{"headers": [], "text": "'''Anarchism''' is a [[political philosophy]] and [[Political movement|movement]] that is sceptical of [[authority]] and rejects all involuntary, coercive forms of [[hierarchy]]. Anarchism calls for the abolition of the [[State (polity)|state]], which it holds to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. As a historically [[far-left]] movement, it is usually described alongside [[libertarian Marxism]] as the [[libertarian]] wing ([[libertarian socialism]]) of the [[socialist movement]] and has a strong historical association with [[anti-capitalism]] and [[socialism]]. The [[History of anarchism|history of anarchy]] goes back to [[prehistory]], when humans arguably lived in anarchic societies long before the establishment of formal states, [[realm]] or [[empire]]. With the rise of organised hierarchical bodies, [[scepticism]] toward authority also rose, but it was not until the 19th century that a self-conscious political movement emerged. During the latter half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century, the anarchist movement flourished in most parts of the world and had a significant role in workers' struggles for [[emancipation]]. Various [[anarchist schools of thought]] formed during this period. Anarchists have taken part in several revolutions, most notably in the [[Spanish Civil War]], whose end marked the end of the [[classical era of anarchism]]. In the last decades of the 20th and into the 21st century, the anarchist movement has been resurgent once more. Anarchism employs a [[diversity of tactics]] in order to meet its ideal ends which can be broadly separated into revolutionary and evolutionary tactics. There is significant overlap between the two which are merely descriptive. Revolutionary tactics aim to bring down authority and state, having taken a violent turn in the past. Evolutionary tactics aim to prefigure what an anarchist society would be like. Anarchist thought, criticism and [[Praxis (process)|praxis]] have played a part in diverse areas of human society. Criticisms of anarchism include claims that it is internally inconsistent, violent, or utopian.", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology, terminology and definition"], "text": "The etymological origin of ''anarchism'' is from the Ancient Greek ''anarkhia'', meaning \"without a ruler\", composed of the prefix ''an-'' (i.e. \"without\") and the word ''arkhos'' (i.e. \"leader\" or \"ruler\"). The suffix ''[[-ism]]'' denotes the ideological current that favours [[anarchy]]. ''Anarchism'' appears in English from 1642 as ''anarchisme'' and ''anarchy'' from 1539; early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder. Various factions within the [[French Revolution]] labelled their opponents as ''anarchists'', although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century such as [[William Godwin]] (1756–1836) and [[Wilhelm Weitling]] (1808–1871) would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation, but they did not use ''anarchist'' or ''anarchism'' in describing themselves or their beliefs. The first political philosopher to call himself an ''anarchist'' () was [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] (1809–1865), marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century. Since the 1890s and beginning in France, ''[[libertarianism]]'' has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States. On the other hand, some use ''libertarianism'' to refer to [[individualistic]] [[free-market]] philosophy only, referring to [[free-market anarchism]] as ''libertarian anarchism''. While the term ''libertarian'' has been largely synonymous with anarchism, its meaning has more recently diluted with wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups, including both the [[New Left]] and [[libertarian Marxists]] (who do not associate themselves with [[authoritarian socialists]] or a [[vanguard party]]) as well as extreme [[Liberalism|liberals]] (primarily concerned with [[civil liberties]]). Additionally, some anarchists use ''[[libertarian socialist]]'' to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasise its connections with [[socialism]]. Matthew S. Adams and [[Carl Levy (political scientist)|Carl Levy]] write that ''anarchism'' is used to \"describe the [[anti-authoritarian]] wing of the [[socialist movement]].\" [[Noam Chomsky]] describes anarchism, alongside libertarian Marxism, as \"the libertarian wing of socialism.\" [[Daniel Guérin]] wrote: [A]narchism is really a synonym for socialism. The anarchist is primarily a socialist whose aim is to abolish the exploitation of man by man. Anarchism is only one of the streams of socialist thought, that stream whose main components are concern for liberty and haste to abolish the State.", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology, terminology and definition"], "text": "While [[opposition to the state]] is central to anarchist thought, defining anarchism is not an easy task as there is a lot of discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently. Hence, it might be true to say that anarchism is a cluster of political philosophies opposing [[authority]] and [[hierarchical organisation]] (including [[Anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]], [[Anarchism and nationalism|nationalism]], the [[State (polity)|state]] and all associated [[institution]]) in the conduct of all [[human relations]] in favour of a society based on [[decentralisation]], [[freedom]] and [[voluntary association]]. However, this definition has the same shortcomings as the definition based on anti-authoritarianism (which is an ''[[a posteriori]]'' conclusion), anti-statism (anarchism is much more than that) and etymology (which is simply a negation of a ruler). Nonetheless, major elements of the definition of anarchism include the will for a non-coercive society, the rejection of the state apparatus, the belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society and a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy. [[Herbert L. Osgood]] claimed that anarchism is \"the extreme antithesis\" of [[authoritarian communism]] and [[state socialism]]. [[Peter Marshall (author)|Peter Marshall]] states that \"[i]n general anarchism is closer to socialism than liberalism. [...] Anarchism finds itself largely in the socialist camp, but it also has outriders in liberalism. It cannot be reduced to socialism, and is best seen as a separate and distinctive doctrine.\" According to [[Jeremy Jennings]], \"[i]t is hard not to conclude that these ideas\", referring to [[anarcho-capitalism]], \"are described as anarchist only on the basis of a misunderstanding of what anarchism is.\" Jennings adds that \"anarchism does not stand for the untrammelled freedom of the individual (as the 'anarcho-capitalists' appear to believe) but, as we have already seen, for the extension of individuality and community.\" [[Nicolas Walter]] wrote that \"anarchism does derive from liberalism and socialism both historically and ideologically. [...] In a sense, anarchists always remain liberals and socialists, and whenever they reject what is good in either they betray anarchism itself. [...] We are liberals but more so, and socialists but more so.\" Michael Newman includes anarchism as one of many [[socialist traditions]], especially the more socialist-aligned tradition following Proudhon and [[Mikhail Bakunin]]. [[Brian Morris (anthropologist)|Brian Morriss]] argues that it is \"conceptually and historically misleading\" to \"create a dichotomy between socialism and anarchism.\"", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Pre-modern era"], "text": "During the prehistoric era of mankind, an established authority did not exist. It was after the creation of towns and cities that institutions of authority were established and anarchistic ideas espoused as a reaction. The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China, [[philosophical anarchism]] (i.e. the discussion on the legitimacy of the state) was delineated by [[Taoist]] philosophers [[Zhuang Zhou]] and [[Laozi]]. Alongside [[Stoicism]], Taoism has been said to have had \"significant anticipations\" of anarchism. Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece. [[Aeschylus]] and [[Sophocles]] used the myth of [[Antigone]] to illustrate the conflict between rules set by the state and personal [[autonomy]]. [[Socrates]] questioned Athenian authorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of conscience. [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynics]] dismissed human law (''[[Nomos (sociology)|nomos]]'') and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature (''[[physis]]''). [[Stoics]] were supportive of a society based on unofficial and friendly relations among its citizens without the presence of a state. During the [[Middle Ages]], there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements in the [[Muslim world]] or in Christian Europe. This kind of tradition later gave birth to [[religious anarchism]]. In the [[Sasanian Empire]], [[Mazdak]] called for an [[egalitarian]] society and the [[abolition of monarchy]], only to be soon executed by Emperor [[Kavad I]]. In [[Basra]], religious sects preached against the state. In Europe, various sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies. Libertarian ideas further emerged during the [[Renaissance]] with the spread of [[humanism]], [[rationalism]] and [[reason]] through Europe. Novelists fictionalised ideal societies that were based on voluntarism rather than coercion. The [[Age of Enlightenment]] further pushed towards anarchism with the optimism for social progress.", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Modern era"], "text": "During the [[French Revolution]], partisan groups such as the [[Enragés]] and the saw a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments. The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th century as [[William Godwin]] espoused [[philosophical anarchism]] in England, morally delegitimising the state, [[Max Stirner]]'s thinking paved the way to [[Individualist anarchism|individualism]] and [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]]'s theory of [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]] found fertile soil in France. By the late 1870s, various anarchist schools of thought had become well-defined and a wave of then unprecedented [[globalization]] occurred from 1880 to 1914. This era of [[classical anarchism]] lasted until the end of the [[Spanish Civil War]] and is considered the golden age of anarchism. Drawing from mutualism, [[Mikhail Bakunin]] founded [[collectivist anarchism]] and entered the [[International Workingmen's Association]], a class worker union later known as the First International that formed in 1864 to unite diverse revolutionary currents. The International became a significant political force, with [[Karl Marx]] being a leading figure and a member of its General Council. Bakunin's faction (the [[Jura Federation]]) and Proudhon's followers (the mutualists) opposed [[state socialism]], advocating political [[abstentionism]] and small property holdings. After bitter disputes, the Bakuninists were expelled from the International by the [[Marxists]] at the [[1872 Hague Congress]]. Anarchists were treated similarly in the [[Second International]], being ultimately expelled in 1896. Bakunin famously predicted that if revolutionaries gained power by Marx's terms, they would end up the new tyrants of workers. In response to their expulsion from the First International, anarchists formed the [[St. Imier International]]. Under the influence of [[Peter Kropotkin]], a Russian philosopher and scientist, [[anarcho-communism]] overlapped with collectivism. Anarcho-communists, who drew inspiration from the 1871 [[Paris Commune]], advocated for free federation and for the distribution of goods according to one's needs. At the turn of the century, anarchism had spread all over the world. It was a notable feature of the international syndicalism movement. In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism. Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from countries of the far east, travelling to the Japanese capital to study. In Latin America, [[Anarchism in Argentina|Argentina]] was a stronghold for [[anarcho-syndicalism]], where it became the most prominent left-wing ideology. During this time, a minority of anarchists adopted tactics of revolutionary [[political violence]]. This strategy became known as [[propaganda of the deed]]. The dismemberment of the French socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of many [[Communards]] to penal colonies following the suppression of the Paris Commune favoured individualist political expression and acts. Even though many anarchists distanced themselves from these terrorist acts, infamy came upon the movement and attempts were made to exclude them from American immigration, including the [[Immigration Act of 1903]], also called the Anarchist Exclusion Act. [[Illegalism]] was another strategy which some anarchists adopted during this period.", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Modern era"], "text": "Despite concerns, anarchists enthusiastically participated in the [[Russian Revolution]] in opposition to the [[White movement]]. However, they met harsh suppression after the [[Bolshevik government]] was stabilized. Several anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Ukraine, notably leading to the [[Kronstadt rebellion]] and [[Nestor Makhno]]'s struggle in the [[Free Territory]]. With the anarchists being crushed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namely [[platformism]] and [[synthesis anarchism]]. The former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while the latter were against anything that would resemble a political party. Seeing the victories of the [[Bolsheviks]] in the [[October Revolution]] and the resulting [[Russian Civil War]], many workers and activists turned to [[communist parties]] which grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, members of major syndicalist movements such as the [[General Confederation of Labour (France)|General Confederation of Labour]] and the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] left their organisations and joined the [[Communist International]]. In the Spanish Civil War of 1936, anarchists and syndicalists ([[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] and [[Federación Anarquista Ibérica|FAI]]) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. A long tradition of [[Spanish anarchism]] led to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war. In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain, where they [[collectivised]] the land. The [[Soviet Union]] provided some limited assistance at the beginning of the war, but the result was a bitter fight among communists and anarchists at a series of events named [[May Days]] as [[Joseph Stalin]] tried to seize control of the [[Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)|Republicans]].", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Post-war era"], "text": "At the end of [[World War II]], the anarchist movement was severely weakened. However, the 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism, likely caused by a perceived failure of [[Marxism–Leninism]] and tensions built by the [[Cold War]]. During this time, anarchism found a presence in other movements critical towards both capitalism and the state such as the [[Anti-nuclear movement|anti-nuclear]], [[Environmental movement|environmental]] and [[peace movement]], the [[counterculture of the 1960s]] and the [[New Left]]. It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocative [[anti-capitalist reform]]. Anarchism became associated with [[punk subculture]] as exemplified by bands such as [[Crass]] and the [[Sex Pistols]]. The established [[feminist]] tendencies of [[anarcha-feminism]] returned with vigour during the [[second wave of feminism]]. [[Black anarchism]] began to take form at this time and influenced anarchism's move from a [[Eurocentric]] demographic. This coincided with its failure to gain traction in Northern Europe and its unprecedented height in Latin America. Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence within [[anti-capitalist]], [[anti-war]] and [[anti-globalisation]] movements. Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), the [[Group of Eight]] and the [[World Economic Forum]]. During the protests, ''ad hoc'' leaderless anonymous cadres known as [[black bloc]] engaged in [[riot]], [[property destruction]] and violent confrontations with the [[police]]. Other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include [[affinity group]], [[security culture]] and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the [[1999 Seattle WTO conference]]. Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation|Zapatistas]] in Mexico and the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, more commonly known as [[Rojava]], a ''de facto'' [[Permanent autonomous zone|autonomous region]] in northern Syria.", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["Thought"], "text": "Anarchist schools of thought have been generally grouped into two main historical traditions, [[social anarchism]] and [[individualist anarchism]], owing to their different origins, values and evolution. The individualist current emphasises [[negative liberty]] in opposing restraints upon the free individual while the social current emphasises [[positive liberty]] in aiming to achieve the free potential of society through equality and [[social ownership]]. In a chronological sense, anarchism can be segmented by the classical currents of the late 19th century and the post-classical currents ([[anarcha-feminism]], [[green anarchism]] and [[post-anarchism]]) developed thereafter. Beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies [[philosophical anarchism]] which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy, without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism, philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence of a [[minimal state]], but it argues that citizens have no [[moral obligation]] to obey government when it conflicts with individual autonomy. Anarchism pays significant attention to moral arguments since [[ethics]] have a central role in anarchist philosophy. Anarchism's emphasis on [[anti-capitalism]], [[egalitarianism]] and for the extension of community and individuality sets it apart from [[anarcho-capitalism]] and other types of [[economic libertarian]]. Anarchism is usually placed on the [[far-left]] of the [[political spectrum]]. Much of its [[Anarchist economics|economics]] and [[Anarchist law|legal philosophy]] reflect [[anti-authoritarian]], [[anti-statist]], [[libertarian]] and [[Radical politics|radical]] interpretations of [[left-wing]] and [[socialist]] politics such as [[Collectivist anarchism|collectivism]], [[Anarcho-communism|communism]], [[Individualist anarchism|individualism]], [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]] and [[Anarcho-syndicalism|syndicalism]], among other [[libertarian socialist]] economic theories. As anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular worldview, many anarchist types and traditions exist and varieties of anarchy diverge widely. One reaction against [[sectarianism]] within the anarchist milieu was [[anarchism without adjectives]], a call for toleration and unity among anarchists first adopted by [[Fernando Tarrida del Mármol]] in 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at the time. Belief in political [[nihilism]] has been espoused by anarchists. Despite separation, the various anarchist schools of thought are not seen as distinct entities, but rather as tendencies that intermingle and are connected through a set of uniform principles such as individual and local autonomy, mutual aid, network organisation, communal democracy, justified authority and decentralisation.", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["Thought", "Classical"], "text": "Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]] and [[Individualist anarchism|individualism]]. They were followed by the major currents of [[social anarchism]] ([[Collectivist anarchism|collectivist]], [[Anarcho-communism|communist]] and [[Anarcho-syndicalism|syndicalist]]). They differ on organisational and economic aspects of their ideal society. Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was developed into anarchist theory by [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]]. Its aims include [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]], [[Free association (Marxism and anarchism)|free association]], voluntary [[contract]], [[federation]] and [[monetary reform]] of both credit and currency that would be regulated by a bank of the people. Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. In ''[[What Is Property?]]'' (1840), Proudhon first characterised his goal as a \"third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property.\" Collectivist anarchism is a [[revolutionary socialist]] form of anarchism commonly associated with [[Mikhail Bakunin]]. Collectivist anarchists advocate [[collective ownership]] of the [[means of production]] which is theorised to be achieved through violent revolution and that workers be paid according to time worked, rather than goods being distributed according to need as in communism. Collectivist anarchism arose alongside [[Marxism]], but it rejected the [[dictatorship of the proletariat]] despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist [[stateless society]]. [[Anarcho-communism]] is a theory of anarchism that advocates a [[communist society]] with [[common ownership]] of the means of production, [[direct democracy]] and a [[Horizontalidad|horizontal]] network of [[voluntary association]], [[workers' council]] and [[worker cooperative]], with production and consumption based on the guiding principle \"[[From each according to his ability, to each according to his need]].\" Anarcho-communism developed from radical socialist currents after the [[French Revolution]], but it was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the [[First International]]. It was later expanded upon in the theoretical work of [[Peter Kropotkin]], whose specific style would go onto become the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century. Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that views [[labour syndicate]] as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are [[direct action]], workers' [[solidarity]] and [[workers' self-management]]. Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the [[individual]] and their [[Will (philosophy)|will]] over any kinds of external determinants. Early influences on individualist forms of anarchism include [[William Godwin]], [[Max Stirner]] and [[Henry David Thoreau]]. Through many countries, individualist anarchism attracted a small yet diverse following of Bohemian artists and intellectuals as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as [[illegalism]] and [[individual reclamation]].", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["Thought", "Post-classical and contemporary"], "text": "Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the [[anti-globalisation movement]], whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation. As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest. Anarchism has continued to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and [[syncretic]], combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches. The [[anti-capitalist]] tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within contemporary currents. Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes [[black bloc]] demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence. However, its publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as [[anthropology]] and [[history]] to engage with the anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours actions over academic theory. Various anarchist groups, tendencies and schools of thought exist today, making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement. While theorists and activists have established \"relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles\", there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple \"anarchisms\" (rather than a singular \"anarchism\") in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender equality can be a common principle, although it ranks as a higher priority to [[anarcha-feminists]] than [[anarcho-communists]]. Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely \"all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism, white supremacy, and imperialism.\" However, anarchist schools disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed. The principle of [[equal liberty]] is closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions. This entails that liberty and equality cannot be implemented within the state, resulting in the questioning of all forms of domination and hierarchy.", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["Tactics"], "text": "Anarchists' tactics take various forms, but in general, they serve two major goals, namely to first oppose [[the Establishment]] and secondly to promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchist vision of society, illustrating the unity of means and ends. A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppressive states and institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the other. Evolutionary tactics embrace [[nonviolence]], reject violence and take a gradual approach to anarchist aims, although there is significant overlap between the two. Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course of the last century. Anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches.", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["Tactics", "Classical era tactics"], "text": "During the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. Not only did they confront state armed forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also employed [[terrorism]] as [[propaganda of the deed]]. Assassination attempts were carried out against heads of state, some of which were successful. Anarchists also took part in [[revolution]]. Many anarchists, especially the [[Galleanists]], believed that these attempts would be the impetus for a revolution against capitalism and the state. Many of these attacks were done by individual assailants and the majority took place in the late 1870s, the early 1880s and the 1890s, with some still occurring in the early 1900s. Their decrease in prevalence was the result of further [[judicial]] power and targeting and cataloging by state institutions. Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been perplexing and controversial. On one hand, [[anarcho-pacifists]] point out the unity of means and ends. On the other hand, other anarchist groups advocate direct action, a tactic which can include acts of [[sabotage]] or even acts of terrorism. This attitude was quite prominent a century ago when seeing the state as a [[tyrant]] and some anarchists believing that they had every right to oppose its [[oppression]] by any means possible. [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Errico Malatesta]], who were proponents of limited use of violence, argued that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as a [[necessary evil]]. Anarchists took an active role in [[strike action]], although they tended to be antipathetic to formal [[syndicalism]], seeing it as [[Reformism|reformist]]. They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the [[State (polity)|state]] and [[capitalism]]. Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts, some of whom practiced [[naturism]] and [[nudism]]. Those anarchists also built communities which were based on [[friendship]] and were involved in the [[news media]].", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["Tactics", "Revolutionary tactics"], "text": "In the current era, Italian anarchist [[Alfredo Bonanno]], a proponent of [[insurrectionary anarchism]], has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both Bonanno and the French group [[The Invisible Committee]] advocate for small, informal affiliation groups, where each member is responsible for their own actions but works together to bring down oppression utilizing sabotage and other violent means against state, capitalism and other enemies. Members of The Invisible Committee were arrested in 2008 on various charges, terrorism included. Overall, contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than their ideological ancestors. They mostly engage in confronting the police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as [[Anarchism in Canada|Canada]], [[Anarchism in Greece|Greece]] and [[Anarchism in Mexico|Mexico]]. Militant [[black bloc]] protest groups are known for clashing with the police. However, anarchists not only clash with state operators; they also engage in the struggle against fascists and racists, taking [[anti-fascist action]] and mobilizing to prevent hate rallies from happening.", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["Tactics", "Evolutionary tactics"], "text": "Anarchists commonly employ [[direct action]]. This can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust [[hierarchy]], or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counter-institutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives. Decision-making is often handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision, an approach known as [[horizontalism]]. Contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging with various [[grassroots]] movements that are more or less based on horizontalism, although not explicitly anarchist, respecting personal autonomy and participating in mass activism such as strikes and demonstrations. In contrast with the ''big-A anarchism'' of the classical era, the newly coined term ''small-a anarchism'' signals their tendency not to base their thoughts and actions on classical-era anarchism or to refer to [[classical anarchists]] such as [[Peter Kropotkin]] and [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] to justify their opinions. Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience which they will later theorize. The decision-making process of small anarchist [[affinity group]] plays a significant tactical role. Anarchists have employed various methods in order to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of a leader or a leading group. One way is for an individual from the group to play the role of facilitator to help achieve a consensus without taking part in the discussion themselves or promoting a specific point. Minorities usually accept rough consensus, except when they feel the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics, goals and values. Anarchists usually form small groups (5–20 individuals) to enhance autonomy and friendships among their members. These kinds of groups more often than not interconnect with each other, forming larger networks. Anarchists still support and participate in strikes, especially [[Wildcat strike action|wildcat strikes]] as these are leaderless strikes not organised centrally by a syndicate. As in the past, newspapers and journals are used, but anarchists have gone [[online]] in the [[World Wide Web]] to spread their message. However, anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties, hosting electronic libraries and other portals. Anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free. The way these hacktivists work to develop and distribute resembles the anarchist ideals, especially when it comes to preserving users' privacy from state surveillance. Anarchists organize themselves to [[Squatting|squat]] and reclaim public spaces. During important events such as protests and when spaces are being occupied, they are often called [[Temporary Autonomous Zone]] (TAZ), spaces where art, poetry and [[surrealism]] are blended to display the anarchist ideal. As seen by anarchists, squatting is a way to regain urban space from the capitalist market, serving pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action. Acquiring space enables anarchists to experiment with their ideas and build social bonds. Adding up these tactics while having in mind that not all anarchists share the same attitudes towards them, along with various forms of protesting at highly symbolic events, make up a [[carnivalesque]] atmosphere that is part of contemporary anarchist vividity.", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["Key issues"], "text": "As anarchism is a [[philosophy]] that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought; disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common. Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of [[definitional concerns in anarchist theory]]. The compatibility of [[Anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]], [[Anarchism and nationalism|nationalism]] and [[Anarchism and religion|religion]] with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as [[Anarchism and communism|communism]], [[collectivism]], [[Anarchism and Marxism|Marxism]] and [[trade unionism]]. Anarchists may be motivated by [[humanism]], [[God|divine authority]], [[enlightened self-interest]], [[Veganarchism|veganism]], or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as [[civilisation]], [[technology]] (e.g. within [[anarcho-primitivism]]) and the [[Anarchism and statist democracy|democratic process]] may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others.", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["Key issues", "Gender, sexuality and free love"], "text": "As gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, anarchism is obliged to address, analyse and oppose the suppression of one's autonomy because of the dynamics that gender roles traditionally impose. Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists, but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally developing. However, sexual violence was a concern for anarchists such as [[Benjamin Tucker]], who opposed age of consent laws, believing they would benefit predatory men. A historical current that arose and flourished during 1890 and 1920 within anarchism was [[free love]]. In contemporary anarchism, this current survives as a tendency to support [[polyamory]] and [[queer anarchism]]. Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men. The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure. Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together. Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States. However, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love. Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, pro-choice (utilising a contemporary term) and had a similar agenda. Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed on [[suffrage]], but they were nonetheless supportive of one another. During the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with the [[second wave of feminism]], radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well. By the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, gays, queers and other marginalised groups, with some feminist thinkers suggesting a fusion of the two currents. With the [[third wave of feminism]], sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became a subject of study for anarchists, yielding a [[post-structuralist]] critique of sexual normality. However, some anarchists distanced themselves from this line of thinking, suggesting that it leaned towards an individualism that was dropping the cause of social liberation.", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["Key issues", "Anarchism and education"], "text": "The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of [[Mutual aid (organization theory)|mutual aid]]. Anarchist writers such as [[William Godwin]] (''[[Political Justice]]'') and [[Max Stirner]] (\"[[The False Principle of Our Education]]\") attacked both state education and private education as another means by which the ruling class replicate their privileges. In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker [[Francisco Ferrer]] established the [[Escuela Moderna]] in Barcelona as an opposition to the established education system which was dictated largely by the Catholic Church. Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both state and church involvement in the educational process whilst giving pupils large amounts of autonomy in planning their work and attendance. Ferrer aimed to educate the working class and explicitly sought to foster [[class consciousness]] among students. The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later arrested. Nonetheless, his ideas formed the inspiration for a series of [[Modern School (United States)|modern schools]] around the world. Christian anarchist [[Leo Tolstoy]], who published the essay ''Education and Culture'', also established a similar school with its founding principle being that \"for education to be effective it had to be free.\" In a similar token, A. S. Neill founded what became the [[Summerhill School]] in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion. Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child's right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality will lead children to morally good conclusions. However, there has been little consensus among anarchist figures as to what constitutes manipulation. Ferrer believed that moral indoctrination was necessary and explicitly taught pupils that equality, liberty and social justice were not possible under capitalism, along with other critiques of government and nationalism. Late 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers ([[Colin Ward]], [[Herbert Read]] and [[Paul Goodman]]) intensified and expanded the anarchist critique of state education, largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on children's creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate in [[consumerism]] as part of a consumer society. Contemporary anarchists such as Ward have further argued that state education serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality. While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational institutions. Judith Suissa names three schools as explicitly anarchists schools, namely the Free Skool Santa Cruz in the United States which is part of a wider American-Canadian network of schools, the Self-Managed Learning College in Brighton, England and the Paideia School in Spain.", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["Key issues", "Anarchism and the state"], "text": "Objection to the [[State (polity)|state]] and its institutions is a ''[[sine qua non]]'' of anarchism. Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power, regardless of whether that power is [[Open government|open]] or [[Transparency (behavior)|transparent]], as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collective will of the people to be an unachievable fiction due to the fact that the [[ruling class]] is distinct from the rest of society. Specific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary. [[Robert Paul Wolff]] believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate. Bakunin saw the state as meaning \"coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be.\" [[A. John Simmons]] and [[Leslie Green (philosopher)|Leslie Green]], who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely. Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ.", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["Key issues", "Anarchism and the arts"], "text": "The connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism, especially among artistic currents that were developing during that era such as futurists, surrealists and others. In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with the [[New Apocalyptics]] and the [[neo-romanticism]] movement. In music, anarchism has been associated with music scenes such as punk. Anarchists such as [[Leo Tolstoy]] and [[Herbert Read]] argued that the border between the artist and the non-artist, what separates art from a daily act, is a construct produced by the alienation caused by capitalism and it prevents humans from living a joyful life. Other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends. In his book ''Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas'', Chris Robé claims that \"anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement-based video activism.\" Throughout the 20th century, many prominent anarchists ([[Peter Kropotkin]], [[Emma Goldman]], [[Gustav Landauer]] and [[Camillo Berneri]]) and publications such as ''[[Anarchy (magazine)|Anarchy]]'' wrote about matters pertaining to the arts. Three overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists. It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests. As it appeals to both emotion and reason, art could appeal to the whole human and have a powerful effect. The 19th-century [[neo-impressionist]] movement had an ecological aesthetic and offered an example of an anarchist perception of the road towards socialism. In ''Les chataigniers a Osny'' by anarchist painter [[Camille Pissarro]], the blending of aesthetic and social harmony is prefiguring an ideal anarchistic agrarian community.", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["Criticism"], "text": "The most common critique of anarchism is that humans cannot self-govern and so a state is necessary for human survival. Philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]] supported this critique, stating that \"[p]eace and war, tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, the preservation of a just system of distribution: these, among others, are functions which could hardly be performed in a community in which there was no central government.\" Another common criticism of anarchism is that it fits a world of isolation in which only the small enough entities can be self-governing. [[Colin Ward]] responds that major anarchist thinkers advocated [[Anarchist federalism|federalism]]. Philosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala also believed that humans could not self-govern and included it in his list of arguments against anarchism. Fiala's other critiques were that anarchism is innately related to violence and destruction, not only in the pragmatic world, i.e. at protests, but in the world of ethics as well. Secondly, anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian since the state can not be defeated practically. This line of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it. The third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory. While it advocates for no-one to ''archiei'', if accepted by the many, then anarchism would turn into the ruling political theory. In this line of criticism also comes the self-contradiction that anarchism calls for collective action whilst endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken. Lastly, Fiala mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism of being ineffective (all talk and thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong. Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as [[A. John Simmons]]' ''Moral Principles and Political Obligations''. Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay arguing against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds fallacious. Edmundson claims that while the individual does not owe the state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate. In ''The Problem of Political Authority'', [[Michael Huemer]] defends philosophical anarchism, claiming that \"political authority is a moral illusion.\"", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": ["Criticism"], "text": "Another criticism is that anarchism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority as first articulated in an 1886 article for the ''[[North American Review]]'' by Frances L. Ferguson. [[Joseph Raz]] argues that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success. Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities' successful and mistaken instruction. Anarchists reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority does not entail the disappearance of its advantages by acknowledging authority such as doctors or lawyers as reliable, nor does it involve a complete surrender of independent judgment. Anarchist perception of human nature, rejection of the state and commitment to social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic and unrealistic, respectively. Classical anarchism has been criticized for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering. [[Friedrich Engels]], considered to be one of the principal founders of [[Marxism]], criticized anti-authoritarianism as inherently counter-revolutionary. Academic [[John Molyneux (academic)|John Molyneux]] writes in his book ''Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism'' that \"anarchism cannot win\", believing that it lacks the ability to properly implement its ideas. The Marxist criticism of anarchism is that it has a utopian character because all individuals should have anarchist views and values. According to the Marxist view, that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence. Marxists argue that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act. In the anarchist vision, the conflict between liberty and equality was resolved through coexistence and intertwining.", "id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "categories": ["Anarchism", "Anti-capitalism", "Anti-fascism", "Economic ideologies", "Left-wing politics", "Libertarian socialism", "Libertarianism", "Political culture", "Political movements", "Political ideologies", "Social theories", "Socialism"], "seealso": ["Anarchism by country", "Governance without government", "List of anarchist political ideologies", "List of books about anarchism"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Autism''' is a [[developmental disorder]] characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. Parents often notice signs during the first three years of their child's life. These signs often develop gradually, though some autistic children experience [[Regressive autism|regression]] in their communication and social skills after reaching [[developmental milestones]] at a normal pace. Autism is associated with a combination of [[Heritability of autism|genetic]] and [[environmental factors]]. Risk factors during pregnancy include certain infections, such as [[rubella]], toxins including [[valproic acid]], alcohol, [[cocaine]], [[pesticides]], [[lead]], and [[air pollution]], [[fetal growth restriction]], and [[autoimmune disease]]. [[Controversies in autism|Controversies]] surround other proposed environmental [[Causes of autism|causes]]; for example, the [[MMR vaccine and autism|vaccine hypothesis]], which has been disproven. Autism affects information processing in the brain and how [[nerve cell]] and their [[synapse]] connect and organize; how this occurs is not well understood. The [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM-5), combines forms of the condition, including [[Asperger syndrome]] and [[pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified]] (PDD-NOS) into the diagnosis of [[autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD). No treatment has been proven to cure ASD, but several interventions have been shown to reduce symptoms and improve the ability of people with ASD to function and participate independently in the community. Behavioral, psychological, education, and/or skill-building interventions may be used to assist people with ASD to learn life skills necessary for living independently, as well as other social, communication, and language skills. Therapy also aims to reduce challenging behaviors and build upon strengths. Some autistic adults are unable to live independently. An [[Societal and cultural aspects of autism|autistic culture]] has developed, with some individuals seeking a cure and others believing autism should be [[Autism rights movement|accepted as a difference]] to be accommodated instead of cured. Globally, autism is estimated to affect 24.8 million people . In the 2000s, the number of people with autism worldwide was estimated at 1–2 per 1,000 people. In the developed countries, about 1.5% of children are diagnosed with ASD , from 0.7% in 2000 in the United States. It is diagnosed four-to-five times more often in males than females. The number of people diagnosed has increased dramatically since the 1960s, which may be partly due to changes in diagnostic practice. The question of whether actual rates have increased is unresolved.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Characteristics"], "text": "Autism is a highly variable, [[neurodevelopmental disorder]] whose symptoms first appear during infancy or childhood, and generally follows a steady course without [[Remission (medicine)|remission]]. Autistic people may be severely impaired in some respects but average, or even superior, in others. Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months, become established by age two or three years and tend to continue through adulthood, although often in more muted form. It is distinguished by a characteristic triad of symptoms: impairments in social interaction, impairments in communication, and repetitive behavior. Other aspects, such as atypical eating, are also common but are not essential for diagnosis. Individual symptoms of autism occur in the general population and appear not to associate highly, without a sharp line separating pathologically severe from common traits.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Characteristics", "Social development"], "text": "Social deficits distinguish autism and the related [[autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD; see [[#Classification|Classification]]) from other developmental disorders. Autistic people have social impairments and often lack the intuition about others that many people take for granted. Noted autistic [[Temple Grandin]] described her inability to understand the [[social communication]] of [[neurotypical]], or people with typical [[neural development]], as leaving her feeling \"like an anthropologist on Mars\". Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood. Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Autistic [[toddler]] differ more strikingly from [[social norms]]; for example, they have less [[eye contact]] and [[turn-taking]], and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves, such as pointing at things. Three- to five-year-old autistic children are less likely to exhibit social understanding, approach others spontaneously, imitate and respond to emotions, communicate [[nonverbal autism|nonverbal]], and take turns with others. However, they do form [[Attachment (psychology)|attachments]] to their primary caregivers. Most autistic children display moderately less [[Attachment in children#Secure attachment|attachment security]] than neurotypical children, although this difference disappears in children with higher mental development or less pronounced autistic traits. Older children and adults with ASD [[Face perception#In individuals with autism spectrum disorder|perform worse on tests of face and emotion recognition]] although this may be partly due to a [[alexithymia|lower ability to define a person's own emotions]]. Children with high-functioning autism have more intense and frequent loneliness compared to non-autistic peers, despite the common belief that autistic children prefer to be alone. Making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for those with autism. For them, the quality of friendships, not the number of friends, predicts how lonely they feel. Functional friendships, such as those resulting in invitations to parties, may affect the quality of life more deeply. There are many anecdotal reports, but few systematic studies, of aggression and violence in individuals with ASD. The limited data suggest that, in children with intellectual disability, autism is associated with aggression, destruction of property, and meltdowns.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Characteristics", "Communication"], "text": "About a third to a half of autistic people do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs. Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of [[babbling]], unusual gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the caregiver. In the second and third years, autistic children have less frequent and less diverse babbling, consonants, words, and word combinations; their gestures are less often integrated with words. Autistic children are less likely to make requests or share experiences, and are more likely to simply repeat others' words ([[echolalia]]) or [[Pronoun reversal|reverse pronouns]]. [[Joint attention]] seems to be necessary for functional speech, and deficits in joint attention seem to distinguish infants with ASD. For example, they may look at a pointing hand instead of the pointed-at object, and they consistently fail to point at objects in order to comment on or share an experience. Autistic children may have difficulty with imaginative play and with developing symbols into language. In a pair of studies, high-functioning autistic children aged 8–15 performed equally well as, and as adults better than, individually matched controls at basic language tasks involving vocabulary and spelling. Both autistic groups performed worse than controls at complex language tasks such as figurative language, comprehension and inference. As people are often sized up initially from their basic language skills, these studies suggest that people speaking to autistic individuals are more likely to overestimate what their audience comprehends.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Characteristics", "Repetitive behavior"], "text": "Autistic individuals can display many forms of repetitive or restricted behavior, which the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R) categorizes as follows. (-) [[Stereotypy|Stereotyped behaviors]]: Repetitive movements, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking. (-) [[Compulsive behavior]]: Time-consuming behaviors intended to reduce anxiety that an individual feels compelled to perform repeatedly or according to rigid rules, such as placing objects in a specific order, checking things, or hand washing. (-) Sameness: Resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or refusing to be interrupted. (-) [[Ritual#Psychology|Ritualistic behavior]]: Unvarying pattern of daily activities, such as an unchanging menu or a dressing ritual. This is closely associated with sameness and an independent validation has suggested combining the two factors. (-) Restricted interests: Interests or fixations that are abnormal in theme or intensity of focus, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy, or game. (-) [[Self-injury]]: Behaviors such as eye-poking, [[Dermatillomania|skin-picking]], hand-biting and head-banging. No single repetitive or self-injurious behavior seems to be specific to autism, but autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence and severity of these behaviors.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Characteristics", "Other symptoms"], "text": "Autistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis, but that can affect the individual or the family. An estimated 0.5% to 10% of individuals with ASD show unusual abilities, ranging from [[splinter skill]] such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious [[Savant syndrome|autistic savants]]. Many individuals with ASD show superior skills in perception and attention, relative to the general population. [[Sensory system|Sensory]] abnormalities are found in over 90% of autistic people, and are considered core features by some, although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders. Differences are greater for under-responsivity (for example, walking into things) than for over-responsivity (for example, distress from loud noises) or for sensation seeking (for example, rhythmic movements). An estimated 60–80% of autistic people have motor signs that include [[Hypotonia|poor muscle tone]], [[Apraxia|poor motor planning]], and [[toe walking]]; deficits in motor coordination are pervasive across ASD and are greater in autism proper. Unusual eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur. There is tentative evidence that [[gender dysphoria]] occurs more frequently in autistic people. [[Gastrointestinal diseases|Gastrointestinal problems]] are one of the most commonly [[comorbidity|associated medical disorders]] in autistic people. These are linked to greater social impairment, irritability, behavior and sleep problems, language impairments and mood changes. Parents of children with ASD have higher levels of [[stress (psychological)|stress]]. Siblings of children with ASD report greater admiration of and less conflict with the affected sibling than siblings of unaffected children and were similar to siblings of children with [[Down syndrome]] in these aspects of the sibling relationship. However, they reported lower levels of closeness and intimacy than siblings of children with Down syndrome; siblings of individuals with ASD have greater risk of negative well-being and poorer sibling relationships as adults.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Causes"], "text": "It has long been presumed that there is a common cause at the genetic, cognitive, and neural levels for autism's characteristic triad of symptoms. However, there is increasing suspicion that autism is instead a complex disorder whose core aspects have distinct causes that often co-occur. Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the [[Heritability of autism|genetics of autism]] are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare [[mutation]] with major effects, or by rare multigene interactions of common genetic variants. Complexity arises due to interactions among multiple genes, the environment, and [[epigenetic]] factors which do not change [[DNA]] sequencing but are heritable and influence [[gene expression]]. Many genes have been associated with autism through sequencing the genomes of affected individuals and their parents. Studies of twins suggest that [[heritability]] is 0.7 for autism and as high as 0.9 for ASD, and siblings of those with autism are about 25 times more likely to be autistic than the general population. However, most of the mutations that increase autism risk have not been identified. Typically, autism cannot be traced to a [[Mendelian]] (single-gene) mutation or to a single [[chromosome abnormality]], and none of the genetic syndromes associated with ASDs have been shown to selectively cause ASD. Numerous candidate genes have been located, with only small effects attributable to any particular gene. Most loci individually explain less than 1% of cases of autism. The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from spontaneous [[structural variation]]—such as [[Deletion (genetics)|deletions]], [[Gene duplication|duplications]] or [[Chromosomal inversion|inversions]] in genetic material during [[meiosis]]. Hence, a substantial fraction of autism cases may be traceable to genetic causes that are highly heritable but not inherited: that is, the mutation that causes the autism is not present in the parental genome. Autism may be underdiagnosed in women and girls due to an assumption that it is primarily a male condition, but genetic phenomena such as [[Genomic imprinting|imprinting]] and [[X linkage]] have the ability to raise the frequency and severity of conditions in males, and theories have been put forward for a genetic reason why males are diagnosed more often, such as the [[imprinted brain hypothesis]] and the [[extreme male brain theory]]. Maternal nutrition and inflammation during preconception and pregnancy influences fetal neurodevelopment. [[Intrauterine growth restriction]] is associated with ASD, in both term and preterm infants. Maternal inflammatory and [[autoimmune disease]] may damage fetal tissues, aggravating a genetic problem or damaging the nervous system. Exposure to [[air pollution]] during pregnancy, especially [[heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]] and particulates, may increase the risk of autism. [[Environmental factor]] that have been claimed without evidence to contribute to or exacerbate autism include certain foods, [[infectious disease]], [[solvent]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCBs]], [[phthalate]] and [[phenols]] used in plastic products, [[pesticide]], [[brominated flame retardant]], [[Ethanol|alcohol]], smoking, [[illicit drug]], [[vaccine]], and [[prenatal stress]]. Some, such as the MMR vaccine, have been completely disproven.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Causes"], "text": "Parents may first become aware of autistic symptoms in their child around the time of a routine vaccination. This has led to unsupported theories blaming [[Vaccine controversy#Vaccine overload|vaccine \"overload\"]], a [[Thiomersal controversy|vaccine preservative]], or the [[MMR vaccine and autism|MMR vaccine]] for causing autism. The latter theory was supported by a litigation-funded study that has since been shown to have been \"an elaborate fraud\". Although these theories lack convincing scientific evidence and are biologically implausible, parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of [[childhood immunizations]], [[MMR vaccine and autism#Disease outbreaks|outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases]] in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Mechanism"], "text": "Autism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain. How autism occurs is not well understood. Its mechanism can be divided into two areas: the [[pathophysiology]] of brain structures and processes associated with autism, and the [[neuropsychological]] linkages between brain structures and behaviors. The behaviors appear to have multiple pathophysiologies. There is evidence that [[gut–brain axis]] abnormalities may be involved. A 2015 review proposed that immune dysregulation, [[gastrointestinal tract|gastrointestinal]] inflammation, malfunction of the [[autonomic nervous system]], [[gut flora]] alterations, and food [[metabolite]] may cause brain neuroinflammation and dysfunction. A 2016 review concludes that [[enteric nervous system]] abnormalities might play a role in neurological disorders such as autism. Neural connections and the immune system are a pathway that may allow diseases originated in the intestine to spread to the brain. Several lines of evidence point to [[Synapse|synaptic]] dysfunction as a cause of autism. Some rare mutations may lead to autism by disrupting some synaptic pathways, such as those involved with [[cell adhesion]]. Gene replacement studies in mice suggest that autistic symptoms are closely related to later developmental steps that depend on activity in synapses and on activity-dependent changes. All known [[teratogen]] (agents that cause [[birth defect]]) related to the risk of autism appear to act during the first eight weeks from [[Human fertilization|conception]], and though this does not exclude the possibility that autism can be initiated or affected later, there is strong evidence that autism arises very early in development.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Diagnosis"], "text": "[[Medical diagnosis|Diagnosis]] is based on behavior, not cause or mechanism. Under the [[DSM-5]], autism is characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. These deficits are present in early childhood, typically before age three, and lead to clinically significant functional impairment. Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity, stereotyped and repetitive use of language or [[Idiosyncrasy#Psychiatry and psychology|idiosyncratic language]], and persistent preoccupation with unusual objects. The disturbance must not be better accounted for by [[Rett syndrome]], [[intellectual disability]] or global developmental delay. [[ICD-10]] uses essentially the same definition. Several diagnostic instruments are available. Two are commonly used in autism research: the [[Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised]] (ADI-R) is a semistructured parent interview, and the [[Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule]] (ADOS) uses observation and interaction with the child. The [[Childhood Autism Rating Scale]] (CARS) is used widely in clinical environments to assess severity of autism based on observation of children. The Diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders (DISCO) may also be used. A [[pediatrician]] commonly performs a preliminary investigation by taking developmental history and physically examining the child. If warranted, diagnosis and evaluations are conducted with help from ASD specialists, observing and assessing cognitive, communication, family, and other factors using standardized tools, and taking into account any associated [[medical conditions]]. A pediatric [[neuropsychologist]] is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills, both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions. A [[differential diagnosis]] for ASD at this stage might also consider [[intellectual disability]], [[hearing impairment]], and a [[specific language impairment]] such as [[Landau–Kleffner syndrome]]. The presence of autism can make it harder to diagnose coexisting psychiatric disorders such as [[Major depressive disorder|depression]]. [[Clinical genetics]] evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed, particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause. Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40% of cases to genetic causes, consensus guidelines in the US and UK are limited to high-resolution chromosome and [[fragile X]] testing. A [[Genotype-first approach|genotype-first]] model of diagnosis has been proposed, which would routinely assess the genome's copy number variations. As new genetic tests are developed several ethical, legal, and social issues will emerge. Commercial availability of tests may precede adequate understanding of how to use test results, given the complexity of autism's genetics. [[Metabolic]] and [[neuroimaging]] tests are sometimes helpful, but are not routine.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Diagnosis"], "text": "ASD can sometimes be diagnosed by age 14 months, although diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years of life: for example, a one-year-old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later. In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice. Although the symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhood, they are sometimes missed; years later, adults may seek diagnoses to help them or their friends and family understand themselves, to help their employers make adjustments, or in some locations to claim disability living allowances or other benefits. Signs of autism may be more challenging for clinicians to detect in females. Autistic females have been shown to engage in masking more frequently than autistic males. Masking may include making oneself perform normative facial expressions and eye contact. A notable percentage of autistic females may be misdiagnosed, diagnosed after a considerable delay, or not diagnosed at all. Conversely, the cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis. It is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the [[visually impaired]], partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision, and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes or [[blindism]].", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Diagnosis", "Classification"], "text": "Autism is one of the five [[pervasive developmental disorder]] (PDD), which are characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, and severely restricted interests and highly repetitive behavior. These symptoms do not imply sickness, fragility, or emotional disturbance. Of the five PDD forms, [[Asperger syndrome]] is closest to autism in signs and likely causes; [[Rett syndrome]] and [[childhood disintegrative disorder]] share several signs with autism, but may have unrelated causes; [[PDD not otherwise specified]] (PDD-NOS; also called ''atypical autism'') is diagnosed when the criteria are not met for a more specific disorder. Unlike with autism, people with Asperger syndrome have no substantial delay in [[language development]]. The terminology of autism can be bewildering, with autism, Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS often called the ''autism spectrum disorders'' (ASD) or sometimes the ''autistic disorders'', whereas autism itself is often called ''autistic disorder'', ''childhood autism'', or ''infantile autism''. In this article, ''autism'' refers to the classic autistic disorder; in clinical practice, though, ''autism'', ''ASD'', and ''PDD'' are often used interchangeably. ASD, in turn, is a subset of the broader autism [[phenotype]], which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like [[Phenotypic trait|traits]], such as avoiding eye contact. Research into causes has been hampered by the inability to identify biologically meaningful subgroups within the autistic population and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of [[psychiatry]], [[psychology]], [[neurology]] and [[pediatrics]]. Newer technologies such as [[fMRI]] and [[diffusion tensor imaging]] can help identify biologically relevant [[phenotype]] (observable traits) that can be viewed on [[brain scan]], to help further [[neurogenetic]] studies of autism; one example is lowered activity in the [[fusiform face area]] of the brain, which is associated with impaired perception of people versus objects. It has been proposed to classify autism using genetics as well as behavior.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Diagnosis", "Classification", "Spectrum"], "text": "Autism has long been thought to cover a wide [[Spectrum disorder|spectrum]], ranging from individuals with severe impairments—who may be silent, [[developmentally disabled]], and prone to frequent repetitive behavior such as hand flapping and rocking—to high functioning individuals who may have active but distinctly odd social approaches, narrowly focused interests, and verbose, [[pedantic]] communication. Because the behavior spectrum is continuous, boundaries between diagnostic categories are necessarily somewhat arbitrary.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Screening"], "text": "About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child's unusual behaviors by age 18 months, and about four-fifths notice by age 24 months. According to an article, failure to meet any of the following milestones \"is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations. Delay in referral for such testing may delay early diagnosis and treatment and affect the long-term outcome\". (-) No response to name (or [[eye contact|eye-to-eye gaze]]) by 6 months. (-) No [[babbling]] by 12 months. (-) No [[Gesture|gesturing]] (pointing, waving, etc.) by 12 months. (-) No single words by 16 months. (-) No two-word (spontaneous, not just [[echolalia|echolalic]]) phrases by 24 months. (-) Loss of any language or social skills, at any age. The [[United States Preventive Services Task Force]] in 2016 found it was unclear if screening was beneficial or harmful among children in whom there is no concern. The Japanese practice is to [[Screening (medicine)|screen]] all children for ASD at 18 and 24 months, using autism-specific formal screening tests. In contrast, in the UK, children whose families or doctors recognize possible signs of autism are screened. It is not known which approach is more effective. Screening tools include the [[Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers]] (M-CHAT), the Early Screening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire, and the First Year Inventory; initial data on M-CHAT and its predecessor, the [[Checklist for Autism in Toddlers]] (CHAT), on children aged 18–30 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low [[Sensitivity (tests)|sensitivity]] (many false-negatives) but good [[Specificity (tests)|specificity]] (few false-positives). It may be more accurate to precede these tests with a broadband screener that does not distinguish ASD from other developmental disorders. Screening tools designed for one culture's norms for behaviors like eye contact may be inappropriate for a different culture. Although [[genetic screening]] for autism is generally still impractical, it can be considered in some cases, such as children with neurological symptoms and [[dysmorphic feature]].", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Prevention"], "text": "While infection with [[rubella]] during [[pregnancy]] causes fewer than 1% of cases of autism, [[rubella vaccine|vaccination against rubella]] can prevent many of those cases.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Management"], "text": "The main goals when treating autistic children are to lessen associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. In general, higher IQs are correlated with greater responsiveness to treatment and improved treatment outcomes. No single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs. Families and the educational system are the main resources for treatment. Services should be carried out by [[Professional practice of behavior analysis|behavior analysts]], [[special education]] teachers, [[speech–language pathology|speech pathologists]], and licensed [[psychologists]]. Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about [[efficacy]]. However, the development of evidence-based interventions has advanced in recent years. Although many [[psychosocial]] interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the methodological quality of [[systematic review]] of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options. Intensive, sustained [[special education]] programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care, communication, and job skills, and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors; claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated. While medications have not been found to help with core symptoms, they may be used for associated symptoms, such as irritability, inattention, or repetitive behavior patterns.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Management", "Education"], "text": "Educational interventions often used include [[applied behavior analysis]] (ABA), developmental models, structured teaching, [[speech and language therapy]], [[social skills]] therapy, and [[occupational therapy]] and cognitive behavioral interventions in adults without intellectual disability to reduce depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Among these approaches, interventions either treat autistic features comprehensively, or focalize treatment on a specific area of deficit. The quality of research for early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI)—a treatment procedure incorporating over thirty hours per week of the [[Discrete trial training|structured type of ABA]] that is carried out with very young children—is currently low, and more vigorous research designs with larger sample sizes are needed. Two theoretical frameworks outlined for early childhood intervention include [[Discrete trial training|structured]] and [[Pivotal response treatment|naturalistic]] ABA interventions, and developmental social pragmatic models (DSP). One interventional strategy utilizes a parent training model, which teaches parents how to implement various ABA and DSP techniques, allowing for parents to disseminate interventions themselves. Various DSP programs have been developed to explicitly deliver intervention systems through at-home parent implementation. Despite the recent development of parent training models, these interventions have demonstrated effectiveness in numerous studies, being evaluated as a probable efficacious mode of treatment. [[Discrete trial training|Early, intensive ABA therapy]] has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing communication and adaptive functioning in preschool children; it is also well-established for improving the intellectual performance of that age group. Similarly, a teacher-implemented intervention that utilizes a more [[Pivotal response treatment|naturalistic form of ABA]] combined with a developmental social pragmatic approach has been found to be beneficial in improving social-communication skills in young children, although there is less evidence in its treatment of global symptoms. Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated to educators, resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided. It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up, and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results. The appropriateness of including children with varying severity of autism spectrum disorders in the general education population is a subject of current debate among educators and researchers.