhauer published ''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'', which, as the title says, contains essays that are supplementary to his main work. It was his first successful, widely read book, partly due to the work of his disciples who wrote praising reviews. The essays that proved most popular were the ones that actually did not contain the basic philosophical ideas of his system. Many academic philosophers considered him a great stylist and cultural critic but did not take his philosophy seriously. His early critics liked to point out similarities of his ideas to those Fichte and Schelling, or to claim that there were numerous contradictions in his philosophy. Both criticisms enraged Schopenhauer. However, he was becoming less interested in intellectual fights, but encouraged his disciples to do so. His private notes and correspondence show that he acknowledged some of the criticisms regarding contradictions, inconsistencies, and vagueness in his philosophy, but claimed that he was not concerned about harmony and agreement in his propositions and that some of his ideas should not be taken literally but instead as metaphors.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "Later life"], "text": "Academic philosophers were also starting to notice his work. In 1856 the University of Leipzig sponsored an essay contest about Schopenhauer's philosophy, which was won by [[Rudolf Seydel]]'s very critical essay. Schopenhauer's friend [[Jules Lunteschütz]] made the first of his four portraits of himwhich Schopenhauer did not particularly likewhich was soon sold to a wealthy landowner, Carl Ferdinand Wiesike, who built a house to display it. Schopenhauer seemed flattered and amused by this, and would claim that it was his first chapel. As his fame increased, copies of paintings and photographs of him were being sold and admirers were visiting the places where he had lived and written his works. People visited Frankfurt's ''Englischer Hof'' to observe him dining. Admirers gave him gifts and asked for autographs. He complained, however, that he still felt isolated due to his not very social nature and the fact that many of his good friends had already died from old age. He remained healthy in his own old age, which he attributed to regular walks no matter the weather and always getting enough sleep. He had a great appetite and could read without glasses, but his [[Hearing loss|hearing]] had been declining since his youth and he developed problems with [[rheumatism]]. He remained active and lucid, continued his reading, writing and correspondence until his death. The numerous notes that he made during these years, amongst others on aging, were published [[Posthumous publication|posthumously]] under the title ''Senilia''. In the spring of 1860 his health began to decline, and he experienced shortness of breath and heart palpitations; in September he suffered inflammation of the lungs and, although he was starting to recover, he remained very weak. The last friend to visit him was Wilhelm Gwinner; according to him, Schopenhauer was concerned that he would not be able to finish his planned additions to ''Parerga and Paralipomena'' but was at peace with dying. He died of [[Respiratory failure|pulmonary-respiratory failure]] on 21 September 1860 while sitting at home on his couch. He was 72.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "The world as representation"], "text": "Schopenhauer saw his philosophy as a continuation of Kant's, and used the results of Kantian epistemological investigation ([[transcendental idealism]]) as starting point for his own. Kant had argued that the [[Empirical evidence|empirical]] world is merely a complex of appearances whose existence and connection occur only in our [[mental representation]]. Schopenhauer reiterates this in the first sentence of his main work: \"The world is my representation (''Die Welt ist meine Vorstellung'')\". Everything that there is for cognition (the entire world) exists simply as an object in relation to a subjecta 'representation' to a subject. Everything that belongs to the world is, therefore, 'subject-dependent'. In Book One of ''The World as Will and Representation,'' Schopenhauer considers the world from this anglethat is, insofar as it is representation.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Theory of perception"], "text": "In November 1813 [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] invited Schopenhauer to help him on his [[Theory of Colours]]. Although Schopenhauer considered colour theory a minor matter, he accepted the invitation out of admiration for Goethe. Nevertheless, these investigations led him to his most important discovery in epistemology: finding a demonstration for the ''a priori'' nature of causality. Kant openly admitted that it was [[David Hume|Hume]]'s skeptical assault on causality that motivated the critical investigations in his ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' and gave an elaborate proof to show that causality is ''a priori''. After [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze|G. E. Schulze]] had made it plausible that Kant had not disproven Hume's skepticism, it was up to those loyal to Kant's project to prove this important matter. The difference between the approaches of Kant and Schopenhauer was this: Kant simply declared that the empirical content of perception is \"given\" to us from outside, an expression with which Schopenhauer often expressed his dissatisfaction. He, on the other hand, was occupied with the questions: how do we get this empirical content of perception; how is it possible to comprehend subjective sensations \"limited to my skin\" as the objective perception of things that lie \"outside\" of me? Causality is therefore not an empirical concept drawn from objective perceptions, as Hume had maintained; instead, as Kant had said, objective perception presupposes knowledge of causality. By this intellectual operation, comprehending every effect in our sensory organs as having an external cause, the external world arises. With vision, finding the cause is essentially simplified due to light acting in straight lines. We are seldom conscious of the process that interprets the double sensation in both eyes as coming from one object, that inverts the impressions on the retinas, and that uses the change in the apparent position of an object relative to more distant objects provided by binocular vision to perceive depth and distance. Schopenhauer stresses the importance of the intellectual nature of perception; the senses furnish the raw material by which the intellect produces the world as representation. He set out his theory of perception for the first time in ''[[On Vision and Colors]]'', and, in the subsequent editions of ''Fourfold Root'', an extensive exposition is given in § 21.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "The world as will"], "text": "In Book Two of ''The World as Will and Representation,'' Schopenhauer considers what the world is beyond the aspect of it that appears to usthat is, the aspect of the world beyond representation, the world considered \"[[thing-in-itself|in-itself]]\" or \"[[noumena]]\", its inner essence. The very being in-itself of all things, Schopenhauer argues, is will (''Wille''). The empirical world that appears to us as representation has plurality and is ordered in a spatio-temporal framework. The world as thing in-itself must exist outside the subjective forms of space and time. Although the world manifests itself to our experience as a multiplicity of objects (the \"objectivation\" of the will), each element of this multiplicity has the same blind essence striving towards existence and life. Human rationality is merely a secondary phenomenon that does not distinguish humanity from the rest of nature at the fundamental, essential level. The advanced cognitive abilities of human beings, Schopenhauer argues, serve the ends of willingan illogical, directionless, ceaseless striving that condemns the human individual to a life of suffering unredeemed by any final purpose. Schopenhauer's philosophy of the will as the essential reality behind the world as representation is often called [[Voluntarism (philosophy)|metaphysical voluntarism]]. For Schopenhauer, understanding the world as will leads to ethical concerns (see the [[Arthur Schopenhauer#Ethics|ethics section below]] for further detail), which he explores in the Fourth Book of ''The World as Will and Representation'' and again in his two prize essays on ethics, ''[[On the Freedom of the Will]]'' and ''[[On the Basis of Morality]]''. No individual human actions are free, Schopenhauer argues, because they are events in the world of appearance and thus are subject to the principle of sufficient reason: a person's actions are a necessary consequence of motives and the given character of the individual human. Necessity extends to the actions of human beings just as it does to every other appearance, and thus we cannot speak of freedom of individual willing. Albert Einstein quoted the Schopenhauerian idea that \"a man can ''do'' as he will, but not ''will'' as he will.\" Yet the will as thing in-itself is free, as it exists beyond the realm of representation and thus is not constrained by any of the forms of necessity that are part of the principle of sufficient reason. According to Schopenhauer, salvation from our miserable existence can come through the will's being 'tranquillized' by the metaphysical insight that reveals individuality to be merely an illusion. The saint or 'great soul' intuitively \"recognizes the whole, comprehends its essence, and finds that it is constantly passing away, caught up in vain strivings, inner conflict, and perpetual suffering\". The negation of the will, in other words, stems from the insight that the world in-itself (free from the forms of space and time) is one. [[Asceticism|Ascetic]] practices, Schopenhauer remarks, are used to aid the will's 'self-abolition', which brings about a blissful, redemptive 'will-less' state of emptiness that is free from striving or suffering.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Art and aesthetics"], "text": "For Schopenhauer, human \"willing\"—desiring, craving, etc.—is at the root of [[suffering]]. A temporary way to escape this pain is through aesthetic contemplation. Here one moves away from ordinary cognizance of individual things to cognizance of eternal Platonic ''Ideas''—in other words, cognizance that is free from the service of will. In aesthetic contemplation, one no longer perceives an object of perception as something from which one is separated; rather \"it is as if the object alone existed without anyone perceiving it, and one can thus no longer separate the perceiver from the perception, but the two have become one, the entirety of consciousness entirely filled and occupied by a single perceptual image\". Subject and object are no longer distinguishable, and the ''Idea'' comes to the fore. From this aesthetic immersion, one is no longer an individual who suffers as a result of servitude to one's individual will but, rather, becomes a \"pure, will-less, painless, timeless, subject of cognition\". The pure, will-less subject of cognition is cognizant only of Ideas, not individual things: this is a kind of cognition that is unconcerned with relations between objects according to the Principle of Sufficient Reason (time, space, cause and effect) and instead involves complete absorption in the object. Art is the practical consequence of this brief aesthetic contemplation, since it attempts to depict the essence/pure Ideas of the world. Music, for Schopenhauer, is the purest form of art because it is the one that depicts the will itself without it appearing as subject to the Principle of Sufficient Reason, therefore as an individual object. According to [[Daniel Albright]], \"Schopenhauer thought that [[philosophy of music|music]] was the only art that did not merely copy ideas, but actually embodied the will itself\". He deemed music a timeless, universal language comprehended everywhere, that can imbue global enthusiasm, if in possession of a significant melody.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Mathematics"], "text": "Schopenhauer's [[Mathematical realism|realist]] views on mathematics are evident in his criticism of contemporaneous attempts to prove the [[parallel postulate]] in [[Euclidean geometry]]. Writing shortly before the discovery of [[hyperbolic geometry]] demonstrated the logical independence of the [[axiom]]—and long before the [[general theory of relativity]] revealed that it does not necessarily express a property of physical space—Schopenhauer criticized mathematicians for trying to use indirect [[concept]] to prove what he held was directly evident from [[intuition|intuitive perception]]. Throughout his writings, Schopenhauer criticized the logical derivation of philosophies and mathematics from mere concepts, instead of from intuitive perceptions. Although Schopenhauer could see no justification for trying to prove Euclid's parallel postulate, he did see a reason for examining another of Euclid's axioms. This follows [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s reasoning.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Ethics"], "text": "Schopenhauer asserts that the task of ethics is not to prescribe moral actions that ought to be done, but to investigate moral actions. As such, he states that philosophy is always theoretical: its task to explain what is given. According to Kant's transcendental idealism, space and time are forms of our sensibility in which phenomena appear in multiplicity. Reality [[thing-in-itself|in itself]] is free from multiplicity, not in the sense that an object is one, but that it is outside the ''possibility'' of multiplicity. Two individuals, though they appear distinct, are in-themselves not distinct. Appearances are entirely subordinated to the [[principle of sufficient reason]]. The egoistic individual who focuses his aims on his own interests has to deal with empirical laws as well as he can. What is relevant for ethics are individuals who can act against their own self-interest. If we take a man who suffers when he sees his fellow men living in poverty and consequently uses a significant part of his income to support ''their'' needs instead of his ''own'' pleasures, then the simplest way to describe this is that he makes ''less distinction between himself'' and others than is usually made. Regarding how things ''appear'' to us, the egoist asserts a gap between two individuals, but the altruist experiences the sufferings of others as his own. In the same way a compassionate man cannot hurt animals, though they appear as distinct from himself. What motivates the altruist is compassion. The suffering of others is for him not a cold matter to which he is indifferent, but he feels connectiveness to all beings. Compassion is thus the basis of morality.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Ethics", "Eternal justice"], "text": "Schopenhauer calls the principle through which multiplicity appears the ''[[principium individuationis]]''. When we behold nature we see that it is a cruel battle for existence. Individual manifestations of the will can maintain themselves only at the expense of others—the will, as the only thing that exists, has no other option but to devour itself to experience pleasure. This is a fundamental characteristic of the will, and cannot be circumvented. Unlike temporal or human justice, which requires time to repay an evil deed and \"has its seat in the state, as requiting and punishing\", eternal justice \"rules not the state but the world, is not dependent upon human institutions, is not subject to chance and deception, is not uncertain, wavering, and erring, but infallible, fixed, and sure\". Eternal justice is not retributive, because retribution requires time. There are no delays or reprieves. Instead, punishment is tied to the offence, \"to the point where the two become one. ... Tormenter and tormented are one. The [Tormenter] errs in that he believes he is not a partaker in the suffering; the [tormented], in that he believes he is not a partaker in the guilt.\" Suffering is the moral outcome of our attachment to pleasure. Schopenhauer deemed that this truth was expressed by the Christian dogma of [[original sin]] and, in Eastern religions, by the [[Reincarnation|dogma of rebirth.]]", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Ethics", "Quietism"], "text": "He who sees through the ''principium individuationis'' and comprehends suffering ''in general'' as his own will see suffering everywhere and, instead of fighting for the happiness of his individual manifestation, will abhor life itself since he knows that it is inseparably connected with suffering. For him, a happy individual life in a world of suffering is like a beggar who dreams one night that he is a king. Those who have experienced this intuitive knowledge cannot affirm life, but exhibit asceticism and quietism, meaning that they are no longer sensitive to motives, are not concerned about their individual welfare, and accept without resistance the evil that others inflict on them. They welcome poverty and neither seek nor flee death. Schopenhauer referred to asceticism as the denial of the will to live. Human life is a ceaseless struggle for satisfaction and, instead of continuing their struggle, ascetics break it. It does not matter if these ascetics adhere to the dogmata of Christianity or to [[Dharmic faith|Dharmic religions]], since their way of living is the result of intuitive knowledge.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Psychology"], "text": "Philosophers have not traditionally been impressed by the necessity of sex, but Schopenhauer addressed sex and related concepts forthrightly: He named a force within man that he felt took invariable precedence over reason: the Will to Live or Will to Life (''Wille zum Leben''), defined as an inherent drive within human beings, and all creatures, to stay alive; a force that inveigles us into reproducing. Schopenhauer refused to conceive of love as either trifling or accidental, but rather understood it as an immensely powerful force that lay unseen within man's [[psyche (psychology)|psyche]], guaranteeing the quality of the human race: It has often been argued that Schopenhauer's thoughts on sexuality foreshadowed the [[evolution|theory of evolution]], a claim met with satisfaction by [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] as he included a quotation from Schopenhauer in his ''[[Descent of Man]]''. This has also been noted about [[Sigmund Freud|Freud's]] concepts of the [[libido]] and the [[unconscious mind]], and [[evolutionary psychology]] in general.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Political and social thought", "Politics"], "text": "Schopenhauer's politics were an echo of his system of ethics, which he elucidated in detail in his ''Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik'' (the two essays ''On the Freedom of the Will'' and ''On the Basis of Morality''). In occasional political comments in his ''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'' and ''Manuscript Remains'', Schopenhauer described himself as a proponent of [[limited government]]. Schopenhauer shared the view of [[Thomas Hobbes]] on the necessity of the state and state action to check the innate destructive tendencies of our species. He also defended the independence of the legislative, judicial and executive branches of power, and a monarch as an impartial element able to practise justice (in a practical and everyday sense, not a cosmological one). He declared that [[monarchy]] is \"natural to man in almost the same way as it is to bees and ants, to cranes in flight, to wandering elephants, to wolves in a pack in search of prey, and to other animals\". Intellect in monarchies, he writes, always has \"much better chances against stupidity, its implacable and ever-present foe, than it has in republics; but this is a great advantage.\" On the other hand, Schopenhauer disparaged [[republicanism]] as being \"as unnatural to man as it is unfavorable to higher intellectual life and thus to the arts and sciences\". By his own admission, Schopenhauer did not give much thought to politics, and several times he wrote proudly of how little attention he paid \"to political affairs of [his] day\". In a life that spanned several revolutions in French and German government, and a few continent-shaking wars, he maintained his position of \"minding not the times but the eternities\". He wrote many disparaging remarks about Germany and the Germans. A typical example is: \"For a German it is even good to have somewhat lengthy words in his mouth, for he thinks slowly, and they give him time to reflect.\"", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Political and social thought", "Punishment"], "text": "The State, Schopenhauer claimed, punishes criminals to prevent future crimes. It places \"beside every possible motive for committing a wrong a more powerful motive for leaving it undone, in the inescapable punishment. Accordingly, the criminal code is as complete a register as possible of counter-motives to all criminal actions that can possibly be imagined ...\" He claimed that this doctrine was not original to him but had appeared in the writings of [[Plato]], [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], [[Samuel von Pufendorf|Pufendorf]], and [[Paul Johann Anselm Ritter von Feuerbach|Anselm Feuerbach]].", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Political and social thought", "Races and religions"], "text": "Schopenhauer attributed civilizational primacy to the northern \"white races\" due to their sensitivity and creativity (except for the ancient Egyptians and Hindus, whom he saw as equal): The highest civilization and culture, apart from the [[History of Hinduism|ancient Hindus]] and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]], are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the [[Brahmans]], the [[Inca Empire|Incas]], and the rulers of the [[South Sea Islands]]. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want and misery, which in their many forms were brought about by the climate. This they had to do in order to make up for the parsimony of nature and out of it all came their high civilization. Schopenhauer was fervently [[Abolitionism|opposed to slavery]]. Speaking of the treatment of slaves in the [[Slavery in the United States|slave-holding states of the United States]], he condemned \"those devils in human form, those bigoted, church-going, strict sabbath-observing scoundrels, especially the Anglican parsons among them\" for how they \"treat their innocent black brothers who through violence and injustice have fallen into their devil's claws\". The slave-holding states of North America, Schopenhauer writes, are a \"disgrace to the whole of humanity\". In his ''Metaphysics of Sexual Love'', Schopenhauer wrote:", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Political and social thought", "Races and religions"], "text": " Further, the consideration as to the complexion is very decided. Blondes prefer dark persons, or brunettes; but the latter seldom prefer the former. The reason is, that fair hair and blue eyes are in themselves a variation from the type, almost an abnormity, analogous to white mice, or at least to grey horses. In no part of the world, not even in the vicinity of the pole, are they indigenous, except in Europe, and are clearly of Scandinavian origin. I may here express my opinion in passing that the white colour of the skin is not natural to man, but that by nature he has a black or brown skin, like our forefathers the Hindus; that consequently a white man has never originally sprung from the womb of nature, and that thus there is no such thing as a white race, much as this is talked of, but every white man is a faded or bleached one. Forced into the strange world, where he only exists like an exotic plant, and like this requires in winter the hothouse, in the course of thousands of years man became white. The gipsies, an Indian race which immigrated only about four centuries ago, show the transition from the complexion of the Hindu to our own. Therefore in sexual love nature strives to return to dark hair and brown eyes as the primitive type; but the white colour of the skin has become a second nature, though not so that the brown of the Hindu repels us. Finally, each one also seeks in the particular parts of the body the corrective of his own defects and aberrations, and does so the more decidedly the more important the part is. Schopenhauer also maintained a marked metaphysical and political [[anti-Judaism]]. He argued that Christianity constituted a revolt against what he styled the materialistic basis of Judaism, exhibiting an Indian-influenced ethics reflecting the [[Aryan]]-[[Vedas|Vedic]] theme of spiritual self-conquest. He saw this as opposed to the ignorant drive toward earthly utopianism and superficiality of a worldly \"Jewish\" spirit: [Judaism] is, therefore, the crudest and poorest of all religions and consists merely in an absurd and revolting [[theism]]. It amounts to this that the [[Kyrios|''κύριος'' ['Lord']]], who has created the world, desires to be worshipped and adored; and so above all he is jealous, is envious of his colleagues, of all the other gods; if sacrifices are made to them he is furious and his Jews have a bad time ... It is most deplorable that this religion has become the basis of the prevailing religion of Europe; for it is a religion without any metaphysical tendency. While all other religions endeavor to explain to the people by symbols the metaphysical significance of life, the religion of the Jews is entirely immanent and furnishes nothing but a mere war-cry in the struggle with other nations.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Political and social thought", "Women"], "text": "In his 1851 essay \"On Women\", Schopenhauer expressed opposition to what he called \"Teutonico-Christian stupidity\" of \"reflexive, unexamined reverence for the female (''abgeschmackten Weiberveneration'')\". He wrote: \"Women are directly fitted for acting as the nurses and teachers of our early childhood by the fact that they are themselves childish, frivolous and short-sighted.\" He opined that women are deficient in artistic faculties and sense of justice, and expressed his opposition to [[monogamy]]. He claimed that \"woman is by nature meant to obey\". The essay does give some compliments, however: \"women are decidedly more sober in their judgment than [men] are\", and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others. Schopenhauer's writings influenced many, from [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] to nineteenth-century [[feminists]]. His [[biology|biological]] analysis of the difference between the sexes, and their separate roles in the struggle for survival and reproduction, anticipates some of the claims that were later ventured by [[sociobiology|sociobiologists]] and [[evolutionary psychology|evolutionary psychologists]]. When the elderly Schopenhauer sat for [[Arthur Schopenhauer (sculpture)|a sculpture portrait]] by the Prussian sculptor [[Elisabet Ney]] in 1859, he was much impressed by the young woman's wit and independence, as well as by her skill as a visual artist. After his time with Ney, he told Richard Wagner's friend [[Malwida von Meysenbug]]: \"I have not yet spoken my last word about women. I believe that if a woman succeeds in withdrawing from the mass, or rather raising herself above the mass, she grows ceaselessly and more than a man.\"", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Political and social thought", "Pederasty"], "text": "In the third, expanded edition of ''The World as Will and Representation'' (1859), Schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter on the ''Metaphysics of Sexual Love''. He wrote that [[pederasty]] has the benefit of preventing ill-begotten children. Concerning this, he stated that \"the vice we are considering appears to work directly against the aims and ends of nature, and that in a matter that is all important and of the greatest concern to her it must in fact serve these very aims, although only indirectly, as a means for preventing greater evils\". Schopenhauer ends the appendix with the statement that \"by expounding these paradoxical ideas, I wanted to grant to the professors of philosophy a small favour. I have done so by giving them the opportunity of slandering me by saying that I defend and commend pederasty.\"", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Political and social thought", "Heredity and eugenics"], "text": "Schopenhauer viewed personality and [[intellect]] as inherited. He quotes [[Horace]]'s saying, \"From the brave and good are the brave descended\" (''Odes'', iv, 4, 29) and Shakespeare's line from ''[[Cymbeline]]'', \"Cowards father cowards, and base things sire base\" (IV, 2) to reinforce his hereditarian argument. Mechanistically, Schopenhauer believed that a person inherits his intellect through his mother, and personal character through the father. This belief in heritability of traits informed Schopenhauer's view of loveplacing it at the highest level of importance. For Schopenhauer the \"final aim of all love intrigues, be they comic or tragic, is really of more importance than all other ends in human life. What it all turns upon is nothing less than the composition of the next generation. ... It is not the weal or woe of any one individual, but that of the human race to come, which is here at stake.\" This view of the importance for the species of whom we choose to love was reflected in his views on [[eugenics]] or good breeding. Here Schopenhauer wrote: With our knowledge of the complete unalterability both of character and of mental faculties, we are led to the view that a real and thorough improvement of the human race might be reached not so much from outside as from within, not so much by theory and instruction as rather by the path of generation. Plato had something of the kind in mind when, in the fifth book of his ''Republic'', he explained his plan for increasing and improving his warrior caste. If we could [[castrate]] all [[criminals|scoundrels]] and stick all stupid geese in a convent, and give men of noble character a whole [[harem]], and procure men, and indeed thorough men, for all girls of intellect and understanding, then a generation would soon arise which would produce a better age than that of [[Pericles]]. In another context, Schopenhauer reiterated his eugenic thesis: \"If you want Utopian plans, I would say: the only solution to the problem is the [[despotism]] of the wise and noble members of a genuine aristocracy, a genuine nobility, achieved by [[mating]] the most magnanimous men with the cleverest and most gifted women. This proposal constitutes my Utopia and my Platonic Republic.\" Analysts (e.g., [[Keith Ansell-Pearson]]) have suggested that Schopenhauer's anti-[[egalitarianism|egalitarianist]] sentiment and his support for eugenics influenced the neo-aristocratic philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, who initially considered Schopenhauer his mentor.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Political and social thought", "Animal welfare"], "text": "As a consequence of his [[Monism|monistic]] philosophy, Schopenhauer was very concerned about animal welfare. For him, all individual animals, including humans, are essentially phenomenal manifestations of the one underlying Will. For him the word \"will\" designates force, power, impulse, energy, and desire; it is the closest word we have that can signify both the essence of all external things and our own direct, inner experience. Since every living thing possesses will, humans and animals are fundamentally the same and can recognize themselves in each other. For this reason, he claimed that a good person would have sympathy for animals, who are our fellow sufferers. In 1841, he praised the establishment in London of the [[Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]], and in Philadelphia of the Animals' Friends Society. Schopenhauer went so far as to protest using the pronoun \"it\" in reference to animals because that led to treatment of them as though they were inanimate things. To reinforce his points, Schopenhauer referred to anecdotal reports of the look in the eyes of a monkey who had been shot and also the grief of a baby elephant whose mother had been killed by a hunter. Schopenhauer was very attached to his succession of pet poodles. He criticized [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza's]] belief that animals are a mere means for the satisfaction of humans.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Intellectual interests and affinities", "Indology"], "text": "Schopenhauer read the Latin translation of the [[Hindu texts|ancient Hindu texts]], the ''[[Upanishads]]'', translated by French writer [[Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron|Anquetil du Perron]] from the Persian translation of Prince [[Dara Shukoh]] entitled ''Sirre-Akbar'' (\"The Great Secret\"). He was so impressed by its [[Indian philosophy|philosophy]] that he called it \"the production of the highest human wisdom\", and believed it contained superhuman concepts. Schopenhauer considered [[India]] as \"the land of the most ancient and most pristine wisdom, the place from which [[Europeans]] could trace their descent and the tradition by which they had been influenced in so many decisive ways\", and regarded the ''Upanishads'' as \"the most profitable and elevating reading which [...] is possible in the world. It has been the solace of my life, and will be the solace of my death.\" Schopenhauer was first introduced to Anquetil du Perron's translation by Friedrich Majer in 1814. They met during the winter of 1813–1814 in [[Weimar]] at the home of Schopenhauer's mother, according to the biographer Safranski. Majer was a follower of [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], and an early [[Indologist]]. Schopenhauer did not begin serious study of the Indic texts, however, until the summer of 1814. Safranski maintains that, between 1815 and 1817, Schopenhauer had another important cross-pollination with Indian thought in [[Dresden]]. This was through his neighbor of two years, [[Karl Christian Friedrich Krause]]. Krause was then a minor and rather unorthodox philosopher who attempted to mix his own ideas with ancient Indian wisdom. Krause had also mastered [[Sanskrit]], unlike Schopenhauer, and they developed a professional relationship. It was from Krause that Schopenhauer learned [[meditation]] and received the closest thing to expert advice concerning Indian thought. The book ''Oupnekhat'' (Upanishad) always lay open on his table, and he invariably studied it before going to bed. He called the opening up of [[Sanskrit literature]] \"the greatest gift of our century\", and predicted that the philosophy and knowledge of the Upanishads would become the cherished faith of the West. Most noticeable, in the case of Schopenhauer's work, was the significance of the ''[[Chandogya Upanishad]]'', whose [[Mahāvākyas|Mahāvākya]], [[Tat Tvam Asi]], is mentioned throughout ''The World as Will and Representation''.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Intellectual interests and affinities", "Buddhism"], "text": "Schopenhauer noted a correspondence between his doctrines and the [[Four Noble Truths]] of [[Buddhism]]. Similarities centered on the principles that life involves suffering, that suffering is caused by desire ([[taṇhā]]), and that the extinction of desire leads to liberation. Thus three of the four \"truths of the Buddha\" correspond to Schopenhauer's doctrine of the will. In Buddhism, however, while greed and lust are always unskillful, desire is ethically variable – it can be skillful, unskillful, or neutral. For Schopenhauer, will had [[ontology|ontological]] primacy over the [[intellect]]; desire is prior to thought. Schopenhauer felt this was similar to notions of [[puruṣārtha]] or goals of life in [[Vedānta]] [[Hinduism]]. In Schopenhauer's philosophy, denial of the will is attained by: (-) personal experience of an extremely great suffering that leads to loss of the will to live; or (-) knowledge of the essential nature of life in the world through observation of the suffering of other people. However, Buddhist [[nirvāṇa]] is not equivalent to the condition that Schopenhauer described as denial of the will. Nirvāṇa is not the extinguishing of the ''person'' as some Western scholars have thought, but only the \"extinguishing\" (the literal meaning of nirvana) of the flames of greed, hatred, and delusion that assail a person's character. Schopenhauer made the following statement in his discussion of religions: If I wished to take the results of my philosophy as the standard of truth, I should have to concede to Buddhism pre-eminence over the others. In any case, it must be a pleasure to me to see my doctrine in such close agreement with a religion that the majority of men on earth hold as their own, for this numbers far more followers than any other. And this agreement must be yet the more pleasing to me, inasmuch as ''in my philosophizing I have certainly not been under its influence'' [emphasis added]. For up till 1818, when my work appeared, there was to be found in Europe only a very few accounts of Buddhism. Buddhist philosopher [[Nishitani Keiji]], however, sought to distance Buddhism from Schopenhauer. While Schopenhauer's philosophy may sound rather mystical in such a summary, his [[methodology]] was resolutely [[empirical]], rather than speculative or transcendental: Philosophy ... is a science, and as such has no articles of faith; accordingly, in it nothing can be assumed as existing except what is either positively given empirically, or demonstrated through indubitable conclusions. Also note: This actual world of what is knowable, in which we are and which is in us, remains both the material and the limit of our consideration.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Intellectual interests and affinities", "Buddhism"], "text": "The argument that Buddhism affected Schopenhauer's philosophy more than any other [[Dharma|Dharmic]] faith loses credence since he did not begin a serious study of Buddhism until after the publication of ''The World as Will and Representation'' in 1818. Scholars have started to revise earlier views about Schopenhauer's discovery of Buddhism. Proof of early interest and influence, however, appears in Schopenhauer's 1815/16 notes (transcribed and translated by Urs App) about Buddhism. They are included in a recent case study that traces Schopenhauer's interest in Buddhism and documents its influence. Other scholarly work questions how similar Schopenhauer's philosophy actually is to Buddhism.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Intellectual interests and affinities", "Magic and occultism"], "text": "Some traditions in [[Western esotericism]] and [[parapsychology]] interested Schopenhauer and influenced his philosophical theories. He praised [[animal magnetism]] as evidence for the reality of magic in his ''On the Will in Nature'', and went so far as to accept the division of magic into [[Left-hand path and right-hand path|left-hand and right-hand magic]], although he doubted the existence of demons. Schopenhauer grounded magic in the Will and claimed all forms of magical transformation depended on the human Will, not on ritual. This theory notably parallels [[Aleister Crowley]]'s system of magick and its emphasis on human will. Given the importance of the Will to Schopenhauer's overarching system, this amounts to \"suggesting his whole philosophical system had magical powers.\" Schopenhauer rejected the theory of [[disenchantment]] and claimed philosophy should synthesize itself with magic, which he believed amount to \"practical metaphysics.\" [[Neoplatonism]], including the traditions of [[Plotinus]] and to a lesser extent [[Marsilio Ficino]], has also been cited as an influence on Schopenhauer.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Interests"], "text": "Schopenhauer had a wide range of interests, from science and opera to occultism and literature. In his student years, Schopenhauer went more often to lectures in the sciences than philosophy. He kept a strong interest as his personal library contained near to 200 books of scientific literature at his death, and his works refer to scientific titles not found in the library. Many evenings were spent in the theatre, opera and ballet; Schopenhauer especially liked the operas of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], [[Gioachino Rossini|Rossini]] and [[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]]. Schopenhauer considered music the highest art, and played the flute during his whole life. As a polyglot, he knew [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[French language|French]], English, [[Latin]] and [[ancient Greek]], and was an avid reader of poetry and literature. He particularly revered [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], [[Petrarch]], [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca|Calderón]] and [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]. If Goethe had not been sent into the world simultaneously with Kant in order to counterbalance him, so to speak, in the spirit of the age, the latter would have been haunted like a nightmare many an aspiring mind and would have oppressed it with great affliction. But now the two have an infinitely wholesome effect from opposite directions and will probably raise the German spirit to a height surpassing even that of antiquity. In philosophy, his most important influences were, according to himself, Kant, [[Plato]] and the [[Upanishads]]. Concerning the Upanishads and [[Vedas]], he writes in ''The World as Will and Representation'': If the reader has also received the benefit of the Vedas, the access to which by means of the Upanishads is in my eyes the greatest privilege which this still young century (1818) may claim before all previous centuries, if then the reader, I say, has received his initiation in primeval Indian wisdom, and received it with an open heart, he will be prepared in the very best way for hearing what I have to tell him. It will not sound to him strange, as to many others, much less disagreeable; for I might, if it did not sound conceited, contend that every one of the detached statements which constitute the Upanishads, may be deduced as a necessary result from the fundamental thoughts which I have to enunciate, though those deductions themselves are by no means to be found there.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Thoughts on other philosophers", "Giordano Bruno and Spinoza"], "text": "Schopenhauer saw [[Giordano Bruno|Bruno]] and [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]] as philosophers not bound to their age or nation. \"Both were fulfilled by the thought, that as manifold the appearances of the world may be, it is still ''one'' being, that appears in all of them. ... Consequently, there is no place for God as creator of the world in their philosophy, but God is the world itself.\" Schopenhauer expressed regret that Spinoza stuck for the presentation of his philosophy with the concepts of [[scholasticism]] and [[Cartesian philosophy]], and tried to use geometrical proofs that do not hold because of vague and overly broad definitions. Bruno on the other hand, who knew much about nature and ancient literature, presented his ideas with Italian vividness, and is amongst philosophers the only one who comes near Plato's poetic and dramatic power of exposition. Schopenhauer noted that their philosophies do not provide any ethics, and it is therefore very remarkable that Spinoza called his main work ''[[Ethics (Spinoza)|Ethics]]''. In fact, it could be considered complete from the standpoint of life-affirmation, if one completely ignores morality and self-denial. It is yet even more remarkable that Schopenhauer mentions Spinoza as an example of the denial of the will, if one uses the French biography by Jean Maximilien Lucas as the key to ''[[Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione]]''.