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Management", "Medication"], "text": "Medications may be used to treat ASD symptoms that interfere with integrating a child into home or school when behavioral treatment fails. They may also be used for associated health problems, such as [[ADHD]] or [[anxiety disorder|anxiety]]. More than half of US children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed [[psychoactive drug]] or [[anticonvulsant]], with the most common drug classes being [[antidepressant]], [[stimulant]], and [[antipsychotic]]. The [[atypical antipsychotic]] drugs [[risperidone]] and [[aripiprazole]] are [[FDA]]-approved for treating associated aggressive and self-injurious behaviors. However, their side effects must be weighed against their potential benefits, and people with autism may respond atypically. Side effects, for example, may include weight gain, tiredness, drooling, and aggression. [[SSRI]] antidepressants, such as [[fluoxetine]] and [[fluvoxamine]], have been shown to be effective in reducing repetitive and ritualistic behaviors, while the stimulant medication [[methylphenidate]] is beneficial for some children with co-morbid inattentiveness or hyperactivity. There is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD. No known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments. Experiments in mice have reversed or reduced some symptoms related to autism by replacing or modulating gene function, suggesting the possibility of targeting therapies to specific rare mutations known to cause autism.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Management", "Alternative medicine"], "text": "Although many [[Alternative therapies for developmental and learning disabilities|alternative therapies and interventions]] are available, few are supported by scientific studies. Treatment approaches have little empirical support in [[Quality of life|quality-of-life]] contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance. Some alternative treatments may place the child at risk. The preference that children with autism have for unconventional foods can lead to reduction in bone cortical thickness with this being greater in those on [[casein-free diet]], as a consequence of the low intake of [[calcium]] and [[vitamin D]]; however, suboptimal bone development in ASD has also been associated with lack of exercise and [[gastrointestinal disease|gastrointestinal disorders]]. In 2005, botched [[chelation therapy]] killed a five-year-old child with autism. Chelation is not recommended for people with ASD since the associated risks outweigh any potential benefits. Another alternative medicine practice with no evidence is [[CEASE therapy]], a mixture of [[homeopathy]], supplements, and 'vaccine detoxing'. Although popularly used as an [[complementary and alternative medicine|alternative treatment]] for people with autism, as of 2018 there is no good evidence to recommend a [[gluten-free, casein-free diet|gluten- and casein-free diet]] as a standard treatment. A 2018 review concluded that it may be a therapeutic option for specific groups of children with autism, such as those with known [[food intolerance]] or [[food allergy|allergies]], or with food intolerance markers. The authors analyzed the prospective trials conducted to date that studied the efficacy of the gluten- and casein-free diet in children with ASD (4 in total). All of them compared gluten- and casein-free diet versus normal diet with a control group (2 double-blind randomized controlled trials, 1 double-blind crossover trial, 1 single-blind trial). In two of the studies, whose duration was 12 and 24 months, a significant improvement in ASD symptoms (efficacy rate 50%) was identified. In the other two studies, whose duration was 3 months, no significant effect was observed. The authors concluded that a longer duration of the diet may be necessary to achieve the improvement of the ASD symptoms. Other problems documented in the trials carried out include transgressions of the diet, small sample size, the heterogeneity of the participants and the possibility of a [[placebo]] effect. In the subset of people who have [[non-celiac gluten sensitivity|gluten sensitivity]] there is limited evidence that suggests that a [[gluten-free diet]] may improve some autistic behaviors. Results of a systematic review on interventions to address health outcomes among autistic adults found emerging evidence to support [[mindfulness]]-based interventions for improving mental health. This includes decreasing stress, anxiety, ruminating thoughts, anger, and aggression. There is tentative evidence that [[music therapy]] may improve social interactions, verbal communication, and non-verbal communication skills. There has been early research looking at [[Hyperbaric medicine|hyperbaric treatment]] in children with autism. Studies on pet therapy have shown positive effects.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Prognosis"], "text": "There is no known cure. The degree of symptoms can decrease, occasionally to the extent that people lose their diagnosis of ASD; this occurs sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not. It is not known how often this outcome happens; reported rates in unselected samples have ranged from 3% to 25%. Most autistic children acquire language by age five or younger, though a few have developed communication skills in later years. Many autistic children lack [[social support]], future employment opportunities or [[Self-determination theory|self-determination]]. Although core difficulties tend to persist, symptoms often become less severe with age. Few high-quality studies address long-term [[prognosis]]. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife. Acquiring language before age six, having an [[IQ]] above 50, and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes; [[independent living]] is unlikely with severe autism. Many autistic people face significant obstacles in transitioning to adulthood. Compared to the general population autistic people are more likely to be unemployed and to have never had a job. About half of people in their 20s with autism are not employed. People with autism tend to face increased stress levels related to psychosocial factors, such as stigma, which may increase the rates of mental health issues in the autistic population.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Epidemiology"], "text": "As of 2007, [[review]] estimate a prevalence of 1–2 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD. A 2016 survey in the United States reported a rate of 25 per 1,000 children for ASD. Globally, autism affects an estimated 24.8 million people , while Asperger syndrome affects a further 37.2 million. In 2012, the [[National Health Service|NHS]] estimated that the overall prevalence of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the UK was 1.1%. Rates of [[PDD-NOS]]'s has been estimated at 3.7 per 1,000, Asperger syndrome at roughly 0.6 per 1,000, and childhood disintegrative disorder at 0.02 per 1,000. CDC estimates about 1 out of 59 (1.7%) for 2014, an increase from 1 out of every 68 children (1.5%) for 2010. The number of reported cases of autism increased dramatically in the 1990s and early 2000s. This increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age at diagnosis, and public awareness, though unidentified environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out. The available evidence does not rule out the possibility that autism's true prevalence has increased; a real increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward psychosocial factors and changing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics. It has been established that vaccination is not a risk factor for autism and is not behind any increase in autism prevalence rates, if any change in the rate of autism exists at all. Males are at higher risk for ASD than females. The sex ratio averages 4.3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment: it may be close to 2:1 with intellectual disability and more than 5.5:1 without. Several theories about the higher prevalence in males have been investigated, but the cause of the difference is unconfirmed; one theory is that females are underdiagnosed. Although the evidence does not implicate any single pregnancy-related risk factor as a cause of autism, the risk of autism is associated with advanced age in either parent, and with diabetes, bleeding, and use of psychiatric drugs in the mother during pregnancy. The risk is greater with older fathers than with older mothers; two potential explanations are the known increase in mutation burden in older sperm, and the hypothesis that men marry later if they carry genetic liability and show some signs of autism. Most professionals believe that race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic background do not affect the occurrence of autism. Several other conditions are common in children with autism. They include: (-) '''[[Genetic disorder]]'''. About 10–15% of autism cases have an identifiable [[Mendelian]] (single-gene) condition, [[chromosome abnormality]], or other genetic syndrome, and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders. (-) '''[[Intellectual disability]]'''. The percentage of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for intellectual disability has been reported as anywhere from 25% to 70%, a wide variation illustrating the difficulty of assessing [[Controversies in autism#Intelligence|intelligence of individuals on the autism spectrum]]. In comparison, for PDD-NOS the association with intellectual disability is much weaker, and by definition, the diagnosis of Asperger's excludes intellectual disability.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Epidemiology"], "text": "(-) '''[[Anxiety disorder]]''' are common among children with ASD; there are no firm data, but studies have reported prevalences ranging from 11% to 84%. Many anxiety disorders have symptoms that are better explained by ASD itself, or are hard to distinguish from ASD's symptoms. (-) '''[[Epilepsy]]''', with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of [[language disorder]]. (-) Several '''[[metabolic defect]]''', such as [[phenylketonuria]], are associated with autistic symptoms. (-) '''[[Minor physical anomalies]]''' are significantly increased in the autistic population. (-) '''Preempted diagnoses'''. Although the DSM-IV rules out concurrent diagnosis of many other conditions along with autism, the full criteria for [[Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD), [[Tourette syndrome]], and other of these conditions are often present and these [[Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders|comorbid diagnoses]] are increasingly accepted. (-) '''Sleep problems''' affect about two-thirds of individuals with ASD at some point in childhood. These most commonly include symptoms of [[insomnia]] such as difficulty in falling asleep, frequent [[middle-of-the-night insomnia|nocturnal awakenings]], and early morning awakenings. Sleep problems are associated with difficult behaviors and family stress, and are often a focus of clinical attention over and above the primary ASD diagnosis.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "A few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments were described long before autism was named. The ''[[Table Talk (Luther)|Table Talk]]'' of [[Martin Luther]], compiled by his notetaker, Mathesius, contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic. The earliest well-documented case of autism is that of [[Hugh Blair of Borgue]], as detailed in a 1747 court case in which his brother successfully petitioned to annul Blair's marriage to gain Blair's inheritance. The [[Wild Boy of Aveyron]], a [[feral child]] caught in 1798, showed several signs of autism; the medical student [[Jean Marc Gaspard Itard|Jean Itard]] treated him with a behavioral program designed to help him form social attachments and to induce speech via imitation. The [[New Latin]] word ''autismus'' (English translation ''autism'') was coined by the [[Swiss people|Swiss]] psychiatrist [[Eugen Bleuler]] in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of [[schizophrenia]]. He derived it from the Greek word ''autós'' (αὐτός, meaning \"self\"), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to \"autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance\". A Soviet child psychiatrist, [[Grunya Sukhareva]], described a similar syndrome that was published in Russian in 1925, and in German in 1926.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History", "Clinical development and diagnoses"], "text": "The word ''autism'' first took its modern sense in 1938 when [[Hans Asperger]] of the [[Vienna General Hospital|Vienna University Hospital]] adopted Bleuler's terminology ''autistic psychopaths'' in a lecture in German about [[child psychology]]. Asperger was investigating an ASD now known as [[Asperger syndrome]], though for various reasons it was not widely recognized as a separate diagnosis until 1981. [[Leo Kanner]] of the [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] first used ''autism'' in its modern sense in English when he introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in a 1943 report of 11 children with striking behavioral similarities. Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on the subject, notably \"autistic aloneness\" and \"insistence on sameness\", are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders. It is not known whether Kanner derived the term independently of Asperger. Kanner's reuse of ''autism'' led to decades of confused terminology like ''infantile schizophrenia'', and child psychiatry's focus on maternal deprivation led to misconceptions of autism as an infant's response to \"[[refrigerator mother]]\". Starting in the late 1960s autism was established as a separate syndrome.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History", "Terminology and distinction from schizophrenia"], "text": "As late as the mid-1970s there was little evidence of a genetic role in autism; while in 2007 it was believed to be one of the most heritable psychiatric conditions. Although the rise of parent organizations and the destigmatization of childhood ASD have affected how ASD is viewed, parents continue to feel [[social stigma]] in situations where their child's autistic behavior is perceived negatively, and many [[primary care physician]] and [[medical specialist]] express some beliefs consistent with outdated autism research. It took until 1980 for the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM-III]] to differentiate autism from childhood schizophrenia. In 1987, the [[DSM-III-R]] provided a checklist for diagnosing autism. In May 2013, the DSM-5 was released, updating the classification for pervasive developmental disorders. The grouping of disorders, including PDD-NOS, autism, Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome, and CDD, has been removed and replaced with the general term of Autism Spectrum Disorders. The two categories that exist are impaired social communication and/or interaction, and restricted and/or repetitive behaviors. The Internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find difficult to deal with, and has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely. [[Societal and cultural aspects of autism]] have developed: some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that [[Neurodiversity|autism is simply another way of being]].", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Society and culture"], "text": "An autistic culture has emerged, accompanied by the [[autistic rights]] and [[neurodiversity]] movements. Events include [[World Autism Awareness Day]], [[Autism Sunday]], [[Autistic Pride Day]], [[Autreat]], and others. Social-science scholars study those with autism in hopes to learn more about \"autism as a culture, transcultural comparisons ... and research on social movements.\" Many autistic individuals have been successful in their fields.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Society and culture", "Autism rights movement"], "text": "The [[autism rights movement]] is a [[social movement]] within the context of [[disability rights movement|disability right]] that emphasizes the concept of [[neurodiversity]], viewing the autism spectrum as a result of natural variations in the [[human brain]] rather than a disorder to be cured. The autism rights movement advocates for including greater acceptance of autistic behaviors; therapies that focus on coping skills rather than on imitating the behaviors of those without autism, and the recognition of the autistic community as a [[minority group]]. Autism rights or neurodiversity advocates believe that the autism spectrum is genetic and should be accepted as a natural expression of the [[human genome]]. This perspective is distinct from [[fringe theories]] that autism is caused by environmental factors such as [[vaccine]]. A common criticism against autistic activists is that the majority of them are \"[[High-functioning autism|high-functioning]]\" or have Asperger syndrome and do not represent the views of \"[[Low-functioning autism|low-functioning]]\" autistic people.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Society and culture", "Employment"], "text": "About half of autistics are unemployed, and one third of those with graduate degrees may be unemployed. Among autistics who find work, most are employed in sheltered settings working for wages below the national minimum. While employers state hiring concerns about productivity and supervision, experienced employers of autistics give positive reports of above average memory and detail orientation as well as a high regard for rules and procedure in autistic employees. A majority of the economic burden of autism is caused by decreased earnings in the job market. Some studies also find decreased earning among parents who care for autistic children.", "id": "25", "title": "Autism", "categories": ["Autism", "Articles containing video clips", "Communication disorders", "Mental and behavioural disorders", "Neurological disorders", "Neurological disorders in children", "Pervasive developmental disorders", "Psychiatric diagnosis", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "1910s neologisms"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Albedo''' (pronounced ; , meaning 'whiteness') is the measure of the [[diffuse reflection]] of [[sunlight|solar radiation]] out of the total [[solar radiation]] and measured on a scale from 0, corresponding to a [[black body]] that absorbs all incident radiation, to 1, corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation. Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of [[Radiosity (radiometry)|radiosity]] ''J'' to the [[irradiance]] ''E'' (flux per unit area) received by a surface. The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location and time (see [[position of the Sun]]). While bi-hemispherical [[reflectance]] is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages. Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes [[visible spectrum|visible light]] (0.4–0.7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation). Albedo is an important concept in [[climatology]], [[astronomy]], and environmental management (e.g., as part of the [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]] (LEED) program for sustainable rating of buildings). The average albedo of the Earth from the upper atmosphere, its ''planetary albedo'', is 30–35% because of [[cloud cover]], but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features. The term albedo was introduced into optics by [[Johann Heinrich Lambert]] in his 1760 work ''[[Photometria]]''.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Terrestrial albedo"], "text": "Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a [[black body]]. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4. The average albedo of [[Earth]] is about 0.3. This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds. Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via [[Earth observation]] satellite sensors such as [[NASA]]'s [[MODIS]] instruments on board the [[Terra (satellite)|Terra]] and [[Aqua (satellite)|Aqua]] satellites, and the CERES instrument on the [[Suomi NPP]] and [[Joint Polar Satellite System|JPSS]]. As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions, a mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of [[directional-hemispherical reflectance]] and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,). These calculations are based on the [[bidirectional reflectance distribution function]] (BRDF), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo. Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the [[greenhouse effect]] is currently about 15 °C. If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below −40 °C. If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about 0 °C. In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water – a so-called [[ocean planet]] – the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost 27 °C.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Terrestrial albedo", "White-sky, black-sky, and blue-sky albedo"], "text": "For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular [[solar zenith angle]] ''θ'' can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms: (-) the [[directional-hemispherical reflectance]] at that solar zenith angle, formula_1, sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo, and (-) the [[bi-hemispherical reflectance]], formula_2, sometimes referred to as white-sky albedo. with formula_3 being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle, and formula_4 being the proportion of diffuse illumination, the actual albedo formula_5 (also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given as: formula_6 This formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Astronomical albedo"], "text": "The albedos of [[planet]], [[Natural satellite|satellites]] and [[minor planet]] such as [[asteroid]] can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle (\"phase angle\"), and variation in time composes a major part of the astronomical field of [[photometry (astronomy)|photometry]]. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer [[Solar System]] objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about [[regolith]] properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in [[asteroid]]. [[Enceladus]], a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known albedos of any body in the Solar System, with an albedo of 0.99. Another notable high-albedo body is [[Eris (dwarf planet)|Eris]], with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and [[asteroid belt]] have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical [[comet nucleus]] has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily [[space weathering|space weathered]] surface containing some [[organic compound]]. The overall albedo of the [[Moon]] is measured to be around 0.14, but it is strongly directional and non-[[Lambertian reflectance|Lambertian]], displaying also a strong [[opposition effect]]. Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the [[regolith]] surfaces of airless Solar System bodies. Two common albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) [[geometric albedo]] (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the [[Bond albedo]] (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion. In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five [[Hapke parameters]] which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with [[phase angle (astronomy)|phase angle]], including a characterization of the opposition effect of [[regolith]] surfaces. The correlation between astronomical (geometric) albedo, [[Absolute magnitude#Absolute magnitude for planets (H)|absolute magnitude]] and diameter is: formula_7, where formula_8 is the astronomical albedo, formula_9 is the diameter in kilometers, and formula_10 is the absolute magnitude.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Examples of terrestrial albedo effects", "Illumination"], "text": "Albedo is not directly dependent on illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location (e.g. through melting of reflective ice). That said, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Examples of terrestrial albedo effects", "Insolation effects"], "text": "The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local [[insolation]] (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the [[Arctic]] and [[Antarctic]] regions are cold due to low insolation, whereas areas such as the [[Sahara Desert]], which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. [[Tropical]] and [[sub-tropical]] [[rainforest]] areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their [[temperate forest]] counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes. Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the [[Earth]]. This has been a concern since arctic ice and [[snow]] has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This [[Ice–albedo feedback|feedback loop]] results in a reduced albedo effect.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Examples of terrestrial albedo effects", "Climate and weather"], "text": "Albedo affects [[climate]] by determining how much [[radiation]] a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive [[weather]].", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Examples of terrestrial albedo effects", "Albedo–temperature feedback"], "text": "When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature [[feedback]] results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm [[air mass]]), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. However, because local [[weather]] is dynamic due to the change of [[season]], eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher [[insolation]]) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass, soil, or ocean, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Examples of terrestrial albedo effects", "Snow"], "text": "Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. Over [[Antarctica]] snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (the ice–albedo [[positive feedback]]). Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback. Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important for [[global warming]]. [[Cryoconite]], powdery windblown [[dust]] containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets. The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Examples of terrestrial albedo effects", "Small-scale effects"], "text": "Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Examples of terrestrial albedo effects", "Solar photovoltaic effects"], "text": "Albedo can affect the [[electrical energy]] output of solar [[photovoltaic system|photovoltaic devices]]. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10%. More recently, the analysis was extended to the effects of spectral bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) and analyzes the albedo effects on the performance of seven photovoltaic materials covering three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Examples of terrestrial albedo effects", "Trees"], "text": "Because forests generally have a low albedo, (the majority of the ultraviolet and [[visible spectrum]] is absorbed through [[photosynthesis]]), some scientists have suggested that greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of [[afforestation]] (or offset the negative climate impacts of [[deforestation]]). In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect. Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through [[evapotranspiration]]. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds. Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate. In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. [[Deciduous trees]] have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas [[coniferous trees]] have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15. Variation in summer albedo across both forest types is correlated with maximum rates of photosynthesis because plants with high growth capacity display a greater fraction of their foliage for direct interception of incoming radiation in the upper canopy. The result is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy. Studies by the [[Hadley Centre]] have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of [[carbon sequestration]] on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Examples of terrestrial albedo effects", "Water"], "text": "Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the [[Fresnel equations]]. At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally [[specular reflection|specular manner]] (not [[Diffuse reflection|diffusely]]). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small [[angle of incidence (optics)|angles of incident]] light, [[waviness]] results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle. Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the [[terminator (solar)|terminator]] (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light. Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection. Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Examples of terrestrial albedo effects", "Clouds"], "text": "[[Cloud albedo]] has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. \"On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth.\" Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the [[contrail]] of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as 10 °C colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Examples of terrestrial albedo effects", "Aerosol effects"], "text": "[[Aerosols]] (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as [[cloud condensation nuclei]] and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain. As per Spracklen et al. the effects are: (-) ''Aerosol direct effect.'' Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming. (-) ''Aerosol indirect effect.'' Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called [[cloud condensation nuclei]]. Increased nuclei concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet number concentrations, which in turn leads to increased cloud albedo, increased light scattering and radiative cooling (''first indirect effect''), but also leads to reduced precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of the cloud (''second indirect effect'').  In extremely polluted cities like [[Delhi]], aerosol pollutants influence local weather and induce an [[Urban heat island#Urban cold island|urban cool island]] effect during the day.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Examples of terrestrial albedo effects", "Black carbon"], "text": "Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from [[black carbon]] particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] estimates that the global mean [[radiative forcing]] for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m. Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Examples of terrestrial albedo effects", "Human activities"], "text": "Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global scale is difficult, further study is required to determine anthropogenic effects.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": ["Other types of albedo"], "text": "[[Single-scattering albedo]] is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material ([[refractive index]]); the size of the particle or particles; and the wavelength of the incoming radiation.", "id": "39", "title": "Albedo", "categories": ["Land surface effects on climate", "Climate change feedbacks", "Climate forcing", "Climatology", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Radiometry", "Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)", "Radiation", "1760s neologisms"], "seealso": ["Opposition surge", "Global dimming", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "Daisyworld", "Emissivity", "Cool roof", "Irradiance", "WP:SEEALSO", "Exitance", "Solar radiation management", "Polar see-saw"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''A''', or '''a''', is the first [[Letter (alphabet)|letter]] and the first [[vowel letter]] of the [[English alphabet|modern English alphabet]] and the [[ISO basic Latin alphabet]]. Its name in English is [[English alphabet#Letter names|''a'']] (pronounced ), plural [[English alphabet#Letter names|''aes'']]. It is similar in shape to the [[Greek_alphabet#History|Ancient Greek letter]] [[alpha]], from which it derives. The [[Letter case|uppercase]] version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. The lowercase version can be written in two forms: the double-storey '''a''' and single-storey '''ɑ'''. The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in [[italic type]]. In the English grammar, \"[[English articles|a]]\", and its variant \"[[English articles#Indefinite article|an]]\", are [[Article (grammar)#Indefinite article|indefinite articles]].", "id": "290", "title": "A", "categories": ["ISO basic Latin letters", "Vowel letters"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "The earliest certain ancestor of \"A\" is [[aleph]] (also written 'aleph), the first letter of the [[Phoenician alphabet]], which consisted entirely of [[consonant]] (for that reason, it is also called an [[abjad]] to distinguish it from a true [[alphabet]]). In turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a [[pictogram]] of an ox head in [[proto-Sinaitic script]] influenced by [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], styled as a triangular head with two horns extended. When the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] adopted the alphabet, they had no use for a letter to represent the [[glottal stop]]—the consonant sound that the letter denoted in [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] and other [[Semitic languages]], and that was the first [[phoneme]] of the Phoenician pronunciation of the letter—so they used their version of the sign to represent the vowel , and called it by the similar name of [[alpha]]. In the earliest Greek inscriptions after the [[Greek Dark Ages]], dating to the 8th century BC, the letter rests upon its side, but in the [[Greek alphabet]] of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set. The [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the [[Italian Peninsula]] and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the [[Old Italic script|Etruscan alphabet]] to write the [[Latin|Latin language]], and the resulting letter was preserved in the [[Latin script|Latin alphabet]] that would come to be used to write many languages, including English.", "id": "290", "title": "A", "categories": ["ISO basic Latin letters", "Vowel letters"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History", "Typographic variants"], "text": "During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter \"A\". First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other \"permanent\" media. There was also a [[cursive]] style used for everyday or utilitarian writing, which was done on more perishable surfaces. Due to the \"perishable\" nature of these surfaces, there are not as many examples of this style as there are of the monumental, but there are still many surviving examples of different types of cursive, such as [[letter case|majuscule]] cursive, [[letter case|minuscule]] cursive, and semicursive minuscule. Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles. The known variants include the early [[Uncial script#Half-uncial|semi-uncial]], the uncial, and the later semi-uncial. At the end of the [[Roman Empire]] (5th century AD), several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe. Among these were the semicursive minuscule of [[Italy]], the [[Merovingian script]] in France, the [[Visigothic script]] in Spain, and the [[Insular script|Insular]] or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule of Great Britain. By the 9th century, the [[Carolingian minuscule|Caroline script]], which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before the advent of the printing press. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms. 15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These variants, the ''Italic'' and ''Roman'' forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version. The Italic form, also called ''script a,'' is used in most current [[handwriting]] and consists of a circle and vertical stroke. This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter [[tau]] in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers. The Roman form is used in most printed material; it consists of a small loop with an arc over it (\"a\"). Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form. In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the [[serif]] that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form. Graphic designers refer to the ''Italic'' and ''Roman'' forms as \"single decker a\" and \"double decker a\" respectively. [[Italic type]] is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest (set in Roman type). There are some other cases aside from italic type where ''script a'' (\"ɑ\"), also called [[Latin alpha]], is used in contrast with Latin \"a\" (such as in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]).", "id": "290", "title": "A", "categories": ["ISO basic Latin letters", "Vowel letters"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Use in writing systems", "English"], "text": "In modern [[English orthography]], the letter represents at least seven different vowel sounds: (-) the [[near-open front unrounded vowel]] as in ''pad''; (-) the [[open back unrounded vowel]] as in ''father'', which is closer to its original Latin and Greek sound; (-) the [[diphthong]] as in ''ace'' and ''major'' (usually when is followed by one, or occasionally two, consonants and then another vowel letter) – this results from [[Middle English lengthening]] followed by the [[Great Vowel Shift]]; (-) the modified form of the above sound that occurs [[English-language vowel changes before historic /r/|before ]], as in ''square'' and ''Mary''; (-) the rounded vowel of ''water''; (-) the shorter rounded vowel (not present in [[General American]]) in ''was'' and ''what''; (-) a [[schwa]], in many unstressed syllables, as in ''about'', ''comma'', ''solar''. The double sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as ''Aaron'' and ''[[aardvark]]''. However, occurs in [[List of Latin-script digraphs|many common digraphs]], all with their own sound or sounds, particularly , , , , and . is the third-most-commonly used letter in English (after and ), and the second most common in Spanish and French. In one study, on average, about 3.68% of letters used in English texts tend to be , while the number is 6.22% in Spanish and 3.95% in French.", "id": "290", "title": "A", "categories": ["ISO basic Latin letters", "Vowel letters"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Use in writing systems", "Other languages"], "text": "In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, denotes an open unrounded vowel, such as , , or . An exception is [[Saanich dialect|Saanich]], in which (and the glyph [[Á]]) stands for a [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]] .", "id": "290", "title": "A", "categories": ["ISO basic Latin letters", "Vowel letters"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Use in writing systems", "Other systems"], "text": "In phonetic and phonemic notation: (-) in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], is used for the [[open front unrounded vowel]], is used for the [[open central unrounded vowel]], and is used for the [[open back unrounded vowel]]. (-) in [[X-SAMPA]], is used for the [[open front unrounded vowel]] and is used for the [[open back unrounded vowel]].", "id": "290", "title": "A", "categories": ["ISO basic Latin letters", "Vowel letters"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Other uses"], "text": "In [[algebra]], the letter ''a'' along with various other letters of the alphabet is often used to denote a [[Variable (mathematics)|variable]], with various conventional meanings in different areas of mathematics. Moreover in 1637, René Descartes \"invented the convention of representing unknowns in equations by x, y, and z, and knowns by a, b, and c\", and this convention is still often followed, especially in elementary algebra. In [[geometry]], capital A, B, C etc. are used to denote [[Line segment|segment]], [[line (geometry)|line]], [[Line (geometry)#Ray|rays]], etc. A capital A is also typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a [[triangle]], the lowercase a representing the side opposite angle A. \"A\" is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status: A-, A or A+, the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for students' schoolwork; \"A grade\" for clean restaurants; [[A-list]] celebrities, etc. Such associations can have a [[motivation|motivating]] effect, as exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance, when compared with other letters. \"A\" is used as a prefix on some words, such as [[asymmetry]], to mean \"not\" or \"without\" (from Greek). In English grammar, \"a\", and its variant \"an\", is an [[Article (grammar)#Indefinite article|indefinite article]], used to introduce noun phrases. Finally, the letter A is used to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe, or a small cup size in a [[brassiere]].", "id": "290", "title": "A", "categories": ["ISO basic Latin letters", "Vowel letters"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Related characters", "Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet"], "text": "(-) Æ æ : [[Æ|Latin ''AE'']] ligature (-) A with [[diacritic]]: [[Å|Å å]] [[Ǻ|Ǻ ǻ]] [[Ring (diacritic)|Ḁ ḁ]] [[ẚ]] [[Ă|Ă ă]] [[Ặ|Ặ ặ]] [[Ắ|Ắ ắ]] [[Ằ|Ằ ằ]] [[Ẳ|Ẳ ẳ]] [[Ẵ|Ẵ ẵ]] [[Ȃ|Ȃ ȃ]] [[Â|Â â]] [[Ậ|Ậ ậ]] [[Ấ|Ấ ấ]] [[Ầ|Ầ ầ]] [[Ẫ|Ẫ ẫ]] [[Ẩ|Ẩ ẩ]] [[Ả|Ả ả]] [[Caron|Ǎ ǎ]] [[Bar (diacritic)|Ⱥ ⱥ]] [[Dot (diacritic)|Ȧ ȧ]] [[Ǡ|Ǡ ǡ]] [[Dot (diacritic)|Ạ ạ]] [[Ä|Ä ä]] [[Ǟ|Ǟ ǟ]] [[À|À à]] [[Ȁ|Ȁ ȁ]] [[Á|Á á]] [[Ā|Ā ā]] Ā̀ ā̀ [[Ã|Ã ã]] [[Ą|Ą ą]] Ą́ ą́ Ą̃ ą̃ A̲ a̲ [[ᶏ]] (-) [[Phonetic transcription#Alphabetic|Phonetic alphabet]] symbols related to A (the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] only uses lowercase, but uppercase forms are used in some other writing systems): (-) Ɑ ɑ : [[Latin alpha|Latin letter alpha / script A]], which represents an [[open back unrounded vowel]] in the IPA (-) ᶐ : Latin small letter alpha with retroflex hook (-) Ɐ ɐ : [[Turned A]], which represents a [[near-open central vowel]] in the IPA (-) Λ ʌ : [[Turned V]] (also called a wedge, a caret, or a hat), which represents an [[open-mid back unrounded vowel]] in the IPA (-) Ɒ ɒ : Turned alpha / script A, which represents an [[open back rounded vowel]] in the IPA (-) ᶛ : Modifier letter small turned alpha (-) ᴀ : Small capital A, an [[Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|obsolete or non-standard symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet]] used to represent various sounds (mainly open vowels) (-) ᵄ : Modifier letters are used in the [[Uralic Phonetic Alphabet]] (UPA) (sometimes encoded with [[Unicode subscripts and superscripts]]) (-) : Subscript small a is used in [[Indo-European studies]] (-) ꬱ : Small letter a reversed-schwa is used in the [[Teuthonista]] phonetic transcription system (-) Ꞻ ꞻ : Glottal A, used in the transliteration of [[Ugaritic]]", "id": "290", "title": "A", "categories": ["ISO basic Latin letters", "Vowel letters"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Related characters", "Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations"], "text": "(-) ª : an [[ordinal indicator]] (-) Å : [[Ångström]] sign (-) ∀ : a turned capital letter A, used in [[predicate logic]] to specify [[universal quantification]] (\"for all\") (-) @ : [[At sign]] (-) ₳ : [[Argentine austral]]", "id": "290", "title": "A", "categories": ["ISO basic Latin letters", "Vowel letters"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Related characters", "Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets"], "text": "(-) 𐤀 : [[Phoenician alphabet|Semitic]] letter [[Aleph]], from which the following symbols originally derive (-) Α α : [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] letter [[Alpha]], from which the following letters derive (-) А а : [[Cyrillic]] letter [[A (Cyrillic)|A]] (-) : [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]] letter Alpha (-) 𐌀 : [[Old Italic script|Old Italic]] A, which is the ancestor of modern Latin A (-) : [[Runes|Runic]] letter [[Ansuz (rune)|ansuz]], which probably derives from old Italic A (-) : [[Gothic alphabet|Gothic]] letter aza/asks (-) Ա ա : [[Armenian alphabet|Armenian letter]] [[Ayb (letter)|Ayb]]", "id": "290", "title": "A", "categories": ["ISO basic Latin letters", "Vowel letters"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Alabama''' () is a state in the [[Southeastern United States|Southeastern]] region of the [[United States]], bordered by [[Tennessee]] to the north; [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] to the east; [[Florida]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]] to the south; and [[Mississippi]] to the west. Alabama is the [[List of U.S. states and territories by area|30th largest by area]] and the [[List of U.S. states and territories by population|24th-most populous]] of the [[List of U.S. states|U.S. states]]. With a total of of [[inland waterway]], Alabama has among the most of any state. Alabama is nicknamed the ''[[Northern flicker|Yellowhammer]] State'', after the [[List of U.S. state birds|state bird]]. Alabama is also known as the \"Heart of [[Dixie]]\" and the \"Cotton State\". The [[List of U.S. state trees|state tree]] is the [[longleaf pine]], and the [[List of U.S. state flowers|state flower]] is the [[camellia]]. Alabama's capital is [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. The largest city by population is [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], which has long been the most industrialized city; the largest city is [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]]. The oldest city is [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], founded by French [[colonists]] in 1702 as the capital of [[Louisiana (New France)|French Louisiana]]. [[Birmingham metropolitan area, Alabama|Greater Birmingham]] is Alabama's largest urban economy, its most populous urban area, and its economic center. The state's geography is diverse, with the north dominated by the mountainous [[Tennessee Valley]] and the south by [[Mobile Bay]], a historically significant port. Politically, as part of the [[Deep South]], Alabama is now a predominantly conservative state, and it is known for its [[Southern culture]]. Today, [[American football]], particularly at the college level at schools like the [[University of Alabama]], [[Auburn University]], [[Alabama A&M University]], [[Alabama State University]] and [[Jacksonville State University]] is a major part of the state's culture. Originally home to many native tribes, present-day Alabama was a Spanish territory beginning in the sixteenth century until the French acquired it in the early eighteenth century, founding Mobile in 1702. The British won the territory in 1763 until losing it in the American Revolutionary War. Spain held Mobile as part of [[Spanish West Florida]] until 1813; Spain ceded West Florida to the US in 1819. In December 1819, Alabama was recognized as a state. During the antebellum period, Alabama was a major cotton producer and widely used African-American slaves on its plantations. In 1861, the state seceded from the United States to become part of the [[Confederate States of America]], with Montgomery acting as its first capital, and rejoined the Union in 1868.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "From the [[American Civil War]] until [[World War II]], Alabama, like many states in the [[southern U.S.]], suffered economic hardship, in part because of its continued dependence on agriculture. Similar to other former slave states, Alabamian legislators employed [[Jim Crow laws]] to disenfranchise and otherwise discriminate against [[African Americans]] from the end of the [[Reconstruction Era]] up until at least the 1970s. Despite the growth of major industries and urban centers, [[White American|white]] rural interests dominated the state legislature from 1901 to the 1960s. During this time, urban interests and African Americans were markedly under-represented. High-profile events such as the [[Selma to Montgomery march]] made the state a major focal point of the [[civil rights movement]] in the 1950s and 1960s. Following World War II, Alabama grew as the state's economy changed from one primarily based on [[agriculture]] to one with diversified interests. The state's economy in the 21st century is based on management, automotive, finance, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, and technology.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The European-American naming of the [[Alabama River]] and state was derived from the [[Alabama people]], a [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean-speaking tribe]] whose members lived just below the [[confluence]] of the [[Coosa River|Coosa]] and [[Tallapoosa River|Tallapoosa]] rivers on the upper reaches of the river. In the [[Alabama language]], the word for a person of Alabama lineage is ''Albaamo'' (or variously ''Albaama'' or ''Albàamo'' in different dialects; the plural form is ''Albaamaha''). The suggestion that \"Alabama\" was borrowed from the [[Choctaw language]] is unlikely. The word's spelling varies significantly among historical sources. The first usage appears in three accounts of the [[Hernando de Soto]] expedition of 1540: [[Garcilaso de la Vega (chronicler)|Garcilaso de la Vega]] used ''Alibamo'', while the Knight of Elvas and Rodrigo Ranjel wrote ''Alibamu'' and ''Limamu'', respectively, in [[transliteration]] of the term. As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the ''Alibamon'', with French maps identifying the river as ''Rivière des Alibamons''. Other spellings of the name have included ''Alibamu'', ''Alabamo'', ''Albama'', ''Alebamon'', ''Alibama'', ''Alibamou'', ''Alabamu'', ''Allibamou''. Sources disagree on the word's meaning. Some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw ''alba'' (meaning \"plants\" or \"weeds\") and ''amo'' (meaning \"to cut\", \"to trim\", or \"to gather\"). The meaning may have been \"clearers of the thicket\" or \"herb gatherers\", referring to clearing land for cultivation or collecting medicinal plants. The state has numerous [[List of place names in Alabama of Native American origin|place names of Native American origin]]. However, there are no correspondingly similar words in the Alabama language. An 1842 article in the ''Jacksonville Republican'' proposed it meant \"Here We Rest\". This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of [[Alexander Beaufort Meek]]. Experts in the [[Muskogean languages]] have not found any evidence to support such a translation.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Pre-European settlement"], "text": "[[Indigenous peoples]] of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization. Trade with the northeastern tribes by the [[Ohio River]] began during the Burial Mound Period (1000BCE700CE) and continued until [[European colonization of the Americas|European contact]]. The agrarian [[Mississippian culture]] covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 CE, with one of its major centers built at what is now the [[Moundville Archaeological Site]] in [[Moundville, Alabama]]. This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after [[Cahokia]] in present-day [[Illinois]], which was the center of the culture. Analysis of [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] from [[archaeological]] excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars' formulating the characteristics of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] (SECC). Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no direct links to [[Mesoamerica]] culture, but developed independently. The Ceremonial Complex represents a major component of the religion of the Mississippian peoples; it is one of the primary means by which their religion is understood. Among the historical tribes of Native American people living in present-day Alabama at the time of European contact were the [[Cherokee]], an [[Iroquoian language]] people; and the [[Muskogean]]-speaking [[Alabama (people)|Alabama]] (''Alibamu''), [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Creek people|Creek]], and [[Koasati]]. While part of the same large language family, the Muskogee tribes developed distinct cultures and languages.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["History", "European settlement"], "text": "The Spanish were the first Europeans to reach Alabama during their exploration of North America in the 16th century. The expedition of [[Hernando de Soto]] passed through [[Mabila]] and other parts of the state in 1540. More than 160 years later, the French founded the region's first European settlement at [[Old Mobile Site|Old Mobile]] in 1702. The city was moved to the current site of [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] in 1711. This area was claimed by the French from 1702 to 1763 as part of [[La Louisiane]]. After the French lost to the British in the [[Seven Years' War]], it became part of British [[West Florida]] from 1763 to 1783. After the United States victory in the [[American Revolutionary War]], the territory was divided between the United States and Spain. The latter retained control of this western territory from 1783 until the surrender of the Spanish garrison at Mobile to U.S. forces on April 13, 1813. Thomas Bassett, a [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|loyalist]] to the British monarchy during the Revolutionary era, was one of the earliest white settlers in the state outside Mobile. He settled in the [[Tombigbee District]] during the early 1770s. The district's boundaries were roughly limited to the area within a few miles of the [[Tombigbee River]] and included portions of what is today southern [[Clarke County, Alabama|Clarke County]], northernmost [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile County]], and most of [[Washington County, Alabama|Washington County]]. What is now the counties of [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin]] and [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile]] became part of [[Spanish West Florida]] in 1783, part of the independent [[Republic of West Florida]] in 1810, and was finally added to the [[Mississippi Territory]] in 1812. Most of what is now the northern two-thirds of Alabama was known as the [[Yazoo lands]] beginning during the British colonial period. It was claimed by the [[Province of Georgia]] from 1767 onwards. Following the Revolutionary War, it remained a part of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], although heavily disputed. With the exception of the area around Mobile and the Yazoo lands, what is now the lower one-third of Alabama was made part of the Mississippi Territory when it was organized in 1798. The Yazoo lands were added to the territory in 1804, following the [[Yazoo land scandal]]. Spain kept a claim on its former Spanish West Florida territory in what would become the coastal counties until the [[Adams–Onís Treaty]] officially ceded it to the United States in 1819.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Early 19th century"], "text": "Before [[Mississippi]]'s admission to statehood on December 10, 1817, the more sparsely settled eastern half of the territory was separated and named the [[Alabama Territory]]. The [[United States Congress]] created the Alabama Territory on March 3, 1817. [[St. Stephens, Alabama|St. Stephens]], now abandoned, served as the territorial capital from 1817 to 1819. Alabama was admitted as the 22nd state on December 14, 1819, with Congress selecting Huntsville as the site for the first Constitutional Convention. From July5 to August 2, 1819, delegates met to prepare the new state constitution. Huntsville served as temporary capital from 1819 to 1820, when the seat of government moved to [[Cahaba, Alabama|Cahaba]] in [[Dallas County, Alabama|Dallas County]]. Cahaba, now a [[ghost town]], was the first permanent state capital from 1820 to 1825. The [[Alabama Fever]] land rush was underway when the state was admitted to the Union, with settlers and land speculators pouring into the state to take advantage of fertile land suitable for cotton cultivation. Part of the frontier in the 1820s and 1830s, its constitution provided for universal suffrage for white men. Southeastern planters and traders from the [[Upper South]] brought [[History of slavery in Alabama|slaves]] with them as the cotton [[List of plantations in Alabama|plantations in Alabama]] expanded. The economy of the central [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] (named for its dark, productive soil) was built around large cotton [[Plantation complexes in the Southeastern United States|plantations]] whose owners' wealth grew mainly from slave labor. The area also drew many poor, disenfranchised people who became [[subsistence farmers]]. Alabama had an estimated population of under 10,000 people in 1810, but it increased to more than 300,000 people by 1830. Most Native American tribes were [[Indian removal|completely removed]] from the state within a few years of the passage of the [[Indian Removal Act]] by Congress in 1830. From 1826 to 1846, [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] served as Alabama's capital. On January 30, 1846, the Alabama legislature announced it had voted to move the capital city from Tuscaloosa to [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. The first legislative session in the new capital met in December 1847. A new capitol building was erected under the direction of [[Stephen Decatur Button]] of [[Philadelphia]]. The first structure burned down in 1849, but was rebuilt on the same site in 1851. This second capitol building in Montgomery remains to the present day. It was designed by Barachias Holt of [[Exeter, Maine]].", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Early 19th century", "Civil War and Reconstruction"], "text": "By 1860, the population had increased to 964,201 people, of which nearly half, 435,080, were enslaved African Americans, and 2,690 were [[free people of color]]. On January 11, 1861, Alabama declared its [[Secession in the United States|secession]] from the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]. After remaining an independent republic for a few days, it joined the [[Confederate States of America]]. The Confederacy's capital was initially at [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. Alabama was heavily [[Alabama in the American Civil War|involved in the American Civil War]]. Although comparatively few battles were fought in the state, Alabama contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the war effort. A company of cavalry soldiers from Huntsville, Alabama, joined [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]]'s battalion in [[Hopkinsville, Kentucky]]. The company wore new uniforms with yellow trim on the sleeves, collar and coat tails. This led to them being greeted with \"Yellowhammer\", and the name later was applied to all Alabama troops in the Confederate Army. Alabama's slaves were freed by the 13th Amendment in 1865. Alabama was under military rule from the end of the war in May 1865 until its official restoration to the Union in 1868. From 1867 to 1874, with most white citizens barred temporarily from voting and freedmen enfranchised, many African Americans emerged as political leaders in the state. Alabama was represented in Congress during this period by three African-American congressmen: [[Jeremiah Haralson]], [[Benjamin S. Turner]], and [[James T. Rapier]]. Following the war, the state remained chiefly agricultural, with an economy tied to cotton. During [[Reconstruction Era|Reconstruction]], state legislators ratified a [[Constitution of Alabama|new state constitution]] in 1868 which created the state's first public school system and expanded women's rights. Legislators funded numerous public road and railroad projects, although these were plagued with allegations of fraud and [[misappropriation]]. Organized [[insurgent]], resistance groups tried to suppress the freedmen and Republicans. Besides the short-lived original [[Ku Klux Klan]], these included the Pale Faces, [[Knights of the White Camellia]], [[Red Shirts (Southern United States)|Red Shirts]], and the [[White League]]. Reconstruction in Alabama ended in 1874, when the Democrats regained control of the legislature and governor's office through an election dominated by fraud and violence. They wrote another constitution in 1875, and the legislature passed the [[Blaine Amendment]], prohibiting public money from being used to finance religious-affiliated schools. The same year, legislation was approved that called for [[racial segregation|racially segregated]] schools. Railroad passenger cars were segregated in 1891. After disenfranchising most African Americans and many poor whites in the 1901 constitution, the Alabama legislature passed more [[Jim Crow laws]] at the beginning of the 20th century to impose segregation in everyday life.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["History", "20th century"], "text": "The new 1901 [[Constitution of Alabama]] included provisions for [[voter registration]] that effectively [[Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era|disenfranchised]] large portions of the population, including nearly all African Americans and Native Americans, and tens of thousands of poor whites, through making voter registration difficult, requiring a [[Poll tax (United States)|poll tax]] and [[literacy test]]. The 1901 constitution required racial segregation of public schools. By 1903 only 2,980 African Americans were registered in Alabama, although at least 74,000 were [[literate]]. This compared to more than 181,000 African Americans eligible to vote in 1900. The numbers dropped even more in later decades. The state legislature passed additional racial segregation laws related to public facilities into the 1950s: jails were segregated in 1911; hospitals in 1915; toilets, hotels, and restaurants in 1928; and bus stop waiting rooms in 1945. While the planter class had persuaded poor whites to vote for this legislative effort to suppress black voting, the new restrictions resulted in their disenfranchisement as well, due mostly to the imposition of a cumulative poll tax. By 1941, whites constituted a slight majority of those disenfranchised by these laws: 600,000 whites vs. 520,000 African-Americans. Nearly all African Americans had lost the ability to vote. Despite numerous legal challenges which succeeded in overturning certain provisions, the state legislature would create new ones to maintain disenfranchisement. The exclusion of blacks from the political system persisted until after passage of federal civil rights legislation in 1965 to enforce their constitutional rights as citizens. The rural-dominated Alabama legislature consistently underfunded schools and services for the disenfranchised African Americans, but it did not relieve them of paying taxes. Partially as a response to chronic underfunding of education for African Americans in the South, the [[Rosenwald Fund]] began funding the construction of what came to be known as [[Rosenwald School]]. In Alabama these schools were designed and the construction partially financed with Rosenwald funds, which paid one-third of the construction costs. The fund required the local community and state to raise matching funds to pay the rest. Black residents effectively taxed themselves twice, by raising additional monies to supply matching funds for such schools, which were built in many rural areas. They often donated land and labor as well. Beginning in 1913, the first 80 [[Rosenwald Schools]] were built in Alabama for African-American children. A total of 387 schools, seven teachers' houses, and several vocational buildings were completed by 1937 in the state. Several of the [[The Rosenwald School Building Fund and Associated Buildings Multiple Property Submission|surviving school buildings]] in the state are now listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]].", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["History", "20th century"], "text": "Continued racial discrimination and [[lynching]], agricultural depression, and the failure of the cotton crops due to [[boll weevil]] infestation led tens of thousands of African Americans from rural Alabama and other states to seek opportunities in northern and midwestern cities during the early decades of the 20th century as part of the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] out of the South. Reflecting this emigration, the population growth rate in Alabama (see \"historical populations\" table below) dropped by nearly half from 1910 to 1920. At the same time, many rural people migrated to the city of [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] to work in new industrial jobs. Birmingham experienced such rapid growth it was called the \"Magic City\". By 1920, Birmingham was the 36th-largest city in the United States. Heavy industry and mining were the basis of its economy. Its residents were under-represented for decades in the state legislature, which refused to redistrict after each decennial census according to population changes, as it was required by the state constitution. This did not change until the late 1960s following a lawsuit and court order. Industrial development related to the demands of World War II brought a level of prosperity to the state not seen since before the civil war. Rural workers poured into the largest cities in the state for better jobs and a higher standard of living. One example of this massive influx of workers occurred in Mobile. Between 1940 and 1943, more than 89,000 people moved into the city to work for war-related industries. Cotton and other [[cash crop]] faded in importance as the state developed a manufacturing and service base. Despite massive population changes in the state from 1901 to 1961, the rural-dominated legislature refused to reapportion House and Senate seats based on population, as required by the state constitution to follow the results of decennial censuses. They held on to old representation to maintain political and economic power in agricultural areas. One result was that [[Jefferson County, Alabama|Jefferson County]], containing Birmingham's industrial and economic powerhouse, contributed more than one-third of all tax revenue to the state, but did not receive a proportional amount in services. Urban interests were consistently underrepresented in the legislature. A 1960 study noted that because of rural domination, \"a minority of about 25% of the total state population is in majority control of the Alabama legislature.\" In the United States Supreme Court cases of ''[[Baker v. Carr]]'' (1962) and ''[[Reynolds v. Sims]]'' (1964), the court ruled that the principle of \"[[one man, one vote]]\" needed to be the basis of both houses of state legislatures, and that their districts had to be based on population rather than geographic counties. In 1972, for the first time since 1901, the legislature completed the congressional redistricting based on the decennial census. This benefited the urban areas that had developed, as well as all in the population who had been underrepresented for more than sixty years. Other changes were made to implement representative state house and senate districts.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["History", "20th century"], "text": "African Americans continued to press in the 1950s and 1960s to end disenfranchisement and segregation in the state through the [[civil rights movement]], including legal challenges. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' that public schools had to be desegregated, but Alabama was slow to comply. During the 1960s, under Governor [[George Wallace]], Alabama resisted compliance with federal demands for [[desegregation]]. The civil rights movement had notable events in Alabama, including the [[Montgomery bus boycott]] (1955–56), [[Freedom Rides]] in 1961, and 1965 [[Selma to Montgomery marches]]. These contributed to Congressional passage and enactment of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] by the U.S. Congress. Legal segregation ended in the states in 1964, but [[Jim Crow]] customs often continued until specifically challenged in court. According to ''[[The New York Times]]'', by 2017, many of Alabama's African-Americans were living in Alabama's cities such as Birmingham and Montgomery. Also, the [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt region]] across central Alabama \"is home to largely poor counties that are predominantly African-American. These counties include [[Dallas County, Alabama|Dallas]], [[Lowndes County, Alabama|Lowndes]], [[Marengo County, Alabama|Marengo]] and [[Perry County, Alabama|Perry]].\" Alabama has made some changes since the late 20th century and has used new types of voting to increase representation. In the 1980s, an omnibus redistricting case, ''[[Dillard v. Crenshaw County]]'', challenged the [[at-large]] voting for representative seats of 180 Alabama jurisdictions, including counties and school boards. At-large voting had diluted the votes of any minority in a county, as the majority tended to take all seats. Despite African Americans making up a significant minority in the state, they had been unable to elect any representatives in most of the at-large jurisdictions. As part of settlement of this case, five Alabama cities and counties, including [[Chilton County, Alabama|Chilton County]], adopted a system of [[proportional representation|cumulative voting]] for election of representatives in multi-seat jurisdictions. This has resulted in more proportional representation for voters. In another form of proportional representation, 23 jurisdictions use limited voting, as in [[Conecuh County, Alabama|Conecuh County]]. In 1982, limited voting was first tested in [[Conecuh County, Alabama|Conecuh County]]. Together use of these systems has increased the number of African Americans and women being elected to local offices, resulting in governments that are more representative of their citizens. Beginning in the 1960s, the state's economy shifted away from its traditional lumber, steel, and textile industries because of increased foreign competition. Steel jobs, for instance, declined from 46,314 in 1950 to 14,185 in 2011. However, the state, particularly Huntsville, benefited from the opening of the [[George C. Marshall Space Flight Center]] in 1960, a major facility in the development of the Saturn rocket program and the space shuttle. Technology and manufacturing industries, such as automobile assembly, replaced some the state's older industries in the late twentieth century, but the state's economy and growth lagged behind other states in the area, such as Georgia and Florida.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["History", "21st century"], "text": "In 2001, Alabama Supreme Court chief justice [[Roy Moore]] installed a statue of the [[Ten Commandments]] in the capitol in Montgomery. In 2002, the 11th US Circuit Court ordered the statue removed, but Moore refused to follow the court order, which led to protests around the capitol in favor of keeping the monument. The monument was removed in August 2003. Natural disasters have plagued the state in the twenty-first century. In 2004, [[Hurricane Ivan]], a category 3 storm upon landfall, struck the state and caused over $18 billion of damage. It was the among the most destructive storms to strike the state in its modern history. A [[2011 Super Outbreak|super outbreak]] of 62 tornadoes hit the state in April 2011 and killed 238 people, devastating many communities.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Geography"], "text": "Alabama is the thirtieth-largest state in the United States with of total area: 3.2% of the area is water, making Alabama 23rd in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second-largest inland waterway system in the United States. About three-fifths of the land area is a gentle plain with a general descent towards the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. The [[North Alabama]] region is mostly mountainous, with the [[Tennessee River]] cutting a large valley and creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes. Alabama is bordered by the states of [[Tennessee]] to the north, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] to the east, Florida to the south, and [[Mississippi]] to the west. Alabama has coastline at the Gulf of Mexico, in the extreme southern edge of the state. The state ranges in elevation from sea level at [[Mobile Bay]] to nearly half a mile in the [[Sand Mountain (Alabama)|northeast]], to wit [[Mount Cheaha]] at . Alabama's land consists of of forest or 67% of total land area. Suburban [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin County]], along the Gulf Coast, is the largest county in the state in both land area and water area. Areas in Alabama administered by the [[National Park Service]] include [[Horseshoe Bend National Military Park]] near [[Alexander City, Alabama|Alexander City]]; [[Little River Canyon National Preserve]] near [[Fort Payne, Alabama|Fort Payne]]; [[Russell Cave National Monument]] in [[Bridgeport, Alabama|Bridgeport]]; [[Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site]] in [[Tuskegee, Alabama|Tuskegee]]; and [[Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site]] near Tuskegee. Additionally, Alabama has four [[United States National Forest|National Forests]]: [[Conecuh National Forest|Conecuh]], [[Talladega National Forest|Talladega]], [[Tuskegee National Forest|Tuskegee]], and [[William B. Bankhead National Forest|William B. Bankhead]]. Alabama also contains the [[Natchez Trace Parkway]], the [[Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail]], and the [[Trail of Tears|Trail of Tears National Historic Trail]]. Notable natural wonders include: the [[Natural Bridge, Alabama|\"Natural Bridge\"]] rock, the longest [[natural bridge]] east of the [[Rocky Mountains|Rockies]], located just south of [[Haleyville, Alabama|Haleyville]]; [[Cathedral Caverns State Park|Cathedral Caverns]] in [[Marshall County, Alabama|Marshall County]], named for its cathedral-like appearance, features one of the largest cave entrances and stalagmites in the world; Ecor Rouge in [[Fairhope, Alabama|Fairhope]], the highest coastline point between [[Maine]] and Mexico; [[DeSoto Caverns]] in [[Childersburg, Alabama|Childersburg]], the first officially recorded cave in the United States; [[Noccalula Falls Park|Noccalula Falls]] in [[Gadsden, Alabama|Gadsden]] features a 90-foot waterfall; [[Dismals Canyon]] near [[Phil Campbell, Alabama|Phil Campbell]], home to two waterfalls, six natural bridges and allegedly served as a hideout for legendary outlaw Jesse James; Stephens Gap Cave in [[Jackson County, Alabama|Jackson County]] boasts a 143-foot pit, two waterfalls and is one of the most photographed wild cave scenes in America; [[Little River Canyon National Preserve|Little River Canyon]] near [[Fort Payne, Alabama|Fort Payne]], one of the nation's longest mountaintop rivers; [[Rickwood Caverns State Park|Rickwood Caverns]] near [[Warrior, Alabama|Warrior]] features an underground pool, blind cave fish and 260-million-year-old limestone formations; and the [[The Walls of Jericho (canyon)|Walls of Jericho]] canyon on the Alabama-[[Tennessee]] state line.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Geography"], "text": "A -wide meteorite impact crater is located in [[Elmore County, Alabama|Elmore County]], just north of Montgomery. This is the [[Wetumpka crater]], the site of \"Alabama's greatest natural disaster\". A -wide meteorite hit the area about 80 million years ago. The hills just east of downtown [[Wetumpka]] showcase the eroded remains of the impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme (\"star-wound\") because of the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock that can be found beneath the surface. In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as the 157th recognized impact crater on Earth.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Climate"], "text": "The state is classified as [[humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical]] (''Cfa'') under the [[Humid temperate climate|Koppen Climate Classification]]. The average annual temperature is 64°F (18°C). Temperatures tend to be warmer in the southern part of the state with its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, while the northern parts of the state, especially in the [[Appalachian Mountains]] in the northeast, tend to be slightly cooler. Generally, Alabama has very hot summers and mild winters with copious precipitation throughout the year. Alabama receives an average of of rainfall annually and enjoys a lengthy growing season of up to 300 days in the southern part of the state. Summers in Alabama are among the hottest in the U.S., with high temperatures averaging over throughout the summer in some parts of the state. Alabama is also prone to [[tropical storm]] and even [[hurricane]]. Areas of the state far away from the Gulf are not immune to the effects of the storms, which often dump tremendous amounts of rain as they move inland and weaken. South Alabama reports many [[thunderstorm]]. The Gulf Coast, around Mobile Bay, averages between 70 and 80 days per year with thunder reported. This activity decreases somewhat further north in the state, but even the far north of the state reports thunder on about 60 days per year. Occasionally, thunderstorms are severe with frequent [[lightning]] and large [[hail]]; the central and northern parts of the state are most vulnerable to this type of storm. Alabama ranks ninth in the number of deaths from lightning and tenth in the number of deaths from lightning strikes per capita. Alabama, along with [[Oklahoma]] and [[Iowa]], has the most confirmed [[Fujita scale|F5]] and [[Enhanced Fujita scale|EF5]] tornadoes of any state, according to statistics from the [[National Climatic Data Center]] for the period January 1, 1950, to June 2013. Several long-tracked F5/EF5 tornadoes have contributed to Alabama reporting more tornado fatalities since 1950 than any other state. The state was affected by the [[1974 Super Outbreak]] and was devastated tremendously by the [[2011 Super Outbreak]]. The 2011 Super Outbreak produced a record amount of tornadoes in the state. The tally reached 62. The peak season for tornadoes varies from the northern to southern parts of the state. Alabama is one of the few places in the world that has a secondary tornado season in November and December besides the typically severe spring. The northern part—along the Tennessee River Valley—is most vulnerable. The area of Alabama and Mississippi most affected by tornadoes is sometimes referred to as [[Dixie Alley]], as distinct from the [[Tornado Alley]] of the Southern Plains.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Climate"], "text": "Winters are generally mild in Alabama, as they are throughout most of the Southeastern United States, with average January low temperatures around in Mobile and around in Birmingham. Although snow is a rare event in much of Alabama, areas of the state north of Montgomery may receive a dusting of snow a few times every winter, with an occasional moderately heavy snowfall every few years. Historic snowfall events include [[New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm]] and the [[1993 Storm of the Century]]. The annual average snowfall for the Birmingham area is per year. In the southern Gulf coast, snowfall is less frequent, sometimes going several years without any snowfall. Alabama's highest temperature of was recorded on September 5, 1925, in the unincorporated community of [[Centerville, Alabama|Centerville]]. The record low of occurred on January 30, 1966, in [[New Market, Alabama|New Market]].", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Flora and fauna"], "text": "Alabama is home to a diverse array of [[flora]] and [[fauna]] in habitats that range from the [[Tennessee Valley]], [[Appalachian Plateau]], and [[Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians]] of the north to the [[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont]], [[Canebrake (region of Alabama)|Canebrake]], and [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] of the central region to the [[Gulf Coastal Plain]] and beaches along the [[Gulf of Mexico]] in the south. The state is usually ranked among the top in nation for its range of overall [[biodiversity]]. Alabama is in the subtropical coniferous forest biome and once boasted huge expanses of pine forest, which still form the largest proportion of forests in the state. It currently ranks fifth in the nation for the diversity of its flora. It is home to nearly 4,000 [[pteridophyte]] and [[spermatophyte]] plant species. [[Indigenous (ecology)|Indigenous]] animal species in the state include 62 [[mammal]] [[species]], 93 reptile species, 73 [[amphibian]] species, roughly 307 native [[freshwater fish]] species, and 420 bird species that spend at least part of their year within the state. Invertebrates include 97 [[crayfish]] species and 383 [[mollusk]] species. 113 of these mollusk species have never been collected outside the state.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics"], "text": "The [[2020 United States Census]] the population of Alabama was 5,024,279 on April 1, 2020, which represents an increase of 244,543 or 5.12%, since the [[2010 United States Census|2010 Census]]. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 121,054 (502,457 births minus 381,403 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 104,991 into the state. [[Immigration to the United States|Immigration]] from outside the U.S. resulted in a net increase of 31,180 people, and migration within the country produced a net gain of 73,811 people. The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were undocumented (24,000). The [[center of population]] of Alabama is located in [[Chilton County, Alabama|Chilton County]], outside the town of [[Jemison, Alabama|Jemison]].", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Ancestry"], "text": "According to the [[2010 United States Census|2010 Census]], Alabama had a population of 4,779,736. The racial composition of the state was 68.5% [[White American|White]] (67% [[Non-Hispanic White]] and 1.5% [[Hispanic White]]), 26.2% [[African American|Black or African American]], 3.9% [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic or Latino]] of any race, 1.1% Asian, 0.6% [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian and Alaska Native]], 0.1% [[Native Hawaiians|Native Hawaiian]] and Other [[Pacific Islander]], 2% from \"Some Other Race\", and 1.5% from \"Two or More Races\". In 2011, 46.6% of Alabama's population younger than age1 were minorities. The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama are: American (13.4%), [[Irish American|Irish]] (10.5%), [[English American|English]] (10.2%), [[German Americans|German]] (7.9%), and [[Scots-Irish American|Scots-Irish]] (2.5%) The Scots-Irish were the largest non-English immigrant group from the British Isles before the American Revolution, and many settled in the South, later moving into the Deep South as it was developed. In 1984, under the Davis–Strong Act, the state legislature established the [[Alabama Indian Affairs Commission]]. Native American groups within the state had increasingly been demanding recognition as ethnic groups and seeking an end to discrimination. Given the long history of slavery and associated racial segregation, the Native American peoples, who have sometimes been of mixed race, have insisted on having their cultural identification respected. In the past, their self-identification was often overlooked as the state tried to impose a binary breakdown of society into white and black. The state has [[State recognized tribes in the United States|officially recognized]] nine American Indian tribes in the state, descended mostly from the [[Five Civilized Tribes]] of the American Southeast. These are the following. (-) [[Poarch Band of Creek Indians]] (who also have federal recognition) (-) [[MOWA Band of Choctaw Indians]] (-) Star Clan of [[Muscogee Creek people|Muscogee Creeks]] (-) [[Echota Cherokee Tribe of Alabama]] (-) [[Cherokee Tribe of Northeast Alabama]] (-) Cher-O-Creek Intra Tribal Indians (-) ''Ma-Chis'' Lower Creek Indian Tribe (-) ''Piqua'' [[Shawnee]] Tribe (-) ''Ani-Yun-Wiya'' Nation The state government has promoted recognition of Native American contributions to the state, including the designation in 2000 for Columbus Day to be jointly celebrated as American Indian Heritage Day.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Language"], "text": "Most Alabama residents (95.1% of those five and older) spoke only English at home in 2010, a minor decrease from 96.1% in 2000. Alabama English is predominantly [[Southern American English|Southern]], and is related to South Midland speech which was taken across the border from [[Tennessee]]. In the major Southern speech region, there is the decreasing loss of the final ''r'', for example the \"boyd\" pronunciation of \"bird\". In the northern third of the state, there is a South Midland \"arm\" and \"barb\" rhyming with \"form\" and \"orb\". Unique words in Alabama English include: redworm ([[earthworm]]), peckerwood ([[woodpecker]]), snake doctor and snake feeder ([[dragonfly]]), tow sack ([[Gunny sack|burlap bag]]), plum peach ([[Clingstone peach|clingstone]]), French harp (harmonica), and dog irons ([[andiron]]).", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Religion"], "text": "In the 2008 [[American Religious Identification Survey]], 86% of Alabama respondents reported their religion as Christian, including 6% Catholic, with 11% as having no religion. The composition of other traditions is 0.5% Mormon, 0.5% Jewish, 0.5% Muslim, 0.5% Buddhist, and 0.5% Hindu. Alabama is located in the middle of the [[Bible Belt]], a region of numerous Protestant Christians. Alabama has been identified as one of the most religious states in the United States, with about 58% of the population attending church regularly. A majority of people in the state identify as Evangelical Protestant. , the three largest denominational groups in Alabama are the [[Southern Baptist Convention]], [[The United Methodist Church]], and [[Nondenominational Christianity|non-denominational]] Evangelical Protestant. In Alabama, the [[Southern Baptist Convention]] has the highest number of adherents with 1,380,121; this is followed by the [[United Methodist Church]] with 327,734 adherents, non-denominational Evangelical Protestant with 220,938 adherents, and the Catholic Church with 150,647 adherents. Many Baptist and Methodist congregations became established in the [[Great Awakening]] of the early 19th century, when preachers proselytized across the South. The [[Assemblies of God]] had almost 60,000 members, the [[Churches of Christ]] had nearly 120,000 members. The [[Presbyterian church]], strongly associated with Scots-Irish immigrants of the 18th century and their descendants, had a combined membership around 75,000 ([[Presbyterian Church in America|PCA]]—28,009 members in 108 congregations, [[PC(USA)]]—26,247 members in 147 congregations, the [[Cumberland Presbyterian Church]]—6,000 members in 59 congregations, the [[Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America]]—5,000 members and fifty congregations plus the [[Edgewater Presbyterian Church|EPC]] and Associate Reformed Presbyterians with 230 members and nine congregations). In a 2007 survey, nearly 70% of respondents could name all four of the Christian [[Canonical Gospels|Gospels]]. Of those who indicated a religious preference, 59% said they possessed a \"full understanding\" of their faith and needed no further learning. In a 2007 poll, 92% of Alabamians reported having at least some confidence in churches in the state. Although in much smaller numbers, many other religious faiths are represented in the state as well, including Judaism, [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Sikhism]], the [[Baháʼí Faith]], and [[Unitarian Universalism]]. Jews have been present in what is now Alabama since 1763, during the colonial era of Mobile, when [[Sephardic Jews]] immigrated from London. The oldest Jewish congregation in the state is [[Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim (Mobile, Alabama)|Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim]] in Mobile. It was formally recognized by the state legislature on January 25, 1844. Later immigrants in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries tended to be [[Ashkenazi Jews]] from eastern Europe. Jewish denominations in the state include two [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]], four [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]], ten [[Reform Judaism|Reform]], and one [[Humanistic Judaism|Humanistic]] synagogue. Muslims have been increasing in Alabama, with 31 mosques built by 2011, many by African-American converts. Several Hindu temples and cultural centers in the state have been founded by Indian immigrants and their descendants, the best-known being the Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], the Hindu Temple and Cultural Center of Birmingham in [[Pelham, Alabama|Pelham]], the Hindu Cultural Center of North Alabama in [[Capshaw, Alabama|Capshaw]], and the Hindu Mandir and Cultural Center in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]].", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Religion"], "text": "There are six [[Dharma centre|Dharma centers]] and organizations for [[Theravada]] [[Buddhists]]. Most monastic Buddhist temples are concentrated in southern Mobile County, near [[Bayou La Batre, Alabama|Bayou La Batre]]. This area has attracted an [[Indochina refugee crisis|influx of refugees from Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam]] during the 1970s and thereafter. The four temples within a ten-mile radius of Bayou La Batre, include Chua Chanh Giac, Wat Buddharaksa, and Wat Lao Phoutthavihan. The first community of adherents of the [[Baháʼí Faith]] in Alabama was founded in 1896 by Paul K. Dealy, who moved from Chicago to [[Fairhope]]. Baháʼí centers in Alabama exist in [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]], and [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]].", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Health"], "text": "In 2018 life expectancy in Alabama was 75.1 years, below the national average of 78.7 years and is the third lowest life expectancy in the country. Factors that can cause lower life expectancy are maternal mortality, suicide, and guns. A [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] study in 2008 showed that obesity in Alabama is a problem, with most counties having more than 29% of adults obese, except for ten which had a rate between 26% and 29%. Residents of the state, along with those in five other states, were least likely in the nation to be physically active during leisure time. Alabama, and the southeastern U.S. in general, has one of the highest incidences of adult onset [[diabetes type II|diabetes]] in the country, exceeding 10% of adults. On May 14, 2019, Alabama passed the [[Human Life Protection Act]], banning abortion at any stage of pregnancy unless there is a \"serious health risk\", with no exceptions for rape and [[incest]]. The law, if enacted, would punish doctors who perform abortions with 10 to 99 years imprisonment and be the most restrictive [[abortion law]] in the country. However, on October 29, 2019, U.S. District Judge [[Myron Herbert Thompson|Myron Thompson]] blocked the law from taking effect.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Economy"], "text": "The state has invested in aerospace, education, health care, banking, and various heavy industries, including automobile manufacturing, mineral extraction, steel production and [[fabrication (metal)|fabrication]]. By 2006, crop and animal production in Alabama was valued at $1.5billion. In contrast to the primarily agricultural economy of the previous century, this was only about one percent of the state's gross domestic product. The number of private farms has declined at a steady rate since the 1960s, as land has been sold to developers, timber companies, and large farming conglomerates. Non-agricultural employment in 2008 was 121,800 in management occupations; 71,750 in business and financial operations; 36,790 in computer-related and mathematical occupation; 44,200 in architecture and engineering; 12,410 in life, physical, and social sciences; 32,260 in community and social services; 12,770 in legal occupations; 116,250 in education, training, and library services; 27,840 in art, design and media occupations; 121,110 in healthcare; 44,750 in fire fighting, law enforcement, and security; 154,040 in food preparation and serving; 76,650 in building and grounds cleaning and maintenance; 53,230 in personal care and services; 244,510 in sales; 338,760 in office and administration support; 20,510 in farming, fishing, and forestry; 120,155 in construction and mining, gas, and oil extraction; 106,280 in installation, maintenance, and repair; 224,110 in production; and 167,160 in transportation and material moving. According to the U.S. [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]], the 2008 total [[gross state product]] was $170billion, or $29,411 per capita. Alabama's 2012 GDP increased 1.2% from the previous year. The single largest increase came in the area of information. In 2010, per capita income for the state was $22,984. The state's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 5.8% in April 2015. This compared to a nationwide seasonally adjusted rate of 5.4%. Alabama has no minimum wage and in February 2016 passed legislation preventing municipalities from setting one. (A Birmingham [[Local ordinance|city ordinance]] would have raised theirs to $10.10.) , Alabama has the sixth highest poverty rate among states in the U.S. In 2017, United Nations Special Rapporteur [[Philip Alston]] toured parts of rural Alabama and observed environmental conditions he said were poorer than anywhere he had seen in the developed world.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Largest employers"], "text": "The five employers that employed the most employees in Alabama in April 2011 were: The next twenty largest employers, , included:", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Agriculture"], "text": "Alabama's agricultural outputs include poultry and [[Egg as food|eggs]], cattle, fish, plant nursery items, [[peanut]], cotton, grains such as [[Corn production in the United States|corn]] and [[sorghum]], vegetables, milk, [[soybean]], and peaches. Although known as \"[[List of U.S. state nicknames|The Cotton State]]\", Alabama ranks between eighth and tenth in [[Cotton production in the United States|national cotton production]], according to various reports, with [[Texas]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Mississippi]] comprising the top three.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Industry"], "text": "Alabama's industrial outputs include iron and steel products (including cast-iron and steel pipe); paper, [[lumber]], and wood products; mining (mostly coal); plastic products; cars and trucks; and [[apparel]]. In addition, Alabama produces [[aerospace]] and [[electronics|electronic]] products, mostly in the [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] area, the location of [[NASA]]'s [[George C. Marshall Space Flight Center]] and the [[United States Army Materiel Command|U.S. Army Materiel Command]], headquartered at [[Redstone Arsenal]]. A great deal of Alabama's economic growth since the 1990s has been due to the state's expanding automotive manufacturing industry. Located in the state are [[Honda Manufacturing of Alabama]], [[Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama]], [[Mercedes-Benz U.S. International]], and [[Toyota Motor Manufacturing Alabama]], as well as their various suppliers. Since 1993, the automobile industry has generated more than 67,800 new jobs in the state. Alabama currently ranks 4th in the nation for vehicle exports. Automakers accounted for approximately a third of the industrial expansion in the state in 2012. The eight models produced at the state's auto factories totaled combined sales of 74,335 vehicles for 2012. The strongest model sales during this period were the [[Hyundai Elantra]] compact car, the [[Mercedes-Benz GL-Class]] sport utility vehicle and the [[Honda Ridgeline]] sport utility truck. Steel producers [[Outokumpu]], [[Nucor]], [[SSAB]], [[ThyssenKrupp]], and [[U.S. Steel]] have facilities in Alabama and employ more than 10,000 people. In May 2007, German steelmaker ThyssenKrupp selected [[Calvert, Alabama|Calvert]] in [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile County]] for a 4.65billion combined [[stainless steel|stainless]] and [[carbon steel]] processing facility. ThyssenKrupp's stainless steel division, Inoxum, including the stainless portion of the Calvert plant, was sold to Finnish stainless steel company Outokumpu in 2012. The remaining portion of the ThyssenKrupp plant had final bids submitted by [[ArcelorMittal]] and [[Nippon Steel]] for $1.6billion in March 2013. [[Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional]] submitted a combined bid for the mill at Calvert, plus a majority stake in the ThyssenKrupp mill in Brazil, for $3.8billion. In July 2013, the plant was sold to ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel. The [[Hunt Refining Company]], a subsidiary of Hunt Consolidated, Inc., is based in Tuscaloosa and operates a refinery there. The company also operates terminals in Mobile, Melvin, and [[Moundville, Alabama|Moundville]]. [[JVC|JVC America, Inc.]] operates an [[optical disc]] replication and packaging plant in Tuscaloosa. The [[Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company]] operates a large plant in [[Gadsden, Alabama|Gadsden]] which employs about 1,400 people. It has been in operation since 1929. Construction of an [[Airbus A320 family]] aircraft assembly plant in Mobile was formally announced by [[Airbus]] CEO [[Fabrice Brégier]] from the Mobile Convention Center on July 2, 2012. The plans include a $600million factory at the [[Brookley Aeroplex]] for the assembly of the A319, A320 and A321 aircraft. Construction began in 2013, with plans for it to become operable by 2015 and produce up to 50 aircraft per year by 2017. The assembly plant is the company's first factory to be built within the United States. It was announced on February 1, 2013, that Airbus had hired Alabama-based [[Hoar Construction]] to oversee construction of the facility.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Tourism and entertainment"], "text": "According to [[Business Insider]], Alabama ranked 14th in most popular states to visit in 2014. An estimated 26 million tourists visited the state in 2017 and spent $14.3 billion, providing directly or indirectly 186,900 jobs in the state, which includes 362,000 International tourists spending $589 million. The state is home to various attractions, natural features, parks and events that attract visitors from around the globe, notably the annual [[Hangout Music Festival]], held on the public beaches of [[Gulf Shores, Alabama|Gulf Shores]]; the [[Alabama Shakespeare Festival]], one of the ten largest [[Shakespeare festival]] in the world; the [[Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail]], a collection of championship caliber golf courses distributed across the state; casinos such as [[Victoryland]]; amusement parks such as [[Alabama Splash Adventure]]; the [[Riverchase Galleria]], one of the largest shopping centers in the southeast; [[Guntersville Lake]], voted the best lake in Alabama by [[Southern Living]] Magazine readers; and the [[Alabama Museum of Natural History]], the oldest museum in the state. Mobile is known for having the oldest organized [[Mardi Gras in Mobile, Alabama|Mardi Gras]] celebration in the United States, beginning in 1703. It was also host to the first formally organized Mardi Gras parade in the United States in 1830, a tradition that continues to this day. Mardi Gras is an official state holiday in [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile]] and [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin]] counties. In 2018, Mobile's [[Mardi Gras in Mobile, Alabama|Mardi Gras parade]] was the state's top event, producing the most tourists with an attendance of 892,811. The top attraction was the [[U.S. Space & Rocket Center]] in Huntsville with an attendance of 849,981, followed by the [[Birmingham Zoo]] with 543,090. Of the parks and natural destinations, Alabama's Gulf Coast topped the list with 6,700,000 visitors. Alabama has historically been a popular region for film shoots due to its diverse landscapes and contrast of environments. Movies filmed in Alabama include: [[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]], [[Get Out]], [[42 (film)|42]], [[Selma (film)|Selma]], [[Big Fish]], [[The Final Destination]], [[Due Date]], [[Need For Speed (film)|Need For Speed]] and many more.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Healthcare"], "text": "[[UAB Hospital]], [[University of South Alabama|USA Health University Hospital]], [[Huntsville Hospital System|Huntsville Hospital]], and Children's Hospital of Alabama are the only [[trauma center|LevelI trauma centers]] in Alabama. UAB is the largest state government employer in Alabama, with a workforce of about 18,000. A 2017 study found that Alabama had the least competitive health insurance market in the country, with [[Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Alabama]] having a market share of 84% followed by [[UnitedHealth Group]] at 7%.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Banking"], "text": "[[Regions Financial Corporation]] and [[BBVA USA]] Bank are the largest banks headquartered in Alabama. Birmingham-based Compass Bancshares was acquired by Spanish-based [[BBVA]] in September 2007 with the headquarters of BBVA USA remaining in Birmingham. In November 2006, Regions Financial acquired [[AmSouth Bancorporation]], which was also headquartered in Birmingham. [[SouthTrust Corporation]], another large bank headquartered in Birmingham, was acquired by [[Wachovia]] in 2004. [[Wells Fargo]] has a regional headquarters, an operations center campus, and a $400million data center in Birmingham. Many smaller banks are also headquartered in the Birmingham area, including [[ServisFirst]] and New South Federal Savings Bank. Birmingham also serves as the headquarters for several large investment management companies, including [[Harbert Management Corporation]].", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Electronics and communications"], "text": "Telecommunications provider [[AT&T Inc.|AT&T]], formerly [[BellSouth]], has a major presence in Alabama with several large offices in Birmingham. Many commercial technology companies are headquartered in Huntsville, such as network access company [[ADTRAN]], computer graphics company [[Intergraph]], and IT infrastructure company [[Avocent]].", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Construction"], "text": "Rust International has grown to include [[Brasfield & Gorrie]], [[BE&K]], [[Hoar Construction]], and [[B.L. Harbert International]], which all routinely are included in the Engineering News-Record lists of top design, international construction, and engineering firms. (Rust International was acquired in 2000 by [[Washington Group International]], which was in turn acquired by San-Francisco based [[URS Corporation]] in 2007.)", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Law and government", "State government"], "text": "The foundational document for Alabama's government is the [[Alabama Constitution]], which was ratified in 1901. At almost 800 amendments and 310,000 words, it is by some accounts the world's longest constitution and is roughly forty times the length of the [[United States Constitution]]. There has been a significant movement to rewrite and modernize Alabama's constitution. Critics argue that Alabama's constitution maintains highly centralized power with the state legislature, leaving practically no power in local hands. Most counties do not have home rule. Any policy changes proposed in different areas of the state must be approved by the entire Alabama legislature and, frequently, by state referendum. One criticism of the current constitution claims that its complexity and length intentionally codify segregation and racism. Alabama's government is divided into three coequal branches. The [[legislative branch]] is the [[Alabama Legislature]], a [[bicameral]] assembly composed of the [[Alabama House of Representatives]], with 105 members, and the [[Alabama Senate]], with 35 members. The Legislature is responsible for writing, debating, passing, or defeating state legislation. The [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] currently holds a majority in both houses of the [[Alabama Legislature|Legislature]]. The Legislature has the power to override a gubernatorial veto by a simple majority (most state Legislatures require a two-thirds majority to override a veto). Until 1964, the state elected state senators on a geographic basis by county, with one per county. It had not redistricted congressional districts since passage of its constitution in 1901; as a result, urbanized areas were grossly underrepresented. It had not changed legislative districts to reflect the decennial censuses, either. In ''[[Reynolds v. Sims]]'' (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court implemented the principle of \"[[one man, one vote]]\", ruling that congressional districts had to be reapportioned based on censuses (as the state already included in its constitution but had not implemented.) Further, the court ruled that both houses of bicameral state legislatures had to be apportioned by population, as there was no constitutional basis for states to have geographically based systems. At that time, Alabama and many other states had to change their legislative districting, as many across the country had systems that underrepresented urban areas and districts. This had caused decades of underinvestment in such areas. For instance, Birmingham and Jefferson County taxes had supplied one-third of the state budget, but Jefferson County received only 1/67th of state services in funding. Through the legislative delegations, the Alabama legislature kept control of county governments. The [[executive branch]] is responsible for the execution and oversight of laws. It is headed by the [[governor of Alabama]]. Other members of the executive branch include the cabinet, the [[List of Lieutenant Governors of Alabama|lieutenant governor of Alabama]], the [[Attorney General of Alabama]], the [[Alabama Secretary of State]], the [[Alabama State Treasurer]], and the [[State Auditor of Alabama]]. The current governor is [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[Kay Ivey]]. The members of the Legislature take office immediately after the November elections. Statewide officials, such as the governor, lieutenant governor, attorney general, and other constitutional officers, take office the following January.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Law and government", "State government"], "text": "The [[Judiciary|judicial branch]] is responsible for interpreting the state's [[Alabama Constitution|Constitution]] and applying the law in state criminal and civil cases. The [[State supreme court|state's highest court]] is the [[Supreme Court of Alabama]]. Alabama uses partisan elections to select judges. Since the 1980s judicial campaigns have become increasingly politicized. The current [[chief justice]] of the Alabama Supreme Court is Republican [[Tom Parker (judge)|Tom Parker]]. All sitting justices on the Alabama Supreme Court are members of the Republican Party. There are two intermediate [[appellate court]], the Court of Civil Appeals and the Court of Criminal Appeals, and four [[trial court]]: the circuit court (trial court of general jurisdiction), and the district, probate, and municipal courts. Some critics believe the election of judges has contributed to an exceedingly high rate of executions. Alabama has the highest per capita [[Capital punishment in Alabama|death penalty rate]] in the country. In some years, it imposes more death sentences than does [[Texas]], a state which has a population five times larger. However, executions per capita are significantly higher in Texas. Some of its cases have been highly controversial; the Supreme Court has overturned 24 convictions in death penalty cases. It was the only state to allow judges to override jury decisions in whether or not to use a death sentence; in 10 cases judges overturned sentences of [[life imprisonment without parole]] (LWOP) that were voted unanimously by juries. This judicial authority was removed in April 2017.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Law and government", "Taxes"], "text": "Taxes are collected by the [[Alabama Department of Revenue]]. Alabama levies a 2, 4, or5 percent [[State income tax|personal income tax]], depending on the amount earned and filing status. Taxpayers are allowed to deduct their [[Income tax in the United States|federal income tax]] from their Alabama state tax, even if taking the [[standard deduction]]; those who itemize can also deduct [[Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax|FICA]] (the Social Security and Medicare tax). The state's general sales tax rate is 4%. Sales tax rates for cities and counties are also added to purchases. For example, the total sales tax rate in Mobile is 10% and there is an additional restaurant tax of 1%, which means a diner in Mobile would pay an 11% tax on a meal. , sales and excise taxes in Alabama account for 51% of all state and local revenue, compared with an average of about 36% nationwide. Alabama is one of seven states that levy a tax on food at the same rate as other goods, and one of two states (the other being neighboring Mississippi) which fully taxes groceries without any offsetting relief for low-income families. (Most states exempt groceries from sales tax or apply a lower tax rate.) Alabama's income tax on poor working families is among the highest in the U.S. Alabama is the only state that levies income tax on a family of four with income as low as $4,600, which is barely one-quarter the federal poverty line. Alabama's threshold is the lowest among the 41 states and the District of Columbia with income taxes. The corporate income tax rate is currently 6.5%. The overall federal, state, and local tax burden in Alabama ranks the state as the second least tax-burdened state in the country. [[Property tax]] are the lowest in the U.S. The current state constitution requires a voter referendum to raise property taxes. Since Alabama's tax structure largely depends on consumer spending, it is subject to high variable budget structure. For example, in 2003, Alabama had an annual budget deficit as high as $670million.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Law and government", "County and local governments"], "text": "Alabama has 67 [[county (United States)|counties]]. Each county has its own elected legislative branch, usually called the county commission. It also has limited executive authority in the county. Because of the constraints of the [[Alabama Constitution]], which centralizes power in the state legislature, only seven counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state have limited [[home rule]]. Instead, most counties in the state must lobby the Local Legislation Committee of the state legislature to get simple local policies approved, ranging from waste disposal to land use zoning. The state legislature has retained power over local governments by refusing to pass a constitutional amendment establishing [[home rule]] for counties, as recommended by the 1973 Alabama Constitutional Commission. Legislative delegations retain certain powers over each county. United States Supreme Court decisions in ''[[Baker v. Carr]]'' (1964) required that both houses have districts established on the basis of population, and redistricted after each census, to implement the principle of \"one man, one vote\". Before that, each county was represented by one state senator, leading to under-representation in the state senate for more urbanized, populous counties. The rural bias of the state legislature, which had also failed to redistrict seats in the state house, affected politics well into the 20th century, failing to recognize the rise of industrial cities and urbanized areas. \"The lack of home rule for counties in Alabama has resulted in the proliferation of local legislation permitting counties to do things not authorized by the state constitution. Alabama's constitution has been amended more than 700 times, and almost one-third of the amendments are local in nature, applying to only one county or city. A significant part of each legislative session is spent on local legislation, taking away time and attention of legislators from issues of statewide importance.\" Alabama is an [[alcoholic beverage control state]], meaning the state government holds a monopoly on the sale of alcohol. The [[Alabama Alcoholic Beverage Control Board]] controls the sale and distribution of alcoholic beverages in the state. A total of 25 of the 67 counties are \"[[Dry county|dry counties]]\" which ban the sale of alcohol, and there are many dry municipalities in counties which permit alcohol sales.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Law and government", "Politics"], "text": "During [[Reconstruction Era|Reconstruction]] following the [[American Civil War]], Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the [[Third Military District]] under [[John Pope (military officer)|General John Pope]]. In 1874, the political coalition of white Democrats known as the [[Redeemers]] took control of the state government from the Republicans, in part by suppressing the black vote through violence, fraud and intimidation. After 1890, a coalition of White Democratic politicians passed laws to [[racial segregation|segregate]] and disenfranchise African American residents, a process completed in provisions of the 1901 constitution. Provisions which disenfranchised blacks resulted in excluding many poor Whites. By 1941 more Whites than Blacks had been disenfranchised: 600,000 to 520,000. The total effects were greater on the black community, as almost all its citizens were disfranchised and relegated to separate and unequal treatment under the law. From 1901 through the 1960s, the state did not redraw election districts as population grew and shifted within the state during urbanization and industrialization of certain areas. As counties were the basis of election districts, the result was a rural minority that dominated state politics through nearly three-quarters of the century, until a series of federal court cases required redistricting in 1972 to meet equal representation. Alabama state politics gained nationwide and international attention in the 1950s and 1960s during the [[civil rights movement]], when whites bureaucratically, and at times violently, resisted protests for electoral and social reform. Governor [[George Wallace]], the state's only four-term governor, was a controversial figure who vowed to maintain segregation. Only after passage of the federal [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] did African Americans regain the ability to exercise suffrage, among other civil rights. In many jurisdictions, they continued to be excluded from representation by [[at-large]] electoral systems, which allowed the majority of the population to dominate elections. Some changes at the county level have occurred following court challenges to establish [[single-member districts]] that enable a more diverse representation among county boards. In 2007, the [[Alabama Legislature]] passed, and Republican governor [[Bob Riley]] signed a resolution expressing \"profound regret\" over slavery and its lingering impact. In a symbolic ceremony, the bill was signed in the [[Alabama State Capitol]], which housed Congress of the [[Confederate States of America]]. In 2010, Republicans won control of both houses of the legislature for the first time in 136 years. , there are a total of 3,326,812 registered voters, with 2,979,576 active, and the others inactive in the state.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Law and government", "Elections", "State elections"], "text": "With the [[Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era|disfranchisement of Blacks]] in 1901, the state became part of the \"[[Solid South]]\", a system in which the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] operated as effectively the only viable political party in every Southern state. For nearly a hundred years local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party [[primary election|primary]], with generally only token [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] challengers running in the General Election. Since the mid- to late 20th century, however, white conservatives started shifting to the Republican Party. In Alabama, majority-white districts are now expected to regularly elect Republican candidates to federal, state and local office. Members of the nine seats on the [[Supreme Court of Alabama]] and all ten seats on the state appellate courts are elected to office. Until 1994, no Republicans held any of the court seats. In that general election, the then-incumbent chief justice, [[Ernest C. Hornsby]], refused to leave office after losing the election by approximately 3,000 votes to Republican [[Perry O. Hooper Sr.]] Hornsby sued Alabama and defiantly remained in office for nearly a year before finally giving up the seat after losing in court. The Democrats lost the last of the nineteen court seats in August 2011 with the resignation of the last Democrat on the bench. In the early 21st century, Republicans hold all seven of the [[Political party strength in Alabama|statewide elected executive]] branch offices. Republicans hold six of the eight elected seats on the [[Alabama State Board of Education]]. In 2010, Republicans took large majorities of both chambers of the state legislature, giving them control of that body for the first time in 136 years. The last remaining statewide Democrat, who served on the Alabama Public Service Commission was defeated in 2012. Only three Republican lieutenant governors have been elected since the end of Reconstruction, when Republicans generally represented Reconstruction government, including the newly emancipated [[Freedman|freedmen]] who had gained the franchise. The three GOP lieutenant governors are [[Steve Windom]] (1999–2003), [[Kay Ivey]] (2011–2017), and [[Will Ainsworth]] (2019–present).", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Law and government", "Elections", "Local elections"], "text": "Many local offices (county commissioners, boards of education, tax assessors, tax collectors, etc.) in the state are still held by Democrats. Many rural counties have voters who are majority Democrats, resulting in local elections being decided in the Democratic primary. Similarly many metropolitan and suburban counties are majority-Republican and elections are effectively decided in the Republican Primary, although there are exceptions. Alabama's 67 county sheriffs are elected in partisan, [[at-large]] races, and Democrats still retain the narrow majority of those posts. The current split is 35 [[Alabama Democratic Party|Democrats]], 31 [[Alabama Republican Party|Republicans]], and one Independent Fayette. However, most of the Democratic sheriffs preside over rural and less populated counties. The majority of Republican sheriffs have been elected in the more urban/suburban and heavily populated counties. , the state of Alabama has one female sheriff, in [[Morgan County, Alabama]], and ten African-American sheriffs.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Law and government", "Elections", "Federal elections"], "text": "The state's two [[United States Senate|U.S. senators]] are Republican [[Richard Shelby|Richard C. Shelby]] and Republican [[Tommy Tuberville]]. Shelby was originally elected to the Senate as a Democrat in 1986 and re-elected in 1992, but switched parties immediately following the November 1994 general election. In the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]], the state is represented by seven members, six of whom are Republicans: ([[Bradley Byrne]], [[Mike D. Rogers]], [[Robert Aderholt]], [[Morris J. Brooks]], [[Martha Roby]], and [[Gary Palmer (politician)|Gary Palmer]]) and one Democrat: [[Terri Sewell]] who represents the [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] as well as most of the predominantly black portions of [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] and [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]].", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Education", "Primary and secondary education"], "text": "Public primary and secondary education in Alabama is under the purview of the [[Alabama State Board of Education]] as well as local oversight by 67 county school boards and 60 city boards of education. Together, 1,496 individual schools provide education for 744,637 elementary and secondary students. Public school funding is appropriated through the Alabama Legislature through the Education Trust Fund. In FY 2006–2007, Alabama appropriated $3,775,163,578 for primary and secondary education. That represented an increase of $444,736,387 over the previous fiscal year. In 2007, more than 82 percent of schools made adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward student proficiency under the National [[No Child Left Behind]] law, using measures determined by the state of Alabama. While Alabama's public education system has improved in recent decades, it lags behind in achievement compared to other states. According to U.S. Census data (2000), Alabama's high school graduation rate (75%) is the fourth lowest in the U.S. (after [[Kentucky]], [[Louisiana]] and [[Mississippi]]). The largest educational gains were among people with some college education but without degrees. Generally prohibited in the West at large, [[school corporal punishment]] is not unusual in Alabama, with 27,260 public school students [[paddle (spanking)|paddled]] at least one time, according to government data for the 2011–2012 school year. The rate of school corporal punishment in Alabama is surpassed by only Mississippi and Arkansas.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Education", "Colleges and universities"], "text": "Alabama's programs of higher education include 14 four-year public universities, two-year community colleges, and 17 private, undergraduate and graduate universities. In the state are four medical schools (as of fall 2015) ([[University of Alabama School of Medicine]], [[University of South Alabama]] and [[Alabama College of Osteopathic Medicine]] and The Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine—Auburn Campus), two veterinary colleges ([[Auburn University]] and [[Tuskegee University]]), a dental school ([[University of Alabama School of Dentistry]]), an optometry college ([[University of Alabama at Birmingham]]), two pharmacy schools ([[Auburn University]] and [[Samford University]]), and five law schools ([[University of Alabama School of Law]], [[Birmingham School of Law]], [[Cumberland School of Law]], [[Miles Law School]], and the [[Thomas Goode Jones School of Law]]). Public, post-secondary education in Alabama is overseen by the [[Alabama Commission on Higher Education]] and the [[Alabama Department of Postsecondary Education]]. Colleges and universities in Alabama offer degree programs from two-year associate degrees to a multitude of doctoral level programs. The largest single campus is the [[University of Alabama]], located in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]], with 37,665 enrolled for fall 2016. [[Troy University]] was the largest institution in the state in 2010, with an enrollment of 29,689 students across four Alabama campuses ([[Troy, Alabama|Troy]], [[Dothan, Alabama|Dothan]], [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]], and [[Phenix City, Alabama|Phenix City]]), as well as sixty learning sites in seventeen other states and eleven other countries. The oldest institutions are the public [[University of North Alabama]] in [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] and the Catholic Church-affiliated [[Spring Hill College]] in [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], both founded in 1830. Accreditation of academic programs is through the [[Southern Association of Colleges and Schools]] (SACS) as well as other subject-focused national and international accreditation agencies such as the [[Association for Biblical Higher Education]] (ABHE), the [[Council on Occupational Education]] (COE), and the [[Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools]] (ACICS). According to the 2011 ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'', Alabama had three universities ranked in the top 100 Public Schools in America (University of Alabama at 31, [[Auburn University]] at 36, and [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]] at 73). According to the 2012 ''U.S. News & World Report'', Alabama had four [[College and university rankings|tier one]] universities ([[University of Alabama]], [[Auburn University]], [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]] and [[University of Alabama in Huntsville]]).", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Media"], "text": "Major newspapers include ''[[The Birmingham News|Birmingham News]]'', Mobile ''[[Press-Register]]'', and ''[[Montgomery Advertiser]]''. Major television network affiliates in Alabama include: (-) [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] (-) [[WBMA-LD|WGWW]] 40.2 ABC, [[Anniston, Alabama|Anniston]] (-) [[WBMA-LD|WBMA 58]]/[[WABM|WABM 68.2]] ABC, [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] (-) [[WDHN]] 18 ABC, [[Dothan, Alabama|Dothan]] (-) [[WAAY-TV|WAAY]] 31 ABC, [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] (-) [[WEAR-TV|WEAR]] 3 ABC [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola, FL]]/Mobile (-) [[WNCF]] 32 ABC, [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] (-) [[WBMA-LD|WDBB]] 17.2 ABC, [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] (-) [[CBS]] (-) [[WIAT]] 42 CBS, Birmingham (-) [[WTVY (TV)|WTVY]] 4 CBS, Dothan (-) [[WHNT]] 19 CBS, Huntsville (-) [[WKRG]] 5 CBS, Mobile (-) [[WAKA]] 8 CBS, [[Selma, Alabama|Selma]]/Montgomery (-) [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] (-) [[WBRC]] 6 FOX, Birmingham (-) [[WZDX]] 54 FOX, Huntsville (-) [[WALA]] 10 FOX, Mobile (-) [[WCOV-TV|WCOV]] 20 FOX, Montgomery (-) [[WDFX-TV|WDFX]] 34 FOX, [[Ozark, Alabama|Ozark]]/Dothan (-) [[NBC]] (-) [[WVTM]] 13 NBC, Birmingham (-) [[WRGX-LD|WRGX]] 23 NBC, Dothan (-) [[WAFF (TV)|WAFF]] 48 NBC, Huntsville (-) [[WPMI]] 15 NBC, Mobile (-) [[WSFA]] 12 NBC, Montgomery (-) [[PBS]]/[[Alabama Public Television]] (-) WBIQ 10 PBS, Birmingham (-) WIIQ 41 PBS, [[Demopolis, Alabama|Demopolis]] (-) WDIQ 2 PBS, [[Dozier, Alabama|Dozier]] (-) WFIQ 36 PBS, [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] (-) WHIQ 25 PBS, Huntsville (-) WGIQ 43 PBS, [[Louisville, Alabama|Louisville]] (-) WEIQ 42 PBS, Mobile (-) WAIQ 26 PBS, Montgomery (-) WCIQ 7 PBS, [[Mount Cheaha]] (-) [[The CW]] (-) [[WTTO]] 21, Homewood/Birmingham (-) [[WTVY (TV)|WTVY]] 4.3, Dothan (-) [[WHDF]] 15, Florence/Huntsville (-) [[WFNA (TV)|WFNA]] 55, [[Gulf Shores, Alabama|Gulf Shores]]/Mobile/Pensacola, FL (-) [[WDBB]] 17, Tuscaloosa (-) [[WBMM]] 22, [[Tuskegee, Alabama|Tuskegee]]/Montgomery", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Sports", "College sports"], "text": "College football is extremely popular in Alabama, particularly the [[University of Alabama]] [[Alabama Crimson Tide|Crimson Tide]] and [[Auburn University]] [[Auburn Tigers|Tigers]], rivals in the [[Southeastern Conference]]. In the 2013 season, Alabama averaged over 100,000 fans per game and Auburn averaged over 80,000—both numbers among the top twenty in the nation. Bryant–Denny Stadium is the home of the Alabama football team, and has a [[seating capacity]] of 101,821, and is the fifth largest stadium in America. Jordan-Hare Stadium is the home field of the Auburn football team and seats up to 87,451. Legion Field is home for the [[UAB Blazers]] football program and the [[Birmingham Bowl]]. It seats 71,594. [[Ladd–Peebles Stadium]] in [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] is the home of the [[University of South Alabama]] football team, and serves as the home of the NCAA [[Senior Bowl]], [[Dollar General Bowl]] (formerly GoDaddy.com Bowl), and Alabama-Mississippi All Star Classic; the stadium seats 40,646. In 2009, Bryant–Denny Stadium and Jordan-Hare Stadium became the homes of the [[Alabama High School Athletic Association]] state football championship games, after previously being held at Legion Field in Birmingham.", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Sports", "Professional sports"], "text": "Alabama has several professional and semi-professional sports teams, including three [[minor league baseball]] teams. (-) Notes The [[Talladega Superspeedway]] motorsports complex hosts a series of [[NASCAR]] events. It has a [[seating capacity]] of 143,000 and is the thirteenth largest stadium in the world and sixth largest stadium in America. Also, the [[Barber Motorsports Park]] has hosted [[IndyCar Series]] and [[Rolex Sports Car Series]] races. The [[ATP Birmingham]] was a [[World Championship Tennis]] tournament held from 1973 to 1980. Alabama has hosted several professional golf tournaments, such as the 1984 and 1990 [[PGA Championship]] at [[Shoal Creek Golf and Country Club|Shoal Creek]], the [[Barbasol Championship]] ([[PGA Tour]]), the [[Mobile LPGA Tournament of Champions]], [[Airbus LPGA Classic]], and [[Yokohama Tire LPGA Classic]] ([[LPGA Tour]]), and [[The Tradition]] ([[Champions Tour]]).", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Transportation", "Aviation"], "text": "Major airports with sustained operations in Alabama include [[Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport]] (BHM), [[Huntsville International Airport]] (HSV), [[Dothan Regional Airport]] (DHN), [[Mobile Regional Airport]] (MOB), [[Montgomery Regional Airport]] (MGM), [[Northwest Alabama Regional Airport]] (MSL) and [[Northeast Alabama Regional Airport]] (GAD).", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Transportation", "Rail"], "text": "For rail transport, [[Amtrak]] schedules the ''[[Crescent (train)|Crescent]]'', a daily passenger train, running from New York to New Orleans with station stops at [[Anniston station|Anniston]], [[Birmingham station (Alabama)|Birmingham]], and [[Tuscaloosa station|Tuscaloosa]].", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Transportation", "Roads"], "text": "Alabama has six major interstate routes: [[Interstate 65 in Alabama|Interstate 65]] (I-65) travels north–south roughly through the middle of the state; [[Interstate 20 in Alabama|I-20]]/[[Interstate 59 in Alabama|I-59]] travel from the central west Mississippi state line to Birmingham, where I-59 continues to the north-east corner of the state and I-20 continues east towards [[Atlanta]]; [[Interstate 85 in Alabama|I-85]] originates in Montgomery and travels east-northeast to the Georgia state line, providing a main thoroughfare to Atlanta; and [[Interstate 10 in Alabama|I-10]] traverses the southernmost portion of the state, traveling from west to east through Mobile. [[Interstate 22 in Alabama|I-22]] enters the state from [[Mississippi]] and connects Birmingham with [[Memphis, Tennessee]]. In addition, there are currently five auxiliary interstate routes in the state: [[Interstate 165 (Alabama)|I-165]] in Mobile, [[Interstate 359|I-359]] in Tuscaloosa, [[Interstate 459|I-459]] around Birmingham, [[Interstate 565|I-565]] in Decatur and Huntsville, and [[Interstate 759|I-759]] in Gadsden. A sixth route, [[Interstate 685|I-685]], will be formed when I-85 is rerouted along a new southern bypass of Montgomery. A proposed northern bypass of Birmingham will be designated as [[Interstate 422|I-422]]. Since a direct connection from I-22 to I-422 will not be possible, [[Interstate 222|I-222]] has been proposed, as well. Several U.S. Highways also pass through the state, such as [[U.S. Route 11 in Alabama|U.S. Route 11]] (US-11), [[U.S. Route 29 in Alabama|US-29]], [[U.S. Route 31 in Alabama|US-31]], [[U.S. Route 43 in Alabama|US-43]], [[U.S. Route 45 in Alabama|US-45]], [[U.S. Route 72 in Alabama|US-72]], [[U.S. Route 78 in Alabama|US-78]], [[U.S. Route 80 in Alabama|US-80]], [[U.S. Route 82 in Alabama|US-82]], [[U.S. Route 84 in Alabama|US-84]], [[U.S. Route 90 in Alabama|US-90]], [[U.S. Route 98 in Alabama|US-98]], [[U.S. Route 231 in Alabama|US-231]], [[U.S. Route 278 in Alabama|US-278]], [[U.S. Route 280 in Alabama|US-280]], [[U.S. Route 331 in Alabama|US-331]], [[U.S. Route 411 in Alabama|US-411]], and [[U.S. Route 431 in Alabama|US-431]]. There are four toll roads in the state: Montgomery Expressway in [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]; Northport/Tuscaloosa Western Bypass in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] and [[Northport, Alabama|Northport]]; Emerald Mountain Expressway in [[Wetumpka, Alabama|Wetumpka]]; and Beach Express in [[Orange Beach, Alabama|Orange Beach]].", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": ["Transportation", "Ports"], "text": "The [[Port of Mobile]], Alabama's only saltwater port, is a large seaport on the [[Gulf of Mexico]] with inland waterway access to the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]] by way of the [[Tennessee–Tombigbee Waterway]]. The Port of Mobile was ranked 12th by tons of traffic in the United States during 2009. The newly expanded [[container terminal]] at the Port of Mobile was ranked as the 25th busiest for container traffic in the nation during 2011. The state's other ports are on rivers with access to the Gulf of Mexico. Water ports of Alabama, listed from north to south:", "id": "303", "title": "Alabama", "categories": ["Alabama", "1819 establishments in the United States", "Southern United States", "States and territories established in 1819", "States of the Confederate States", "States of the Gulf Coast of the United States", "States of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones"], "seealso": ["Index of Alabama-related articles", "Outline of Alabama"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "In [[Greek mythology]], '''Achilles''' ( ) or '''Achilleus''' (, ) was a hero of the [[Trojan War]], the greatest of all the Greek warriors, and is the central character of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]''. He was the son of the [[Nereid]] [[Thetis]] and [[Peleus]], king of [[Phthia]]. Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan prince [[Hector]] outside the gates of [[Troy]]. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the ''Iliad'', other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], who shot him in the heel with an arrow. Later legends (beginning with [[Statius]]' unfinished epic ''[[Achilleid]]'', written in the 1st century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for one heel, because when his mother [[Thetis]] dipped him in the river [[Styx]] as an infant, she held him by one of his heels. Alluding to these legends, the term \"[[Achilles' heel]]\" has come to mean a point of weakness, especially in someone or something with an otherwise strong constitution. The [[Achilles tendon]] is also named after him due to these legends.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "[[Linear B]] tablets attest to the personal name ''Achilleus'' in the forms ''a-ki-re-u'' and ''a-ki-re-we'', the latter being the [[dative case|dative]] of the former. The name grew more popular, even becoming common soon after the seventh century BC and was also turned into the female form Ἀχιλλεία (''Achilleía''), attested in [[Attica]] in the fourth century BC ([[Inscriptiones Graecae|IG]] II² 1617) and, in the form ''Achillia'', on a [[Female gladiator#Halicarnassus|stele in Halicarnassus]] as the name of a female gladiator fighting an \"Amazon\". Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of ('''') \"distress, pain, sorrow, grief\" and ('''') \"people, soldiers, nation\", resulting in a proto-form ''*Akhí-lāu̯os'' \"he who has the people distressed\" or \"he whose people have distress\". The grief or distress of the people is a theme raised numerous times in the ''Iliad'' (and frequently by Achilles himself). Achilles' role as the hero of grief or distress forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of him as the hero of '''' (\"glory\", usually in war). Furthermore, ''laós'' has been construed by [[Gregory Nagy]], following [[Leonard Palmer]], to mean \"a corps of soldiers\", a [[muster (military)|muster]]. With this derivation, the name obtains a double meaning in the poem: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring distress to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership. Another etymology relates the name to a [[Proto-Indo-European]] [[Compound (linguistics)|compound]] ''*h₂eḱ-pṓds'' \"sharp foot\" which first gave an [[Illyrian languages|Illyrian]] ''*āk̂pediós'', evolving through time into ''*ākhpdeós'' and then ''*akhiddeús''. The shift from ''-dd-'' to ''-ll-'' is then ascribed to the passing of the name into Greek via a [[Pre-Greek]] source. The first root part ''*h₂eḱ-'' \"sharp, pointed\" also gave Greek ἀκή (''akḗ'' \"point, silence, healing\"), ἀκμή (''akmḗ'' \"point, edge, zenith\") and ὀξύς (''oxús'' \"sharp, pointed, keen, quick, clever\"), whereas ἄχος stems from the root ''*h₂egʰ-'' \"to be upset, afraid\". The whole expression would be comparable to the [[Latin]] ''acupedius'' \"swift of foot\". Compare also the Latin word family of ''aciēs'' \"sharp edge or point, battle line, battle, engagement\", ''acus'' \"needle, pin, bodkin\", and ''acuō'' \"to make pointed, sharpen, whet; to exercise; to arouse\" (whence ''acute''). Some [[Literary topos|topical]] [[epitheta]] of Achilles in the ''Iliad'' point to this \"swift-footedness\", namely ποδάρκης δῖος Ἀχιλλεὺς (''podárkēs dĩos Achilleús'' \"swift-footed divine Achilles\") or, even more frequently, πόδας ὠκὺς Ἀχιλλεύς (''pódas ōkús Achilleús'' \"quick-footed Achilles\"). Some researchers deem the name a [[loan word]], possibly from a [[Pre-Greek]] language. Achilles' descent from the [[Nereid]] [[Thetis]] and a similarity of his name with those of [[Potamoi|river deities]] such as [[Acheron]] and [[Achelous]] have led to speculations about his being an old [[Greek sea gods|water divinity]] (see below [[Achilles#Worship|Worship]]). [[Robert S. P. Beekes]] has suggested a [[Pre-Greek]] origin of the name, based among other things on the coexistence of ''-λλ-'' and ''-λ-'' in epic language, which may account for a palatalized phoneme /l/ in the original language.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Birth and early years"], "text": "Achilles was the son of the [[Thetis]], a [[nereid]], and [[Peleus]], the king of the [[Myrmidons]]. [[Zeus]] and [[Poseidon]] had been rivals for Thetis's hand in marriage until [[Prometheus]], the fore-thinker, warned Zeus of a prophecy (originally uttered by [[Themis]], goddess of divine law) that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus. There is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events: In the ''[[Argonautica]]'' (4.760) Zeus' sister and wife [[Hera]] alludes to Thetis' chaste resistance to the advances of Zeus, pointing out that Thetis was so loyal to Hera's marriage bond that she coolly rejected the father of gods. Thetis, although a daughter of the sea-god [[Nereus]], was also brought up by Hera, further explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus. Zeus was furious and decreed that she would never marry an immortal. According to the ''[[Achilleid]]'', written by [[Statius]] in the 1st century AD, and to [[Lost works|non-surviving previous sources]], when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river [[Styx]]; however, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him: his left heel (see [[Achilles' heel]], [[Achilles' tendon]]). It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in [[ambrosia]] and put him on top of a fire in order to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage. None of the sources before Statius make any reference to this general invulnerability. To the contrary, in the ''Iliad'', Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the [[Paeonian]] hero [[Asteropaeus]], son of [[Pelagon]], challenged Achilles by the river [[Scamander]]. He was ambidextrous, and cast a spear from each hand; one grazed Achilles' elbow, \"drawing a spurt of blood\". In the few fragmentary poems of the [[Epic Cycle]] which describe the hero's death (i.e. the ''[[Cypria]]'', the ''[[Little Iliad]]'' by [[Lesches]] of Pyrrha, the ''[[Aithiopis]]'' and ''[[Iliou persis]]'' by [[Arctinus of Miletus]]), there is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous weakness at the heel. In the later vase paintings presenting the death of Achilles, the arrow (or in many cases, arrows) hit his torso. Peleus entrusted Achilles to [[Chiron]] the [[Centaur]], who lived on [[Mount Pelion]], to be reared. Thetis foretold that her son's fate was either to gain glory and die young, or to live a long but uneventful life in obscurity. Achilles chose the former, and decided to take part in the Trojan War. According to Homer, Achilles grew up in Phthia with his companion [[Patroclus]].", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Birth and early years"], "text": "According to [[Photius]], the sixth book of the ''New History'' by [[Ptolemy Hephaestion]] reported that Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by Peleus. When she had Achilles, Peleus noticed, tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot, and confided him to the centaur Chiron. Later Chiron exhumed the body of the [[Damysus (Giant)|Damysus]], who was the fastest of all the giants, removed the ankle, and incorporated it into Achilles' burnt foot.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Birth and early years", "Other names"], "text": "Among the appellations under which Achilles is generally known are the following: (-) '''Pyrisous''', \"saved from the fire\", his first name, which seems to favour the tradition in which his mortal parts were burned by his mother Thetis (-) '''Aeacides''', from his grandfather [[Aeacus]] (-) '''Aemonius''', from Aemonia, a country which afterwards acquired the name of Thessaly (-) '''Aspetos''', \"inimitable\" or \"vast\", his name at [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]] (-) '''Larissaeus''', from [[Larissa]] (also called Cremaste), a town of Thessaly, which still bears the same name (-) '''Ligyron''', his original name (-) '''Nereius''', from his mother Thetis, one of the [[Nereid]] (-) '''Pelides''', from his father, [[Peleus]] (-) '''Phthius''', from his birthplace, [[Phthia]] (-) '''Podarkes''', “swift-footed”, due to the wings of Arke being attached to his feet.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Birth and early years", "Hidden on Skyros"], "text": "Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hid the young man at the court of [[Lycomedes]], king of [[Skyros]]. There, Achilles was disguised as a girl and lived among Lycomedes' daughters, perhaps under the name \"Pyrrha\" (the red-haired girl). With Lycomedes' daughter [[Deidamia (mythology)|Deidamia]], whom in the account of Statius he raped, Achilles there fathered two sons, [[Neoptolemus]] (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's possible alias) and Oneiros. According to this story, Odysseus learned from the prophet [[Calchas]] that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. Odysseus went to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewellery and placed a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly took up the spear, Odysseus saw through his disguise and convinced him to join the Greek campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranged for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women. While the women fled in panic, Achilles prepared to defend the court, thus giving his identity away.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["In the Trojan War"], "text": "According to the ''Iliad'', Achilles arrived at Troy with 50 ships, each carrying 50 [[Myrmidons]]. He appointed five leaders (each leader commanding 500 Myrmidons): Menesthius, [[Eudoros|Eudorus]], Peisander, [[Phoenix (son of Amyntor)|Phoenix]] and Alcimedon.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["In the Trojan War", "Telephus"], "text": "When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in [[Mysia]], ruled by King [[Telephus]]. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that \"he that wounded shall heal\". Guided by the oracle, he arrived at [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]], where Achilles healed him in order that he might become their guide for the voyage to Troy. According to other reports in [[Euripides]]' [[lost works|lost play]] about Telephus, he went to [[Aulis (ancient Greece)|Aulis]] pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. [[Odysseus]] reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["In the Trojan War", "Troilus"], "text": "According to the ''[[Cypria]]'' (the part of the [[Epic Cycle]] that tells the events of the Trojan War before Achilles' wrath), when the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]] desired to return home, they were restrained by Achilles, who afterwards attacked the cattle of [[Aeneas]], sacked neighbouring cities (like [[Pedasus]] and [[Lyrnessus]], where the Greeks capture the queen [[Briseis]]) and killed [[Tenes]], a son of [[Apollo]], as well as Priam's son [[Troilus]] in the sanctuary of [[Apollo]] [[Thymbra]]; however, the romance between Troilus and [[Chryseis]] described in [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]'' and in [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Troilus and Cressida]]'' is a medieval invention. In [[Dares Phrygius]]' ''Account of the Destruction of Troy'', the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe, as well as in older accounts, Troilus was a young Trojan prince, the youngest of King [[Priam]]'s and [[Hecuba]]'s five legitimate sons (or according other sources, another son of Apollo). Despite his youth, he was one of the main Trojan war leaders, a \"horse fighter\" or \"chariot fighter\" according to Homer. Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him. Yet Achilles, struck by the beauty of both Troilus and his sister [[Polyxena]], and overcome with lust, directed his sexual attentions on the youth – who, refusing to yield, instead found himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos of Apollo [[Thymbra]]. Later versions of the story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-ardent lovers' embrace. In this version of the myth, Achilles' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege. Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents. Had Troilus lived to adulthood, the [[First Vatican Mythographer]] claimed, Troy would have been invincible; however, the motif is older and found already in [[Plautus]]' [[Bacchides (play)|''Bacchides'']].", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["In the Trojan War", "In the ''Iliad''"], "text": "Homer's ''Iliad'' is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War. Achilles' wrath (μῆνις Ἀχιλλέως, ''mênis Achilléōs'') is the central theme of the poem. The first two lines of the ''Iliad'' read: The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the decade-long war, and does not narrate Achilles' death. It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after being dishonoured by [[Agamemnon]], the commander of the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaean]] forces. Agamemnon has taken a woman named [[Chryseis]] as his slave. Her father [[Chryses]], a priest of [[Apollo]], begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refuses, and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet [[Calchas]] correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him. Achilles does so, and Calchas declares that Chryseis must be returned to her father. Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles' battle prize [[Briseis]], the daughter of [[Briseus]], be brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonour of having his plunder and glory taken away (and, as he says later, because he loves Briseis), with the urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. At the same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles [[Homeric prayer|prays]] to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honour. As the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, [[Nestor (mythology)|Nestor]] declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agrees and sends [[Odysseus]] and two other chieftains, [[Ajax the Great|Ajax]] and [[Phoenix (son of Amyntor)|Phoenix]]. They promise that, if Achilles returns to battle, Agamemnon will return the captive Briseis and other gifts. Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he was planning to do. The Trojans, led by [[Hector]], subsequently push the Greek army back toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships. With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, [[Patroclus]] leads the [[Myrmidons]] into battle, wearing Achilles' armour, though Achilles remains at his camp. Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy. After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from [[Antilochus]], the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death. His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuades [[Hephaestus]] to make new armour for him, in place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing, which was taken by Hector. The new armour includes the [[Shield of Achilles]], described in great detail in the poem.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["In the Trojan War", "In the ''Iliad''"], "text": "Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field, killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engages in battle with the river god [[Scamander]], who has become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by [[Hera]] and Hephaestus. Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before the time allotted for its destruction, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. Finally, Achilles finds his prey. Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before [[Athena]], in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, [[Deiphobus]], persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses. Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that \"my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me\". Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot. After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in honour of his companion. At the onset of his duel with Hector, Achilles is referred to as the brightest star in the sky, which comes on in the autumn, Orion's dog ([[Sirius]]); a sign of evil. During the cremation of Patroclus, he is compared to [[Hesperus]], the evening/western star ([[Venus]]), while the burning of the funeral pyre lasts until [[Phosphorus (morning star)|Phosphorus]], the morning/eastern star (also Venus) has set (descended). With the assistance of the god [[Hermes]] (Argeiphontes), Hector's father [[Priam]] goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried. Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral, lasting 9 days with a burial on the 10th (in the tradition of [[Niobe]]'s offspring). The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["In the Trojan War", "Later epic accounts: fighting Penthesilea and Memnon"], "text": "The ''[[Aethiopis]]'' (7th century BC) and a work named ''[[Posthomerica]]'', composed by [[Quintus of Smyrna]] in the fourth century CE, relate further events from the [[Trojan War]]. When [[Penthesilea]], queen of the [[Amazons]] and daughter of [[Ares]], arrives in Troy, Priam hopes that she will defeat Achilles. After his temporary truce with Priam, Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen, only to grieve over her death later. At first, he was so distracted by her beauty, he did not fight as intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her. Following the death of Patroclus, Nestor's son [[Antilochus]] becomes Achilles' closest companion. When [[Memnon (mythology)|Memnon]], son of the Dawn Goddess [[Eos]] and king of [[Ethiopia (mythology)|Ethiopia]], slays Antilochus, Achilles once more obtains revenge on the battlefield, killing Memnon. Consequently, Eos will not let the sun rise until Zeus persuades her. The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess. Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the ''Iliad''s description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it. The episode then formed the basis of the [[Epic Cycle|cyclic epic]] ''[[Aethiopis]]'', which was composed after the ''Iliad'', possibly in the 7th century BC. The ''Aethiopis'' is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["In the Trojan War", "Achilles and Patroclus"], "text": "The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the ''Iliad'', it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship. Homer does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus had sexual relations. Although there is no direct evidence in the text of the ''Iliad'' that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later authors. Commentators from [[classical antiquity]] to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. In 5th-century BCE Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|Greek custom of ''paiderasteia'']]. In Plato's ''Symposium'', the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover. However, ancient Greek had no words to distinguish [[heterosexual]] and [[homosexual]], and it was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women. Many pairs of men throughout history have been compared to Achilles and Patroclus to imply a homosexual relationship.