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Thoughts on other philosophers", "Immanuel Kant"], "text": "The importance of Kant for Schopenhauer, in philosophy as well as on a personal level, cannot be overstated. Kant's philosophy was the foundation of Schopenhauer's, and he had high praise for the [[Critique of Pure Reason#Transcendental Aesthetic|Transcendental Aesthetic]] section of Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason.'' Schopenhauer maintained that Kant stands in the same relation to philosophers such as Berkeley and [[Plato]], as Copernicus to [[Hicetas]], [[Philolaus]], and [[Aristarchus of Samos|Aristarchus]]: Kant succeeded in demonstrating what previous philosophers merely asserted. Schopenhauer writes about Kant's influence on his work in the preface to the second edition of ''The World as Will and Representation'': In his study room, one bust was of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], the other was of Kant. The bond which Schopenhauer felt with the philosopher of Königsberg is demonstrated in an unfinished poem he dedicated to Kant (included in volume 2 of the ''Parerga''): Schopenhauer dedicated one fifth of his main work, ''The World as Will and Representation'', to a detailed [[Critique of the Kantian philosophy|criticism of the Kantian philosophy]]. Schopenhauer praised Kant for his distinction between appearance and the [[thing-in-itself]], whereas the general consensus in [[German Idealism]] was that this was the weakest spot of Kant's theory, since, according to Kant, causality can find application on objects of experience only, and consequently, things-in-themselves cannot be the cause of appearances. The inadmissibility of this reasoning was also acknowledged by Schopenhauer. He insisted that this was a true conclusion, drawn from false premises.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Thoughts on other philosophers", "Post-Kantian school"], "text": "The leading figures of [[German idealism|post-Kantian philosophy]]—[[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|F. W. J. Schelling]] and [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|G. W. F. Hegel]]—were not respected by Schopenhauer. He argued that they were not philosophers at all, for they lacked \"the first requirement of a philosopher, namely a seriousness and honesty of inquiry.\" Rather, they were merely sophists who, excelling in the art of beguiling the public, pursued their own selfish interests (such as professional advancement within the university system). Diatribes against the vacuity, dishonesty, pomposity, and self-interest of these contemporaries are to be found throughout Schopenhauer's published writings. The following passage is an example: Schopenhauer deemed Schelling the most talented of the three and wrote that he would recommend his \"elucidatory paraphrase of the highly important doctrine of Kant\" concerning the intelligible character, if he had been honest enough to admit he was parroting Kant, instead of hiding this relation in a cunning manner. Schopenhauer reserved his most unqualified damning condemnation for Hegel, whom he considered less worthy than Fichte or Schelling. Whereas Fichte was merely a windbag (''Windbeutel''), Hegel was a \"commonplace, inane, loathsome, repulsive, and ignorant charlatan.\" The philosophers [[Karl Popper]] and [[Mario Bunge]] agreed with this distinction. Hegel, Schopenhauer wrote in the preface to his ''Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics,'' not only \"performed no service to philosophy, but he has had a detrimental influence on philosophy, and thereby on German literature in general, really a downright stupefying, or we could even say a pestilential influence, which it is therefore the duty of everyone capable of thinking for himself and judging for himself to counteract in the most express terms at every opportunity.\"", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Influence"], "text": "Schopenhauer remained the most influential German philosopher until the [[First World War]]. His philosophy was a starting point for a new generation of philosophers including [[Julius Bahnsen]], [[Paul Deussen]], Lazar von Hellenbach, [[Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann]], Ernst Otto Lindner, [[Philipp Mainländer]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Olga Plümacher]] and [[Agnes Taubert]]. His legacy shaped the intellectual debate, and forced movements that were utterly opposed to him, [[neo-Kantianism]] and [[positivism]], to address issues they would otherwise have completely ignored, and in doing so he changed them markedly. The French writer [[Maupassant]] commented that \"to-day even those who execrate him seem to carry in their own souls particles of his thought\". Other philosophers of the 19th century who cited his influence include [[Hans Vaihinger]], [[Johannes Volkelt|Volkelt]], [[Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)|Solovyov]] and [[Otto Weininger|Weininger]]. Schopenhauer was well read by physicists, most notably Einstein, [[Erwin Schrödinger|Schrödinger]], [[Wolfgang Pauli]], and [[Ettore Majorana|Majorana]]. Einstein described Schopenhauer's thoughts as a \"continual consolation\" and called him a genius. In his Berlin study three figures hung on the wall: [[Michael Faraday|Faraday]], [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]], Schopenhauer. [[Konrad Wachsmann]] recalled: \"He often sat with one of the well-worn Schopenhauer volumes, and as he sat there, he seemed so pleased, as if he were engaged with a serene and cheerful work.\" When [[Erwin Schrödinger]] discovered Schopenhauer (\"the greatest savant of the West\") he considered switching his study of physics to philosophy. He maintained the idealistic views during the rest of his life. [[Wolfgang Pauli]] accepted the main tenet of Schopenhauer's metaphysics, that the [[thing-in-itself]] is will. But most of all Schopenhauer is famous for his influence on artists. [[Richard Wagner]] became one of the earliest and most famous adherents of the Schopenhauerian philosophy. The admiration was not mutual, and Schopenhauer proclaimed: \"I remain faithful to Rossini and Mozart!\" So he has been [[philosopher nicknames|nickname]] \"the artist's philosopher\". See also [[Tristan und Isolde#Influence of Schopenhauer on Tristan und Isolde|Influence of Schopenhauer on Tristan und Isolde]]. Under the influence of Schopenhauer, [[Leo Tolstoy]] became convinced that the truth of all religions lies in self-renunciation. When he read Schopenhauer's, philosophy Tolstoy exclaimed \"at present I am convinced that Schopenhauer is the greatest genius among men. ... It is the whole world in an incomparably beautiful and clear reflection.\" He said that what he has written in ''[[War and Peace]]'' is also said by Schopenhauer in ''The World as Will and Representation''. [[Jorge Luis Borges]] remarked that the reason he had never attempted to write a systematic account of his world view, despite his penchant for philosophy and metaphysics in particular, was because Schopenhauer had already written it for him.", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Influence"], "text": "Other figures in literature who were strongly influenced by Schopenhauer were [[Thomas Mann]], [[Thomas Hardy]], [[Afanasy Fet]], [[Joris-Karl Huysmans|J.-K. Huysmans]] and [[George Santayana]]. In Herman Melville's final years, while he wrote ''Billy Budd'', he read Schopenhauer's essays and marked them heavily. Scholar Brian Yothers notes that Melville \"marked numerous misanthropic and even suicidal remarks, suggesting an attraction to the most extreme sorts of solitude, but he also made note of Schopenhauer's reflection on the moral ambiguities of genius.\" Schopenhauer's attraction to and discussions of both Eastern and Western religions in conjunction with each other made an impression on Melville in his final years. [[Sergei Prokofiev]], although initially reluctant to engage with works noted for their pessimism, became fascinated with Schopenhauer after reading ''Aphorisms on the Wisdom of Life'' in ''Parerga and Paralipomena.'' \"With his truths Schopenhauer gave me a spiritual world and an awareness of happiness.\" [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] owed the awakening of his philosophical interest to reading ''The World as Will and Representation'' and admitted that he was one of the few philosophers that he respected, dedicating to him his essay \"Schopenhauer als Erzieher\" one of his ''[[Untimely Meditations]]''. Early in his career, [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism, and some traits of Schopenhauer's influence (particularly Schopenhauerian transcendentalism) can be observed in the [[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]. However, later on, Wittgenstein rejected epistemological [[transcendental idealism]] for [[Gottlob Frege]]'s conceptual [[Metaphysical realism|realism]]. In later years, Wittgenstein became highly dismissive of Schopenhauer, describing him as an ultimately shallow thinker. His friend [[Bertrand Russell]] had a low opinion on the philosopher, and even came to attack him in his [[History of Western Philosophy (Russell)|''History of Western Philosophy'']] for hypocritically praising asceticism yet not acting upon it. Opposite to Russell on the foundations of mathematics, the Dutch mathematician [[L. E. J. Brouwer]] incorporated Kant's and Schopenhauer's ideas in the philosophical school of [[intuitionism]], where mathematics is considered as a purely mental activity instead of an analytic activity wherein objective properties of reality are revealed. Brouwer was also influenced by Schopenhauer's metaphysics, and wrote an essay on mysticism. Schopenhauer's philosophy has made its way into a novel ''[[The Schopenhauer Cure]]'' by American existential psychiatrist and emeritus professor of psychiatry [[Irvin Yalom]].", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Selected bibliography"], "text": "(-) ''[[On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason]] (Ueber die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde''), 1813 (-) ''[[On Vision and Colors]]'' (''Ueber das Sehn und die Farben''), 1816 (-) ''Theory of Colors (Theoria colorum)'', 1830. (-) ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'' (alternatively translated in English as ''The World as Will and Idea''; original German is ''Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung''): vol. 1818/1819, vol. 2, 1844 (-) Vol. 1 Dover edition 1966, (-) Vol. 2 Dover edition 1966, (-) Peter Smith Publisher hardcover set 1969, (-) Everyman Paperback combined abridged edition (290 pp.) (-) ''[[The Art of Being Right]] (Eristische Dialektik: Die Kunst, Recht zu Behalten)'', 1831 (-) ''[[On the Will in Nature]] (Ueber den Willen in der Natur)'', 1836 (-) ''[[On the Freedom of the Will]] (Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens''), 1839 (-) ''[[On the Basis of Morality]] (Ueber die Grundlage der Moral)'', 1840 (-) ''The Two Basic Problems of Ethics: On the Freedom of the Will, On the Basis of Morality (Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik: Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens, Ueber das Fundament der Moral''), 1841. (-) ''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'' (2 vols., 1851) – Reprint: (Oxford: Clarendon Press) (2 vols., 1974) (English translation by E. F. J. Payne) (-) Printings: (-) 1974 Hardcover, by ISBN (-) Vols. 1 and 2, , (-) Vol. 1, ISBN (-) Vol. 2, , (-) 1974/1980 Paperback, Vol. 1, , Vol. 2, , (-) 2001 Paperback, Vol. 1, , Vol. 2, (-) ''Essays and Aphorisms'', being excerpts from Volume 2 of ''Parerga und Paralipomena'', selected and translated by R. J. Hollingdale, with Introduction by R J Hollingdale, Penguin Classics, 1970, Paperback 1973: (-) ''An Enquiry concerning Ghost-seeing, and what is connected therewith (Versuch über das Geistersehn und was damit zusammenhangt)'', 1851 (-) Arthur Schopenhauer, ''Manuscript Remains'', Volume II, Berg Publishers Ltd.,", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": ["Selected bibliography", "Online"], "text": "(-) ''The Art Of Controversy (Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten)''. (bilingual) [''[[The Art of Being Right]]''] (-) ''Studies in Pessimism'' – audiobook from [[LibriVox]] (-) ''The World as Will and Idea'' at [[Internet Archive]]: (-) ''Volume I'' (-) ''Volume II'' (-) ''Volume III'' (-) ''On the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason'' and ''On the will in nature.'' Two essays: (-) Internet Archive. Translated by Mrs. Karl Hillebrand (1903). (-) Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection. Reprinted by Cornell University Library Digital Collections (-) Facsimile edition of Schopenhauer's manuscripts in SchopenhauerSource (-) ''Essays of Schopenhauer''", "id": "700", "title": "Arthur Schopenhauer", "categories": ["Arthur Schopenhauer", "1788 births", "1860 deaths", "19th-century atheists", "19th-century essayists", "19th-century German male writers", "19th-century German non-fiction writers", "19th-century German philosophers", "19th-century German writers", "19th-century philosophers", "Aesthetics", "Animal rights scholars", "Anti-natalists", "Aphorists", "Atheist philosophers", "Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery", "Continental philosophers", "Critical theorists", "Critics of Christianity", "Critics of Judaism", "Critics of religions", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Flautists", "German atheist writers", "German atheists", "German Buddhist scholars", "German ethicists", "German eugenicists", "German flautists", "German logicians", "German male essayists", "German male non-fiction writers", "German male writers", "German monarchists", "German people of Dutch descent", "German philologists", "German philosophers", "Humboldt University of Berlin faculty", "Idealists", "Kantian philosophers", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Monism", "Moral philosophers", "Ontologists", "Phenomenologists", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of language", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of pessimism", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of religion", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophical pessimists", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Theorists on Western civilization", "University of Göttingen alumni", "Writers from Gdańsk"], "seealso": ["Mortal coil", "Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism", "God in Buddhism", "Misotheism", "Nihilism", "''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)", "Eye of a needle", "Existential nihilism"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Angola''' (; ), officially the '''Republic of Angola''' (), is a country located on the west coast of [[Southern Africa]]. It is the second-largest [[lusophone]] ([[List of territorial entities where Portuguese is an official language|Portuguese-speaking]]) country in both total area and [[List of countries and dependencies by population|population]] (behind [[Brazil]]), and it is the [[List of African countries by area|seventh-largest]] country in [[Africa]], bordered by [[Namibia]] to the south, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to the north, [[Zambia]] to the east, and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the west. Angola has an [[Enclave and exclave|exclave]] province, the province of [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda]] that borders the [[Republic of the Congo]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The capital and largest city is [[Luanda]]. Angola has been inhabited since the [[Paleolithic|Paleolithic Age]]. Its formation as a nation-state originates from [[European exploration of Africa|Portuguese colonisation]], which initially began with coastal settlements and [[trading post]] founded in the 16th century. In the 19th century, European settlers gradually began to establish themselves in the interior. The [[Portuguese Angola|Portuguese colony]] that became Angola did not have its present borders until the early 20th century, owing to resistance by native groups such as the Cuamato, the [[Oukwanyama|Kwanyama]] and the [[Mbunda people|Mbunda]]. After a protracted [[Angolan War of Independence|anti-colonial struggle]], Angola achieved independence in 1975 as a [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] [[People's Republic of Angola|one-party Republic]]. The country descended into a devastating [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] the same year, between the ruling [[MPLA|People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (MPLA), backed by the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Cuba]], and the insurgent anti-communist [[UNITA|National Union for the Total Independence of Angola]] (UNITA), supported by the [[United States]] and [[South Africa]]. The country has been governed by MPLA ever since its independence in 1975. Following the end of the war in 2002, Angola emerged as a relatively stable [[Unitary state|unitary]], [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[Republic|constitutional republic]]. Angola has vast [[Mineral resource estimation|mineral]] and [[Oil reserves|petroleum reserves]], and its economy is among the fastest-growing in the world, especially since the end of the civil war. However, economic growth is highly uneven, with most of the nation's [[Distribution of wealth#Wealth concentration|wealth concentrated]] in a disproportionately small sector of the population. The [[standard of living]] remains low for most Angolans; [[life expectancy]] is among the lowest in the world, while [[infant mortality]] is among the highest. Since 2017, the government of João Lourenço has made fighting corruption its flagship, so much so that many individuals of the previous government are either jailed or awaiting trial. While this was not done by the previous government, skeptics see the actions as politically motivated. Angola is a member of the [[United Nations]], [[OPEC]], [[African Union]], the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]], and the [[Southern African Development Community]]. As of 2019, the Angolan population is estimated at 31.83 million. Angola is multicultural and multiethnic. Angolan culture reflects centuries of Portuguese rule, namely the predominance of the [[Portuguese language]] and of the [[Catholic Church]], intermingled with a variety of indigenous customs and traditions.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The name ''Angola'' comes from the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] colonial name ('Kingdom of Angola'), which appeared as early as [[Paulo Dias de Novais]]'s 1571 charter. The [[Toponymy|toponym]] was derived by the Portuguese from the title held by the kings of [[Kingdom of Ndongo|Ndongo]]. Ndongo in the [[highland]], between the [[Cuanza River|Kwanza]] and [[Lucala River]], was nominally a possession of the [[Kingdom of Kongo]], but was seeking greater independence in the 16th century.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Early migrations and political units"], "text": "Modern Angola was populated predominantly by [[nomad]] [[Khoi]] and [[San people|San]] prior to the first [[Bantu migration]]. The Khoi and San peoples were neither [[Pastoralism|pastoralist]] nor [[cultivator]], but rather [[hunter-gatherer]]. They were displaced by [[Bantu peoples]] arriving from the north in the first millennium BC, most of whom likely originated in what is today northwestern [[Nigeria]] and southern [[Niger]]. Bantu speakers introduced the cultivation of [[banana]] and [[taro]], as well as large cattle herds, to Angola's central highlands and the Luanda plain. A number of political entities were established; the best-known of these was the [[Kingdom of the Kongo]], based in Angola, which extended northward to what is now the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], the [[Republic of the Congo]] and [[Gabon]]. It established [[trade route]] with other city-states and civilisations up to and down the coast of southwestern and western Africa and even with [[Great Zimbabwe]] and the [[Mutapa Empire]], although it engaged in little or no transoceanic trade. To its south lay the [[Kingdom of Ndongo]], from which the area of the later Portuguese colony was sometimes known as ''Dongo''.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Portuguese colonization"], "text": "[[Kingdom of Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Age of Discovery|explorer]] [[Diogo Cão]] reached the area in 1484. The previous year, the Portuguese had established relations with the [[Kingdom of Kongo|Kongo]], which stretched at the time from modern [[Gabon]] in the north to the [[Kwanza River]] in the south. The Portuguese established their primary early trading post at [[Soyo]], which is now the northernmost city in Angola apart from the [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda]] [[enclave and exclave|exclave]]. [[Paulo Dias de Novais]] founded São Paulo de Loanda ([[Luanda]]) in 1575 with a hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers. [[Benguela]] was fortified in 1587 and became a township in 1617. The Portuguese established several other settlements, forts and trading posts along the Angolan coast, principally trading in [[Slavery in Angola|Angolan slaves]] for [[plantations in the American South|plantations]]. Local slave dealers provided a large number of slaves for the [[Portuguese Empire]], usually in exchange for manufactured goods from Europe. This part of the [[Atlantic slave trade]] continued until after [[Empire of Brazil|Brazil's]] [[independence of Brazil|independence]] in the 1820s. Despite Portugal's territorial claims in Angola, its control over much of the country's vast interior was minimal. In the 16th century Portugal gained control of the coast through a series of treaties and wars. Life for European colonists was difficult and progress slow. [[John Iliffe (historian)|John Iliffe]] notes that \"Portuguese records of Angola from the 16th century show that a great [[famine]] occurred on average every seventy years; accompanied by epidemic disease, it might kill one-third or one-half of the population, destroying the demographic growth of a generation and forcing colonists back into the river valleys\". During the [[Portuguese Restoration War]], the [[Dutch West India Company]] [[Dutch Loango-Angola|occupied]] the principal settlement of Luanda in 1641, using alliances with local peoples to carry out attacks against Portuguese holdings elsewhere. A fleet under [[Salvador de Sá]] retook Luanda in 1648; reconquest of the rest of the territory was completed by 1650. New treaties with the [[Kingdom of Kongo|Kongo]] were signed in 1649; others with [[Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba|Njinga]]'s Kingdom of [[Matamba]] and [[Ndongo]] followed in 1656. The conquest of [[Pungo Andongo]] in 1671 was the last major Portuguese expansion from Luanda, as attempts to invade Kongo in 1670 and Matamba in 1681 failed. Colonial outposts also expanded inward from Benguela, but until the late 19th century the inroads from Luanda and Benguela were very limited. Hamstrung by a series of political upheavals in the early 1800s, Portugal was slow to mount a large scale annexation of Angolan territory. The [[slave trade]] was abolished in Angola in 1836, and in 1854 the colonial government freed all its existing slaves. Four years later, a more progressive administration appointed by Lisbon abolished [[slavery]] altogether. However, these decrees remained largely unenforceable, and the Portuguese depended on assistance from the British [[Royal Navy]] to enforce their ban on the slave trade. This coincided with a series of renewed military expeditions into the bush.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Portuguese colonization"], "text": "By the mid-nineteenth century Portugal had established its dominion as far east as the [[Congo River]] and as far south as [[Moçâmedes|Mossâmedes]]. Until the late 1880s, Lisbon entertained proposals to link Angola with its [[colony]] in [[Mozambique]] but was blocked by British and Belgian opposition. In this period, the Portuguese came up against different forms of armed resistance from various peoples in Angola. The [[Berlin Conference]] in 1884–1885 set the colony's borders, delineating the boundaries of Portuguese claims in Angola, although many details were unresolved until the 1920s. Trade between Portugal and its African territories rapidly increased as a result of protective [[tariff]], leading to increased development, and a wave of new Portuguese immigrants.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Angolan independence"], "text": "Under colonial law, black Angolans were forbidden from forming political parties or labour unions. The first nationalist movements did not take root until after [[World War II]], spearheaded by a largely Westernised, Portuguese-speaking urban class which included many [[mestiço]]. During the early 1960s they were joined by other associations stemming from ''ad hoc'' labour activism in the rural workforce. Portugal's refusal to address increasing Angolan demands for [[self-determination]] provoked an armed conflict which erupted in 1961 with the [[Baixa de Cassanje revolt]] and gradually evolved into a protracted [[Angolan War of Independence|war of independence]] that persisted for the next twelve years. Throughout the conflict, three militant nationalist movements with their own partisan guerrilla wings emerged from the fighting between the Portuguese government and local forces, supported to varying degrees by the [[Portuguese Communist Party]]. The ''[[FNLA|National Front for the Liberation of Angola]]'' (FNLA) recruited from [[Bakongo]] refugees in [[Zaire]]. Benefiting from particularly favourable political circumstances in [[Kinshasha|Léopoldville]], and especially from a common border with Zaire, Angolan political exiles were able to build up a power base among a large expatriate community from related families, clans, and traditions. People on both sides of the border spoke mutually intelligible dialects and enjoyed shared ties to the historical Kingdom of Kongo. Though as foreigners skilled Angolans could not take advantage of [[Mobutu Sese Seko]]'s state employment programme, some found work as middlemen for the absentee owners of various lucrative private ventures. The migrants eventually formed the FNLA with the intention of making a bid for political power upon their envisaged return to Angola. A largely [[Ovimbundu]] guerrilla initiative against the Portuguese in central Angola from 1966 was spearheaded by [[Jonas Savimbi]] and the ''[[UNITA|National Union for the Total Independence of Angola]]'' (UNITA). It remained handicapped by its geographic remoteness from friendly borders, the ethnic fragmentation of the Ovimbundu, and the isolation of peasants on European plantations where they had little opportunity to mobilise. During the late 1950s, the rise of the Marxist–Leninist ''[[MPLA|Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]]'' (MPLA) in the east and Dembos hills north of Luanda came to hold special significance. Formed as a coalition resistance movement by the [[Angolan Communist Party]], the organisation's leadership remained predominantly [[Ambundu]] and courted public sector workers in [[Luanda]]. Although both the MPLA and its rivals accepted material assistance from the [[Soviet Union]] or the [[People's Republic of China]], the former harboured strong anti-imperialist views and was openly critical of the [[United States]] and its support for Portugal. This allowed it to win important ground on the diplomatic front, soliciting support from nonaligned governments in [[Morocco]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[Mali]], and the [[United Arab Republic]].", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Angolan independence"], "text": "The MPLA attempted to move its headquarters from [[Conakry]] to Léopoldville in October 1961, renewing efforts to create a common front with the FNLA, then known as the ''Union of Angolan Peoples'' (UPA) and its leader [[Holden Roberto]]. Roberto turned down the offer. When the MPLA first attempted to insert its own insurgents into Angola, the cadres were ambushed and annihilated by UPA partisans on Roberto's orders—setting a precedent for the bitter factional strife which would later ignite the [[Angolan Civil War]].", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Angolan Civil war"], "text": "Throughout the war of independence, the three rival nationalist movements were severely hampered by political and military factionalism, as well as their inability to unite guerrilla efforts against the Portuguese. Between 1961 and 1975 the MPLA, UNITA, and the FNLA competed for influence in the Angolan population and the international community. The [[Soviet Union]] and [[Cuba]] became especially sympathetic towards the MPLA and supplied that party with arms, ammunition, funding, and training. They also backed UNITA militants until it became clear that the latter was at irreconcilable odds with the MPLA. The collapse of Portugal's [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]] government following the 1974 [[Carnation Revolution]] suspended all Portuguese military activity in Africa and the brokering of a ceasefire pending negotiations for Angolan independence. Encouraged by the [[Organisation of African Unity]], Holden Roberto, Jonas Savimbi, and MPLA chairman [[Agostinho Neto]] met in [[Mombasa]] in early January 1975 and agreed to form a coalition government. This was ratified by the [[Alvor Agreement]] later that month, which called for general elections and set the country's independence date for 11 November 1975. All three factions, however, followed up on the ceasefire by taking advantage of the gradual Portuguese withdrawal to seize various strategic positions, acquire more arms, and enlarge their militant forces. The rapid influx of weapons from numerous external sources, especially the Soviet Union and the United States, as well as the escalation of tensions between the nationalist parties, fueled a new outbreak of hostilities. With tacit American and Zairean support the FNLA began massing large numbers of troops in northern Angola in an attempt to gain military superiority. Meanwhile, the MPLA began securing control of Luanda, a traditional Ambundu stronghold. Sporadic violence broke out in Luanda over the next few months after the FNLA attacked MPLA forces in March 1975. The fighting intensified with street clashes in April and May, and UNITA became involved after over two hundred of its members were massacred by an MPLA contingent that June. An upswing in Soviet arms shipments to the MPLA influenced a decision by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] to likewise provide substantial covert aid to the FNLA and UNITA. In August 1975, the MPLA requested direct assistance from the Soviet Union in the form of ground troops. The Soviets declined, offering to send advisers but no troops; however, Cuba was more forthcoming and in late September dispatched nearly five hundred combat personnel to Angola, along with sophisticated weaponry and supplies. By independence, there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers in the country. They were kept supplied by a massive [[Cuba–Angola airbridge|airbridge]] carried out with Soviet aircraft. The persistent buildup of Cuban and Soviet military aid allowed the MPLA to drive its opponents from Luanda and blunt an abortive intervention by Zairean and [[South Africa]] troops, which had deployed in a belated attempt to assist the FNLA and UNITA. The FNLA was largely annihilated, although UNITA managed to withdraw its civil officials and militia from Luanda and seek sanctuary in the southern provinces. From there, Savimbi continued to mount a determined insurgent campaign against the MPLA.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Angolan Civil war"], "text": "Between 1975 and 1991, the MPLA implemented an economic and political system based on the principles of [[scientific socialism]], incorporating [[Planned economy|central planning]] and a [[Marxist–Leninist]] [[one-party state]]. It embarked on an ambitious programme of [[Nationalization|nationalisation]], and the domestic private sector was essentially abolished. Privately owned enterprises were nationalised and incorporated into a single umbrella of state-owned enterprises known as ''Unidades Economicas Estatais'' (UEE). Under the MPLA, Angola experienced a significant degree of modern [[industrialisation]]. However, corruption and graft also increased and public resources were either allocated inefficiently or simply embezzled by officials for personal enrichment. The ruling party survived an attempted coup d'état by the [[Maoism|Maoist]]-oriented [[Communist Organization of Angola|Communist Organisation of Angola]] (OCA) in 1977, which was suppressed after a series of bloody political purges left thousands of OCA supporters dead. The MPLA abandoned its former Marxist ideology at its third party congress in 1990, and declared [[social democracy]] to be its new platform. Angola subsequently became a member of the [[International Monetary Fund]]; restrictions on the market economy were also reduced in an attempt to draw foreign investment. By May 1991 it reached a peace agreement with UNITA, the [[Bicesse Accords]], which scheduled [[Angolan general election, 1992|new general elections]] for September 1992. When the MPLA secured a major electoral victory, UNITA objected to the results of both the presidential and legislative vote count and returned to war. Following the election, the [[Halloween massacre (Angola)|Halloween massacre]] occurred from 30 October to 1 November, where MPLA forces killed thousands of UNITA supporters.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["History", "21st century"], "text": "On 22 March 2002, Jonas Savimbi was killed in action against government troops. UNITA and the MPLA reached a cease-fire shortly afterwards. UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of a major opposition party. Although the political situation of the country began to stabilise, regular democratic processes did not prevail until the [[elections in Angola]] in 2008 and 2012 and the adoption of a new [[Constitution of Angola|constitution]] in 2010, all of which strengthened the prevailing [[dominant-party system]]. Angola has a serious humanitarian crisis; the result of the prolonged war, of the abundance of [[minefield]], of the continued political (and to a much lesser degree) military activities in favour of the independence of the [[enclave and exclave|exclave]] of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] (carried out in the context of the protracted [[Cabinda War|Cabinda conflict]] by the [[Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda|FLEC]]), but most of all, by the depredation of the country's rich mineral resources by the régime. While most of the internally displaced have now [[Squatting in Angola|squatted]] around the capital, in musseques ([[shanty towns]]) the general situation for Angolans remains desperate. [[Drought]] in 2016 caused the worst food crisis in [[Southern Africa]] in 25 years. Drought affected 1.4 million people across seven of Angola's 18 provinces. [[Food prices]] rose and acute [[malnutrition]] rates doubled, with more than 95,000 children affected. [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] stepped down as [[President of Angola]] after 38 years in 2017, being peacefully succeeded by [[João Lourenço]], Santos' chosen successor.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Geography"], "text": "At , Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country - comparable in size to Mali, or twice the size of France or of Texas. It lies mostly between latitudes [[4th parallel south|4°]] and [[18th parallel south|18°S]], and longitudes [[12th meridian east|12°]] and [[24th meridian east|24°E]]. Angola borders [[Namibia]] to the south, [[Zambia]] to the east, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to the north-east and the [[South Atlantic Ocean]] to the west. The coastal [[enclave and exclave|exclave]] of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] in the north has borders with the [[Republic of the Congo]] to the north and with the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south. Angola's capital, [[Luanda]], lies on the Atlantic coast in the northwest of the country. Angola had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 8.35/10, ranking it 23rd globally out of 172 countries.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Climate"], "text": "Angola, although located in a [[tropical zone]], has a climate uncharacteristic of this zone, due to the confluence of three factors: (-) the cold [[Benguela Current]] flowing along the southern part of the coast (-) the relief in the interior (-) the influence of the [[Namib Desert]] in the southwest Angola's climate features two seasons: (-) rainfall from November to April (-) drought, known as ''Cacimbo'', from May to October, drier, as the name implies, and with lower temperatures While the coastline has high rainfall rates, decreasing from north to south and from to , with average annual temperatures above , one can divide the interior zone into three areas: (-) North, with high rainfall and high temperatures (-) Central Plateau, with a dry season and average temperatures of the order of 19 °C (-) South, with very high thermal amplitudes due to the proximity of the [[Kalahari Desert]] and the influence of masses of tropical air", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Administrative divisions"], "text": ", Angola is divided into [[Provinces of Angola|eighteen provinces]] (''províncias'') and [[Municipalities of Angola|162 municipalities]]. The municipalities are further divided into 559 communes (townships). The provinces are:", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Exclave of Cabinda"], "text": "With an area of approximately , the Northern Angolan province of Cabinda is unusual in being separated from the rest of the country by a strip, some wide, of the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] along the lower [[Congo River]]. Cabinda borders the [[Congo Republic]] to the north and north-northeast and the DRC to the east and south. The town of Cabinda is the chief population centre. According to a 1995 census, Cabinda had an estimated population of 600,000, approximately 400,000 of whom live in neighbouring countries. Population estimates are, however, highly unreliable. Consisting largely of tropical forest, Cabinda produces hardwoods, coffee, cocoa, crude rubber and palm oil. The product for which it is best known, however, is its oil, which has given it the nickname, \"the Kuwait of Africa\". Cabinda's petroleum production from its considerable offshore reserves now accounts for more than half of Angola's output. Most of the oil along its coast was discovered under [[Portuguese Angola|Portuguese rule]] by the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company (CABGOC) from 1968 onwards. Ever since [[Portugal]] handed over sovereignty of its former overseas province of Angola to the local independence groups (MPLA, UNITA and FNLA), the territory of Cabinda has been a focus of separatist guerrilla actions opposing the [[Government of Angola]] (which has employed its armed forces, the FAA—Forças Armadas Angolanas) and Cabindan separatists. The [[Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda]]-[[Forças Armadas de Cabinda|Armed Forces of Cabinda]] (FLEC-FAC) announced the virtual Federal Republic of Cabinda under the Presidency of N'Zita Henriques Tiago. One of the characteristics of the Cabindan independence movement is its constant fragmentation, into smaller and smaller factions.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics"], "text": "The Angolan government is composed of three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Vice-Presidents and the Council of Ministers. The legislative branch comprises a 220-seat [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] legislature, the [[National Assembly of Angola]], elected from both provincial and nationwide constituencies. For decades, political power has been concentrated in the presidency. After 38 years of rule, in 2017 President dos Santos stepped down from MPLA leadership. The leader of the winning party at the parliamentary elections in August 2017 would become the next president of Angola. The MPLA selected the former Defense Minister [[João Lourenço]] as Santos' chosen successor. In what has been described as a political purge to cement his power and reduce the influence of the Dos Santos family, Lourenço subsequently sacked the chief of the national police, Ambrósio de Lemos, and the head of the intelligence service, Apolinário José Pereira. Both are considered allies of former president Dos Santos. He also removed [[Isabel dos Santos|Isabel Dos Santos]], daughter of the former president, as head of the country's state oil company Sonangol.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics", "Constitution"], "text": "The [[Constitution of Angola|Constitution of 2010]] establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese law and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court does not hold the powers of [[judicial review]]. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by the president. After the end of the civil war, the regime came under pressure from within as well as from the international community to become more democratic and less authoritarian. Its reaction was to implement a number of changes without substantially changing its character. The [[Constitution of Angola|new constitution]], adopted in 2010, did away with presidential elections, introducing a system in which the president and the vice-president of the political party that wins the parliamentary elections automatically become president and vice-president. Directly or indirectly, the president controls all other organs of the state, so there is ''de facto'' no [[separation of powers]]. In the classifications used in constitutional law, this government falls under the category of ''authoritarian regime.''", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics", "Armed forces"], "text": "The Angolan Armed Forces (FAA, Forças Armadas Angolanas ) are headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defence. There are three divisions—the Army (Exército), Navy (Marinha de Guerra, MGA) and [[National Air Force of Angola|National Air Force]] (Força Aérea Nacional, FAN). Total manpower is 107,000; plus paramilitary forces of 10,000 (2015 est.). Its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters, bombers and transport planes. There are also Brazilian-made [[EMB-312 Tucano]] for training, Czech-made L-39s for training and bombing, and a variety of western-made aircraft such as the C-212\\Aviocar, Sud Aviation Alouette III, etc. A small number of AAF personnel are stationed in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (Kinshasa) and the [[Republic of the Congo]] (Brazzaville).", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics", "Police"], "text": "The National Police departments are Public Order, Criminal Investigation, Traffic and Transport, Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities, Taxation and Frontier Supervision, Riot Police and the Rapid Intervention Police. The National Police are in the process of standing up an air wing, to provide helicopter support for operations. The National Police are developing their criminal investigation and forensic capabilities. The force has an estimated 6,000 patrol officers, 2,500 taxation and frontier supervision officers, 182 criminal investigators and 100 financial crimes detectives and around 90 economic activity inspectors. The National Police have implemented a modernisation and development plan to increase the capabilities and efficiency of the total force. In addition to administrative reorganisation, modernisation projects include procurement of new vehicles, aircraft and equipment, construction of new police stations and forensic laboratories, restructured training programmes and the replacement of [[AKM rifle]] with 9 mm [[Uzi]] for officers in urban areas.