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["In the Trojan War", "Death"], "text": "The death of Achilles, even if considered solely as it occurred in the oldest sources, is a complex one, with many different versions. In the oldest version, the ''Iliad'', and as predicted by [[Hector]] with his dying breath, the hero's death was brought about by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] with an arrow (to the heel according to Statius). In some versions, the god [[Apollo]] guided Paris' arrow. Some retellings also state that Achilles was scaling the gates of Troy and was hit with a poisoned arrow. All of these versions deny Paris any sort of valour, owing to the common conception that Paris was a coward and not the man his brother Hector was, and Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. After death, Achilles' bones were mingled with those of [[Patroclus]], and funeral games were held. He was represented in the ''Aethiopis'' as living after his death in the island of [[Leuke]] at the mouth of the river [[Danube]]. Another version of Achilles' death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, [[Polyxena]]. Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage. Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior. But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris, who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow, killing him. In the ''Odyssey'', Agamemnon informs Achilles of his pompous burial and the erection of his [[mound]] at the [[Hellespont]] while they are receiving the dead [[Suitors of Penelope|suitors]] in Hades. He claims they built a massive burial mound on the beach of Ilion that could be seen by anyone approaching from the ocean. Achilles was cremated and his ashes buried in the same urn as those of Patroclus. Paris was later killed by [[Philoctetes]] using the enormous bow of [[Heracles]]. In Book 11 of Homer's ''[[Odyssey]]'', Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as \"blessed in life, blessed in death\", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and when Odysseus tells of Neoptolemus' heroic actions, Achilles is filled with satisfaction. This leaves the reader with an ambiguous understanding of how Achilles felt about the heroic life. According to some accounts, he had married [[Medea]] in life, so that after both their deaths they were united in the [[Elysium|Elysian Fields]] of [[Hades]] – as Hera promised Thetis in [[Apollonius of Rhodes|Apollonius]]' ''[[Argonautica]]'' (3rd century BC).", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["In the Trojan War", "Fate of Achilles' armour"], "text": "Achilles' armour was the object of a feud between [[Odysseus]] and [[Ajax the Great|Telamonian Ajax]] (Ajax the greater). They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who, after considering both men's presentations, decided Odysseus was more deserving of the armour. Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned him the ire of Athena, who temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades. After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, he was so ashamed that he committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armour to [[Neoptolemus]], the son of Achilles. When Odysseus encounters the shade of Ajax much later in the House of Hades (''Odyssey'' 11.543–566), Ajax is still so angry about the outcome of the competition that he refuses to speak to Odysseus. A relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was preserved for centuries in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of [[Phaselis]], Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 BCE by [[Alexander the Great]], who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the ''Iliad'' with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear; however, it was shown in the time of [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] in the 2nd century CE.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["In the Trojan War", "Achilles, Ajax and a game of ''petteia''"], "text": "Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war, Achilles and [[Ajax the Great|Ajax]] were playing a [[board game]] (''petteia''). They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle. The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Worship and heroic cult"], "text": "The tomb of Achilles, extant throughout antiquity in [[Troad]], was venerated by [[Thessalians]], but also by [[Persians|Persian]] expeditionary forces, as well as by [[Alexander the Great]] and the Roman emperor [[Caracalla]]. Achilles' cult was also to be found at other places, e. g. on the island of [[Astypalaea]] in the [[Sporades]], in [[Sparta]] which had a sanctuary, in [[Elis]] and in Achilles' homeland [[Thessaly]], as well as in the [[Magna Graecia]] cities of [[Taranto|Tarentum]], [[Locri]] and [[Crotone|Croton]], accounting for an almost Panhellenic cult to the hero. The cult of Achilles is illustrated in the 500 BCE [[Polyxena sarcophagus]], which depicts the sacrifice of Polyxena near the tumulus of Achilles. [[Strabo]] (13.1.32) also suggested that such a cult of Achilles existed in Troad: The spread and intensity of the hero's veneration among the [[Greeks in pre-Roman Crimea|Greeks]] that had [[Second Greek colonisation|settled]] on the northern coast of the [[Pontus Euxinus]], today's Black Sea, appears to have been remarkable. An archaic cult is attested for the [[Miletus|Milesian]] colony of [[Olbia (archaeological site)|Olbia]] as well as for an island in the middle of the Black Sea, today identified with [[Snake Island (Black Sea)|Snake Island]] ([[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] Зміїний, ''Zmiinyi'', near [[Kiliya]], [[Ukraine]]). Early dedicatory inscriptions from the [[Greek colonies]] on the [[Black Sea]] ([[graffiti]] and inscribed clay disks, these possibly being [[votive offering]], from Olbia, the area of [[Berezan Island]] and the [[Tauric Chersonese]]) attest the existence of a [[heroic cult]] of Achilles from the sixth century BC onwards. The cult was still thriving in the third century CE, when dedicatory [[stelae]] from Olbia refer to an ''Achilles Pontárchēs'' (Ποντάρχης, roughly \"lord of the Sea,\" or \"of the [[Pontus Euxinus]]\"), who was invoked as a protector of the city of Olbia, venerated on par with [[Olympian gods]] such as the local [[Apollo]] Prostates, [[Hermes]] Agoraeus, or [[Poseidon]]. [[Pliny the Elder]] (23–79 AD) in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' mentions a \"port of the Achæi\" and an \"island of Achilles\", famous for the tomb of that \"man\" (), situated somewhat nearby Olbia and the [[Dnieper-Bug Estuary]]; furthermore, at 125 [[Roman mile]] from this island, he places a peninsula \"which stretches forth in the shape of a sword\" obliquely, called ''Dromos Achilleos'' (Ἀχιλλέως δρόμος, ''Achilléōs drómos'' \"[[Racecourse of Achilles|the Race-course of Achilles]]\") and considered the place of the hero's exercise or of games instituted by him. This last feature of Pliny's account is considered to be the iconic [[Spit (landform)|spit]], called today ''Tendra'' (or ''Kosa Tendra'' and ''Kosa Djarilgatch''), situated between the mouth of the [[Dnieper]] and [[Karkinit Bay]], but which is hardly 125 [[Roman mile]] (c. 185 km) away from the [[Dnieper-Bug estuary]], as Pliny states. (To the \"Race-course\" he gives a length of 80 miles, c. 120 km, whereas the spit measures c. 70 km today.)", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Worship and heroic cult"], "text": "In the following chapter of his book, Pliny refers to the same island as ''Achillea'' and introduces two further names for it: ''Leuce'' or ''Macaron'' (from Greek [νῆσος] μακαρῶν \"island of the blest\"). The \"present day\" measures, he gives at this point, seem to account for an identification of ''Achillea'' or ''Leuce'' with today's Snake Island. Pliny's contemporary [[Pomponius Mela]] (c. 43 AD) tells that Achilles was buried on an island named ''Achillea'', situated between the [[Borysthenes]] and the [[Danube|Ister]], adding to the geographical confusion. Ruins of a square temple, measuring 30 meters to a side, possibly that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered by Captain Kritzikly in 1823 on Snake Island. A second exploration in 1840 showed that the construction of a lighthouse had destroyed all traces of this temple. A fifth century BC [[Black-glazed Ware|black-glazed]] [[lekythos]] inscription, found on the island in 1840, reads: \"Glaukos, son of Poseidon, dedicated me to Achilles, lord of Leuke.\" In another inscription from the fifth or fourth century BC, a statue is dedicated to Achilles, lord of Leuke, by a citizen of Olbia, while in a further dedication, the city of Olbia confirms its continuous maintenance of the island's cult, again suggesting its quality as a place of a supra-regional hero veneration. The heroic cult dedicated to Achilles on ''Leuce'' seems to go back to an account from the lost epic ''[[Aethiopis]]'' according to which, after his untimely death, Thetis had snatched her son from the funeral pyre and removed him to a mythical (''Leúkē Nêsos'' \"White Island\"). Already in the fifth century BC, [[Pindar]] had mentioned a cult of Achilles on a \"bright island\" (φαεννά νᾶσος, ''phaenná nâsos'') of the Black Sea, while in another of his works, Pindar would retell the story of the immortalized Achilles living on a geographically indefinite [[Island of the Blest]] together with other heroes such as his father [[Peleus]] and [[Cadmus]]. Well known is the connection of these mythological [[Fortunate Isles]] (μακαρῶν νῆσοι, ''makárôn nêsoi'') or the Homeric [[Elysium]] with the stream [[Oceanus]] which according to Greek mythology surrounds the inhabited world, which should have accounted for the identification of the northern strands of the Euxine with it. Guy Hedreen has found further evidence for this connection of Achilles with the northern margin of the inhabited world in a poem by [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]], speaking of \"Achilles lord of Scythia\" and the opposition of North and South, as evoked by Achilles' fight against the [[Aethiopia]] prince [[Memnon (mythology)|Memnon]], who in his turn would be removed to his homeland by his mother [[Eos]] after his death. The ''[[Periplus Ponti Euxini|Periplus of the Euxine Sea]]'' (c. 130 AD) gives the following details:", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Worship and heroic cult"], "text": "The Greek geographer [[Dionysius Periegetes]], who likely lived during the first century CE, wrote that the island was called ''Leuce'' \"because the wild animals which live there are white. It is said that there, in Leuce island, reside the souls of Achilles and other heroes, and that they wander through the uninhabited valleys of this island; this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves through their virtues, because through virtue they had acquired everlasting honour\". Similarly, others relate the island's name to its white cliffs, snakes or birds dwelling there. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] has been told that the island is \"covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame. In this island there is also Achilles' temple and his statue\". Leuce had also a reputation as a place of healing. Pausanias reports that the [[Delphi]] [[Pythia]] sent a lord of [[Crotone|Croton]] to be cured of a chest wound. [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] attributes the healing to waters (''aquae'') on the island. A number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters were dedicated to Achilles. [[Herodotus]], [[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Strabo]] reported on the existence of a town ''Achílleion'' (Ἀχίλλειον), built by settlers from [[Mytilene]] in the sixth century BC, close to the hero's presumed burial mound in the [[Troad]]. Later attestations point to an ''Achílleion'' in [[Messenia]] (according to [[Stephanus Byzantinus]]) and an ''Achílleios'' (Ἀχίλλειος) in [[Laconia]]. [[Nicolae Densuşianu]] recognized a connection to Achilles in the names of [[Aquileia]] and of the northern arm of the Danube delta, called [[Chilia Veche|Chilia]] (presumably from an older ''Achileii''), though his conclusion, that Leuce had sovereign rights over the Black Sea, evokes modern rather than archaic sea-law. The kings of [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]] claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, [[Neoptolemus]]. [[Alexander the Great]], son of the Epirote princess [[Olympias]], could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor. He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at [[Achilleion (Troad)#Tomb of Achilles|Achilleion]] while passing Troy. In AD 216 the Roman Emperor [[Caracalla]], while on his way to war against [[Parthia]], emulated Alexander by holding games around Achilles' tumulus.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Reception during antiquity", "In Greek tragedy"], "text": "The [[tragedy|Greek tragedian]] [[Aeschylus]] wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title ''Achilleis'' by modern scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of [[Hector]] and eventual death when an arrow shot by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] and guided by [[Apollo]] punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the ''Achilleis'' and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first part of the ''Achilleis'' trilogy, ''The Myrmidons'', focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon; only a few lines survive today. In Plato's ''Symposium'', Phaedrus points out that Aeschylus portrayed Achilles as the lover and Patroclus as the beloved; Phaedrus argues that this is incorrect because Achilles, being the younger and more beautiful of the two, was the beloved, who loved his lover so much that he chose to die to avenge him. The tragedian [[Sophocles]] also wrote ''The Lovers of Achilles'', a play with Achilles as the main character. Only a few fragments survive. Towards the end of the 5th century BCE, a more negative view of Achilles emerges in Greek drama; [[Euripides]] refers to Achilles in a bitter or ironic tone in ''[[Hecuba (play)|Hecuba]]'', ''[[Electra (Euripides)|Electra]]'', and ''[[Iphigenia in Aulis]]''.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Reception during antiquity", "In Greek philosophy", "Zeno"], "text": "The philosopher [[Zeno of Elea]] centred one of [[Zeno's paradoxes|his paradoxes]] on an imaginary footrace between \"[[Epithets in Homer#Individuals|swift-footed]]\" [[Achilles and the tortoise|Achilles and a tortoise]], by which he attempted to show that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start, and therefore that motion and change were impossible. As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Reception during antiquity", "In Greek philosophy", "Plato"], "text": "In ''[[Hippias Minor]]'', a dialogue attributed to [[Plato]], an arrogant man named Hippias argues with [[Socrates]]. The two get into a discussion about lying. They decide that a person who is intentionally false must be \"better\" than a person who is unintentionally false, on the basis that someone who lies intentionally must understand the subject about which they are lying. Socrates uses various analogies, discussing athletics and the sciences to prove his point. The two also reference Homer extensively. Socrates and Hippias agree that [[Odysseus]], who concocted a number of lies throughout the ''Odyssey'' and other stories in the Trojan War Cycle, was false intentionally. Achilles, like Odysseus, told numerous falsehoods. Hippias believes that Achilles was a generally honest man, while Socrates believes that Achilles lied for his own benefit. The two argue over whether it's better to lie on purpose or on accident. Socrates eventually abandons Homeric arguments and makes sports analogies to drive home the point: someone who does wrong on purpose is a better person than someone who does wrong unintentionally.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Reception during antiquity", "In Roman and medieval literature"], "text": "The Romans, who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy, took a highly negative view of Achilles. [[Virgil]] refers to Achilles as a savage and a merciless butcher of men, while [[Horace]] portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children. Other writers, such as [[Catullus]], [[Propertius]], and [[Ovid]], represent a second strand of disparagement, with an emphasis on Achilles' erotic career. This strand continues in Latin accounts of the Trojan War by writers such as [[Dictys Cretensis]] and [[Dares Phrygius]] and in [[Benoît de Sainte-Maure]]'s ''[[Roman de Troie]]'' and [[Guido delle Colonne]]'s ''[[Historia destructionis Troiae]]'', which remained the most widely read and retold versions of the [[Matter of Troy]] until the 17th century. Achilles was described by the Byzantine chronicler [[Leo the Deacon]], not as [[Hellenes|Hellene]], but as [[Scythians|Scythian]], while according to the Byzantine author [[John Malalas]], his army was made up of a tribe previously known as Myrmidons and later as [[Bulgars]].", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["In modern literature and arts", "Literature"], "text": "(-) Achilles appears in Dante's ''[[Inferno (Dante)|Inferno]]'' (composed 1308–1320). He is seen in [[Hell]]'s second circle, that of lust. (-) Achilles is portrayed as a former hero who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Troilus and Cressida]]'' (1602). (-) The French dramatist [[Thomas Corneille]] wrote a tragedy ''La Mort d'Achille'' (1673). (-) Achilles is the subject of the poem ''Achilleis'' (1799), a fragment by [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]. (-) In 1899, the Polish playwright, painter and poet [[Stanisław Wyspiański]] published a national drama, based on Polish history, named ''Achilles''. (-) In 1921, [[Edward Shanks]] published ''The Island of Youth and Other Poems'', concerned among others with Achilles. (-) The 1983 novel ''[[Cassandra (novel)|Kassandra]]'' by [[Christa Wolf]] also treats the death of Achilles. (-) Akhilles is killed by a poisoned Kentaur arrow shot by Kassandra in [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]'s novel ''[[The Firebrand (Bradley novel)|The Firebrand]]'' (1987). (-) Achilles is one of various 'narrators' in [[Colleen McCullough]]'s novel ''[[The Song of Troy]]'' (1998). (-) ''[[The Death of Achilles]]'' (''Смерть Ахиллеса'', 1998) is an historical detective novel by Russian writer [[Boris Akunin]] that alludes to various figures and motifs from the ''Iliad''. (-) The character Achilles in ''[[Ender's Shadow]]'' (1999), by Orson Scott Card, shares his namesake's cunning mind and ruthless attitude. (-) Achilles is one of the main characters in [[Dan Simmons]]'s novels ''[[Ilium (novel)|Ilium]]'' (2003) and ''[[Olympos (novel)|Olympos]]'' (2005). (-) Achilles is a major supporting character in [[David Gemmell]]'s ''[[David Gemmell#Troy series|Troy]]'' series of books (2005–2007). (-) Achilles is the main character in [[David Malouf]]'s novel ''[[Ransom (Malouf novel)|Ransom]]'' (2009). (-) The [[ghost]] of Achilles appears in [[Rick Riordan]]'s ''[[The Last Olympian]]'' (2009). He warns Percy Jackson about the Curse of Achilles and its side effects. (-) Achilles is a main character in [[Terence Hawkins]]' 2009 novel ''[[The Rage of Achilles]]''. (-) Achilles is a major character in [[Madeline Miller]]'s debut novel, ''[[The Song of Achilles]]'' (2011), which won the 2012 [[Orange Prize for Fiction]]. The novel explores the relationship between Patroclus and Achilles from boyhood to the fateful events of the ''[[Iliad]]''. (-) Achilles appears in the light novel series ''[[Fate/Apocrypha]]'' (2012–2014) as the Rider of Red. (-) Achilles is a main character in [[Pat Barker]]'s 2018 novel ''[[The Silence of the Girls]]'', much of which is narrated by his slave [[Briseis]].", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["In modern literature and arts", "Visual arts"], "text": "(-) ''Achilles with the Daughters of Lycomedes'' is a subject treated in paintings by [[Anthony van Dyck]] (before 1618; [[Museo del Prado]], Madrid) and [[Nicolas Poussin]] (c. 1652; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]]) among others. (-) [[Peter Paul Rubens]] has authored a series of works on the life of Achilles, comprising the titles: ''Thetis dipping the infant Achilles into the river Styx'', ''Achilles educated by the centaur Chiron'', ''Achilles recognized among the daughters of Lycomedes'', ''The wrath of Achilles'', ''The death of Hector'', ''Thetis receiving the arms of Achilles from Vulcanus'', ''The death of Achilles'' ([[Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen]], Rotterdam), and ''Briseis restored to Achilles'' ([[Detroit Institute of Arts]]; all c. 1630–1635) (-) Pieter van Lint, \"Achilles Discovered among the Daughters of Lycomedes\", 1645, at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem (-) ''Dying Achilles'' is a sculpture created by [[Christophe Veyrier]] (c. 1683; [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], London). (-) ''The Rage of Achilles'' is a fresco by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]] (1757, Villa Valmarana ai Nani, Vicenza). (-) [[Eugène Delacroix]] painted a version of ''The Education of Achilles'' for the ceiling of the Paris [[Palais Bourbon]] (1833–1847), one of the seats of the [[French Parliament]]. (-) created a statue group ''Achilles and Penthesilea'' (1895; Vienna). (-) ''Achilleus'' (1908) is a [[lithography]] by [[Max Slevogt]].", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["In modern literature and arts", "Music"], "text": "Achilles has been frequently the subject of operas, ballets and related genres. (-) Operas titled ''Deidamia'' were composed by [[Francesco Cavalli]] (1644) and [[George Frideric Handel]] (1739). (-) ''[[Achille et Polyxène]]'' (Paris 1687) is an opera begun by [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]] and finished by [[Pascal Collasse]]. (-) ''[[Achille et Déidamie]]'' (Paris 1735) is an opera composed by [[André Campra]]. (-) ''[[Achilles (opera)|Achilles]]'' (London 1733) is a [[ballad opera]], written by [[John Gay]], parodied by [[Thomas Arne]] as ''Achilles in petticoats'' in 1773. (-) ''[[Achille in Sciro]]'' is a [[libretto]] by [[Metastasio]], composed by [[Domenico Sarro]] for the inauguration of the [[Teatro di San Carlo]] (Naples, 4 November 1737). An even earlier composition is from [[Antonio Caldara]] (Vienna 1736). Later operas on the same libretto were composed by [[Leonardo Leo]] (Turin 1739), [[Niccolò Jommelli]] (Vienna 1749 and Rome 1772), [[Giuseppe Sarti]] (Copenhagen 1759 and Florence 1779), [[Johann Adolph Hasse]] (Naples 1759), [[Giovanni Paisiello]] (St. Petersburg 1772), [[Giuseppe Gazzaniga]] (Palermo 1781) and many others. It has also been set to music as ''Il Trionfo della gloria''. (-) ''Achille'' (Vienna 1801) is an opera by [[Ferdinando Paër]] on a libretto by [[Giovanni de Gamerra]]. (-) ''Achille à Scyros'' (Paris 1804) is a [[ballet]] by [[Pierre Gardel]], composed by [[Luigi Cherubini]]. (-) ''Achilles, oder Das zerstörte Troja'' (\"Achilles, or Troy Destroyed\", Bonn 1885) is an [[oratorio]] by the German composer [[Max Bruch]]. (-) ''Achilles auf Skyros'' (Stuttgart 1926) is a ballet by the Austrian-British composer and musicologist [[Egon Wellesz]]. (-) ''Achilles' Wrath'' is a concert piece by Sean O'Loughlin. (-) ''[[Achilles Last Stand]]'' a track on the 1976 [[Led Zeppelin]] album ''[[Presence (album)|Presence]]''. (-) ''Achilles, Agony and Ecstasy in Eight Parts'' is the first song on the 1992 [[Manowar]] album ''[[The Triumph of Steel]]''. (-) ''Achilles Come Down'' is a song on the 2017 [[Gang of Youths]] album ''[[Go Farther in Lightness]]''.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["In modern literature and arts", "Film and television"], "text": "In films Achilles has been portrayed in the following films and television series: (-) The 1924 film ''[[Helena (1924 film)|Helena]]'' by [[Carlo Aldini]] (-) The 1954 film ''[[Ulysses (1954 film)|Ulysses]]'' by [[Piero Lulli]] (-) The 1956 film ''[[Helen of Troy (film)|Helen of Troy]]'' by [[Stanley Baker]] (-) The 1961 film ''[[The Trojan Horse (film)|The Trojan Horse]]'' by [[Arturo Dominici]] (-) The 1962 film ''[[The Fury of Achilles]]'' by [[Gordon Mitchell]] (-) The 1997 television miniseries ''[[The Odyssey (miniseries)|The Odyssey]]'' by Richard Trewett (-) The 2003 television miniseries ''[[Helen of Troy (miniseries)|Helen of Troy]]'' by Joe Montana (-) The 2004 film ''[[Troy (film)|Troy]]'' by [[Brad Pitt]] (-) The 2018 TV series ''[[Troy: Fall of a City]]'' by [[David Gyasi]]", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["In modern literature and arts", "Architecture"], "text": "In 1890, [[Elisabeth of Bavaria]], Empress of Austria, had a summer palace built in [[Corfu]]. The building is named the [[Achilleion (Corfu)|Achilleion]], after Achilles. Its paintings and statuary depict scenes from the [[Trojan War]], with particular focus on Achilles.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Namesakes"], "text": "(-) The name of Achilles has been used for at least nine [[Royal Navy]] warships since 1744 – both as and with the French spelling . A 60-gun ship of that name served at the Battle of Belleisle in 1761 while a 74-gun ship served at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]]. Other battle honours include Walcheren 1809. An armored cruiser of that name served in the Royal Navy during the First World War. (-) was a which served with the [[Royal New Zealand Navy]] in World War II. It became famous for its part in the [[Battle of the River Plate]], alongside and . In addition to earning the battle honour 'River Plate', HMNZS ''Achilles'' also served at Guadalcanal 1942–1943 and Okinawa in 1945. After returning to the Royal Navy, the ship was sold to the [[Indian Navy]] in 1948, but when she was scrapped parts of the ship were saved and preserved in New Zealand. (-) A species of lizard, ''[[List of Anolis lizards|Anolis achilles]]'', which has widened heel plates, is named for Achilles.", "id": "305", "title": "Achilles", "categories": ["Achilles", "Demigods in classical mythology", "Achaean Leaders", "Kings of the Myrmidons", "Thessalians in the Trojan War", "Greek mythological heroes", "Mythological rapists", "Metamorphoses characters", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Abraham Lincoln''' (; February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was an American statesman and lawyer who served as the 16th [[president of the United States]] from 1861 until [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|his assassination]] in 1865. Lincoln led the nation through the [[American Civil War]], the country's greatest moral, cultural, constitutional, and political crisis. He succeeded in preserving the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolishing]] [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]], bolstering the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]], and modernizing the [[Economy of the United States|U.S. economy]]. Lincoln was born into poverty in a log cabin and was raised on the [[American frontier|frontier]] primarily in [[Indiana]]. He was self-educated and became a lawyer, [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]] leader, [[Illinois]] state [[Illinois House of Representatives|legislator]], and U.S. Congressman [[List of United States Representatives from Illinois|from Illinois]]. In 1849, he returned to his law practice but became vexed by the opening of additional lands to [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]] as a result of the [[Kansas–Nebraska Act]]. He reentered politics in 1854, becoming a leader in the new [[history of the Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], and he reached a national audience in the [[Lincoln–Douglas debates|1858 debates]] against [[Stephen Douglas]]. Lincoln ran for President [[1860 United States presidential election|in 1860]], sweeping the [[Northern United States|North]] in victory. Pro-slavery elements in the [[Southern United States|South]] equated his success with the North's rejection of their right to practice slavery, and southern states began [[Secession|seceding from the union]]. To secure its independence, the new [[Confederate States of America|Confederate States]] [[Battle of Fort Sumter|fired on Fort Sumter]], a U.S. fort in the South, and Lincoln called up forces to suppress the rebellion and restore the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]. As the leader of moderate Republicans, Lincoln had to navigate a contentious array of factions with friends and opponents on both sides. [[War Democrat]] rallied a large faction of former opponents into his moderate camp, but they were countered by [[Radical Republicans]], who demanded harsh treatment of the Southern Confederates. Anti-war Democrats (called \"[[Copperhead (politics)|Copperheads]]\") despised him, and irreconcilable pro-Confederate elements plotted his assassination. Lincoln managed the factions by exploiting their mutual enmity, by carefully distributing political patronage, and by appealing to the U.S. people. His [[Gettysburg Address]] became a historic clarion call for [[nationalism]], [[republicanism]], [[Civil and political rights|equal rights]], [[liberty]], and [[democracy]]. Lincoln scrutinized the strategy and tactics in the war effort, including the selection of generals and the [[Union blockade|naval blockade]] of the South's trade. He suspended ''[[habeas corpus]]'', and he averted British intervention by defusing the [[Trent Affair|''Trent'' Affair]]. He engineered the end to slavery with his [[Emancipation Proclamation]] and his order that the Army protect and recruit former slaves. He also encouraged [[Border States (American Civil War)|border states]] to outlaw slavery, and promoted the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]], which outlawed slavery across the country.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "Lincoln managed his own successful [[1864 United States presidential election|re-election campaign]]. He sought to heal the war-torn nation through reconciliation. On April 14, 1865, just days after the war's end at [[Battle of Appomattox Court House|Appomattox]], Lincoln was attending a play at [[Ford's Theatre]] with his wife [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary]] when [[assassination of Abraham Lincoln|he was assassinated]] by Confederate sympathizer [[John Wilkes Booth]]. Lincoln is remembered as the [[martyr]] hero of the United States and he is consistently [[Historical rankings of Presidents of the United States#Scholar survey results|ranked]] as one of the greatest presidents in American history.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Family and childhood", "Early life"], "text": "Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, the second child of [[Thomas Lincoln]] and [[Nancy Lincoln|Nancy Hanks Lincoln]], in a log cabin on [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historical Park|Sinking Spring Farm]] near [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]]. He was a descendant of [[Samuel Lincoln]], an Englishman who migrated from [[Hingham, Norfolk]], to its namesake, [[Hingham, Massachusetts]], in 1638. The family then migrated west, passing through [[New Jersey]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Virginia]]. Lincoln's paternal grandparents, his namesake [[Abraham Lincoln (captain)|Captain Abraham Lincoln]] and wife Bathsheba (née Herring), moved the family from Virginia to [[Jefferson County, Kentucky]]. The captain was killed in an [[Northwest Indian War|Indian raid]] in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, Abraham's father, witnessed the attack. Thomas then worked at odd jobs in Kentucky and [[Tennessee]] before the family settled in [[Hardin County, Kentucky]], in the early 1800s. The [[Nancy Hanks Lincoln heritage|heritage of Lincoln's mother Nancy]] remains unclear, but it is widely assumed that she was the daughter of Lucy Hanks. Thomas and Nancy married on June 12, 1806, in Washington County, and moved to [[Elizabethtown, Kentucky]]. They had three children: [[Sarah Lincoln Grigsby|Sarah]], Abraham, and Thomas, who died an infant. Thomas Lincoln bought or leased farms in Kentucky before losing all but of his land in court disputes over [[Title (property)|property titles]]. In 1816, the family moved to [[Indiana]] where the land surveys and titles were more reliable. Indiana was a [[Slave states and free states|\"free\" (non-slaveholding)]] territory, and they settled in an \"unbroken forest\" in Hurricane Township, [[History of Perry County, Indiana|Perry County, Indiana]]. In 1860, Lincoln noted that the family's move to Indiana was \"partly on account of slavery\", but mainly due to land title difficulties. In Kentucky and Indiana, Thomas worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter. At various times, he owned farms, livestock and town lots, paid taxes, sat on juries, appraised estates, and served on county patrols. Thomas and Nancy were members of a [[Separate Baptists]] church, which forbade alcohol, dancing, and slavery. Overcoming financial challenges, Thomas in 1827 obtained [[clear title]] to in Indiana, an area which became the [[Little Pigeon Creek Community]].", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Family and childhood", "Mother's death"], "text": "On October 5, 1818, Nancy Lincoln succumbed to [[milk sickness]], leaving 11-year-old Sarah in charge of a household including her father, 9-year-old Abraham, and Nancy's 19-year-old orphan cousin, Dennis Hanks. Ten years later, on January 20, 1828, Sarah died while giving birth to a [[stillborn]] son, devastating Lincoln. On December 2, 1819, Thomas married [[Sarah Bush Lincoln|Sarah Bush Johnston]], a widow from Elizabethtown, Kentucky, with three children of her own. Abraham became close to his stepmother, and called her \"Mother\". Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with farm life. His family even said he was lazy, for all his \"reading, scribbling, writing, ciphering, writing Poetry, etc\". His stepmother acknowledged he did not enjoy \"physical labor\", but loved to read.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Family and childhood", "Education and move to Illinois"], "text": "Lincoln was mostly self-educated, except for some schooling from itinerant teachers of less than 12 months aggregate. He persisted as an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning. Family, neighbors, and schoolmates recalled that his reading included the [[King James Version|King James Bible]], [[Aesop's Fables]], [[John Bunyan]]'s ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]'', [[Daniel Defoe]]'s ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'', and ''[[The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin]]''. As a teen, Lincoln took responsibility for chores, and customarily gave his father all earnings from work outside the home until he was 21. Lincoln was tall, strong, and athletic, and became adept at using an ax. He was an active wrestler during his youth and trained in the rough [[Catch wrestling|catch-as-catch-can]] style (also known as catch wrestling). He became county wrestling champion at the age of 21. He gained a reputation for strength and audacity after winning a wrestling match with the renowned leader of ruffians known as \"the Clary's Grove Boys\". In March 1830, fearing another milk sickness outbreak, several members of the extended Lincoln family, including Abraham, moved west to Illinois, a free state, and settled in [[Macon County, Illinois|Macon County]]. Abraham then became increasingly distant from Thomas, in part due to his father's lack of education. In 1831, as Thomas and other family prepared to move to a [[Lincoln Log Cabin State Historic Site|new homestead]] in [[Coles County, Illinois]], Abraham struck out on his own. He made his home in [[Lincoln's New Salem|New Salem, Illinois]], for six years. Lincoln and some friends took goods by [[flatboat]] to [[New Orleans, Louisiana]], where he was first exposed to slavery.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Family and childhood", "Marriage and children"], "text": "Lincoln's first romantic interest was [[Ann Rutledge]], whom he met when he moved to New Salem. By 1835, they were in a relationship but not formally engaged. She died on August 25, 1835, most likely of [[typhoid fever]]. In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky. Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Owens if she returned to New Salem. Owens arrived that November and he courted her for a time; however, they both had second thoughts. On August 16, 1837, he wrote Owens a letter saying he would not blame her if she ended the relationship, and she never replied. In 1839, Lincoln met [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]] in [[Springfield, Illinois]], and the following year they became engaged. She was the daughter of [[Robert Smith Todd]], a wealthy lawyer and businessman in [[Lexington, Kentucky]]. A wedding set for January 1, 1841 was canceled at Lincoln's request, but they reconciled and married on November 4, 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's sister. While anxiously preparing for the nuptials, he was asked where he was going and replied, \"To hell, I suppose.\" In 1844, the couple bought [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site|a house]] in Springfield near his law office. Mary kept house with the help of a hired servant and a relative. Lincoln was an affectionate husband and father of four sons, though his work regularly kept him away from home. The oldest, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]], was born in 1843 and was the only child to live to maturity. [[Edward Baker Lincoln]] (Eddie), born in 1846, died February 1, 1850, probably of tuberculosis. Lincoln's third son, [[William Wallace Lincoln|\"Willie\" Lincoln]] was born on December 21, 1850, and died of a fever at the [[White House]] on February 20, 1862. The youngest, [[Tad Lincoln|Thomas \"Tad\" Lincoln]], was born on April 4, 1853, and survived his father but died of heart failure at age 18 on July 16, 1871. Lincoln \"was remarkably fond of children\" and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own. In fact, Lincoln's law partner [[William H. Herndon]] would grow irritated when Lincoln would bring his children to the law office. Their father, it seemed, was often too absorbed in his work to notice his children's behavior. Herndon recounted, \"I have felt many and many a time that I wanted to wring their little necks, and yet out of respect for Lincoln I kept my mouth shut. Lincoln did not note what his children were doing or had done.\" The deaths of their sons, Eddie and Willie, had profound effects on both parents. Lincoln suffered from \"[[history of depression|melancholy]]\", a condition now thought to be [[major depressive disorder|clinical depression]]. Later in life, Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons, and Robert committed her for a time to an asylum in 1875.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Early career and militia service"], "text": "In 1832, Lincoln joined with a partner, [[Denton Offutt]], in the purchase of a general store on credit in New Salem. Although the economy was booming, the business struggled and Lincoln eventually sold his share. That March he entered politics, running for the [[Illinois General Assembly]], advocating navigational improvements on the [[Sangamon River]]. He could draw crowds as a [[raconteur]], but he lacked the requisite formal education, powerful friends, and money, and lost the election. Lincoln briefly interrupted his campaign to serve as a captain in the [[Illinois Militia]] during the [[Black Hawk War]]. In his first campaign speech after returning, he observed a supporter in the crowd under attack, grabbed the assailant by his \"neck and the seat of his trousers\", and tossed him. Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates (the top four were elected), though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct. Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor, but continued his voracious reading, and decided to become a lawyer. He taught himself the law, with [[William Blackstone|Blackstone]]'s ''[[Commentaries on the Laws of England|Commentaries]]'', saying later of the effort, \"I studied with nobody.\"", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Illinois state legislature (1834–1842)"], "text": "Lincoln's second state house campaign in 1834, this time as a [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]], was a success over a powerful Whig opponent. Then followed his four terms in the [[Illinois House of Representatives]] for [[Sangamon County]]. He championed construction of the [[Illinois and Michigan Canal]], and later was a Canal Commissioner. He voted to expand suffrage beyond white landowners to all white males, but adopted a \"free soil\" stance opposing both slavery and [[abolitionism in the United States|abolition]]. In 1837 he declared, \"[The] Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils.\" He echoed [[Henry Clay]]'s support for the [[American Colonization Society]] which advocated a program of abolition in conjunction with settling freed slaves in [[Liberia]]. [[Admission to the bar in the United States|Admitted]] to the Illinois bar in 1836, he moved to Springfield and began to practice law under [[John T. Stuart]], Mary Todd's cousin. Lincoln emerged as a formidable trial combatant during cross-examinations and closing arguments. He partnered several years with [[Stephen T. Logan]], and in 1844 began [[Lincoln-Herndon Law Offices State Historic Site|his practice]] with [[William Herndon (lawyer)|William Herndon]], \"a studious young man\".", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["U.S. House of Representatives (1847–1849)"], "text": "True to his record, Lincoln professed to friends in 1861 to be \"an old line Whig, a disciple of Henry Clay\". Their party favored economic modernization in banking, tariffs to fund [[internal improvements]] including railroads, and urbanization. In 1843, Lincoln sought the Whig nomination for [[Illinois's 7th congressional district|Illinois' 7th district seat]] in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]; he was defeated by [[John J. Hardin]] though he prevailed with the party in limiting Hardin to one term. Lincoln not only pulled off his strategy of gaining the nomination in 1846, but also won election. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, but as dutiful as any, participated in almost all votes and made speeches that toed the party line. He was assigned to the [[United States House Committee on Post Office and Post Roads|Committee on Post Office and Post Roads]] and the [[United States House Committee on Expenditures in the War Department|Committee on Expenditures in the War Department]]. Lincoln teamed with [[Joshua R. Giddings]] on a bill to abolish slavery in the [[Washington, District of Columbia|District of Columbia]] with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. He dropped the bill when it eluded Whig support.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["U.S. House of Representatives (1847–1849)", "Political views"], "text": "On foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke against the [[Mexican–American War]], which he imputed to President [[James K. Polk]]'s desire for \"military glory—that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood\". He supported the [[Wilmot Proviso]], a failed proposal to ban slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico. Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his [[Spot Resolutions]]. The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico, and Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had \"invaded our territory and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our soil\". Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil. The resolution was ignored in both Congress and the national papers, and it cost Lincoln political support in his district. One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him \"spotty Lincoln\". Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on presidential war-making powers. Lincoln had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House. Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, he supported General [[Zachary Taylor]] for the Whig nomination in the [[1848 United States presidential election|1848 presidential election]]. Taylor won and Lincoln hoped in vain to be appointed Commissioner of the [[General Land Office]]. The administration offered to appoint him secretary or governor of the [[Oregon Territory]] as consolation. This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold, and acceptance of the post would have disrupted his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Prairie lawyer"], "text": "In his Springfield practice Lincoln handled \"every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer\". Twice a year he appeared for 10 consecutive weeks in county seats in the midstate county courts; this continued for 16 years. Lincoln handled transportation cases in the midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly river barge conflicts under the many new railroad bridges. As a riverboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented whoever hired him. He later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in a [[Hurd v. Rock Island Bridge Company|landmark case]] involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge. In 1849, he received [[Abraham Lincoln's patent|a patent for a flotation device]] for the movement of boats in shallow water. The idea was never commercialized, but it made Lincoln the only president to hold a patent. Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases; he was sole counsel in 51 cases, of which 31 were decided in his favor. From 1853 to 1860, one of his largest clients was the [[Illinois Central Railroad]]. His legal reputation gave rise to the nickname \"Honest Abe\". Lincoln argued in an 1858 criminal trial, defending [[William \"Duff\" Armstrong]], who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker. The case is famous for Lincoln's use of a fact established by [[judicial notice]] to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness. After an opposing witness testified to seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a ''[[Farmers' Almanac]]'' showing the moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Armstrong was acquitted. Leading up to his presidential campaign, Lincoln elevated his profile in an 1859 murder case, with his defense of Simeon Quinn \"Peachy\" Harrison who was a third cousin; Harrison was also the grandson of Lincoln's political opponent, [[Peter Cartwright (revivalist)|Rev. Peter Cartwright]]. Harrison was charged with the murder of Greek Crafton who, as he lay dying of his wounds, confessed to Cartwright that he had provoked Harrison. Lincoln angrily protested the judge's initial decision to exclude Cartwright's testimony about the confession as inadmissible [[hearsay]]. Lincoln argued that the testimony involved a [[dying declaration]] and was not subject to the hearsay rule. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as expected, the judge, a Democrat, reversed his ruling and admitted the testimony into evidence, resulting in Harrison's acquittal.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Republican politics (1854–1860)", "Emergence as Republican leader"], "text": "The debate over the status of slavery in the territories failed to alleviate tensions between the slave-holding South and the free North, with the failure of the [[Compromise of 1850]], a legislative package designed to address the issue. In his 1852 eulogy for Clay, Lincoln highlighted the latter's support for gradual emancipation and opposition to \"both extremes\" on the slavery issue. As the slavery debate in the [[Nebraska Territory|Nebraska]] and [[Kansas Territory|Kansas]] territories became particularly acrimonious, Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas proposed [[Popular sovereignty in the United States#Emergence of the term \"popular sovereignty\" and its pejorative connotation|popular sovereignty]] as a compromise; the measure would allow the electorate of each territory to decide the status of slavery. The legislation alarmed many Northerners, who sought to prevent the resulting spread of slavery, but Douglas's [[Kansas–Nebraska Act]] narrowly passed Congress in May 1854. Lincoln did not comment on the act until months later in his \"[[Abraham Lincoln's Peoria speech|Peoria Speech]]\" in October 1854. Lincoln then declared his opposition to slavery which he repeated en route to the presidency. He said the Kansas Act had a \"''declared'' indifference, but as I must think, a covert ''real'' zeal for the spread of slavery. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world ...\" Lincoln's attacks on the Kansas–Nebraska Act marked his return to political life. Nationally, the Whigs were irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act and other efforts to compromise on the slavery issue. Reflecting on the demise of his party, Lincoln wrote in 1855, \"I think I am a Whig, but others say there are no Whigs, and that I am an abolitionist...I do no more than oppose the ''extension'' of slavery.\" The new [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] was formed as a northern party dedicated to antislavery, drawing from the antislavery wing of the Whig Party, and combining [[Free Soil Party|Free Soil]], [[Liberty Party (United States, 1840)|Liberty]], and antislavery [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] members, Lincoln resisted early Republican entreaties, fearing that the new party would become a platform for extreme abolitionists. Lincoln held out hope for rejuvenating the Whigs, though he lamented his party's growing closeness with the nativist [[Know Nothing]] movement. In 1854 Lincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature but declined to take his seat. The year's elections showed the strong opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, and in the aftermath, Lincoln sought election to the United States Senate. At that time, senators were elected by the state legislature. After leading in the first six rounds of voting, he was unable to obtain a majority. Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for [[Lyman Trumbull]]. Trumbull was an antislavery Democrat, and had received few votes in the earlier ballots; his supporters, also antislavery Democrats, had vowed not to support any Whig. Lincoln's decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull's antislavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate, [[Joel Aldrich Matteson]].", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Republican politics (1854–1860)", "Emergence as Republican leader", "1856 campaign"], "text": "[[Bleeding Kansas|Violent political confrontations in Kansas]] continued, and opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act remained strong throughout the North. As the [[United States elections, 1856|1856 elections]] approached, Lincoln joined the Republicans and attended the [[Bloomington Convention]], which formally established the [[Illinois Republican Party]]. The convention platform endorsed Congress's right to regulate slavery in the territories and backed the admission of Kansas as a free state. Lincoln gave the [[Lincoln's Lost Speech|final speech]] of the convention supporting the party platform and called for the preservation of the Union. At the June [[1856 Republican National Convention]], though Lincoln received support to run as vice president, [[John C. Frémont]] and [[William Dayton]] comprised the ticket, which Lincoln supported throughout Illinois. The Democrats nominated former Secretary of State [[James Buchanan]] and the Know-Nothings nominated former Whig President [[Millard Fillmore]]. Buchanan prevailed, while Republican [[William Henry Bissell]] won election as Governor of Illinois, and Lincoln became a leading Republican in Illinois.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Republican politics (1854–1860)", "Emergence as Republican leader", "''Dred Scott v. Sandford''"], "text": "[[Dred Scott]] was a slave whose master took him from a slave state to a free territory under the Missouri Compromise. After Scott was returned to the slave state he petitioned a federal court for his freedom. His petition was denied in ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'' (1857). Supreme Court Chief Justice [[Roger B. Taney]] in the decision wrote that blacks were not citizens and derived no rights from the Constitution. While many Democrats hoped that ''Dred Scott'' would end the dispute over slavery in the territories, the decision sparked further outrage in the North. Lincoln denounced it as the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the [[Slave Power]]. He argued the decision was at variance with the Declaration of Independence; he said that while the founding fathers did not believe all men equal in every respect, they believed all men were equal \"in certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness\".", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Republican politics (1854–1860)", "Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech"], "text": "In 1858 Douglas was up for re-election in the U.S. Senate, and Lincoln hoped to defeat him. Many in the party felt that a former Whig should be nominated in 1858, and Lincoln's 1856 campaigning and support of Trumbull had earned him a favor. Some eastern Republicans supported Douglas from his opposition to the [[Lecompton Constitution]] and admission of Kansas as a [[slave state]]. Many Illinois Republicans resented this eastern interference. For the first time, Illinois Republicans held a convention to agree upon a Senate candidate, and Lincoln won the nomination with little opposition. Lincoln accepted the nomination with great enthusiasm and zeal. After his nomination he delivered his [[Lincoln's House Divided Speech|House Divided Speech]], with the biblical reference [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 3:25, \"A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other.\" The speech created a stark image of the danger of disunion. The stage was then set for the election of the Illinois legislature which would, in turn, select Lincoln or Douglas. When informed of Lincoln's nomination, Douglas stated, \"[Lincoln] is the strong man of the party ... and if I beat him, my victory will be hardly won.\" The Senate campaign featured seven [[Lincoln–Douglas debates|debates]] between the Lincoln and Douglas. These were the most famous political debates in American history; they had an atmosphere akin to a prizefight and drew crowds in the thousands. The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically. Lincoln warned that Douglas’ \"Slave Power\" was threatening the values of republicanism, and accused Douglas of distorting the Founding Fathers' premise that [[all men are created equal]]. Douglas emphasized his [[Freeport Doctrine]], that local settlers were free to choose whether to allow slavery, and accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists. Lincoln's argument assumed a moral tone, as he claimed Douglas represented a conspiracy to promote slavery. Douglas's argument was more legal, claiming that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court in the ''Dred Scott'' decision. Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas. Lincoln's articulation of the issues gave him a national political presence. In May 1859, Lincoln purchased the ''Illinois Staats-Anzeiger'', a German-language newspaper that was consistently supportive; most of the state's 130,000 German Americans voted Democratic but the German-language paper mobilized Republican support. In the aftermath of the 1858 election, newspapers frequently mentioned Lincoln as a potential Republican presidential candidate, rivaled by [[William H. Seward]], [[Salmon P. Chase]], [[Edward Bates]], and [[Simon Cameron]]. While Lincoln was popular in the Midwest, he lacked support in the Northeast, and was unsure whether to seek the office. In January 1860, Lincoln told a group of political allies that he would accept the nomination if offered, and in the following months several local papers endorsed his candidacy.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Republican politics (1854–1860)", "Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech"], "text": "Traveling untiringly Lincoln made about fifty speeches. By their quality and simplicity he quickly became the champion of the Republican party. However, unlike his overwhelming support in the mid-west his support in the east was not as great, where he sometimes encountered a lack of appreciation and in some quarters was met with much indifference. Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, at that time wrote up an unflattering account of Lincoln's compromising position on slavery and his reluctance to challenge the court's Dred-Scott ruling, which was promptly used against him by his political rivals. On February 27, 1860, powerful New York Republicans invited Lincoln to give a [[Cooper Union speech|speech at Cooper Union]], in which he argued that the [[List of national founders|Founding Fathers]] had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery. He insisted that morality required opposition to slavery, and rejected any \"groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong\". Many in the audience thought he appeared awkward and even ugly. But Lincoln demonstrated intellectual leadership that brought him into contention. Journalist [[Noah Brooks]] reported, \"No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience.\" Historian [[David Herbert Donald]] described the speech as a \"superb political move for an unannounced candidate, to appear in one rival's (Seward) own state at an event sponsored by the second rival's (Chase) loyalists, while not mentioning either by name during its delivery\". In response to an inquiry about his ambitions, Lincoln said, \"The taste ''is'' in my mouth a little.\"", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Republican politics (1854–1860)", "1860 presidential election"], "text": "On May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur. Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by [[David Davis (Supreme Court justice)|David Davis]], [[Norman B. Judd|Norman Judd]], [[Leonard Swett]], and Jesse DuBois, and Lincoln received his first endorsement. Exploiting his embellished frontier legend (clearing land and splitting fence rails), Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of \"The Rail Candidate\". In 1860, Lincoln described himself: \"I am in height, six feet, four inches, nearly; lean in flesh, weighing, on an average, one hundred and eighty pounds; dark complexion, with coarse black hair, and gray eyes.\" Michael Martinez wrote about the effective imaging of Lincoln by his campaign. At times he was presented as the plain-talking \"Rail Splitter\" and at other times he was \"Honest Abe\", unpolished but trustworthy. On May 18, at the [[1860 Republican National Convention|Republican National Convention]] in Chicago, Lincoln won the nomination on the third ballot, beating candidates such as Seward and Chase. A former Democrat, [[Hannibal Hamlin]] of Maine, was nominated for vice president to [[Ticket balance|balance the ticket]]. Lincoln's success depended on his campaign team, his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, and his strong support for internal improvements and the tariff. Pennsylvania put him over the top, led by the state's iron interests who were reassured by his tariff support. Lincoln's managers had focused on this delegation while honoring Lincoln's dictate to \"Make no contracts that will bind me\". As the Slave Power tightened its grip on the national government, most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party. Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln had doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession. When Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats, delegates from eleven slave states walked out of the [[1860 Democratic National Convention|Democratic convention]]; they opposed Douglas's position on popular sovereignty, and selected incumbent Vice President [[John C. Breckinridge]] as their candidate. A group of former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]] and nominated [[John Bell (Tennessee politician)|John Bell]] of Tennessee. Lincoln and Douglas competed for votes in the North, while Bell and Breckinridge primarily found support in the South. Prior to the Republican convention, the Lincoln campaign began cultivating a nationwide youth organization, the [[Wide Awakes]], which it used to generate popular support throughout the country to spearhead voter registration drives, thinking that new voters and young voters tended to embrace new parties. People of the Northern states knew the Southern states would vote against Lincoln and rallied supporters for Lincoln.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Republican politics (1854–1860)", "1860 presidential election"], "text": "As Douglas and the other candidates campaigned, Lincoln gave no speeches, relying on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North, and produced an abundance of campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials. Republican speakers focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln's life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty. The goal was to demonstrate the power of \"free labor\", which allowed a common farm boy to work his way to the top by his own efforts. The Republican Party's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition; a ''Chicago Tribune'' writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln's life, and sold 100,000–200,000 copies. Though he did not give public appearances, many sought to visit him and write him. In the runup to the election he took an office in the Illinois state capitol to deal with the influx of attention. He also hired [[John George Nicolay]] as his personal secretary, who would remain in that role during the presidency. On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th president. He was the first Republican president and his victory was entirely due to his support in the North and West. No ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states, an omen of the impending Civil War. Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, or 39.8% of the total in a four-way race, carrying the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon. His victory in the [[United States Electoral College|electoral college]] was decisive: Lincoln had 180 votes to 123 for his opponents.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Secession and inauguration"], "text": "The South was outraged by Lincoln's election, and in response secessionists implemented plans to leave the Union before he took office in March 1861. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed. Six of these states declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the [[Confederate States of America]], and adopted a constitution. The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) initially rejected the secessionist appeal. President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal. The Confederacy selected [[Jefferson Davis]] as its provisional president on February 9, 1861. Attempts at compromise followed but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected the proposed [[Crittenden Compromise]] as contrary to the Party's platform of free-soil in the [[Territories of the United States|territories]]. Lincoln said, \"I will suffer death before I consent ... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right.\" Lincoln tacitly supported the [[Corwin Amendment]] to the Constitution, which passed Congress and was awaiting ratification by the states when Lincoln took office. That doomed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed. A few weeks before the war, Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congress had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution. En route to his inauguration, Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North. He gave a particularly emotional [[Abraham Lincoln's farewell address|farewell address]] upon leaving Springfield; he would never again return to Springfield alive. The president-elect evaded suspected [[Baltimore Plot|assassins in Baltimore]]. On February 23, 1861, he arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C., which was placed under substantial military guard. Lincoln directed [[Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address|his inaugural address]] to the South, proclaiming once again that he had no inclination to abolish slavery in the Southern states:", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Secession and inauguration"], "text": "Lincoln cited his plans for banning the expansion of slavery as the key source of conflict between North and South, stating \"One section of our country believes slavery is right and ought to be extended, while the other believes it is wrong and ought not to be extended. This is the only substantial dispute.\" The president ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: \"We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies ... The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every living heart and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature.\" The failure of the [[Peace Conference of 1861]] signaled that legislative compromise was impossible. By March 1861, no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. Meanwhile, Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated. In his [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]], Lincoln looked back on the situation at the time and said: \"Both parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than let the Nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish, and the war came.\"", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Civil War"], "text": "[[Robert Anderson (Civil War)|Major Robert Anderson]], commander of the Union's [[Fort Sumter]] in Charleston, South Carolina, sent a request for provisions to Washington, and Lincoln's order to meet that request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces fired on Union troops [[Battle of Fort Sumter|at Fort Sumter]] and began the fight. Historian [[Allan Nevins]] argued that the newly inaugurated Lincoln made three miscalculations: underestimating the gravity of the crisis, exaggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South, and overlooking Southern Unionist opposition to an invasion. [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was \"sadly disappointed\" at his failure to realize that \"the country was sleeping on a volcano\" and that the South was preparing for war. Donald concludes that, \"His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft. Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he also vowed not to surrender the forts. The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first shot; they did just that.\" On April 15, Lincoln called on the states to send a total of [[President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers|75,000 volunteer troops]] to recapture forts, protect Washington, and \"preserve the Union\", which, in his view, remained intact despite the seceding states. This call forced states to choose sides. Virginia seceded and was rewarded with the designation of [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] as the Confederate capital, despite its exposure to Union lines. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas followed over the following two months. Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland, but did not prevail; Kentucky remained neutral. The Fort Sumter attack rallied Americans north of the [[Mason-Dixon line]] to defend the nation. As States sent Union regiments south, on April 19, Baltimore mobs in control of the rail links [[Baltimore riot of 1861|attacked Union troops]] who were changing trains. Local leaders' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital and the Army responded by arresting [[Maryland in the American Civil War#Imposition of martial law|local Maryland]] officials. Lincoln suspended the writ of ''[[Habeas corpus in the United States#Suspension during the Civil War|habeas corpus]]'' where needed for the security of troops trying to reach Washington. [[John Merryman]], one Maryland official hindering the U.S. troop movements, petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney to issue a writ of ''habeas corpus.'' In June Taney, ruling only for the lower circuit court in [[ex parte Merryman]], issued the writ which he felt could only be suspended by Congress. Lincoln persisted with the policy of suspension in select areas.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Civil War", "Union military strategy"], "text": "Lincoln took executive control of the war and shaped the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] military strategy. He responded to the unprecedented political and military crisis as [[commander-in-chief]] by exercising unprecedented authority. He expanded his war powers, imposed a blockade on Confederate ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, suspended ''habeas corpus'', and arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln gained the support of Congress and the northern public for these actions. Lincoln also had to reinforce Union sympathies in the border slave states and keep the war from becoming an international conflict. It was clear from the outset that bipartisan support was essential to success, and that any compromise alienated factions on both sides of the aisle, such as the appointment of Republicans and Democrats to command positions. Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on slavery. The Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery. On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the [[Confiscation Act of 1861|Confiscation Act]] that authorized judicial proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederates. The law had little practical effect, but it signaled political support for abolishing slavery. In August 1861, General John C. Frémont, the 1856 Republican presidential nominee, without consulting Washington, issued a martial edict freeing slaves of the rebels. Lincoln canceled the illegal proclamation as politically motivated and lacking military necessity. As a result, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri increased by over 40,000. Internationally, Lincoln wanted to forestall foreign military aid to the Confederacy. He relied on his combative Secretary of State [[William Seward]] while working closely with [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] chairman [[Charles Sumner]]. In the 1861 [[Trent Affair]] which threatened war with Great Britain, the U.S. Navy illegally intercepted a British mail ship, the ''Trent'', on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys; Britain protested vehemently while the U.S. cheered. Lincoln ended the crisis by releasing the two diplomats. Biographer [[James G. Randall]] dissected Lincoln's successful techniques: Lincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraph reports coming into the War Department. He tracked all phases of the effort, consulting with governors, and selecting generals based on their success, their state, and their party. In January 1862, after complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced [[United States Secretary of War|War Secretary]] Simon Cameron with [[Edwin Stanton]]. Stanton centralized the War Department's activities, auditing and canceling contracts, saving the federal government $17,000,000. Stanton was a staunch Unionist, pro-business, conservative Democrat who gravitated toward the Radical Republican faction. He worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than any other senior official. \"Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together\", say Thomas and Hyman.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Civil War", "Union military strategy"], "text": "Lincoln's war strategy embraced two priorities: ensuring that Washington was well-defended and conducting an aggressive war effort for a prompt, decisive victory. Twice a week, Lincoln met with his cabinet in the afternoon. Occasionally Mary prevailed on him to take a carriage ride, concerned that he was working too hard. For his edification Lincoln relied upon a book by his chief of staff General [[Henry Halleck]] entitled ''Elements of Military Art and Science''; Halleck was a disciple of the European strategist [[Antoine-Henri Jomini]]. Lincoln began to appreciate the critical need to control strategic points, such as the [[Mississippi River]]. Lincoln saw the importance of [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]] and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing territory.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Civil War", "General McClellan"], "text": "After the Union rout at [[First Battle of Bull Run|Bull Run]] and [[Winfield Scott]]'s retirement, Lincoln appointed Major General [[George B. McClellan]] general-in-chief. McClellan then took months to plan his Virginia [[Peninsula Campaign]]. McClellan's slow progress frustrated Lincoln, as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington. McClellan, in turn, blamed the failure of the campaign on Lincoln's reservation of troops for the capitol. In 1862 Lincoln removed McClellan for the general's continued inaction. He elevated Henry Halleck in July and appointed [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]] as head of the new [[Army of Virginia]]. Pope satisfied Lincoln's desire to advance on Richmond from the north, thus protecting Washington from counterattack. But Pope was then soundly defeated at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] in the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac back to defend Washington. Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln restored him to command of all forces around Washington. Two days after McClellan's return to command, General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s forces crossed the [[Potomac River]] into Maryland, leading to the [[Battle of Antietam]]. That battle, a Union victory, was among the bloodiest in American history; it facilitated Lincoln's [[Emancipation Proclamation]] in January. McClellan then resisted the president's demand that he pursue Lee's withdrawing army, while General [[Don Carlos Buell]] likewise refused orders to move the [[Army of the Ohio]] against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee. Lincoln replaced Buell with [[William Rosecrans]]; and after the [[1862 and 1863 United States House of Representatives elections|1862 midterm elections]] he replaced McClellan with [[Ambrose Burnside]]. The appointments were both politically neutral and adroit on Lincoln's part. Burnside, against presidential advice, launched an offensive across the [[Rappahannock River]] and was [[Battle of Fredericksburg|defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg]] in December. Desertions during 1863 came in the thousands and only increased after Fredericksburg, so Lincoln replaced Burnside with [[Joseph Hooker]]. In the 1862 midterm elections the Republicans suffered severe losses due to rising inflation, high taxes, rumors of corruption, suspension of ''habeas corpus'', [[Conscription|military draft law]], and fears that freed slaves would come North and undermine the labor market. The Emancipation Proclamation gained votes for Republicans in rural New England and the upper Midwest, but cost votes in the Irish and German strongholds and in the lower Midwest, where many Southerners had lived for generations. In the spring of 1863 Lincoln was sufficiently optimistic about upcoming military campaigns to think the end of the war could be near; the plans included attacks by Hooker on Lee north of Richmond, Rosecrans on Chattanooga, [[Ulysses S. Grant|Grant]] on Vicksburg, and a naval assault on Charleston. Hooker was routed by Lee at the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] in May, then resigned and was replaced by [[George Meade]]. Meade followed Lee north into Pennsylvania and beat him in the [[Gettysburg Campaign]], but then failed to follow up despite Lincoln's demands. At the same time, Grant captured Vicksburg and gained control of the Mississippi River, splitting the far western rebel states.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Civil War", "Emancipation Proclamation"], "text": "The Federal government's power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution, which before 1865 delegated the issue to the individual states. Lincoln argued that slavery would be rendered obsolete if its expansion into new territories were prevented. He sought to persuade the states to agree to [[compensated emancipation|compensation]] for emancipating their slaves in return for their acceptance of abolition. Lincoln rejected Fremont's two emancipation attempts in August 1861, as well as one by Major General [[David Hunter]] in May 1862, on the grounds that it was not within their power, and would upset loyal border states. In June 1862, Congress passed an act banning slavery on all federal territory, which Lincoln signed. In July, the [[Confiscation Act of 1862]] was enacted, providing court procedures to free the slaves of those convicted of aiding the rebellion; Lincoln approved the bill despite his belief that it was unconstitutional. He felt such action could be taken only within the war powers of the commander-in-chief, which he planned to exercise. Lincoln at this time reviewed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet. Privately, Lincoln concluded that the Confederacy's slave base had to be eliminated. Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification; Republican editor [[Horace Greeley]] of the ''New York Tribune'' agreed. In a letter of August 22, 1862, Lincoln said that while he personally wished all men could be free, regardless of that, his first obligation as president was to preserve the Union: The Emancipation Proclamation, issued on September 22, 1862, and effective January 1, 1863, affirmed the freedom of slaves in 10 states not then under Union control, with exemptions specified for areas under such control. Lincoln's comment on signing the Proclamation was: \"I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper.\" He spent the next 100 days preparing the army and the nation for emancipation, while Democrats rallied their voters by warning of the threat that freed slaves posed to northern whites. With the abolition of slavery in the rebel states now a military objective, Union armies advancing south liberated three million slaves. Enlisting former slaves became official policy. By the spring of 1863, Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in more than token numbers. In a letter to Tennessee military governor [[Andrew Johnson]] encouraging him to lead the way in raising black troops, Lincoln wrote, \"The bare sight of 50,000 armed and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once\". By the end of 1863, at Lincoln's direction, General [[Lorenzo Thomas]] had recruited 20 regiments of blacks from the Mississippi Valley. The Proclamation included Lincoln's earlier plans for [[Abraham Lincoln on slavery#Colonization|colonies]] for newly freed slaves, though that undertaking ultimately failed.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Civil War", "Gettysburg Address (1863)"], "text": "Lincoln spoke at the dedication of the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863. In 272 words, and three minutes, Lincoln asserted that the nation was born not in 1789, but in 1776, \"conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal\". He defined the war as dedicated to the principles of liberty and equality for all. He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldiers would not be in vain, that slavery would end, and the future of democracy would be assured, that \"government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth\". Defying his prediction that \"the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here\", the Address became the most quoted speech in American history.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Civil War", "General Grant"], "text": "[[Ulysses S. Grant|Grant's]] victories at the [[Battle of Shiloh]] and in the [[Vicksburg campaign]] impressed Lincoln. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln had said, \"I can't spare this man. He fights.\" With Grant in command, Lincoln felt the Union Army could advance in multiple theaters, while also including black troops. Meade's failure to capture Lee's army after Gettysburg and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac persuaded Lincoln to promote Grant to supreme commander. Grant then assumed command of Meade's army. Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a presidential candidacy in 1864. He arranged for an intermediary to inquire into Grant's political intentions, and once assured that he had none, Lincoln promoted Grant to the newly revived rank of Lieutenant General, a rank which had been unoccupied since [[George Washington]]. Authorization for such a promotion \"with the advice and consent of the Senate\" was provided by a new bill which Lincoln signed the same day he submitted Grant's name to the Senate. His nomination was confirmed by the Senate on March 2, 1864. Grant in 1864 waged the bloody [[Overland Campaign]], which exacted heavy losses on both sides. When Lincoln asked what Grant's plans were, the persistent general replied, \"I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer.\" Grant's army moved steadily south. Lincoln traveled to Grant's headquarters at [[City Point, Virginia]], to confer with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman. Lincoln reacted to Union losses by mobilizing support throughout the North. Lincoln authorized Grant to target infrastructure—plantations, railroads, and bridges—hoping to weaken the South's morale and fighting ability. He emphasized defeat of the Confederate armies over destruction (which was considerable) for its own sake. Lincoln's engagement became distinctly personal on one occasion in 1864 when Confederate general [[Jubal Early]] [[Battle of Fort Stevens|raided Washington, D.C.]]. Legend has it that while Lincoln watched from an exposed position, Union Captain (and future [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court Justice]]) [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]] shouted at him, \"Get down, you damn fool, before you get shot!\" As Grant continued to weaken Lee's forces, efforts to discuss peace began. Confederate Vice President [[Alexander H. Stephens|Stephens]] led a group meeting with Lincoln, Seward, and others at [[Hampton Roads Conference|Hampton Roads]]. Lincoln refused to negotiate with the Confederacy as a coequal; his objective to end the fighting was not realized. On April 1, 1865, Grant nearly encircled Petersburg in a siege. The Confederate government evacuated Richmond and Lincoln visited the conquered capital. On April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at [[Appomattox Court House National Historical Park|Appomattox]], officially ending the war.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Re-election"], "text": "Lincoln ran for reelection in 1864, while uniting the main Republican factions, along with [[War Democrats]] [[Edwin M. Stanton]] and Andrew Johnson. Lincoln used conversation and his patronage powers—greatly expanded from peacetime—to build support and fend off the Radicals' efforts to replace him. At its convention, the Republicans selected Johnson as his running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the new [[National Union Party (United States)|Union Party]]. Grant's bloody stalemates damaged Lincoln's re-election prospects, and many Republicans feared defeat. Lincoln confidentially pledged in writing that if he should lose the election, he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House; Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope. The pledge read as follows: The Democratic platform followed the \"Peace wing\" of the party and called the war a \"failure\"; but their candidate, McClellan, supported the war and repudiated the platform. Meanwhile, Lincoln emboldened Grant with more troops and Republican party support. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September and [[David Farragut]]'s capture of Mobile ended defeatism. The Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln. The National Union Party was united by Lincoln's support for emancipation. State Republican parties stressed the [[perfidy]] of the Copperheads. On November 8, Lincoln carried all but three states, including 78 percent of Union soldiers. On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address. In it, he deemed the war casualties to be God's will. Historian [[Mark Noll]] places the speech \"among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world;\" it is inscribed in the [[Lincoln Memorial]]. Lincoln said:", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Reconstruction"], "text": "Reconstruction preceded the war's end, as Lincoln and his associates considered the reintegration of the nation, and the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. When a general asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates were to be treated, Lincoln replied, \"Let 'em up easy.\" Lincoln was determined to find meaning in the war in its aftermath, and did not want to continue to outcast the southern states. His main goal was to keep the union together, so he proceeded by focusing not on whom to blame, but on how to rebuild the nation as one. Lincoln led the moderates in Reconstruction policy and was opposed by the Radicals, under Rep. [[Thaddeus Stevens]], Sen. Charles Sumner and Sen. [[Benjamin Wade]], who otherwise remained Lincoln's allies. Determined to reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held. His [[Ten percent plan|Amnesty Proclamation]] of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office and had not mistreated Union prisoners, if they were willing to sign an oath of allegiance. As Southern states fell, they needed leaders while their administrations were restored. In Tennessee and Arkansas, Lincoln respectively appointed Johnson and [[Frederick Steele]] as military governors. In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered General [[Nathaniel P. Banks]] to promote a plan that would reestablish statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed, and only if the reconstructed states abolished slavery. Democratic opponents accused Lincoln of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations. The Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient, and passed their own plan, the 1864 [[Wade–Davis Bill]], which Lincoln vetoed. The Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat elected representatives from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Lincoln's appointments were designed to harness both moderates and Radicals. To fill Chief Justice Taney's seat on the Supreme Court, he named the Radicals' choice, Salmon P. Chase, who Lincoln believed would uphold his emancipation and paper money policies. After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the nation with a constitutional amendment. He declared that such an amendment would \"clinch the whole matter\" and by December 1863 an amendment was brought to Congress. This first attempt fell short of the required two-thirds majority in the House of Representatives. Passage became part of the Republican/Unionist platform, and after a House debate the second attempt passed on January 31, 1865. With ratification, it became the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] on December 6, 1865. Lincoln believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen. He signed Senator Charles Sumner's [[Freedmen's Bureau]] bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate needs of former slaves. The law opened land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln announced a Reconstruction plan that involved short-term military control, pending readmission under the control of southern Unionists.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Reconstruction"], "text": "Historians agree that it is impossible to predict exactly how Reconstruction would have proceeded had Lincoln lived. Biographers James G. Randall and [[Richard Current]], according to David Lincove, argue that: [[Eric Foner]] argues that:", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Native American policy"], "text": "Lincoln's experience with Indians followed the death of his grandfather Abraham at their hands, in the presence of his father and uncles. Lincoln claimed Indians were antagonistic toward his father, Thomas Lincoln, and his young family. Although Lincoln was a veteran of the Black Hawk War, which was fought in Wisconsin and Illinois in 1832, he saw no significant action. During his presidency, Lincoln's policy toward Indians was driven by politics. He used the Indian Bureau as a source of patronage, making appointments to his loyal followers in Minnesota and Wisconsin. He faced difficulties guarding Western settlers, railroads, and telegraphs, from Indian attacks. On August 17, 1862, the [[Dakota War of 1862|Dakota uprising]] in Minnesota, supported by the [[Yankton Sioux Tribe|Yankton Indians]], killed hundreds of white settlers, forced 30,000 from their homes, and deeply alarmed the Lincoln administration. Some believed it was a conspiracy by the Confederacy to launch a war on the Northwestern front. Lincoln sent General John Pope, the former head of the Army of Virginia, to Minnesota as commander of the new [[Department of the Northwest]]. Lincoln ordered thousands of Confederate prisoners of war sent by railroad to put down the Dakota Uprising. When the Confederates protested forcing Confederate prisoners to fight Indians, Lincoln revoked the policy. Pope fought against the Indians mercilessly, even advocating their extinction. He ordered Indian farms and food supplies be destroyed, and Indian warriors be killed. Aiding Pope, Minnesota Congressman Col. [[Henry Hastings Sibley|Henry H. Sibley]] led militiamen and regular troops to defeat the Dakota at [[Battle of Wood Lake|Wood Lake]]. By October 9, Pope considered the uprising to be ended; hostilities ceased on December 26. An unusual military court was set up to prosecute captured natives, with Lincoln effectively acting as the route of appeal. Lincoln personally reviewed each of 303 execution warrants for [[Sioux#Santee (Isáŋyathi or Eastern Dakota)|Santee Dakota]] convicted of killing innocent farmers; he commuted the sentences of all but 39 (one was later reprieved). Lincoln sought to be lenient, but still send a message. He also faced significant public pressure, including threats of mob justice should any of the Dakota be spared. Former Governor of Minnesota [[Alexander Ramsey]] told Lincoln, in 1864, that he would have gotten more presidential election support had he executed all 303 of the Indians. Lincoln responded, \"I could not afford to hang men for votes.\"", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Other enactments"], "text": "In the selection and use of his cabinet, Lincoln employed the strengths of his opponents in a manner that emboldened his presidency. Lincoln commented on his thought process, \"We need the strongest men of the party in the Cabinet. We needed to hold our own people together. I had looked the party over and concluded that these were the very strongest men. Then I had no right to deprive the country of their services.\" Goodwin described the group in her biography as a ''[[Team of Rivals]]''. Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of a presidency focused on executing laws while deferring to Congress' responsibility for legislating. Lincoln vetoed only four bills, particularly the Wade-Davis Bill with its harsh Reconstruction program. The [[1862 Homestead Act]] made millions of acres of Western government-held land available for purchase at low cost. The 1862 [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]] provided government grants for [[List of agricultural universities and colleges|agricultural colleges]] in each state. The [[Pacific Railway Acts]] of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' [[First Transcontinental Railroad]], which was completed in 1869. The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was enabled by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s. There were two measures passed to raise revenues for the Federal government: tariffs (a policy with long precedent), and a [[Income tax in the United States|Federal income tax]]. In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and third [[Morrill Tariff]], following the first enacted by Buchanan. He also signed the [[Revenue Act of 1861]], creating the first U.S. income tax—a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes above $800 ($ in current dollar terms). The [[Revenue Act of 1862]] adopted rates that increased with income. Lincoln presided over the expansion of the federal government's economic influence in other areas. The [[National Banking Act]] created the system of national banks. The US issued paper currency for the first time, known as [[Greenback (1860s money)|greenbacks]]—printed in green on the reverse side. In 1862, Congress created the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]]. In response to rumors of a renewed draft, the editors of the ''[[New York World]]'' and the ''[[The Journal of Commerce|Journal of Commerce]]'' published a false draft proclamation that created an opportunity for the editors and others to corner the gold market. Lincoln attacked the media for such behavior, and ordered a military seizure of the two papers which lasted for two days. Lincoln is largely responsible for the [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving holiday]]. Thanksgiving had become a regional holiday in New England in the 17th century. It had been sporadically proclaimed by the federal government on irregular dates. The prior proclamation had been during [[James Madison]]'s presidency 50 years earlier. In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksgiving. In June 1864, Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as [[Yosemite National Park]].", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Judicial appointments", "Supreme Court appointments"], "text": "Lincoln's philosophy on court nominations was that \"we cannot ask a man what he will do, and if we should, and he should answer us, we should despise him for it. Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known.\" Lincoln made five appointments to the Supreme Court. [[Noah Haynes Swayne]] was an anti-slavery lawyer who was committed to the Union. [[Samuel Freeman Miller]] supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was an avowed abolitionist. David Davis was Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860 and had served as a judge in the Illinois court circuit where Lincoln practiced. Democrat [[Stephen Johnson Field]], a previous California Supreme Court justice, provided geographic and political balance. Finally, Lincoln's Treasury Secretary, Salmon P. Chase, became Chief Justice. Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist, would support Reconstruction legislation, and that his appointment united the Republican Party.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Judicial appointments", "Other judicial appointments"], "text": "Lincoln appointed 27 judges to the [[United States district courts]] but no judges to the [[United States circuit court]] during his time in office.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "States admitted to the Union"], "text": "[[West Virginia]] was admitted to the Union on June 20, 1863. [[Nevada]], which became the third state in the far-west of the continent, was admitted as a free state on October 31, 1864.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Assassination"], "text": "[[John Wilkes Booth]] was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; though he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts with the Confederate secret service. After attending an April 11, 1865 speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks, Booth hatched a plot to assassinate the President. When Booth learned of the Lincolns' intent to attend a play with General Grant, he planned to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at [[Ford's Theatre]]. Lincoln and his wife attended the play ''[[Our American Cousin]]'' on the evening of April 14, just five days after the Union victory at the [[Battle of Appomattox Courthouse]]. At the last minute, Grant decided to go to New Jersey to visit his children instead of attending the play. At 10:15 pm, Booth entered the back of Lincoln's theater box, crept up from behind, and fired at the back of Lincoln's head, mortally wounding him. Lincoln's guest Major [[Henry Rathbone]] momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped. After being attended by [[Charles Leale|Doctor Charles Leale]] and two other doctors, Lincoln was taken across the street to [[Petersen House]]. After remaining in a [[coma]] for eight hours, Lincoln died at 7:22 am on April 15. Stanton saluted and said, \"Now he belongs to the ages.\" Lincoln's body was placed in a flag-wrapped coffin, which was loaded into a hearse and escorted to the White House by Union soldiers. President Johnson was sworn in the next morning. Two weeks later, Booth was tracked to a farm in Virginia, and refusing to surrender, he was mortally shot by Sergeant [[Boston Corbett]] and died on April 26. Secretary of War Stanton had issued orders that Booth be taken alive, so Corbett was initially arrested for court martial. After a brief interview, Stanton declared him a patriot and dismissed the charge.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Presidency (1861–1865)", "Funeral and burial"], "text": "The late President lay in state, first in the East Room of the White House, and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21. The caskets containing Lincoln's body and the body of his son Willie traveled for three weeks on the ''Lincoln Special'' [[Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln#Funeral train|funeral train]]. The train followed a circuitous route from Washington D.C. to Springfield, Illinois, stopping at many cities for memorials attended by hundreds of thousands. Many others gathered along the tracks as the train passed with bands, bonfires, and hymn singing or in silent grief. Poet [[Walt Whitman]] composed \"[[When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd]]\" to eulogize him, one of [[Walt Whitman and Abraham Lincoln|four poems he wrote about Lincoln]]. African Americans were especially moved; they had lost 'their [[Moses]]'. In a larger sense, the reaction was in response to the deaths of so many men in the war. Historians emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow, but noted that some Lincoln haters celebrated his death.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Religious and philosophical beliefs"], "text": "As a young man, Lincoln was a [[religious skepticism|religious skeptic]]. He was deeply familiar with the Bible, quoting and praising it. He was private about his position on organized religion and respected the beliefs of others. He never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs. Through his entire public career, Lincoln had a proneness for quoting Scripture. His three most famous speeches—[[Lincoln's House Divided Speech|the House Divided Speech]], [[Gettysburg Address|the Gettysburg Address]], and [[Abraham Lincoln's second inaugural address|his second inaugural]]—each contain direct allusions to Providence and quotes from Scripture. In the 1840s, Lincoln subscribed to the [[The Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity Illustrated|Doctrine of Necessity]], a belief that the human mind was controlled by a higher power. With the death of his son Edward in 1850 he more frequently expressed a dependence on God. He never joined a church, although he frequently attended [[First Presbyterian Church (Springfield, Illinois)|First Presbyterian Church]] with his wife beginning in 1852. In the 1850s, Lincoln asserted his belief in \"providence\" in a general way, and rarely used the language or imagery of the evangelicals; he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence. The death of son Willie in February 1862 may have caused him to look toward religion for solace. After Willie's death, he questioned the divine necessity of the war's severity. He wrote at this time that God \"could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest. Yet the contest began. And having begun, He could give the final victory to either side any day. Yet the contest proceeds.\"", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Religious and philosophical beliefs"], "text": "Lincoln did believe in an all-powerful God that shaped events and by 1865 was expressing those beliefs in major speeches. By the end of the war, he increasingly appealed to the Almighty for solace and to explain events, writing on April 4, 1864, to a newspaper editor in Kentucky: I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me. Now, at the end of three years struggle the nation's condition is not what either party, or any man devised, or expected. God alone can claim it. Whither it is tending seems plain. If God now wills the removal of a great wrong, and wills also that we of the North as well as you of the South, shall pay fairly for our complicity in that wrong, impartial history will find therein new cause to attest and revere the justice and goodness of God.This spirituality can best be seen in his second inaugural address, considered by some scholars as the greatest such address in American history, and by Lincoln himself as his own greatest speech, or one of them at the very least. Lincoln explains therein the cause, purpose, and result of the war was God's will. Later in life, Lincoln's frequent use of religious imagery and language might have reflected his own personal beliefs and might have been a device to reach his audiences, who were mostly [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] [[Protestantism|Protestants]]. On the day Lincoln was assassinated, he reportedly told his wife he desired to visit the [[Holy Land]].", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Health"], "text": "Lincoln is believed to have had [[depression (mood)|depression]], [[smallpox]], and [[malaria]]. He took [[blue mass]] pills, which contained [[mercury (element)|mercury]], to treat [[constipation]]. It is unknown to what extent he may have suffered from [[mercury poisoning]]. Several claims have been made that Lincoln's health was declining before the assassination. These are often based on [[list of photographs of Abraham Lincoln|photographs of Lincoln]] appearing to show weight loss and muscle wasting. It is also suspected that he might have had a rare genetic disease such as [[Marfan syndrome]] or [[multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B]].", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Republican values"], "text": "Lincoln's redefinition of ''[[Republicanism in the United States|republican values]]'' has been stressed by historians such as [[John Patrick Diggins]], [[Harry V. Jaffa]], [[Vernon Burton]], Eric Foner, and Herman J. Belz. Lincoln called the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]]—which emphasized freedom and equality for all—the \"[[sheet anchor]]\" of republicanism beginning in the 1850s. He did this at a time when the [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]], which \"tolerated slavery\", was the focus of most political discourse. Diggins notes, \"Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself\" in the 1860 Cooper Union speech. Instead of focusing on the legality of an argument, he focused on the moral basis of republicanism. His position on war was founded on a legal argument regarding the Constitution as essentially a contract among the states, and all parties must agree to pull out of the contract. Furthermore, it was a national duty to ensure the republic stands in every state. Many soldiers and religious leaders from the north, though, felt the fight for liberty and freedom of slaves was ordained by their moral and religious beliefs. As a Whig activist, Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests, favoring high tariffs, banks, infrastructure improvements, and railroads, in opposition to [[Jacksonian democrats]]. [[William C. Harris (historian)|William C. Harris]] found that Lincoln's \"reverence for the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the laws under it, and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions strengthened his conservatism.\" James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and moderation \"in his preference for orderly progress, his distrust of dangerous agitation, and his reluctance toward ill digested schemes of reform.\" Randall concludes that \"he was conservative in his complete avoidance of that type of so-called 'radicalism' which involved abuse of the South, hatred for the slaveholder, thirst for vengeance, partisan plotting, and ungenerous demands that Southern institutions be transformed overnight by outsiders.\"", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Reunification of the states"], "text": "In Lincoln's first inaugural address, he explored the nature of democracy. He denounced secession as anarchy, and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints. He said \"A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people.\" The successful reunification of the states had consequences for how people viewed the country. The term \"the United States\" has historically been used, sometimes in the plural (\"these United States\"), and other times in the singular. The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Historical reputation"], "text": "In [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|surveys of U.S. scholars ranking presidents]] conducted since 1948, the top three presidents are Lincoln, Washington, and [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], although the order varies. Between 1999 and 2011, Lincoln, [[John F. Kennedy]], and [[Ronald Reagan]] have been the top-ranked presidents in eight surveys, according to Gallup. A 2004 study found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln number one, while legal scholars placed him second after George Washington. Lincoln's assassination left him a national martyr. He was viewed by abolitionists as a champion of human liberty. Republicans linked Lincoln's name to their party. Many, though not all, in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability. Historians have said he was \"a [[classical liberal]]\" in the 19th-century sense. [[Allen C. Guelzo]] states that Lincoln was a \"classical liberal democrat—an enemy of artificial hierarchy, a friend to trade and business as ennobling and enabling, and an American counterpart to Mill, Cobden, and Bright\", whose portrait Lincoln hung in his White House office. Schwartz argues that Lincoln's American reputation grew slowly from the late 19th century until the [[Progressive Era]] (1900–1920s), when he emerged as one of America's most venerated heroes, even among white Southerners. The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on the [[National Mall]] in Washington, D.C. Union nationalism, as envisioned by Lincoln, \"helped lead America to the nationalism of [[Theodore Roosevelt]], [[Woodrow Wilson]], and Franklin Delano Roosevelt.\" In the [[New Deal]] era, liberals honored Lincoln not so much as the [[self-made man]] or the great war president, but as the advocate of the common man who they claimed would have supported the [[welfare state]]. Sociologist [[Barry Schwartz (sociologist)|Barry Schwartz]] argues that in the 1930s and 1940s the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacred and provided the nation with \"a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life.\" During the [[Great Depression]], he argues, Lincoln served \"as a means for seeing the world's disappointments, for making its sufferings not so much explicable as meaningful\". Franklin D. Roosevelt, preparing America for war, used the words of the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed by Germany and Japan. Americans asked, \"What would Lincoln do?\" However, Schwartz also finds that since World War II Lincoln's symbolic power has lost relevance, and this \"fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness.\" He suggested that [[postmodernism]] and [[multiculturalism]] have diluted greatness as a concept.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Historical reputation"], "text": "In the [[Cold War]] years, Lincoln's image shifted to a symbol of freedom who brought hope to those oppressed by [[Communist regime]]. By the late 1960s, some African-American intellectuals, led by [[Lerone Bennett Jr.]], rejected Lincoln's role as the Great Emancipator. Bennett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a [[white supremacist]] in 1968. He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs and told jokes that ridiculed blacks. Bennett argued that Lincoln opposed social equality, and proposed sending freed slaves to another country. Defenders, such as authors Dirck and Cashin, retorted that he was not as bad as most politicians of his day; and that he was a \"moral visionary\" who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause, as fast as politically possible. The emphasis shifted away from Lincoln the emancipator to an argument that blacks had freed themselves from slavery, or at least were responsible for pressuring the government on emancipation. By the 1970s, Lincoln had become a hero to [[Conservatism in the United States|political conservatives]], apart from [[neo-Confederates]] such as [[Mel Bradford]] who denounced his treatment of the white South, for his intense nationalism, support for business, his insistence on stopping the spread of human bondage, his acting in terms of [[Lockean]] and [[Burkean]] principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition, and his devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers. Lincoln became a favorite exemplar for liberal intellectuals across the world. Historian Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that Lincoln's image suffered \"erosion, fading prestige, benign ridicule\" in the late 20th century. On the other hand, Donald opined in his 1996 biography that Lincoln was distinctly endowed with the personality trait of [[negative capability]], defined by the poet [[John Keats]] and attributed to extraordinary leaders who were \"content in the midst of uncertainties and doubts, and not compelled toward fact or reason\". In the 21st century, President [[Barack Obama]] named Lincoln his favorite president and insisted on using the [[Lincoln Bible]] for his inaugural ceremonies. Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering light.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Memory and memorials"], "text": "Lincoln's portrait appears on two denominations of [[United States currency]], the [[Penny (United States coin)|penny]] and the [[United States five-dollar bill|$5 bill]]. His likeness also appears on many [[Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps#Abraham Lincoln|postage stamps]]. While he is usually portrayed bearded, he didn't grow a beard until 1860 at the suggestion of 11-year-old [[Grace Bedell]]. He was the first of 16 presidents to do so. He has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names, including the [[Lincoln, Nebraska|capital]] of Nebraska. The [[United States Navy]] is named after Lincoln, the second Navy ship to bear his name. Lincoln Memorial is one of the most visited monuments in the nation's capital, and is one of the top five visited [[National Park Service]] sites in the country. Ford's Theatre, among the top sites in Washington, D.C., is across the street from Petersen House (where he died). Memorials in Springfield, Illinois include [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]], Lincoln's home, as well as [[Lincoln Tomb|his tomb]]. A portrait carving of Lincoln appears with those of three other presidents on [[Mount Rushmore]], which receives about 3 million visitors a year.", "id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "categories": ["Abraham Lincoln", "1809 births", "1865 deaths", "1865 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "American abolitionists", "American colonization movement", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American military personnel of the Indian Wars", "American militia officers", "American nationalists", "American people of English descent", "American political party founders", "American postmasters", "American surveyors", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery", "Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.", "Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees", "Illinois Central Railroad people", "Illinois Republicans", "Illinois Whigs", "Illinois lawyers", "Lincoln family", "Members of the Illinois House of Representatives", "Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois", "People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "People from Coles County, Illinois", "People from LaRue County, Kentucky", "People from Macon County, Illinois", "People from Spencer County, Indiana", "People murdered in Washington, D.C.", "People of Illinois in the American Civil War", "People with mood disorders", "Politicians from Springfield, Illinois", "Presidents of the United States", "Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Union political leaders", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives"], "seealso": ["List of civil rights leaders", "List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln", "Outline of Abraham Lincoln", "Lincoln Tower", "Grace Bedell", "Dakota War of 1862"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Aristotle''' (; ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek [[philosopher]] and [[polymath]] during the [[Classical Greece|Classical period]] in [[Ancient Greece]]. Taught by [[Plato]], he was the founder of the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]], the [[Peripatetic school]] of philosophy, and the [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] tradition. His writings cover many subjects including [[Physics (Aristotle)|physics]], [[biology]], [[zoology]], [[metaphysics]], [[logic]], [[ethics]], [[aesthetics]], [[Poetics (Aristotle)|poetry]], [[theatre]], [[music]], [[rhetoric]], [[psychology]], [[linguistics]], [[economics]], [[politics]], [[meteorology]], [[History of geology|geology]] and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual [[lexicon]], as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion. Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]] in [[Northern Greece]]. His father, [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined [[Plato's Academy]] in [[Athens]] and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of [[Philip II of Macedon]], tutored [[Alexander the Great]] beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]] which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on [[papyrus]] [[scrolls]]. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around [[Corpus Aristotelicum|a third of his original output has survived]], none of it intended for publication. Aristotle's views on [[Aristotelian physics|physical science]] profoundly shaped [[medieval philosophy|medieval scholarship]]. Their influence extended from [[Late Antiquity]] and the [[Early Middle Ages]] into the [[Renaissance]], and were not replaced systematically until [[Age of Enlightenment|the Enlightenment]] and theories such as [[classical mechanics]] were developed. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in [[Aristotle's biology|his biology]], such as on the [[Hectocotylus|hectocotyl (reproductive) arm]] of the [[octopus]], were disbelieved until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as [[Peter Abelard]] and [[John Buridan]]. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century. He influenced [[Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)]] during the [[Middle Ages]], as well as [[Christian theology]], especially the [[Neoplatonism]] of the [[Early Church]] and the [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] tradition of the [[Catholic Church]]. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as \"The First Teacher\" and among medieval Christians like [[Thomas Aquinas]] as simply \"The Philosopher\". His [[Aristotelian ethics|ethics]], though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of [[virtue ethics]]. Aristotle has been called \"the father of logic\", \"the father of biology\", \"the father of political science\", the \"father of zoology\", \"the father of scientific method\", \"the father of [[rhetoric]]\", and \"the father of meteorology\".", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Life"], "text": "In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points. Aristotle, whose name means \"the best purpose\" in Ancient Greek, was born in 384 BC in [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalcidice]], about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day [[Thessaloniki]]. His father [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]] was the personal physician to [[Amyntas III of Macedon|King Amyntas of Macedon]]. While he was young, Aristotle learned about biology and medical information, which was taught by his father. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and [[Proxenus of Atarneus]] became his guardian. Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Kingship and the royal court|Macedonian monarchy]]. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at [[Platonic Academy|Plato's Academy]]. He probably experienced the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, \"to experience is to learn\" [παθείν μαθεĩν]. Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew [[Speusippus]], although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died. Aristotle then accompanied [[Xenocrates]] to the court of his friend [[Hermias of Atarneus]] in [[Asia Minor]]. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil [[Theophrastus]] to the island of [[Lesbos]], where together they researched the [[botany]] and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married [[Pythias]], either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by [[Philip II of Macedon]] to become the tutor to his son [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]. Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of [[Macedon]]. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander but also to two other future kings: [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] and [[Cassander]]. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards [[Persia]] was unabashedly [[Ethnocentricism|ethnocentric]]. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be \"a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants\". By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]]. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with [[Herpyllis]] of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]]. If the ''[[Suda]]'' an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages is accurate, he may also have had an ''[[eromenos|erômenos]]'', [[Palaephatus |Palaephatus of Abydus]].", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Life"], "text": "This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in [[treatise]] form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'', ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'', ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', ''[[On the Soul]]'' and ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to \"logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theatre.\" Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an [[Hagnothemis|unlikely claim]] made some six years after the death. Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and [[Eurymedon the Hierophant]] reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in [[Chalcis|Chalcis, on Euboea]], at which occasion he was said to have stated: \"I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy\" – a reference to Athens's [[Trial of Socrates|trial and execution of Socrates]]. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student [[Antipater]] as his chief [[executor]] and leaving a [[Will (law)|will]] in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Speculative philosophy", "Logic"], "text": "With the ''[[Prior Analytics]]'', Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in [[mathematical logic]]. [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] stated in the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Speculative philosophy", "Logic", "''Organon''"], "text": "What is today called ''Aristotelian logic'' with its [[Syllogism#Types|types of syllogism]] (methods of logical argument), Aristotle himself would have labelled \"analytics\". The term \"logic\" he reserved to mean ''dialectics''. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the ''[[Organon]]'' around 40 BC by [[Andronicus of Rhodes]] or others among his followers. The books are: (1) ''[[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]]'' (2) ''[[On Interpretation]]'' (3) ''[[Prior Analytics]]'' (4) ''[[Posterior Analytics]]'' (5) ''[[Topics (Aristotle)|Topics]]'' (6) ''[[On Sophistical Refutations]]''  The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the ''Categories,'' the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in ''On Interpretation'', to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the ''Analytics'') and dialectics (in the ''Topics'' and ''Sophistical Refutations''). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory ''stricto sensu'': the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The ''Rhetoric'' is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the ''Topics''.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Speculative philosophy", "Metaphysics"], "text": "The word \"metaphysics\" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name ''Metaphysics''. Aristotle called it \"first philosophy\", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (''theoretikē'') philosophy which is \"theological\" and studies the divine. He wrote in his ''Metaphysics'' (1026a16):", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Speculative philosophy", "Metaphysics", "Substance"], "text": "Aristotle examines the concepts of [[Substance theory|substance]] (''ousia'') and [[essence]] (''to ti ên einai'', \"the what it was to be\") in his ''Metaphysics'' (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called [[hylomorphism]]. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the [[Material substratum|substratum]], or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers, etc., or whatever constitutes the ''potential'' house, while the form of the substance is the ''actual'' house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other [[Genus-differentia definition|differentia]] that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Speculative philosophy", "Metaphysics", "Substance", "Immanent realism"], "text": "Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the [[Problem of universals|universal]]. Aristotle's [[ontology]] places the universal (''katholou'') in [[particular]] (''kath' hekaston''), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, \"form\" is still what [[phenomena]] are based on, but is \"instantiated\" in a particular substance. Plato argued that all things have a [[Theory of forms|universal form]], which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When one looks at an apple, for example, one sees an apple, and one can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, one can place an apple next to a book, so that one can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but \"good\" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Speculative philosophy", "Metaphysics", "Substance", "Potentiality and actuality"], "text": "With regard to the change (''[[Potentiality and actuality|kinesis]]'') and its causes now, as he defines in his ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' and ''[[On Generation and Corruption]]'' 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from: (1) growth and diminution, which is change in quantity; (2) locomotion, which is change in space; and (3) alteration, which is change in quality.  The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (''[[Dunamis|dynamis]]'') and actuality (''[[entelecheia]]'') in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (''dynamei'') a plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (''poiein'') or 'be acted upon' (''paschein''), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (''telos'') is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to the previous example, it can be said that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do. In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a [[final cause]] or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, \"what is it that makes a man one\"? Since, according to [[Plato]] there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Speculative philosophy", "Epistemology"], "text": "Aristotle's immanent realism means his [[epistemology]] is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal [[Theory of Forms|Forms]] (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. Aristotle uses [[Inductive reasoning|induction]] from examples alongside [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]], whereas Plato relies on deduction from ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' principles.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Natural philosophy"], "text": "Aristotle's \"natural philosophy\" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences. In Aristotle's terminology, \"natural philosophy\" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as \"science\". However, his use of the term ''science'' carries a different meaning than that covered by the term \"scientific method\". For Aristotle, \"all science (''dianoia'') is either practical, poetical or theoretical\" (''Metaphysics'' 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Natural philosophy", "Physics", "Five elements"], "text": "In his ''[[On Generation and Corruption]]'', Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by [[Empedocles]], [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], [[Water (classical element)|Water]], [[Air (classical element)|Air]], and [[Fire (classical element)|Fire]], to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly [[Aether (classical element)|Aether]], the divine substance of the [[Celestial spheres|heavenly spheres]], stars and planets.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Natural philosophy", "Physics", "Motion"], "text": "Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: \"violent\" or \"unnatural motion\", such as that of a thrown stone, in the ''Physics'' (254b10), and \"natural motion\", such as of a falling object, in ''On the Heavens'' (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also: in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest, since Aristotle does not address [[friction]]. With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster. This would imply the equation  formula_1, incorrect in modern physics. Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens, while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places. In the ''Physics'' (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density, ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:  formula_2 Aristotle implies that in a [[vacuum]] the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the \"extreme view\" that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this. [[Archimedes]] corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they [[Archimedes' principle|displace enough water]]; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition. Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the [[Early Modern]] period. [[John Philoponus]] (in the [[Middle Ages]]) and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. A contrary opinion is given by [[Carlo Rovelli]], who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the [[Earth]]'s gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium. Newton's \"forced\" motion corresponds to Aristotle's \"violent\" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval [[theory of impetus]].", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Natural philosophy", "Physics", "Four causes"], "text": "Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term ''aitia'' is traditionally translated as \"cause\", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as \"explanation\", but the traditional rendering will be employed here. (-) [[Material cause]] describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino. (-) The [[formal cause]] is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells one what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing. (-) The [[efficient cause]] is \"the primary source\", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, non-living or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of \"cause\" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over. In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of [[developmental biology|how it develops from the egg]], and [[physiology|how its body functions]]. (-) The [[final cause]] (''telos'') is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition. In the case of living things, it implies [[adaptation]] to a particular way of life.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Natural philosophy", "Physics", "Optics"], "text": "Aristotle describes experiments in [[optics]] using a [[camera obscura]] in ''[[Problems (Aristotle)|Problems]]'', book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small [[aperture]] that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Natural philosophy", "Physics", "Chance and spontaneity"], "text": "According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of [[Accident (philosophy)|accidental things]], \"from what is spontaneous\". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names \"luck\", that only applies to people's moral choices.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Natural philosophy", "Astronomy"], "text": "In [[astronomy]], Aristotle refuted [[Democritus]]'s claim that the [[Milky Way]] was made up of \"those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays,\" pointing out correctly that if \"the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them.\"", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Natural philosophy", "Geology/Natural Sciences"], "text": "Aristotle was one of the first people to record any [[geology|geological]] observations. He stated that [[Uniformitarianism|geological change]] was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime. The geologist [[Charles Lyell]] noted that Aristotle described such change, including \"lakes that had dried up\" and \"deserts that had become watered by rivers\", giving as examples the growth of the [[Nile delta]] since the time of [[Homer]], and \"the upheaving of one of the [[Aeolian islands]], previous to a [[volcanic eruption]].\"' Aristotle also made many observations about the hydrologic cycle and meteorology (including his major writings \"Meteorologica\"). For example, he made some of the earliest observations about desalination: he observed early – and correctly – that when seawater is heated, freshwater evaporates and that the oceans are then replenished by the cycle of rainfall and river runoff (“I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh and the vapor does not when it condenses condense into sea water again” ", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Natural philosophy", "Biology", "Empirical research"], "text": "Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of [[Lesbos]] and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data in ''[[History of Animals]]'', ''[[Generation of Animals]]'', ''[[Movement of Animals]]'', and ''[[Parts of Animals]]'' are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas. His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on [[botany]] have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived. Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the [[catfish]], [[electric ray]], and [[frogfish]] in detail, as well as [[cephalopod]] such as the [[octopus]] and [[paper nautilus]]. His description of the [[hectocotylus|hectocotyl arm]] of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of [[ruminant]], and of the [[Ovoviviparity|ovoviviparous]] embryological development of the [[hound shark]]. He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the [[heron]], which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas [[duck]] that swim have short legs and webbed feet. [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]], too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of [[evolution]]. Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or [[Hybridisation (biology)|hybridizations]] could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a \"survival of the fittest\" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results. To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a [[common descent|common ancestor]], or that one kind can [[speciation|change into another]], or that kinds can become [[extinction|extinct]].", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Natural philosophy", "Biology", "Scientific style"], "text": "Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. He used the ancient Greek term ''pepeiramenoi'' to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection. In ''Generation of Animals'', he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside. Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as [[genomics]]. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific. From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of [[biological rules|rules]] relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. [[Life expectancy|Lifespan]] increases with [[gestation period]], and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, [[fecundity]] decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Natural philosophy", "Biology", "Classification of living things"], "text": "Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of [[animal]], arranging these in the ''History of Animals'' in a graded scale of perfection, a ''[[scala naturae]]'', with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave [[viviparity|live birth]] to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above [[plant]], and these in turn were above minerals. see also: He grouped what the modern zoologist would call [[vertebrate]] as the hotter \"animals with blood\", and below them the colder [[invertebrate]] as \"animals without blood\". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing ([[mammal]]), and the egg-laying ([[bird]], [[reptile]], [[fish]]). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and [[crustacea|shelled]]) and the hard-shelled [[mollusc]] ([[bivalve]] and [[gastropod]]). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a [[placenta]] like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is [[convergent evolution]]. He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this [[teleological]] view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Natural philosophy", "Psychology", "Soul"], "text": "Aristotle's [[psychology]], given in his treatise ''[[On the Soul]]'' (''peri psychēs''), posits three kinds of [[soul]] (\"psyches\"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the ''[[Nous#Aristotle|nous]]'' (intellect) and ''logos'' (reason). For Aristotle, the soul is the [[Hylomorphism#Body–soul hylomorphism|form]] of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement). In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of [[Alcmaeon of Croton|Alcmaeon]].", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Natural philosophy", "Psychology", "Memory"], "text": "According to Aristotle in ''On the Soul'', memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal \"appearance\" and an occurrence in the past. In other words, a memory is a mental picture ([[wikt:phantasm|phantasm]]) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when [[stimulus (psychology)|stimuli]] such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian , and thinking. Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in past experiences, both for previous experience and present experience. Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself. Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of \"images\" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed. Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression. Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed. Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and [[Contiguity (psychology)|contiguity]], described in his [[laws of association]]. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Natural philosophy", "Psychology", "Dreams"], "text": "Aristotle describes sleep in ''On Sleep and Wakefulness''. Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses or of digestion, so it is vital to the body. While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they cannot have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep, albeit differently, unless they are weary. Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner. Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then looks away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored. However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences. So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience. During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person. This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature. In ''De Anima'' iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, ''phantasia''.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Natural philosophy", "Psychology", "Dreams"], "text": "One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences. Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Practical philosophy"], "text": "Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as [[ethics]], [[politics]], [[economics]], and [[rhetoric]].", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Practical philosophy", "Just war theory"], "text": "Aristotelian [[just war theory]] is not well regarded in the present day, especially his view that warfare was justified to enslave \"natural slaves\". In Aristotelian philosophy, the abolition of what he considers \"[[natural slavery]]\" would undermine civic [[freedom]]. The pursuit of freedom is inseparable from pursuing mastery over \"those who deserve to be slaves\". According to ''The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's Politics'' the targets of this aggressive warfare were non-Greeks, noting Aristotle's view that \"our poets say 'it is proper for Greeks to rule non-Greeks' \". Aristotle generally has a favourable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for [[virtue]] and writing that \"the leisure that accompanies peace\" tends to make people \"arrogant\". War to \"avoid becoming enslaved to others\" is justified as self-defence. He writes that war \"compels people to be just and temperate\", however, in order to be just \"war must be chosen for the sake of peace\" (with the exception of wars of aggression discussed above).", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Practical philosophy", "Ethics"], "text": "Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]''. Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (''ergon'') of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the ''[[De Anima|psuchē]]'' (''soul'') in accordance with reason (''[[logos]]''). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, ''[[eudaimonia]]'', generally translated as \"happiness\" or sometimes \"well being\". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (''ēthikē'' ''[[arete (moral virtue)|aretē]]''), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence. Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (''[[phronesis]]'') and their intellect (''[[nous]]'') can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Practical philosophy", "Politics"], "text": "In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]''. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, \"for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part\". He famously stated that \"man is by nature a political animal\" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality. Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner. The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (''[[polis]]'') which functions as a political \"community\" or \"partnership\" (''koinōnia''). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: \"The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together.\" This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with [[social contract]] theory, according to which individuals leave the [[state of nature]] because of \"fear of violent death\" or its \"inconveniences.\" In ''[[Protrepticus (Aristotle)|Protrepticus]]'', the character 'Aristotle' states: As Plato's disciple Aristotle was rather skeptical concerning democracy and, following Plato's vague ideas, he developed a coherent theory of integrating various forms of power into a so-called mixed state: To illustrate this approach, Aristotle proposed a first-of-its-kind mathematical model of voting, albeit textually described, where the democratic principle of \"one voter–one vote\" is combined with the oligarchic \"merit-weighted voting\"; for relevant quotes and their translation into mathematical formulas see.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Practical philosophy", "Economics"], "text": "Aristotle made substantial contributions to [[economics|economic thought]], especially to thought in the Middle Ages. In ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', Aristotle addresses the city, [[property]], and [[trade]]. His response to criticisms of [[private property]], in [[Lionel Robbins]]'s view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall [[utility]] of social arrangements. Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from [[human nature]]. In ''Politics'', Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of [[money]]. Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or [[silver]]. Aristotle's discussions on [[retail]] and [[interest]] was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a [[profit (economics)|profit]]. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use. Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them \"commensurable\". He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, \"if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it\".", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Practical philosophy", "Rhetoric and poetics"], "text": "Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ''[[ethos]]'' (an appeal to the speaker's character), ''[[pathos]]'' (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and ''[[logos]]'' (an appeal to logical reasoning). He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: [[epideictic]] (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), [[Forensic rhetoric|forensic]] (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and [[Deliberative rhetoric|deliberative]] (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue). Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical [[Proof (truth)|proofs]]: ''[[enthymeme]]'' (proof by [[syllogism]]) and ''[[paradeigma]]'' (proof by example). Aristotle writes in his ''Poetics'' that [[epic poetry]], tragedy, comedy, [[Dithyramb|dithyrambic poetry]], painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of ''[[mimesis]]'' (\"imitation\"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. He applies the term ''mimesis'' both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention and contends that the audience's realisation of the ''mimesis'' is vital to understanding the work itself. Aristotle states that ''mimesis'' is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry \"follows the pattern of nature\". Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what [[Stephen Halliwell (academic)|Stephen Halliwell]] calls \"highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes.\" For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. While it is believed that Aristotle's ''Poetics'' originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the [[catharsis]] of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes ''Poetics'' with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]] and studied the fables of [[Aesop]].", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Practical philosophy", "Views on women"], "text": "Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of [[feminist metaphysics]] have accused Aristotle of [[misogyny]] and [[sexism]]. However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his ''Rhetoric'' that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Influence"], "text": "More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher [[Bryan Magee]], \"it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did\". Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of [[formal logic]], pioneered the study of [[zoology]], and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Taneli Kukkonen, writing in ''The Classical Tradition'', observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing \"every branch of intellectual enterprise\" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today \"will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind.\" [[Jonathan Barnes]] wrote that \"an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought\".", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Influence", "On his successor, Theophrastus"], "text": "Aristotle's pupil and successor, [[Theophrastus]], wrote the ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|History of Plants]]'', a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as [[carpel]] from ''carpos'', fruit, and [[pericarp]], from ''pericarpion'', seed chamber. Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Influence", "On later Greek philosophers"], "text": "The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the [[Lyceum]] grew into the [[Peripatetic school]]. Aristotle's notable students included [[Aristoxenus]], [[Dicaearchus]], [[Demetrius of Phalerum]], [[Eudemos of Rhodes]], [[Harpalus]], [[Hephaestion]], [[Mnason of Phocis]], [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over [[Alexander the Great]] is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about [[Persian people|Persian]] customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained \"Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?\"", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Influence", "On Hellenistic science"], "text": "After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of [[Alexandria]] under the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemies]] that advances in biology can be again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria, [[Herophilos|Herophilus of Chalcedon]], corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between [[vein]] and [[artery|arteries]], noting that the latter [[pulse]] while the former do not. Though a few ancient [[atomism|atomists]] such as [[Lucretius]] challenged the [[teleology|teleological]] viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, [[teleology]] (and after the rise of Christianity, [[natural theology]]) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. [[Ernst Mayr]] states that there was \"nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and [[Galen]] until the Renaissance.\"", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Influence", "On Byzantine scholars"], "text": "Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and [[Stephen of Alexandria]] in the early seventh century. [[John Philoponus]] stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought. Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the [[theory of impetus]] to explain his observations. After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and [[Michael of Ephesus]] reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by [[Anna Comnena]].", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Influence", "On the medieval Islamic world"], "text": "Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early [[Islamic theology]]. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle, as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. [[Averroes]], [[Avicenna]] and [[Alpharabius]], who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced [[Thomas Aquinas]] and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. [[Alkindus]] greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy, and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the \"exemplar\" for all future philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the \"First Teacher\". The title \"teacher\" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]) who were influenced by the tradition of [[Islamic philosophy]].", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Influence", "On medieval Europe"], "text": "With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early [[medieval]] Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the ''Organon'' made by [[Boethius]]. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by [[Gerard of Cremona]], and from the original Greek, such as those by [[James of Venice]] and [[William of Moerbeke]]. After the [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] Thomas Aquinas wrote his ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle \"The Philosopher\", the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the [[Greek language|Greek]] manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the [[Renaissance]]. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, [[Peter Abelard]], and [[John Buridan]] worked on Aristotelian logic. The medieval English poet [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]] describes his student as being happy by having A [[The tale of Phyllis and Aristotle|cautionary medieval tale]] held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as [[Hans Baldung]] produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme. The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'':", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Influence", "On Early Modern scientists"], "text": "In the [[Early Modern]] period, scientists such as [[William Harvey]] in England and [[Galileo Galilei]] in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like [[Galen]], establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the [[circulation of the blood]], establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought. Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Influence", "On 19th-century thinkers"], "text": "The 19th-century German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people (\"natural slaves\"), and the natural superiority (virtue, ''arete'') of others. It was [[Martin Heidegger]], not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. The English mathematician [[George Boole]] fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided \"to go under, over, and beyond\" it with his system of [[Boolean algebra|algebraic logic]] in his 1854 book ''[[The Laws of Thought]]''. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check [[Validity (logic)|validity]], and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Influence", "Modern rejection and rehabilitation"], "text": "During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]] argued that \"almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine\". Russell called Aristotle's ethics \"repulsive\", and labelled his logic \"as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy\". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors. The Dutch historian of science [[Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis]] wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by \"proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character\" on limited evidence from their senses. In 1985, the biologist [[Peter Medawar]] could still state in \"pure seventeenth century\" tones that Aristotle had assembled \"a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility\". By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that \"In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition.\" [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Kukkonen observed, too, that \"that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander\" remained current, as in the 2004 film ''[[Alexander (2004 film)|Alexander]]'', while the \"firm rules\" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the ''Poetics'' in [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]]. Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. [[Armand Marie Leroi]] has reconstructed Aristotle's biology, while [[Tinbergen's four questions|Niko Tinbergen's four questions]], based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse [[animal behaviour]]; they examine [[function (biology)|function]], [[phylogeny]], [[mechanism (biology)|mechanism]], and [[ontogeny]].", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Surviving works", "Corpus Aristotelicum"], "text": "The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of [[Immanuel Bekker]]'s Royal Prussian Academy edition (''Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica'', Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Surviving works", "Loss and preservation"], "text": "Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era. His writings are divisible into two groups: the \"[[exoteric]]\", intended for the public, and the \"[[esoteric]]\", for use within the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]] school. Aristotle's \"lost\" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication. [[Cicero]]'s description of Aristotle's literary style as \"a river of gold\" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes. A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones now possessed came to be found. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Depictions"], "text": "(-) Paintings Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]], [[Justus van Gent]], [[Raphael]], [[Paolo Veronese]], [[Jusepe de Ribera]], [[Rembrandt]], and [[Francesco Hayez]] over the centuries. Among the best-known depictions is Raphael's [[fresco]] ''[[The School of Athens]]'', in the [[Apostolic Palace|Vatican's Apostolic Palace]], where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural [[vanishing point]], reflecting their importance. Rembrandt's ''[[Aristotle with a Bust of Homer]]'', too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic [[Jonathan Jones (journalist)|Jonathan Jones]] writes, \"this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time.\" (-) Sculptures ", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": ["Legacy", "Eponyms"], "text": "The [[Aristotle Mountains]] in [[Antarctica]] are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book ''[[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]]'', the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it ''Antarctica''. [[Aristoteles (crater)|Aristoteles]] is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.", "id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "categories": ["Aristotle", "Aristotelianism", "384 BC births", "322 BC deaths", "4th-century BC philosophers", "4th-century BC writers", "Academic philosophers", "Acting theorists", "Ancient Greek biologists", "Ancient Greek economists", "Ancient Greek epistemologists", "Ancient Greek ethicists", "Ancient Greek logicians", "Ancient Greek mathematicians", "Ancient Greek metaphilosophers", "Ancient Greek metaphysicians", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Ancient Greek philosophers of language", "Ancient Greek philosophers of mind", "Ancient Greek physicists", "Ancient Greek political philosophers", "Ancient literary critics", "Ancient Stagirites", "Aphorists", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Attic Greek writers", "Cosmologists", "Critical thinking", "Cultural critics", "Epistemologists", "Ethicists", "Founders of philosophical traditions", "Greek male writers", "Greek meteorologists", "Humor researchers", "Irony theorists", "Logicians", "Metaphilosophers", "Metaphysicians", "Metic philosophers in Classical Athens", "Moral philosophers", "Natural philosophers", "Ontologists", "Peripatetic philosophers", "Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great", "Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice", "Philosophers of art", "Philosophers of culture", "Philosophers of education", "Philosophers of ethics and morality", "Philosophers of history", "Philosophers of law", "Philosophers of literature", "Philosophers of logic", "Philosophers of love", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Philosophers of technology", "Philosophical logic", "Philosophical theists", "Philosophy academics", "Philosophy writers", "Political philosophers", "Rhetoric theorists", "Social commentators", "Social critics", "Social philosophers", "Students of Plato", "Trope theorists", "Virtue", "Virtue ethicists", "Virtue ethics", "Western culture", "Western philosophy", "Zoologists", "4th-century BC mathematicians"], "seealso": ["Perfectionism", "Aristotelian Society", "Conimbricenses"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''''An American in Paris''''' is a jazz-influenced orchestral piece by American composer [[George Gershwin]] first performed in 1928. It was inspired by the time that Gershwin had spent in [[Paris]] and evokes the sights and energy of the French capital in the ''[[Années folles]]''. Gershwin scored the piece for the standard instruments of the symphony orchestra plus [[celesta]], saxophones, and automobile horns. He brought back four Parisian taxi horns for the New York premiere of the composition, which took place on December 13, 1928, in [[Carnegie Hall]], with [[Walter Damrosch]] conducting the [[New York Philharmonic]]. It was Damrosch who had commissioned Gershwin to write the [[Concerto in F]] following the success of ''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]'' (1924). He completed the orchestration on November 18, less than four weeks before the work's premiere. He collaborated on the original program notes with critic and composer [[Deems Taylor]].", "id": "309", "title": "An American in Paris", "categories": ["1928 compositions", "Compositions by George Gershwin", "Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients", "Music about Paris", "Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic", "Symphonic poems"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Background"], "text": "Although the story is likely apocryphal, Gershwin is said to have been attracted by [[Maurice Ravel]]'s unusual chords, and Gershwin went on his first trip to Paris in 1926 ready to study with Ravel. After his initial student audition with Ravel turned into a sharing of musical theories, Ravel said he could not teach him, saying, \"Why be a second-rate Ravel when you can be a first-rate Gershwin?\" Gershwin strongly encouraged Ravel to come to the United States for a tour. To this end, upon his return to New York, Gershwin joined the efforts of Ravel's friend [[E. Robert Schmitz|Robert Schmitz]], a pianist Ravel had met during the war, to urge Ravel to tour the U.S. Schmitz was the head of Pro Musica, promoting Franco-American musical relations, and was able to offer Ravel a $10,000 fee for the tour, an enticement Gershwin knew would be important to Ravel. Gershwin greeted Ravel in New York in March 1928 during a party held for Ravel's birthday by [[Éva Gauthier]]. Ravel's tour reignited Gershwin's desire to return to Paris, which he and his brother [[Ira Gershwin|Ira]] did after meeting Ravel. Ravel's high praise of Gershwin in an introductory letter to [[Nadia Boulanger]] caused Gershwin to seriously consider taking much more time to study abroad in Paris. Yet after he played for her, she told him she could not teach him. Boulanger gave Gershwin basically the same advice she gave all her accomplished master students: \"What could I give you that you haven't already got?\" This did not set Gershwin back, as his real intent abroad was to complete a new work based on Paris and perhaps a second rhapsody for piano and orchestra to follow his ''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]''. Paris at this time hosted many expatriate writers, among them [[Ezra Pound]], [[W. B. Yeats]], [[Ernest Hemingway]]; and artist [[Pablo Picasso]].", "id": "309", "title": "An American in Paris", "categories": ["1928 compositions", "Compositions by George Gershwin", "Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients", "Music about Paris", "Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic", "Symphonic poems"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Composition"], "text": "Gershwin based ''An American in Paris'' on a melodic fragment called \"Very Parisienne\", written in 1926 on his first visit to Paris as a gift to his hosts, Robert and Mabel Schirmer. Gershwin called it \"a rhapsodic ballet\"; it is written freely and in a much more modern idiom than his prior works. Gershwin explained in ''[[Musical America]]'', \"My purpose here is to portray the impressions of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city, listens to the various street noises, and absorbs the French atmosphere.\" The piece is structured into five sections, which culminate in a loose [[Ternary form|ABA format]]. Gershwin's first A episode introduces the two main \"walking\" themes in the \"Allegretto grazioso\" and develops a third theme in the \"Subito con brio\". The style of this A section is written in the typical French style of composers [[Claude Debussy]] and [[Les Six]]. This A section featured duple meter, singsong rhythms, and diatonic melodies with the sounds of oboe, English horn, and taxi horns. The B section's \"Andante ma con ritmo deciso\" introduces the American [[Blues]] and spasms of homesickness. The \"Allegro\" that follows continues to express homesickness in a faster [[twelve-bar blues]]. In the B section, Gershwin uses common time, syncopated rhythms, and bluesy melodies with the sounds of trumpet, saxophone, and snare drum. \"Moderato con grazia\" is the last A section that returns to the themes set in A. After recapitulating the \"walking\" themes, Gershwin overlays the slow blues theme from section B in the final \"Grandioso\".", "id": "309", "title": "An American in Paris", "categories": ["1928 compositions", "Compositions by George Gershwin", "Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients", "Music about Paris", "Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic", "Symphonic poems"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Response"], "text": "Gershwin did not particularly like Walter Damrosch's interpretation at the world premiere of ''An American in Paris''. He stated that Damrosch's sluggish, dragging tempo caused him to walk out of the hall during a matinee performance of this work. The audience, according to Edward Cushing, responded with \"a demonstration of enthusiasm impressively genuine in contrast to the conventional applause which new music, good and bad, ordinarily arouses.\" Critics believed that ''An American in Paris'' was better crafted than his [[Concerto in F (Gershwin)|Concerto in F]]. Some did not think it belonged in a program with classical composers [[César Franck]], [[Richard Wagner]], or [[Guillaume Lekeu]] on its premiere. Gershwin responded to the critics:", "id": "309", "title": "An American in Paris", "categories": ["1928 compositions", "Compositions by George Gershwin", "Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients", "Music about Paris", "Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic", "Symphonic poems"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Instrumentation"], "text": "''An American in Paris'' was originally scored for 3 [[flute]] (3rd doubling on [[piccolo]]), 2 [[oboe]], [[English horn]], 2 [[clarinet]] in [[soprano clarinet|B-flat]], [[bass clarinet]] in B-flat, 2 [[bassoon]], [[contrabassoon]], 4 [[French horn|horns]] in F, 3 [[trumpet]] in B-flat, 3 [[trombone]], [[tuba]], [[timpani]], [[snare drum]], [[bass drum]], [[Triangle (musical instrument)|triangle]], [[Woodblock (instrument)|wood block]], [[Ratchet (instrument)|ratchet]], [[cymbal]], low and high [[Tom-tom drum|tom-toms]], [[xylophone]], [[glockenspiel]], [[celesta]], 4 [[vehicle horn|taxi horns]] labeled as A, B, C and D with circles around them, [[alto saxophone]], [[tenor saxophone]], [[baritone saxophone]], (all saxophones doubling soprano saxophones) and [[String section|strings]]. Although most modern audiences have heard the taxi horns using the notes A, B, C and D, it has recently come to light that Gershwin's intention was to have used the notes A, B, D, and A. It is likely that in labeling the taxi horns as A, B, C and D with circles, he was referring to the four horns and not the notes that they played. A major revision of the work by composer and arranger F. Campbell-Watson simplified the instrumentation by reducing the saxophones to only three instruments, alto, tenor and baritone. The soprano saxophone doublings were eliminated to avoid changing instruments and the contrabassoon was also deleted. This became the standard performing edition until 2000, when Gershwin specialist [[Jack Gibbons]] made his own restoration of the original orchestration of ''An American in Paris'', working directly from Gershwin's original manuscript, including the restoration of Gershwin's soprano saxophone parts removed in Campbell-Watson's revision; Gibbons' restored orchestration of ''An American in Paris'' was performed at London's Queen Elizabeth Hall on July 9, 2000 by the City of Oxford Orchestra conducted by Levon Parikian. [[William Merrigan Daly|William Daly]] arranged the score for piano solo; this was published by New World Music in 1929.", "id": "309", "title": "An American in Paris", "categories": ["1928 compositions", "Compositions by George Gershwin", "Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients", "Music about Paris", "Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic", "Symphonic poems"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Preservation status"], "text": "On September 22, 2013, it was announced that a musicological [[Historical editions (music)|critical edition]] of the full orchestral score would be eventually released. The Gershwin family, working in conjunction with the [[Library of Congress]] and the [[University of Michigan]], were working to make scores available to the public that represent Gershwin's true intent. It was unknown whether the critical score would include the four minutes of material Gershwin later deleted from the work (such as the restatement of the blues theme after the faster 12 bar blues section), or if the score would document changes in the orchestration during Gershwin's composition process. The score to ''An American in Paris'' was scheduled to be issued first in a series of scores to be released. The entire project was expected take 30 to 40 years to complete, but ''An American in Paris'' was planned to be an early volume in the series. Two [[urtext edition]] of the work were published by the German publisher B-Note Music in 2015. The changes made by Campbell-Watson were withdrawn in both editions. In the extended urtext, 120 bars of music were re-integrated. Conductor Walter Damrosch had cut them shortly before the first performance. On September 9, 2017, The Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra gave the world premiere of the long-awaited critical edition of the piece prepared by Mark Clague, director of the Gershwin initiative at the University of Michigan. This performance was of the original 1928 orchestration, except that it upheld the deletion of the contrabassoon part, an alteration usually attributed to F. Campbell-Watson.", "id": "309", "title": "An American in Paris", "categories": ["1928 compositions", "Compositions by George Gershwin", "Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients", "Music about Paris", "Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic", "Symphonic poems"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Recordings"], "text": "''An American in Paris'' has been frequently recorded. The first recording was made for the [[Victor Talking Machine Company]] in 1929 with [[Nathaniel Shilkret]] conducting the Victor Symphony Orchestra, drawn from members of the [[Philadelphia Orchestra]]. Gershwin was on hand to \"supervise\" the recording; however, Shilkret was reported to be in charge and eventually asked the composer to leave the recording studio. Then, a little later, Shilkret discovered there was no one to play the brief [[celesta]] solo during the slow section, so he hastily asked Gershwin if he might play the solo; Gershwin said he could and so he briefly participated in the actual recording. This recording is believed to use the taxi horns in the way that Gershwin had intended using the notes A-flat, B-flat, a higher D and a lower A. The radio broadcast of the September 8, 1937 Hollywood Bowl George Gershwin Memorial Concert, in which ''An American in Paris,'' also conducted by Shilkret, was second on the program, was recorded and was released in 1998 in a two-CD set. [[Arthur Fiedler]] and the [[Boston Pops Orchestra]] recorded the work for RCA Victor, including one of the first stereo recordings of the music. In 1945, [[Arturo Toscanini]] conducting the [[NBC Symphony Orchestra]] recorded the piece for [[RCA Victor]], one of the few commercial recordings Toscanini made of music by an American composer. The [[Seattle Symphony]] also recorded a version in 1990 of Gershwin's original score, before he made numerous edits resulting in the score as we hear it today. [[Harry James]] released a version of the blues section on his 1953 album ''One Night Stand,'' recorded live at the [[Aragon Ballroom (Chicago)|Aragon Ballroom in Chicago]] ([[Columbia Records|Columbia]] GL 522 and CL 522).", "id": "309", "title": "An American in Paris", "categories": ["1928 compositions", "Compositions by George Gershwin", "Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients", "Music about Paris", "Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic", "Symphonic poems"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Use in film"], "text": "In 1951, [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] released the musical film ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American in Paris]]'', featuring [[Gene Kelly]] and [[Leslie Caron]]. Winning the 1951 Best Picture Oscar and numerous other awards, the film was directed by [[Vincente Minnelli]], featured many tunes of Gershwin, and concluded with an extensive, elaborate dance sequence built around the ''An American in Paris'' symphonic poem (arranged for the film by [[Johnny Green]]), costing $500,000.", "id": "309", "title": "An American in Paris", "categories": ["1928 compositions", "Compositions by George Gershwin", "Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients", "Music about Paris", "Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic", "Symphonic poems"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "The '''Academy Award for Best Production Design''' recognizes achievement for [[art direction]] in [[art director#In film|film]]. The category's original name was '''Best Art Direction''', but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the [[85th Academy Awards]]. This change resulted from the Art Director's branch of the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] (AMPAS) being renamed the Designer's branch. Since [[19th Academy Awards|1947]], the award is shared with the set decorator(s). It is awarded to the best interior design in a film. The films below are listed with their production year (for example, the [[72nd Academy Awards|2000 Academy Award]] for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees in alphabetical order.", "id": "316", "title": "Academy Award for Best Production Design", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "Best Art Direction Academy Award winners", "Awards for best art direction"], "seealso": ["Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Art Direction", "BAFTA Award for Best Production Design"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "The '''Academy Awards''', popularly known as '''the Oscars''', are awards for artistic and technical merit in the [[film industry]]. They are regarded as one of the most significant and prestigious awards in the entertainment industry. Given annually by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] (AMPAS), the awards are an international recognition of excellence in cinematic achievements, as assessed by the Academy's voting membership. The various category winners are awarded a copy of a golden statuette as a trophy, officially called the \"Academy Award of Merit\", although more commonly referred to by its nickname, the \"Oscar\". The statuette depicts a knight rendered in the [[Art Deco]] style. The award was originally sculpted by [[George Stanley (sculptor)|George Stanley]] from a design sketch by [[Cedric Gibbons]]. AMPAS first [[1st Academy Awards|presented it in 1929]] at a private dinner hosted by [[Douglas Fairbanks]] in the [[Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel]] in what would become known as the [[1st Academy Awards]]. The Academy Awards ceremony was first broadcast by radio in 1930 and was televised for the first time in 1953. It is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony and is now televised live worldwide. It is also the oldest of the [[EGOT|four major annual American entertainment awards]]; its equivalents – the [[Emmy Award]] for television, the [[Tony Award]] for theater, and the [[Grammy Award]] for music – are modeled after the Academy Awards. They are widely cited as the most famous and prestigious competitive awards in the field of entertainment. The [[93rd Academy Awards]] ceremony, honoring the [[2020 in film|best films of 2020]] and [[2021 in film|of early 2021]], was held on April 25, 2021, (after it was postponed from its original February 28, 2021, schedule due to the [[impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema]]). As with the two previous ceremonies, there was no host. The ceremony was broadcast on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]. It took place at the [[Dolby Theatre]] in Los Angeles, California, for the 19th consecutive year. Additionally, satellite location took place at the [[Union Station (Los Angeles)|Union Station]] also in Los Angeles. A total of 3,140 Oscar statuettes have been awarded since its inception in 1929.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "The [[1st Academy Awards|first Academy Awards]] presentation was held on May 16, 1929, at a private dinner function at the [[Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel]] with an audience of about 270 people. The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel. The cost of guest tickets for that night's ceremony was $5 ($ at 2020 prices). Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other participants in the film-making industry of the time, for their works during the 1927–28 period. The ceremony ran for 15 minutes. Winners were announced to media three months earlier. That was changed for the second ceremony in 1930. Since then, for the rest of the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11:00 pm on the night of the awards. This method was used until 1940, when the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' announced the winners before the ceremony began; as a result, the Academy has, since 1941, used a sealed envelope to reveal the names of the winners.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Milestones"], "text": "The first Best Actor awarded was [[Emil Jannings]], for his performances in ''[[The Last Command (1928 film)|The Last Command]]'' and ''[[The Way of All Flesh (1927 film)|The Way of All Flesh]]''. He had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier; this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. At that time, winners were recognized for the entirety of their work done in a certain category during the qualifying period; for example, Jannings received the award for two movies in which he starred during that period, and [[Janet Gaynor]] later won a single Oscar for performances in three films. With the fourth ceremony, however, the system changed, and professionals were honored for a specific performance in a single film. For the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years. At the 29th ceremony, held in 1957, the Best Foreign Language Film category, now known as [[Academy Award for Best International Feature Film|Best International Feature Film]], was introduced. Until then, foreign-language films had been honored with the Special Achievement Award. Perhaps the most widely seen [[streaking|streaker]] in history was 34-year-old Robert Opel, who streaked across the stage of The Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles flashing a peace sign on national US television at the 46th Academy Awards in 1974. Bemused host David Niven quipped, \"Isn't it fascinating to think that probably the only laugh that man will ever get in his life is by stripping off and showing his shortcomings?\" Later, evidence arose suggesting that Opel's appearance was facilitated as a publicity stunt by the show's producer Jack Haley Jr. Robert Metzler, the show's business manager, believed that the incident had been planned in some way; during the dress rehearsal Niven had asked Metzler's wife to borrow a pen so he could write down the famous line, which was thus not the [[Ad libitum|ad-lib]] it appeared to be. The 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first [[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature]]. From 1973 to 2020, all Academy Awards ceremonies have ended with the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]. For 2021, this tradition was broken as the ceremony ended with the [[Academy Award for Best Actor]]. Traditionally, the previous year's winner for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor present the awards for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress, while the previous year's winner for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress present the awards for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor. ''[[Parasite (2019 film)|Parasite]]'' became the first foreign-language film to win Best Picture at the [[92nd Academy Awards|February 9, 2020, award ceremony]].", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Milestones"], "text": "[[Tom Hanks]] announced at the [[92nd Academy Awards|2020 Oscar Ceremony]], the opening of the [[Academy Museum of Motion Pictures]] on December 14, 2020. The museum development started in 2017 under [[Kerry Brougher]], but is now led by Bill Kramer. The industry curated exhibits will be geared toward the history of motion picture, the art & science of film making, exhibiting trailblazing directors, actors, film makers, sound editors and more, and will house famous [[Cultural artifact|artifacts]] from acclaimed movies like [[Ruby slippers|Dorothy's Ruby Red Slippers]]. Because of [[COVID-19]], Academy president David Rubin and CEO Dawn Hudson announced that for the [[93rd Academy Awards|2021 Oscar Ceremony]], [[Streaming service provider|streaming movies]] not shown in theaters would be eligible, though at some point the requirement that movies be shown in theaters would return.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Oscar statuette", "Academy Award of Merit (Oscar statuette)"], "text": "The best known award is the Academy Award of Merit, more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. Made of gold-plated [[bronze]] on a black metal base, it is 13.5 in (34.3 cm) tall, weighs 8.5 lb (3.856 kg), and depicts a knight rendered in [[Art Deco]] style holding a [[crusades|crusader's]] sword standing on a reel of film with five spokes. The five spokes represent the original branches of the Academy: Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers, and Technicians. Sculptor [[George Stanley (sculptor)|George Stanley]] (who also did the Muse Fountain at the [[Hollywood Bowl]]) sculpted [[Cedric Gibbons]]' design. The statuettes presented at the initial ceremonies were gold-plated solid bronze. Within a few years, the bronze was abandoned in favor of [[Britannia metal]], a pewter-like alloy which is then plated in copper, nickel silver, and finally, 24-karat gold. Due to a metal shortage during World War II, Oscars were made of painted plaster for three years. Following the war, the Academy invited recipients to redeem the plaster figures for gold-plated metal ones. The only addition to the Oscar since it was created is a minor streamlining of the base. The original Oscar mold was cast in 1928 at the [[C.W. Shumway & Sons]] Foundry in [[Batavia, Illinois|Batavia]], Illinois, which also contributed to casting the molds for the [[Vince Lombardi Trophy]] and [[Emmy Award]]'s statuettes. From 1983 to 2015, approximately 50 Oscars in a tin alloy with gold plating were made each year in Chicago by Illinois manufacturer [[R.S. Owens & Company]]. It would take between three and four weeks to manufacture 50 statuettes. In 2016, the Academy returned to bronze as the core metal of the statuettes, handing manufacturing duties to [[Walden, New York|Walden]], New York-based Polich Tallix Fine Art Foundry. While based on a digital scan of an original 1929 Oscar, the statuettes retain their modern-era dimensions and black pedestal. Cast in liquid bronze from [[3D-printed]] ceramic molds and polished, they are then electroplated in 24-karat gold by [[Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]], New York–based Epner Technology. The time required to produce 50 such statuettes is roughly three months. R.S. Owens is expected to continue producing other awards for the Academy and service existing Oscars that need replating.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Oscar statuette", "Naming"], "text": "The Academy officially adopted the name \"Oscar\" for the trophies in 1939. However, the origin of the nickname is disputed. One biography of [[Bette Davis]], who was a president of the Academy in 1941, claims she named the award after her first husband, band leader Harmon Oscar Nelson. A frequently mentioned originator is [[Margaret Herrick]], the Academy executive secretary, who, when she first saw the award in 1931, said the statuette reminded her of \"Uncle Oscar\", a nickname for her cousin Oscar Pierce. Columnist [[Sidney Skolsky]], who was present during Herrick's naming in 1931, wrote that \"Employees have affectionately dubbed their famous statuette 'Oscar.'\" The Academy credits Skolsky with \"the first confirmed newspaper reference\" to ''Oscar'' in his column on March 16, 1934, which was written about that year's [[6th Academy Awards]]. The 1934 awards appeared again in another early media mention of ''Oscar'': a [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]] story. In the ceremonies that year, [[Walt Disney]] was the first to thank the Academy for his \"Oscar\" during his acceptance speech.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Oscar statuette", "Engraving"], "text": "To prevent information identifying the Oscar winners from leaking ahead of the ceremony, Oscar statuettes presented at the ceremony have blank baseplates. Until 2010, winners returned their statuettes to the Academy and had to wait several weeks to have their names inscribed on their respective Oscars. Since 2010, winners have had the option of having engraved nameplates applied to their statuettes at an inscription-processing station at the Governor's Ball, a party held immediately after the Oscar ceremony. The R.S. Owens company has engraved nameplates made before the ceremony, bearing the name of every potential winner. The nameplates for the non-winning nominees are later recycled.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Oscar statuette", "Ownership of Oscar statuettes"], "text": "Prior to 1950 Oscar statuettes were (and remain) the property of the recipient. Since then the statuettes have been legally [[encumbrance|encumbered]] by the requirement that the statuette be first offered for sale back to the Academy for US$1. If a winner refuses to agree to this stipulation, then the Academy keeps the statuette. Academy Awards predating this agreement have been sold in public auctions and private deals for six-figure sums. In 1989 [[Mike Todd|Michael Todd's]] grandson tried to sell Todd's [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] Oscar for his 1956 production of ''[[Around the World in 80 Days (1956 film)|Around the World in 80 Days]]'' to a movie prop collector. The Academy earned enforcement of its statuette contract by gaining a permanent injunction against the sale. In 1992, [[Harold Russell]] consigned his 1946 Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for ''[[The Best Years of Our Lives]]'' to auction in order to raise money for his wife's medical expenses. Though his decision caused controversy, the first-ever Oscar to be sold passed to a private collector on August 6, 1992 for $60,500 ($ today). Russell defended his action, saying, \"I don't know why anybody would be critical. My wife's health is much more important than sentimental reasons. The movie will be here, even if Oscar isn't.\" . In December 2011, [[Orson Welles]]' 1941 Oscar for ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' ([[Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay]]) was put up for auction, after his heirs won a 2004 court decision contending that Welles did not sign any agreement to return the statue to the Academy. On December 20, 2011, it sold in an online auction for US$861,542 ($ today). Some buyers have subsequently returned the statuettes to the Academy, which keeps them in its treasury.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Oscar statuette", "Other awards presented by the Academy"], "text": "In addition to the Academy Award of Merit (Oscar award), there are nine honorary (non-competitive) awards presented by the Academy from time to time (except for the Academy Honorary Award, the Technical Achievement Award, and the Student Academy Awards, which are presented annually): (-) [[Governors Awards]]: (-) The [[Academy Honorary Award]] (annual) (which may or may not be in the form of an Oscar statuette); (-) The [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]] (since 1938) (in the form of a bust of Thalberg); (-) The [[Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]] (since 1957) (in the form of an Oscar statuette); (-) The [[Academy Scientific and Technical Award]]: (-) Academy Award of Merit (non-competitive) (in the form of an Oscar statuette); (-) [[Scientific and Engineering Award]] (in the form of a bronze tablet); (-) [[Academy Award for Technical Achievement|Technical Achievement Award]] (annual) (in the form of a certificate); (-) The [[John A. Bonner Medal of Commendation]] (since 1978) (in the form of a medal); (-) The [[Gordon E. Sawyer Award]] (since 1982); and (-) The Academy [[Student Academy Awards]] (annual). The Academy also awards [[Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting]].", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Nomination"], "text": "Since 2004, Academy Award nomination results have been announced to the public in mid-January. Prior to that, the results were announced in early February. In 2021, the nominees are announced in March.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Nomination", "Voters"], "text": "The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), a professional honorary organization, maintains a voting membership of over 7,000 . Academy membership is divided into different branches, with each representing a different discipline in film production. Actors constitute the largest voting bloc, numbering 1,311 members (22 percent) of the Academy's composition. Votes have been certified by the auditing firm [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] (and its predecessor [[Price Waterhouse]]) since the [[7th Academy Awards]] in 1935. The firm mails the ballots of eligible nominees to members of the Academy in December to reflect the previous eligible year with a due date sometime in January of the next year, then tabulates the votes in a process that takes thousands of hours. All AMPAS members must be invited to join by the Board of Governors, on behalf of Academy Branch Executive Committees. Membership eligibility may be achieved by a competitive nomination or a member may submit a name based on other significant contributions to the field of motion pictures. New membership proposals are considered annually. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although as recently as 2007 press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. The 2007 release also stated that it has just under 6,000 voting members. While the membership had been growing, stricter policies have kept its size steady since then. In 2012, the results of a study conducted by the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' were published describing the demographic breakdown of approximately 88% of AMPAS' voting membership. Of the 5,100+ active voters confirmed, 94% were Caucasian, 77% were male, and 54% were found to be over the age of 60. 33% of voting members are former nominees (14%) and winners (19%). In May 2011, the Academy sent a letter advising its 6,000 or so voting members that an online system for Oscar voting would be implemented in 2013.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Nomination", "Rules"], "text": "According to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film must open in the previous calendar year, from midnight at the start of January 1 to midnight at the end of December 31, in [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]], California, and play for seven consecutive days, to qualify (except for the Best International Feature Film, Best Documentary Feature, and awards in short film categories). Additionally, the film must be shown at least three times on each day of its qualifying run, with at least one of the daily showings starting between 6 pm and 10 pm local time. For example, the 2009 [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] winner, ''[[The Hurt Locker]]'', was actually first released in 2008, but did not qualify for the [[81st Academy Awards|2008 awards]], as it did not play its Oscar-qualifying run in Los Angeles until mid-2009, thus qualifying for the [[82nd Academy Awards|2009 awards]]. Foreign films must include English subtitles, and each country can submit only one film for consideration in the International Feature Film category per year. Rule 2 states that a film must be feature-length, defined as a minimum of 40 minutes, except for short-subject awards, and it must exist either on a [[35mm movie film|35 mm]] or [[70 mm film]] print or in 24 frame/s or 48 frame/s [[progressive scan]] [[digital cinema]] format with a minimum projector resolution of 2048 by 1080 pixels. Since the [[90th Academy Awards]], presented in 2018, multi-part and limited series have been ineligible for the Best Documentary Feature award. This followed the win of ''[[O.J.: Made in America]]'', an eight-hour presentation that was screened in a limited release before being broadcast in five parts on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] and [[ESPN]], in that category in [[89th Academy Awards|2017]]. The Academy's announcement of the new rule made no direct mention of that film. The Best International Feature Film award does not require a U.S. release. It requires the film to be submitted as its country's official selection. The Best Documentary Feature award requires either week-long releases in both Los Angeles County and New York City during the previous calendar year, or a qualifying award at a competitive film festival from the Documentary Feature Qualifying Festival list (regardless of any public exhibition or distribution), or a submission in the International Feature Film category as its country's official selection. The qualifying theatrical runs must meet the same requirements as those for non-documentary films regarding numbers and times of screenings. Additionally, a film must have been reviewed by a critic from ''[[The New York Times]]'', ''[[Time Out New York]]'', the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', or ''[[LA Weekly]]''. Producers must submit an Official Screen Credits online form before the deadline; in case it is not submitted by the defined deadline, the film will be ineligible for Academy Awards in any year. The form includes the production credits for all related categories. Then, each form is checked and put in a Reminder List of Eligible Releases.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Nomination", "Rules"], "text": "Awards in short film categories (Best Documentary Short Subject, Best Animated Short Film, and Best Live Action Short Film) have noticeably different eligibility rules from most other competitive awards. First, the qualifying period for release does not coincide with a calendar year, instead covering a one-year period starting on October 1 and ending on September 30 of the calendar year before the ceremony. Second, there are multiple methods of qualification. The main method is a week-long theatrical release in ''either'' Los Angeles County ''or'' New York City during the eligibility period. Films also can qualify by winning specified awards at one of a number of competitive film festivals designated by the Academy, also without regard to prior public distribution. Finally, a film that is selected as a gold, silver, or bronze medal winner in an appropriate category of the immediately previous Student Academy Awards is also eligible (Documentary category for that award, and Animation, Narrative, Alternative, or International for the other awards). The requirements for the qualifying theatrical run are also different from those for other awards. Only one screening per day is required. For the Documentary award, the screening must start between noon and 10 pm local time; for other awards, no specific start time is required, but the film must appear in regular theater listings with dates and screening times. In late December, ballots, and copies of the Reminder List of Eligible Releases are mailed to around 6,000 active members. For most categories, members from each of the branches vote to determine the nominees only in their respective categories (i.e. only directors vote for directors, writers for writers, actors for actors, etc.). In the special case of Best Picture, all voting members are eligible to select the nominees. In all major categories, a variant of the [[single transferable vote]] is used, with each member casting a ballot with up to five nominees (ten for Best Picture) ranked preferentially. In certain categories, including International Feature Film, Documentary and Animated Feature, nominees are selected by special screening committees made up of members from all branches. In most categories, the winner is selected from among the nominees by [[plurality voting]] of all members. Since 2009, the Best Picture winner has been chosen by [[instant runoff voting]]. Since 2013, re-weighted [[range voting]] has been used to select the nominees for the [[Academy Award for Best Visual Effects|Best Visual Effects]].", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Nomination", "Rules"], "text": "Film companies will spend as much as several million dollars on [[For Your Consideration (advertising)|marketing to awards voters]] for a movie in the running for Best Picture, in attempts to improve chances of receiving Oscars and other movie awards conferred in [[Oscar season]]. The Academy enforces rules to limit overt campaigning by its members so as to try to eliminate excesses and prevent the process from becoming undignified. It has an awards czar on staff who advises members on allowed practices and levies penalties on offenders. For example, a producer of the 2009 Best Picture nominee ''[[The Hurt Locker]]'' was disqualified as a producer in the category when he contacted associates urging them to vote for his film and not another that was seen as the front-runner (''The Hurt Locker'' eventually won).", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Awards ceremonies", "Telecast"], "text": "The major awards are presented at a live televised ceremony, commonly in late February or early March following the relevant calendar year, and six weeks after the announcement of the nominees. It is the culmination of the film awards season, which usually begins during November or December of the previous year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent fashion designers of the day. [[Black tie]] dress is the most common outfit for men, although fashion may dictate not wearing a [[bow-tie]], and musical performers sometimes do not adhere to this. (The artists who recorded the nominees for Best Original Song quite often perform those songs live at the awards ceremony, and the fact that they are performing is often used to promote the television broadcast.) The Academy Awards is the world's longest-running awards show televised live from the U.S. to all time zones in North America and worldwide, and gathers billions of viewers elsewhere throughout the world. The Oscars were first televised in [[25th Academy Awards|1953]] by [[NBC]], which continued to broadcast the event until [[32nd Academy Awards|1960]], when [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] took over, televising the festivities (including the first color broadcast of the event in [[38th Academy Awards|1966]]) through [[42nd Academy Awards|1970]]. NBC regained the rights for five years then ABC resumed broadcast duties in [[48th Academy Awards|1976]] and its current contract with the Academy runs through 2028. The Academy has also produced condensed versions of the ceremony for broadcast in international markets (especially those outside of the Americas) in more desirable local timeslots. The ceremony was broadcast live internationally for the first time via satellite since 1970, but only two South American countries, Chile and Brazil, purchased the rights to air the broadcast. By that time, the television rights to the Academy Awards had been sold in 50 countries. A decade later, the rights were already being sold to 60 countries, and by [[56th Academy Awards|1984]], the TV rights to the Awards were licensed in 76 countries.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Awards ceremonies", "Telecast"], "text": "The ceremonies were moved up from late March/early April to late February, since [[76th Academy Awards|2004]], to help disrupt and shorten the intense [[For Your Consideration (advertising)|lobbying and ad campaigns]] associated with [[Oscar season]] in the film industry. Another reason was because of the growing TV ratings success coinciding with the [[NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament|NCAA Basketball Tournament]], which would cut into the Academy Awards audience. (In [[48th Academy Awards|1976]] and [[49th Academy Awards|1977]], ABC's regained Oscars were moved from Tuesday to Monday and went directly opposite NBC's NCAA title game.) The earlier date is also to the advantage of ABC, as it now usually occurs during the highly profitable and important February [[sweeps]] period. Some years, the ceremony is moved into the first Sunday of March to avoid a clash with the [[Winter Olympic Games]]. Another reason for the move to late February and early March is also to avoid the awards ceremony occurring so close to the religious holidays of [[Passover]] and Easter, which for decades had been a grievance from members and the general public. Advertising is somewhat restricted, however, as traditionally no movie studios or competitors of official Academy Award sponsors may advertise during the telecast. The production of the Academy Awards telecast currently holds the distinction of winning the most [[Emmy Awards|Emmys]] in history, with 47 wins and 195 nominations overall since that award's own launch in [[21st Academy Awards|1949]]. After many years of being held on Mondays at 9:00 pm [[Eastern Time Zone|Eastern]]/6:00 p.m [[Pacific Time Zone|Pacific]], since the [[71st Academy Awards|1999 ceremonies]], it was moved to Sundays at 8:30 pm ET/5:30 pm PT. The reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in on Sundays, that Los Angeles rush-hour traffic jams could be avoided, and an earlier start time would allow viewers on the East Coast to go to bed earlier. For many years the film industry opposed a Sunday broadcast because it would cut into the weekend box office. In 2010, the Academy contemplated moving the ceremony even further back into January, citing TV viewers' fatigue with the film industry's long awards season. However, such an accelerated schedule would dramatically decrease the voting period for its members, to the point where some voters would only have time to view the contending films streamed on their computers (as opposed to traditionally receiving the films and ballots in the mail). Furthermore, a January ceremony on Sunday would clash with [[National Football League]] playoff games. In 2018, the Academy announced that the ceremony would be moved from late February to mid February beginning with the 92nd Academy Awards in 2020. Originally scheduled for April 8, 1968, the [[40th Academy Awards]] ceremony was postponed for two days, because of the [[Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.|assassination]] of [[Martin Luther King Jr.|Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.]]. On March 30, 1981, the [[53rd Academy Awards]] was postponed for one day, after [[Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan|the shooting]] of President [[Ronald Reagan]] and others in Washington, D.C.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Awards ceremonies", "Telecast"], "text": "In 1993, an ''In Memoriam'' segment was introduced, honoring those who had made a significant contribution to cinema who had died in the preceding 12 months, a selection compiled by a small committee of Academy members. This segment has drawn criticism over the years for the omission of some names. Criticism was also levied for many years regarding another aspect, with the segment having a \"[[popularity contest]]\" feel as the audience varied their applause to those who had died by the subject's cultural impact; the applause has since been muted during the telecast, and the audience is discouraged from clapping during the segment and giving silent reflection instead. This segment was later followed by a commercial break. In terms of broadcast length, the ceremony generally averages three and a half hours. The first Oscars, in 1929, lasted 15 minutes. At the other end of the spectrum, the 2002 ceremony lasted four hours and twenty-three minutes. In 2010, the organizers of the Academy Awards announced winners' [[Oscar speech|acceptance speeches]] must not run past 45 seconds. This, according to organizer Bill Mechanic, was to ensure the elimination of what he termed \"the single most hated thing on the show\" – overly long and embarrassing displays of emotion. In 2016, in a further effort to streamline speeches, winners' dedications were displayed on an on-screen [[news ticker|ticker]]. During the 2018 ceremony, host [[Jimmy Kimmel]] acknowledged how long the ceremony had become, by announcing that he would give a brand-new [[jet ski]] to whoever gave the shortest speech of the night (a reward won by [[Mark Bridges (costume designer)|Mark Bridges]] when accepting his [[Academy Award for Best Costume Design|Best Costume Design]] award for ''[[Phantom Thread]]''). ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' analyzed the average minutes spent across the 2014–2018 telecasts as follows: 14 on song performances; 25 on the hosts' speeches; 38 on prerecorded clips; and 78 on the awards themselves, broken into 24 on the introduction and announcement, 24 on winners walking to the stage, and 30 on their acceptance speeches. Although still dominant in ratings, the viewership of the Academy Awards has steadily dropped; the [[88th Academy Awards]] were the lowest-rated in the past eight years (although with increases in male and 18–49 viewership), while the show itself also faced mixed reception. Following the show, ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'' reported that ABC was, in negotiating an extension to its contract to broadcast the Oscars, seeking to have more creative control over the broadcast itself. Currently and nominally, AMPAS is responsible for most aspects of the telecast, including the choice of production staff and hosting, although ABC is allowed to have some input on their decisions. In August 2016, AMPAS extended its contract with ABC through 2028: the contract neither contains any notable changes nor gives ABC any further creative control over the telecast.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Awards ceremonies", "TV ratings"], "text": "Historically, the telecast's viewership is higher when box-office hits are favored to win the Best Picture award. More than 57.25 million viewers tuned to the telecast for the [[70th Academy Awards]] in 1998, the year of ''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]'', which generated a box office haul during its initial 1997–98 run of US$600.8 million in the US, a box office record that would remain unsurpassed for years. The [[76th Academy Awards]] ceremony, in which ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King]]'' (pre-telecast box office earnings of US$368 million) received 11 Awards including Best Picture, drew 43.56 million viewers. The most watched ceremony based on [[Nielsen ratings]] to date, however, was the [[42nd Academy Awards]] (Best Picture ''[[Midnight Cowboy]]'') which drew a 43.4% household rating on April 7, 1970. By contrast, ceremonies honoring films that have not performed well at the box office tend to show weaker ratings, despite how much critically acclaimed those films have been. The [[78th Academy Awards]] which awarded low-budget independent film ''[[Crash (2004 film)|Crash]]'' (with a pre-Oscar gross of US$53.4 million) generated an audience of 38.64 million with a household rating of 22.91%. In 2008, the [[80th Academy Awards]] telecast was watched by 31.76 million viewers on average with an 18.66% household rating, the lowest-rated and least-watched ceremony at the time, in spite of celebrating 80 years of the Academy Awards. The Best Picture winner of that particular ceremony was another independent film (''[[No Country for Old Men (film)|No Country for Old Men]]''). Whereas the 92nd Academy Awards drew an average of 23.6 million viewers, the 93rd Academy Awards drew an even lower viewership of 10.4 million. That is the lowest viewership recorded by Nielsen since it started recording audience totals in 1974.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Awards ceremonies", "Archive"], "text": "The [[Academy Film Archive]] holds copies of every Academy Awards ceremony since the 1949 Oscars and material on many prior ceremonies, along with ancillary material related to more recent shows. Copies are held on a variety of film, video, and digital formats.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Venues"], "text": "In 1929, the first Academy Awards were presented at a banquet dinner at the [[Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel]]. From 1930 to 1943, the ceremony alternated between two venues: the [[Ambassador Hotel (Los Angeles)|Ambassador Hotel]] on [[Wilshire Boulevard]] and the [[Millennium Biltmore Hotel|Biltmore Hotel]] in downtown Los Angeles. [[Grauman's Chinese Theatre]] in Hollywood then hosted the awards from 1944 to 1946, followed by the [[Shrine Auditorium]] in Los Angeles from 1947 to 1948. The [[21st Academy Awards]] in 1949 were held at the Academy Award Theatre at what had been the Academy's headquarters on [[Melrose Avenue]] in Hollywood. From 1950 to 1960, the awards were presented at Hollywood's [[Pantages Theatre (Hollywood)|Pantages Theatre]]. With the advent of television, the awards from 1953 to 1957 took place simultaneously in Hollywood and New York, first at the [[Majestic Theatre (Columbus Circle)|NBC International Theatre]] (1953) and then at the [[New Century Theatre|NBC Century Theatre]], after which the ceremony took place solely in Los Angeles. The Oscars moved to the [[Santa Monica Civic Auditorium]] in [[Santa Monica, California|Santa Monica]], California, in 1961. By 1969, the Academy decided to move the ceremonies back to Downtown Los Angeles, this time to the [[Dorothy Chandler Pavilion]] at the [[Los Angeles Music Center|Los Angeles County Music Center]]. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the ceremony returned to the Shrine. In 2002, Hollywood's [[Dolby Theatre]] (previously known as the Kodak Theatre) became the presentation's current venue.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Awards of Merit categories", "Current categories"], "text": "In the first year of the awards, the Best Directing award was split into two categories (Drama and Comedy). At times, the Best Original Score award has also been split into separate categories (Drama and Comedy/Musical). From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Art Direction (now Production Design), Cinematography, and Costume Design awards were likewise split into two categories (black-and-white films and color films). Prior to 2012, the Production Design award was called Art Direction, while the Makeup and Hairstyling award was called Makeup. In August 2018, the Academy announced that several categories would not be televised live, but rather be recorded during commercial breaks and aired later in the ceremony. Following dissent from Academy members, they announced that they would indeed air all 24 categories live. This followed a number of proposals (among them, the introduction of a Popular Film category) that the Academy had announced but did not implement.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Awards of Merit categories", "Proposed categories"], "text": "The Board of Governors meets each year and considers new award categories. To date, the following categories have been proposed: (-) Best Casting: rejected in 1999 (-) [[Academy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Popular Film|Best Popular Film]]: proposed in 2018 for presentation at the 2019 ceremony; postponed until the 2020 ceremony at the earliest (-) Best Stunt Coordination: rejected every year from 1991 to 2012 (-) Best Title Design: rejected in 1999", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Special categories"], "text": "The Special Academy Awards are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole. They are not always presented on an annual basis.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Special categories", "Current special categories"], "text": "(-) [[Academy Honorary Award]]: since 1929 (-) [[Academy Scientific and Technical Award]] (three different awards): since 1931 (-) [[Gordon E. Sawyer Award]]: since 1981 (-) [[Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]]: since 1957 (-) [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]]: since 1938 (-) [[Special Achievement Academy Award|Academy Special Achievement Award]]: from 1972 to 1995, and again for 2017", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Criticism", "Accusations of commercialism"], "text": "Due to the positive exposure and prestige of the Academy Awards, many studios spend millions of dollars and hire publicists specifically to promote their films during what is typically called the \"[[Oscar season]]\". This has generated accusations of the Academy Awards being influenced more by marketing than by quality. [[William Friedkin]], an Academy Award-winning film director and former producer of the ceremony, expressed this sentiment at a conference in New York in 2009, describing it as \"the greatest promotion scheme that any industry ever devised for itself\". Tim Dirks, editor of [[American Movie Classics|AMC's]] [[filmsite.org]], has written of the Academy Awards: A recent technique that has been claimed to be used during the Oscar season is the [[whisper campaign]]. These campaigns are intended to spread negative perceptions of other movies nominated and are believed to be perpetrated by those that were involved in creating the movie. Examples of whisper campaigns include the allegations against ''[[Zero Dark Thirty]]'' suggesting that it justifies torture and the claim that ''[[Lincoln (film)|Lincoln]]'' distorts history.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Criticism", "Accusations of bias"], "text": "Typical criticism of the Academy Awards for Best Picture is that among the winners and nominees there is an over-representation of romantic historical epics, biographical dramas, romantic dramedies and family melodramas, most of which are released in the U.S. the last three months of the calendar year. The Oscars have been infamously known for selecting specific genres of movies to be awarded. The term '[[Oscar bait]]' was coined to describe such movies. This has led, at times, to more specific criticisms that the Academy is disconnected from the audience, e.g., by favoring 'Oscar bait' over audience favorites, or favoring historical melodramas over critically acclaimed movies that depict current life issues.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Criticism", "Allegations of a lack of diversity"], "text": "The Academy Awards have long received criticism over its lack of diversity among the nominees. This criticism is based on the statistics from every Academy Awards since 1929, which shows us that only 6.4% of academy award nominees have been non-white and since 1991, 11.2% of nominees have been non-white, with the rate of winners being even more polarizing. More white actresses have won Oscars for [[Examples of yellowface|yellowface]] portrayals of Asian characters than actual Asian actresses. The [[88th Academy Awards|88th awards ceremony]] became the target of a boycott, popularized on social media with the [[hashtag]] #OscarsSoWhite, based on critics' perception that its all-white acting nominee list reflected bias. In response, the Academy initiated \"historic\" changes in membership by the year 2020.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Criticism", "Symbolism or sentimentalization"], "text": "Acting prizes in certain years have been criticized for not recognizing superior performances so much as being awarded for personal popularity, to make up for a \"snub\" for a work that proved in time to be more popular or renowned than the one actually awarded, or presented as a \"career honor\" to recognize a distinguished nominee's entire body of work.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Criticism", "Recognition of streaming media film"], "text": "Following the [[91st Academy Awards]] in February 2019 in which the [[Netflix]]-broadcast film ''[[Roma (2018 film)|Roma]]'' had been nominated for ten awards including the Best Picture category, Steven Spielberg and other members of the Academy discussed changing the requirements through the Board of Governors for films as to exclude those from Netflix and other media streaming services. Spielberg had been concerned that Netflix as a movie production and distribution studio could spend much more than typical Oscar-winning films and have much wider and earlier distribution than other Best Picture-nominated films, while still being able to meet the minimal theatrical-run status to qualify for an Oscar. The [[United States Department of Justice]], having heard of this potential rule change, wrote a letter to the Academy in March 2019, cautioning them that placing additional restrictions on films that originate from streaming media services without proper justification could raise anti-trust concerns against the Academy. Following its April 2019 board meeting, the Academy Board of Governors agreed to retain the current rules that allow for streaming media films to be eligible for Oscars as long as they enjoy limited theatrical runs.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Criticism", "Refusals of the award"], "text": "Some winners critical of the Academy Awards have boycotted the ceremonies and refused to accept their Oscars. The first to do so was screenwriter [[Dudley Nichols]] (Best Writing in 1935 for ''[[The Informer (1935 film)|The Informer]]''). Nichols boycotted the [[8th Academy Awards]] ceremony because of conflicts between the Academy and the Writers' Guild. Nichols eventually accepted the 1935 award three years later, at the 1938 ceremony. Nichols was nominated for three further Academy Awards during his career. [[George C. Scott]] became the second person to refuse his award (Best Actor in 1970 for ''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]'') at the [[43rd Academy Awards]] ceremony. Scott described it as a \"meat parade\", saying, \"I don't want any part of it.\" The third person to refuse the award was [[Marlon Brando]], who refused his award (Best Actor for 1972's ''[[The Godfather]]''), citing the film industry's discrimination and mistreatment of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]. At the [[45th Academy Awards]] ceremony, Brando sent actress and [[civil rights activist]] [[Sacheen Littlefeather]] to read a 15-page speech, detailing his criticisms, for which there was [[booing]] and [[cheering]] by the audience.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Criticism", "Disqualifications"], "text": "Nine films have been disqualified before an official award ceremony because they violated the regulations: (-) ''[[The Circus (1928 film)|The Circus]]'' (1928) – The film was voluntarily removed by the Academy from competitive categories, to award [[Charlie Chaplin]] a special award. (-) ''[[Hondo (film)|Hondo]]'' (1953) – Removed from the Best Story ballot after letters from the producer and nominee questioned its inclusion in the category. (-) ''[[High Society (1955 film)|High Society]]'' (1955) – Withdrawn from screenwriting ballot after being mistaken for the [[High Society (1956 film)|1956 movie]] of the same title. (-) ''[[The Godfather]]'' (1972) – Initially nominated for eleven awards, its nomination for Best Original Score was revoked after it was discovered that its main theme was very similar to music that [[Nino Rota|the score's composer]] had written for an earlier film. None of its other nominations were revoked, and it received three Oscars, including Best Picture. (-) ''[[A Place in the World (film)|A Place in the World]]'' (1992) – Removed from the Best Foreign Language Film ballot after it was discovered that the country who submitted the film exercised insufficient artistic control. (-) ''[[Tuba Atlantic]]'' (2012) – Removed from the Best Live Action Short Film ballot when it was discovered that the film aired on television before its theatrical release. (-) ''[[Alone Yet Not Alone]]'' (2014) – The film's title song, \"Alone Yet Not Alone\", was removed from the Best Original Song ballot after [[Bruce Broughton]] was found to have improperly contacted other members of the academy's musical branch; this was the first time that a film was removed from a ballot for ethical reasons. One film was disqualified after winning the award, and had the winner return the Oscar: (-) ''[[Young Americans (1967 film)|Young Americans]]'' (1969) – Initially won the award for Best Documentary Feature, but was later revoked after it was revealed that it had opened theatrically prior to the eligibility period.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Associated events"], "text": "The following events are closely associated with the annual Academy Awards: (-) [[British Academy Film Awards|BAFTA Awards]] (-) [[César Award]] (-) Nominees luncheon (-) [[Governors Awards]] (-) The 25th [[Independent Spirit Awards]] (2010), usually held in [[Santa Monica, California|Santa Monica]], California the Saturday before the Oscars, marked the first time it was moved to a Friday and a change of venue to [[L.A. Live]] (-) The annual \"Night Before\", traditionally held at [[the Beverly Hills Hotel]], begun in 2002 and generally known as ''the ''party of the season, benefits the [[Motion Picture & Television Fund]], which operates a retirement home for SAG actors in the [[San Fernando Valley]] (-) [[Elton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party]] airs the awards live at the nearby [[Pacific Design Center]] (-) The Governors Ball is the Academy's official after-party, including dinner (until 2011), and is adjacent to the awards-presentation venue (-) The ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'' after-party, historically at the former Morton's restaurant, has been at the [[Sunset Tower]] since 2009 (-) [[Ariel Award]] in Mexico", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Presenter and performer gifts"], "text": "It has become a tradition to give out gift bags to the presenters and performers at the Oscars. In recent years, these gifts have also been extended to award nominees and winners. The value of each of these gift bags can reach into the tens of thousands of dollars. In 2014, the value was reported to be as high as US$80,000. The value has risen to the point where the U.S. [[Internal Revenue Service]] issued a statement regarding the gifts and their taxable status. Oscar gift bags have included vacation packages to Hawaii and Mexico and Japan, a private dinner party for the recipient and friends at a restaurant, [[Videotelephony|videophone]], a four-night stay at a hotel, watches, bracelets, spa treatments, bottles of vodka, maple salad dressing, weight-loss gummie candy and up to $25,000 worth of cosmetic treatments and rejuvenation procedures such as lip fillers and chemical peels from New York City facial plastic surgeon Konstantin Vasyukevich. Some of the gifts have even had a \"risque\" element to them; in 2014, the adult products retailer [[Adam & Eve (company)|Adam & Eve]] had a \"Secret Room Gifting Suite\". Celebrities visiting the gifting suite included [[Judith Hoag]], [[Carolyn Hennesy]], [[Kate Linder]], [[Chris Mulkey]], [[Jim O'Heir]], and [[John Salley]].", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Television ratings and advertisement prices"], "text": "From 2006 onwards, results are Live+SD; all previous years are live viewing.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": ["Trademark"], "text": "The term \"Oscar\" is a registered trademark of the AMPAS; however, in the Italian language, it is used [[generic trademark|generically]] to refer to any award or award ceremony, regardless of which field.", "id": "324", "title": "Academy Awards", "categories": ["Academy Awards", "1929 establishments in California", "Performing arts trophies", "American annual television specials", "American film awards", "Annual events in Los Angeles County, California", "Awards established in 1929", "Cinema of Southern California", "Events in Los Angeles", "Hollywood history and culture", "American live television shows"], "seealso": ["List of film awards", "List of Academy Award records", "List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees", "List of actors with Academy Award nominations"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''''Actresses''''' ([[Catalan language|Catalan]]: '''''Actrius''''') is a 1997 [[Catalan language]] Spanish drama film produced and directed by [[Ventura Pons]] and based on the award-winning stage play ''E.R.'' by [[Josep Maria Benet i Jornet]]. The film has no male actors, with all roles played by females. The film was produced in 1996. ", "id": "330", "title": "Actrius", "categories": ["1997 films", "1997 drama films", "Spanish films", "Catalan-language films", "Films set in Barcelona", "Films directed by Ventura Pons", "Spanish drama films"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Synopsis"], "text": "In order to prepare herself to play a role commemorating the life of legendary actress Empar Ribera, young actress ([[Mercè Pons]]) interviews three established actresses who had been the Ribera's pupils: the international diva Glòria Marc ([[Núria Espert]]), the television star Assumpta Roca ([[Rosa Maria Sardà]]), and dubbing director Maria Caminal ([[Anna Lizaran]]).", "id": "330", "title": "Actrius", "categories": ["1997 films", "1997 drama films", "Spanish films", "Catalan-language films", "Films set in Barcelona", "Films directed by Ventura Pons", "Spanish drama films"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Cast"], "text": "(-) [[Núria Espert]] as Glòria Marc (-) [[Rosa Maria Sardà]] as Assumpta Roca (-) [[Anna Lizaran]] as Maria Caminal (-) [[Mercè Pons]] as Estudiant", "id": "330", "title": "Actrius", "categories": ["1997 films", "1997 drama films", "Spanish films", "Catalan-language films", "Films set in Barcelona", "Films directed by Ventura Pons", "Spanish drama films"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Recognition", "Screenings"], "text": "''Actrius'' screened in 2001 at the [[Grauman's Egyptian Theatre]] in an [[American Cinematheque]] retrospective of the works of its director. The film had first screened at the same location in 1998. It was also shown at the 1997 [[Stockholm International Film Festival]].", "id": "330", "title": "Actrius", "categories": ["1997 films", "1997 drama films", "Spanish films", "Catalan-language films", "Films set in Barcelona", "Films directed by Ventura Pons", "Spanish drama films"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Recognition", "Reception"], "text": "In ''Movie - Film - Review'', Christopher Tookey wrote that though the actresses were \"competent in roles that may have some reference to their own careers\", the film \"is visually unimaginative, never escapes its stage origins, and is almost totally lacking in revelation or surprising incident\". Noting that there were \"occasional, refreshing moments of intergenerational bitchiness\", they did not \"justify comparisons to ''[[All About Eve]]''\", and were \"insufficiently different to deserve critical parallels with ''[[Rashomon]]''\". He also wrote that ''[[The Guardian]]'' called the film a \"slow, stuffy chamber-piece\", and that ''[[The Evening Standard]]'' stated the film's \"best moments exhibit the bitchy tantrums seething beneath the threesome's composed veneers\". [[MRQE]] wrote \"This cinematic adaptation of a theatrical work is true to the original, but does not stray far from a theatrical rendering of the story.\"", "id": "330", "title": "Actrius", "categories": ["1997 films", "1997 drama films", "Spanish films", "Catalan-language films", "Films set in Barcelona", "Films directed by Ventura Pons", "Spanish drama films"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Recognition", "Awards and nominations"], "text": "(-) 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film' at [[Butaca Awards]] for [[Ventura Pons]] (-) 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film Actress' at Butaca Awards, shared by [[Núria Espert]], [[Rosa Maria Sardà]], [[Anna Lizaran]], and [[Mercè Pons]] (-) 1998, nominated for 'Best Screenplay' at [[Goya Awards]], shared by [[Josep Maria Benet i Jornet]] and Ventura Pons", "id": "330", "title": "Actrius", "categories": ["1997 films", "1997 drama films", "Spanish films", "Catalan-language films", "Films set in Barcelona", "Films directed by Ventura Pons", "Spanish drama films"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''''Animalia''''' is an illustrated [[Children's literature|children's book]] by [[Graeme Base]]. It was originally published in 1986, followed by a tenth anniversary edition in 1996, and a 25th anniversary edition in 2012. Over four million copies have been sold worldwide. A special numbered and signed anniversary edition was also published in 1996, with an embossed gold jacket.", "id": "332", "title": "Animalia (book)", "categories": ["Alphabet books", "1986 children's books", "Picture books by Graeme Base", "Puzzle books", "Australian children's books", "Puffin Books books"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Synopsis"], "text": "''Animalia'' is an [[alliteration|alliterative]] [[alphabet]] book and contains twenty-six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet. Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for [[alligator]] and [[armadillo]], B is for [[butterfly]], etc.) along with a short poem utilizing the letter of the page for many of the words. The illustrations contain many other objects beginning with that letter that the reader can try to identify. As an additional challenge, the author has hidden a picture of himself as a child in every picture.", "id": "332", "title": "Animalia (book)", "categories": ["Alphabet books", "1986 children's books", "Picture books by Graeme Base", "Puzzle books", "Australian children's books", "Puffin Books books"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Related products"], "text": "Julia MacRae Books published an ''Animalia'' [[colouring book]] in 2008. [[Abrams Books|H. N. Abrams]] also published a wall calendar colouring book version for children the same year. H. N. Abrams published ''The Animalia Wall Frieze'', a fold-out over 26 feet in length, in which the author created new riddles for each letter. The Great American Puzzle Factory created a 300-piece jigsaw puzzle based on the book's cover.", "id": "332", "title": "Animalia (book)", "categories": ["Alphabet books", "1986 children's books", "Picture books by Graeme Base", "Puzzle books", "Australian children's books", "Puffin Books books"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Adaptations"], "text": "A [[Animalia (TV series)|television series]] was also created, based on the book, which airs in the United States, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, Norway and [[Venezuela]]. It also airs on [[Minimax (TV channel)|Minimax]] for the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]]. And recently in [[Greece]] on the channel [[ET1 (Greece)|ET1]]. The [[Australian Children's Television Foundation]] released a teaching resource DVD-ROM in 2011 to accompany the TV series with teaching aids for classroom use. In 2010, The Base Factory and AppBooks released Animalia as an application for [[iPad]] and [[iPhone]]/[[iPod Touch]].", "id": "332", "title": "Animalia (book)", "categories": ["Alphabet books", "1986 children's books", "Picture books by Graeme Base", "Puzzle books", "Australian children's books", "Puffin Books books"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Awards"], "text": "''Animalia'' won the Young Australian's Best Book Award in 1987 for Best Picture Story Book. The [[Children's Book Council of Australia]] designated ''Animalia'' a 1987 [[Children's Book of the Year Award: Picture Book|Picture Book of the Year]]: Honour Book. Kid's Own Australian Literature Awards named ''Animalia'' the 1988 Picture Book Winner.", "id": "332", "title": "Animalia (book)", "categories": ["Alphabet books", "1986 children's books", "Picture books by Graeme Base", "Puzzle books", "Australian children's books", "Puffin Books books"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''International Atomic Time''' ('''TAI''', from the French name '''''') is a high-precision [[Atomic clock|atomic]] [[coordinate time|coordinate]] [[time standard]] based on the notional passage of [[proper time]] on [[Earth]]'s [[geoid]]. It is the principal realisation of [[Terrestrial Time]] (with a fixed offset of [[epoch (astronomy)|epoch]]). It is also the basis for [[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC), which is used for civil timekeeping all over the Earth's surface. , when another [[leap second]] was added, TAI is exactly 37 seconds ahead of UTC. The 37 seconds results from the initial difference of 10 seconds at the start of 1972, plus 27 leap seconds in UTC since 1972. TAI may be reported using traditional means of specifying days, carried over from non-uniform time standards based on the rotation of the Earth. Specifically, both [[Julian day]] and the [[Gregorian calendar]] are used. TAI in this form was synchronised with [[Universal Time]] at the beginning of 1958, and the two have drifted apart ever since, due to the changing motion of the Earth.", "id": "334", "title": "International Atomic Time", "categories": ["Time scales"], "seealso": ["Network Time Protocol", "Precision Time Protocol", "Time and frequency transfer", "Clock synchronization"]}