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics", "Justice"], "text": "A Supreme Court serves as a court of appeal. The Constitutional Court is the supreme body of the constitutional jurisdiction, established with the approval of Law no. 2/08, of 17 June – Organic Law of the Constitutional Court and Law n. 3/08, of 17 June – Organic Law of the Constitutional Process. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary laws, but it is weak and fragmented. There are only 12 courts in more than 140 counties in the country. Its first task was the validation of the candidacies of the political parties to the legislative elections of 5 September 2008. Thus, on 25 June 2008, the Constitutional Court was institutionalized and its Judicial Counselors assumed the position before the President of the Republic. Currently, seven advisory judges are present, four men and three women. In 2014, a new penal code took effect in Angola. The classification of [[money-laundering]] as a crime is one of the novelties in the new legislation.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics", "Foreign relations"], "text": "Angola is a founding member state of the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, an international organization and political association of [[Lusophone]] nations across four continents, where [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] is an official language. On 16 October 2014, Angola was elected for the second time a non-permanent member of the [[United Nations Security Council]], with 190 favorable votes out of a total of 193. The term of office began on 1 January 2015 and expired on 31 December 2016. Since January 2014, the Republic of Angola has been chairing the International Conference for the Great Lakes Region (CIRGL). [80] In 2015, CIRGL Executive Secretary Ntumba Luaba said that Angola is the example to be followed by the members of the organization, due to the significant progress made during the 12 years of peace, namely in terms of socio-economic stability and political-military.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics", "Human rights"], "text": "Angola is classified as 'not free' by [[Freedom House]] in the [[Freedom in the World]] 2014 report. The report noted that the [[Angolan legislative election, 2012|August 2012 parliamentary elections]], in which the ruling [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] won more than 70% of the vote, suffered from serious flaws, including outdated and inaccurate voter rolls. Voter turnout dropped from 80% in 2008 to 60%. A 2012 report by the [[United States State Department|U.S. Department of State]] said, \"The three most important [[human rights]] abuses [in 2012] were official corruption and impunity; limits on the freedoms of assembly, association, speech, and press; and cruel and excessive punishment, including reported cases of torture and beatings as well as unlawful killings by police and other security personnel.\" Angola ranked forty-two of forty-eight sub-Saharan African states on the 2007 Index of African Governance list and scored poorly on the 2013 [[Ibrahim Index of African Governance]]. It was ranked 39 out of 52 [[sub-Saharan Africa]] countries, scoring particularly badly in the areas of participation and human rights, sustainable economic opportunity and human development. The Ibrahim Index uses a number of variables to compile its list which reflects the state of governance in Africa. In 2019, [[Homosexuality|homosexual]] acts were decriminalized in Angola, and the government also prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation. The vote was overwhelming: 155 for, 1 against, 7 abstaining.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Economy"], "text": "Angola has diamonds, oil, gold, copper and rich wildlife (which was dramatically depleted during the civil war), forest and fossil fuels. Since independence, oil and diamonds have been the most important economic resource. [[Smallholding|Smallholder]] and [[plantation]] agriculture dramatically dropped in the [[Angolan Civil War]], but began to recover after 2002. Angola's economy has in recent years moved on from the disarray caused by a quarter-century of [[Angolan civil war]] to become the fastest-growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest-growing in the world, with an average [[GDP]] growth of 20% between 2005 and 2007. In the period 2001–10, Angola had the world's highest [[annual average GDP growth]], at 11.1%. In 2004, the [[Exim Bank of China]] approved a $2 billion [[line of credit]] to Angola, to be used for rebuilding Angola's [[infrastructure]], and to limit the influence of the [[International Monetary Fund]] there. China is Angola's biggest trade partner and [[export]] destination as well as the fourth-largest source of [[import]]. Bilateral trade reached $27.67 billion in 2011, up 11.5% year-on-year. China's imports, mainly [[crude oil]] and diamonds, increased 9.1% to $24.89 billion while China's exports to Angola, including mechanical and electrical products, machinery parts and construction materials, surged 38.8%. The oil [[Overproduction|glut]] led to a local [[price]] for unleaded gasoline of [[Pound sterling|£]].37 a gallon. The Angolan economy grew 18% in 2005, 26% in 2006 and 17.6% in 2007. Due to the global [[recession]], the economy contracted an estimated −0.3% in 2009. The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has allowed the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons and a resulting large-scale increase in agriculture production. Angola's economy is expected to grow by 3.9 per cent in 2014 said the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), robust growth in the non-oil economy, mainly driven by a very good performance in the agricultural sector, is expected to offset a temporary drop in oil production. Angola's financial system is maintained by the [[National Bank of Angola]] and managed by the governor [[:no:Jose de Lima Massano|Jose de Lima Massano]]. According to a study on the banking sector, carried out by [[Deloitte]], the monetary policy led by [[Banco Nacional de Angola]] (BNA), the Angolan national bank, allowed a decrease in the inflation rate put at 7.96% in December 2013, which contributed to the sector's growth trend. Estimates released by Angola's central bank, said country's economy should grow at an annual average rate of 5 per cent over the next four years, boosted by the increasing participation of the private sector.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Economy"], "text": "Although the country's economy has grown significantly since Angola achieved political stability in 2002, mainly due to fast-rising earnings in the oil sector, Angola faces huge social and economic problems. These are in part a result of almost continual armed conflict from 1961 on, although the highest level of destruction and socio-economic damage took place after the 1975 independence, during the long years of [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]]. However, high [[poverty rate]] and blatant [[social inequality]] chiefly stems from persistent [[authoritarianism]], \"neo-patrimonial\" practices at all levels of the political, administrative, military and economic structures, and of [[Corruption in Angola|a pervasive corruption]]. The main beneficiaries are political, administrative, economic and military power holders, who have accumulated (and continue to accumulate) enormous wealth. \"Secondary beneficiaries\" are the middle strata that are about to become [[social class]]. However, almost half the population has to be considered poor, with dramatic differences between the countryside and the cities (whereby now slightly more than 50% of the people live). A study carried out in 2008 by the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatística found that in rural areas roughly 58% must be classified as \"poor\" according to UN norms but in the urban areas only 19%, and an overall rate of 37%. In cities, a majority of families, well beyond those officially classified as poor, must adopt a variety of survival strategies. In urban areas social inequality is most evident and it is extreme in Luanda. In the [[Human Development Index]] Angola constantly ranks in the bottom group. In January 2020, a leak of government documents known as the ''Luanda Leaks'' showed that U.S. consulting companies such as [[Boston Consulting Group]], [[McKinsey & Company]], and [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] had helped members of the family of former President [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] (especially his daughter [[Isabel dos Santos]]) corruptly run Sonangol for their own personal profit, helping them use the company's revenues to fund vanity projects in France and Switzerland. The enormous differences between the regions pose a serious structural problem for the Angolan economy, illustrated by the fact that about one third of economic activities are concentrated in Luanda and neighbouring Bengo province, while several areas of the interior suffer economic stagnation and even regression. One of the economic consequences of social and regional disparities is a sharp increase in Angolan private investments abroad. The small fringe of Angolan society where most of the asset accumulation takes place seeks to spread its assets, for reasons of security and profit. For the time being, the biggest share of these investments is concentrated in Portugal where the [[Angolans in Portugal|Angolan presence]] (including the family of the state president) in banks as well as in the domains of energy, [[Telecommunications in Angola|telecommunications]], and [[mass media]] has become notable, as has the acquisition of vineyards and orchards as well as of touristic enterprises.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Economy"], "text": "Angola has upgraded critical infrastructure, an investment made possible by funds from the nation's development of oil resources. According to a report, just slightly more than ten years after the end of the [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] Angola's standard of living has overall greatly improved. Life expectancy, which was just 46 years in 2002, reached 51 in 2011. Mortality rates for children fell from 25 per cent in 2001 to 19 per cent in 2010 and the number of students enrolled in primary school has tripled since 2001. However, at the same time the social and economic inequality that has characterised the country for so long has not diminished, but on the contrary deepened in all respects. With a stock of assets corresponding to 70 billion Kz (US$6.8 billion), Angola is now the third-largest financial market in sub-Saharan Africa, surpassed only by [[Nigeria]] and South Africa. According to the Angolan Minister of Economy, Abraão Gourgel, the financial market of the country grew modestly from 2002 and now lies in third place at the level of sub-Saharan Africa. On 19 December 2014, the Capital Market in Angola started. [[Angola Stock Exchange and Derivatives|BODIVA]] (Angola Stock Exchange and Derivatives, in English) received the secondary public debt market, and it is expected to start the corporate debt market by 2015, but the stock market should be a reality only in 2016.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Natural resources"], "text": "''[[The Economist]]'' reported in 2008 that diamonds and oil make up 60% of Angola's economy, almost all of the country's [[revenue]] and all of its dominant [[export]]. Growth is almost entirely driven by rising [[Extraction of petroleum|oil production]] which surpassed in late 2005 and was expected to grow to by 2007. Control of the [[Petroleum industry|oil industry]] is consolidated in [[Sonangol Group]], a conglomerate owned by the Angolan government. In December 2006, Angola was admitted as a member of [[OPEC]]. According to [[the Heritage Foundation]], a conservative American [[think tank]], oil production from Angola has increased so significantly that Angola now is China's biggest supplier of oil. \"China has extended three multibillion dollar lines of credit to the Angolan government; two loans of $2 billion from China Exim Bank, one in 2004, the second in 2007, as well as one loan in 2005 of $2.9 billion from [[China International Fund]] Ltd.\" Growing oil revenues also created opportunities for [[Corruption in Angola|corruption]]: according to a recent [[Human Rights Watch]] report, 32 billion US dollars disappeared from government accounts in 2007–2010. Furthermore, [[Sonangol]], the state-run oil company, controls 51% of Cabinda's oil. Due to this market control, the company ends up determining the profit received by the government and the taxes it pays. The council of foreign affairs states that the World Bank mentioned that Sonangol \" is a taxpayer, it carries out quasi-fiscal activities, it invests public funds, and, as concessionaire, it is a sector regulator. This multifarious work programme creates conflicts of interest and characterises a complex relationship between Sonangol and the government that weakens the formal budgetary process and creates uncertainty as regards the actual fiscal stance of the state.\" In 2002 Angola demanded compensation for [[oil spill]] allegedly caused by [[Chevron Corporation]], the first time it had fined a multinational corporation operating in its waters. Operations in its [[List of diamond mines|diamond mines]] include partnerships between state-run [[Endiama]] and mining companies such as [[ALROSA]] which operate in Angola. Access to [[biocapacity]] in Angola is higher than world average. In 2016, Angola had 1.9 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, slightly more than world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Angola used 1.01 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their [[ecological footprint]] of consumption. This means they use about half as much biocapacity as Angola contains. As a result, Angola is running a biocapacity reserve.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Agriculture"], "text": "Agriculture and forestry is an area of potential opportunity for the country. The African Economic Outlook organization states that \"Angola requires 4.5 million tonnes a year of grain but grows only about 55% of the [[maize]] it needs, 20% of the [[rice]] and just 5% of its required [[wheat]]\". In addition, the World Bank estimates that \"less than 3 per cent of Angola's abundant fertile land is cultivated and the economic potential of the forestry sector remains largely unexploited\" . Before independence in 1975, [[Angola (Portugal)|Angola]] was a breadbasket of southern Africa and a major exporter of [[banana]], coffee and [[sisal]], but [[Angolan Civil War|three decades of civil war]] (1975–2002) destroyed fertile countryside, left it littered with [[landmine]] and drove millions into the cities. The country now depends on expensive food imports, mainly from South Africa and [[Portugal]], while more than 90% of farming is done at the family and subsistence level. Thousands of Angolan small-scale farmers are trapped in poverty.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Transport"], "text": "Transport in Angola consists of: (-) Three separate [[Rail transport in Angola|railway systems]] totalling (-) of highway of which is paved (-) 1,295 navigable inland waterways (-) five major [[sea port]] (-) 243 [[List of airports in Angola|airports]], of which 32 are paved. Angola centers its port trade in five main ports: [[Port of Namibe|Namibe]], [[Port of Lobito|Lobito]], [[Soyo]], [[Cabinda (city)|Cabinda]] and Luanda. The [[port of Luanda]] is the largest of the five, as well as being one of the busiest on the African continent. Travel on highways outside of towns and cities in Angola (and in some cases within) is (which year ?) often not best advised for those without four-by-four vehicles. While a reasonable road infrastructure has existed within Angola, time and the war have taken their toll on the road surfaces, leaving many severely potholed, littered with broken asphalt. In many areas drivers have established alternate tracks to avoid the worst parts of the surface, although careful attention must be paid to the presence or absence of landmine warning markers by the side of the road. The [[Angolan government]] has contracted the restoration of many of the country's roads. The road between Lubango and Namibe, for example, was completed recently with funding from the European Union, and is comparable to many European main routes. Completing the road infrastructure is likely to take some decades, but substantial efforts are already being made.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Telecommunications"], "text": "The [[telecommunication]] industry is considered one of the main strategic sectors in Angola. In October 2014, the building of an [[optic fiber]] underwater cable was announced. This project aims to turn Angola into a continental hub, thus improving Internet connections both nationally and internationally. On 11 March 2015, the First Angolan Forum of Telecommunications and Information Technology was held in [[Luanda]] under the motto \"The challenges of telecommunications in the current context of Angola\", to promote debate on topical issues on [[telecommunications]] in Angola and worldwide. A study of this sector, presented at the forum, said Angola had the first telecommunications operator in Africa to test LTE – with speeds up to 400 Mbit/s – and mobile penetration of about 75%; there are about 3.5 million [[smartphone]] in the Angolan market; There are about of optical fibre installed in the country. The first Angolan [[satellite]], [[Angosat 1|AngoSat-1]], was launched into orbit on 26 December 2017. It was launched from the [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur space center]] in Kazakhstan on board a [[Zenit-3F|Zenit 3F]] rocket. The satellite was built by Russia's [[RSC Energia]], a subsidiary of the state-run space industry player [[Roscosmos]]. The satellite payload was supplied by [[Airbus Defence & Space]]. Due to an on-board power failure during solar panel deployment, on 27 December, RSC Energia revealed that they lost communications contact with the satellite. Although, subsequent attempts to restore communications with the satellite were successful, the satellite eventually stopped sending data and RSC Energia confirmed that AngoSat-1 was inoperable. The launch of AngoSat-1 was aimed at ensuring telecommunications throughout the country. According to Aristides Safeca, Secretary of State for Telecommunications, the satellite was aimed at providing telecommunications services, TV, internet and [[e-government]] and was expected to remain in orbit \"at best\" for 18 years. A replacement satellite named AngoSat-2 is in the works and is expected to be in service by 2020. As of February 2021, Ango-Sat-2 was about 60% ready. The officials reported the launch is expected in about 17 months, by July 2022.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Technology"], "text": "The management of the [[top-level domain]] '.ao' passed from [[Portugal]] to Angola in 2015, following new legislation. A joint decree of Minister of Telecommunications and Information Technologies José Carvalho da Rocha and the minister of Science and Technology, Maria Cândida Pereira Teixeira, states that \"under the massification\" of that Angolan domain, \"conditions are created for the transfer of the domain root '.ao' of Portugal to Angola\".", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics"], "text": "Angola has a population of 24,383,301 inhabitants according to the preliminary results of its 2014 census, the first one conducted or carried out since 15 December 1970. It is composed of [[Ovimbundu]] (language [[Umbundu]]) 37%, [[Northern Mbundu people|Ambundu]] (language [[Kimbundu]]) 23%, [[Bakongo]] 13%, and 32% other ethnic groups (including the [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]], the [[Ovambo people|Ovambo]], the [[Ganguela]] and the [[Xindonga]]) as well as about 2% ''[[mestiço]]'' (mixed European and African), 1.6% Chinese and 1% European. The Ambundu and Ovimbundu ethnic groups combined form a majority of the population, at 62%. The population is forecast to grow to over 60 million people in 2050, 2.7 times the 2014 population. However, on 23 March 2016, official data revealed by Angola's National Statistic Institute – Instituto Nacional de Estatística (INE), states that Angola has a population of 25,789,024 inhabitants. It is estimated that Angola was host to 12,100 refugees and 2,900 asylum seekers by the end of 2007. 11,400 of those refugees were originally from the Democratic Republic of Congo, who arrived in the 1970s. there were an estimated 400,000 [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] migrant workers, at least 220,000 [[Portuguese Angolans|Portuguese]], and about 259,000 [[Chinese people in Angola|Chinese living in Angola]]. 1 million Angolans are [[mixed race]] (black and white). Since 2003, more than 400,000 [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congolese]] migrants have been expelled from Angola. Prior to independence in 1975, Angola had a community of approximately 350,000 Portuguese, but the vast majority left after independence and the ensuing civil war. However, Angola has recovered its Portuguese minority in recent years; currently, there are about 200,000 registered with the consulates, and increasing due to the debt crisis in Portugal and the relative prosperity in Angola. The Chinese population stands at 258,920, mostly composed of temporary migrants. Also, there is a small [[Brazil]] community of about 5,000 people. , the [[total fertility rate]] of Angola is 5.54 children born per woman (2012 estimates), the 11th highest in the world.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Languages"], "text": "The languages in Angola are those originally spoken by the different ethnic groups and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], introduced during the Portuguese colonial era. The most widely spoken indigenous languages are [[Umbundu]], [[Kimbundu]] and [[Kikongo]], in that order. Portuguese is the official language of the country. Although the exact numbers of those fluent in Portuguese or who speak Portuguese as a first language are unknown, a 2012 study mentions that Portuguese is the first language of 39% of the population. In 2014, a census carried out by the Instituto Nacional de Estatística in Angola mentions that 71.15% of the nearly 25.8 million inhabitants of Angola (meaning around 18.3 million people) use Portuguese as a first or second language. According to the 2014 census, [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] is spoken by 71.1% of Angolans, [[Umbundu language|Umbundu]] by 23%, [[Kikongo language|Kikongo]] by 8.2%, [[Kimbundu]] by 7.8%, [[Chokwe language|Chokwe]] by 6.5%, [[Nyaneka language|Nyaneka]] by 3.4%, [[Ngangela language|Ngangela]] by 3.1%, [[Fiote language|Fiote]] by 2.4%, [[Kwanyama language|Kwanyama]] by 2.3%, [[Muhumbi language|Muhumbi]] by 2.1%, [[Luvale language|Luvale]] by 1%, and [[Languages of Angola|other languages]] by 4.1%.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Religion"], "text": "There are about 1,000 religious communities, mostly Christian, in Angola. While reliable statistics are nonexistent, estimates have it that more than half of the population are Catholics, while about a quarter adhere to the Protestant churches introduced during the colonial period: the [[Congregationalist]] mainly among the [[Ovimbundu]] of the Central Highlands and the coastal region to its west, the [[Methodists]] concentrating on the [[Kimbundu]] speaking strip from Luanda to Malanje, the [[Baptists]] almost exclusively among the [[Bakongo]] of the north-west (now present in Luanda as well) and dispersed [[Adventists]], [[Reformed]] and [[Lutherans]]. In Luanda and region there subsists a nucleus of the \"[[syncretic]]\" [[Tocoists]] and in the north-west a sprinkling of [[Kimbanguism]] can be found, spreading from the Congo/Zaïre. Since independence, hundreds of [[Pentecostal]] and similar communities have sprung up in the cities, whereby now about 50% of the population is living; several of these communities/churches are of Brazilian origin. the [[U.S. Department of State]] estimates the Muslim population at 80,000–90,000, less than 1% of the population, while the [[Islam in Angola|Islamic Community of Angola]] puts the figure closer to 500,000. Muslims consist largely of migrants from West Africa and the Middle East (especially [[Lebanon]]), although some are local converts. The Angolan government does not [[Islam in Angola#Legal status|legally recognize]] any Muslim organizations and often shuts down mosques or prevents their construction. In a study assessing nations' levels of religious regulation and persecution with scores ranging from 0 to 10 where 0 represented low levels of regulation or persecution, Angola was scored 0.8 on Government Regulation of Religion, 4.0 on Social Regulation of Religion, 0 on Government Favoritism of Religion and 0 on Religious Persecution. Foreign [[Missionary|missionaries]] were very active prior to independence in 1975, although since the beginning of the anti-colonial fight in 1961 the Portuguese colonial authorities expelled a series of Protestant missionaries and closed mission stations based on the belief that the missionaries were inciting pro-independence sentiments. Missionaries have been able to return to the country since the early 1990s, although security conditions due to the civil war have prevented them until 2002 from restoring many of their former inland mission stations. The Catholic Church and some major Protestant denominations mostly keep to themselves in contrast to the \"New Churches\" which actively proselytize. Catholics, as well as some major Protestant denominations, provide help for the poor in the form of crop seeds, farm animals, medical care and education.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Health"], "text": "Epidemics of [[cholera]], [[malaria]], [[rabies]] and African [[hemorrhagic]] fevers like [[Marburg virus|Marburg hemorrhagic fever]], are common diseases in several parts of the country. Many regions in this country have high incidence rates of [[tuberculosis]] and high [[HIV/AIDS in Africa|HIV prevalence]] rates. [[Dengue]], [[filariasis]], [[leishmaniasis]] and [[onchocerciasis]] (river blindness) are other diseases carried by insects that also occur in the region. Angola has one of the highest [[infant mortality rate]] in the world and one of the world's lowest [[life expectancies]]. A 2007 survey concluded that low and deficient [[niacin]] status was common in Angola. [[Demographic and Health Surveys]] is currently conducting several surveys in Angola on malaria, domestic violence and more. In September 2014, the Angolan Institute for Cancer Control (IACC) was created by presidential decree, and it will integrate the National Health Service in Angola. The purpose of this new centre is to ensure health and medical care in [[oncology]], policy implementation, programmes and plans for prevention and specialised treatment. This cancer institute will be assumed as a reference institution in the central and southern regions of Africa. In 2014, Angola launched a national campaign of [[vaccination]] against [[measles]], extended to every child under ten years old and aiming to go to all 18 provinces in the country. The measure is part of the Strategic Plan for the Elimination of Measles 2014–2020 created by the Angolan Ministry of Health which includes strengthening routine immunisation, a proper dealing with measles cases, national campaigns, introducing a second dose of vaccination in the national routine vaccination calendar and active epidemiological surveillance for measles. This campaign took place together with the vaccination against [[polio]] and [[vitamin A]] supplementation. A [[2016 Angola and DR Congo yellow fever outbreak|yellow fever]] outbreak, the worst in the country in three decades began in December 2015. By August 2016, when the outbreak began to subside, nearly 4,000 people were suspected of being infected. As many as 369 may have died. The outbreak began in the capital, Luanda, and spread to at least 16 of the 18 provinces.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Education"], "text": "Although by law education in Angola is compulsory and free for eight years, the government reports that a percentage of pupils are not attending due to a lack of school buildings and teachers. Pupils are often responsible for paying additional school-related expenses, including fees for books and supplies. In 1999, the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 per cent and in 1998, the most recent year for which data are available, the net primary enrollment rate was 61 per cent. Gross and net enrollment ratios are based on the number of pupils formally registered in primary school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance. There continue to be significant disparities in enrollment between rural and urban areas. In 1995, 71.2 per cent of children ages 7 to 14 years were attending school. It is reported that higher percentages of boys attend school than girls. During the [[Angolan Civil War]] (1975–2002), nearly half of all schools were reportedly looted and destroyed, leading to current problems with overcrowding. The Ministry of Education recruited 20,000 new teachers in 2005 and continued to implement teacher training. Teachers tend to be underpaid, inadequately trained and overworked (sometimes teaching two or three shifts a day). Some teachers may reportedly demand payment or bribes directly from their pupils. Other factors, such as the presence of landmines, lack of resources and identity papers, and poor health prevent children from regularly attending school. Although budgetary allocations for education were increased in 2004, the education system in Angola continues to be extremely under-funded. According to estimates by the [[UNESCO Institute for Statistics]], the adult literacy rate in 2011 was 70.4%. By 2015, this had increased to 71.1%. 82.9% of men and 54.2% of women are literate as of 2001. Since independence from Portugal in 1975, a number of Angolan students continued to be admitted every year at high schools, [[politechnic|polytechnical]] institutes and universities in [[Portugal]] and [[Brazil]] through bilateral agreements; in general, these students belong to the elites. In September 2014, the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment of 16 million [[Euro]] in the computerisation of over 300 classrooms across the country. The project also includes training teachers at a national level, \"as a way to introduce and use new information technologies in primary schools, thus reflecting an improvement in the quality of teaching\".", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Education"], "text": "In 2010, the Angolan government started building the Angolan Media Libraries Network, distributed throughout several provinces in the country to facilitate the people's access to information and knowledge. Each site has a bibliographic archive, multimedia resources and computers with Internet access, as well as areas for reading, researching and socialising. The plan envisages the establishment of one media library in each Angolan province by 2017. The project also includes the implementation of several media libraries, in order to provide the several contents available in the fixed media libraries to the most isolated populations in the country. At this time, the mobile media libraries are already operating in the provinces of Luanda, Malanje, Uíge, Cabinda and Lunda South. As for REMA, the provinces of Luanda, Benguela, Lubango and Soyo have currently working media libraries.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Culture"], "text": "Angolan culture has been heavily influenced by [[Portuguese culture]], especially in terms of language and religion, and the culture of the indigenous ethnic groups of Angola, predominantly [[Bantu people|Bantu culture]]. The diverse ethnic communities—the [[Ovimbundu]], [[Northern Mbundu people|Ambundu]], [[Bakongo]], [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]], [[Mbunda people|Mbunda]] and other peoples—to varying degrees maintain their own cultural traits, traditions and languages, but in the cities, where slightly more than half of the population now lives, a mixed culture has been emerging since colonial times; in [[Luanda]], since its foundation in the 16th century. In this urban culture, Portuguese heritage has become more and more dominant. African roots are evident in music and dance and is moulding the way in which Portuguese is spoken. This process is well reflected in contemporary Angolan literature, especially in the works of [[Angolan literature|Angolan authors]]. In 2014, Angola resumed the National Festival of Angolan Culture after a 25-year break. The festival took place in all the provincial capitals and lasted for 20 days, with the theme ”Culture as a Factor of Peace and Development.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Cinema"], "text": "In 1972, one of Angola's first feature films, [[Sarah Maldoror]]'s [[Co-production (media)|internationally co-produced]] ''[[Sambizanga (film)|Sambizanga]]'', was released at the [[Carthage Film Festival]] to critical acclaim, winning the ''Tanit d'Or'', the festival's highest prize.", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Sports"], "text": "[[Basketball]] is the most popular sport in Angola. Its [[Angola national basketball team|national team]] has won the [[AfroBasket]] 11 times and holds the record of most titles. As a top team in Africa, it is a regular competitor at the [[Basketball at the Summer Olympics|Summer Olympic Games]] and the [[FIBA World Cup]]. Angola is home to one of Africa's first competitive leagues. In football, Angola hosted the [[2010 Africa Cup of Nations]]. The [[Angola national football team]] qualified for the [[2006 FIFA World Cup]], their first appearance in the World Cup finals. They were eliminated after one defeat and two draws in the group stage. They won three [[COSAFA Cup]] and finished runner-up in the [[2011 African Nations Championship]]. Angola has participated in the [[World Women's Handball Championship]] for several years. The country has also appeared in the [[Angola at the Olympics|Summer Olympics]] for seven years and both regularly competes in and once has hosted the [[FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup]], where the best finish is sixth. Angola is also often believed to have historic roots in the [[martial art]] \"[[Capoeira Angola]]\" and \"[[Batuque (game)|Batuque]]\" which were practised by [[Slavery in Angola|enslaved African Angolans]] transported as part of the [[Atlantic slave trade]].", "id": "701", "title": "Angola", "categories": ["Angola", "1975 establishments in Angola", "Central African countries", "Countries in Africa", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Least developed countries", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries", "Member states of the United Nations", "Portuguese-speaking countries and territories", "Republics", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1975"], "seealso": ["Index of Angola-related articles", "Outline of Angola"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "This article is about the [[demographics|demographic]] features of the [[population]] of [[Angola]], including [[population density]], [[Ethnic group|ethnicity]], education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. [[Image:Angola demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of [[Angola]], Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]] According to 2014 census data, Angola had a population of 25,789,024 inhabitants in 2014. Ethnically, there are three main groups, each speaking a [[Bantu language]]: the [[Southern Mbundu people|Ovimbundu]] who represent 37% of the population, the [[Northern Mbundu people|Ambundu]] with 25%, and the [[Kongo people|Bakongo]] 13%. Other numerically important groups include the closely interrelated [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]] and [[Lunda people|Lunda]], the [[Ganguela]] and [[Nyaneka]]-[[Khumbi]] (in both cases classification terms that stand for a variety of small groups), the [[Ovambo people|Ovambo]], the [[Herero people|Herero]], the [[Xindonga]] and scattered residual groups of [[San people|San]]. In addition, mixed race (European and African) people amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]. As a [[Angola (Portugal)|former overseas territory of Portugal]] until 1975, Angola possesses a Portuguese population of over 200,000, a number that has been growing from 2000 onwards, because of Angola's growing demand for qualified human resources. Currently, over 300,000 Angolans are white, 1 million Angolans are mixed race (black and white) and 50,000 Angolans are from China, which accounts for 1.35 million people. In 1974, white Angolans made up a population of 330,000 to 350,000 people in an overall population of 6.3 million Angolans at that time. The only reliable source on these numbers is Gerald Bender & Stanley Yoder, ''Whites in Angola on the Eve of Independence: The Politics of Numbers'', ''Africa Today'', 21 (4) 1974, pp. 23 – 37. Today, many Angolans who are not ethnic Portuguese can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law. Estimates on the overall population are given in O País</ref> Besides the Portuguese, significant numbers of people from other European and from diverse Latin American countries (especially Brazil) can be found. From the 2000s, many Chinese have settled and started up small businesses, while at least as many have come as workers for large enterprises (construction or other). Observers claim that the Chinese community in Angola might include as many as 300,000 persons at the end of 2010, but reliable statistics are not at this stage available. In 1974/75, over 25,000 [[Cuba]] soldiers arrived in Angola to help the MPLA forces at the beginning of the [[Angolan Civil War]]. Once this was over, a massive development cooperation in the field of health and education brought in numerous civil personnel from Cuba. However, only a very small percentage of all these people has remained in Angola, either for personal reasons (intermarriage) or as professionals (e.g., medical doctors).", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "The largest religious denomination is [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]], to which adheres about half the population. Roughly 26% are followers of traditional forms of [[Protestantism]] (Congregationals, Methodists, Baptista, Lutherans, Reformed), but over the last decades there has in addition been a growth of Pentecostal communities and [[African Initiated Church]]. In 2006, one out of 221 people were [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. Blacks from Mali, Nigeria and Senegal are mostly Sunnite Muslims, but do not make up more than 1 - 2% of the population. By now few Angolans retain [[African traditional religion]] following different ethnic faiths.", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Population"], "text": "According to the total population was in , compared to only 4 148 000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 46.6%, 50.9% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.5% was 65 years or older [[Image:Angola Population Pyramid 2012.png|thumb|370px|[[Population pyramid]] for Angola]] Structure of the population (DHS 2011) (Males 19 707, Females 20 356 = 40 063) :", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Vital statistics"], "text": "Registration of vital events is in Angola not complete. The Population Department of the United Nations and the [[CIA World Factbook]] prepared the following estimates.", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Vital statistics", "Fertility and Births"], "text": "Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted TFR) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Other demographics statistics"], "text": "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2019. (-) One birth every 25 seconds (-) One death every 2 minutes (-) One net migrant every Infinity minutes (-) Net gain of one person every 31 seconds The following demographic statistics are from the [[CIA World Factbook]], unless otherwise indicated.", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "''0-14 years:'' 48.07% (male 7,257,155 /female 7,336,084) ''15-24 years:'' 18.33% (male 2,701,123 /female 2,863,950) ''25-54 years:'' 27.95% (male 4,044,944 /female 4,441,028) ''55-64 years:'' 3.32% (male 466,085 /female 540,452) ''65 years and over:'' 2.32% (male 296,411 /female 408,648) (2018 est.)", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "total: 15.9 years. Country comparison to the world: 224th male: 15.4 years female: 16.3 years (2018 est.)", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Other demographics statistics", "Population growth"], "text": "3.49% (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 2nd The population is growing by 3.52% annually. There are 44.2 births and 9.2 deaths per 1,000 citizens. The net migration rate is 0.2 migrants per 1,000 citizens. The fertility rate of Angola is 6.16 children born per woman as of 2017. The [[infant mortality]] rate is 67.6 deaths for every 1,000 live births with 73.3 deaths for males and 61.8 deaths for females for every 1,000 live births. Life expectancy at birth is 60.2 years; 58.2 years for males and 62.3 years for females.", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "6.09 children born/woman (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 2nd", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "43.7 births/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 1st", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "9 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 60th", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "0.2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.) Country comparison to the world: 67th", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "19.4 years (2015/16 est.) note: median age at first birth among women 25-29", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "total population: 60.6 years (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 207th male: 58.5 years (2018 est.) female: 62.7 years (2018 est.)", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "total: 10 years (2011) male: 13 years (2011) female: 8 years (2011)", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Other demographics statistics", "Sex ratio"], "text": "(-) At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female (-) Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female (-) 15–64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female (-) 65 years and older: .79 male(s)/female (-) Total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2011 est.)", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Other demographics statistics", "Health"], "text": "According to the CIA World Factbook, 2% of adults (aged 15–49) are living with HIV/AIDS (as of 2009). The risk of contracting disease is very high. There are food and waterborne diseases, bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever; vectorborne diseases, malaria, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness); respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis, and schistosomiasis, a water contact disease, as of 2005.", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Other demographics statistics", "Ethnic groups"], "text": "Roughly 37% of Angolans are [[Ovimbundu]], 25% are [[Northern Mbundu people|Ambundu]], 13% are [[Bakongo]], 2% are [[mestiço]], 1-2% are [[White Africans of European ancestry|white Africans]], and people from other African ethnicities make up 22% of Angola's population.", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Other demographics statistics", "Religions"], "text": "Angola is a majority Christian country. Official statistics do not exist, however it is estimated that over 80% belong to a Christian church or community. More than half are [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], the remaining ones comprising members of traditional [[Protestant]] churches as well as of [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] communities. Only 0.1% are [[Muslim]] - generally immigrants from other African countries. Traditional indigenous religions are practiced by a very small minority, generally in peripheral rural societies.", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Other demographics statistics", "Education"], "text": "Literacy is quite low, with 71.1% of the population over the age of 15 able to read and write in Portuguese. 82% of males and 60.7% of women are literate as of 2015.", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Other demographics statistics", "Languages"], "text": "[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] is the official language of Angola, but [[Bantu language|Bantu]] and other African languages are also widely spoken. In fact, [[Kikongo]], [[Kimbundu languages|Kimbundu]], [[Umbundu]], [[Chokwe language|Tuchokwe]], [[Ganguela|Nganguela]], and [[Kwanyama dialect|Ukanyama]] have the official status of \"national languages\". The mastery of Portuguese is widespread; in the cities the overwhelming majority are either fluent in Portuguese or have at least a reasonable working knowledge of this language; an increasing minority are native Portuguese speakers and have a poor, if any, knowledge of an African language.", "id": "704", "title": "Demographics of Angola", "categories": ["Demographics of Angola", "Angolan society"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "Since the adoption of a new [[Constitution of Angola#2010 constitution|constitution in 2010]], the '''politics of Angola''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Angola]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a [[multi-party system]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in the President, the [[Forms of government|government]] and parliament. [[Angola]] changed from a [[One-party state|one-party]] [[Marxist]]-[[Leninist]] system ruled by the [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (MPLA), in place since independence in 1975, to a multiparty democracy based on a new constitution adopted in 1992. That same year the first parliamentary and presidential elections were held. The MPLA won an absolute majority in the parliamentary elections. In the presidential elections, President [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] won the first round election with more than 49% of the vote to [[Jonas Savimbi]]'s 40%. A runoff election would have been necessary, but never took place. The renewal of civil war immediately after the elections, which were considered as fraudulent by UNITA, and the collapse of the [[Lusaka Protocol]], created a split situation. To a certain degree the new democratic institutions worked, notably the [[National Assembly of Angola|National Assembly]], with the active participation of UNITA's and the FNLA's elected MPs - while José Eduardo dos Santos continued to exercise his functions without democratic legitimation. However the armed forces of the MPLA (now the official armed forces of the Angolan state) and of UNITA fought each other until the leader of UNITA, Jonas Savimbi, was killed in action in 2002. From 2002 to 2010, the system as defined by the [[Constitution of Angola#1992 constitution|constitution of 1992]] functioned in a relatively normal way. The executive branch of the government was composed of the President, the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers, composed of all ministers and vice ministers, met regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces were appointed by and served at the pleasure of the president. The Constitutional Law of 1992 established the broad outlines of government structure and the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system was based on Portuguese and customary law but was weak and fragmented. Courts operated in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court served as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review was never constituted despite statutory authorization. In practice, power was more and more concentrated in the hands of the President who, supported by an ever-increasing staff, largely controlled parliament, government, and the judiciary.", "id": "705", "title": "Politics of Angola", "categories": ["Politics of Angola"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "The 26-year-long civil war has ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million [[internally displaced person]] (IDPs), while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically [[Luanda]] (population approximately 6 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work.", "id": "705", "title": "Politics of Angola", "categories": ["Politics of Angola"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Executive branch"], "text": "The 2010 constitution grants the President almost absolute power. Elections for the National assembly are to take place every five years, and the President is automatically the leader of the winning party or coalition. It is for the President to appoint (and dismiss) all of the following: (-) The members of the government (state ministers, ministers, state secretaries and vice-ministers); (-) The members of the Constitutional Court; (-) The members of the Supreme Court; (-) The members of the Court of Auditors; (-) The members of the Military Supreme Court; (-) The Governor and Vice-Governors of the Nacional Angolan Bank; (-) The General-Attorney, the Vice-General-Attorneys and their deputies (as well as the military homologous); (-) The Governors of the provinces; (-) The members of the Republic Council; (-) The members of the National Security Council; (-) The members of the Superior Magistrates Councils; (-) The General Chief of the Armed Forces and his deputy; (-) All other command posts in the military; (-) The Police General Commander, and the 2nd in command; (-) All other command posts in the police; (-) The chiefs and directors of the intelligence and security organs. The President is also provided a variety of powers, like defining the policy of the country. Even though it's not up to him/her to make laws (only to promulgate them and make edicts), the President is the leader of the winning party. The only \"relevant\" post that is not directly appointed by the President is the Vice-President, which is the second in the winning party. José Eduardo dos Santos stepped down as President of Angola after 38 years in 2017, being peacefully succeeded by [[João Lourenço]], Santos' chosen successor.", "id": "705", "title": "Politics of Angola", "categories": ["Politics of Angola"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Legislative branch"], "text": "The [[National Assembly of Angola|National Assembly]] (''Assembleia Nacional'') has 223 members, elected for a four-year term, 130 members by [[proportional representation]], 90 members in provincial districts, and 3 members to represent Angolans abroad. The general elections in 1997 were rescheduled for 5 September 2008. The ruling party MPLA won 82% (191 seats in the National Assembly) and the main opposition party won only 10% (16 seats). The elections however have been described as only partly free but certainly not fair. A White Book on the elections in 2008 lists up all irregularities surrounding the Parliamentary elections of 2008.", "id": "705", "title": "Politics of Angola", "categories": ["Politics of Angola"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Judicial branch"], "text": "Supreme Court (or \"Tribunal da Relacao\") judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the president. The Constitutional Court, with the power of judicial review, contains 11 justices. Four are appointed by the President, four by the National Assembly, two by the Superior Council of the Judiciary, and one elected by the public.", "id": "705", "title": "Politics of Angola", "categories": ["Politics of Angola"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Administrative divisions"], "text": "Angola has eighteen provinces: Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, Zaire", "id": "705", "title": "Politics of Angola", "categories": ["Politics of Angola"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Political pressure groups and leaders"], "text": "[[Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda]] or FLEC ([[Henrique N'zita Tiago]]; [[António Bento Bembe]]) (-) ''note:'' FLEC is waging a small-scale, highly factionalized, armed struggle for the independence of Cabinda Province", "id": "705", "title": "Politics of Angola", "categories": ["Politics of Angola"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["International organization participation"], "text": "[[African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States]], [[AfDB]], [[CEEAC]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa]], [[FAO]], [[Group of 77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court]] (signatory), [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement]], [[International Development Association]], [[IFAD]], [[International Finance Corporation|IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization]], [[International Monetary Fund]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Interpol (organization)|Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] (correspondent), [[ITU]], Non-Aligned Council (temporary), [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[World Customs Organization]], [[World Federation of Trade Unions]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]", "id": "705", "title": "Politics of Angola", "categories": ["Politics of Angola"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "The '''economy of [[Angola]]''' remains heavily influenced by the effects of four decades of conflict in the last part of the 20th Century, the [[Angolan War of Independence|war for independence from Portugal (1961–75)]] and the subsequent [[Angolan Civil War|civil war (1975–2002)]]. Despite extensive [[Crude oil|oil and gas]] resources, diamonds, [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] potential, and rich agricultural land, Angola remains poor, and a third of the population relies on subsistence agriculture. Since 2002, when the 27-year civil war ended, government policy prioritized the repair and improvement of infrastructure and strengthening of political and social institutions. During the first decade of the 21st Century, Angola was one of the fastest-growing in the world, with reported annual average GDP growth of 11.1 percent from 2001 to 2010. High international oil prices and rising oil production contributed to strong economic growth, although with high inequality, at that time. [[Corruption in Angola|Corruption]] is rife throughout the economy and the country remains heavily dependent on the oil sector, which in 2017 accounted for over 90 percent of exports by value and 64 percent of government revenue. With the end of the oil boom, from 2015 Angola entered into a period of economic contraction.", "id": "706", "title": "Economy of Angola", "categories": ["Economy of Angola", "African Union member economies", "Blood diamonds", "OPEC", "World Trade Organization member economies"], "seealso": ["Banco Espírito Santo Angola", "United Nations Economic Commission for Africa"]}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "The [[Portuguese exploration of Africa|Portuguese explorer]] [[Diogo Cão]] reached the Angolan coast in 1484, after which [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]] began to found trading posts and forts along the shore. [[Paulo Dias de Novais]] founded Sāo Paulo de Loanda ([[Luanda]]) in 1575. São Felipe de Benguella ([[Benguela]]) followed in 1587. The principal early trade was in [[Atlantic slave trade|slaves]]. Portuguese merchants purchased the slaves from the local [[Imbangala]] and [[Northern Mbundu people|Mbundu]] peoples, [[Slavery in Africa|notable slave hunters]], and sold them to the [[sugarcane]] [[Sugar plantations in the Caribbean|plantation]] in [[Captaincies of Brazil|Brazil]]. Brazilian ships were frequent visitors to Luanda and Benguela and Angola functioned as a kind of colony of Brazil, with Brazilian [[Jesuits]] active in its religious and educational centers. The [[Portuguese Empire]] was neglected during the period of the [[Iberian Union]], which lasted from 1580 to 1640. The Dutch, bitter enemies of their former masters in [[Kingdom of Spain|Spain]], invaded many Portuguese overseas possessions. During Portugal's separatist war against Spain, the Dutch occupied Luanda from 1640 to 1648, calling it \"Fort Aardenburgh\". The Dutch used the territory to supply their own slaves to the sugarcane plantations of [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeastern Brazil]] ([[Pernambuco]], [[Olinda]], [[Recife]]), which they had also seized from Portugal. [[John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen]], conquered the Portuguese possessions of [[Elmina|Saint George del Mina]], Saint Thomas, and Luanda, Angola, on the west coast of Africa. Portugal recovered the territory between 1648 and 1650. In the high plains, the Planalto, the most important native states were [[Bié Province|Bié]] and [[Bailundo]], the latter being noted for its production of foodstuffs and rubber. Portugal expanded into their territory, but did not control much of the interior prior to the late 19th century. The Portuguese started to develop townships, trading posts, logging camps and small processing factories. From 1764 onwards, there was a gradual change from a slave-based society to one based on production for domestic consumption and export. Following the [[independence of Brazil]] in 1822, the slave trade was formally abolished in 1836. However it did continue locally into the 20th century. In 1844, Angola's ports were opened to foreign shipping. By 1850, Luanda was one of the greatest and most developed Portuguese cities in the vast [[Portuguese Empire]] outside of [[Mainland Portugal]], full of trading companies, exporting peanut oil, copal, timber, and cocoa. The principal exports of the post-slave economy in the 19th century were rubber, beeswax, and ivory. Maize, tobacco, dried meat and [[cassava]] flour also began to be locally produced. Prior to the [[First World War]], exportation of coffee, [[palm tree|palm]] kernels and [[palm oil|oil]], cattle, leather and [[Hide (skin)|hides]], and [[salt fish]] joined the principal exports, with small quantities of gold and cotton also being produced. Grains, sugar, and rum were also produced for local consumption. The principal imports were foodstuffs, cotton goods, hardware, and British coal. Legislation against foreign traders was implemented in the 1890s. The territory's prosperity, however, continued to depend on plantations worked by labor \"indentured\" from the interior.", "id": "706", "title": "Economy of Angola", "categories": ["Economy of Angola", "African Union member economies", "Blood diamonds", "OPEC", "World Trade Organization member economies"], "seealso": ["Banco Espírito Santo Angola", "United Nations Economic Commission for Africa"]}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "From the 1920s to the 1960s, strong economic growth, abundant natural resources and development of infrastructure, led to the arrival of even more Portuguese settlers. Petroleum was known to exist as early as the mid-19th century, but modern exploitation didn't begin until in 1955. Production began in the [[Cuanza basin]] in the 1950s, in the [[Congo basin]] in the 1960s, and in the [[exclave]] of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] in 1968. The [[Portuguese government]] granted operating rights for Block Zero to the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company, a subsidiary of [[ChevronTexaco]], in 1955. Oil production surpassed the exportation of coffee as Angola's largest export in 1973. A military-led coup d'état, started on April 25, 1974, in Lisbon, overthrew the [[Marcelo Caetano]] government in Portugal, and promised to hand over power to an independent Angolan government. [[Mobutu Sese Seko]], the [[President of Zaire]], met with [[António de Spínola]], the transitional [[President of Portugal]], on September 15, 1974, on [[Sal island]] in Cape Verde, crafting a plan to empower [[Holden Roberto]] of the [[National Liberation Front of Angola]], [[Jonas Savimbi]] of [[UNITA]], and [[Daniel Chipenda]] of the [[MPLA]]'s eastern faction at the expense of MPLA leader [[Agostinho Neto]] while retaining the façade of national unity. Mobutu and Spínola wanted to present Chipenda as the MPLA head, Mobutu particularly preferring Chipenda over Neto because Chipenda supported autonomy for [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]]. The Angolan [[exclave]] has immense petroleum reserves estimated at around 300 million tons (~300 kg) which Zaire, and thus the Mobutu government, depended on for economic survival. After independence thousands of white Portuguese left, most of them to [[Portugal]] and many travelling overland to South Africa. There was an immediate crisis because the indigenous African population lacked the skills and knowledge needed to run the country and maintain its well-developed infrastructure. The Angolan government created [[Sonangol]], a state-run oil company, in 1976. Two years later Sonangol received the rights to oil exploration and production in all of Angola. After independence from Portugal in 1975, Angola was ravaged by a horrific [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] between 1975 and 2002.", "id": "706", "title": "Economy of Angola", "categories": ["Economy of Angola", "African Union member economies", "Blood diamonds", "OPEC", "World Trade Organization member economies"], "seealso": ["Banco Espírito Santo Angola", "United Nations Economic Commission for Africa"]}
{"headers": ["History", "1990s"], "text": "[[United Nations Angola Verification Mission III]] and [[MONUA]] spent US$1.5 billion overseeing implementation of the [[Lusaka Protocol]], a 1994 peace accord that ultimately failed to end the civil war. The protocol prohibited [[UNITA]] from buying foreign arms, a provision the United Nations largely did not enforce, so both sides continued to build up their stockpile. UNITA purchased weapons in 1996 and 1997 from private sources in [[Albania]] and [[Bulgaria]], and from [[Zaire]], South Africa, [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Zambia]], [[Togo]], and [[Burkina Faso]]. In October 1997 the UN imposed travel sanctions on UNITA leaders, but the UN waited until July 1998 to limit UNITA's exportation of diamonds and freeze UNITA bank accounts. While the U.S. government gave US$250 million to UNITA between 1986 and 1991, UNITA made US$1.72 billion between 1994 and 1999 exporting diamonds, primarily through Zaire to Europe. At the same time the Angolan government received large amounts of weapons from the governments of [[Belarus]], Brazil, Bulgaria, China, and South Africa. While no arms shipment to the government violated the protocol, no country informed the U.N. Register on Conventional Weapons as required. Despite the increase in civil warfare in late 1998, the economy grew by an estimated 4% in 1999. The government introduced new currency denominations in 1999, including a 1 and 5 kwanza note.", "id": "706", "title": "Economy of Angola", "categories": ["Economy of Angola", "African Union member economies", "Blood diamonds", "OPEC", "World Trade Organization member economies"], "seealso": ["Banco Espírito Santo Angola", "United Nations Economic Commission for Africa"]}
{"headers": ["History", "2000s"], "text": "An economic reform effort was launched in 1998. Angola ranked 160 of 174 nations in the [[United Nations Human Development Index]] in 2000. In April 2000 Angola started an [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) Staff-Monitored Program (SMP). The program formally lapsed in June 2001, but the IMF remains engaged. In this context the Government of Angola has succeeded in unifying exchange rates and has raised fuel, electricity, and water rates. The Commercial Code, telecommunications law, and Foreign Investment Code are being modernized. A privatization effort, prepared with [[World Bank]] assistance, has begun with the [[Banco de Comércio e Indústria|BCI]] bank. Nevertheless, a legacy of fiscal mismanagement and corruption persists. The civil war [[Internally displaced person|internally displaced]] 3.8 million people, 32% of the population, by 2001. The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has led to the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons, thus resulting in large-scale increases in agriculture production. Angola produced over of diamonds in 2003, and production was expected to grow to per year by 2007. In 2004 China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola to rebuild infrastructure. The economy grew 18% in 2005 and growth was expected to reach 26% in 2006 and stay above 10% for the rest of the decade. By 2020, Angola had a national debt of $76 billion, of which $20 billion is to China. The construction industry is taking advantage of the growing economy, with various housing projects stimulated by the government initiatives for example the ''Angola Investe'' program and the ''[[Grupo Opaia SA#Casa Feliz|Casa Feliz]]'' or ''[[Grupo Opaia SA#Opaia Águas (Water)|Meña]]'' projects. Not all public construction projects are functional. A case in point: [[Kilamba Kiaxi]], where a whole new satellite town of Luanda, consisting of housing facilities for several hundreds of thousands of people, was completely uninhabited for over four years because of skyrocketing prices, but completely sold out after the government decreased the original price and created mortgage plans at around the election time thus made it affordable for middle-class people. ChevronTexaco started pumping from Block 14 in January 2000, but production decreased to in 2007 due to poor-quality oil. Angola joined the [[Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries]] on January 1, 2007. Cabinda Gulf Oil Company found Malange-1, an oil reservoir in Block 14, on August 9, 2007.", "id": "706", "title": "Economy of Angola", "categories": ["Economy of Angola", "African Union member economies", "Blood diamonds", "OPEC", "World Trade Organization member economies"], "seealso": ["Banco Espírito Santo Angola", "United Nations Economic Commission for Africa"]}
{"headers": ["Overview"], "text": "Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45% to GDP and 90% of exports. Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed in late-2005 and which is expected to grow to by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in [[Sonangol Group]], a conglomerate owned by the Angolan government. With revenues booming from oil exports, the government has started to implement ambitious development programs to build roads and other basic infrastructure for the nation. In the last decade of the colonial period, Angola was a major African food exporter but now imports almost all its food. Severe wartime conditions, including extensive planting of landmines throughout the countryside, have brought agricultural activities to a near-standstill. Some efforts to recover have gone forward, however, notably in fisheries. Coffee production, though a fraction of its pre-1975 level, is sufficient for domestic needs and some exports. Expanding oil production is now almost half of GDP and 90% of exports, at . Diamonds provided much of the revenue for [[Jonas Savimbi]]'s [[UNITA]] rebellion through illicit trade. Other rich resources await development: gold, forest products, fisheries, iron ore, coffee, and fruits. This is a chart of trend of [[Real versus nominal value (economics)|nominal]] gross domestic product of Angola at market prices using International Monetary Fund data; figures are in millions of units. The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017. Inflation below 5% is in green.", "id": "706", "title": "Economy of Angola", "categories": ["Economy of Angola", "African Union member economies", "Blood diamonds", "OPEC", "World Trade Organization member economies"], "seealso": ["Banco Espírito Santo Angola", "United Nations Economic Commission for Africa"]}
{"headers": ["Agriculture"], "text": "Angola produced, in 2018: (-) 8.6 million tons of [[cassava]] (8th largest producer in the world); (-) 3.5 million tons of [[banana]] (7th largest producer in the world, or the 10th largest, if we consider together with [[Cooking banana|plantain]]); (-) 2.2 million tons of [[maize]]; (-) 1.2 million tons of [[sweet potato]] (10th largest producer in the world); (-) 806 thousand tons of [[potato]]; (-) 597 thousand tons of [[pineapple]] (13th largest producer in the world); (-) 572 thousand tons of [[sugarcane]]; (-) 355 thousand tons of [[cabbage]]; (-) 314 thousand tons of [[beans]]; (-) 280 thousand tons of [[palm oil]]; (-) 154 thousand tons of [[peanut]]; In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, like [[coffee]] (16 thousand tons).", "id": "706", "title": "Economy of Angola", "categories": ["Economy of Angola", "African Union member economies", "Blood diamonds", "OPEC", "World Trade Organization member economies"], "seealso": ["Banco Espírito Santo Angola", "United Nations Economic Commission for Africa"]}
{"headers": ["Foreign trade"], "text": "Exports in 2004 reached US$10,530,764,911. The vast majority of Angola's exports, 92% in 2004, are petroleum products. US$785 million worth of diamonds, 7.5% of exports, were sold abroad that year. Nearly all of Angola's oil goes to the United States, in 2006, making it the eighth largest supplier of oil to the United States, and to China, in 2006. In the first quarter of 2008, Angola became the main exporter of oil to China. The rest of its petroleum exports go to Europe and Latin America. U.S. companies account for more than half the investment in Angola, with Chevron-Texaco leading the way. The U.S. exports industrial goods and services, primarily oilfield equipment, mining equipment, chemicals, aircraft, and food, to Angola, while principally importing petroleum. Trade between Angola and South Africa exceeded US$300 million in 2007. From the 2000s, many Chinese have settled and started up businesses.", "id": "706", "title": "Economy of Angola", "categories": ["Economy of Angola", "African Union member economies", "Blood diamonds", "OPEC", "World Trade Organization member economies"], "seealso": ["Banco Espírito Santo Angola", "United Nations Economic Commission for Africa"]}
{"headers": ["Resources", "Petroleum"], "text": "Angola produces and exports more petroleum than any other nation in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], surpassing [[Nigeria]] in the [[2000s in Angola|2000s]]. In January 2007 Angola became a member of [[OPEC]]. By 2010 production is expected to double the 2006 output level with development of deep-water offshore oil fields. Oil sales generated US$1.71 billion in tax revenue in 2004 and now makes up 80% of the government's budget, a 5% increase from 2003, and 45% of GDP. [[Chevron Corporation]] produces and receives , 27% of Angolan oil. [[Total S.A.]], [[ExxonMobil]], [[Eni]], [[Petrobras]] and [[BP]] also operate in the country. Block Zero provides the majority of Angola's crude oil production with produced annually. The largest fields in Block Zero are Takula (Area A), Numbi (Area A), and Kokongo (Area B). Chevron operates in Block Zero with a 39.2% share. [[SONANGOL]], the state oil company, Total, and Eni own the rest of the block. Chevron also operates Angola's first producing deepwater section, Block 14, with . The United Nations has criticized the Angolan government for using torture, rape, [[summary execution]], arbitrary detention, and disappearances, actions which Angolan government has justified on the need to maintain oil output. Angola is the third-largest trading partner of the United States in Sub-Saharan Africa, largely because of its petroleum exports. The U.S. imports 7% of its oil from Angola, about three times as much as it imported from [[Kuwait]] just prior to the [[Gulf War]] in 1991. The U.S. Government has invested US$4 billion in Angola's petroleum sector. Oil makes up over 90% of Angola's exports.", "id": "706", "title": "Economy of Angola", "categories": ["Economy of Angola", "African Union member economies", "Blood diamonds", "OPEC", "World Trade Organization member economies"], "seealso": ["Banco Espírito Santo Angola", "United Nations Economic Commission for Africa"]}
{"headers": ["Resources", "Diamonds"], "text": "Angola is the third largest producer of diamonds in Africa and has only explored 40% of the diamond-rich territory within the country, but has had difficulty in attracting foreign investment because of corruption, human rights violations, and diamond smuggling. Production rose by 30% in 2006 and [[Endiama]], the national diamond company of Angola, expects production to increase by 8% in 2007 to 10 million carats annually. The government is trying to attract foreign companies to the [[Provinces of Angola|provinces]] of [[Bié (province)|Bié]], [[Malanje (province)|Malanje]] and [[Uíge Province|Uíge]]. The Angolan government loses $375 million annually from diamond smuggling. In 2003 the government began Operation Brilliant, an anti-smuggling investigation that arrested and deported 250,000 smugglers between 2003 and 2006. [[Rafael Marques (journalist)|Rafael Marques]], a journalist and human rights activist, described the diamond industry in his 2006 ''Angola's Deadly Diamonds'' report as plagued by \"murders, beatings, arbitrary detentions and other human rights violations.\" Marques called on foreign countries to boycott Angola's \"[[conflict diamonds]]\". In December 2014, the [[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]] issued a ''[[List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor]]'' that classified Angola as one of the major diamond-producing African countries relying on both child labor and forced labor. The [[United States Department of Labor|U.S. Department of Labor]] reported that \"there is little publicly available information on [Angola's] efforts to enforce child labor law\". Diamonds accounted for 1.48% of Angolan exports in 2014.", "id": "706", "title": "Economy of Angola", "categories": ["Economy of Angola", "African Union member economies", "Blood diamonds", "OPEC", "World Trade Organization member economies"], "seealso": ["Banco Espírito Santo Angola", "United Nations Economic Commission for Africa"]}
{"headers": ["Resources", "Iron"], "text": "Under Portuguese rule, [[Angola (Portugal)|Angola]] began mining iron in 1957, producing 1.2 million tons in 1967 and 6.2 million tons by 1971. In the early 1970s, 70% of Portuguese Angola's iron exports went to Western Europe and Japan. After independence in 1975, the [[Angolan Civil War]] (1975–2002) destroyed most of the territory's mining infrastructure. The redevelopment of the Angolan mining industry started in the late 2000s.", "id": "706", "title": "Economy of Angola", "categories": ["Economy of Angola", "African Union member economies", "Blood diamonds", "OPEC", "World Trade Organization member economies"], "seealso": ["Banco Espírito Santo Angola", "United Nations Economic Commission for Africa"]}
{"headers": ["Railways"], "text": "There are three separate railway lines in [[Angola]]: (-) [[Luanda Railway]] ([[Caminhos de Ferro de Luanda|CFL]]) (northern) (-) [[Benguela Railway]] ([[Caminho de Ferro de Benguela|CFB]]) (central) (-) [[Moçâmedes Railway]] ([[Moçâmedes Railway|CFM]]) (southern) Reconstruction of these three lines began in 2005 and they are now all operational. The [[Benguela Railway]] connects to the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].", "id": "708", "title": "Transport in Angola", "categories": ["Transport in Angola"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Waterways"], "text": "(-) 1,300 km navigable (2008) ''country comparison to the world:'' 36", "id": "708", "title": "Transport in Angola", "categories": ["Transport in Angola"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Pipelines"], "text": "(-) gas, 2 km; crude oil 87 km (2008) In April 2012, the Zambian Development Agency (ZDA) and an Angolan company signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) to build a multi-product pipeline from [[Lobito]] to [[Lusaka]], [[Zambia]], to deliver various refined products to Zambia. Angola plans to build an oil refinery in Lobito in the coming years.", "id": "708", "title": "Transport in Angola", "categories": ["Transport in Angola"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ports and harbors"], "text": "The government plans to build a deep-water port at [[Barra do Dande]], north of Luanda, in [[Bengo (province)|Bengo]] province near [[Caxito]].", "id": "708", "title": "Transport in Angola", "categories": ["Transport in Angola"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Merchant marine"], "text": "(-) ''total:'' 6 ''country comparison to the world:'' 128 (-) ''by type:'' cargo 1, passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 2, roll on/roll off 1 (-) ''foreign owned:'' 1 (Spain) (-) ''registered in other countries:'' 6 (Bahamas) (2008)", "id": "708", "title": "Transport in Angola", "categories": ["Transport in Angola"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Airports", "Airports – with paved runways"], "text": "(-) ''total:'' 30 (-) ''over 3,047 m:'' 5 (-) ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 8 (-) ''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 12 (-) ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 4 (-) ''under 914 m:'' 1 (2008)", "id": "708", "title": "Transport in Angola", "categories": ["Transport in Angola"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Airports", "Airports – with unpaved runways"], "text": "(-) ''total:'' 181 (2008) (-) ''over 3,047 m:'' 2 (-) ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 5 (-) ''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 32 (-) ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 100 (-) ''under 914 m:'' 42 (2008)", "id": "708", "title": "Transport in Angola", "categories": ["Transport in Angola"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Airports", "History"], "text": "Angola had an estimated total of 43 airports as of 2004, of which 31 had paved runways as of 2005. There is an [[Luanda International Airport|international airport at Luanda]]. International and domestic services are maintained by [[TAAG Angola Airlines]], [[Aeroflot]], [[British Airways]], [[Brussels Airlines]], [[Lufthansa]], [[Air France]], [[Cubana de Aviación|Cubana]], [[Ethiopian Airlines]], [[Emirates (airline)|Emirates]], [[Delta Air Lines]], [[Royal Air Maroc]], [[Iberia Airlines|Iberia]], [[Hainan Airlines]], [[Kenya Airways]], [[South African Airways]], [[TAP Air Portugal]] and several regional carriers. In 2003, domestic and international carriers carried 198,000 passengers. There are airstrips for domestic transport at [[Benguela]], [[Cabinda (city)|Cabinda]], [[Huambo]], [[Moçâmedes]], and [[Catumbela]].", "id": "708", "title": "Transport in Angola", "categories": ["Transport in Angola"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "The '''Angolan Armed Forces''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Forças Armadas Angolanas'') or '''FAA''' are the [[military]] of [[Angola]]. The FAA include the General Staff of the Armed Forces and three components: the Army (''Exército''), the Navy (''Marinha de Guerra'') and the National Air Force (''Força Aérea Nacional''). Reported total manpower in 2013 was about 107,000. The FAA is headed by Chief of the General Staff [[Geraldo Sachipengo Nunda]] since 2010, who reports to the Minister of National Defense, currently Salviano de Jesus Sequeira.", "id": "709", "title": "Angolan Armed Forces", "categories": ["Military of Angola", "Military history of Angola", "Angolan Civil War", "1991 establishments in Angola", "Military units and formations established in 1991"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "The FAA succeeded to the previous [[People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola]] (FAPLA) following the abortive [[Bicesse Accord]] with the [[Armed Forces of the Liberation of Angola]] (FALA), armed wing of the [[National Union for the Total Independence of Angola]] (UNITA). As part of the peace agreement, troops from both armies were to be [[demilitarized]] and then integrated. Integration was never completed as UNITA and FALA went back to war in 1992. Later, consequences for FALA personnel in Luanda were harsh with FAPLA veterans persecuting their erstwhile opponents in certain areas and reports of [[vigilantism]].", "id": "709", "title": "Angolan Armed Forces", "categories": ["Military of Angola", "Military history of Angola", "Angolan Civil War", "1991 establishments in Angola", "Military units and formations established in 1991"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Army", "General description"], "text": "The Army (''Exército'') is the land component of the FAA. It is organized in six military regions (Cabinda, Luanda, North, Center, East and South), with an infantry division being based in each one. Distributed by the six military regions / infantry divisions, there are 25 motorized infantry brigades, one tank brigade and one engineering brigade. The Army also includes an artillery regiment, the Military Artillery School, the Army Military Academy, an anti-aircraft defense group, a composite land artillery group, a military police regiment, a logistical transportation regiment and a field artillery brigade. The Army further includes the Special Forces Brigade (including Commandos and Special Operations units), but this unit is under the direct command of the General Staff of the FAA.", "id": "709", "title": "Angolan Armed Forces", "categories": ["Military of Angola", "Military history of Angola", "Angolan Civil War", "1991 establishments in Angola", "Military units and formations established in 1991"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Army", "History"], "text": "On August 1, 1974, a few months after a military [[coup d'état]] had overthrown the [[Lisbon]] regime and proclaimed its intention of granting independence to Angola, the MPLA announced the formation of FAPLA, which replaced the EPLA. By 1976 FAPLA had been transformed from lightly armed guerrilla units into a national [[army]] capable of sustained field operations. In 1990–91, the Army had ten military regions and an estimated 73+ 'brigades', each with a mean strength of 1,000 and comprising inf, tank, APC, artillery, and AA units as required. The [[Library of Congress]] said in 1990 that '[t]he regular army's 91,500 troops were organized into more than seventy brigades ranging from 750 to 1,200 men each and deployed throughout the ten military regions. Most regions were commanded by lieutenant colonels, with majors as deputy commanders, but some regions were commanded by majors. Each region consisted of one to four provinces, with one or more infantry brigades assigned to it. The brigades were generally dispersed in battalion or smaller unit formations to protect strategic terrain, urban centers, settlements, and critical infrastructure such as bridges and factories. Counterintelligence agents were assigned to all field units to thwart UNITA infiltration. The army's diverse combat capabilities were indicated by its many regular and motorised infantry brigades with organic or attached armor, artillery, and air defense units; two militia infantry brigades; four antiaircraft artillery brigades; ten tank battalions; and six artillery battalions. These forces were concentrated most heavily in places of strategic importance and recurring conflict: the oil-producing [[Cabinda Province]], the area around the capital, and the southern provinces where UNITA and South African forces operated.' It was reported on May 3, 2007, that the Special Forces Brigade of the Angolan Armed Forces (FAA) located at Cabo Ledo region, northern [[Bengo Province]], would host a 29th anniversary celebration for the entire armed forces. The brigade was reportedly formed on May 5, 1978, and under the command at the time of Colonel Paulo Falcao. It was reported in 2011 that the army was by far the largest of the services with about 120,000 men and women. The Angolan Army has around 29,000 \"ghost workers\" who remain enrolled in the ranks of the FAA and therefore receive a salary. As of 2011, the IISS reported the ground forces had 42 armoured/infantry regiments ('detachments/groups - strength varies') and 16 infantry '[[brigade]]'. These probably comprised [[infantry]], [[tank]], [[Armoured personnel carriers|APC]], [[artillery]], and [[Anti-aircraft warfare|AA units]] as required. Major equipment included over 140 [[main battle tank]], 600 [[reconnaissance]] vehicles, over 920 [[armored fighting vehicles|AFVs]], [[infantry fighting vehicle]], 298 [[howitzers]]. In 2013, the [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]] reported that the FAA had six divisions, the 1st, 5th, and 6th with two or three infantry brigades, and the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th with five to six infantry brigades. The 4th Division included a tank regiment. A separate tank brigade and special forces brigade were also reported.", "id": "709", "title": "Angolan Armed Forces", "categories": ["Military of Angola", "Military history of Angola", "Angolan Civil War", "1991 establishments in Angola", "Military units and formations established in 1991"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Army", "History"], "text": "In 2014 [[Luzia Inglês Van-Dúnem]] became the first Angolan woman to be promoted to the post of General Officer of the Angolan Armed Forces; the promotion was decreed by President [[José Eduardo dos Santos]].", "id": "709", "title": "Angolan Armed Forces", "categories": ["Military of Angola", "Military history of Angola", "Angolan Civil War", "1991 establishments in Angola", "Military units and formations established in 1991"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Army", "Equipment"], "text": "The Army operates a large amount of Russian, Soviet and ex-Warsaw pact hardware. A large amount of its equipment was acquired in the 1980s and 1990s most likely because of hostilities with neighbouring countries and its [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] which lasted from November 1975 until 2002. There is an interest from the Angolan Army for the Brazilian [[Astros II MLRS|ASTROS II]] multiple rocket launcher.", "id": "709", "title": "Angolan Armed Forces", "categories": ["Military of Angola", "Military history of Angola", "Angolan Civil War", "1991 establishments in Angola", "Military units and formations established in 1991"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Army", "Equipment", "Infantry weapons"], "text": "Many of Angola's weapons are of [[Portuguese Angola|Portuguese colonial]] and [[Warsaw Pact]] origin. [[Jane's Information Group]] lists the following as in service: (-) Rifles in service with Army include the [[AK-47]], [[AKM]], [[FN FAL]], [[Heckler & Koch G3|G3 Assault Rifle]], [[SKS]] and [[IMI Tavor]]. (-) Pistols include the [[Makarov pistol]], [[Stechkin automatic pistol]] and the [[TT pistol|Tokarev TT pistol]]. (-) Submachine guns include the [[Škorpion vz. 61]], [[Star Model Z-45|Star Z-45]], [[Uzi]] and the [[FBP submachine gun]]. (-) Machine guns include the [[Degtyaryov machine gun|RP-46]], [[RPD machine gun]], [[Vz. 52 machine gun]] and the [[DShK]] [[Heavy machine gun]]. (-) Grenade launchers include the [[AGS-17]] [[automatic grenade launcher]]. (-) Mortars include the [[120-PM-43 mortar]] (500 in service) and the [[82-PM-41]] (250 in service). (-) Anti-Tank weapons include the [[RPG-7]], [[9K111 Fagot]] (650 ordered in 1987), [[9K11 Malyutka]], [[B-10 recoilless rifle]] and the [[B-11 recoilless rifle]].", "id": "709", "title": "Angolan Armed Forces", "categories": ["Military of Angola", "Military history of Angola", "Angolan Civil War", "1991 establishments in Angola", "Military units and formations established in 1991"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Army", "Equipment", "Main battle tanks"], "text": "(-) Between 116 and 267 [[T-54/55|T-55AM-2]] [[Medium tank]]. 