{"headers": ["Operation"], "text": "TAI is a [[weighted average]] of the time kept by over 400 [[atomic clock]] in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. The majority of the clocks involved are [[caesium clock]]; the [[International System of Units]] (SI) definition of the [[second]] is based on [[caesium]]. The clocks are compared using [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] signals and [[two-way satellite time and frequency transfer]]. Due to the [[signal averaging]] TAI is an [[order of magnitude]] more stable than its best constituent clock. The participating institutions each broadcast, in [[real-time data|real time]], a frequency signal with [[timecode]], which is their estimate of TAI. Time codes are usually published in the form of UTC, which differs from TAI by a well-known integer number of seconds. These time scales are denoted in the form ''UTC(NPL)'' in the UTC form, where ''NPL'' in this case identifies the [[National Physical Laboratory, UK]]. The TAI form may be denoted ''TAI(NPL)''. The latter is not to be confused with ''TA(NPL)'', which denotes an independent atomic time scale, not synchronised to TAI or to anything else. The clocks at different institutions are regularly compared against each other. The [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] (BIPM, France), combines these measurements to retrospectively calculate the weighted average that forms the most stable time scale possible. This combined time scale is published monthly in \"Circular T\", and is the [[canonical form|canonical]] TAI. This time scale is expressed in the form of tables of differences UTC − UTC(''k'') (equivalent to TAI − TAI(''k'')) for each participating institution ''k''. The same circular also gives tables of TAI − TA(''k''), for the various unsynchronised atomic time scales. Errors in publication may be corrected by issuing a revision of the faulty Circular T or by errata in a subsequent Circular T. Aside from this, once published in Circular T, the TAI scale is not revised. In hindsight, it is possible to discover errors in TAI and to make better estimates of the true proper time scale. Since the published circulars are definitive, better estimates do not create another version of TAI; it is instead considered to be creating a better realisation of [[Terrestrial Time]] (TT).", "id": "334", "title": "International Atomic Time", "categories": ["Time scales"], "seealso": ["Network Time Protocol", "Precision Time Protocol", "Time and frequency transfer", "Clock synchronization"]}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "Early atomic time scales consisted of [[quartz clock]] with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the [[National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)|National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL)]]. It was used as a basis for calibrating the quartz clocks at the [[Royal Greenwich Observatory]] and to establish a time scale, called Greenwich Atomic (GA). The [[United States Naval Observatory]] began the A.1 scale on 13 September 1956, using an [[Atomichron]] commercial atomic clock, followed by the NBS-A scale at the [[National Bureau of Standards]], [[Boulder, Colorado]] on 9 October 1957. The [[International Time Bureau]] (BIH) began a time scale, T or AM, in July 1955, using both local caesium clocks and comparisons to distant clocks using the phase of [[VLF]] radio signals. The BIH scale, A.1, and NBS-A were defined by an [[Epoch (date reference)|epoch]] at the beginning of 1958 The procedures used by the BIH evolved, and the name for the time scale changed: \"A3\" in 1964 and \"TA(BIH)\" in 1969. The SI second was defined in terms of the caesium atom in 1967. From 1971 to 1975 the [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] and the [[International Committee for Weights and Measures]] made a series of decisions which designated the BIPM time scale International Atomic Time (TAI). In the 1970s, it became clear that the clocks participating in TAI were ticking at different rates due to [[gravitational time dilation]], and the combined TAI scale, therefore, corresponded to an average of the altitudes of the various clocks. Starting from Julian Date 2443144.5 (1 January 1977 00:00:00), corrections were applied to the output of all participating clocks, so that TAI would correspond to proper time at the [[geoid]] ([[mean sea level]]). Because the clocks were, on average, well above sea level, this meant that TAI slowed by about one part in a trillion. The former uncorrected time scale continues to be published, under the name ''EAL'' (''Echelle Atomique Libre'', meaning ''Free Atomic Scale''). The instant that the gravitational correction started to be applied serves as the epoch for [[Barycentric Coordinate Time]] (TCB), [[Geocentric Coordinate Time]] (TCG), and [[Terrestrial Time]] (TT), which represent three fundamental time scales in the solar system. All three of these time scales were defined to read JD 2443144.5003725 (1 January 1977 00:00:32.184) exactly at that instant. TAI was henceforth a realisation of TT, with the equation TT(TAI) = TAI + 32.184 s. The continued existence of TAI was questioned in a 2007 letter from the BIPM to the ITU-R which stated, \"In the case of a redefinition of UTC without leap seconds, the CCTF would consider discussing the possibility of suppressing TAI, as it would remain parallel to the continuous UTC.\"", "id": "334", "title": "International Atomic Time", "categories": ["Time scales"], "seealso": ["Network Time Protocol", "Precision Time Protocol", "Time and frequency transfer", "Clock synchronization"]}
{"headers": ["Relation to UTC"], "text": "UTC is a [[discontinuous]] time scale. It is occasionally adjusted by leap seconds. Between these adjustments, it is composed of segments that are mapped to atomic time. From its beginning in 1961 through December 1971, the adjustments were made regularly in fractional leap seconds so that UTC approximated [[UT2]]. Afterward, these adjustments were made only in whole seconds to approximate [[UT1]]. This was a compromise arrangement in order to enable a publicly broadcast time scale; the less frequent whole-second adjustments meant that the time scale would be more stable and easier to synchronize internationally. The fact that it continues to approximate UT1 means that tasks such as [[navigation]] which require a source of Universal Time continue to be well served by the public broadcast of UTC.", "id": "334", "title": "International Atomic Time", "categories": ["Time scales"], "seealso": ["Network Time Protocol", "Precision Time Protocol", "Time and frequency transfer", "Clock synchronization"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Altruism''' is the [[moral principle|principle]] and [[moral courage|moral practice]] of concern for [[happiness]] of other [[human kind|human beings]] or other animals, resulting in a [[quality of life]] both [[material]] and [[spirituality|spiritual]]. It is a traditional [[virtue]] in many cultures and a core aspect of various religious traditions and secular worldviews, though the concept of \"others\" toward whom concern should be directed can vary among cultures and religions. In an extreme case, altruism may become a synonym of selflessness, which is the opposite of [[selfishness]]. The word \"altruism\" was coined by the French philosopher [[Auguste Comte]] in French, as ''altruisme'', for an [[antonym]] of [[egoism]]. He derived it from the Italian ''altrui'', which in turn was derived from Latin ''alteri'', meaning \"[[alterity|other people]]\" or \"somebody else\". Altruism in [[Biology|biological]] observations in field populations of the day organisms is an individual performing an action which is at a cost to themselves (e.g., pleasure and quality of life, time, probability of survival or reproduction), but benefits, either directly or indirectly, another individual, without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action. Steinberg suggests a definition for altruism in the clinical setting, that is \"intentional and voluntary actions that aim to enhance the welfare of another person in the absence of any quid pro quo external rewards\". In one sense, the opposite of altruism is [[Spite (sentiment)|spite]]; a spiteful action harms another with no self-benefit. Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of [[loyalty]], in that whilst the latter is predicated upon social relationships, altruism does not consider relationships. Much debate exists as to whether ''\"true\"'' altruism is possible in human psychology. The theory of [[psychological egoism]] suggests that no act of sharing, helping or sacrificing can be described as truly altruistic, as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal [[gratification]]. The validity of this argument depends on whether [[Motivation#Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation|intrinsic rewards]] qualify as \"benefits\". The term ''[[altruism (ethics)|altruism]]'' may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is usually contrasted with [[ethical egoism|egoism]], which claims individuals are morally obligated to serve themselves first. [[Effective altruism]] is the use of evidence and reason to determine the most effective ways to benefit others.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["The notion of altruism"], "text": "The concept has a long history in [[Philosophy|philosophical]] and [[Ethics|ethical]] thought. The term was originally coined in the 19th century by the founding [[sociologist]] and [[philosopher of science]], [[Auguste Comte]], and has become a major topic for [[psychologists]] (especially [[evolutionary psychology]] researchers), [[evolutionary biologists]], and [[ethology|ethologists]]. Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on altruism. In simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific viewpoints", "Anthropology"], "text": "[[Marcel Mauss]]'s essay ''[[The Gift (essay)|The Gift]]'' contains a passage called \"Note on alms\". This note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of altruism) from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes: Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand, and of a notion of sacrifice, on the other. Generosity is an obligation, because Nemesis avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and wealth of certain people who should rid themselves of it. This is the ancient morality of the gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits accept that the share of wealth and happiness that has been offered to them and had been hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor and children.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific viewpoints", "Evolutionary explanations"], "text": "In the science of [[ethology]] (the study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of [[Sociocultural evolution|social evolution]], altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. In [[evolutionary psychology]] this may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as [[Charity (practice)|charity]], [[emergency aid]], help to coalition partners, [[Tip (gratuity)|tipping]], [[courtship]] gifts, production of [[Public good (economics)|public good]], and [[environmentalism]]. Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated by the need to produce theories compatible with evolutionary origins. Two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and from [[evolutionary game theory]] a mathematical model and analysis of behavioural strategies. Some of the proposed mechanisms are: (-) [[Kin selection]]. That animals and humans are more altruistic towards close kin than to distant kin and non-kin has been confirmed in numerous studies across many different cultures. Even subtle cues indicating kinship may unconsciously increase altruistic behavior. One kinship cue is facial resemblance. One study found that slightly altering photographs so that they more closely resembled the faces of study participants increased the trust the participants expressed regarding depicted persons. Another cue is having the same family name, especially if rare, and this has been found to increase helpful behavior. Another study found more cooperative behavior the greater the number of perceived kin in a group. Using kinship terms in political speeches increased audience agreement with the speaker in one study. This effect was especially strong for firstborns, who are typically close to their families. (-) Vested interests. People are likely to suffer if their friends, allies, and similar social [[ingroup]] suffer or even disappear. Helping such group members may therefore eventually benefit the altruist. Making ingroup membership more noticeable increases cooperativeness. Extreme self-sacrifice towards the ingroup may be adaptive if a hostile [[Ingroups and outgroups|outgroup]] threatens to kill the entire ingroup. (-) [[Reciprocal altruism]]. See also [[Reciprocity (evolution)]]. (-) Direct [[Reciprocity (social psychology)|reciprocity]]. Research shows that it can be beneficial to help others if there is a chance that they can and will reciprocate the help. The effective [[tit for tat]] strategy is one [[game theory|game theoretic]] example. Many people seem to be following a similar strategy by cooperating if and only if others cooperate in return. (-) One consequence is that people are more cooperative if it is more likely that individuals will interact again in the future. People tend to be less cooperative if they perceive that the frequency of helpers in the population is lower. They tend to help less if they see non-cooperativeness by others and this effect tend to be stronger than the opposite effect of seeing cooperative behaviors. Simply changing the cooperative framing of a proposal may increase cooperativeness such as calling it a \"Community Game\" instead of a \"Wall Street Game\".", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific viewpoints", "Evolutionary explanations"], "text": "(-) A tendency towards reciprocity implies that people will feel obligated to respond if someone helps them. This has been used by charities that give small gifts to potential donors hoping thereby to induce reciprocity. Another method is to announce publicly that someone has given a large donation. The tendency to reciprocate can even generalize so people become more helpful toward others in general after being helped. On the other hand, people will avoid or even retaliate against those perceived not to be cooperating. People sometimes mistakenly fail to help when they intended to, or their helping may not be noticed, which may cause unintended conflicts. As such, it may be an optimal strategy to be slightly forgiving of and have a slightly generous interpretation of non-cooperation. (-) People are more likely to cooperate on a task if they can communicate with one another first. This may be due to better assessments of cooperativeness or due to exchange of promises. They are more cooperative if they can gradually build trust, instead of being asked to give extensive help immediately. Direct reciprocity and cooperation in a group can be increased by changing the focus and incentives from intra-group competition to larger scale competitions such as between groups or against the general population. Thus, giving grades and promotions based only on an individual's performance relative to a small local group, as is common, may reduce cooperative behaviors in the group. (-) Indirect reciprocity. The avoidance of poor reciprocators and cheaters causes a person's [[reputation]] to become very important. A person with a good reputation for reciprocity has a higher chance of receiving help even from persons they have had no direct interactions with previously. (-) [[Strong reciprocity]]. A form of reciprocity where some individuals seem to spend more resources on cooperating and punishing than would be most beneficial as predicted by several established theories of altruism. A number of theories have been proposed as explanations as well as criticisms regarding its existence. (-) Pseudo-reciprocity. An organism behaves altruistically and the recipient does not reciprocate but has an increased chance of acting in a way that is selfish but also as a byproduct benefits the altruist. (-) [[Signalling theory|Costly signaling]] and the [[handicap principle]]. Since altruism takes away resources from the altruist it can be an \"honest signal\" of resource availability and the abilities needed to gather resources. This may signal to others that the altruist is a valuable potential partner. It may also be a signal of interactive and cooperative intentions since those not interacting further in the future gain nothing from the costly signaling. It is unclear if costly signaling can indicate a long-term cooperative personality but people have increased trust for those who help. Costly signaling is pointless if everyone has the same traits, resources, and cooperative intentions but become a potentially more important signal if the population increasingly varies on these characteristics.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific viewpoints", "Evolutionary explanations"], "text": "Hunters widely sharing the meat has been seen as a costly signal of ability and research has found that good hunters have higher reproductive success and more adulterous relations even if they themselves receive no more of the hunted meat than anyone else. Similarly, holding large feasts and giving large donations has been seen as ways of demonstrating one's resources. Heroic risk-taking has also been interpreted as a costly signal of ability.  Both indirect reciprocity and costly signaling depend on the value of reputation and tend to make similar predictions. One is that people will be more helping when they know that their helping behavior will be communicated to people they will interact with later, is publicly announced, is discussed, or is simply being observed by someone else. This have been documented in many studies. The effect is sensitive to subtle cues such as people being more helpful when there were stylized eyespots instead of a logo on a computer screen. Weak reputational cues such as eyespots may become unimportant if there are stronger cues present and may lose their effect with continued exposure unless reinforced with real reputational effects. Public displays such as public weeping for dead celebrities and participation in demonstrations may be influenced by a desire to be seen as altruistic. People who know that they are publicly monitored sometimes even wastefully donate money they know are not needed by recipient which may be because of reputational concerns. Women have been found to find altruistic men to be attractive partners. When looking for a long-term partner, altruism may be a preferred trait as it may indicate that he is also willing to share resources with her and her children. It has been shown that men perform altruistic acts in the early stages of a romantic relationship or simply when in the presence of an attractive woman. While both sexes state that kindness is the most preferable trait in a partner there is some evidence that men place less value on this than women and that women may not be more altruistic in presence of an attractive man. Men may even avoid altruistic women in short-term relationships which may be because they expect less success. People may compete for social benefit from a burnished reputation, which may cause [[competitive altruism]]. On the other hand, in some experiments a proportion of people do not seem to care about reputation and they do not help more even if this is conspicuous. This may possibly be due to reasons such as [[psychopathy]] or that they are so attractive that they need not be seen to be altruistic. The reputational benefits of altruism occur in the future as compared to the immediate costs of altruism in the present. While humans and other organisms generally place less value on future costs/benefits as compared to those in the present, some have shorter time horizons than others and these people tend to be less cooperative.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific viewpoints", "Evolutionary explanations"], "text": "Explicit [[extrinsic]] rewards and punishments have been found to sometimes actually have the opposite effect on behaviors compared to intrinsic rewards. This may be because such extrinsic, top-down incentives may replace (partially or in whole) intrinsic and reputational incentives, motivating the person to focus on obtaining the extrinsic rewards, which overall may make the behaviors less desirable. Another effect is that people would like altruism to be due to a personality characteristic rather than due to overt reputational concerns and simply pointing out that there are reputational benefits of an action may actually reduce them. This may possibly be used as derogatory tactic against altruists, especially by those who are non-cooperators. A counterargument is that doing good due to reputational concerns is better than doing no good at all. (-) [[Group selection]]. It has controversially been argued by some evolutionary scientists such as [[David Sloan Wilson]] that natural selection can act at the level of non-kin groups to produce adaptations that benefit a non-kin group even if these adaptations are detrimental at the individual level. Thus, while altruistic persons may under some circumstances be outcompeted by less altruistic persons at the individual level, according to group selection theory the opposite may occur at the group level where groups consisting of the more altruistic persons may outcompete groups consisting of the less altruistic persons. Such altruism may only extend to ingroup members while there may instead prejudice and antagonism against outgroup members (See also [[in-group favoritism]]). Group selection theory has been criticized by many other evolutionary scientists.  Such explanations do not imply that humans are always consciously calculating how to increase their [[inclusive fitness]] when they are doing altruistic acts. Instead, evolution has shaped psychological mechanisms, such as emotions, that promote altruistic behaviors. Every single instance of altruistic behavior need not always increase inclusive fitness; altruistic behaviors would have been selected for if such behaviors on average increased inclusive fitness in the ancestral environment. This need not imply that on average 50% or more of altruistic acts were beneficial for the altruist in the ancestral environment; if the benefits from helping the right person were very high it would be beneficial to err on the side of caution and usually be altruistic even if in most cases there were no benefits. The benefits for the altruist may be increased and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups. Research has found that people are more altruistic to kin than to no-kin, to friends than to strangers, to those attractive than to those unattractive, to non-competitors than to competitors, and to members ingroups than to members of outgroup.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific viewpoints", "Evolutionary explanations"], "text": "The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]], which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]], such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides''. These protists live as individual [[amoeba]] until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved in order to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success. Such cooperative behaviors have sometimes been seen as arguments for left-wing politics such by the Russian [[Zoology|zoologist]] and [[Anarchism|anarchist]] [[Peter Kropotkin]] in his 1902 book ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' and [[Ethics|Moral Philosopher]] [[Peter Singer]] in his book ''[[A Darwinian Left]]''.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific viewpoints", "Neurobiology"], "text": "Jorge Moll and [[Jordan Grafman]], neuroscientists at the [[National Institutes of Health]] and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]]. In their research, published in the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] USA in October 2006, they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the [[Mesolimbic pathway|mesolimbic]] reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually responds to food and sex. However, when volunteers generously placed the interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another brain circuit was selectively activated: the subgenual cortex/[[septal region]]. These structures are intimately related to social attachment and bonding in other species. Altruism, the experiment suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable. One brain region, the subgenual [[anterior cingulate]] cortex/[[basal forebrain]], contributes to learning altruistic behavior, especially in those with trait [[empathy]]. The same study has shown a connection between giving to charity and the promotion of social bonding. In fact, in an experiment published in March 2007 at the [[University of Southern California]] neuroscientist [[Antonio R. Damasio]] and his colleagues showed that subjects with damage to the [[ventromedial prefrontal cortex]] lack the ability to empathically feel their way to moral answers, and that when confronted with moral dilemmas, these brain-damaged patients coldly came up with \"end-justifies-the-means\" answers, leading Damasio to conclude that the point was not that they reached immoral conclusions, but that when they were confronted by a difficult issue – in this case as whether to shoot down a passenger plane hijacked by terrorists before it hits a major city – these patients appear to reach decisions without the anguish that afflicts those with normally functioning brains. According to [[Adrian Raine]], a clinical neuroscientist also at the University of Southern California, one of this study's implications is that society may have to rethink how it judges immoral people: \"Psychopaths often feel no empathy or remorse. Without that awareness, people relying exclusively on reasoning seem to find it harder to sort their way through moral thickets. Does that mean they should be held to different standards of accountability?\" In another study, in the 1990s, Dr. Bill Harbaugh, a [[University of Oregon]] economist, concluded people are motivated to give for reasons of personal prestige and in a similar fMRI scanner test in 2007 with his psychologist colleague Dr. Ulrich Mayr, reached the same conclusions of Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman about giving to charity, although they were able to divide the study group into two groups: \"egoists\" and \"altruists\". One of their discoveries was that, though rarely, even some of the considered \"egoists\" sometimes gave more than expected because that would help others, leading to the conclusion that there are other factors in cause in charity, such as a person's environment and values.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific viewpoints", "Psychology"], "text": "The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines ''psychological altruism'' as \"a motivational state with the goal of increasing another's welfare\". Psychological altruism is contrasted with ''psychological egoism'', which refers to the motivation to increase one's own welfare. There has been some debate on whether or not humans are truly capable of psychological altruism. Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors. However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is brought to question. The [[social exchange theory]] postulates that altruism only exists when benefits to the self outweigh costs to the self. [[Daniel Batson]] is a psychologist who examined this question and argues against the social exchange theory. He identified four major motives: to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or to uphold a moral principle ([[principlism]]). Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that [[empathy]]-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless. The ''[[empathy-altruism]] hypothesis'' basically states that psychological altruism does exist and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone who is suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with feelings of personal distress, which compel people to reduce their own unpleasant emotions. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid helping unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering. Helping behavior is seen in humans at about two years old, when a toddler is capable of understanding subtle emotional cues. In psychological research on altruism, studies often observe altruism as demonstrated through [[prosocial behavior]] such as [[Helping behavior|helping]], comforting, [[sharing]], cooperation, [[philanthropy]], and [[community service]]. Research has found that people are most likely to help if they recognize that a person is in need and feel personal responsibility for reducing the person's distress. Research also suggests that the number of bystanders witnessing distress or suffering affects the likelihood of helping (the ''[[Bystander effect]]''). Greater numbers of bystanders decrease individual feelings of responsibility. However, a witness with a high level of empathic concern is likely to assume personal responsibility entirely regardless of the number of bystanders.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific viewpoints", "Psychology"], "text": "Many studies have observed the effects of [[volunteering|volunteerism]] (as a form of altruism) on happiness and health and have consistently found a strong connection between volunteerism and current and future health and well-being. In a study of older adults, those who volunteered were higher on life satisfaction and will to live, and lower in [[Depression (mood)|depression]], [[anxiety (mood)|anxiety]], and [[somatization]]. Volunteerism and helping behavior have not only been shown to improve mental health, but physical health and longevity as well, attributable to the activity and social integration it encourages. One study examined the physical health of mothers who volunteered over a 30-year period and found that 52% of those who did not belong to a volunteer organization experienced a major illness while only 36% of those who did volunteer experienced one. A study on adults ages 55+ found that during the four-year study period, people who volunteered for two or more organizations had a 63% lower likelihood of dying. After controlling for prior health status, it was determined that volunteerism accounted for a 44% reduction in mortality. Merely being aware of kindness in oneself and others is also associated with greater well-being. A study that asked participants to count each act of kindness they performed for one week significantly enhanced their subjective happiness. It is important to note that, while research supports the idea that altruistic acts bring about happiness, it has also been found to work in the opposite direction—that happier people are also kinder. The relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness is bidirectional. Studies have found that [[generosity]] increases linearly from sad to happy affective states. Studies have also been careful to note that feeling over-taxed by the needs of others has conversely negative effects on health and happiness. For example, one study on volunteerism found that feeling overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on mental health than helping had a positive one (although positive effects were still significant). Additionally, while generous acts make people feel good about themselves, it is also important for people to appreciate the kindness they receive from others. Studies suggest that gratitude goes hand-in-hand with kindness and is also very important for our well-being. A study on the relationship happiness to various character strengths showed that \"a conscious focus on gratitude led to reductions in negative affect and increases in optimistic appraisals, positive affect, offering emotional support, sleep quality, and well-being\".", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific viewpoints", "Sociology"], "text": "\"Sociologists have long been concerned with how to build the good society\" (\"Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity\". American Sociological Association.). The structure of our societies and how individuals come to exhibit charitable, philanthropic, and other pro-social, altruistic actions for the [[common good]] is a largely researched topic within the field. The American Sociology Association (ASA) acknowledges [[public sociology]] saying, \"The intrinsic scientific, policy, and public relevance of this field of investigation in helping to construct 'good societies' is unquestionable\" (\"Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity\" ASA). This type of sociology seeks contributions that aid grassroots and theoretical understandings of what motivates altruism and how it is organized, and promotes an altruistic focus in order to benefit the world and people it studies. How altruism is framed, organized, carried out, and what motivates it at the group level is an area of focus that sociologists seek to investigate in order to contribute back to the groups it studies and \"build the good society\". The motivation of altruism is also the focus of study; some publications link the occurrence of moral outrage to the punishment of perpetrators and compensation of victims. Studies have shown that [[generosity]] in laboratory and in online experiments is contagious – people imitate observed generosity of others.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific viewpoints", "Pathological altruism"], "text": "Pathological altruism is when altruism is taken to an unhealthy extreme, and either harms the altruistic person, or well-intentioned actions cause more harm than good. The term \"pathological altruism\" was popularised by the book ''[[Pathological Altruism]]''. Examples include [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and burnout seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, hoarding of animals, and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Religious viewpoints"], "text": "Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very important moral value. [[Buddhism]], [[Christianity]], [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Jainism]], [[Judaism]], and [[Sikhism]], etc., place particular emphasis on altruistic morality.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Religious viewpoints", "Buddhism"], "text": "Altruism figures prominently in Buddhism. Love and compassion are components of all forms of Buddhism, and are focused on all beings equally: love is the wish that all beings be happy, and compassion is the wish that all beings be free from suffering. \"Many illnesses can be cured by the one medicine of love and compassion. These qualities are the ultimate source of human happiness, and the need for them lies at the very core of our being\" ([[Dalai Lama]]). Still, the notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since the belief is that such a practice promotes our own happiness: \"The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being becomes\" (Dalai Lama). In the context of larger ethical discussions on moral action and judgment, Buddhism is characterized by the belief that negative (unhappy) consequences of our actions derive not from punishment or correction based on moral judgment, but from the law of karma, which functions like a natural law of cause and effect. A simple illustration of such cause and effect is the case of experiencing the effects of what one causes: if one causes suffering, then as a natural consequence one would experience suffering; if one causes happiness, then as a natural consequence one would experience happiness.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Religious viewpoints", "Jainism"], "text": "The fundamental principles of [[Jainism]] revolve around the concept of altruism, not only for humans but for all sentient beings. Jainism preaches the view of ''[[Ahimsa]]'' – to live and let live, thereby not harming sentient beings, i.e. uncompromising reverence for all life. It also considers all living things to be equal. The first [[Tirthankara]], [[Rishabhdev]], introduced the concept of altruism for all living beings, from extending knowledge and experience to others to donation, giving oneself up for others, non-violence and compassion for all living things. Jainism prescribes a path of non-violence to progress the soul to this ultimate goal. A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviors. One's unconquered mind with anger, pride (ego), deceit, greed and uncontrolled sense organs are the powerful enemies of humans. Anger spoils good relations, pride destroys humility, deceit destroys peace and greed destroys everything. Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride by humility, deceit by straightforwardness and greed by contentment. Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation, one must practice the following ethical principles (major vows) in thought, speech and action. The degree to which these principles are practiced is different for householders and monks. They are: (1) Non-violence (Ahimsa); (2) Truthfulness (Satya); (3) Non-stealing (Asteya); (4) Celibacy ([[Brahmacharya]]); (5) [[Non-possession]] or non-materialism (Aparigraha); The \"great vows\" ([[Mahavrata]]) are prescribed for monks and \"limited vows\" ([[Anuvrata]]) are prescribed for householders. The house-holders are encouraged to practice the above-mentioned five vows. The monks have to observe them very strictly. With consistent practice, it will be possible to overcome the limitations gradually, accelerating the spiritual progress. The principle of nonviolence seeks to minimize karmas which limit the capabilities of the soul. Jainism views every [[Soul (Jainism)|soul]] as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become ''Siddha'' ([[God in Jainism]]). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness is essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards all, whether the creatures are great or small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Religious viewpoints", "Christianity"], "text": "Altruism is central to the teachings of Jesus found in the [[Gospel]], especially in the [[Sermon on the Mount]] and the [[Sermon on the Plain]]. From biblical to medieval [[Christian traditions]], tensions between self-affirmation and other-regard were sometimes discussed under the heading of \"disinterested love\", as in the [[Paul the Apostle|Pauline]] phrase \"love seeks not its own interests\". In his book ''Indoctrination and Self-deception,'' Roderick Hindery tries to shed light on these tensions by contrasting them with impostors of authentic self-affirmation and altruism, by analysis of other-regard within creative individuation of the self, and by contrasting love for the few with love for the many. Love confirms others in their freedom, shuns propaganda and masks, assures others of its presence, and is ultimately confirmed not by mere declarations from others, but by each person's experience and practice from within. As in practical arts, the presence and meaning of love becomes validated and grasped not by words and reflections alone, but in the making of the connection. [[St Thomas Aquinas]] interprets 'You should love your neighbour as yourself' as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others. Considering that \"the love with which a man loves himself is the form and root of friendship\" and quotes Aristotle that \"the origin of friendly relations with others lies in our relations to ourselves\", he concluded that though we are not bound to love others more than ourselves, we naturally seek the [[common good]], the good of the whole, more than any private good, the good of a part. However, he thinks we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbours, and more than our bodily life—since the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is to share in eternal [[Beatitudes|beatitude]]: a more desirable thing than bodily well-being. In coining the word Altruism, as stated above, [[Auguste Comte|Comte]] was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools within Catholicism. Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and love of God. 1 John 4 states that for one to love God one must love his fellowman, and that hatred of one's fellowman is the same as hatred of God. [[Thomas Jay Oord]] has argued in several books that altruism is but one possible form of love. An altruistic action is not always a loving action. Oord defines altruism as acting for the other's good, and he agrees with feminists who note that sometimes love requires acting for one's own good when the other's demands undermine overall well-being.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Religious viewpoints", "Christianity"], "text": "German philosopher [[Max Scheler]] distinguishes two ways in which the strong can help the weak. One way is a sincere expression of Christian love, \"motivated by a powerful feeling of security, strength, and inner salvation, of the invincible fullness of one's own life and existence\". Another way is merely \"one of the many modern substitutes for love, ... nothing but the urge to turn away from oneself and to lose oneself in other people's business\". At its worst, Scheler says, \"love for the small, the poor, the weak, and the oppressed is really disguised hatred, repressed envy, an impulse to detract, etc., directed against the opposite phenomena: wealth, strength, power, largesse.\"", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Religious viewpoints", "Islam"], "text": "In [[Islam]], the concept \"''īthār''\" (إيثار) (altruism) is the notion of \"preferring others to oneself\". For [[Sufism|Sufis]], this means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns, where concern for others is deemed as a demand made by [[Allah]] (i.e. God) on the human body, considered to be property of Allah alone. The importance of ''īthār'' lies in sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; [[Islam]] considers those practicing ''īthār'' as abiding by the highest degree of nobility. This is similar to the notion of chivalry, but unlike that European concept, in ''īthār'' attention is focused on everything in existence. A constant concern for Allah results in a careful attitude towards people, animals, and other things in this world. This concept was emphasized by Sufis like [[Rabia al-Adawiyya]] who paid attention to the difference between dedication to Allah and dedication to people. Thirteenth-century Turkish Sufi poet [[Yunus Emre]] explained this philosophy as \"''Yaratılanı severiz, Yaratandan ötürü''\", that is, \"We love the creature, because of The Creator.\" For many Muslims, ''īthār'' must be practiced as a religious obligation during specific Islamic holidays. However, ''īthār'' is also still an Islamic ideal to which all Muslims should strive to adhere at all times.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Religious viewpoints", "Judaism"], "text": "Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation. The famous Rabbi [[Abraham Isaac Kook]] stated that love is the most important attribute in humanity. This is defined as [[Tzedakah|bestowal]], or giving, which is the intention of altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism towards the creator or God. [[Kabbalah]] defines God as the force of giving in [[existence]]. Rabbi [[Moshe Chaim Luzzatto]] in particular focused on the 'purpose of creation' and how the will of God was to bring creation into perfection and adhesion with this upper force. Modern [[Kabbalah]] developed by Rabbi [[Yehuda Ashlag]], in his writings about the [[future generation]], focuses on how society could achieve an altruistic social framework. Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of creation, and everything that happens is to raise humanity to the level of altruism, love for one another. Ashlag focused on society and its relation to [[divinity]].", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Religious viewpoints", "Sikhism"], "text": "Altruism is essential to the [[Sikhism|Sikh]] religion. The central faith in Sikhism is that the greatest deed any one can do is to imbibe and live the godly qualities like love, affection, sacrifice, patience, harmony, truthfulness. The concept of ''seva'', or [[selfless service]] to the community for its own sake, is an important concept in Sikhism. The fifth [[Guru]], [[Arjun Dev]], sacrificed his life to uphold \"22 carats of pure truth, the greatest gift to humanity\", the [[Guru Granth]]. The ninth Guru, [[Tegh Bahadur]], sacrificed his head to protect weak and defenseless people against atrocity. In the late seventeenth century, [[Guru Gobind Singh]] (the tenth Guru in Sikhism), was at war with the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] rulers to protect the people of different faiths when a fellow Sikh, [[Bhai Kanhaiya]], attended the troops of the enemy. He gave water to both friends and foes who were wounded on the battlefield. Some of the enemy began to fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he was helping their enemy. Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind Singh, and complained of his action that they considered counterproductive to their struggle on the battlefield. \"What were you doing, and why?\" asked the Guru. \"I was giving water to the wounded because I saw your face in all of them\", replied Bhai Kanhaiya. The Guru responded, \"Then you should also give them ointment to heal their wounds. You were practicing what you were coached in the house of the Guru.\" Under the tutelage of the Guru, Bhai Kanhaiya subsequently founded a volunteer corps for altruism, which is still engaged today in doing good to others and in training new recruits for this service.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Religious viewpoints", "Hinduism"], "text": "In Hinduism Selflessness (Atmatyag), Love (Prema), Kindness (Daya) and Forgiveness (Kshama) are considered as the highest acts of humanity or \"Manushyattva\". Giving alms to the beggers or poor people is considered as a divine act or \"Punya\" and Hindus believe it will free their souls from guilt or \"Paapa\" and will led them to heaven or \"Swarga\" in afterlife. Altruism is also the central act of various Hindu mythology and religious poems and songs. [[Swami Vivekananda]], the legendary Hindu monk, has said -\"Jive prem kare jeijon, Seijon sebiche Iswar\" (Whoever loves any living being, is serving god.). Mass donation of clothes to poor people (Vastraseva), or blood donation camp or mass food donation (Annaseva) for poor people is common in various Hindu religious ceremonies. [[Swami Sivananda]], an [[Advaita]] scholar, reiterates the views in his commentary synthesising Vedanta views on the [[Brahma Sutras]], a Vedantic text. In his commentary on Chapter 3 of the Brahma Sutras, Sivananda notes that karma is insentient and short-lived, and ceases to exist as soon as a deed is executed. Hence, karma cannot bestow the fruits of actions at a future date according to one's merit. Furthermore, one cannot argue that karma generates [[apurva]] or [[Merit (Buddhism)|punya]], which gives fruit. Since apurva is non-sentient, it cannot act unless moved by an intelligent being such as a god. It cannot independently bestow reward or punishment. However the very well known and popular text, the [[Bhagavad Gita]] supports the doctrine of karma yoga (achieving oneness with God through action) & \"[[Nishkam Karma]]\" or action without expectation / desire for personal gain which can be said to encompass altruism. Altruistic acts are generally celebrated and very well received in Hindu literature and is central to Hindu morality.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy"], "text": "There exists a wide range of philosophical views on humans' obligations or motivations to act altruistically. Proponents of [[Altruism (ethics)|ethical altruism]] maintain that individuals are morally obligated to act altruistically. The opposing view is [[ethical egoism]], which maintains that moral agents should always act in their own self-interest. Both ethical altruism and ethical egoism contrast with [[utilitarianism]], which maintains that each agent should act in order to maximise the efficacy of their function and the benefit to both themselves and their co-inhabitants. A related concept in [[descriptive ethics]] is [[psychological egoism]], the thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true altruism is impossible. [[Rational egoism]] is the view that [[rationality]] consists in acting in one's self-interest (without specifying how this affects one's moral obligations).", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Effective altruism"], "text": "[[Effective altruism]] is a [[philosophy]] and [[social movement]] that uses evidence and reasoning to determine the most effective ways to benefit others. Effective altruism encourages individuals to consider all causes and actions and to act in the way that brings about the greatest positive impact, based upon their values. It is the broad, evidence-based and cause-neutral approach that distinguishes effective altruism from traditional altruism or [[Charity (practice)|charity]]. Effective altruism is part of the larger movement towards [[evidence-based practices]]. While a substantial proportion of effective altruists have focused on the [[nonprofit sector]], the philosophy of effective altruism applies more broadly to prioritizing the scientific projects, companies, and policy initiatives which can be estimated to save lives, help people, or otherwise have the biggest benefit. People associated with the movement include philosopher [[Peter Singer]], Facebook co founder [[Dustin Moskovitz]], Cari Tuna, [[Ben Delo]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]-based researchers [[William MacAskill]] and [[Toby Ord]], professional poker player [[Liv Boeree]], and writer [[Jacy Reese]].", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": ["Genetics"], "text": "The genes [[OXTR]], [[CD38]], [[COMT]], [[DRD4]], [[DRD5]], [[IGF2]], [[GABRB2]] have been found to be candidate genes for altruism.", "id": "336", "title": "Altruism", "categories": ["Altruism", "Auguste Comte", "Defence mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology", "Morality", "Moral psychology", "Philanthropy", "Social philosophy", "Interpersonal relationships", "Virtue"], "seealso": ["Non nobis solum", "Random act of kindness", "Social preferences", "Gene-centered view of evolution", "Spite (game theory)", "Egotism", "Humanity (virtue)", "Charitable organization", "Mutual aid", "Misanthropy", "Prisoner's dilemma", "Comedy of the commons", "Altruria, California", "Solidarity (sociology)", "Social psychology", "Family economics", "Consideration"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Ayn Rand''' (; born '''Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum''';  – March 6, 1982) was a [[Russian-American]] writer and philosopher. She is known for her fiction and for developing a philosophical system she named [[Objectivism]]. Born and educated in Russia, she moved to the United States in 1926. She had a play that opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in 1935. After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful, she achieved fame with her 1943 novel, ''[[The Fountainhead]]''. In 1957, Rand published her best-known work, the novel ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''. Afterward, she turned to non-fiction to promote her philosophy, publishing her own [[Objectivist periodicals|periodicals]] and releasing several collections of essays until her death in 1982. Rand advocated [[reason]] as the only means of acquiring knowledge and rejected [[faith]] and religion. She supported [[Rational egoism|rational]] and [[ethical egoism]] and rejected [[Altruism (ethics)|altruism]]. In politics, she condemned the [[initiation of force]] as immoral and opposed [[collectivism]], [[statism]], as well as [[anarchism]], instead supporting ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]], which she defined as the system based on recognizing [[individual rights]], including property rights. Although she was opposed to [[libertarianism]], seeing the ideology as anarchism, she is often associated with the modern libertarian movement. In art, Rand promoted [[romantic realism]]. She was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her, except for [[Aristotle]], [[Thomas Aquinas]] and [[classical liberals]]. Literary critics received Rand's fiction with mixed reviews. Although there was some growth of academic interest in her ideas in the early 2000s, academic philosophers have generally ignored or rejected her philosophy due to her polemical approach and lack of methodological rigor. The [[Objectivist movement]] attempts to spread her ideas, both to the public and in academic settings. She has been a significant influence among libertarians and [[Conservatism in the United States|American conservatives]].", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "Early life"], "text": "Rand was born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum on February 2, 1905, to a [[Russian-Jewish]] bourgeois family living in [[Saint Petersburg]]. She was the eldest of three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum, a pharmacist, and Anna Borisovna (née Kaplan). Rand later said she found school unchallenging and began writing screenplays at the age of eight and novels at the age of ten. At the prestigious , her closest friend was [[Vladimir Nabokov]]'s younger sister, Olga; the two girls shared an intense interest in politics. She was twelve at the time of the [[February Revolution]] of 1917, during which she favored [[Alexander Kerensky]] over [[Tsar]] [[Nicholas II]]. The subsequent [[October Revolution]] and the rule of the [[Bolsheviks]] under [[Vladimir Lenin]] disrupted the life the family had previously enjoyed. Her father's business was confiscated, and the family fled to the [[Crimean Peninsula]], which was initially under control of the [[White Army]] during the [[Russian Civil War]]. While in high school there, she concluded that she was an [[atheist]] and valued [[reason]] above any other virtue. After graduating in June 1921, she returned with her family to Petrograd (as Saint Petersburg was renamed at that time), where they faced desperate conditions, on occasion nearly starving. After the Russian Revolution, universities were opened to women, allowing her to be in the first group of women to enroll at [[Petrograd State University]]. At the age of 16, she began her studies in the department of [[social pedagogy]], majoring in history. At the university she was introduced to the writings of [[Aristotle]] and [[Plato]]; she came to see their differing views on reality and knowledge as the primary conflict within philosophy. She also studied the philosophical works of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. Able to read French, German and Russian, she also discovered the writers [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], [[Victor Hugo]], [[Edmond Rostand]], and [[Friedrich Schiller]], who became her perennial favorites. Along with many other bourgeois students, she was purged from the university shortly before graduating. After complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists, many of the purged students were allowed to complete their work and graduate, which she did in October 1924. She then studied for a year at the State [[Tekhnikum|Technicum]] for Screen Arts in Leningrad. For an assignment, she wrote an essay about the Polish actress [[Pola Negri]], which became her first published work. By this time, she had decided her professional surname for writing would be ''Rand'', possibly because it is graphically similar to a vowelless excerpt of her birth surname in [[Cyrillic]] handwriting, and she adopted the first name ''Ayn'', either from the [[Finnic languages|Finnic]] name ''[[Aino (given name)|Aino]]'' or from the [[Hebrew]] word (''[[ayin]]'', meaning \"eye\").", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "Arrival in the United States"], "text": "In late 1925, Rand was granted a [[Travel visa|visa]] to visit relatives in Chicago. She departed on January 17, 1926. When she arrived in New York City on February 19, 1926, she was so impressed with the skyline of [[Manhattan]] that she cried what she later called \"tears of splendor\". Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter, she lived for a few months with her relatives, one of whom owned a movie theater and allowed her to watch dozens of films free of charge. She then left for Hollywood, California. In Hollywood, a chance meeting with famed director [[Cecil B. DeMille]] led to work as an [[Extra (acting)|extra]] in his film ''[[The King of Kings (1927 film)|The King of Kings]]'' and a subsequent job as a junior screenwriter. While working on ''The King of Kings'', she met an aspiring young actor, Frank O'Connor; the two were married on April 15, 1929. She became a [[Green card|permanent American resident]] in July 1929 and [[United States nationality law#Naturalization|an American citizen]] on March 3, 1931. She made several attempts to bring her parents and sisters to the United States, but they were unable to acquire permission to emigrate.", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "Early fiction"], "text": "Rand's first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay ''[[Red Pawn]]'' to [[Universal Studios]] in 1932, although it was never produced. This was followed by the courtroom drama ''[[Night of January 16th]]'', first produced by [[E. E. Clive]] in Hollywood in 1934 and then successfully reopened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in 1935. Each night a jury was selected from members of the audience; based on the jury's vote, one of two different endings would be performed. Rand's first published novel, the semi-autobiographical ''[[We the Living]]'', was published in 1936. Set in [[Soviet Russia]], it focused on the struggle between the individual and the state. Initial sales were slow and the American publisher let it go out of print, although European editions continued to sell. She adapted the story as a [[The Unconquered (play)|stage play]], but producer [[George Abbott]]'s Broadway production was a failure that closed in less than a week. After the success of her later novels, Rand was able to release a revised version in 1959 that has since sold over three million copies. In a foreword to the 1959 edition, Rand stated that ''We the Living'' \"is as near to an autobiography as I will ever write. ... The plot is invented, the background is not ...\" Her novella ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' was written during a break from the writing of her next major novel, ''The Fountainhead''. It presents a vision of a [[dystopian]] future world in which [[totalitarian]] collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that even the word 'I' has been forgotten and replaced with 'we'. It was published in England in 1938, but Rand initially could not find an American publisher. As with ''We the Living'', Rand's later success allowed her to get a revised version published in 1946, which has sold more than 3.5 million copies. During these early years of her career, Rand wrote other plays and short stories that were not produced or published during her lifetime, many of which were later published in ''[[The Early Ayn Rand]]''.", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "''The Fountainhead'' and political activism"], "text": "During the 1940s, Rand became politically active. She and her husband worked as full-time volunteers for the 1940 presidential campaign of Republican [[Wendell Willkie]]. This work led to Rand's first public speaking experiences; she enjoyed fielding sometimes hostile questions from New York City audiences who had viewed pro-Willkie [[newsreels]]. This activity brought her into contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free-market capitalism. She became friends with journalist [[Henry Hazlitt]], who introduced her to the [[Austrian School]] economist [[Ludwig von Mises]]. Despite her philosophical differences with them, Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men throughout her career, and both of them expressed admiration for her. Mises once referred to Rand as \"the most courageous man in America\", a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said \"man\" instead of \"woman\". Rand also became friends with libertarian writer [[Isabel Paterson]]. Rand questioned Paterson about American history and politics long into the night during their many meetings and gave Paterson ideas for her only non-fiction book, ''[[The God of the Machine]]''. Rand's first major success as a writer came in 1943 with ''The Fountainhead'', a romantic and philosophical novel that she wrote over a period of seven years. The novel centers on an uncompromising young architect named [[Howard Roark]] and his struggle against what Rand described as \"second-handers\"—those who attempt to live through others, placing others above themselves. It was rejected by twelve publishers before finally being accepted by the [[Bobbs-Merrill Company]] on the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden, who threatened to quit if his employer did not publish it. While completing the novel, Rand was prescribed the [[amphetamine]] [[Benzedrine]] to fight fatigue. The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for delivering the novel, but afterwards she was so exhausted that her doctor ordered two weeks' rest. Her use of the drug for approximately three decades may have contributed to what some of her later associates described as volatile mood swings. ''The Fountainhead'' became a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security. In 1943, Rand sold the film rights to [[Warner Bros.]] and she returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay. Afterwards she was hired by producer [[Hal B. Wallis]] as a screenwriter and script-doctor. Her work for Wallis included the screenplays for the [[Academy Awards|Oscar]]-nominated ''[[Love Letters (1945 film)|Love Letters]]'' and ''[[You Came Along]]''. Rand also worked on other projects, including a never-completed nonfiction treatment of her philosophy to be called ''The Moral Basis of Individualism''.", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "''The Fountainhead'' and political activism"], "text": "Rand extended her involvement with free-market and [[anti-communist]] activism while working in Hollywood. She became involved with the anti-Communist [[Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals]] and wrote articles on the group's behalf. She also joined the anti-Communist [[American Writers Association]]. A visit by Paterson to meet with Rand's California associates led to a falling out between the two when Paterson made comments, which Rand considered rude, to valued political allies. In 1947, during the [[Second Red Scare]], Rand testified as a \"friendly witness\" before the United States [[House Un-American Activities Committee]]. Rand testified that the 1944 film ''[[Song of Russia]]'' grossly misrepresented conditions in the [[Soviet Union]], portraying life there as much better and happier than it was. She wanted to also criticize the lauded 1946 film ''[[The Best Years of Our Lives]]'' for what she interpreted as its negative presentation of the business world, but she was not allowed to testify about it. When asked after the hearings about her feelings on the effectiveness of the investigations, Rand described the process as \"futile\". After several delays, the [[The Fountainhead (film)|film version]] of ''The Fountainhead'' was released in 1949. Although it used Rand's screenplay with minimal alterations, she \"disliked the movie from beginning to end\", and complained about its editing, acting, and other elements.", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "''Atlas Shrugged'' and Objectivism"], "text": "Following the publication of ''The Fountainhead'', Rand received numerous letters from readers, some of whom the book profoundly influenced. In 1951, Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City, where she gathered a group of these admirers around her. This group (jokingly designated \"The Collective\") included future [[Chair of the Federal Reserve]] [[Alan Greenspan]], a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later [[Nathaniel Branden]]) and his wife [[Barbara Branden|Barbara]], and Barbara's cousin [[Leonard Peikoff]]. Initially the group was an informal gathering of friends who met with Rand on weekends at her apartment to discuss philosophy. She later began allowing them to read the drafts of her new novel, ''Atlas Shrugged'', as the manuscript was written. In 1954, Rand's close relationship with Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair, with the knowledge of their spouses. ''Atlas Shrugged'', published in 1957, was considered Rand's ''[[masterpiece|magnum opus]]''. Rand described the theme of the novel as \"the role of the mind in man's existence—and, as a corollary, the demonstration of a new moral philosophy: the morality of rational self-interest\". It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy of [[Objectivism]] and expresses her concept of human achievement. The plot involves a [[dystopia]] United States in which the most creative industrialists, scientists, and artists respond to a [[welfare state]] government by going on [[Strike action|strike]] and retreating to a hidden valley where they build an independent free economy. The novel's hero and leader of the strike, [[John Galt]], describes the strike as \"stopping the motor of the world\" by withdrawing the minds of the individuals most contributing to the nation's wealth and achievement. With this fictional strike, Rand intended to illustrate that without the efforts of the rational and productive, the economy would collapse and society would fall apart. The novel includes elements of [[Mystery fiction|mystery]], romance, and science fiction, and it contains an extended exposition of Objectivism in a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt. Despite many negative reviews, ''Atlas Shrugged'' became an international bestseller. However, Rand was discouraged and depressed by the reaction of intellectuals to the novel. ''Atlas Shrugged'' was Rand's last completed work of fiction; it marked the end of her career as a novelist and the beginning of her role as a popular philosopher.", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "''Atlas Shrugged'' and Objectivism"], "text": "In 1958, Nathaniel Branden established Nathaniel Branden Lectures, later incorporated as the [[Nathaniel Branden Institute]] (NBI), to promote Rand's philosophy. Collective members gave lectures for NBI and wrote articles for [[Objectivist periodicals]] that Rand edited. She later published some of these articles in book form. Rand was unimpressed with many of the NBI students and held them to strict standards, sometimes reacting coldly or angrily to those who disagreed with her. Critics, including some former NBI students and Branden himself, later described the culture of NBI as one of intellectual conformity and excessive reverence for Rand. Some described NBI or the [[Objectivist movement]] generally as a [[cult]] or religion. Rand expressed opinions on a wide range of topics, from literature and music to sexuality and facial hair, and some of her followers mimicked her preferences, wearing clothes to match characters from her novels and buying furniture like hers. However, some former NBI students believed the extent of these behaviors was exaggerated, and the problem was concentrated among Rand's closest followers in New York.", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Life", "Later years"], "text": "Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through her nonfiction works and by giving talks to students at institutions such as [[Yale]], [[Princeton University|Princeton]], [[Columbia University|Columbia]], [[Harvard]], and the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. She also began delivering annual lectures at the [[Ford Hall Forum]], responding afterward to questions from the audience. During these appearances, she often took controversial stances on political and social issues of the day. These included supporting abortion rights, opposing the [[Vietnam War]] and the [[military draft]] (but condemning many [[draft dodgers]] as \"bums\"), supporting Israel in the [[Yom Kippur War]] of 1973 against a coalition of Arab nations as \"civilized men fighting savages\", saying [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonists]] had the right to develop land taken from [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indians]], and calling homosexuality \"immoral\" and \"disgusting\", while also advocating the repeal of all laws about it. She also endorsed several [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] candidates for President of the United States, most strongly [[Barry Goldwater]] in [[1964 United States presidential election|1964]], whose candidacy she promoted in several articles for ''The Objectivist Newsletter''. In 1964, Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress [[Patrecia Scott]], whom he later married. Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair hidden from Rand. When she learned of it in 1968, though her romantic relationship with Branden had already ended, Rand terminated her relationship with both Brandens, and NBI was closed. Rand published an article in ''The Objectivist'' repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and other \"irrational behavior in his private life\". In subsequent years, Rand and several more of her closest associates parted company. Rand underwent surgery for lung cancer in 1974 after decades of heavy smoking. In 1976, she retired from writing her newsletter and, after her initial objections, she allowed an employee of her attorney to enroll her in [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] and [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]]. During the late 1970s her activities within the Objectivist movement declined, especially after the death of her husband on November 9, 1979. One of her final projects was work on a never-completed television adaptation of ''Atlas Shrugged''. Rand died of heart failure on March 6, 1982, at her home in New York City, and was interred in the [[Kensico Cemetery]], [[Valhalla, New York]]. At her funeral, a floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket. In her will, Rand named Peikoff to inherit her estate.", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy"], "text": "Rand called her philosophy \"Objectivism\", describing its essence as \"the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute\". She considered Objectivism a [[systematic philosophy]] and laid out positions on [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], ethics, [[political philosophy]], and [[aesthetics]]. In metaphysics, Rand supported [[philosophical realism]], and opposed anything she regarded as mysticism or supernaturalism, including all forms of religion. In epistemology, she considered all knowledge to be based on sense perception, the validity of which she considered [[axiom]], and [[reason]], which she described as \"the faculty that identifies and integrates the material provided by man's senses\". She rejected all claims of non-perceptual or ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' knowledge, including instinct,' 'intuition,' 'revelation,' or any form of 'just knowing. In her ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'', Rand presented a theory of concept formation and rejected the [[analytic–synthetic dichotomy]]. In ethics, Rand argued for [[Rational egoism|rational]] and [[ethical egoism]] (rational self-interest), as the guiding moral principle. She said the individual should \"exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself\". She referred to egoism as \"the virtue of selfishness\" in her [[The Virtue of Selfishness|book of that title]], in which she presented her solution to the [[is-ought problem]] by describing a [[meta-ethical]] theory that based morality in the needs of \"man's survival ''qua'' man\". She condemned ethical altruism as incompatible with the requirements of human life and happiness, and held that the [[initiation of force]] was evil and irrational, writing in ''Atlas Shrugged'' that \"Force and mind are opposites.\" Rand's political philosophy emphasized [[individual rights]] (including [[Private property|property rights]]), and she considered ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]] the only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on the protection of those rights. She opposed [[statism]], which she understood to include [[theocracy]], [[absolute monarchy]], [[Nazism]], [[fascism]], [[communism]], [[democratic socialism]], and dictatorship. Rand believed that natural rights should be protected by a constitutionally limited government. Although her political views are often classified as [[Conservatism in the United States|conservative]] or [[libertarian]], she preferred the term \"radical for capitalism\". She worked with conservatives on political projects, but disagreed with them over issues such as religion and ethics. She denounced libertarianism, which she associated with [[anarchism]]. She rejected anarchism as a naïve theory based in [[subjectivism]] that could only lead to collectivism in practice. In aesthetics, Rand defined art as a \"selective re-creation of reality according to an artist's metaphysical value-judgments\". According to her, art allows philosophical concepts to be presented in a concrete form that can be easily grasped, thereby fulfilling a need of human consciousness. As a writer, the art form Rand focused on most closely was literature, where she considered [[romanticism]] to be the approach that most accurately reflected the existence of human [[free will]]. She described her own approach to literature as \"[[romantic realism]]\".", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy"], "text": "Rand said her most important contributions to philosophy were her \"theory of concepts, ethics, and discovery in politics that evil—the violation of rights—consists of the initiation of force\". She believed epistemology was a foundational branch of philosophy and considered the advocacy of reason to be the single most significant aspect of her philosophy, stating: \"I am not ''primarily'' an advocate of capitalism, but of egoism; and I am not ''primarily'' an advocate of egoism, but of reason. If one recognizes the supremacy of reason and applies it consistently, all the rest follows.