281 T-55's were ordered between 1975 and 1999. 267 T-55AM-2's were delivered from [[Bulgaria]] and [[Slovakia]] in 1999. (-) 50 [[T-72]] [[main battle tank]]. Delivered from [[Belarus]] in 1999. (-) 50 [[T-62]] [[Main battle tank]]. 364 were ordered in the 1980s and 1990s. (-) 12 [[PT-76]] [[Amphibious vehicle|Amphibious]] [[Light tank]]. 68 ordered in 1975 from the Soviet Union.", "id": "709", "title": "Angolan Armed Forces", "categories": ["Military of Angola", "Military history of Angola", "Angolan Civil War", "1991 establishments in Angola", "Military units and formations established in 1991"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Army", "Equipment", "Armoured vehicles"], "text": "(-) 150 [[BMP-1]] [[infantry fighting vehicle]]. (-) 100 [[BMP-2]] [[infantry fighting vehicle]]. (-) 10 [[BMD-3]] [[infantry fighting vehicle]]. (-) 195 [[BRDM-2]] and 120 [[BRDM-1]] [[Armored car (military)|Amphibious Armoured Scout Cars]]. (-) 62 [[BTR-60PB|BTR-60]] and 50 [[OT-62 TOPAS]] [[armored personnel carrier]] (-) 45 [[Casspir|Casspir NG 2000B]] [[Infantry mobility vehicle]] (-) 24 [[EE-11 Urutu]] [[armored personnel carrier]]", "id": "709", "title": "Angolan Armed Forces", "categories": ["Military of Angola", "Military history of Angola", "Angolan Civil War", "1991 establishments in Angola", "Military units and formations established in 1991"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Army", "Equipment", "Artillery"], "text": "(-) 12 [[2S1 Gvozdika]] 122 mm [[Self-propelled gun]] (Acquired in 2000 from the Czech Republic). (-) 4 [[2S3 Akatsiya]] 152 mm [[Self-propelled gun]] (Acquired in 1999 from the Bulgaria). (-) 12 [[2S7 Pion]] 203 mm [[Self-propelled gun]] (Acquired in 2000 from the Czech Republic). (-) Unknown amounts of [[76 mm divisional gun M1942 (ZiS-3)|M1942 ZiS-3]] Anti-tank field guns (-) ~280 [[122 mm howitzer 2A18 (D-30)|D-30]] 122 mm [[Howitzer]] (28 from [[Kazakhstan]] in 1998, 12 from [[Belarus]], 240 from the [[Soviet Union]] in the 1980s) (-) 4 [[152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20)|D-20]] Howitzers. (-) Unknown amounts of [[85 mm divisional gun D-44]] Field Guns. (-) 48 [[130 mm towed field gun M1954 (M-46)|M-46]] 130 mm field guns (-) 75 [[BM-21 Grad]] multiple rocket launchers (-) 40 [[RM-70 multiple rocket launcher]]", "id": "709", "title": "Angolan Armed Forces", "categories": ["Military of Angola", "Military history of Angola", "Angolan Civil War", "1991 establishments in Angola", "Military units and formations established in 1991"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Army", "Equipment", "Anti-aircraft weaponry"], "text": "(-) 20 [[ZSU-23-4 Shilka]] Self-propelled anti-aircraft guns. (-) 40 [[ZSU-57-2]] Self-propelled anti-aircraft guns (-) Unknown amounts of [[ZU-23-2]], [[57 mm AZP S-60]], [[37 mm automatic air defense gun M1939 (61-K)|M-1939]], [[ZPU|ZPU-4]] and [[Zastava M55]] anti-aircraft guns. (-) 40 [[S-75 Dvina|SA-2 Guideline]] high-altitude air defense systems. (-) 12 [[S-125 Neva/Pechora|SA-3 Goa]] (-) 25 [[2K12 Kub|SA-6]] (-) Unknown amounts of [[Strela 2|SA-7 Grail]] (-) 15 [[9K33 Osa|SA-8]] (-) 20 [[9K31 Strela-1|SA-9 Gaskin]] (-) 10 [[9K35 Strela-10|SA-13]] (-) Unknown amounts of [[9K34 Strela-3|SA-14 Gremlin]] and [[9K38 Igla|SA-16 Gimlet]].", "id": "709", "title": "Angolan Armed Forces", "categories": ["Military of Angola", "Military history of Angola", "Angolan Civil War", "1991 establishments in Angola", "Military units and formations established in 1991"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Air Force"], "text": "The [[National Air Force of Angola]] (FANA, ''Força Aérea Nacional de Angola'') is the air component of the FAA. It is organized in six aviation regiments, each including several squadrons. To each of the regiments correspond an air base. Besides the aviation regiments, there is also a Pilot Training School. The Air Force's personnel total about 8,000; its equipment includes transport aircraft and six [[Russia]]-manufactured [[Sukhoi Su-27]] [[fighter aircraft]]. In 2002 one was lost during the civil war with UNITA forces. In 1991, the Air Force/Air Defense Forces had 8,000 personnel and 90 combat-capable aircraft, including 22 fighters, 59 fighter ground attack aircraft and 16 attack helicopters.", "id": "709", "title": "Angolan Armed Forces", "categories": ["Military of Angola", "Military history of Angola", "Angolan Civil War", "1991 establishments in Angola", "Military units and formations established in 1991"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Navy"], "text": "The Angola Navy (MGA, ''Marinha de Guerra de Angola'') is the naval component of the FAA. It is organized in two naval zones (North and South), with naval bases in Luanda, Lobito and Moçâmedes. It includes a Marines Brigade and a Marines School, based in Ambriz. The Navy numbers about 1,000 personnel and operates only a handful of small patrol craft and barges. The Navy has been neglected and ignored as a military arm mainly due to the guerrilla struggle against the Portuguese and the nature of the civil war. From the early 1990s to the present the Angolan Navy has shrunk from around 4,200 personnel to around 1,000, resulting in the loss of skills and expertise needed to maintain equipment. In order to protect Angola's 1 600 km long coastline, the Angolan Navy is undergoing modernisation but is still lacking in many ways. Portugal has been providing training through its Technical Military Cooperation (CTM) programme. The Navy is requesting procurement of a frigate, three corvettes, three offshore patrol vessel and additional fast patrol boats. Most of the vessels in the navy's inventory dates back from the 1980s or earlier, and many of its ships are inoperable due to age and lack of maintenance. However the navy acquired new boats from Spain and France in the 1990s. Germany has delivered several [[Fast Attack Craft]] for border protection in 2011. In September 2014 it was reported that the Angolan Navy would acquire seven [[Macaé-class patrol vessel]] from Brazil as part of a Technical Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) covering the production of the vessels as part of Angola's Naval Power Development Programme (Pronaval). The military of Angola aims to modernize its naval capability, presumably due to a rise in maritime piracy within the Gulf of Guinea which may have an adverse effect on the country's economy. The navy's current known inventory includes the following: (-) [[Fast attack craft]] (-) 4 Mandume class craft (Bazan Cormoran type, refurbished in 2009) (-) [[Patrol boat|Patrol Boats]] (-) 3 18.3m long Patrulheiro patrol boats (refurbished in 2002) (-) 5 ARESA PVC-170 (-) 2 [[Namacurra-class harbour patrol boat]] (-) Fisheries Patrol Boats (-) Ngola Kiluange and Nzinga Mbandi (delivered in September and October 2012 from [[Damen Group|Damen Shipyards]])(Operated by Navy personnel under the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries) (-) 28 metre FRV 2810 (Pensador) (Operated by Navy personnel under the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries) (-) Landing craft (-) [[LDM-400]] - 1 or 3 (reportedly has serviceability issues) (-) Coastal defense equipment (CRTOC) (-) [[SS-C1]] Sepal radar system The navy also has several aircraft for maritime patrol:", "id": "709", "title": "Angolan Armed Forces", "categories": ["Military of Angola", "Military history of Angola", "Angolan Civil War", "1991 establishments in Angola", "Military units and formations established in 1991"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Special forces"], "text": "The FAA include several types of special forces, namely the Commandos, the Special Operations and the Marines. The Angolan special forces follow the general model of the analogous Portuguese special forces, receiving a similar training. The Commandos and the Special forces are part of the Special Forces Brigade (BRIFE, ''Brigada de Forças Especiais''), based at Cabo Ledo, in the [[Bengo Province]]. The BRIFE includes two battalions of commandos, a battalion of special operations and sub-units of combat support and service support. The BRIFE also included the Special Actions Group (GAE, ''Grupo de Ações Especiais''), which is presently inactive and that was dedicated to long range reconnaissance, covert and sabotage operations. In the Cabo Ledo base is also installed the Special Forces Training School (EFFE, ''Escola de Formação de Forças Especiais''). Both the BRIFE and the EFFE are directly under the Directorate of Special Forces of the General Staff of the Armed Forces. The marines (''fuzileiros navais'') constitute the Marines Brigade of the Angolan Navy. The Marines Brigade is not permanently dependent of the Directorate of Special Forces, but can detach their units and elements to be put under the command of that body for the conduction of exercises or real operations. Since the disbandment of the Angolan Parachute Battalion in 2004, the FAA do not have a specialized paratrooper unit. However, elements of the commandos, special operations and marines are parachute qualified.", "id": "709", "title": "Angolan Armed Forces", "categories": ["Military of Angola", "Military history of Angola", "Angolan Civil War", "1991 establishments in Angola", "Military units and formations established in 1991"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Foreign deployments"], "text": "The FAPLA's main counterinsurgency effort was directed against UNITA in the southeast, and its conventional capabilities were demonstrated principally in the undeclared [[South African Border War]]. The FAPLA first performed its external assistance mission with the dispatch of 1,000 to 1,500 troops to [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] in 1977 to bolster the socialist regime of President Manuel Pinto da Costa. During the next several years, Angolan forces conducted joint exercises with their counterparts and exchanged technical operational visits. The Angolan expeditionary force was reduced to about 500 in early 1985. The Angolan Armed Forces were controversially involved in training the armed forces of fellow [[Lusophone]] states [[Cape Verde]] and Guinea-Bissau. In the case of the latter, the [[2012 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état]] was cited by the coup leaders as due to Angola's involvement in trying to \"reform\" the military in connivance with the civilian leadership. A small number of FAA personnel are stationed in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (Kinshasa) and the [[Republic of the Congo]] (Brazzaville). A presence during the unrest in [[Ivory Coast]], 2010–2011, were not officially confirmed. However, the ''[[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]]'', citing ''[[Jeune Afrique]]'', said that among President [[Gbagbo]]'s guards were 92 personnel of President Dos Santos's [[Presidential Guard Unit]]. Angola is basically interested in the participation of the FAA operations of the [[African Union]] and has formed special units for this purpose.", "id": "709", "title": "Angolan Armed Forces", "categories": ["Military of Angola", "Military history of Angola", "Angolan Civil War", "1991 establishments in Angola", "Military units and formations established in 1991"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "The '''foreign relations of Angola''' are based on Angola's strong support of [[U.S. foreign policy]] as the [[Angolan economy]] is dependent on U.S. foreign aid. From 1975 to 1989, [[Angola]] was aligned with the [[Eastern bloc]], in particular the [[Soviet Union]], [[History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi#Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1977–2012)|Libya]], and [[Cuba]]. Since then, it has focused on improving relationships with [[Western world|Western countries]], cultivating links with other Portuguese-speaking countries, and asserting its own national interests in [[Central Africa]] through military and diplomatic intervention. In 1993, it established formal diplomatic relations with the [[United States]]. It has entered the [[Southern African Development Community]] as a vehicle for improving ties with its largely Anglophone neighbors to the south. [[Zimbabwe]] and [[Namibia]] joined Angola in its military intervention in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], where Angolan troops remain in support of the [[Joseph Kabila]] government. It also has intervened in the [[Republic of the Congo]] (Brazzaville) to support the existing government in that country. Since 1998, Angola has successfully worked with the [[United Nations Security Council]] to impose and carry out sanctions on [[UNITA]]. More recently, it has extended those efforts to controls on [[conflict diamonds]], the primary source of revenue for UNITA during the Civil War that ended in 2002. At the same time, Angola has promoted the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries ([[CPLP]]) as a forum for cultural exchange and expanding ties with [[Portugal]] (its former ruler) and [[Brazil]] (which shares many cultural affinities with Angola) in particular. Angola is a member of the [[Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa]] (PMAESA).", "id": "710", "title": "Foreign relations of Angola", "categories": ["Foreign relations of Angola"], "seealso": ["List of diplomatic missions of Angola", "List of diplomatic missions in Angola", "Visa requirements for Angolan citizens"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Albert Sidney Johnston''' (February 2, 1803 – April 6, 1862) served as a [[General officer|general]] in three different armies: the [[Texian Army]], the [[United States Army]], and the [[Confederate States Army]]. He saw extensive combat during his 34-year military career, fighting actions in the [[Black Hawk War]], the [[Texas War of Independence]], the [[Mexican–American War]], the [[Utah War]], and the [[American Civil War]]. Considered by Confederate States President [[Jefferson Davis]] to be the finest general officer in the Confederacy before the later emergence of [[Robert E. Lee]], he was killed early in the Civil War at the [[Battle of Shiloh]] on April 6, 1862. Johnston was the highest-ranking officer, Union or Confederate, killed during the entire war. Davis believed the loss of General Johnston \"was the turning point of our fate.\" Johnston was unrelated to Confederate general [[Joseph E. Johnston]].", "id": "711", "title": "Albert Sidney Johnston", "categories": ["1803 births", "1862 deaths", "Albert Sidney Johnston", "Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War", "Deaths from bleeding", "Burials at Texas State Cemetery", "Confederate States Army full generals", "People from Washington, Kentucky", "People from Texas", "People of California in the American Civil War", "People of Texas in the American Civil War", "American people of the Black Hawk War", "Transylvania University alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Military Academy alumni", "People of the Texas Revolution", "People of the Utah War", "United States politicians killed during the Civil War"], "seealso": ["List of Confederate monuments and memorials", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)"]}
{"headers": ["Early life and education"], "text": "Johnston was born in [[Washington, Kentucky]], the youngest son of Dr. John and Abigail (Harris) Johnston. His father was a native of [[Salisbury, Connecticut]]. Although Albert Johnston was born in Kentucky, he lived much of his life in [[Texas]], which he considered his home. He was first educated at [[Transylvania University]] in [[Lexington, Kentucky]], where he met fellow student [[Jefferson Davis]]. Both were appointed to the [[United States Military Academy]] at [[West Point, New York]], Davis two years behind Johnston. In 1826, Johnston graduated eighth of 41 cadets in his class from West Point with a commission as a [[brevet (military)|brevet]] [[Second Lieutenant#United States|second lieutenant]] in the [[2nd Infantry Regiment (United States)|2nd U.S. Infantry]]. Johnston was assigned to posts in [[New York (state)|New York]] and [[Missouri]] and served in the brief [[Black Hawk War]] in 1832 as chief of staff to Bvt. Brig. Gen. [[Henry Atkinson (soldier)|Henry Atkinson]].", "id": "711", "title": "Albert Sidney Johnston", "categories": ["1803 births", "1862 deaths", "Albert Sidney Johnston", "Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War", "Deaths from bleeding", "Burials at Texas State Cemetery", "Confederate States Army full generals", "People from Washington, Kentucky", "People from Texas", "People of California in the American Civil War", "People of Texas in the American Civil War", "American people of the Black Hawk War", "Transylvania University alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Military Academy alumni", "People of the Texas Revolution", "People of the Utah War", "United States politicians killed during the Civil War"], "seealso": ["List of Confederate monuments and memorials", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)"]}
{"headers": ["Marriage and family"], "text": "In 1829 he married Henrietta Preston, sister of Kentucky politician and future Civil War general [[William Preston (Kentucky soldier)|William Preston]]. They had one son, [[William Preston Johnston]], who became a colonel in the Confederate States Army. The senior Johnston resigned his commission in 1834 in order to care for his dying wife in Kentucky, who succumbed two years later to [[tuberculosis]]. After serving as Secretary of War for the Republic of Texas from 1838 to 1840, Johnston resigned and returned to Kentucky. In 1843, he married Eliza Griffin, his late wife's first cousin. The couple moved to Texas, where they settled on a large [[Plantations in the American South|plantation]] in [[Brazoria County, Texas|Brazoria County]]. Johnston named the property \"China Grove\". Here they raised Johnston's two children from his first marriage and the first three children born to Eliza and him. A sixth child was born later when the family lived in [[Los Angeles]], where they had permanently settled.", "id": "711", "title": "Albert Sidney Johnston", "categories": ["1803 births", "1862 deaths", "Albert Sidney Johnston", "Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War", "Deaths from bleeding", "Burials at Texas State Cemetery", "Confederate States Army full generals", "People from Washington, Kentucky", "People from Texas", "People of California in the American Civil War", "People of Texas in the American Civil War", "American people of the Black Hawk War", "Transylvania University alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Military Academy alumni", "People of the Texas Revolution", "People of the Utah War", "United States politicians killed during the Civil War"], "seealso": ["List of Confederate monuments and memorials", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)"]}
{"headers": ["Texian Army"], "text": "In 1836 Johnston moved to Texas. He enlisted as a [[Private (rank)|private]] in the Texian Army during the [[Texas War of Independence]] from the Republic of Mexico. He was named [[Adjutant General of Texas|Adjutant General]] as a [[Colonel (United States)|colonel]] in the Republic of Texas Army on August 5, 1836. On January 31, 1837, he became senior [[brigadier general]] in command of the Texas Army. On February 5, 1837, he fought in a duel with Texas Brig. Gen. [[Felix Huston]], who was angered and offended by Johnston's promotion. Johnston was shot through the hip and severely wounded, requiring him to relinquish his post during his recovery. On December 22, 1838, [[Mirabeau B. Lamar]], the second president of the [[Republic of Texas]], appointed Johnston as Secretary of War. He provided for the defense of the Texas border against Mexican invasion, and in 1839 conducted a campaign against [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] in northern Texas. In February 1840, he resigned and returned to Kentucky.", "id": "711", "title": "Albert Sidney Johnston", "categories": ["1803 births", "1862 deaths", "Albert Sidney Johnston", "Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War", "Deaths from bleeding", "Burials at Texas State Cemetery", "Confederate States Army full generals", "People from Washington, Kentucky", "People from Texas", "People of California in the American Civil War", "People of Texas in the American Civil War", "American people of the Black Hawk War", "Transylvania University alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Military Academy alumni", "People of the Texas Revolution", "People of the Utah War", "United States politicians killed during the Civil War"], "seealso": ["List of Confederate monuments and memorials", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)"]}
{"headers": ["United States Army"], "text": "Johnston returned to Texas during the [[Mexican–American War]] (1846–1848), under General [[Zachary Taylor]] as a [[Colonel (United States)|colonel]] of the 1st Texas Rifle Volunteers. The enlistments of his volunteers ran out just before the [[Battle of Monterrey]]. Johnston convinced a few volunteers to stay and fight as he served as the inspector general of volunteers and fought at the battles of Monterrey and [[Battle of Buena Vista|Buena Vista]]. He remained on his plantation after the war until he was appointed by later 12th president [[Zachary Taylor]] to the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] as a [[Major (United States)|major]] and was made a paymaster in December 1849. He served in that role for more than five years, making six tours, and traveling more than annually on the Indian frontier of Texas. He served on the Texas frontier at [[Fort Mason (Texas)|Fort Mason]] and elsewhere in the West. In 1855, 14th president [[Franklin Pierce]] appointed him colonel of the new 2nd U.S. Cavalry (the unit that preceded the modern [[5th Cavalry Regiment (United States)|5th U.S.]]), a new regiment, which he organized, his lieut.-colonel being Robert E. Lee, and his majors were Hardee and Thomas. On August 19, 1856, Gen. [[Persifor Smith]], at the request of Kansas Territorial Governor Wilson Shannon, sent Col. Johnston with 1300 men composed of the 2d Cavalry Dragoons from [[Fort Riley]], a battalion of the 6th Infantry and [[Albion P. Howe|Capt. Howe's]] artillery company from [[Jefferson Barracks Military Post|Jefferson Barracks]], near [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] to protect the [[Kansas Territory|territorial]] capital at [[Lecompton, Kansas|Lecompton]] from an imminent attack by [[James Henry Lane (Union general)|James Henry Lane]] and his abolitionist \"Army of the North.\"", "id": "711", "title": "Albert Sidney Johnston", "categories": ["1803 births", "1862 deaths", "Albert Sidney Johnston", "Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War", "Deaths from bleeding", "Burials at Texas State Cemetery", "Confederate States Army full generals", "People from Washington, Kentucky", "People from Texas", "People of California in the American Civil War", "People of Texas in the American Civil War", "American people of the Black Hawk War", "Transylvania University alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Military Academy alumni", "People of the Texas Revolution", "People of the Utah War", "United States politicians killed during the Civil War"], "seealso": ["List of Confederate monuments and memorials", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)"]}
{"headers": ["Utah War"], "text": "As a key figure in the [[Utah War]], Johnston took command of the U.S forces in November 1857. This army was sent to install Alfred Cummings as governor of the Utah territory, in place of Brigham Young. After the army wintered at Fort Bridger, Wyoming, a peaceful resolution was reached and in late June 1858 Johnston led the army through Salt Lake city without incident to establish [[Camp Floyd]] some 50 miles distant. He received a [[Brevet (military)|brevet]] promotion to [[Brigadier general (United States)|brigadier general]] in 1857 for his service in Utah. He spent 1860 in Kentucky until December 21, when he sailed for California to take command of the Department of the Pacific.", "id": "711", "title": "Albert Sidney Johnston", "categories": ["1803 births", "1862 deaths", "Albert Sidney Johnston", "Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War", "Deaths from bleeding", "Burials at Texas State Cemetery", "Confederate States Army full generals", "People from Washington, Kentucky", "People from Texas", "People of California in the American Civil War", "People of Texas in the American Civil War", "American people of the Black Hawk War", "Transylvania University alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Military Academy alumni", "People of the Texas Revolution", "People of the Utah War", "United States politicians killed during the Civil War"], "seealso": ["List of Confederate monuments and memorials", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)"]}
{"headers": ["Slavery"], "text": "Johnston was a proponent of slavery and a slaveholder. In 1846 he owned a family of four slaves in Texas. In 1855, he sold a slave for $1,000 and called this slave's tenure \"a lifetime of kind treatment.\" In 1856, he called [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionism]] \"fanatical, idolotrous, negro worshipping\" in a letter to his son. Upon moving to California, Johnston sold one slave to his son and freed another on the condition of a $12/month contract for five more years of servitude. Johnston's wife, Eliza, celebrated the lack of black people in California, writing \"where the darky is in any numbers it should be as slaves.\"", "id": "711", "title": "Albert Sidney Johnston", "categories": ["1803 births", "1862 deaths", "Albert Sidney Johnston", "Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War", "Deaths from bleeding", "Burials at Texas State Cemetery", "Confederate States Army full generals", "People from Washington, Kentucky", "People from Texas", "People of California in the American Civil War", "People of Texas in the American Civil War", "American people of the Black Hawk War", "Transylvania University alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Military Academy alumni", "People of the Texas Revolution", "People of the Utah War", "United States politicians killed during the Civil War"], "seealso": ["List of Confederate monuments and memorials", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)"]}
{"headers": ["Civil War"], "text": "At the outbreak of the [[American Civil War]], Johnston was the commander of the U.S. Army [[Department of the Pacific]] in [[California and the Civil War|California]]. Like many regular army officers from the South, he was opposed to secession. But he resigned his commission soon after he heard of the secession of the Southern states. It was accepted by the War Department on May 6, 1861, effective May 3. On April 28 he moved to Los Angeles, the home of his wife's brother [[John Strother Griffin|John Griffin]]. Considering staying in California with his wife and five children, Johnston remained there until May. A sixth child was born in the family home at Los Angeles, where his eldest son, Capt. Albert S. Johnston, Jr. was later killed in an accidental explosion on a steamer ship while on liberty, in 1863. Soon, Johnston enlisted in the [[Los Angeles Mounted Rifles]] as a private, leaving [[Warner's Ranch]] May 27. He participated in their trek across the southwestern deserts to Texas, crossing the [[Colorado River]] into the [[Confederate Territory of Arizona]] on July 4, 1861. His escort was commanded by [[Alonzo Ridley]], Undersheriff of Los Angeles, who remained at Johnston's side until he was killed. Early in the Civil War, Confederate President [[Jefferson Davis]] decided that the Confederacy would attempt to hold as much of its territory as possible, and therefore distributed military forces around its borders and coasts. In the summer of 1861, Davis appointed several generals to defend Confederate lines from the Mississippi River east to the Allegheny Mountains. The most sensitive, and in many ways the most crucial areas, along the Mississippi River and in western Tennessee along the [[Tennessee River|Tennessee]] and the [[Cumberland River|Cumberland]] rivers were placed under the command of [[Major General (CSA)|Maj. Gen.]] [[Leonidas Polk]] and [[Brigadier General (CSA)|Brig. Gen.]] [[Gideon J. Pillow]]. The latter had initially been in command in Tennessee as that State's top general. Their impolitic occupation of [[Columbus, Kentucky]], on September 3, 1861, two days before Johnston arrived in the Confederacy's capital of [[Richmond in the American Civil War|Richmond, Virginia]], after his cross-country journey, drove Kentucky from its stated neutrality. The majority of Kentuckians allied with the Union camp. Polk and Pillow's action gave Union [[Brigadier general (United States)|Brig. Gen.]] [[Ulysses S. Grant]] an excuse to take control of the strategically located town of [[Paducah, Kentucky]], without raising the ire of most Kentuckians and the pro-Union majority in the State legislature.", "id": "711", "title": "Albert Sidney Johnston", "categories": ["1803 births", "1862 deaths", "Albert Sidney Johnston", "Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War", "Deaths from bleeding", "Burials at Texas State Cemetery", "Confederate States Army full generals", "People from Washington, Kentucky", "People from Texas", "People of California in the American Civil War", "People of Texas in the American Civil War", "American people of the Black Hawk War", "Transylvania University alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Military Academy alumni", "People of the Texas Revolution", "People of the Utah War", "United States politicians killed during the Civil War"], "seealso": ["List of Confederate monuments and memorials", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)"]}
{"headers": ["Civil War", "Confederate command in Western Theater"], "text": "On September 10, 1861, Johnston was assigned to command the huge area of the Confederacy west of the Allegheny Mountains, except for coastal areas. He became commander of the Confederacy's western armies in the area often called the [[Western Theater of the American Civil War|Western Department]] or Western Military Department. Johnston's appointment as a [[General (CSA)|full general]] by his friend and admirer Jefferson Davis already had been confirmed by the Confederate Senate on August 31, 1861. The appointment had been backdated to rank from May 30, 1861, making him the second highest ranking general in the Confederate States Army. Only Adjutant General and Inspector General [[Samuel Cooper (general)|Samuel Cooper]] ranked ahead of him. After his appointment, Johnston immediately headed for his new territory. He was permitted to call on governors of Arkansas, Tennessee and Mississippi for new troops, although this authority was largely stifled by politics, especially with respect to Mississippi. On September 13, 1861, Johnston ordered Brig. Gen. [[Felix Zollicoffer]] with 4,000 men to occupy [[Cumberland Gap]] in Kentucky in order to block Union troops from coming into eastern Tennessee. The Kentucky legislature had voted to side with the Union after the occupation of Columbus by Polk. By September 18, Johnston had Brig. Gen. [[Simon Bolivar Buckner]] with another 4,000 men blocking the railroad route to Tennessee at [[Bowling Green, Kentucky]]. Johnston had fewer than 40,000 men spread throughout Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas and Missouri. Of these, 10,000 were in Missouri under [[Missouri State Guard]] Maj. Gen. [[Sterling Price]]. Johnston did not quickly gain many recruits when he first requested them from the governors, but his more serious problem was lacking sufficient arms and ammunition for the troops he already had. As the Confederate government concentrated efforts on the units in the East, they gave Johnston small numbers of reinforcements and minimal amounts of arms and material. Johnston maintained his defense by conducting raids and other measures to make it appear he had larger forces than he did, a strategy that worked for several months. Johnston's tactics had so annoyed and confused Union Brig. Gen. [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] in Kentucky that he became paranoid and mentally unstable. Sherman overestimated Johnston's forces, and had to be relieved by Brig. Gen. [[Don Carlos Buell]] on November 9, 1861. However, in his Memoirs Sherman strongly refutes this account.", "id": "711", "title": "Albert Sidney Johnston", "categories": ["1803 births", "1862 deaths", "Albert Sidney Johnston", "Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War", "Deaths from bleeding", "Burials at Texas State Cemetery", "Confederate States Army full generals", "People from Washington, Kentucky", "People from Texas", "People of California in the American Civil War", "People of Texas in the American Civil War", "American people of the Black Hawk War", "Transylvania University alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Military Academy alumni", "People of the Texas Revolution", "People of the Utah War", "United States politicians killed during the Civil War"], "seealso": ["List of Confederate monuments and memorials", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)"]}
{"headers": ["Civil War", "Battle of Mill Springs"], "text": "[[East Tennessee]] (a heavily [[Southern Unionist|pro-Union region of the South]] during the Civil War) was held for the Confederacy by two unimpressive brigadier generals appointed by Jefferson Davis: [[Felix Zollicoffer]], a brave but untrained and inexperienced officer, and soon-to-be Maj. Gen. [[George B. Crittenden]], a former U.S. Army officer with apparent alcohol problems. While Crittenden was away in Richmond, Zollicoffer moved his forces to the north bank of the upper Cumberland River near Mill Springs (now [[Nancy, Kentucky]]), putting the river to his back and his forces into a trap. Zollicoffer decided it was impossible to obey orders to return to the other side of the river because of scarcity of transport and proximity of Union troops. When Union Brig. Gen. [[George H. Thomas]] moved against the Confederates, Crittenden decided to attack one of the two parts of Thomas's command at Logan's Cross Roads near Mill Springs before the Union forces could unite. At the [[Battle of Mill Springs]] on January 19, 1862, the ill-prepared Confederates, after a night march in the rain, attacked the Union force with some initial success. As the battle progressed, Zollicoffer was killed, Crittenden was unable to lead the Confederate force (he may have been intoxicated), and the Confederates were turned back and routed by a Union bayonet charge, suffering 533 casualties from their force of 4,000. The Confederate troops who escaped were assigned to other units as General Crittenden faced an investigation of his conduct. After the Confederate defeat at the Mill Springs, Davis sent Johnston a brigade and a few other scattered reinforcements. He also assigned him Gen. [[P. G. T. Beauregard]], who was supposed to attract recruits because of his victories early in the war, and act as a competent subordinate for Johnston. The brigade was led by Brig. Gen. [[John B. Floyd]], considered incompetent. He took command at [[Fort Donelson]] as the senior general present just before Union Brig. Gen. [[Ulysses S. Grant]] attacked the fort. Historians believe the assignment of Beauregard to the west stimulated Union commanders to attack the forts before Beauregard could make a difference in the theater. Union officers heard that he was bringing 15 regiments with him, but this was an exaggeration of his forces.", "id": "711", "title": "Albert Sidney Johnston", "categories": ["1803 births", "1862 deaths", "Albert Sidney Johnston", "Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War", "Deaths from bleeding", "Burials at Texas State Cemetery", "Confederate States Army full generals", "People from Washington, Kentucky", "People from Texas", "People of California in the American Civil War", "People of Texas in the American Civil War", "American people of the Black Hawk War", "Transylvania University alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Military Academy alumni", "People of the Texas Revolution", "People of the Utah War", "United States politicians killed during the Civil War"], "seealso": ["List of Confederate monuments and memorials", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)"]}
{"headers": ["Civil War", "Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, Nashville"], "text": "Based on the assumption that Kentucky neutrality would act as a shield against a direct invasion from the north, circumstances that no longer applied in September 1861, Tennessee initially had sent men to Virginia and concentrated defenses in the Mississippi Valley. Even before Johnston arrived in Tennessee, construction of two forts had been started to defend the [[Tennessee River|Tennessee]] and the [[Cumberland River|Cumberland]] rivers, which provided avenues into the State from the north. Both forts were located in Tennessee in order to respect Kentucky neutrality, but these were not in ideal locations. [[Battle of Fort Henry|Fort Henry]] on the Tennessee River was in an unfavorable low-lying location, commanded by hills on the Kentucky side of the river. [[Fort Donelson]] on the Cumberland River, although in a better location, had a vulnerable land side and did not have enough heavy artillery to defend against gunboats. Maj. Gen. Polk ignored the problems of the forts when he took command. After Johnston took command, Polk at first refused to comply with Johnston's order to send an engineer, Lt. Joseph K. Dixon, to inspect the forts. After Johnston asserted his authority, Polk had to allow Dixon to proceed. Dixon recommended that the forts be maintained and strengthened, although they were not in ideal locations, because much work had been done on them and the Confederates might not have time to build new ones. Johnston accepted his recommendations. Johnston wanted Major [[Alexander P. Stewart]] to command the forts but President Davis appointed Brig. Gen. [[Lloyd Tilghman]] as commander. To prevent Polk from dissipating his forces by allowing some men to join a partisan group, Johnston ordered him to send Brig. Gen. Gideon Pillow and 5,000 men to Fort Donelson. Pillow took up a position at nearby [[Clarksville, Tennessee]] and did not move into the fort until February 7, 1862. Alerted by a Union reconnaissance on January 14, 1862, Johnston ordered Tilghman to fortify the high ground opposite Fort Henry, which Polk had failed to do despite Johnston's orders. Tilghman failed to act decisively on these orders, which in any event were too late to be adequately carried out. Gen. Beauregard arrived at Johnston's headquarters at Bowling Green on February 4, 1862, and was given overall command of Polk's force at the western end of Johnston's line at Columbus, Kentucky. On February 6, 1862, [[Union Navy]] gunboats quickly reduced the defenses of ill-sited Fort Henry, inflicting 21 casualties on the small remaining Confederate force. Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman surrendered the 94 remaining officers and men of his approximately 3,000-man force which had not been sent to Fort Donelson before U.S. Grant's force could even take up their positions. Johnston knew he could be trapped at Bowling Green if Fort Donelson fell, so he moved his force to [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]], the capital of Tennessee and an increasingly important Confederate industrial center, beginning on February 11, 1862.", "id": "711", "title": "Albert Sidney Johnston", "categories": ["1803 births", "1862 deaths", "Albert Sidney Johnston", "Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War", "Deaths from bleeding", "Burials at Texas State Cemetery", "Confederate States Army full generals", "People from Washington, Kentucky", "People from Texas", "People of California in the American Civil War", "People of Texas in the American Civil War", "American people of the Black Hawk War", "Transylvania University alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Military Academy alumni", "People of the Texas Revolution", "People of the Utah War", "United States politicians killed during the Civil War"], "seealso": ["List of Confederate monuments and memorials", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)"]}
{"headers": ["Civil War", "Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, Nashville"], "text": "Johnston also reinforced Fort Donelson with 12,000 more men, including those under Floyd and Pillow, a curious decision in view of his thought that the Union gunboats alone might be able to take the fort. He did order the commanders of the fort to evacuate the troops if the fort could not be held. The senior generals sent to the fort to command the enlarged garrison, Gideon J. Pillow and John B. Floyd, squandered their chance to avoid having to surrender most of the garrison and on February 16, 1862, Brig. Gen. Simon Buckner, having been abandoned by Floyd and Pillow, surrendered Fort Donelson. Colonel [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]] escaped with his cavalry force of about 700 men before the surrender. The Confederates suffered about 1,500 casualties with an estimated 12,000 to 14,000 taken prisoner. Union casualties were 500 killed, 2,108 wounded, 224 missing. Johnston, who had little choice in allowing Floyd and Pillow to take charge at Fort Donelson on the basis of seniority after he ordered them to add their forces to the garrison, took the blame and suffered calls for his removal because a full explanation to the press and public would have exposed the weakness of the Confederate position. His passive defensive performance while positioning himself in a forward position at Bowling Green, spreading his forces too thinly, not concentrating his forces in the face of Union advances, and appointing or relying upon inadequate or incompetent subordinates subjected him to criticism at the time and by later historians. The fall of the forts exposed Nashville to imminent attack, and it fell without resistance to Union forces under Brig. Gen. Buell on February 25, 1862, two days after Johnston had to pull his forces out in order to avoid having them captured as well.", "id": "711", "title": "Albert Sidney Johnston", "categories": ["1803 births", "1862 deaths", "Albert Sidney Johnston", "Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War", "Deaths from bleeding", "Burials at Texas State Cemetery", "Confederate States Army full generals", "People from Washington, Kentucky", "People from Texas", "People of California in the American Civil War", "People of Texas in the American Civil War", "American people of the Black Hawk War", "Transylvania University alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Military Academy alumni", "People of the Texas Revolution", "People of the Utah War", "United States politicians killed during the Civil War"], "seealso": ["List of Confederate monuments and memorials", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)"]}
{"headers": ["Civil War", "Concentration at Corinth"], "text": "Johnston had various remaining military units scattered throughout his territory and retreating to the south to avoid being cut off. Johnston himself retreated with the force under his personal command, the [[Army of Central Kentucky]], from the vicinity of Nashville. With Beauregard's help, Johnston decided to concentrate forces with those formerly under Polk and now already under Beauregard's command at the strategically located railroad crossroads of [[Corinth, Mississippi]], which he reached by a circuitous route. Johnston kept the Union forces, now under the overall command of the ponderous Maj. Gen. [[Henry Halleck]], confused and hesitant to move, allowing Johnston to reach his objective undetected. This delay allowed Jefferson Davis finally to send reinforcements from the garrisons of coastal cities and another highly rated but prickly general, [[Braxton Bragg]], to help organize the western forces. Bragg at least calmed the nerves of Beauregard and Polk, who had become agitated by their apparent dire situation in the face of numerically superior forces, before Johnston's arrival on March 24, 1862. Johnston's army of 17,000 men gave the Confederates a combined force of about 40,000 to 44,669 men at Corinth. On March 29, 1862, Johnston officially took command of this combined force, which continued to use the Army of the Mississippi name under which it had been organized by Beauregard on March 5. Johnston now planned to defeat the Union forces piecemeal before the various Union units in Kentucky and Tennessee under Grant with 40,000 men at nearby [[Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee]], and the now Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell on his way from Nashville with 35,000 men, could unite against him. Johnston started his army in motion on April 3, 1862, intent on surprising Grant's force as soon as the next day, but they moved slowly due to their inexperience, bad roads, and lack of adequate staff planning. Due to the delays, as well as several contacts with the enemy, Johnston's second in command, [[P. G. T. Beauregard]], felt the element of surprise had been lost and recommended calling off the attack. Johnston decided to proceed as planned, stating \"I would fight them if they were a million.\" His army was finally in position within a mile or two of Grant's force, and undetected, by the evening of April 5, 1862.", "id": "711", "title": "Albert Sidney Johnston", "categories": ["1803 births", "1862 deaths", "Albert Sidney Johnston", "Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War", "Deaths from bleeding", "Burials at Texas State Cemetery", "Confederate States Army full generals", "People from Washington, Kentucky", "People from Texas", "People of California in the American Civil War", "People of Texas in the American Civil War", "American people of the Black Hawk War", "Transylvania University alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Military Academy alumni", "People of the Texas Revolution", "People of the Utah War", "United States politicians killed during the Civil War"], "seealso": ["List of Confederate monuments and memorials", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)"]}
{"headers": ["Civil War", "Battle of Shiloh and death"], "text": "Johnston launched a massive surprise attack with his concentrated forces against Grant at the [[Battle of Shiloh]] on April 6, 1862. As the Confederate forces overran the Union camps, Johnston personally rallied troops up and down the line on his horse. One of his most famous moments in the battle occurred when he witnessed some of his soldiers breaking from the ranks to pillage and loot the Union camps, and was outraged to see a young lieutenant among them. \"None of that, sir,\" Johnston roared at the officer, \"we are not here for plunder.\" Then, realizing he had embarrassed the man, he picked up a tin cup off a table and announced, \"Let this be my share of the spoils today,\" before directing his army onward. At about 2:30 pm, while leading one of those charges against a Union camp near the \"Peach Orchard,\" he was wounded, taking a bullet behind his right knee. The bullet clipped a part of his [[popliteal artery]] and his boot filled up with blood. There were no medical personnel on scene at the time, since Johnston had sent his personal surgeon to care for the wounded Confederate troops and Union prisoners earlier in the battle. Within a few minutes, Johnston was observed by his staff to be nearly fainting. Among his staff was [[Isham G. Harris]], the [[Governor of Tennessee]], who had ceased to make any real effort to function as governor after learning that [[Abraham Lincoln]] had appointed [[Andrew Johnson]] as military governor of Tennessee. Seeing Johnston slumping in his saddle and his face turning deathly pale, Harris asked: \"General, are you wounded?\" Johnston glanced down at his leg wound, then faced Harris and replied in a weak voice his last words: \"Yes... and I fear seriously.\" Harris and other staff officers removed Johnston from his horse and carried him to a small ravine near the \"Hornets Nest\" and desperately tried to aid the general, who had lost consciousness by this point. Harris then sent an aide to fetch Johnston's surgeon but did not apply a [[tourniquet]] to Johnson's wounded leg. A few minutes later, before a doctor could be found, Johnston died from blood loss. It is believed that Johnston may have lived for as long as one hour after receiving his fatal wound. Ironically, it was later discovered that Johnston had a tourniquet in his pocket when he died.", "id": "711", "title": "Albert Sidney Johnston", "categories": ["1803 births", "1862 deaths", "Albert Sidney Johnston", "Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War", "Deaths from bleeding", "Burials at Texas State Cemetery", "Confederate States Army full generals", "People from Washington, Kentucky", "People from Texas", "People of California in the American Civil War", "People of Texas in the American Civil War", "American people of the Black Hawk War", "Transylvania University alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Military Academy alumni", "People of the Texas Revolution", "People of the Utah War", "United States politicians killed during the Civil War"], "seealso": ["List of Confederate monuments and memorials", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)"]}
{"headers": ["Civil War", "Battle of Shiloh and death"], "text": "Harris and the other officers wrapped General Johnston's body in a blanket so as not to damage the troops' morale with the sight of the dead general. Johnston and his wounded horse, Fire Eater, were taken to his field headquarters on the Corinth road, where his body remained in his tent for the remainder of the battle. P. G. T. Beauregard assumed command of the army and resumed leading the Confederate assault, which continued advancing and pushed the Union force back to a final defensive line near the Tennessee river. With his army exhausted and daylight almost gone, Beauregard called off the final Confederate attack around 1900 hours, figuring he could finish off the Union army the following morning. However, Grant was reinforced by 20,000 fresh troops from [[Don Carlos Buell]]'s [[Army of the Ohio]] during the night, and led a successful counter-attack the following day, driving the Confederates from the field and winning the battle. As the Confederate army retreated back to Corinth, Johnston's body was taken to the home of Colonel William Inge, which had been his headquarters in Corinth. It was covered in the Confederate flag and lay in state for several hours. It is possible that a Confederate soldier fired the fatal round, as many Confederates were firing at the Union lines while Johnston charged well in advance of his soldiers. [[Alonzo Ridley]] of [[Los Angeles]] commanded the bodyguard “the Guides” of Gen. A. S. Johnston, and was by his side when he fell. Johnston was the highest-ranking fatality of the war on either side, and his death was a strong blow to the morale of the Confederacy. At the time, Davis considered him the best general in the country.", "id": "711", "title": "Albert Sidney Johnston", "categories": ["1803 births", "1862 deaths", "Albert Sidney Johnston", "Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War", "Deaths from bleeding", "Burials at Texas State Cemetery", "Confederate States Army full generals", "People from Washington, Kentucky", "People from Texas", "People of California in the American Civil War", "People of Texas in the American Civil War", "American people of the Black Hawk War", "Transylvania University alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Military Academy alumni", "People of the Texas Revolution", "People of the Utah War", "United States politicians killed during the Civil War"], "seealso": ["List of Confederate monuments and memorials", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy and honors"], "text": "Johnston was survived by his wife Eliza and six children. His wife and five younger children, including one born after he went to war, chose to live out their days at home in Los Angeles with Eliza's brother, Dr. [[John Strother Griffin]]. Johnston's eldest son, Albert Sidney Jr. (born in Texas), had already followed him into the Confederate States Army. In 1863, after taking home leave in Los Angeles, Albert Jr. was on his way out of [[San Pedro, California|San Pedro]] harbor on a ferry. While a steamer was taking on passengers from the ferry, a wave swamped the smaller boat, causing its boilers to explode. Albert Jr. was killed in the accident. Upon his passing General Johnston received the highest praise ever given by the Confederate government: accounts were published, on December 20, 1862, and thereafter, in the Los Angeles ''Star'' of his family's hometown. Johnston Street, Hancock Street, and Griffin Avenue, each in [[Lincoln Heights, Los Angeles|northeast Los Angeles]], are named after the general and his family, who lived in the neighborhood. Johnston was initially buried in [[New Orleans]]. In 1866, a joint resolution of the [[Texas Legislature]] was passed to have his body moved and reinterred at the [[Texas State Cemetery]] in [[Austin, Texas|Austin]]. The re-interment occurred in 1867. Forty years later, the state appointed [[Elisabet Ney]] to design [[Statue of Albert Sidney Johnston (Texas State Cemetery)|a monument and sculpture]] of him to be erected at the grave site, installed in 1905. The [[Texas Historical Commission]] has erected a historical marker near the entrance of what was once Johnston's [[plantations in the American South|plantation]]. An adjacent marker was erected by the San Jacinto Chapter of the [[Daughters of The Republic of Texas]] and the Lee, Roberts, and Davis Chapter of the [[United Daughters of the Confederacy|United Daughters of the Confederate States of America]]. In 1916, the University of Texas at Austin recognized several confederate veterans (including Johnston) with statues on its South Mall. On August 21, 2017, as part of the wave of [[Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials|confederate monument removals in America]], [[Statue of Albert Sidney Johnston (University of Texas at Austin)|Johnston's statue]] was taken down. Plans were announced to add it to the [[Dolph Briscoe Center for American History|Briscoe Center for American History]] on the east side of the university campus. Johnston was inducted to the [[Hall of Honor (Texas Military)|Texas Military Hall of Honor]] in 1980. In the fall of 2018, A.S. Johnston Elementary School in Dallas, Texas, was renamed Cedar Crest Elementary. Johnston Middle School in Houston, Texas was also renamed to Meyerland Middle School. Three additional elementary schools named for confederate veterans were renamed at the same time.", "id": "711", "title": "Albert Sidney Johnston", "categories": ["1803 births", "1862 deaths", "Albert Sidney Johnston", "Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War", "Deaths from bleeding", "Burials at Texas State Cemetery", "Confederate States Army full generals", "People from Washington, Kentucky", "People from Texas", "People of California in the American Civil War", "People of Texas in the American Civil War", "American people of the Black Hawk War", "Transylvania University alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Military Academy alumni", "People of the Texas Revolution", "People of the Utah War", "United States politicians killed during the Civil War"], "seealso": ["List of Confederate monuments and memorials", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "An '''android''' is a [[robot]] or other artificial being designed to resemble a [[human]], and often made from a flesh-like material. Historically, androids were completely within the domain of [[science fiction]] and frequently seen in film and television, but recent advances in [[robotics|robot technology]] now allow the design of functional and realistic [[humanoid robot]].", "id": "713", "title": "Android (robot)", "categories": ["Android (robot)", "Japanese inventions", "South Korean inventions", "Osaka University research", "Science fiction themes", "Human–machine interaction", "Robots"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The word was coined from the [[Greek language|Greek]] root ἀνδρ- ''andr''- \"man, male\" (as opposed to ἀνθρωπ- ''anthrōp''- \"human being\") and the suffix ''[[Wiktionary:-oid|-oid]]'' \"having the form or likeness of\". In Greek, however, ανδροειδής is an adjective. While the term \"android\" is used in reference to human-looking robots in general, a robot with a female appearance can also be referred to as a ''[[gynoid]]''. The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' traces the earliest use (as \"Androides\") to [[Ephraim Chambers]]' 1728 ''[[Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences|Cyclopaedia]],'' in reference to an [[automaton]] that St. [[Albertus Magnus]] allegedly created. By the late 1700s \"androides\", elaborate mechanical devices resembling humans performing human activities, were displayed in exhibit halls. The term \"android\" appears in US patents as early as 1863 in reference to miniature human-like toy automatons. The term ''android'' was used in a more modern sense by the French author [[Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam]] in his work ''[[The Future Eve|Tomorrow's Eve]]'' (1886). This story features an artificial humanlike robot named Hadaly. As said by the officer in the story, \"In this age of Realien advancement, who knows what goes on in the mind of those responsible for these mechanical dolls.\" The term made an impact into English [[pulp science fiction]] starting from [[Jack Williamson]]'s ''[[The Cometeers]]'' (1936) and the distinction between mechanical robots and fleshy androids was popularized by [[Edmond Hamilton]]'s [[Captain Future]] (1940–1944). Although [[Karel Čapek]]'s robots in ''[[R.U.R.|R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)]]'' (1921)—the play that introduced the word ''[[robot]]'' to the world—were organic artificial humans, the word \"robot\" has come to primarily refer to mechanical humans, animals, and other beings. The term \"android\" can mean either one of these, while a [[cyborg]] (\"cybernetic organism\" or \"bionic man\") would be a creature that is a combination of organic and mechanical parts. The term \"[[droid (Star Wars)|droid]]\", popularized by [[George Lucas]] in the original ''[[Star Wars (film)|Star Wars]]'' film and now used widely within science fiction, originated as an abridgment of \"android\", but has been used by Lucas and others to mean any robot, including distinctly non-human form machines like [[R2-D2]]. The word \"android\" was used in ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series]]'' episode \"[[What Are Little Girls Made Of?]]\" The abbreviation \"andy\", coined as a [[pejorative]] by writer [[Philip K. Dick]] in his novel ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]'', has seen some further usage, such as within the TV series ''[[Total Recall 2070]]''. Authors have used the term ''android'' in more diverse ways than ''[[robot]]'' or ''[[cyborg]]''. In some fictional works, the difference between a robot and android is only superficial, with androids being made to look like humans on the outside but with robot-like internal mechanics. In other stories, authors have used the word \"android\" to mean a wholly organic, yet artificial, creation. Other fictional depictions of androids fall somewhere in between. Eric G. Wilson, who defines an android as a \"synthetic human being\", distinguishes between three types of android, based on their body's composition:", "id": "713", "title": "Android (robot)", "categories": ["Android (robot)", "Japanese inventions", "South Korean inventions", "Osaka University research", "Science fiction themes", "Human–machine interaction", "Robots"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "(-) the mummy type – made of \"dead things\" or \"stiff, inanimate, natural material\", such as mummies, puppets, dolls and statues (-) the golem type – made from flexible, possibly organic material, including golems and homunculi (-) the automaton type – made from a mix of dead and living parts, including automatons and robots Although human morphology is not necessarily the ideal form for working robots, the fascination in developing robots that can mimic it can be found historically in the assimilation of two concepts: ''[[Simulacrum|simulacra]]'' (devices that exhibit likeness) and ''[[Automata theory|automata]]'' (devices that have independence).", "id": "713", "title": "Android (robot)", "categories": ["Android (robot)", "Japanese inventions", "South Korean inventions", "Osaka University research", "Science fiction themes", "Human–machine interaction", "Robots"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Projects"], "text": "Several projects aiming to create androids that look, and, to a certain degree, speak or act like a human being have been launched or are underway.", "id": "713", "title": "Android (robot)", "categories": ["Android (robot)", "Japanese inventions", "South Korean inventions", "Osaka University research", "Science fiction themes", "Human–machine interaction", "Robots"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Projects", "Japan"], "text": "[[Japanese robotics]] have been leading the field since the 1970s. [[Waseda University]] initiated the WABOT project in 1967, and in 1972 completed the WABOT-1, the first android, a full-scale humanoid intelligent robot. Its limb control system allowed it to walk with the lower limbs, and to grip and transport objects with hands, using [[tactile sensor]]. Its vision system allowed it to measure distances and directions to objects using external receptors, artificial eyes and ears. And its conversation system allowed it to communicate with a person in Japanese, with an artificial mouth. In 1984, WABOT-2 was revealed, and made a number of improvements. It was capable of playing the organ. Wabot-2 had ten fingers and two feet, and was able to read a score of music. It was also able to accompany a person. In 1986, [[Honda]] began its humanoid research and development program, to create humanoid robots capable of interacting successfully with humans. The Intelligent Robotics Lab, directed by [[Hiroshi Ishiguro]] at [[Osaka University]], and the [[Kokoro (company)|Kokoro company]] demonstrated the [[Actroid]] at [[Expo 2005]] in [[Aichi Prefecture]], Japan and released the [[Telenoid R1]] in 2010. In 2006, Kokoro developed a new ''DER 2'' android. The height of the human body part of DER2 is 165 cm. There are 47 mobile points. DER2 can not only change its expression but also move its hands and feet and twist its body. The \"air servosystem\" which Kokoro developed originally is used for the actuator. As a result of having an actuator controlled precisely with air pressure via a servosystem, the movement is very fluid and there is very little noise. DER2 realized a slimmer body than that of the former version by using a smaller cylinder. Outwardly DER2 has a more beautiful proportion. Compared to the previous model, DER2 has thinner arms and a wider repertoire of expressions. Once programmed, it is able to choreograph its motions and gestures with its voice. The Intelligent Mechatronics Lab, directed by Hiroshi Kobayashi at the [[Tokyo University of Science]], has developed an android head called ''Saya'', which was exhibited at Robodex 2002 in [[Yokohama]], Japan. There are several other initiatives around the world involving humanoid research and development at this time, which will hopefully introduce a broader spectrum of realized technology in the near future. Now Saya is ''working'' at the Science University of Tokyo as a guide.", "id": "713", "title": "Android (robot)", "categories": ["Android (robot)", "Japanese inventions", "South Korean inventions", "Osaka University research", "Science fiction themes", "Human–machine interaction", "Robots"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Projects", "Japan"], "text": "The [[Waseda University]] (Japan) and [[NTT docomo|NTT Docomo's]] manufacturers have succeeded in creating a shape-shifting robot ''WD-2''. It is capable of changing its face. At first, the creators decided the positions of the necessary points to express the outline, eyes, nose, and so on of a certain person. The robot expresses its face by moving all points to the decided positions, they say. The first version of the robot was first developed back in 2003. After that, a year later, they made a couple of major improvements to the design. The robot features an elastic mask made from the average head dummy. It uses a driving system with a 3DOF unit. The WD-2 robot can change its facial features by activating specific facial points on a mask, with each point possessing three [[degrees of freedom (mechanics)|degrees of freedom]]. This one has 17 facial points, for a total of 56 degrees of freedom. As for the materials they used, the WD-2's mask is fabricated with a highly elastic material called Septom, with bits of steel wool mixed in for added strength. Other technical features reveal a shaft driven behind the mask at the desired facial point, driven by a DC motor with a simple pulley and a slide screw. Apparently, the researchers can also modify the shape of the mask based on actual human faces. To \"copy\" a face, they need only a [[3D scanner]] to determine the locations of an individual's 17 facial points. After that, they are then driven into position using a laptop and 56 motor control boards. In addition, the researchers also mention that the shifting robot can even display an individual's hair style and skin color if a photo of their face is projected onto the 3D Mask.", "id": "713", "title": "Android (robot)", "categories": ["Android (robot)", "Japanese inventions", "South Korean inventions", "Osaka University research", "Science fiction themes", "Human–machine interaction", "Robots"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Projects", "Singapore"], "text": "Prof Nadia Thalmann, a Nanyang Technological University scientist, directed efforts of the Institute for Media Innovation along with the School of Computer Engineering in the development of a social robot, Nadine. Nadine is powered by software similar to Apple's [[Siri]] or Microsoft's [[Cortana (software)|Cortana]]. Nadine may become a personal assistant in offices and homes in future, or she may become a companion for the young and the elderly. Assoc Prof Gerald Seet from the School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering and the BeingThere Centre led a three-year R&D development in [[tele-presence robotics]], creating EDGAR. A remote user can control EDGAR with the user's face and expressions displayed on the robot's face in real time. The robot also mimics their upper body movements.", "id": "713", "title": "Android (robot)", "categories": ["Android (robot)", "Japanese inventions", "South Korean inventions", "Osaka University research", "Science fiction themes", "Human–machine interaction", "Robots"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Projects", "South Korea"], "text": "[[KITECH]] researched and developed [[EveR-1]], an android interpersonal communications model capable of emulating human emotional expression via facial \"musculature\" and capable of rudimentary conversation, having a vocabulary of around 400 words. She is tall and weighs , matching the average figure of a Korean woman in her twenties. EveR-1's name derives from the [[Eve|Biblical Eve]], plus the letter ''r'' for ''robot''. EveR-1's advanced computing processing power enables [[speech recognition]] and vocal synthesis, at the same time processing [[lip synchronization]] and visual recognition by 90-degree micro-[[charge-coupled device|CCD]] cameras with [[facial recognition system|face recognition technology]]. An independent microchip inside her artificial brain handles gesture expression, body coordination, and emotion expression. Her whole body is made of highly advanced synthetic jelly silicon and with 60 artificial joints in her face, neck, and lower body; she is able to demonstrate realistic facial expressions and sing while simultaneously dancing. In South Korea, the [[Ministry of Information and Communication (South Korea)|Ministry of Information and Communication]] has an ambitious plan to put a robot in every household by 2020. Several robot cities have been planned for the country: the first will be built in 2016 at a cost of 500 billion won (US$440 million), of which 50 billion is direct government investment. The new robot city will feature research and development centers for manufacturers and part suppliers, as well as exhibition halls and a stadium for robot competitions. The country's new Robotics Ethics Charter will establish ground rules and laws for human interaction with robots in the future, setting standards for robotics users and manufacturers, as well as guidelines on ethical standards to be programmed into robots to prevent human abuse of robots and vice versa.", "id": "713", "title": "Android (robot)", "categories": ["Android (robot)", "Japanese inventions", "South Korean inventions", "Osaka University research", "Science fiction themes", "Human–machine interaction", "Robots"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Projects", "United States"], "text": "Walt Disney and a staff of [[Imagineers]] created [[Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln]] that debuted at the [[1964 New York World's Fair]]. Dr. William Barry, an Education Futurist and former visiting West Point Professor of Philosophy and Ethical Reasoning at the [[United States Military Academy]], created an AI android character named \"Maria Bot\". This Interface AI android was named after the infamous fictional robot Maria in the 1927 film ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'', as a well-behaved distant relative. Maria Bot is the first AI Android Teaching Assistant at the University level. Maria Bot has appeared as a keynote speaker as a duo with Barry for a TEDx talk in Everett, Washington in February 2020 . Resembling a human from the shoulders up, Maria Bot is a virtual being android that has complex facial expressions and head movement and engages in conversation about a variety of subjects. She uses AI to process and synthesize information to make her own decisions on how to talk and engage. She collects data through conversations, direct data inputs such as books or articles, and through internet sources. Maria Bot was built by an international high-tech company for Barry to help improve education quality and eliminate education poverty. Maria Bot is designed to create new ways for students to engage and discuss ethical issues raised by the increasing presence of robots and artificial intelligence. Barry also uses Maria Bot to demonstrate that programming a robot with life-affirming, ethical framework makes them more likely to help humans to do the same.  Maria Bot is an ambassador robot for good and ethical AI technology. [[David Hanson (robotics designer)|Hanson Robotics, Inc.]], of Texas and [[KAIST]] produced an android portrait of [[Albert Einstein]], using Hanson's facial android technology mounted on KAIST's life-size walking bipedal robot body. This Einstein android, also called \"[[Albert Hubo]]\", thus represents the first full-body walking android in history (see video at). Hanson Robotics, the FedEx Institute of Technology, and the University of Texas at Arlington also developed the android portrait of sci-fi author [[Philip K. Dick]] (creator of ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]'', the basis for the film ''[[Blade Runner]]''), with full conversational capabilities that incorporated thousands of pages of the author's works. In 2005, the PKD android won a first-place [[artificial intelligence]] award from [[Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence|AAAI]].", "id": "713", "title": "Android (robot)", "categories": ["Android (robot)", "Japanese inventions", "South Korean inventions", "Osaka University research", "Science fiction themes", "Human–machine interaction", "Robots"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Use in fiction"], "text": "Androids are a staple of [[science fiction]]. [[Isaac Asimov]] pioneered the fictionalization of the science of [[robotics]] and [[artificial intelligence]], notably in his 1950s series ''[[I, Robot]]''. One thing common to most fictional androids is that the real-life technological challenges associated with creating thoroughly human-like robots—such as the creation of [[artificial general intelligence|strong artificial intelligence]]—are assumed to have been solved. Fictional androids are often depicted as mentally and physically equal or superior to humans—moving, thinking and speaking as fluidly as them. The tension between the nonhuman substance and the human appearance—or even human ambitions—of androids is the dramatic impetus behind most of their fictional depictions. Some android heroes seek, like [[Pinocchio]], to become human, as in the film ''[[Bicentennial Man (film)|Bicentennial Man]]'', or [[Data (Star Trek)|Data]] in ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]''. Others, as in the film ''[[Westworld (film)|Westworld]]'', rebel against abuse by careless humans. Android hunter [[Rick Deckard|Deckard]] in ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]'' and its film adaptation ''[[Blade Runner]]'' discovers that his targets appear to be, in some ways, more \"human\" than he is. Android stories, therefore, are not essentially stories \"about\" androids; they are stories about the [[human condition]] and what it means to be human. One aspect of writing about the meaning of humanity is to use discrimination against androids as a mechanism for exploring [[racism]] in society, as in ''Blade Runner''. Perhaps the clearest example of this is [[John Brunner (novelist)|John Brunner's]] 1968 novel ''[[Into the Slave Nebula]]'', where the blue-skinned android slaves are explicitly shown to be fully human. More recently, the androids [[Bishop (Aliens)|Bishop]] and Annalee Call in the films ''[[Aliens (film)|Aliens]]'' and ''[[Alien Resurrection]]'' are used as vehicles for exploring how humans deal with the presence of an \"[[Other (philosophy)|Other]]\". The 2018 video game ''[[Detroit: Become Human]]'' also explores how androids are treated as second class citizens in a near future society. Female androids, or \"[[gynoid]]\", are often seen in science fiction, and can be viewed as a continuation of the long tradition of men attempting to create the stereotypical \"perfect woman\". Examples include the [[Greek mythology|Greek myth]] of ''[[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]]'' and [[Maschinenmensch|the female robot Maria]] in [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]''. Some gynoids, like Pris in ''Blade Runner'', are designed as sex-objects, with the intent of \"pleasing men's violent sexual desires\", or as submissive, servile companions, such as in ''[[The Stepford Wives]]''. Fiction about gynoids has therefore been described as reinforcing \"essentialist ideas of femininity\", although others have suggested that the treatment of androids is a way of exploring racism and [[misogyny]] in society. The 2015 Japanese film ''[[Sayonara (2015 film)|Sayonara]]'', starring [[Geminoid F]], was promoted as \"the first movie to feature an android performing opposite a human actor\".", "id": "713", "title": "Android (robot)", "categories": ["Android (robot)", "Japanese inventions", "South Korean inventions", "Osaka University research", "Science fiction themes", "Human–machine interaction", "Robots"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Alberta''' () is one of the thirteen [[provinces and territories of Canada|provinces and territories]] of [[Canada]]. It is part of [[Western Canada]] and is one of the three [[Canadian prairies|prairie provinces]]. [[English language|English]] is the official language of the province. In 2016, 76.0% of Albertans were anglophone, 1.8% were [[French language|francophone]] and 22.2% were [[Allophone (Canada)|allophone]]. Alberta is bordered by [[British Columbia]] to the west, [[Saskatchewan]] to the east, the [[Northwest Territories]] (NWT) to the north, and the [[U.S. state]] of [[Montana]] to the south. It is one of the only two [[landlocked]] provinces in Canada. The eastern part of the province is occupied by the [[Great Plains]], while the western part borders the [[Rocky Mountains]]. The province has a predominantly [[humid continental climate|continental climate]] but experiences quick temperature changes due to air [[aridity]]. Seasonal temperature swings are less pronounced in western Alberta due to occasional [[chinook wind]]. Alberta is the 6th largest province by area, being approximately 660,000 square kilometers, and the 4th most populous, being home to 4,067,175 people. Alberta's capital is [[Edmonton]], while [[Calgary]] is [[List of cities in Alberta|its largest city]]. The two are Alberta's largest [[Census geographic units of Canada|census metropolitan areas]] (CMAs) and both exceed 1 million people. More than half of Albertans live in either Edmonton or Calgary, which contributes to continuing the [[Battle of Alberta|rivalry between the two cities]]. The province also has one other CMA, [[Lethbridge]], and [[List of census agglomerations in Alberta|15 census agglomerations]]. While the vast majority of Albertans are city dwellers, the identity of the province is mainly rooted in a rural lifestyle ([[rodeos]], [[Western (genre)|western]], [[country music]], [[cowboy]]). The oil and gas industry is also a part of the province's identity. [[Economy of Alberta|Alberta's economy]] is based on [[hydrocarbons]], [[petrochemical industries]], [[livestock]], [[agriculture]] and [[High tech|frontier technologies]]. The oil industry has been a pillar of Alberta's economy since 1947, when substantial oil deposits were discovered at [[Leduc No. 1|Leduc No. 1 well.]] Since Alberta is the province most rich in hydrocarbons, it provides 70% of the oil and natural gas exploited on Canadian soil. In 2018, Alberta's output was CDN$338.2 billion, 15.27% of Canada's [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. In the past, [[Politics of Alberta|Alberta's political landscape]] hosted parties like the [[left-wing]] [[Alberta Liberal Party|Liberals]] and the [[Agrarianism|agrarian]] [[United Farmers of Alberta]], as well as the [[right-wing]] [[Alberta Social Credit Party|Social Credit Party]] and the [[Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta|Progressive Conservatives]]. Today, Alberta is generally perceived as a [[Conservatism in Canada|conservative]] province. The longest political dynasty in Canada was held by the Progressive Conservatives from 1971 to 2015.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "Before becoming part of Canada, Alberta was home to several [[First Nations in Alberta|First Nations]] and was a territory used by [[fur trade]] of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]. The lands that would become Alberta were acquired by Canada as part of the NWT on July 15, 1870. On September 1, 1905, Alberta was separated from the NWT as a result of the [[Alberta Act]] and designated the 8th province of Canada. From the late 1800s to early 1900s, many immigrants arrived, the biggest wave of which was pushed by [[Wilfrid Laurier]], to prevent the prairies from being annexed by [[Americans]]. Massive oil resources were discovered in Alberta in 1947. Alberta is renowned for its natural beauty, richness in [[fossil]] and for housing important [[nature reserve]]. Alberta is home to six [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]: The [[Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks World Heritage Site|Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks]], [[Dinosaur Provincial Park]], the [[Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump]], [[Waterton–Glacier International Peace Park]], [[Wood Buffalo National Park]] and [[Writing-on-Stone Provincial Park]]. Other popular sites include: [[Banff, Alberta|Banff]], [[Canmore, Alberta|Canmore]], [[Drumheller]], [[Jasper, Alberta|Jasper]], [[Sylvan Lake, Alberta|Sylvan Lake]] and [[Lake Louise, Alberta|Lake Louise]].", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "Alberta was named after [[Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll|Princess Louise Caroline Alberta]] (1848–1939), the fourth daughter of [[Queen Victoria]]. Princess Louise was the wife of [[John Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll|John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne]], [[Governor General of Canada]] (1878–83). [[Lake Louise (Alberta)|Lake Louise]] and [[Mount Alberta]] were also named in her honour. The name \"Alberta\" itself is a feminine [[Latinisation of names|Latinized]] form of [[Albert (given name)|Albert]], the name of Princess Louise's father, the [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Consort]] (cf. , masculine) and its [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] cognates, ultimately derived from [[Proto-Germanic]] ''*Aþalaberhtaz'' (compound of \"noble\" + \"bright/famous\").", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Geography"], "text": "Alberta, with an area of , is the fourth-largest province after [[Quebec]], Ontario and [[British Columbia]]. Alberta's southern border is the [[49th parallel north]], which [[Canada–United States border|separates it]] from the U.S. state of [[Montana]]. The [[60th parallel north]] divides Alberta from the [[Northwest Territories]]. The [[110th meridian west]] separates it from the province of [[Saskatchewan]]; while on the west its boundary with British Columbia follows the [[120th meridian west]] south from the Northwest Territories at 60°N until it reaches the [[Continental Divide of the Americas|Continental Divide]] at the [[Rocky Mountains]], and from that point follows the line of peaks marking the Continental Divide in a generally southeasterly direction until it reaches the Montana border at 49°N. The province extends north to south and east to west at its maximum width. Its highest point is at the summit of [[Mount Columbia (Canada)|Mount Columbia]] in the Rocky Mountains along the southwest border while its lowest point is on the [[Slave River]] in [[Wood Buffalo National Park]] in the northeast. With the exception of the [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]] [[steppe]] of the south-eastern section, the province has adequate [[water resources]]. There are numerous [[list of rivers of Alberta|rivers]] and [[list of lakes in Alberta|lakes]] used for swimming, fishing and a range of water sports. There are three large lakes, [[Lake Claire (Alberta)|Lake Claire]] () in [[Wood Buffalo National Park]], [[Lesser Slave Lake]] (), and [[Lake Athabasca]] () which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the [[Athabasca River]] which travels from the [[Columbia Icefield]] in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca. The largest river is the [[Peace River]] with an average flow of 2161 m/s. The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the [[Slave River]], a tributary of the [[Mackenzie River]]. Alberta's capital city, Edmonton, is located at about the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly major city in Canada, and serves as a gateway and hub for resource development in northern Canada. The region, with its proximity to Canada's largest oil fields, has most of western Canada's oil refinery capacity. Calgary is about south of Edmonton and north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the province's population lives in the [[Calgary–Edmonton Corridor]]. The land grant policy to the railroads served as a means to populate the province in its early years.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Geography"], "text": "Most of the northern half of the province is [[Taiga|boreal forest]], while the Rocky Mountains along the southwestern boundary are largely forested (see [[Alberta Mountain forests]] and [[Alberta-British Columbia foothills forests]]). The southern quarter of the province is [[prairie]], ranging from [[shortgrass prairie]] in the southeastern corner to mixed grass prairie in an arc to the west and north of it. The central [[aspen parkland]] region extending in a broad arc between the prairies and the forests, from Calgary, north to Edmonton, and then east to [[Lloydminster]], contains the most fertile soil in the province and most of the population. Much of the unforested part of Alberta is given over either to grain or to [[dairy farming]], with [[mixed farming]] more common in the north and centre, while [[ranch]] and [[Irrigation|irrigated agriculture]] predominate in the south. The Alberta [[badlands]] are located in southeastern Alberta, where the [[Red Deer River]] crosses the flat prairie and farmland, and features deep canyons and striking landforms. [[Dinosaur Provincial Park]], near [[Brooks, Alberta]], showcases the badlands terrain, desert flora, and remnants from Alberta's past when dinosaurs roamed the then lush landscape.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Climate"], "text": "Alberta has a [[humid continental climate]] with warm summers and cold winters. The province is open to cold arctic weather systems from the north, which often produce extremely cold conditions in winter. As the fronts between the air masses shift north and south across Alberta, the temperature can change rapidly. Arctic air masses in the winter produce extreme minimum temperatures varying from in northern Alberta to in southern Alberta, although temperatures at these extremes are rare. In the summer, continental air masses have produced record maximum temperatures from in the mountains to over in southeastern Alberta. Alberta is a sunny province. Annual bright sunshine totals range between 1,900 up to just under 2,600 hours per year. Northern Alberta gets about 18 hours of daylight in the summer. Alberta extends for over from north to south; its climate, therefore, varies considerably. Average high temperatures in January range from in the southwest to in the far north. The climate is also influenced by the presence of the Rocky Mountains to the southwest, which disrupt the flow of the [[Westerlies|prevailing westerly winds]] and cause them to drop most of their moisture on the western slopes of the mountain ranges before reaching the province, casting a [[rain shadow]] over much of Alberta. The northerly location and isolation from the weather systems of the Pacific Ocean cause Alberta to have a dry climate with little moderation from the ocean. Annual precipitation ranges from in the southeast to in the north, except in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains where total precipitation including snowfall can reach annually. There was a big [[2002 North American drought|drought in 2002]] in Alberta and other places across the Northern USA. The province is the namesake of the [[Alberta clipper]], a type of intense, fast-moving winter storm that generally forms over or near the province and pushed with great speed by the continental polar [[Jet stream|jetstream]] descends over the rest of Southern Canada and the northern tier of the United States. In the summer, the average daytime temperatures range from around in the Rocky Mountain valleys and far north, up to around in the dry prairie of the southeast. The northern and western parts of the province experience higher rainfall and lower evaporation rates caused by cooler summer temperatures. The south and east-central portions are prone to drought-like conditions sometimes persisting for several years, although even these areas can receive heavy precipitation, sometimes resulting in flooding. In southwestern Alberta, the cold winters are frequently interrupted by warm, dry [[chinook wind]] blowing from the mountains, which can propel temperatures upward from frigid conditions to well above the freezing point in a very short period. During one chinook recorded at [[Pincher Creek]], temperatures soared from in just one hour. The region around Lethbridge has the most chinooks, averaging 30 to 35 chinook days per year. Calgary has a 56% chance of a [[white Christmas (weather)|white Christmas]], while Edmonton has an 86% chance.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Climate"], "text": "Northern Alberta is mostly covered by [[taiga|boreal forest]] and has a [[subarctic climate]]. The agricultural area of southern Alberta has a [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]] [[steppe]] climate because the annual precipitation is less than the water that [[evapotranspiration|evaporates or is used by plants]]. The southeastern corner of Alberta, part of the [[Palliser's Triangle|Palliser Triangle]], experiences greater summer heat and lower rainfall than the rest of the province, and as a result suffers frequent [[crop yield]] problems and occasional severe droughts. Western Alberta is protected by the mountains and enjoys the mild temperatures brought by winter [[chinook wind]]. Central and parts of northwestern Alberta in the Peace River region are largely aspen parkland, a [[biome]] transitional between prairie to the south and boreal forest to the north. After Saskatchewan, Alberta experiences the most [[tornado]] in Canada with an average of 15 verified per year. Thunderstorms, some of them severe, are frequent in the summer, especially in central and southern Alberta. The region surrounding the [[Calgary–Edmonton Corridor]] is notable for having the highest frequency of [[hail]] in Canada, which is caused by [[orographic lift]] from the nearby Rocky Mountains, enhancing the updraft/downdraft cycle necessary for the formation of hail.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Ecology", "Flora"], "text": "In central and northern Alberta the arrival of spring is marked by the early flowering of the prairie crocus [[anemone]]; this member of the buttercup family has been recorded flowering as early as March, though April is the usual month for the general population. Other prairie flora known to flower early are the [[Thermopsis rhombifolia|golden bean]] and [[Rosa acicularis|wild rose]]. Members of the [[Helianthus|sunflower]] family blossom on the prairie in the summer months between July and September. The southern and east central parts of Alberta are covered by short prairie grass, which dries up as summer lengthens, to be replaced by hardy perennials such as the prairie coneflower, [[fleabane]], and [[Sagebrush|sage]]. Both yellow and white [[Melilotus|sweet clover]] can be found throughout the southern and central areas of the province. The trees in the parkland region of the province grow in clumps and belts on the hillsides. These are largely [[deciduous]], typically [[aspen]], [[Populus|poplar]], and [[willow]]. Many species of willow and other shrubs grow in virtually any terrain. On the north side of the North Saskatchewan River evergreen forests prevail for thousands of square kilometres. [[aspen|Aspen poplar]], [[Populus balsamifera|balsam poplar]] (or in some parts [[Populus deltoides|cottonwood]]), and [[Betula papyrifera|paper birch]] are the primary large deciduous species. [[Pinophyta|Conifers]] include [[jack pine]], Rocky Mountain pine, [[Pinus contorta|lodgepole pine]], both white and black [[spruce]], and the deciduous conifer [[Larix laricina|tamarack]].", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Ecology", "Fauna"], "text": "The four climatic regions ([[alpine climate|alpine]], [[Taiga|boreal forest]], [[Aspen parkland|parkland]], and [[prairie]]) of Alberta are home to many different species of animals. The south and central prairie was the land of the [[American bison|bison]], commonly known as buffalo, its grasses providing pasture and breeding ground for millions of buffalo. The buffalo population was decimated during early settlement, but since then buffalo have made a comeback, living on farms and in parks all over Alberta. [[Herbivore|Herbivorous]] animals are found throughout the province. [[Moose]], [[mule deer]], [[elk]], and [[white-tailed deer]] are found in the wooded regions, and [[pronghorn]] can be found in the prairies of southern Alberta. [[Bighorn sheep]] and [[mountain goat]] live in the Rocky Mountains. Rabbits, [[porcupine]], [[skunk]], squirrels and many species of rodents and reptiles live in every corner of the province. Alberta is home to only one variety of venomous snake, the [[Crotalus viridis|prairie rattlesnake]]. Alberta is home to many large [[carnivore]] such as [[grizzly bears]] and [[American black bear|black bears]], which are found in the mountains and wooded regions. Smaller carnivores of the [[canidae|canine]] and [[Felidae|feline]] families include [[coyote]], [[Gray wolf|wolves]], fox, [[lynx]], [[bobcat]] and [[Cougar|mountain lion]] (cougar). Central and northern Alberta and the region farther north is the nesting ground of many migratory birds. Vast numbers of ducks, [[goose|geese]], [[swan]] and [[pelican]] arrive in Alberta every spring and nest on or near one of the hundreds of small lakes that dot northern Alberta. [[Eagle]], [[hawk]], owls and [[crow]] are plentiful, and a huge variety of smaller seed and insect-eating birds can be found. Alberta, like other [[Temperate climate|temperate]] regions, is home to [[mosquito]], [[fly|flies]], [[wasp]], and bees. Rivers and lakes are populated with [[Esox|pike]], [[walleye]], [[Freshwater whitefish|whitefish]], [[rainbow trout|rainbow]], [[Brook trout|speckled]], [[brown trout]], and [[sturgeon]]. [[Bull trout]], native to the province, is Alberta's provincial fish. Turtles are found in some water bodies in the southern part of the province. Frogs and [[salamander]] are a few of the [[amphibian]] that make their homes in Alberta. Alberta is the only province in Canada—as well as one of the few places in the world—that is free of [[brown rat|Norwegian rat]]. Since the early 1950s, the [[Executive Council of Alberta|Government of Alberta]] has operated a rat-control program, which has been so successful that only isolated instances of wild rat sightings are reported, usually of rats arriving in the province aboard trucks or by rail. In 2006, Alberta Agriculture reported zero findings of wild rats; the only rat interceptions have been domesticated rats that have been seized from their owners. It is illegal for individual Albertans to own or keep Norwegian rats of any description; the animals can only be kept in the province by zoos, universities and colleges, and recognized research institutions. In 2009, several rats were found and captured, in small pockets in southern Alberta, putting Alberta's rat-free status in jeopardy. A colony of rats were subsequently found in a landfill near Medicine Hat in 2012 and again in 2014.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Paleontology"], "text": "Alberta has one of the greatest diversities and abundances of [[Late Cretaceous]] dinosaur fossils in the world. [[Taxon|Taxa]] are represented by complete fossil skeletons, isolated material, microvertebrate remains, and even [[Bone bed|mass graves]]. At least 38 dinosaur [[Type (biology)|type specimens]] were collected in the province. The [[Foremost Formation]], [[Oldman Formation]] and [[Dinosaur Park Formation]] collectively comprise the Judith River Group and are the most thoroughly studied dinosaur-bearing strata in Alberta. Dinosaur-bearing strata are distributed widely throughout Alberta. The Dinosaur Provincial Park area contains outcrops of the Dinosaur Park Formation and Oldman Formation. In the central and southern regions of Alberta are intermittent [[Scollard Formation]] outcrops. In the [[Drumheller]] Valley and [[Edmonton]] regions there are exposed [[Horseshoe Canyon Formation|Horseshoe Canyon]] [[facies]]. Other [[Geological formation|formations]] have been recorded as well, like the [[Milk River Formation|Milk River]] and Foremost Formations. However, these latter two have a lower diversity of documented dinosaurs, primarily due to their lower total fossil quantity and neglect from collectors who are hindered by the isolation and scarcity of exposed outcrops. Their dinosaur fossils are primarily teeth recovered from microvertebrate fossil sites. Additional geologic formations that have produced only few fossils are the [[Belly River Group]] and [[St. Mary River Formation]] of the southwest and the northwestern [[Wapiti Formation]]. The Wapiti Formation contains two ''[[Pachyrhinosaurus]]'' bone beds that break its general trend of low productivity, however. The [[Bearpaw Formation]] represents strata deposited during a [[marine transgression]]. Dinosaurs are known from this formation, but represent specimens washed out to sea or reworked from older [[sediment]].", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "[[Paleo-Indians]] arrived in Alberta at least 10,000 years ago, toward the end of the [[last glacial period|last ice age]]. They are thought to have migrated from [[Siberia]] to [[Alaska]] on a [[Beringia|land bridge]] across the [[Bering Strait]] and then possibly moved down the east side of the Rocky Mountains through Alberta to [[Settlement of the Americas|settle the Americas]]. Others may have [[Coastal Migration#Coastal migration hypothesis in the New World|migrated down the coast]] of British Columbia and then moved inland. Over time they differentiated into various [[First Nations]] peoples, including the [[Plains Indians|Plains Indian]] tribes of southern Alberta such as those of the [[Blackfoot Confederacy]] and the [[Plains Cree people|Plains Cree]], who generally lived by hunting buffalo, and the more northerly tribes such as the [[Woodland Cree]] and [[Chipewyan]] who hunted, trapped, and fished for a living. After the [[British America|British arrival in Canada]], approximately half of the province of Alberta, south of the [[Athabasca River]] drainage, became part of [[Rupert's Land]] which consisted of all land drained by rivers flowing into [[Hudson Bay]]. This area was granted by [[Charles II of England]] to the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] (HBC) in 1670, and rival fur trading companies were not allowed to trade in it. The Athabasca River and the rivers north of it were not in HBC territory because they drained into the Arctic Ocean instead of Hudson Bay, and they were prime habitat for fur-bearing animals. The first European explorer of the Athabasca region was [[Peter Pond]], who learned of the [[Methye Portage]], which allowed travel from southern rivers into the rivers north of Rupert's Land. Fur traders formed the [[North West Company]] (NWC) of [[Montreal]] to compete with the HBC in 1779. The NWC occupied the northern part of Alberta territory. Peter Pond built Fort Athabasca on [[Lac la Biche (Alberta)|Lac la Biche]] in 1778. Roderick Mackenzie built [[Fort Chipewyan]] on Lake Athabasca ten years later in 1788. His cousin, Sir [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander Mackenzie]], followed the [[North Saskatchewan River]] to its northernmost point near Edmonton, then setting northward on foot, trekked to the Athabasca River, which he followed to Lake Athabasca. It was there he discovered the mighty outflow river which bears his name—the [[Mackenzie River]]—which he followed to its outlet in the Arctic Ocean. Returning to Lake Athabasca, he followed the [[Peace River]] upstream, eventually reaching the Pacific Ocean, and so he became the first European to cross the North American continent north of Mexico. The extreme southernmost portion of Alberta was part of the French (and Spanish) territory of [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]], [[Louisiana Purchase|sold to the United States]] in 1803; in 1818, the portion of Louisiana north of the [[49th parallel north|Forty-Ninth Parallel]] was ceded to Great Britain.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "Fur trade expanded in the north, but bloody battles occurred between the rival HBC and NWC, and in 1821 the British government forced them to merge to stop the hostilities. The amalgamated Hudson's Bay Company dominated trade in Alberta until 1870, when the newly formed [[Politics of Canada|Canadian Government]] purchased Rupert's Land. Northern Alberta was included in the [[North-Western Territory]] until 1870, when it and Rupert's land became Canada's [[North-West Territories]]. First Nations negotiated treaties with the Crown in which the Crown gained title to the land that would later become Alberta, and the Crown committed to ongoing support of the First Nations and guaranteed their hunting and fishing rights. The most significant treaties for Alberta are [[Treaty 6]] (1876), [[Treaty 7]] (1877) and [[Treaty 8]] (1899). The [[District of Alberta]] was created as part of the North-West Territories in 1882. As settlement increased, local representatives to the North-West Legislative Assembly were added. After a long campaign for autonomy, in 1905 the District of Alberta was enlarged and given provincial status, with the election of [[Alexander Cameron Rutherford]] as the first premier. Less than a decade later, the [[First World War]] presented special challenges to the new province as an extraordinary number of volunteers left relatively few workers to maintain services and production. Over 50% of Alberta's doctors volunteered for service overseas.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["History", "21st century"], "text": "On June 21, 2013, during the [[2013 Alberta floods]] Alberta experienced heavy rainfall that triggered catastrophic flooding throughout much of the southern half of the province along the [[Bow River|Bow]], [[Elbow River|Elbow]], [[Highwood River|Highwood]] and [[Oldman River|Oldman]] rivers and tributaries. A dozen municipalities in Southern Alberta declared local states of emergency on June 21 as water levels rose and numerous communities were placed under evacuation orders. In 2016, a [[2016 Fort McMurray Wildfire|wildfire]] resulted in the largest fire evacuation of residents in Alberta's history, as more than 80,000 people were ordered to evacuate. Since 2020, Alberta has been affected by the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Alberta|COVID-19 pandemic]].", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics"], "text": "The [[Canada 2016 Census|2016 census]] reported Alberta had a population of 4,067,175 living in 1,527,678 of its 1,654,129 total dwellings, an 11.6% change from its 2011 population of 3,645,257. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016. [[Statistics Canada]] estimated the province to have a population of 4,436,258 in Q1 of 2021. Since 2000, Alberta's population has experienced a relatively high rate of growth, mainly because of its burgeoning economy. Between 2003 and 2004, the province had high birthrates (on par with some larger provinces such as British Columbia), relatively high immigration, and a high rate of [[Interprovincial migration in Canada|interprovincial migration]] compared to other provinces. In 2016, Alberta continued to have the youngest population among the provinces with a median age of 36.7 years, compared with the national median of 41.2 years. Also in 2016, Alberta had the smallest proportion of seniors (12.3%) among the provinces and one of the highest population shares of children (19.2%), further contributing to Alberta's young and growing population. About 81% of the population lives in urban areas and only about 19% in rural areas. The [[Calgary–Edmonton Corridor]] is the most urbanized area in the province and is one of the most densely populated areas of Canada. Many of Alberta's cities and towns have experienced very high rates of growth in recent history. Alberta's population rose from 73,022 in 1901 to 3,290,350 according to the [[Canada 2006 Census|2006 census]].", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Census information"], "text": "According to the [[2016 Canadian Census|2016 census]], Alberta has 779,155 residents (19.2%) between the ages of 0-14, 2,787,805 residents (68.5%) between the ages of 15–64, and 500,215 residents (12.3%) aged 65 and over. English is the most common mother tongue, with 2,991,485 native speakers. This is followed by [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], with 99,035 speakers, German, with 80,050 speakers, French, with 72,150 native speakers, and Hindi, with 68,695 speakers. 253,460 residents identify as [[Indigenous peoples in Canada|Aboriginal]], including 136,585 as [[First Nations]], 114,370 as [[Métis]], and 2,500 as [[Inuit]]. There are also 933,165 residents who identify as a visible minority, including 230,930 South Asian people, 166,195 Filipinos, and 158,200 Chinese respondents. 1,769,500 residents hold a postsecondary certificate, diploma or degree, 895,885 residents have obtained a secondary (high) school diploma or equivalency certificate, and 540,665 residents do not have any certificate, diploma or degree. The 2006 census found that English, with 2,576,670 native speakers, was the most common mother tongue of Albertans, representing 79.99% of the population. The next most common mother tongues were Chinese with 97,275 native speakers (3.02%), followed by German with 84,505 native speakers (2.62%) and French with 61,225 (1.90%). Other mother tongues include: [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], with 36,320 native speakers (1.13%); [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], with 29,740 (0.92%); [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], with 29,455 (0.91%); Spanish, with 29,125 (0.90%); [[Polish language|Polish]], with 21,990 (0.68%); [[Arabic]], with 20,495 (0.64%); [[Dutch language|Dutch]], with 19,980 (0.62%); and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], with 19,350 (0.60%). The most common aboriginal language is [[Cree language|Cree]] 17,215 (0.53%). Other common mother tongues include Italian with 13,095 speakers (0.41%); [[Urdu]] with 11,275 (0.35%); and [[Korean language|Korean]] with 10,845 (0.33%); then [[Hindi]] 8,985 (0.28%); [[Persian language|Farsi]] 7,700 (0.24%); [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] 7,205 (0.22%); and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] 6,770 (0.21%). Alberta has considerable ethnic diversity. In line with the rest of Canada, many are descended from immigrants of Western European nations, notably [[English Canadians|England]], [[Scottish Canadians|Scotland]], [[Irish Canadians|Ireland]], [[Welsh Canadians|Wales]] and [[French Canadians|France]], but large numbers later came from other regions of Europe, notably [[German Canadians|Germany]], [[Ukrainian Canadians|Ukraine]] and [[Scandinavia]]. According to Statistics Canada, Alberta is home to the second-highest proportion (two percent) of [[Geographical distribution of French speakers|Francophones]] in western Canada (after [[Manitoba]]). Despite this, relatively few Albertans claim French as their mother tongue. Many of [[Franco-Albertans|Alberta's French-speaking residents]] live in the central and northwestern regions of the province, after migration from other areas of Canada or descending from Métis. As reported in the 2001 census, the Chinese represented nearly four percent of Alberta's population, and South Asians represented more than two percent. Both Edmonton and Calgary have historic [[Chinatown]], and Calgary has Canada's third-largest Chinese community. The Chinese presence began with workers employed in the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s. [[First Nations in Alberta|Aboriginal Albertans]] make up approximately three percent of the population.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Census information"], "text": "In the 2006 [[Census in Canada|Canadian census]], the most commonly reported ethnic origins among Albertans were: 885,825 English (27.2%); 679,705 German (20.9%); 667,405 Canadian (20.5%); 661,265 Scottish (20.3%); 539,160 Irish (16.6%); 388,210 French (11.9%); 332,180 Ukrainian (10.2%); 172,910 [[Dutch Canadians|Dutch]] (5.3%); 170,935 [[Polish Canadians|Polish]] (5.2%); 169,355 [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|North American Indian]] (5.2%); 144,585 [[Norwegians|Norwegian]] (4.4%); and 137,600 [[Chinese Canadians|Chinese]] (4.2%). (Each person could choose as many ethnicities as were applicable.) Amongst those of British heritage, the Scots have had a particularly strong influence on place-names, with the names of many cities and towns including Calgary, [[Airdrie, Alberta|Airdrie]], [[Canmore, Alberta|Canmore]], and Banff having [[List of Scottish place names in Canada|Scottish]] origins. Alberta is the third most diverse province in terms of [[Visible minority|visible minorities]] after British Columbia and [[Ontario]] with 13.9% of the population consisting of visible minorities in 2006. Over one third of the populations of Calgary and Edmonton belong to a visible minority group. Aboriginal Identity Peoples made up 5.8% of the population in 2006, about half of whom consist of First Nations and the other half are [[Métis in Canada|Métis]]. There are also small number of [[Inuit]] people in Alberta. The number of Aboriginal Identity Peoples have been increasing at a rate greater than the population of Alberta. As of the [[Canada 2011 Census|2011 National Household Survey]], the largest religious group was Roman Catholic, representing 24.3% of the population. Alberta had the second-highest percentage of [[Irreligion|non-religious]] residents among the provinces (after British Columbia) at 31.6% of the population. Of the remainder, 7.5% of the population identified themselves as belonging to the [[United Church of Canada]], while 3.9% were [[Anglican Church of Canada|Anglican]]. [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] made up 3.3% of the population while [[Baptists]] comprised 1.9%. The remainder belonged to a wide variety of different religious affiliations, none of which constituted more than 2% of the population. Members of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS Church]] are mostly concentrated in the extreme south of the province. Alberta has a population of [[Hutterite]], a communal [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] sect similar to the [[Mennonite]], and has a significant population of [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]]. Alberta is home to several [[Byzantine Rite]] Churches as part of the legacy of Eastern European immigration, including the [[Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Edmonton]], and the [[Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada]]'s [[Ukrainian Orthodox Eparchy of Western Canada|Western Diocese]] which is based in Edmonton. Muslims made up 3.2% of the population, Sikhs 1.5%, Buddhists 1.2%, and Hindus 1.0%. Many of these are immigrants, but others have roots that go back to the first settlers of the prairies. Canada's oldest mosque, the [[Al-Rashid Mosque]], is located in Edmonton, whereas Calgary is home to Canada's largest mosque, the [[Baitun Nur Mosque]]. Alberta is also home to a growing Jewish population of about 15,400 people who constituted 0.3% of Alberta's population. Most of Alberta's Jews live in the metropolitan areas of Calgary (8,200) and Edmonton (5,500).", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Municipalities"], "text": "(-) Largest metro areas and municipalities by population as of 2016 ", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Economy"], "text": "Alberta's economy was one of the strongest in the world, supported by the burgeoning petroleum industry and to a lesser extent, agriculture and technology. In 2013, Alberta's per capita GDP exceeded that of the United States, Norway, or Switzerland, and was the highest of any province in Canada at This was 56% higher than the national average of and more than twice that of some of the Atlantic provinces. In 2006, the deviation from the national average was the largest for any province in [[History of Canada|Canadian history]]. According to the 2006 census, the median annual family income after taxes was $70,986 in Alberta (compared to $60,270 in Canada as a whole). In 2014, Alberta had the second-largest economy in Canada after Ontario, with a GDP exceeding . The GDP of the province calculated at basic prices rose by 4.6% in 2017 to $327.4 billion, which was the largest increase recorded in Canada, and it ended two consecutive years of decreases. Alberta's [[debt-to-GDP ratio]] is projected to peak at 12.1% in [[fiscal year]] 2021–2022, falling to 11.3% the following year. The Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized region in the province and one of the densest in Canada. The region covers a distance of roughly 400 kilometres north to south. In 2001, the population of the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor was 2.15 million (72% of Alberta's population). It is also one of the fastest-growing regions in the country. A 2003 study by [[Toronto-Dominion Bank|TD Bank Financial Group]] found the corridor to be the only Canadian urban centre to amass a U.S. level of wealth while maintaining a Canadian style [[quality of life]], offering [[universal health care]] benefits. The study found that GDP per capita in the corridor was 10% above average U.S. metropolitan areas and 40% above other [[List of cities in Canada|Canadian cities]] at that time. The [[Fraser Institute]] states that Alberta also has very high levels of [[economic freedom]] and rates Alberta as the freest economy in Canada, and second-freest economy amongst U.S. states and Canadian provinces. In 2014, Merchandise exports totalled US$121.4 billion. Energy revenues totalled $111.7 billion and Energy resource exports totalled $90.8 billion. Farm Cash receipts from agricultural products totalled $12.9 billion. Shipments of forest products totalled $5.4 billion while exports were $2.7 billion. Manufacturing sales totalled $79.4 billion, and Alberta's ICT industries generated over $13 billion in revenue. In total, Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed $364.5 billion in 2007 dollars, or $414.3 billion in 2015 dollars. In 2015, Alberta's GDP grew despite low oil prices; however, it was unstable with growth rates as high 4.4% and as low as 0.2%. Should the GDP remain at an average of 2.2% for the last two-quarters of 2015, Alberta's GDP should exceed $430 billion by the end of 2015. However, RBC Economics research predicts Alberta's real GDP growth to only average 0.6% for the last two-quarters of 2015. This estimate predicts a real GDP growth of only 1.4% for 2015. A positive is the predicted 10.8% growth in Nominal GDP, and possibly above 11% in 2016.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Agriculture and forestry"], "text": "Agriculture has a significant position in the province's economy. The province has over three million head of cattle, and Alberta beef has a healthy worldwide market. Nearly one half of all Canadian beef is produced in Alberta. Alberta is one of the top producers of plains [[American bison|buffalo (bison)]] for the consumer market. Sheep for wool and mutton are also raised. Wheat and [[canola]] are primary farm crops, with Alberta leading the provinces in spring wheat production; other [[cereal|grains]] are also prominent. Much of the farming is dryland farming, often with fallow seasons interspersed with cultivation. Continuous cropping (in which there is no fallow season) is gradually becoming a more common mode of production because of increased profits and a reduction of soil erosion. Across the province, the once common [[grain elevator]] is slowly being lost as rail lines are decreasing; farmers typically truck the grain to central points. Alberta is the leading [[beekeeping]] province of Canada, with some beekeepers wintering [[Beehive (beekeeping)|hive]] indoors in specially designed barns in southern Alberta, then migrating north during the summer into the [[Peace River (Alberta)|Peace River]] valley where the season is short but the working days are long for [[Western honey bee|honeybee]] to produce honey from [[clover]] and [[fireweed]]. [[Hybrid (biology)|Hybrid]] canola also requires bee pollination, and some beekeepers service this need. Forestry plays a vital role in Alberta's economy, providing over 15,000 jobs and contributing billions of dollars annually. Uses for harvested timber include [[pulpwood]], [[hardwood]], [[engineered wood]] and [[bioproducts]] such as chemicals and [[biofuels]]. Recently, the United States has been Canada and Alberta's largest importer of [[hardwood]] and [[pulpwood]], although [[Canada-United States softwood lumber dispute|continued trades issues]] with the U.S. have likely been a contributing factor towards Alberta's increased focus on Asian markets.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Industry"], "text": "Alberta is the largest producer of [[petroleum|conventional crude oil]], [[synthetic crude]], natural gas and gas products in Canada. Alberta is the world's second-largest exporter of natural gas and the fourth-largest producer. Two of the largest producers of [[petrochemicals]] in North America are located in central and north-central Alberta. In both Red Deer and Edmonton, [[polyethylene]] and [[Polyvinyl chloride|vinyl]] manufacturers produce products that are shipped all over the world. Edmonton's [[oil refinery|oil refineries]] provide the raw materials for a large [[petrochemical industry]] to the east of Edmonton. The [[Athabasca oil sands]] surrounding [[Fort McMurray]] have estimated [[unconventional oil]] reserves approximately equal to the [[Petroleum|conventional oil]] reserves of the rest of the world, estimated to be 1.6 trillion barrels (254 km). Many companies employ both conventional [[surface mining|strip mining]] and non-conventional [[in situ]] methods to extract the [[Asphalt|bitumen]] from the [[oil sands]]. As of late 2006 there were over $100 billion in oil sands projects under construction or in the planning stages in northeastern Alberta. Another factor determining the viability of oil extraction from the oil sands is the price of oil. The [[oil price increases since 2003]] have made it profitable to extract this oil, which in the past would give little profit or even a loss. By mid-2014, however, rising costs and stabilizing oil prices were threatening the economic viability of some projects. An example of this was the shelving of the Joslyn north project in the Athabasca region in May 2014. With concerted effort and support from the provincial government, several high-tech industries have found their birth in Alberta, notably patents related to interactive [[liquid-crystal display]] systems. With a growing economy, Alberta has several financial institutions dealing with civil and private funds.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Tourism"], "text": "Alberta has been a tourist destination from the early days of the twentieth century, with attractions including outdoor locales for skiing, hiking and camping, shopping locales such as [[West Edmonton Mall]], [[Calgary Stampede]], outdoor festivals, professional athletic events, international sporting competitions such as the [[Commonwealth Games]] and Olympic Games, as well as more eclectic attractions. According to Alberta Economic Development, Calgary and Edmonton both host over four million visitors annually. [[Banff, Alberta|Banff]], [[Jasper, Alberta|Jasper]] and the [[Canadian Rockies|Rocky Mountains]] are visited by about three million people per year. Alberta tourism relies heavily on [[Southern Ontario]] tourists, as well as tourists from other parts of Canada, the United States, and many other countries. There are also natural attractions like [[Elk Island National Park]], [[Wood Buffalo National Park]], and the [[Columbia Icefield]]. [[Alberta's Rockies]] include well-known tourist destinations [[Banff National Park]] and [[Jasper National Park]]. The two mountain parks are connected by the scenic [[Icefields Parkway]]. Banff is located west of Calgary on [[Alberta Highway 1|Highway 1]], and Jasper is located west of Edmonton on [[Yellowhead Highway]]. Five of Canada's fourteen [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] are located within the province: [[Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks World Heritage Site|Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks]], [[Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park]], Wood Buffalo National Park, [[Dinosaur Provincial Park]] and [[Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump]]. A number of these areas hold ski resorts, most notably [[Sunshine Village]], [[Lake Louise Ski Resort|Lake Louise]], [[Marmot Basin]], [[Mount Norquay ski resort|Norquay]] and [[Nakiska]]. About 1.2 million people visit the Calgary Stampede, a celebration of Canada's own Wild West and the cattle ranching industry. About 700,000 people enjoy Edmonton's [[K-Days]] (formerly Klondike Days and Capital EX). Edmonton was the gateway to the only all-Canadian route to the [[Yukon]] [[Gold mining|gold field]], and the only route which did not require gold-seekers to travel the exhausting and dangerous [[Chilkoot Pass]]. Another tourist destination that draws more than 650,000 visitors each year is the Drumheller Valley, located northeast of Calgary. [[Drumheller]], \"Dinosaur Capital of The World\", offers the [[Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology]]. Drumheller also had a rich mining history being one of Western Canada's largest coal producers during the war years. Another attraction in east-central Alberta is [[Alberta Prairie Railway Excursions]], a popular tourist attraction operated out of [[Stettler, Alberta|Stettler]], that offers train excursions into the prairie and caters to tens of thousands of visitors every year.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics"], "text": "The Government of Alberta is organized as a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] democracy with a unicameral legislature. Its [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] legislature—the [[Legislative Assembly of Alberta|Legislative Assembly]]—consists of 87 members elected [[First-past-the-post voting|first past the post]] (FPTP) from single-member constituencies. Locally municipal governments and school boards are elected and operate separately. Their boundaries do not necessarily coincide. As [[Queen of Canada]], [[Elizabeth II]] is the head of state for the Government of Alberta. Her duties in Alberta are carried out by Lieutenant Governor [[Salma Lakhani]]. The Queen and lieutenant governor are figureheads whose actions are highly restricted by custom and [[constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]]. The lieutenant governor handles numerous honorific duties in the name of the Queen. The government is headed by the [[Premier of Alberta|premier]]. The premier is normally a member of the Legislative Assembly, and draws all the members of the Cabinet from among the members of the Legislative Assembly. The City of Edmonton is the seat of the provincial government—the capital of Alberta. The premier is [[Jason Kenney]], sworn in on April 30, 2019. Alberta's elections have tended to yield much more conservative outcomes than those of other Canadian provinces. Since the 1960s, Alberta has had three main political parties, the Progressive Conservatives (\"Conservatives\" or \"Tories\"), the [[Alberta Liberal Party|Liberals]], and the social democratic New Democrats. The [[Wildrose Party]], a more conservative party formed in early 2008, gained much support in the [[2012 Alberta General Election|2012 election]] and became the [[Opposition (parliamentary)|official opposition]], a role it held until 2017 when it was dissolved and succeeded by the new [[United Conservative Party]] created by the merger of Wildrose and the Progressive Conservatives. The strongly conservative [[Social Credit Party of Alberta|Social Credit Party]] was a power in Alberta for many decades, but fell from the political map after the Progressive Conservatives came to power in 1971. For 44 years the Progressive Conservatives governed Alberta. They lost the [[2015 Alberta general election|2015 election]] to the NDP (which formed their own government for the first time in provincial history, breaking almost 80 consecutive years of right-wing rule), suggesting at the time a possible shift to the left in the province, also indicated by the election of progressive mayors in both of Alberta's major cities. Since becoming a province in 1905, Alberta has seen only five changes of government—only six parties have governed Alberta: the Liberals, from 1905 to 1921; the [[United Farmers of Alberta]], from 1921 to 1935; the Social Credit Party, from 1935 to 1971; the Progressive Conservative Party, from 1971 to 2015; from 2015 to 2019, the Alberta New Democratic Party; and from 2019, the United Conservative Party, with the [[2019 Alberta general election|most recent transfer of power]] being the first time in provincial history that an incumbent government was not returned to a second term.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics", "Administrative divisions"], "text": "The province is divided into 10 types of [[Incorporation (municipal government)|local governments]] – urban municipalities (including [[city|cities]], [[town]], [[village]] and [[summer village]]), specialized municipalities, rural municipalities (including [[List of municipal districts in Alberta|municipal district]] (often named as [[List of municipal districts in Alberta|counties]]), improvement districts, and special areas), Métis settlements, and Indian reserves. All types of municipalities are governed by local residents and were incorporated under various provincial acts, with the exception of improvement districts (governed by either the provincial or federal government), and Indian reserves (governed by local [[first nation|First Nations]] people under federal jurisdiction).", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics", "Law enforcement"], "text": "Policing in the province of Alberta upon its creation was the responsibility of the [[North-West Mounted Police|Royal Northwest Mounted Police]]. In 1917, due to pressures of [[World War I]], the [[Alberta Provincial Police]] was created. This organization policed the province until it was disbanded as a [[Great Depression]]-era cost-cutting measure in 1932. It was at that time the now renamed [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] resumed policing of the province, specifically RCMP \"K\" Division. With the advent of the [[Alberta Sheriffs Branch]], the distribution of duties of law enforcement in Alberta has been evolving as certain aspects, such as traffic enforcement, mobile surveillance and the close protection of the Premier of Alberta have been transferred to the Sheriffs. In 2006, Alberta formed the [[Alberta Law Enforcement Response Teams]] (ALERT) to combat organized crime and the serious offences that accompany it. ALERT is made up of members of the RCMP, Sheriffs Branch and various major municipal police forces in Alberta.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics", "Military"], "text": "Military bases in Alberta include [[CFB Cold Lake|Canadian Forces Base (CFB) Cold Lake]], [[CFB Edmonton]], [[CFB Suffield]] and [[CFB Wainwright]]. Air force units stationed at CFB Cold Lake have access to the [[CFB Cold Lake|Cold Lake Air Weapons Range]]. CFB Edmonton is the headquarters for the 3rd Canadian Division. CFB Suffield hosts British troops and is the largest training facility in Canada.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics", "Taxation"], "text": "According to Alberta's 2009 budget, government revenue in that year came mainly from royalties on non-renewable natural resources (30.4%), personal income taxes (22.3%), corporate and other taxes (19.6%), and grants from the [[Government of Canada|federal government]] primarily for infrastructure projects (9.8%). In 2014, Alberta received $6.1 billion in bitumen royalties. With the drop in the price of oil in 2015 it was down to $1.4 billion. In 2016, Alberta received \"about $837 million in royalty payments from oil sands Royalty Projects\". According to the 2018–21 fiscal plan, the two top sources of revenue in 2016 were personal income tax at $10, 763 million and federal transfers of $7,976 million with total resource revenue at $3,097 million. Alberta is the only province in Canada without a provincial [[sales tax]]. Alberta residents are still subject to the federal sales tax, the [[Goods and Services Tax (Canada)|Goods and Services Tax]] of 5%. From 2001 to 2016, Alberta was the only Canadian province to have a [[flat tax]] of 10% of taxable income, which was introduced by then-Premier, [[Ralph Klein]], as part of the Alberta Tax Advantage, which also included a zero-percent tax on income below a \"generous personal exemption\". In 2016, under then-Premier [[Rachel Notley]], while most Albertans continued to pay the 10-per-cent income tax rate, new tax brackets 12-per-cent, 14-per-cent, and 15-per-cent for those with higher incomes ($128,145 annually or more) were introduced. Alberta's personal income tax system maintained a [[Progressive tax|progressive character]] by continuing to grant residents personal tax exemptions of $18,451, in addition to a variety of tax deductions for persons with disabilities, students, and the aged. Alberta's municipalities and school jurisdictions have their own governments who usually work in co-operation with the provincial government. By 2018, most Albertans continued to pay the 10-per-cent income tax rate. According to a March 2015 [[Statistics Canada]] report, the median household income in Alberta in 2014 was about $100,000, which is 23 per cent higher than the Canadian national average. Based on Statistic Canada reports, low income Albertans, who earn less than $25,000 and those in the high-income bracket earning $150,000 or more, are the lowest-taxed people in Canada. Those in the middle income brackets representing those that earn about $25,000 to $75,000 pay more in provincial taxes than residents in British Columbia and Ontario. In terms of income tax, Alberta is the \"best province\" for those with a low income because there is no provincial income tax for those who earn $18,915 or less. Even with the 2016 progressive tax brackets up to 15%, Albertans who have the highest incomes, those with a $150,000 annual income or more—about 178,000 people in 2015, pay the least in taxes in Canada. — About 1.9 million Albertans earned between $25,000 and $150,000 in 2015. Alberta also privatized alcohol distribution. By 2010, privatization had increased outlets from 304 stores to 1,726; 1,300 jobs to 4,000 jobs; and 3,325 products to 16,495 products. Tax revenue also increased from $400 million to $700 million.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics", "Taxation"], "text": "In 2017/18 Alberta collected about $2.4 billion in education property taxes from municipalities. Albertan municipalities raise a significant portion of their income through levying property taxes. The value of assessed property in Alberta was approximately $727 billion in 2011. Most real property is assessed according to its market value. The exceptions to market value assessment are farmland, railways, machinery & equipment and linear property, all of which is assessed by regulated rates. Depending on the property type, property owners may appeal a property assessment to their municipal 'Local Assessment Review Board', 'Composite Assessment Review Board,' or the Alberta Municipal Government Board.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Culture"], "text": "Summer brings many festivals to the province of Alberta, especially in Edmonton. The [[Edmonton International Fringe Festival|Edmonton Fringe Festival]] is the world's second-largest after the [[Edinburgh Festival]]. Both Calgary and Edmonton host a number of annual festivals and events, including folk music festivals. The city's \"heritage days\" festival sees the participation of over 70 ethnic groups. Edmonton's [[Churchill Square (Edmonton)|Churchill Square]] is home to a large number of the festivals, including the large Taste of Edmonton & [[The Works Art & Design Festival]] throughout the summer months. The City of Calgary is also famous for its Stampede, dubbed \"The Greatest Outdoor Show on Earth\". The Stampede is Canada's biggest rodeo festival and features various races and competitions, such as [[calf roping]] and [[bull riding]]. In line with the western tradition of rodeo are the cultural artisans that reside and create unique Alberta western heritage crafts. The [[Banff Centre]] hosts a range of festivals and other events including the international [[Banff Mountain Film Festival|Mountain Film Festival]]. These cultural events in Alberta highlight the province's cultural diversity. Most of the major cities have several performing theatre companies who entertain in venues as diverse as Edmonton's Arts Barns and the [[Francis Winspear Centre for Music]]. Both Calgary and Edmonton are home to [[Canadian Football League]] and [[National Hockey League]] teams (the [[Calgary Stampeders|Stampeders]]/[[Calgary Flames|Flames]] and [[Edmonton Football Team]]/[[Edmonton Oilers|Oilers]] respectively). Soccer, [[rugby union]] and [[lacrosse]] are also played professionally in Alberta. In 2019 the then Minister of Culture and Tourism [[Ricardo Miranda]] announced the Alberta Artist in Residence program in conjunction with the province's first Month of the Artist to celebrate the arts and the value they bring to the province, both socially and economically, The Artist is selected each year via a public and competitive process is expected to do community outreach and attend events to promote the arts throughout the province. The award comes with $60,000 funding which includes travel and materials costs. On January 31, 2019 [[Lauren Crazybull]] named Alberta's 1st Artist in Residence. Alberta is the first province to launch an Artist in Residence program in Canada.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Education"], "text": "As with any Canadian province, the Alberta Legislature has (almost) exclusive authority to make laws respecting education. Since 1905 the Legislature has used this capacity to continue the model of locally elected public and separate school boards which originated prior to 1905, as well as to create and regulate universities, colleges, technical institutions and other educational forms and institutions (public charter schools, private schools, home schooling).", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Education", "Elementary and secondary"], "text": "There are forty-two public school jurisdictions in Alberta, and seventeen operating separate school jurisdictions. Sixteen of the operating separate school jurisdictions have a Catholic electorate, and one ([[St. Albert, Alberta|St. Albert]]) has a [[Protestant]] electorate. In addition, one Protestant separate school district, Glen Avon, survives as a ward of the St. Paul Education Region. The City of Lloydminster straddles the Alberta/Saskatchewan border, and both the public and separate school systems in that city are counted in the above numbers: both of them operate according to Saskatchewan law. For many years the provincial government has funded the greater part of the cost of providing K–12 education. Prior to 1994 public and separate school boards in Alberta had the legislative authority to levy a local tax on property as a supplementary support for local education. In 1994 the government of the province eliminated this right for public school boards, but not for separate school boards. Since 1994 there has continued to be a tax on property in support of K–12 education; the difference is that the mill rate is now set by the provincial government, the money is collected by the local municipal authority and remitted to the provincial government. The relevant legislation requires that all the money raised by this property tax must go to the support of K–12 education provided by school boards. The provincial government pools the property tax funds from across the province and distributes them, according to a formula, to public and separate school jurisdictions and Francophone authorities. [[State school|Public]] and separate school boards, charter schools, and private schools all follow the Program of Studies and the curriculum approved by the provincial department of education (Alberta Education). [[Homeschooling|Homeschool]] tutors may choose to follow the Program of Studies or develop their own Program of Studies. Public and separate schools, charter schools, and approved private schools all employ teachers who are certificated by Alberta Education, they administer Provincial Achievement Tests and Diploma Examinations set by Alberta Education, and they may grant high school graduation certificates endorsed by Alberta Education.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Education", "Post-secondary"], "text": "The [[University of Alberta]], located in Edmonton and established in 1908, is Alberta's oldest and largest university. The [[University of Calgary]], once affiliated with the University of Alberta, gained its autonomy in 1966 and is now the second-largest university in Alberta. [[Athabasca University]], which focuses on distance learning, and the [[University of Lethbridge]] are located in Athabasca and Lethbridge respectively. In early September 2009, [[Mount Royal University]] became Calgary's second public university, and in late September 2009, a similar move made [[MacEwan University]] Edmonton's second public university. There are 15 colleges that receive direct public funding, along with two technical institutes, [[Northern Alberta Institute of Technology]] and [[Southern Alberta Institute of Technology]]. Two of the colleges, Red Deer College and Grande Prairie Regional College, were approved by the Alberta government to become degree granting universities There are also many private post-secondary institutions, mostly [[List of colleges in Alberta#Private Colleges|Christian Universities]], bringing the total number of universities to 12. Students may also receive government loans and grants while attending selected private institutions. There was some controversy in 2005 over the rising cost of post-secondary education for students (as opposed to taxpayers). In 2005, Premier [[Ralph Klein]] made a promise that he would freeze tuition and look into ways of reducing schooling costs.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Health care"], "text": "Alberta provides a [[publicly funded health care|publicly funded, fully integrated health system]], through [[Alberta Health Services]] (AHS)—a quasi-independent agency that delivers health care on behalf of the [[Government of Alberta]]'s [[Ministry of Health (Alberta)|Ministry of Health]]. The Alberta government provides health services for all its residents as set out by the provisions of the ''[[Canada Health Act]]'' of 1984. Alberta became Canada's second province (after [[Saskatchewan]]) to adopt a [[Tommy Douglas]]-style program in 1950, a precursor to the modern [[Medicare (Canada)|medicare]] system. Alberta's health care budget was $22.5 billion during the 2018–2019 fiscal year (approximately 45% of all government spending), making it the best-funded health-care system per-capita in Canada. Every hour the province spends more than $2.5 million, (or $60 million per day), to maintain and improve health care in the province. Notable health, education, research, and resources facilities in Alberta, all of which are located within Calgary or Edmonton. Health centres in Calgary include: (-) [[Alberta Children's Hospital]] (-) [[Foothills Medical Centre]] (-) Grace Women's Health Centre (-) [[Libin Cardiovascular Institute of Alberta]] (-) [[Peter Lougheed Centre]] (-) [[Rockyview General Hospital]] (-) [[South Health Campus]] (-) [[Tom Baker Cancer Centre]] (-) University of Calgary Medical Centre (UCMC) Health centres in Edmonton include: (-) Alberta Diabetes Institute (-) [[Cross Cancer Institute]] (-) Edmonton Clinic (-) [[Grey Nuns Community Hospital]] (-) Lois Hole Hospital for Women (-) [[Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute]] (-) [[Misericordia Community Hospital]] (-) Rexall Centre for Pharmacy and Health Research (-) [[Royal Alexandra Hospital (Edmonton)|Royal Alexandra Hospital]] (-) [[Stollery Children's Hospital]] (-) [[University of Alberta Hospital]] The [[University of Alberta in Edmonton|Edmonton Clinic]] complex, completed in 2012, provides a similar research, education, and care environment as the [[Mayo Clinic]] in the United States. All public health care services funded by the Government of Alberta are delivered operationally by Alberta Health Services. AHS is the province's single health authority, established on July 1, 2008, which replaced nine regional health authorities. AHS also funds all ground ambulance services in the province, as well as the province-wide [[Shock Trauma Air Rescue Society]] (STARS) air ambulance service.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Transportation", "Air"], "text": "Alberta is well-connected by air, with [[international airport]] in both Calgary and Edmonton. [[Calgary International Airport]] and [[Edmonton International Airport]] are the fourth- and [[List of the busiest airports in Canada|fifth-busiest in Canada]], respectively. Calgary's airport is a hub for [[WestJet|WestJet Airlines]] and a regional hub for [[Air Canada]], primarily serving the prairie provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba) for connecting flights to British Columbia, eastern Canada, 15 major U.S. centres, nine European airports, one Asian airport and four destinations in Mexico and the [[Caribbean]]. Edmonton's airport acts as a hub for the Canadian north and has connections to all major Canadian airports as well as airports in the United States, Europe, Mexico, and the Caribbean .", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Transportation", "Public transit"], "text": "Calgary, Edmonton, Red Deer, Medicine Hat, and Lethbridge have substantial [[Public transport|public transit]] systems. In addition to buses, Calgary and Edmonton operate [[Light rail|light rail transit]] (LRT) systems. [[Edmonton Light Rail Transit|Edmonton LRT]], which is underground in the downtown core and on the surface outside the CBD, was the first of the modern generation of light rail systems to be built in North America, while the Calgary [[C-Train]] has one of the highest number of daily riders of any LRT system in North America.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Transportation", "Rail"], "text": "There are more than of operating mainline railway in Alberta. The vast majority of this trackage is owned by the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] and [[Canadian National Railway]] companies, which operate railway [[Cargo|freight]] across the province. Additional railfreight service in the province is provided by two shortline railways: the [[Battle River Railway]] and [[Forty Mile Rail]]. Passenger trains include [[Via Rail]]'s Canadian (Toronto–Vancouver) or Jasper–Prince Rupert trains, which use the CN mainline and pass through Jasper National Park and parallel the Yellowhead Highway during at least part of their routes. The [[Rocky Mountaineer]] operates two sections: one from Vancouver to Banff and Calgary over CP tracks, and a section that travels over CN tracks to Jasper.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Transportation", "Road"], "text": "Alberta has over of highways and roads, of which nearly are paved. The main north–south corridor is [[Alberta Highway 2|Highway 2]], which begins south of [[Cardston]] at the [[Carway, Alberta|Carway]] border crossing and is part of the [[CANAMEX Corridor]]. [[Alberta Highway 4|Highway 4]], which effectively extends [[Interstate 15]] into Alberta and is the busiest U.S. gateway to the province, begins at the [[Coutts, Alberta|Coutts]] border crossing and ends at Lethbridge. [[Alberta Highway 3|Highway 3]] joins Lethbridge to [[Fort Macleod]] and links Highway 2 to Highway 4. Highway 2 travels north through Fort Macleod, Calgary, Red Deer, and Edmonton. North of Edmonton, the highway continues to [[Athabasca, Alberta|Athabasca]], then northwesterly along the south shore of [[Lesser Slave Lake]] into [[High Prairie]], north to [[Peace River, Alberta|Peace River]], west to [[Fairview, Alberta|Fairview]] and finally south to [[Grande Prairie]], where it ends at an interchange with [[Alberta Highway 43|Highway 43]]. The section of Highway 2 between Calgary and Edmonton has been named the Queen Elizabeth II Highway to commemorate the visit of the monarch in 2005. Highway 2 is supplemented by two more highways that run parallel to it: [[Alberta Highway 22|Highway 22]], west of Highway 2, known as ''Cowboy Trail'', and [[Alberta Highway 21|Highway 21]], east of Highway 2. Highway 43 travels northwest into Grande Prairie and the [[Peace River Country]]; [[Alberta Highway 63|Highway 63]] travels northeast to Fort McMurray, the location of the Athabasca oil sands. Alberta has two main east–west corridors. The southern corridor, part of the [[Trans-Canada Highway]] system, enters the province near Medicine Hat, runs westward through Calgary, and leaves Alberta through Banff National Park. The northern corridor, also part of the Trans-Canada network and known as the [[Yellowhead Highway]] ([[Alberta Highway 16|Highway 16]]), runs west from Lloydminster in eastern Alberta, through Edmonton and [[Jasper National Park]] into British Columbia. One of the most scenic drives is along the [[Icefields Parkway]], which runs for between Jasper and Lake Louise, with mountain ranges and glaciers on either side of its entire length. A third corridor stretches across southern Alberta; [[Alberta Highway 3|Highway 3]] runs between Crowsnest Pass and Medicine Hat through Lethbridge and forms the eastern portion of the [[Crowsnest Highway]]. Another major corridor through central Alberta is [[Alberta Highway 11|Highway 11]] (also known as the [[David Thompson (explorer)|David Thompson]] Highway), which runs east from the [[Saskatchewan River Crossing, Alberta|Saskatchewan River Crossing]] in Banff National Park through [[Rocky Mountain House]] and [[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]], connecting with [[Alberta Highway 12|Highway 12]] west of [[Stettler, Alberta|Stettler]]. The highway connects many of the smaller towns in central Alberta with Calgary and Edmonton, as it crosses Highway 2 just west of Red Deer.", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Transportation", "Road"], "text": "Urban stretches of Alberta's major highways and freeways are often called ''trails''. For example, Highway 2, the main north–south highway in the province, is called [[Deerfoot Trail]] as it passes through Calgary but becomes [[Calgary Trail]] (for southbound traffic) and [[Gateway Boulevard]] (for northbound traffic) as it enters Edmonton and then turns into St. Albert Trail as it leaves Edmonton for the City of [[St. Albert, Alberta|St. Albert]]. Calgary, in particular, has a tradition of calling its largest urban [[limited-access road|expressway]] ''trails'' and naming many of them after prominent [[First Nations]] individuals and tribes, such as [[Crowchild Trail]], Deerfoot Trail, and [[Stoney Trail]].", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["Friendship partners"], "text": "Alberta has relationships with many provinces, states, and other entities worldwide. (-) [[Gangwon Province, South Korea|Gangwon-do]], South Korea (1974) (-) [[Hokkaido]], Japan (1980) (-) [[Heilongjiang]], China (1981) (-) [[Montana]], United States (1985) (-) [[Tyumen]], Russia (1992) (-) [[Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug|Khanty–Mansi]], Russia (1995) (-) [[Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug|Yamalo-Nenets]], Russia (1997) (-) [[Jalisco]], Mexico (1999) (-) [[Alaska]], United States (2002) (-) [[Saxony]], Germany (2002) (-) [[Ivano-Frankivsk]], Ukraine (2004) (-) [[Lviv]], Ukraine (2005) (-) [[California]], United States (1997) (-) [[Guangdong]], China (2017)", "id": "717", "title": "Alberta", "categories": ["Alberta", "1905 establishments in Canada", "Provinces of Canada", "States and territories established in 1905", "Canadian Prairies"], "seealso": ["Outline of Alberta", "Index of Alberta-related articles", "Symbols of Alberta"]}
{"headers": ["A"], "text": "(-) [[John Adair (anthropologist)|John Adair]] (-) [[B. R. Ambedkar]] (-) [[Giulio Angioni]] (-) [[Jon Charles Altman|Jon Altman]] (-) [[Arjun Appadurai]] (-) [[Talal Asad]] (-) [[Timothy Asch]] (-) [[Scott Atran]] (-) [[Marc Augé]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["B"], "text": "(-) [[Nigel Barley (anthropologist)|Nigel Barley]] (-) [[Fredrik Barth]] (-) [[Vasily Bartold]] (-) [[Keith H. Basso]] (-) [[Daisy Bates (Australia)|Daisy Bates]] (-) [[Gregory Bateson]] (-) [[Mary Catherine Bateson]] (-) [[Ruth Behar]] (-) [[Ruth Benedict]] (-) [[Dorothy A. Bennett]] (-) [[Carl H. Berendt]] (-) [[Lee R. Berger|Lee Berger]] (-) [[Brent Berlin]] (-) [[Catherine Helen Webb Berndt]] (-) [[Catherine L. Besteman]] (-) [[Theodore C. Bestor]] (-) [[Lewis Binford]] (-) [[Evelyn Blackwood]] (-) [[Wilhelm Bleek]] (-) [[Maurice Bloch]] (-) [[Anton Blok]] (-) [[Franz Boas]] (-) [[Tom Boellstorff]] (-) [[Paul Bohannan]] (-) [[Dmitri Bondarenko]] (-) [[Pere Bosch-Gimpera]] (-) [[Pierre Bourdieu]] (-) [[Philippe Bourgois]] (-) [[Paul Broca]] (-) [[Kari Bruwelheide]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["C"], "text": "(-) [[Julio Caro Baroja]] (-) [[Edmund Snow Carpenter|Edmund Carpenter]] (-) [[Napoleon Chagnon]] (-) [[Pierre Clastres]] (-) [[Mabel Cook Cole]] (-) [[Malcolm Carr Collier]] (-) [[Harold C. Conklin]] (-) [[Carleton S. Coon]] (-) [[Frank Hamilton Cushing]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["D"], "text": "(-) [[Regna Darnell]] (-) [[Raymond Dart]] (-) [[Emma Lou Davis]] (-) [[Wade Davis (anthropologist)|Wade Davis]] (-) [[Ernesto de Martino]] (-) [[Ella Cara Deloria]] (-) [[Raymond J. DeMallie]] (-) [[Philippe Descola]] (-) [[Stanley Diamond]] (-) [[Mary Douglas]] (-) [[Cora Du Bois]] (-) [[Eugene Dubois]] (-) [[Ann Dunham]] (-) [[Katherine Dunham]] (-) [[Elizabeth Cullen Dunn]] (-) [[Émile Durkheim]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["E"], "text": "(-) [[Mary Lindsay Elmendolf]] (-) [[Verrier Elwin]] (-) [[Friedrich Engels]] (-) [[Arturo Escobar (anthropologist)|Arturo Escobar]] (-) [[E. E. Evans-Pritchard]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["F"], "text": "(-) [[James Ferguson (anthropologist)|James Ferguson]] (-) [[Raymond Firth]] (-) [[Raymond D. Fogelson]] (-) [[Meyer Fortes]] (-) [[Gregory Forth]] (-) [[Dian Fossey]] (-) [[Kate Fox]] (-) [[Robin Fox]] (-) [[James Frazer]] (-) [[Lina Fruzzetti]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["G"], "text": "(-) [[Clifford Geertz]] (-) [[Alfred Gell]] (-) [[Ernest Gellner]] (-) [[Herb Di Gioia]] (-) [[Max Gluckman]] (-) [[Maurice Godelier]] (-) [[Jane Goodall]] (-) [[Marjorie Harness Goodwin]] (-) [[Igor Gorevich]] (-) [[Harold A. Gould]] (-) [[David Graeber]] (-) [[Hilma Granqvist]] (-) [[J. Patrick Gray]] (-) [[Marcel Griaule]] (-) [[Jacob Grimm]] (-) [[Wilhelm Grimm]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["H"], "text": "(-) [[Abdellah Hammoudi]] (-) [[Michael Harkin]] (-) [[Michael Harner]] (-) [[John P. Harrington]] (-) [[Marvin Harris]] (-) [[K. David Harrison]] (-) [[Kirsten Hastrup]] (-) [[Jacquetta Hawkes]] (-) [[Stephen C. Headley]] (-) [[Te Rangi Hīroa]] (Sir Peter Buck) (-) [[Arthur Maurice Hocart]] (-) [[Ian Hodder]] (-) [[Hoebel|E. Adamson Hoebel]] (-) [[Earnest Hooton]] (-) [[Robin W.G. Horton]] (-) [[Ales Hrdlicka|Aleš Hrdlička]] (-) [[Eva Verbitsky Hunt]] (-) [[Dell Hymes]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["J"], "text": "(-) [[Ira Jacknis]] (-) [[John M. Janzen]] (-) [[Thomas Des Jean]] (-) [[F. Landa Jocano]] (-) [[Alfred E. Johnson]] (-) [[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]] (-) [[Michal Josephy]] (-) [[Jeffrey S. Juris]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["K"], "text": "(-) [[Sergei Kan]] (-) [[Jomo Kenyatta]] (-) [[David Kertzer]] (-) [[Alice Beck Kehoe]] (-) [[Anatoly Khazanov]] (-) [[Richard G. Klein]] (-) [[Eduardo Kohn]] (-) [[Dorinne K. Kondo]] (-) [[Andrey Korotayev]] (-) [[Conrad Kottak]] (-) [[Charles H. Kraft]] (-) [[Grover Krantz]] (-) [[Alfred L. Kroeber]] (-) [[Theodora Kroeber]] (-) [[Lars Krutak]] (-) [[Adam Kuper]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["L"], "text": "(-) [[William Labov]] (-) [[George Lakoff]] (-) [[Harold E. Lambert]] (-) [[Edmund Leach]] (-) [[Eleanor Leacock]] (-) [[Murray Leaf]] (-) [[Louis Leakey]] (-) [[Mary Leakey]] (-) [[Richard Leakey]] (-) [[Richard Borshay Lee]] (-) [[Charles Miller Leslie]] (-) [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] (-) [[Ellen Lewin]] (-) [[C. Scott Littleton]] (-) [[Albert Buell Lewis]] (-) [[Oscar Lewis]] (-) [[Phillip Harold Lewis]] (-) [[Iris López]] (-) [[Robert Lowie]] (-) [[Nancy Lurie]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["M"], "text": "(-) [[Alan Macfarlane]] (-) [[Saba Mahmood]] (-) [[Bronisław Malinowski]] (-) [[George E. Marcus|George Marcus]] (-) [[Jonathan M. Marks]] (-) [[Karl Marx]] (-) [[John Alden Mason]] (-) [[Michael Atwood Mason]] (-) [[Marcel Mauss]] (-) [[Phillip McArthur]] (-) [[Irma McClaurin]] (-) [[Charles Harrison McNutt]] (-) [[Margaret Mead]] (-) [[Mervyn Meggitt]] (-) [[Josef Mengele]] (-) [[Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay]] (-) [[Emily Martin (anthropologist)|Emily Martin]] (-) [[Horace Mitchell Miner]] (-) [[Sidney Mintz]] (-) [[Ashley Montagu]] (-) [[James Mooney]] (-) [[Henrietta L. Moore]] (-) [[John H. Moore]] (-) [[Lewis H. Morgan]] (-) [[Desmond Morris]] (-) [[George Murdock]] (-) [[Yolanda Murphy]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["N"], "text": "(-) [[Laura Nader]] (-) [[Moni Nag]] (-) [[Jeremy Narby]] (-) [[Raoul Naroll]] (-) [[Josiah Nott]] (-) [[Erland Nordenskiöld]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["O"], "text": "(-) [[Gananath Obeyesekere]] (-) [[Kaori O'Connor]] (-) [[Aihwa Ong]] (-) [[Marvin Opler]] (-) [[Morris Opler]] (-) [[Sherry Ortner]] (-) [[Keith F. Otterbein]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["P"], "text": "(-) [[Elsie Clews Parsons]] (-) [[Bronislav Pilsudski]] (-) [[Thomas J. Pluckhahn]] (-) [[Hortense Powdermaker]] (-) [[A.H.J. Prins]] (-) [[Harald E.L. Prins]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["R"], "text": "(-) [[Paul Rabinow]] (-) [[Wilhelm Radloff]] (-) [[Lucinda Ramberg]] (-) [[Roy Rappaport]] (-) [[Hans Ras]] (-) [[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]] (-) [[Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff]] (-) [[Kathy Reichs]] (-) [[Audrey Richards]] (-) [[W. H. R. Rivers]] (-) [[Paul Rivet]] (-) [[Joel Robbins]] (-) [[Renato Rosaldo]] (-) [[Gayle Rubin]] (-) [[Robert A. Rubinstein]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["S"], "text": "(-) [[Marshall Sahlins]] (-) [[Noel B. Salazar]] (-) [[Roger Sandall]] (-) [[Edward Sapir]] (-) [[Patricia Sawin]] (-) [[Nancy Scheper-Hughes]] (-) [[Wilhelm Schmidt (linguist)|Wilhelm Schmidt]] (-) [[Tobias Schneebaum]] (-) [[James C. Scott]] (-) [[Thayer Scudder]] (-) [[Elman Service]] (-) [[Afanasy Shchapov]] (-) [[Gerald F. Schroedl]] (-) [[Florence Connolly Shipek]] (-) [[Sydel Silverman]] (-) [[Cathy Small]] (-) [[Christen A. Smith]] (-) [[Jacques Soustelle]] (-) [[Melford Spiro]] (-) [[James Spradley]] (-) [[Julian Steward]] (-) [[Herbert Spencer]] (-) [[Marilyn Strathern]] (-) [[William Sturtevant]] (-) [[Niara Sudarkasa]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["T"], "text": "(-) [[Michael Taussig]] (-) [[Edward Burnett Tylor]] (-) [[Colin Turnbull]] (-) [[Victor Turner]] (-) [[Bruce Trigger]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["V"], "text": "(-) [[Karl Verner]] (-) [[L. P. Vidyarthi]] (-) [[Eduardo Viveiros de Castro]] (-) [[Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["W"], "text": "(-) [[Anthony F. C. Wallace]] (-) [[Lee Henderson Watkins]] (-) [[Camilla Wedgwood]] (-) [[Hank Wesselman]] (-) [[Kath Weston]] (-) [[Douglas R. White]] (-) [[Isobel Mary White]] (-) [[Leslie White]] (-) [[Tim White (anthropologist)|Tim White]] (-) [[Benjamin Whorf]] (-) [[Unni Wikan]] (-) [[Clark Wissler]] (-) [[Eric Wolf]] (-) [[Alvin Wolfe]] (-) [[Sol Worth]]", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": ["Fictional anthropologists"], "text": "(-) [[Mary Albright]] ([[Jane Curtin]]) in the sitcom ''[[3rd Rock from the Sun]]'' (-) [[Temperance \"Bones\" Brennan]] ([[Emily Deschanel]]) in the television series ''[[Bones (TV series)|Bones]]'' (-) [[Temperance Brennan]] in the novel series ''Temperance Brennan'' by [[Kathy Reichs]] (-) [[Chakotay]] ([[Robert Beltran]]) in the television series ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'' (-) [[Michael Burnham]] ([[Sonequa Martin-Green]]) in the television series ''[[Star Trek: Discovery]]'' (-) [[Daniel Jackson (Stargate)|Daniel Jackson]] ([[Michael Shanks]], [[James Spader]]) in the television series and film ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' (-) [[Charlotte Lewis (Lost)|Charlotte Lewis]] ([[Rebecca Mader]]) in the television series ''[[Lost (2004 TV series)|Lost]]''", "id": "728", "title": "List of anthropologists", "categories": ["Lists of social scientists", "Anthropologists"], "seealso": ["List of Black Anthropologists", "List of female anthropologists"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Actinopterygii''' ([[New Latin]] ('having rays') + Greek ( 'wing, fins')), members of which are known as '''ray-finned fishes''', is a [[clade]] (traditionally [[Class (biology)|class]] or subclass) of the [[Osteichthyes|bony fishes]]. The ray-finned [[fish]] are so-called because their fins are webs of skin supported by bony or horny spines (rays), as opposed to the fleshy, lobed fins that characterize the class [[Sarcopterygii]] (lobe-finned fish). These actinopterygian fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements, the radials, which represent the link or connection between these fins and the internal skeleton (e.g., pelvic and pectoral girdles). By species count, actinopterygians dominate the [[vertebrate]], and they comprise nearly 99% of the over 30,000 species of fish. They are ubiquitous throughout [[freshwater]] and [[ocean|marine]] environments from the deep sea to the highest mountain streams. Extant species can range in size from ''[[Paedocypris]]'', at , to the massive [[ocean sunfish]], at , and the long-bodied [[oarfish]], at . The vast majority of Actinopterygii (~95%) are [[Teleost|teleosts]].", "id": "734", "title": "Actinopterygii", "categories": ["Ray-finned fish", "Fish classes", "Silurian bony fish", "Extant Silurian first appearances"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Characteristics"], "text": "Ray-finned fishes occur in many variant forms. The main features of a typical ray-finned fish are shown in the adjacent diagram. The swim bladder is the more derived structure. Ray-finned fishes have many different types of scales; but all [[teleost]], the most advanced actinopterygians, have leptoid scales. The outer part of these scales fan out with bony ridges while the inner part is crossed with fibrous connective tissue. Leptoid scales are thinner and more transparent than other types of scales, and lack the hardened enamel or dentine-like layers found in the scales of many other fish. Unlike ganoid scales, which are found in non-teleost actinopterygians, new scales are added in concentric layers as the fish grows. Ray-finned and lobe-finned fishes, including tetrapods, possessed lungs used for aerial respiration. Only bichirs retain ventrally budding lungs.", "id": "734", "title": "Actinopterygii", "categories": ["Ray-finned fish", "Fish classes", "Silurian bony fish", "Extant Silurian first appearances"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Body shapes and fin arrangements"], "text": "Ray-finned fish are very varied in size and shape, their feeding specializations, and in the number of their ray-fins and the manner in which they arrange them.", "id": "734", "title": "Actinopterygii", "categories": ["Ray-finned fish", "Fish classes", "Silurian bony fish", "Extant Silurian first appearances"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Reproduction"], "text": "In nearly all ray-finned fish, the sexes are separate, and in most species the females spawn eggs that are fertilized externally, typically with the male inseminating the eggs after they are laid. Development then proceeds with a free-swimming larval stage. However other patterns of [[ontogeny]] exist, with one of the commonest being [[sequential hermaphroditism]]. In most cases this involves [[protogyny]], fish starting life as females and converting to males at some stage, triggered by some internal or external factor. [[Protandry]], where a fish converts from male to female, is much less common than protogyny. Most families use [[external fertilization|external]] rather than [[internal fertilization]]. Of the [[oviparity|oviparous]] teleosts, most (79%) do not provide parental care. [[Viviparity]], [[ovoviviparity]], or some form of parental care for eggs, whether by the male, the female, or both parents is seen in a significant fraction (21%) of the 422 teleost families; no care is likely the ancestral condition. The oldest case of viviparity in ray-finned fish is found in [[Middle Triassic]] species of ''[[Saurichthys]]''. Viviparity is relatively rare and is found in about 6% of living teleost species; male care is far more common than female care. Male territoriality [[exaptation|\"preadapts\"]] a species for evolving male parental care. There are a few examples of fish that self-fertilise. The [[mangrove rivulus]] is an amphibious, simultaneous hermaphrodite, producing both eggs and spawn and having internal fertilisation. This mode of reproduction may be related to the fish's habit of spending long periods out of water in the mangrove forests it inhabits. Males are occasionally produced at temperatures below and can fertilise eggs that are then spawned by the female. This maintains genetic variability in a species that is otherwise highly inbred.", "id": "734", "title": "Actinopterygii", "categories": ["Ray-finned fish", "Fish classes", "Silurian bony fish", "Extant Silurian first appearances"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Fossil record"], "text": "The earliest known fossil actinopterygian is ''[[Andreolepis hedei]]'', dating back 420 million years ([[Late Silurian]]). Remains have been found in [[Russia]], [[Sweden]], and [[Estonia]].", "id": "734", "title": "Actinopterygii", "categories": ["Ray-finned fish", "Fish classes", "Silurian bony fish", "Extant Silurian first appearances"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Classification"], "text": "Actinopterygii is divided into the classes [[Cladistia]] and [[Actinopteri]]. The latter comprised subclasses [[Chondrostei]] and [[Neopterygii]]. The [[Neopterygii]], in turn, is divided into the infraclasses [[Holostei]] and [[Teleostei]]. During the [[Mesozoic]] and [[Cenozoic]] the teleosts in particular diversified widely, and as a result, 96% of all known fish species are teleosts. The [[cladogram]] shows the major groups of actinopterygians and their relationship to the terrestrial vertebrates (tetrapods) that evolved from a related group of fish. Approximate dates are from Near et al., 2012. The polypterids (bichirs and reedfish) are the sister lineage of all other actinopterygians, the Acipenseriformes (sturgeons and paddlefishes) are the sister lineage of Neopterygii, and Holostei (bowfin and gars) are the sister lineage of teleosts. The [[Elopomorpha]] (eels and tarpons) appear to be the most basal teleosts. The listing below follows [[Www.deepfin.org|Phylogenetic Classification of Bony Fishes]] with notes when this differs from Nelson, [[ITIS]] and [[FishBase]] and extinct groups from Van der Laan 2016 and Xu 2021. (-) Order †?[[Asarotiformes]] Schaeffer 1968 (-) Order †?[[Discordichthyiformes]] Minikh 1998 (-) Order †?[[Paphosisciformes]] Grogan & Lund 2015 (-) Order †?[[Scanilepiformes]] Selezneya 1985 (-) Order †[[Cheirolepidiformes]] Kazantseva-Selezneva 1977 (-) Order †[[Paramblypteriformes]] Heyler 1969 (-) Order †[[Rhadinichthyiformes]] (-) Order †[[Palaeonisciformes]] Hay 1902 (-) Order †[[Tarrasiiformes]] sensu Lund & Poplin 2002 (-) Order †[[Ptycholepiformes]] Andrews et al. 1967 (-) Order †[[Haplolepidiformes]] Westoll 1944 (-) Order †[[Aeduelliformes]] Heyler 1969 (-) Order †[[Platysomiformes]] Aldinger 1937 (-) Order †[[Dorypteriformes]] Cope 1871 (-) Order †[[Eurynotiformes]] Sallan & Coates 2013 (-) '''Class [[Cladistia]]''' Pander 1860 (-) Order †[[Guildayichthyiformes]] Lund 2000 (-) Order [[Polypteriformes]] Bleeker 1859 ([[bichir]] and [[reedfish]]) (-) '''Class [[Actinopteri]]''' Cope 1972 s.s. (-) Order †[[Elonichthyiformes]] Kazantseva-Selezneva 1977 (-) Order †[[Phanerorhynchiformes]] (-) Order †[[Bobasatraniiformes]] Berg 1940 (-) Order †[[Saurichthyiformes]] Aldinger 1937 (-) '''Subclass [[Chondrostei]]''' Müller, 1844 (-) Order †[[Birgeria|Birgeriiformes]] Heyler 1969 (-) Order †[[Chondrosteiformes]] Aldinger, 1937 (-) Order [[Acipenseriformes]] Berg 1940 (includes [[sturgeon]] and [[paddlefish]]) (-) '''Subclass [[Neopterygii]]''' Regan 1923 sensu Xu & Wu 2012 (-) Order †[[Pholidopleuriformes]] Berg 1937 (-) Order †[[Redfieldiiformes]] Berg 1940 (-) Order †[[Platysiagiformes]] Brough 1939 (-) Order †[[Polzbergiiformes]] Griffith 1977 (-) Order †[[Perleidiformes]] Berg 1937 (-) Order †[[Louwoichthyiformes]] Xu 2021 (-) Order †[[Peltopleuriformes]] Lehman 1966 (-) Order †[[Luganoiiformes]] Lehman 1958 (-) Order †[[Pycnodontiformes]] Berg 1937 (-) Infraclass '''[[Holostei]]''' Müller 1844 (-) '''Division Halecomorpha''' Cope 1872 sensu Grande & Bemis 1998 (-)  Order †[[Parasemionotiformes]] Lehman 1966 (-)  Order †[[Ionoscopiformes]] Grande & Bemis 1998 (-)  Order [[Amiiformes]] Huxley 1861 sensu Grande & Bemis 1998 ([[bowfin]]) (-) '''Division Ginglymodi''' Cope 1871 (-)  Order †[[Dapediiformes]] Thies & Waschkewitz 2015 (-)  Order †[[Semionotiformes]] Arambourg & Bertin 1958 (-)  Order [[Lepisosteiformes]] Hay 1929 ([[gar]]) (-) Clade '''Teleosteomorpha''' Arratia 2000 sensu Arratia 2013 (-) Order †[[Prohaleciteiformes]] Arratia 2017 (-) '''Division Aspidorhynchei''' Nelson, Grand & Wilson 2016 (-)  Order †[[Aspidorhynchiformes]] Bleeker 1859 (-)  Order †[[Pachycormiformes]] Berg 1937 (-) Infraclass '''[[Teleostei]]''' Müller 1844 sensu Arratia 2013 (-)  Order †?[[Araripichthyiformes]] (-)  Order †?[[Ligulelliiformes]] Taverne 2011 (-)  Order †?[[Tselfatiiformes]] Nelson 1994 (-)  Order †[[Pholidophoriformes]] Berg 1940 (-)  Order †[[Dorsetichthyiformes]] Nelson, Grand & Wilson 2016 (-)  Order †[[Leptolepidiformes]] (-)  Order †[[Crossognathiformes]] Taverne 1989 (-)  Order †[[Ichthyodectiformes]] Bardeck & Sprinkle 1969", "id": "734", "title": "Actinopterygii", "categories": ["Ray-finned fish", "Fish classes", "Silurian bony fish", "Extant Silurian first appearances"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Classification"], "text": "(-)  '''Teleocephala''' de Pinna 1996 s.s. (-)   '''Megacohort Elopocephalai''' Patterson 1977 sensu Arratia 1999 ([[Elopomorpha]] Greenwood et al. 1966) (-)    Order [[Elopiformes]] Gosline 1960 ([[ladyfish]] and [[tarpon]]) (-)    Order [[Albuliformes]] Greenwood et al. 1966 sensu Forey et al. 1996 (bonefishes) (-)    Order [[Notacanthiformes]] Goodrich 1909 ([[halosaurs]] and [[spiny eel]]) (-)    Order [[Anguilliformes]] Jarocki 1822 sensu Goodrich 1909 (true [[eel]]) (-)   '''Megacohort Osteoglossocephalai''' sensu Arratia 1999 (-)    '''Supercohort Osteoglossocephala''' sensu Arratia 1999 ([[Osteoglossomorpha]] Greenwood et al. 1966) (-)     Order †[[Lycopteriformes]] Chang & Chou 1977 (-)     Order [[Hiodontiformes]] McAllister 1968 sensu Taverne 1979 ([[mooneye]] and [[goldeye]]) (-)     Order [[Osteoglossiformes]] Regan 1909 sensu Zhang 2004 (bony-tongued fishes) (-)    '''Supercohort Clupeocephala''' Patterson & Rosen 1977 sensu Arratia 2010 (-)     '''Cohort Otomorpha''' Wiley & Johnson 2010 ([[Otocephala]]; Ostarioclupeomorpha) (-)      '''Subcohort Clupei''' Wiley & Johnson 2010 ([[Clupeomorpha]] Greenwood et al. 1966) (-)       Order †[[Ellimmichthyiformes]] Grande 1982 (-)       Order [[Clupeiformes]] Bleeker 1859 ([[herring]] and [[anchovy|anchovies]]) (-)      '''Subcohort Alepocephali''' (-)       Order [[Alepocephaliformes]] Marshall 1962 (-)      '''Subcohort [[Ostariophysi]]''' Sagemehl 1885 (-)       '''Section Anotophysa''' (Rosen & Greenwood 1970) Sagemehl 1885 (-)        Order †[[Sorbininardiformes]] Taverne 1999 (-)        Order [[Gonorynchiformes]] Regan 1909 ([[milkfish]]) (-)       '''Section Otophysa''' Garstang 1931 (-)        Order [[Cypriniformes]] Bleeker 1859 sensu Goodrich 1909 ([[Barb (fish)|barbs]], [[carp]], [[danios]], [[goldfish]], [[Loach (fish)|loaches]], [[minnow]], [[rasbora]]) (-)        Order [[Characiformes]] Goodrich 1909 ([[characin]], [[pencilfish]], [[Freshwater hatchetfish|hatchetfishes]], [[piranha]], [[tetra]], [[Golden dorado|dourado / golden (genus ''Salminus'')]] and [[Piaractus mesopotamicus|pacu]]) (-)        Order [[Gymnotiformes]] Berg 1940 ([[electric eel]] and [[knifefish (disambiguation)|knifefishes]]) (-)        Order [[Siluriformes]] Cuvier 1817 sensu Hay 1929 ([[catfish]]) (-)     '''Cohort Euteleosteomorpha''' (Greenwood et al. 1966) ([[Euteleostei]] Greenwood 1967 sensu Johnson & Patterson 1996) (-)      '''Subcohort Lepidogalaxii''' (-)       [[Lepidogalaxiiformes]] Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 ([[Lepidogalaxias salamandroides|salamanderfish]]) (-)      '''Subcohort [[Protacanthopterygii]]''' Greenwood et al. 1966 sensu Johnson & Patterson 1996 (-)       Order [[Argentiniformes]] ([[barreleye]] and [[slickhead]]) (formerly in Osmeriformes) (-)       Order [[Galaxiiformes]] (-)       Order [[Salmoniformes]] Bleeker 1859 sensu Nelson 1994 ([[salmon]] and [[trout]]) (-)       Order [[Esociformes]] Bleeker 1859 ([[esox|pike]]) (-)      '''Subcohort Stomiati''' (-)       Order [[Osmeriformes]] ([[Smelt (fish)|smelts]]) (-)       Order [[Stomiatiformes]] Regan 1909 ([[bristlemouth]] and [[marine hatchetfish]]) (-)      '''Subcohort [[Neoteleostei]]''' Nelson 1969 (-)       '''Infracohort Ateleopodia''' (-)        Order [[Ateleopodiformes]] ([[jellynose fish]]) (-)       '''Infracohort Eurypterygia''' Rosen 1973 (-)        '''Section Aulopa''' [Cyclosquamata Rosen 1973] (-)         Order [[Aulopiformes]] Rosen 1973 ([[Bombay duck]] and [[lancetfish]]) (-)        '''Section Ctenosquamata''' Rosen 1973 (-)         '''Subsection Myctophata''' [Scopelomorpha] (-)          Order [[Myctophiformes]] Regan 1911 ([[lanternfish]]) (-)         '''Subsection [[Acanthomorpha]]''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (-)          '''Division Lampridacea''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 [Lampridomorpha; Lampripterygii] (-)           Order [[Lampriformes]] Regan 1909 ([[oarfish]], [[opah]] and [[ribbonfishes]]) (-)          '''Division Paracanthomorphacea''' sensu Grande et al. 2013 ([[Paracanthopterygii]] Greenwood 1937) (-)           Order [[Percopsiformes]] Berg 1937 ([[Amblyopsidae|cavefishes]] and [[trout-perch]]) (-)           Order †[[Sphenocephaliformes]] Rosen & Patterson 1969 (-)           Order [[Zeiformes]] Regan 1909 ([[dory (fish)|dories]]) (-)           Order [[Stylephoriformes]] Miya et al. 2007 (-)           Order [[Gadiformes]] Goodrich 1909 ([[cod]]) (-)          '''Division Polymixiacea''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Polymyxiomorpha; Polymixiipterygii) (-)           Order †[[Pattersonichthyiformes]] Gaudant 1976 (-)           Order †[[Ctenothrissiformes]] Berg 1937 (-)           Order [[Polymixiiformes]] Lowe 1838 ([[beardfish]]) (-)          '''Division Euacanthomorphacea''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Euacanthomorpha sensu Johnson & Patterson 1993; [[Acanthopterygii]] Gouan 1770 sensu]) (-)           '''Subdivision Berycimorphaceae''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (-)            Order [[Beryciformes]] ([[fangtooth]] and [[pineconefish]]) (incl. [[Stephanoberyciformes]]; [[Cetomimiformes]]) (-)           '''Subdivision Holocentrimorphaceae''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013", "id": "734", "title": "Actinopterygii", "categories": ["Ray-finned fish", "Fish classes", "Silurian bony fish", "Extant Silurian first appearances"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Classification"], "text": "(-)            Order [[Holocentriformes]] ([[Soldierfish]]) (-)           '''Subdivision Percomorphaceae''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 ([[Percomorpha]] sensu Miya et al. 2003; [[Acanthopteri]]) (-)            '''Series Ophidiimopharia''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (-)             Order [[Ophidiiformes]] ([[pearlfish]]) (-)            '''Series Batrachoidimopharia''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (-)             Order [[Batrachoidiformes]] ([[Batrachoididae|toadfishes]]) (-)            '''Series Gobiomopharia''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (-)             Order [[Kurtiformes]]([[Nurseryfish]] and [[cardinalfish]]) (-)             Order [[Gobiiformes]](Sleepers and [[gobies]]) (-)            '''Series Scombrimopharia''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (-)             Order [[Syngnathiformes]] ([[Seahorse (fish)|seahorses]], [[pipefish]], [[sea moth]], [[cornetfish]] and [[flying gurnard]]) (-)             Order [[Scombriformes]] ([[Tuna]] and ([[mackerel]]) (-)            '''Series Carangimopharia''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (-)             '''Subseries Anabantaria''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2014 (-)              Order [[Synbranchiformes]] ([[swamp eel]]) (-)              Order [[Anabantiformes]] (Labyrinthici) ([[gourami]], [[Snakehead (fish)|snakeheads]], ) (-)             '''Subseries Carangaria''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2014 (-)              Carangaria incertae sedis (-)              Order [[Istiophoriformes]] Betancur-Rodriguez 2013 ([[Marlin]], [[swordfishes]], [[billfish]]) (-)              Order [[Carangiformes]] ([[Jack mackerel]], [[pompano]]) (-)              Order [[Pleuronectiformes]] Bleeker 1859 ([[flatfish]]) (-)             '''Subseries Ovalentaria''' Smith & Near 2012 ([[Stiassnyiformes]] sensu Li et al. 2009) (-)              Ovalentaria incertae sedis (-)              Order [[Cichliformes]] Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 ([[Cichlid]], [[Convict blenny]], leaf fishes) (-)              Order [[Atheriniformes]] Rosen 1964 ([[Silverside (fish)|silversides]] and [[rainbowfish]]) (-)              Order [[Cyprinodontiformes]] Berg 1940 ([[live-bearing aquarium fish|livebearers]], [[killifish]]) (-)              Order [[Beloniformes]] Berg 1940 ([[flyingfish]] and [[ricefish]]) (-)              Order [[Mugiliformes]] Berg 1940 ([[mullet (fish)|mullets]]) (-)              Order [[Blenniiformes]] Springer 1993 ([[Blennies]]) (-)              Order [[Gobiesociformes]] Gill 1872 ([[Clingfish]]) (-)            '''Series Eupercaria''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2014 (Percomorpharia Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013) (-)             [[Eupercaria incertae sedis]] (-)             Order [[Gerreiformes]] ([[Mojarra]]) (-)             Order [[Labriformes]] ([[Wrasse]] and [[Parrotfish]]) (-)             Order [[Caproiformes]] ([[Caproidae|Boarfishes]]) (-)             Order [[Lophiiformes]] Garman 1899 ([[Anglerfish]]) (-)             Order [[Tetraodontiformes]] Regan 1929 ([[Filefish]] and [[pufferfish]]) (-)             Order [[Centrarchiformes]] Bleeker 1859 ([[Centrarchidae|Sunfishes]] and mandarin fishes) (-)             Order [[Gasterosteiformes]] ([[Stickleback|Sicklebacks]] and relatives) (-)             Order [[Scorpaeniformes]] ([[Pterois|Lionfishes]] and relatives) (-)             Order [[Perciformes]] Bleeker 1859", "id": "734", "title": "Actinopterygii", "categories": ["Ray-finned fish", "Fish classes", "Silurian bony fish", "Extant Silurian first appearances"], "seealso": []}