\"", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Philosophy", "Relationship to other philosophers"], "text": "Rand was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her, except for Aristotle, [[Thomas Aquinas]] and [[classical liberals]]. She acknowledged Aristotle as her greatest influence and remarked that in the [[history of philosophy]] she could only recommend \"three A's\"—Aristotle, Aquinas, and Ayn Rand. In a 1959 interview with [[Mike Wallace]], when asked where her philosophy came from she responded: \"Out of my own mind, with the sole acknowledgement of a debt to Aristotle, the only philosopher who ever influenced me. I devised the rest of my philosophy myself.\" In an article for the ''[[Claremont Review of Books]]'', political scientist [[Charles Murray (political scientist)|Charles Murray]] criticizes her claim that her only \"philosophical debt\" was to Aristotle, instead asserting that her ideas were derivative of previous thinkers such as [[John Locke]] and Friedrich Nietzsche. Rand did find early inspiration from Nietzsche, and scholars have found indications of his influence in early notes from Rand's journals, in passages from the first edition of ''We the Living'' (which Rand later revised), and in her overall writing style. However, by the time she wrote ''The Fountainhead'', Rand had turned against Nietzsche's ideas, and the extent of his influence on her even during her early years is disputed. Russian literature professor Adam Weiner claims that Rand's egoism was also influenced by the 1863 novel ''[[What Is to Be Done? (novel)|What Is to Be Done?]]'' by Russian author [[Nikolay Chernyshevsky]]. Rand considered her philosophical opposite to be [[Immanuel Kant]], whom she referred to as \"the most evil man in mankind's history\"; she believed his epistemology undermined reason and his ethics opposed self-interest. Philosophers George Walsh and Fred Seddon have argued that she misinterpreted Kant and exaggerated their differences.", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Reception and legacy", "Critical reception"], "text": "During Rand's lifetime, her work evoked both extreme praise and condemnation. Rand's first novel, ''We the Living'', was admired by the literary critic [[H. L. Mencken]], her Broadway play ''Night of January 16th'' was both a critical and popular success, and ''The Fountainhead'' was hailed by ''[[The New York Times]]'' reviewer [[Lorine Pruette]] as \"masterful\". Rand's novels were derided by some critics when they were first published as being long and melodramatic. However, they became bestsellers largely through word of mouth. The first reviews Rand received were for ''Night of January 16th''. Reviews of the production were largely positive, but Rand considered even positive reviews to be embarrassing because of significant changes made to her script by the producer. Rand believed that her first novel, ''We the Living'', was not widely reviewed, but Rand scholar Michael S. Berliner writes \"it was the most reviewed of any of her works\", with approximately 125 different reviews being published in more than 200 publications. Overall these reviews were more positive than the reviews she received for her later work. Her 1938 novella ''Anthem'' received little attention from reviewers, both for its first publication in England and for subsequent re-issues. Rand's first bestseller, ''The Fountainhead'', received far fewer reviews than ''We the Living'', and reviewers' opinions were mixed. Lorine Pruette's positive review in ''The New York Times'' was one that Rand greatly appreciated. Pruette called Rand \"a writer of great power\" who wrote \"brilliantly, beautifully and bitterly\", and stated that \"you will not be able to read this masterful book without thinking through some of the basic concepts of our time\". There were other positive reviews, but Rand dismissed most of them as either not understanding her message or as being from unimportant publications. Some negative reviews focused on the length of the novel, such as one that called it \"a whale of a book\" and another that said \"anyone who is taken in by it deserves a stern lecture on paper-rationing\". Other negative reviews called the characters unsympathetic and Rand's style \"offensively pedestrian\". Rand's 1957 novel ''Atlas Shrugged'' was widely reviewed and many of the reviews were strongly negative. In ''[[National Review]]'', conservative author [[Whittaker Chambers]] called the book \"sophomoric\" and \"remarkably silly\". He described the tone of the book as \"shrillness without reprieve\" and accused Rand of supporting a godless system (which he related to that of the [[Religion in the Soviet Union|Soviets]]), claiming \"From almost any page of ''Atlas Shrugged'', a voice can be heard, from painful necessity, commanding: 'To a gas chamber—go!. ''Atlas Shrugged'' received positive reviews from a few publications, including praise from the noted book reviewer [[John Chamberlain (journalist)|John Chamberlain]], but Rand scholar [[Mimi Reisel Gladstein]] later wrote that \"reviewers seemed to vie with each other in a contest to devise the cleverest put-downs\", calling it \"execrable claptrap\" and \"a nightmare\"—they also said it was \"written out of hate\" and showed \"remorseless hectoring and prolixity\".", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Reception and legacy", "Critical reception"], "text": "Rand's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels had. The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book, ''[[For the New Intellectual]]'', was similar to that for ''Atlas Shrugged'', with philosopher [[Sidney Hook]] likening her certainty to \"the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union\", and author [[Gore Vidal]] calling her viewpoint \"nearly perfect in its immorality\". Her subsequent books got progressively less attention from reviewers. In 2005, on the 100th anniversary of Rand's birth, [[Edward Rothstein]], writing for ''[[The New York Times]]'', referred to her fictional writing as quaint [[utopian]] \"retro fantasy\" and programmatic [[neo-Romanticism]] of the misunderstood artist while criticizing her characters' \"isolated rejection of democratic society\". In 2019, [[Lisa Duggan]] described Rand's fiction as popular and influential on many readers, despite being easy to criticize for \"her cartoonish characters and melodramatic plots, her rigid moralizing, her middle- to lowbrow aesthetic preferences ... and philosophical strivings\".", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Reception and legacy", "Popular interest"], "text": "Rand's books continue to be widely sold and read, with over 30 million copies sold (including 3.6 million purchased for free distribution to schools by the [[Ayn Rand Institute]]). In 1991, a survey conducted for the [[Library of Congress]] and the [[Book-of-the-Month Club]] asked club members what the most influential book in the respondent's life was. Rand's ''Atlas Shrugged'' was the second most popular choice, after the Bible. Although Rand's influence has been greatest in the United States, there has been international interest in her work. Rand's contemporary admirers included fellow novelists, such as [[Ira Levin]], [[Kay Nolte Smith]] and [[L. Neil Smith]]; and later writers such as [[Erika Holzer]] and [[Terry Goodkind]] have been influenced by her. Other artists who have cited Rand as an important influence on their lives and thought include comic book artist [[Steve Ditko]] and musician [[Neil Peart]] of [[Rush (band)|Rush]], although he later distanced himself. Rand provided a positive view of business and subsequently many business executives and entrepreneurs have admired and promoted her work. [[John A. Allison IV|John Allison]] of [[BB&T]] and [[Ed Snider]] of [[Comcast Spectacor]] have funded the promotion of Rand's ideas, while [[Mark Cuban]] (owner of the [[Dallas Mavericks]]) as well as [[John P. Mackey]] (CEO of [[Whole Foods]]) among others have said they consider Rand crucial to their success. Rand and her works have been referred to in a variety of media: on television shows including animated sitcoms, live-action comedies, dramas, and game shows, as well as in movies and video games. She, or a character based on her, figures prominently (in positive and negative lights) in literary and science fiction novels by prominent American authors. [[Nick Gillespie]], former editor in chief of ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]'', remarked that \"Rand's is a tortured immortality, one in which she's as likely to be a punch line as a protagonist. Jibes at Rand as cold and inhuman run through the popular culture.\" Two movies have been made about Rand's life. A 1997 documentary film, ''[[Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life]]'', was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature]]. ''[[The Passion of Ayn Rand (film)|The Passion of Ayn Rand]]'', a 1999 television adaptation of the [[The Passion of Ayn Rand (book)|book of the same name]], won several awards. Rand's image also appears on a [[List of people on stamps of the United States#R|1999]] [[Postage stamps and postal history of the United States|U.S. postage stamp]] illustrated by artist [[Nick Gaetano]].", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Reception and legacy", "Political influence"], "text": "Although she rejected the labels \"conservative\" and \"libertarian\", Rand has had continuing influence on [[right-wing politics]] and libertarianism. [[Jim Powell (historian)|Jim Powell]], a senior fellow at the [[Cato Institute]], considers Rand one of the three most important women (along with [[Rose Wilder Lane]] and [[Isabel Paterson]]) of modern [[American libertarianism]], and [[David Nolan (libertarian)|David Nolan]], one of the founders of the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]], stated that \"without Ayn Rand, the libertarian movement would not exist\". In his history of the libertarian movement, journalist [[Brian Doherty (journalist)|Brian Doherty]] described her as \"the most influential libertarian of the twentieth century to the public at large\" and historian Jennifer Burns referred to her as \"the ultimate gateway drug to life on the right\". The political figures who cite Rand as an influence are usually conservatives (often members of the Republican Party), despite Rand taking some positions that are atypical for conservatives, such as being [[pro-choice]] and an atheist. She faced intense opposition from [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] and other contributors for the conservative ''[[National Review]]'' magazine, which published numerous criticisms of her writings and ideas. Nevertheless, a 1987 article in ''[[The New York Times]]'' referred to her as the [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan|Reagan administration]]'s \"novelist laureate\". Republican [[United States Congress|Congressmen]] and conservative pundits have acknowledged her influence on their lives and have recommended her novels. She has also influenced some conservative politicians outside the US, such as [[Ayelet Shaked]], Israel's former [[Ministry of Justice (Israel)|Minister of Justice]] and co-founder of the [[New Right (Israel)|New Right]] party. The [[financial crisis of 2007–2008]] spurred renewed interest in her works, especially ''Atlas Shrugged'', which some saw as foreshadowing the crisis. Opinion articles compared real-world events with the plot of the novel. During this time, signs mentioning Rand and her fictional hero [[John Galt]] appeared at [[Tea Party protests]]. There was also increased criticism of her ideas, especially from the [[political left]], with critics blaming the economic crisis on her support of [[Rational egoism#Ayn Rand|selfishness]] and [[free markets]], particularly through her influence on [[Alan Greenspan]]. In 2015, Adam Weiner said that through Greenspan, \"Rand had effectively chucked a ticking time bomb into the boiler room of the US economy\". Lisa Duggan said that Rand's novels had \"incalculable impact\" in encouraging the spread of [[neoliberal]] political ideas. In 2021, [[Cass Sunstein]] said Rand's ideas could be seen in the tax and regulatory policies of the [[Trump administration]], which he attributed to \"Rand's enduring influence ... from her fiction\".", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Reception and legacy", "Academic reaction", "Scholarly reception during Rand's lifetime"], "text": "During Rand's lifetime, her work received little attention from academic scholars. When the first academic book about Rand's philosophy appeared in 1971, its author declared writing about Rand \"a treacherous undertaking\" that could lead to \"guilt by association\" for taking her seriously. A few articles about Rand's ideas appeared in academic journals before her death in 1982, many of them in ''[[The Personalist]]''. One of these was \"On the Randian Argument\" by libertarian philosopher [[Robert Nozick]], who argued that her [[meta-ethical]] argument is unsound and fails to solve the [[is–ought problem]] posed by [[David Hume]]. Other philosophers, writing in the same publication, argued that Nozick misstated Rand's case. Academic consideration of Rand as a literary figure during her life was even more limited. Academic Mimi Gladstein was unable to find any scholarly articles about Rand's novels when she began researching her in 1973, and only three such articles appeared during the rest of the 1970s.", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Reception and legacy", "Academic reaction", "Posthumous overall assessments"], "text": "Since Rand's death, interest in her work has gradually increased. In 2009, historian [[Jennifer Burns (writer)|Jennifer Burns]] identified \"three overlapping waves\" of scholarly interest in Rand, including \"an explosion of scholarship\" since the year 2000. However, as of that same year, few universities included Rand or Objectivism as a philosophical specialty or research area, with many literature and philosophy departments dismissing her as a pop culture phenomenon rather than a subject for serious study. The Fall 2020 update to the entry about Rand in the ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'' says that \"only a few professional philosophers have taken her work seriously\". Scholars of English and American literature have also largely ignored her work, although attention to her literary work has increased since the 1990s. Writing in the 1998 edition of the ''[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'', political theorist [[Chandran Kukathas]] summarizes the mainstream philosophical reception to her work in two parts. Her ethical argument, he says, is viewed by most commentators as an unconvincing variant of Aristotle's ethics. Her political theory, he says, \"is of little interest\", marred by an \"ill-thought out and unsystematic\" effort to reconcile her hostility to the state with her rejection of anarchism. Libertarian philosopher [[Michael Huemer]] argues that very few people find Rand's ideas convincing, especially her ethics, which he believes are difficult to interpret and lack logical coherence. He attributes the attention she receives to her being a \"compelling writer\", especially as a novelist, noting that ''Atlas Shrugged'' outsells Rand's non-fiction works as well as the works of other philosophers of [[classical liberalism]] such as [[Ludwig von Mises]], [[Friedrich Hayek]], or [[Frederic Bastiat]]. In the ''[[The Literary Encyclopedia (English)|Literary Encyclopedia]]'' entry for Rand written in 2001, [[John David Lewis]] declared that \"Rand wrote the most intellectually challenging fiction of her generation\".", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Reception and legacy", "Academic reaction", "Rand-specific scholarship"], "text": "Some scholars focus specifically on Rand's work. Rand scholars [[Douglas Den Uyl]] and [[Douglas B. Rasmussen]], while stressing the importance and originality of her thought in a 1984 collection of academic articles about her ideas, describe her style as \"literary, hyperbolic and emotional\". In that same volume, political writer and Rand scholar Jack Wheeler writes that despite \"the incessant bombast and continuous venting of Randian rage\", Rand's ethics are \"a most immense achievement, the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in contemporary thought\". In 1987 [[Allan Gotthelf]], George Walsh and [[David Kelley]] co-founded the Ayn Rand Society, a group affiliated with the [[American Philosophical Association]]. In 2012, the [[University of Pittsburgh Press]] launched an \"Ayn Rand Society Philosophical Studies\" series based on the proceedings of the Society. Gladstein, Gotthelf, [[Harry Binswanger]], [[John Hospers]], [[Edwin A. Locke]], [[Wallace Matson]], [[Leonard Peikoff]], [[Chris Matthew Sciabarra]], and [[Tara Smith (philosopher)|Tara Smith]] have taught her work in academic institutions. Rand's ideas have also been made subjects of study at [[Clemson University|Clemson]] and [[Duke University|Duke]] universities. Sciabarra co-edits ''[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]]'', a nonpartisan [[peer-reviewed journal]] dedicated to the study of Rand's philosophical and literary work. Smith has written several academic books and papers on Rand's ideas, including ''Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics: The Virtuous Egoist'', a volume on Rand's ethical theory published by [[Cambridge University Press]] in 2006. Although Rand maintained that Objectivism was an integrated philosophical system, philosopher Robert H. Bass argues in a 2006 journal article that her central ethical ideas are inconsistent and contradictory to her central political ideas.", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Reception and legacy", "Objectivist movement"], "text": "In 1985, Peikoff established the [[Ayn Rand Institute]], a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting Rand's ideas and works. In 1990, after an ideological disagreement with Peikoff, philosopher [[David Kelley]] founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies, now known as [[The Atlas Society]]. In 2001, historian John McCaskey organized the Anthem Foundation for Objectivist Scholarship, which provides grants for scholarly work on Objectivism in academia. From 2002 to 2012, the charitable foundation of [[BB&T Corporation]] gave grants to more than 60 colleges and universities for teaching Rand's ideas or works. In some cases, these grants were controversial due to their requiring research or teaching related to Rand.", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": ["Selected works"], "text": "'''Fiction and drama:''' (-) ''[[Night of January 16th]]'' (performed 1934, published 1968) (-) ''[[We the Living]]'' (1936, revised 1959) (-) ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' (1938, revised 1946) (-) ''[[The Unconquered (play)|The Unconquered]]'' (performed 1940, published 2014) (-) ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' (1943) (-) ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' (1957) (-) ''[[The Early Ayn Rand]]'' (1984) (-) ''[[Ideal (novel)|Ideal]]'' (2015) '''Non-fiction:''' (-) ''[[For the New Intellectual]]'' (1961) (-) ''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]'' (1964) (-) ''[[Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal]]'' (1966, expanded 1967) (-) ''[[The Romantic Manifesto]]'' (1969) (-) ''[[The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution|The New Left]]'' (1971, expanded 1975) (-) ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' (1979, expanded 1990) (-) ''[[Philosophy: Who Needs It]]'' (1982) (-) ''[[Letters of Ayn Rand]]'' (1995) (-) ''[[Journals of Ayn Rand]]'' (1997)", "id": "339", "title": "Ayn Rand", "categories": ["Ayn Rand", "1905 births", "1982 deaths", "Writers from Saint Petersburg", "Writers from New York City", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American novelists", "20th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century atheists", "20th-century essayists", "20th-century Russian philosophers", "Activists from New York (state)", "American abortion-rights activists", "American anti-communists", "American anti-fascists", "American atheists", "American atheist writers", "American essayists", "American ethicists", "American people of Russian-Jewish descent", "American political activists", "American political philosophers", "American science fiction writers", "American women activists", "American women dramatists and playwrights", "American women essayists", "American women novelists", "American women philosophers", "American women screenwriters", "American secularists", "American writers of Russian descent", "Aristotelian philosophers", "Atheist philosophers", "Critics of Marxism", "Epistemologists", "Exophonic writers", "Female critics of feminism", "Atheists of the Russian Empire", "Jews of the Russian Empire", "Jewish American dramatists and playwrights", "Jewish American novelists", "Jewish activists", "Jewish anti-communists", "Jewish anti-fascists", "Jewish atheists", "Jewish philosophers", "Jewish women writers", "Metaphysicians", "Novelists from New York (state)", "Objectivists", "Old Right (United States)", "People of the New Deal arts projects", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Philosophers from New York (state)", "Political philosophers", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Pseudonymous writers", "Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire", "Saint Petersburg State University alumni", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Soviet emigrants to the United States", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Burials at Kensico Cemetery"], "seealso": ["Murder of Marion Parker", "A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Alain Connes''' (; born 1 April 1947) is a French mathematician, and a theoretical physicist, known for his contributions to the study of [[operator algebra]] and [[noncommutative geometry]]. He is a Professor at the [[Collège de France]], [[IHÉS]], [[Ohio State University]] and [[Vanderbilt University]]. He was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in 1982.", "id": "340", "title": "Alain Connes", "categories": ["1947 births", "Living people", "20th-century French mathematicians", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "21st-century French mathematicians", "Collège de France faculty", "Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars", "Fields Medalists", "Mathematical analysts", "Differential geometers", "École Normale Supérieure alumni", "Vanderbilt University faculty", "Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the French Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters", "Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters", "Clay Research Award recipients", "Participants in the Les Houches Physics Summer School"], "seealso": ["Cyclic homology", "M-theory", "Criticism of non-standard analysis", "Higgs boson", "Bost–Connes system", "C*-algebra", "Factor (functional analysis)", "Riemann hypothesis", "Groupoid"]}
{"headers": ["Career"], "text": "Connes was an Invited Professor at the [[Conservatoire national des arts et métiers]] (2000).", "id": "340", "title": "Alain Connes", "categories": ["1947 births", "Living people", "20th-century French mathematicians", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "21st-century French mathematicians", "Collège de France faculty", "Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars", "Fields Medalists", "Mathematical analysts", "Differential geometers", "École Normale Supérieure alumni", "Vanderbilt University faculty", "Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the French Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters", "Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters", "Clay Research Award recipients", "Participants in the Les Houches Physics Summer School"], "seealso": ["Cyclic homology", "M-theory", "Criticism of non-standard analysis", "Higgs boson", "Bost–Connes system", "C*-algebra", "Factor (functional analysis)", "Riemann hypothesis", "Groupoid"]}
{"headers": ["Career", "Research"], "text": "Alain Connes studies [[operator algebra]]. In his early work on [[von Neumann algebra]] in the 1970s, he succeeded in obtaining the almost complete classification of injective [[Von Neumann algebra#Factors|factor]]. He also formulated the [[Connes embedding problem]]. Following this, he made contributions in [[K-theory|operator K-theory]] and [[index theory]], which culminated in the [[Baum–Connes conjecture]]. He also introduced [[cyclic homology|cyclic cohomology]] in the early 1980s as a first step in the study of [[noncommutative geometry|noncommutative differential geometry]]. He was a member of [[Nicolas Bourbaki|Bourbaki]]. Connes has applied his work in areas of [[mathematics]] and [[theoretical physics]], including [[number theory]], [[differential geometry]] and [[particle physics]].", "id": "340", "title": "Alain Connes", "categories": ["1947 births", "Living people", "20th-century French mathematicians", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "21st-century French mathematicians", "Collège de France faculty", "Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars", "Fields Medalists", "Mathematical analysts", "Differential geometers", "École Normale Supérieure alumni", "Vanderbilt University faculty", "Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the French Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters", "Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters", "Clay Research Award recipients", "Participants in the Les Houches Physics Summer School"], "seealso": ["Cyclic homology", "M-theory", "Criticism of non-standard analysis", "Higgs boson", "Bost–Connes system", "C*-algebra", "Factor (functional analysis)", "Riemann hypothesis", "Groupoid"]}
{"headers": ["Awards and honours"], "text": "Connes was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in 1982, the [[Crafoord Prize]] in 2001 and the gold medal of the [[CNRS]] in 2004. He was an [[invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians|invited speaker at the ICM]] in 1974 at Vancouver and in 1986 at Berkeley and a [[plenary speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians|plenary speaker at the ICM]] in 1978 at Helsinki. He is a member of the [[French Academy of Sciences]] and several foreign academies and societies, including the [[Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters|Danish Academy of Sciences]], [[Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters|Norwegian Academy of Sciences]], [[Russian Academy of Sciences]], and [[National Academy of Sciences|US National Academy of Sciences]].", "id": "340", "title": "Alain Connes", "categories": ["1947 births", "Living people", "20th-century French mathematicians", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "21st-century French mathematicians", "Collège de France faculty", "Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars", "Fields Medalists", "Mathematical analysts", "Differential geometers", "École Normale Supérieure alumni", "Vanderbilt University faculty", "Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the French Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters", "Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters", "Clay Research Award recipients", "Participants in the Les Houches Physics Summer School"], "seealso": ["Cyclic homology", "M-theory", "Criticism of non-standard analysis", "Higgs boson", "Bost–Connes system", "C*-algebra", "Factor (functional analysis)", "Riemann hypothesis", "Groupoid"]}
{"headers": ["Books"], "text": "(-) Alain Connes and [[Matilde Marcolli]], ''Noncommutative Geometry, Quantum Fields and Motives'', Colloquium Publications, American Mathematical Society, 2007, (-) Alain Connes, Andre Lichnerowicz, and Marcel Paul Schutzenberger, ''Triangle of Thought'', translated by Jennifer Gage, American Mathematical Society, 2001, (-) [[Jean-Pierre Changeux]], and Alain Connes, ''Conversations on Mind, Matter, and Mathematics'', translated by M. B. DeBevoise, Princeton University Press, 1998, (-) Alain Connes, ''Noncommutative Geometry'', Academic Press, 1994,", "id": "340", "title": "Alain Connes", "categories": ["1947 births", "Living people", "20th-century French mathematicians", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "21st-century French mathematicians", "Collège de France faculty", "Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars", "Fields Medalists", "Mathematical analysts", "Differential geometers", "École Normale Supérieure alumni", "Vanderbilt University faculty", "Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the French Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters", "Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters", "Clay Research Award recipients", "Participants in the Les Houches Physics Summer School"], "seealso": ["Cyclic homology", "M-theory", "Criticism of non-standard analysis", "Higgs boson", "Bost–Connes system", "C*-algebra", "Factor (functional analysis)", "Riemann hypothesis", "Groupoid"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Allan Dwan''' (born '''Joseph Aloysius Dwan'''; 3 April 1885 – 28 December 1981) was a pioneering Canadian-born American motion picture director, producer, and screenwriter.", "id": "344", "title": "Allan Dwan", "categories": ["1885 births", "1981 deaths", "American film directors", "American film producers", "American male screenwriters", "Western (genre) film directors", "Canadian emigrants to the United States", "Film directors from Toronto", "Writers from Toronto", "Disease-related deaths in California", "Burials at San Fernando Mission Cemetery", "20th-century American male writers", "20th-century American screenwriters"], "seealso": ["Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood"]}
{"headers": ["Early life"], "text": "Born Joseph Aloysius Dwan in [[Toronto]], Ontario, Canada, Dwan, was the younger son of commercial traveler of woolen clothing Joseph Michael Dwan (1857–1917) and his wife Mary Jane Dwan, née Hunt. The family moved to the United States when he was seven years old on 4 December 1892 by ferry from Windsor to Detroit, according to his naturalization petition of August 1939. His elder brother, Leo Garnet Dwan (1883–1964), became a physician. Allan Dwan studied engineering at the University of Notre Dame and then worked for a lighting company in Chicago. He had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry, and when [[Essanay Studios]] offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job. At that time, some of the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] movie makers began to spend winters in California where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round, and in 1911, Dwan began working part-time in Hollywood. While still in New York, in 1917 he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the [[Motion Picture Directors Association]].", "id": "344", "title": "Allan Dwan", "categories": ["1885 births", "1981 deaths", "American film directors", "American film producers", "American male screenwriters", "Western (genre) film directors", "Canadian emigrants to the United States", "Film directors from Toronto", "Writers from Toronto", "Disease-related deaths in California", "Burials at San Fernando Mission Cemetery", "20th-century American male writers", "20th-century American screenwriters"], "seealso": ["Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood"]}
{"headers": ["Career"], "text": "Dwan operated [[Flying A Studios]] in [[La Mesa, California]] from August 1911 to July 1912. Flying A was one of the first motion pictures studios in California history. On 12 August 1911, a plaque was unveiled on the Wolff building at Third Avenue and La Mesa Boulevard commemorating Dwan and the [[Flying A Studios]] origins in [[La Mesa, California]]. After making a series of westerns and comedies, Dwan directed fellow Canadian-American [[Mary Pickford]] in several very successful movies as well as her husband, [[Douglas Fairbanks]], notably in the acclaimed 1922 ''[[Robin Hood (1922 film)|Robin Hood]]''. Dwan directed [[Gloria Swanson]] in eight feature films, and one short film made in the short-lived sound-on-film process [[Phonofilm]]. This short, also featuring [[Thomas Meighan]] and [[Henri de la Falaise]], was produced as a joke, for the 26 April 1925 \"Lambs' Gambol\" for [[The Lambs]], with the film showing Swanson crashing the all-male club. Following the introduction of the [[sound film|talkies]], Dwan directed child-star [[Shirley Temple]] in ''[[Heidi (1937 film)|Heidi]]'' (1937) and ''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938 film)|Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]]'' (1938). Dwan helped launch the career of two other successful Hollywood directors, [[Victor Fleming]], who went on to direct ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' and ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone With the Wind]]'', and [[Marshall Neilan]], who became an actor, director, writer and producer. Over a long career spanning almost 50 years, Dwan directed 125 motion pictures, some of which were highly acclaimed, such as the 1949 box office hit, ''[[Sands of Iwo Jima]]''. He directed his last movie in 1961. He died in Los Angeles at the age of 96, and is interred in the [[San Fernando Mission Cemetery]], [[Mission Hills, Los Angeles|Mission Hills, California]]. Dwan has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6263 [[Hollywood Boulevard]]. Daniel Eagan of ''[[Film Journal International]]'' described Dwan as one of the early pioneers of cinema, stating that his style \"is so basic as to seem invisible, but he treats his characters with uncommon sympathy and compassion.\"", "id": "344", "title": "Allan Dwan", "categories": ["1885 births", "1981 deaths", "American film directors", "American film producers", "American male screenwriters", "Western (genre) film directors", "Canadian emigrants to the United States", "Film directors from Toronto", "Writers from Toronto", "Disease-related deaths in California", "Burials at San Fernando Mission Cemetery", "20th-century American male writers", "20th-century American screenwriters"], "seealso": ["Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood"]}
{"headers": ["Partial filmography as director"], "text": "(-) ''[[The Gold Lust]]'' (1911) (-) ''[[The Picket Guard]]'' (1913) (-) ''[[The Restless Spirit]]'' (1913) (-) ''[[Back to Life (1913 film)|Back to Life]]'' (1913) (-) ''[[Bloodhounds of the North]]'' (1913) (-) ''[[The Lie (1914 film)|The Lie]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Honor of the Mounted]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Unwelcome Mrs. Hatch]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[Remember Mary Magdalen]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[Discord and Harmony]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Embezzler (1914 film)|The Embezzler]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Lamb, the Woman, the Wolf]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The End of the Feud]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Test (1914 film)|The Test]]'' (1914) (*writer) (-) ''[[The Tragedy of Whispering Creek]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Unlawful Trade]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Forbidden Room (1914 film)|The Forbidden Room]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Hopes of Blind Alley]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[Richelieu (film)|Richelieu]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[Wildflower (1914 film)|Wildflower]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[A Small Town Girl]]'' (1915) (-) ''[[David Harum (1915 film)|David Harum]]'' (1915) (-) ''[[A Girl of Yesterday]]'' (1915) (-) ''[[The Pretty Sister of Jose (1915 film)|The Pretty Sister of Jose]]'' (1915) (-) ''[[Jordan Is a Hard Road]]'' (1915) (-) ''[[Betty of Graystone]]'' (1916) (-) ''[[The Habit of Happiness]]'' (1916) (-) ''[[The Good Bad Man]]'' (1916) (-) ''[[An Innocent Magdalene]]'' (1916) (-) ''[[The Half-Breed (1916 film)|The Half-Breed]]'' (1916) (-) ''[[Manhattan Madness (1916 film)|Manhattan Madness]]'' (1916) (-) ''[[Accusing Evidence]]'' (1916) (-) ''[[Panthea (1917 film)|Panthea]]'' (1917) (-) ''[[A Modern Musketeer]]'' (1917) (-) ''[[Bound in Morocco]]'' (1918) (-) ''[[Headin' South]]'' (1918) (-) ''[[Mr. Fix-It (1918 film)|Mr. Fix-It]]'' (1918) (-) ''[[He Comes Up Smiling]]'' (1918) (-) ''[[Cheating Cheaters (1919 film)|Cheating Cheaters]]'' (1919) (-) ''[[The Dark Star (1919 film)|The Dark Star]]'' (1919) (-) ''[[Getting Mary Married]]'' (1919) (-) ''[[Soldiers of Fortune (1919 film)|Soldiers of Fortune]]'' (1919) (-) ''[[In The Heart of a Fool]]'' (1920) also producer (-) ''[[The Forbidden Thing]]'' (1920) also producer (-) ''[[A Splendid Hazard (1920)|A Splendid Hazard]]'' (1920) (-) ''[[A Perfect Crime (film)|A Perfect Crime]]'' (1921) (-) ''[[The Sin of Martha Queed]]'' (1921) (-) ''[[A Broken Doll]]'' (1921) (-) ''[[Robin Hood (1922 film)|Robin Hood]]'' (1922) (-) ''[[Zaza (1923 film)|Zaza]]'' (1923) (-) ''[[Big Brother (1923 film)|Big Brother]]'' (1923) (-) ''[[Manhandled (1924 film)|Manhandled]]'' (1924) (-) ''[[Argentine Love]]'' (1924) (-) ''[[The Coast of Folly]]'' (1925) (-) ''[[Night Life of New York]]'' (1925) (-) ''[[Stage Struck (1925 film)|Stage Struck]]'' (1925) (-) ''[[Gloria Swanson Dialogue]]'' (1925) short film made in [[Phonofilm]] for [[The Lambs]] annual \"Gambol\" held at [[Metropolitan Opera House (39th Street)|Metropolitan Opera House]] (-) ''[[Padlocked]]'' (1926) (-) ''[[Sea Horses]]'' (1926) (-) ''[[Summer Bachelors]]'' (1926) (-) ''[[Tin Gods]]'' (1926) (-) ''[[French Dressing (1927 film)|French Dressing]]'' (1927) (-) ''[[The Joy Girl]]'' (1927) (-) ''[[East Side, West Side (1927 film)|East Side, West Side]]'' (1927) (-) ''[[The Big Noise (1928 film)|The Big Noise]]'' (1928) (-) ''[[Frozen Justice]]'' (1929) (-) ''[[The Iron Mask]]'' (1929) (-) ''[[Tide of Empire]]'' (1929) (-) ''[[The Far Call]]'' (1929) (-) ''[[What a Widow!]]'' (1930) (-) ''[[Man to Man (1930 film)|Man to Man]]'' (1930) (-) ''[[Chances (1931 film)|Chances]]'' (1931) (-) ''[[Wicked (1931 film)|Wicked]]'' (1931) (-) ''[[While Paris Sleeps (1932 film)|While Paris Sleeps]]'' (1932) (-) ''[[Counsel's Opinion]]'' (1933) (-) ''[[Black Sheep (1935 film)|Black Sheep]]'' (1935) (-) ''[[Navy Wife (1935 film)|Navy Wife]]'' (1935) (-) ''[[High Tension (1936 film)|High Tension]]'' (1936)", "id": "344", "title": "Allan Dwan", "categories": ["1885 births", "1981 deaths", "American film directors", "American film producers", "American male screenwriters", "Western (genre) film directors", "Canadian emigrants to the United States", "Film directors from Toronto", "Writers from Toronto", "Disease-related deaths in California", "Burials at San Fernando Mission Cemetery", "20th-century American male writers", "20th-century American screenwriters"], "seealso": ["Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood"]}
{"headers": ["Partial filmography as director"], "text": "(-) ''[[15 Maiden Lane]]'' (1936) (-) ''[[One Mile from Heaven]]'' (1937) (-) ''[[Heidi (1937 film)|Heidi]]'' (1937) (-) ''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938 film)|Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]]'' (1938) (-) ''[[Suez (film)|Suez]]'' (1938) (-) ''[[Josette (1938 film)|Josette]]'' (1938) (-) ''[[The Three Musketeers (1939 film)|The Three Musketeers]]'' (1939) (-) ''[[The Gorilla (1939 film)|The Gorilla]]'' (1939) (-) ''[[Frontier Marshal (1939 film)|Frontier Marshal]]'' (1939) (-) ''[[Sailor's Lady]]'' (1940) (-) ''[[Young People (1940 film)|Young People]]'' (1940) (-) ''[[Trail of the Vigilantes]]'' (1940) (-) ''[[Look Who's Laughing]]'' (1941) also producer (-) ''[[Rise and Shine (film)|Rise and Shine]]'' (1941) (-) ''[[Friendly Enemies]]'' (1942) (-) ''[[Around the World (1943 film)|Around the World]]'' (1943) also producer (-) ''[[Up in Mabel's Room (1944 film)|Up in Mabel's Room]]'' (1944) (-) ''[[Abroad with Two Yanks]]'' (1944) (-) ''[[Getting Gertie's Garter]]'' (1945) also screenwriter (-) ''[[Brewster's Millions (1945 film)|Brewster's Millions]]'' (1945) (-) ''[[Rendezvous with Annie]]'' (1946) (-) ''[[Driftwood (1947 film)|Driftwood]]'' (1947) (-) ''[[Calendar Girl (1947 film)|Calendar Girl]]'' (1947) (-) ''[[Northwest Outpost]]'' (1947) also associate producer (-) ''[[The Inside Story (film)|The Inside Story]]'' (1948) (-) ''[[Angel in Exile]]'' (1948) (with [[Philip Ford (film director)|Philip Ford]]) (-) ''[[Sands of Iwo Jima]]'' (1949) (-) ''[[Surrender (1950 film)|Surrender]]'' (1950) (-) ''[[Belle Le Grand]]'' (1951) (-) ''[[Wild Blue Yonder (film)|Wild Blue Yonder]]'' (1951) (-) ''[[I Dream of Jeanie (film)|I Dream of Jeanie]]'' (1952) (-) ''[[Montana Belle]]'' (1952) (-) ''[[Woman They Almost Lynched]]'' (1953) (-) ''[[Sweethearts on Parade (1953 film)|Sweethearts on Parade]]'' (1953) (-) ''[[Silver Lode (1954 film)|Silver Lode]]'' (1954) (-) ''[[Passion (1954 film)|Passion]]'' (1954) (-) ''[[Cattle Queen of Montana]]'' (1954) (-) ''[[Tennessee's Partner]]'' (1955) (-) ''[[Pearl of the South Pacific]]'' (1955) (-) ''[[Escape to Burma]]'' (1955) (-) ''[[Slightly Scarlet (1956 film)|Slightly Scarlet]]'' (1956) (-) ''[[Hold Back the Night (film)|Hold Back the Night]]'' (1956) (-) ''[[The Restless Breed]]'' (1957) (-) ''[[The River's Edge]]'' (1957) (-) ''[[Enchanted Island (film)|Enchanted Island]]'' (1958) (-) ''[[Most Dangerous Man Alive]]'' (1961)", "id": "344", "title": "Allan Dwan", "categories": ["1885 births", "1981 deaths", "American film directors", "American film producers", "American male screenwriters", "Western (genre) film directors", "Canadian emigrants to the United States", "Film directors from Toronto", "Writers from Toronto", "Disease-related deaths in California", "Burials at San Fernando Mission Cemetery", "20th-century American male writers", "20th-century American screenwriters"], "seealso": ["Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Algeria''', officially the '''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''', is a country in the [[Maghreb]] region of [[North Africa]]. It is the [[List of African countries by area|largest country]] in [[Africa]] and the [[Arab world]], and is bordered to [[Algeria–Tunisia border|the northeast]] by [[Tunisia]]; to [[Algeria–Libya border|the east]] by [[Libya]]; to [[Algeria–Niger border|the southeast]] by [[Niger]]; to [[Algeria–Western Sahara border|the southwest]] by [[Mali]], [[Mauritania]], and [[Western Sahara]]; to [[Algeria–Morocco border|the west]] by [[Morocco]]; and to the north by the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The country has a semi-arid geography, with most of the population living in the fertile north and the [[Sahara]] dominating the geography of the south. Algeria covers an area of , with a population of 44 million, and is the [[List of African countries by population|ninth-most populous country]] in Africa. The capital and [[List of cities in Algeria|largest city]] is [[Algiers]], located in the far north, on the Mediterranean coast. Pre-1962 Algeria has seen many empires and dynasties, including ancient [[Numidia]], [[Phoenicia]], [[Punics|Carthaginians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Vandal Kingdom|Vandals]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]], [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]], [[Rustamid dynasty|Rustamid]], [[Idrisid dynasty|Idrisid]], [[Aghlabids]], [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]], [[Zirid dynasty|Zirid]], [[Hammadid dynasty|Hammadids]], [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]], [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohads]], [[Zayyanid dynasty|Zayyanids]], [[Spanish Empire|Spaniards]], [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and finally, the [[French colonial empire|French Colonial Empire]]. The vast majority of Algeria's population is [[Arab-Berber]], practicing [[Islam in Algeria|Islam]] and using the official languages of [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] and [[Berber languages|Berber]]. However, [[French language in Algeria|French]] serves as an administrative and education language in some contexts, and [[Algerian Arabic]] is the main spoken language. Algeria is a [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential republic]], with local constituencies consisting of 58 provinces and 1,541 communes. Algeria is a [[regional power]] in North Africa, and a [[middle power]] in global affairs. It has the highest [[Human Development Index]] of all non-island African countries and one of the [[List of African countries by GDP (nominal)|largest economies on the continent]], based largely on energy exports. Algeria has the world's [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|sixteenth-largest oil reserves]] and the [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|ninth-largest reserves]] of [[natural gas]]. [[Sonatrach]], the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa, supplying large amounts of [[natural gas]] to Europe. [[Algerian People's National Armed Forces|Algeria's military]] is one of the largest in Africa, and has the largest defence budget on the continent. It is a member of the [[African Union]], the [[Arab League]], [[OPEC]], the [[United Nations]], and the [[Arab Maghreb Union]], of which it is a founding member.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Name"], "text": "Other forms of the name are: , ; ; ; ; . It is officially the '''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''' (; , , ; , abbreviated as RADP).", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Name", "Etymology"], "text": "The country's name derives from the city of [[Algiers]] which in turn derives from the Arabic (, \"The Islands\"), a truncated form of the older (, \"Islands of the Mazghanna Tribe\"), employed by medieval geographers such as [[Muhammad al-Idrisi|al-Idrisi]].", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Prehistory and ancient history"], "text": "In the region of Ain Hanech ([[Saïda Province]]), early remnants (200,000 BC) of hominid occupation in [[North Africa]] were found. Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the [[Levallois technique|Levalloisian]] and [[Mousterian]] styles (43,000 BC) similar to those in the [[Levant]]. Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of [[Middle Paleolithic]] [[Flake tool]] techniques. Tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called [[Aterian]] (after the archaeological site of [[Bir el Ater]], south of [[Tébessa|Tebessa]]). The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called [[Iberomaurusian]] (located mainly in the [[Oran]] region). This industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the [[Maghreb]] between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization (animal domestication and agriculture) developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC. This life, richly depicted in the [[Tassili n'Ajjer]] paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The mixture of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a distinct native population that came to be called [[Berber people|Berbers]], who are the indigenous peoples of northern Africa. From their principal center of power at [[Carthage]], the [[Carthaginians]] expanded and established small settlements along the North African coast; by 600 BC, a [[Phoenicia]] presence existed at [[Tipasa]], east of [[Cherchell]], [[Hippo Regius]] (modern [[Annaba]]) and [[Rusicade]] (modern [[Skikda]]). These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages. As Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilisation was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organisation supported several states. Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others. By the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the [[Mercenary War|Revolt of the Mercenaries]], Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the [[First Punic War]]. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory, and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the [[Punic Wars]]. In 146 BC the city of [[Carthage]] was destroyed. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew. By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged. Two of them were established in [[Numidia]], behind the coastal areas controlled by Carthage. West of Numidia lay [[Mauretania]], which extended across the [[Moulouya River]] in modern-day [[Morocco]] to the Atlantic Ocean. The high point of Berber civilisation, unequalled until the coming of the [[Almohads]] and [[Almoravids]] more than a millennium later, was reached during the reign of [[Masinissa]] in the 2nd century BC.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Prehistory and ancient history"], "text": "After Masinissa's death in 148 BC, the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited several times. Masinissa's line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was annexed to the [[Roman Empire]]. For several centuries Algeria was ruled by the Romans, who founded many colonies in the region. Like the rest of North Africa, Algeria was one of the breadbaskets of the empire, exporting cereals and other agricultural products. [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] was the bishop of [[Hippo Regius]] (modern-day Annaba, Algeria), located in the Roman province of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]]. The Germanic [[Vandals]] of [[Geiseric]] moved into North Africa in 429, and by 435 controlled coastal Numidia. They did not make any significant settlement on the land, as they were harassed by local tribes. In fact, by the time the Byzantines arrived [[Leptis Magna]] was abandoned and the Msellata region was occupied by the indigenous [[Amazigh|Laguatan]] who had been busy facilitating an [[Amazigh]] political, military and cultural revival. Furthermore, during the rule of the Romans, Byzantines, Vandals and Carthaginians the Kabyle people were the only or one of the few in North Africa who remained independent. The Kabyle people were incredibly resistible so much so that even during the Arab conquest of North Africa they still had control and possession over their mountains.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Middle Ages"], "text": "After negligible resistance from the locals, [[Muslims|Muslim]] [[Arabs]] of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] conquered Algeria in the early 8th century. Large numbers of the indigenous Berber people converted to Islam. Christians, Berber and Latin speakers remained in the great majority in Tunisia until the end of the 9th century and Muslims only became a vast majority some time in the 10th. After the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate, numerous local dynasties emerged, including the [[Rustamids]], [[Aghlabids]], [[Fatimids]], [[Zirids]], [[Hammadids]], [[Almoravids]], [[Almohads]] and the [[Abdalwadid]]. The Christians left in three waves: after the initial conquest, in the 10th century and the 11th. The last were evacuated to Sicily by the Normans and the few remaining died out in the 14th century. During the [[Middle Ages]], North Africa was home to many great scholars, saints and sovereigns including [[Judah ibn Kuraish|Judah Ibn Quraysh]], the first grammarian to mention Semitic and Berber languages, the great Sufi masters [[Abu Madyan|Sidi Boumediene (Abu Madyan)]] and [[Sidi El Houari]], and the Emirs [[Abd al-Mu'min|Abd Al Mu'min]] and [[Yaghmurasen Ibn Zyan|Yāghmūrasen]]. It was during this time that the [[Fatimids]] or children of Fatima, daughter of Muhammad, came to the Maghreb. These \"Fatimids\" went on to found a long lasting dynasty stretching across the Maghreb, Hejaz and the Levant, boasting a secular inner government, as well as a powerful army and navy, made up primarily of [[Arabs]] and [[Levant]] extending from Algeria to their capital state of [[Cairo]]. The [[Fatimid caliphate]] began to collapse when its governors the [[Zirids]] seceded. In order to punish them the Fatimids sent the Arab [[Banu Hilal]] and [[Banu Sulaym]] against them. The resultant war is recounted in the epic [[Taghribat Bani Hilal|Tāghribāt]]. In Al-Tāghrībāt the Amazigh Zirid Hero [[Khalifa al-Zanati|Khālīfā Al-Zānatī]] asks daily, for duels, to defeat the Hilalan hero [[Abu Zayd al-Hilali|Ābu Zayd al-Hilalī]] and many other Arab knights in a string of victories. The [[Zirid]], however, were ultimately defeated ushering in an adoption of Arab customs and culture. The indigenous [[Berber people|Amazigh]] tribes, however, remained largely independent, and depending on tribe, location and time controlled varying parts of the Maghreb, at times unifying it (as under the Fatimids). The Fatimid Islamic state, also known as [[Fatimid Caliphate]] made an Islamic empire that included North Africa, Sicily, [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], [[Egypt]], the [[Red Sea]] coast of Africa, Tihamah, [[Hejaz]] and [[Yemen]]. Caliphates from Northern Africa traded with the other empires of their time, as well as forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other Islamic states during the Islamic Era. The [[Berber people|Amazighs]] historically consisted of several tribes. The two main branches were the Botr and Barnès tribes, who were divided into tribes, and again into sub-tribes. Each region of the Maghreb contained several tribes (for example, [[Sanhadja]], [[Houara]], [[Zenata]], [[Masmuda|Masmouda]], [[Kutama]], Awarba, and [[Berghwata]]). All these tribes made independent territorial decisions.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Middle Ages"], "text": "Several [[Berber people|Amazigh]] dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb and other nearby lands. [[Ibn Khaldun]] provides a table summarising the Amazigh dynasties of the Maghreb region, the [[Zirid dynasty|Zirid]], [[Emirate of Tlemcen|Ifranid]], [[Maghrawid Dynasty|Maghrawa]], [[Almoravid]], [[Hammadid]], [[Almohad]], [[Merinid]], [[Zayyanid dynasty|Abdalwadid]], [[Wattasid]], [[Meknassa]] and [[Hafsid]] dynasties. Both of the [[Hammadid]] and [[Zirid]] empires as well as the [[Fatimid]] established their rule in all of the Maghreb countries. The [[Zirid dynasty|Zirids]] ruled land in what is now Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Libya, Spain, Malta and Italy. The [[Hammadid dynasty|Hammadids]] captured and held important regions such as Ouargla, Constantine, Sfax, Susa, Algiers, Tripoli and Fez establishing their rule in every country in the Maghreb region. The [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]] which was created and established by the Kutama Berbers conquered all of North Africa as well as Sicily and parts of the Middle East. '''List of Empires/Dynasties created by the [[Berber people|Berber]] people ''' (-) [[Emirate of Tlemcen|Ifranid Dynasty]] (-) [[Maghrawid Dynasty|Maghrawa Dynasty]] (-) [[Zirid dynasty|Zirid Dynasty]] (-) [[Hammadid dynasty|Hammadid Dynasty]] (-) [[Fatimid Caliphate]] (-) [[Taifa of Alpuente]] (-) [[Taifa of Granada]] (-) [[Kingdom of Ait Abbas|Kingdom of Beni Abbes]] (-) [[Kingdom of Kuku]] (-) [[Kingdom of Tlemcen]] There reigned in [[Ifriqiya]], current Tunisia, a [[Berbers|Berber]] family, [[Zirid dynasty|Zirid]], somehow recognising the suzerainty of the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] caliph of [[Cairo]]. Probably in 1048, the Zirid ruler or viceroy, el-Mu'izz, decided to end this suzerainty. The [[Fatimid]] state was too weak to attempt a punitive expedition; The Viceroy, el-Mu'izz, also found another means of revenge. Between the [[Nile]] and the [[Red Sea]] were living [[Bedouin]] tribes expelled from [[Arabia]] for their disruption and turbulent influence, both [[Banu Hilal]] and [[Banu Sulaym]] among others, whose presence disrupted farmers in the [[Nile Valley]] since the nomads would often loot. The then [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] vizier devised to relinquish control of the [[Maghreb]] and obtained the agreement of his sovereign. This not only prompted the Bedouins to leave, but the [[Fatimid]] treasury even gave them a light expatriation cash allowance. Whole tribes set off with women, children, ancestors, animals and camping equipment. Some stopped on the way, especially in [[Cyrenaica]], where they are still one of the essential elements of the settlement but most arrived in [[Ifriqiya]] by the [[Gabès Governorate|Gabe]] region. The [[Zirid]] ruler tried to stop this rising tide, but with each encounter, the last under the walls of [[Kairouan]], his troops were defeated and the Arabs remained masters of the field.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Middle Ages"], "text": "The flood was still rising, and in 1057, the Arabs spread on the high plains of [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] where they gradually choked [[Beni Hammad Fort|Qalaa of Banu Hammad]], as they had done in Kairouan a few decades ago. From there they gradually gained the upper [[Algiers]] and [[Oran]] plains. Some were forcibly taken by the [[Almohads]] in the second half of the 12th century. We can say that in the 13th century the Arabs were in all of [[North Africa]], with the exception of the main mountain ranges and certain coastal regions which remained entirely Berber. The influx of [[Bedouin]] tribes was a major factor in the linguistic, cultural [[Arabization]] of the Maghreb and in the spread of [[nomad]] in areas where [[agriculture]] had previously been dominant. [[Ibn Khaldun]] noted that the lands ravaged by [[Banu Hilal]] tribes had become completely arid desert. In the early 16th century, [[Spain]] constructed fortified outposts ([[presidio]]) on or near the Algerian coast. [[Spain]] took control of few coastal towns like [[Mers el Kebir]] in 1505; [[Oran]] in 1509; and [[Tlemcen]], [[Mostaganem]] and [[Ténès]] in 1510. In the same year, a few merchants of Algiers ceded one of the rocky islets in their harbour to Spain, which built a fort on it. The presidios in North Africa turned out to be a costly and largely ineffective military endeavour that did not guarantee access for Spain's merchant fleet.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Ottoman era"], "text": "The region of Algeria was partially ruled by [[Ottomans]] for three centuries from 1516 to 1830. In 1516 the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] privateer brothers [[Aruj]] and [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]], who operated successfully under the [[Hafsids]], moved their base of operations to Algiers. They succeeded in conquering Jijel and Algiers from the [[Spain|Spaniards]] but eventually assumed control over the city and the surrounding region, forcing the previous ruler, Abu Hamo Musa III of the ''Bani Ziyad'' dynasty, to flee. When Aruj was killed in 1518 during his invasion of [[Kingdom of Tlemcen|Tlemcen]], Hayreddin succeeded him as military commander of Algiers. The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] sultan gave him the title of [[beylerbey]] and a contingent of some 2,000 [[janissaries]]. With the aid of this force, [[Hayreddin Barbarossa|Hayreddin]] conquered the whole area between Constantine and Oran (although the city of Oran remained in Spanish hands until 1792). The next beylerbey was Hayreddin's son [[Hasan Pasha (son of Barbarossa)|Hasan]], who assumed the position in 1544. Until 1587 the area was governed by officers who served terms with no fixed limits. Subsequently, with the institution of a regular Ottoman administration, governors with the title of pasha ruled for three-year terms. The pasha was assisted by janissaries, known in Algeria as the ojaq and led by an [[Agha (Ottoman Empire)|agha]]. Discontent among the ojaq rose in the mid-1600s because they were not paid regularly, and they repeatedly revolted against the pasha. As a result, the agha charged the pasha with corruption and incompetence and seized power in 1659. [[Plague (disease)|Plague]] had repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants to the plague in 1620–21, and suffered high fatalities in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42. In 1671, the [[taifa]] rebelled, killed the agha, and placed one of its own in power. The new leader received the title of [[Dey]]. After 1689, the right to select the dey passed to the [[divan]], a council of some sixty nobles. It was at first dominated by the ''[[ojaq]]''; but by the 18th century, it had become the dey's instrument. In 1710, the dey persuaded the sultan to recognise him and his successors as regent, replacing the [[pasha]] in that role, although Algiers remained a part of the Ottoman Empire. The dey was in effect a constitutional autocrat. The dey was elected for a life term, but in the 159 years (1671–1830) that the system survived, fourteen of the twenty-nine deys were assassinated. Despite usurpation, military coups and occasional mob rule, the day-to-day operation of Ottoman government was remarkably orderly. Although the regency patronised the tribal chieftains, it never had the unanimous allegiance of the countryside, where heavy taxation frequently provoked unrest. Autonomous tribal states were tolerated, and the regency's authority was seldom applied in the [[Kabylie]]. The Kabyles were the only people in North Africa who were never conquered by the Ottomans.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Ottoman era"], "text": "The [[Barbary pirates]] preyed on Christian and other non-Islamic shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea. The pirates often took the passengers and crew on the ships and sold them or used them as [[slavery|slaves]]. They also did a brisk business in ransoming some of the captives. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves. They often made raids, called [[Ghazi (warrior)|Razzias]], on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at [[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|slave markets]] in North Africa and other parts of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. In 1544, for example, [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]] captured the island of [[Ischia]], taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants of [[Lipari]], almost the entire population. In 1551, the Ottoman governor of Algiers, [[Turgut Reis]], enslaved the entire population of the [[Malta|Maltese]] island of [[Gozo]]. Barbary pirates often attacked the [[Balearic Islands]]. The threat was so severe that residents abandoned the island of [[Formentera]]. The introduction of broad-sail ships from the beginning of the 17th century allowed them to branch out into the Atlantic. In July 1627 two pirate ships from Algiers under the command of [[Dutch people|Dutch]] pirate [[Jan Janszoon]] sailed as far as [[Iceland]], [[Turkish Abductions|raiding and capturing slaves]]. Two weeks earlier another pirate ship from [[Sale, Morocco|Salé]] in [[Saadi dynasty|Morocco]] had also raided in Iceland. Some of the slaves brought to Algiers were later ransomed back to Iceland, but some chose to stay in Algeria. In 1629 pirate ships from Algeria raided the [[Faroe Islands]]. Barbary raids in the Mediterranean continued to attack Spanish merchant shipping, and as a result, the [[Spanish Navy]] bombarded Algiers in [[Bombardment of Algiers (1783)|1783]] and [[Bombardment of Algiers (1784)|1784]]. For the attack in 1784, the Spanish fleet was to be joined by ships from such traditional enemies of Algiers as [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]], [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]] and the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights of Malta]]. Over 20,000 cannonballs were fired, much of the city and its fortifications were destroyed and most of the Algerian fleet was sunk. In 1792 the Regency of Algiers conquered the Moroccan Rif and Oujda, which they then abandoned in 1795. In the 19th century, Algerian pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean powers, paying a \"licence tax\" in exchange for safe harbour of their vessels. Attacks by Algerian pirates on [[United States|American]] merchantmen resulted in the [[First Barbary War|First]] and [[Second Barbary War]], which ended the attacks on U.S. ships. A year later, a combined [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Anglo]]-[[United Kingdom of the Netherlands|Dutch]] fleet, under the command of [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Lord Exmouth]] [[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|bombarded Algiers]] to stop similar attacks on European fishermen. These efforts proved successful, although Algerian piracy would continue until the French conquest in 1830. Despite being removed from Algeria in the 19th century, Spain retained a presence in [[Morocco]]. Algeria consistently opposed Spanish fortresses and control in nearby Morocco through the 20th century.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "French colonization (1830–1962)"], "text": "Under the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded and [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|captured Algiers]] in 1830. Historian [[Ben Kiernan]] wrote on the French conquest of Algeria: \"By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830.\" French losses from 1831 to 1851 were 92,329 dead in the hospital and only 3,336 killed in action. The population of Algeria, which stood at about 2.9 million in 1872, reached nearly 11 million in 1960. French policy was predicated on \"civilising\" the country. The slave trade and piracy in Algeria ceased following the French conquest. The [[French conquest of Algeria|conquest of Algeria]] by the French took some time and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of violence and disease epidemics caused the [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] Algerian population to decline by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872. On September 17, 1860, [[Napoleon III]] declared \"Our first duty is to take care of the happiness of the three million Arabs, whom the fate of arms has brought under our domination.\" During this time, only Kabylia resisted, the Kabylians were not colonized until after the [[Mokrani Revolt|Mokrani revolt]] in 1871.  From 1848 until independence, France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria as an integral part and ''département'' of the nation. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of [[European ethnic groups|European]] [[immigrants]], who became known as ''colons'' and later, as ''[[Pied-Noir]].'' Between 1825 and 1847, 50,000 French people emigrated to Algeria. These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land from tribal peoples, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land. Many Europeans settled in [[Oran]] and [[Algiers]], and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population in both cities. During the late 19th and early 20th century, the [[White Africans of European ancestry|European share]] was almost a fifth of the population. The French government aimed at making Algeria an assimilated part of France, and this included substantial educational investments especially after 1900. The indigenous cultural and religious resistance heavily opposed this tendency, but in contrast to the other colonised countries' path in central Asia and Caucasus, Algeria kept its individual skills and a relatively human-capital intensive agriculture. During the [[World War II|Second World War]], Algeria came under [[Vichy France|Vichy control]] before being liberated by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in [[Operation Torch]], which saw the first large-scale deployment of [[Military history of the United States during World War II|American troops]] in the [[North African campaign]].", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "French colonization (1830–1962)"], "text": "Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status under the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy and eventually independence from France. In May 1945, the uprising against the occupying French forces was suppressed through what is now known as the [[Sétif and Guelma massacre]]. Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the [[Algerian War]] began after the publication of the [[Declaration of 1 November 1954]]. Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000 [[Harki]] and their dependants were killed by the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|Front de Libération Nationale]] (FLN) or by [[lynching|lynch]] mobs in Algeria. The FLN used hit and run attacks in Algeria and France as part of its war, and the French conducted [[Torture during the Algerian War of Independence|severe reprisals]]. The war led to the death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands of injuries. Historians, like [[Alistair Horne]] and [[Raymond Aron]], state that the actual number of Algerian Muslim war dead was far greater than the original FLN and official French estimates but was less than the 1 million deaths claimed by the Algerian government after independence. Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around 700,000. The war uprooted more than 2 million Algerians. The war against French rule concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 [[Evian agreements]] and the July 1962 [[Algerian self-determination referendum, 1962|self-determination referendum]]. Some estimates put the Algerian death toll during the French colonial rule at over 10 million.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "The first three decades of independence (1962–1991)"], "text": "The number of European ''[[Pied-Noir]]'' who fled Algeria totaled more than 900,000 between 1962 and 1964. The exodus to mainland France accelerated after the [[Oran massacre of 1962]], in which hundreds of militants entered European sections of the city, and began attacking civilians. Algeria's first president was the Front de Libération Nationale ([[FLN (Algeria)|FLN]]) leader [[Ahmed Ben Bella]]. Morocco's claim to [[Greater Morocco|portions of western Algeria]] led to the [[Sand War]] in 1963. Ben Bella was [[1965 Algerian coup d'état|overthrown in 1965]] by [[Houari Boumédiène]], his former ally and defence minister. Under Ben Bella, the government had become increasingly socialist and [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]]; Boumédienne continued this trend. But, he relied much more on the army for his support, and reduced the sole legal party to a symbolic role. He [[collective farming|collectivised]] agriculture and launched a massive industrialisation drive. [[Extraction of petroleum|Oil extraction]] facilities were nationalised. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the international [[1973 oil crisis]]. In the 1960s and 1970s under President Houari Boumediene, Algeria pursued a program of industrialisation within a state-controlled socialist economy. Boumediene's successor, [[Chadli Bendjedid]], introduced some liberal economic reforms. He promoted a policy of [[Arabisation]] in Algerian society and public life. Teachers of Arabic, brought in from other Muslim countries, spread conventional Islamic thought in schools and sowed the seeds of a return to Orthodox Islam. The Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, leading to hardship when the price collapsed during the [[1980s oil glut]]. Economic recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social unrest during the 1980s; by the end of the decade, Bendjedid introduced a multi-party system. Political parties developed, such as the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] (FIS), a broad coalition of Muslim groups.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Civil War (1991–2002) and aftermath"], "text": "In December 1991 the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] dominated the first of two rounds of [[Algerian legislative election, 1991|legislative elections]]. Fearing the election of an Islamist government, the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992, cancelling the elections. Bendjedid resigned and a [[High Council of State (Algeria)|High Council of State]] was installed to act as the Presidency. It banned the FIS, triggering a civil [[insurgency]] between the Front's armed wing, the [[Armed Islamic Group of Algeria|Armed Islamic Group]], and the national armed forces, in which more than 100,000 people are thought to have died. The Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign of [[List of massacres during the Algerian Civil War|civilian massacres]]. At several points in the conflict, the situation in Algeria became a point of international concern, most notably during the crisis surrounding [[Air France Flight 8969]], a hijacking perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group. The Armed Islamic Group declared a ceasefire in October 1997. Algeria held [[Algerian presidential election, 1999|elections in 1999]], considered biased by international observers and most opposition groups which were won by President [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]]. He worked to restore political stability to the country and announced a \"Civil Concord\" initiative, approved in a [[Algerian Civil Concord referendum, 1999|referendum]], under which many political prisoners were pardoned, and several thousand members of armed groups were granted exemption from prosecution under a limited amnesty, in force until 13 January 2000. The AIS disbanded and levels of insurgent violence fell rapidly. The [[Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat]] (GSPC), a splinter group of the Armed Islamic Group, continued a terrorist campaign against the Government. Bouteflika was re-elected in the [[Algerian presidential election, 2004|April 2004 presidential election]] after campaigning on a programme of national reconciliation. The programme comprised economic, institutional, political and social reform to modernise the country, raise living standards, and tackle the causes of alienation. It also included a second amnesty initiative, the [[Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation]], which was approved in a [[Algerian national reconciliation referendum, 2005|referendum in September 2005]]. It offered amnesty to most guerrillas and Government security forces. In November 2008, the [[Algerian Constitution]] was amended following a vote in Parliament, removing the two-term limit on Presidential incumbents. This change enabled Bouteflika to stand for re-election in the [[Algerian presidential election, 2009|2009 presidential elections]], and he was re-elected in April 2009. During his election campaign and following his re-election, Bouteflika promised to extend the programme of national reconciliation and a $150-billion spending programme to create three million new jobs, the construction of one million new housing units, and to continue public sector and infrastructure modernisation programmes.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Civil War (1991–2002) and aftermath"], "text": "A continuing series of protests throughout the country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by similar [[Arab Spring|protests across the Middle East and North Africa]]. On 24 February 2011, the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old [[state of emergency]]. The government enacted legislation dealing with political parties, the electoral code, and the representation of women in elected bodies. In April 2011, Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform. However, elections are routinely criticised by opposition groups as unfair and international human rights groups say that media censorship and harassment of political opponents continue. On 2 April 2019, Bouteflika resigned from the presidency after [[2019–2020 Algerian protests|mass protests]] against his candidacy for a fifth term in office.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Geography"], "text": "Since the 2011 breakup of [[Sudan]], and the creation of [[South Sudan]], Algeria has been the largest country in Africa, and the [[Mediterranean Basin]]. Its southern part includes a significant portion of the [[Sahara]]. To the north, the [[Tell Atlas]] form with the [[Saharan Atlas]], further south, two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound, and between which are inserted vast plains and highlands. Both Atlas tend to merge in eastern Algeria. The vast mountain ranges of [[Aures]] and [[Tébessa|Nememcha]] occupy the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated by the Tunisian border. The highest point is [[Mount Tahat]] (). Algeria lies mostly between latitudes [[19th parallel north|19°]] and [[37th parallel north|37°N]] (a small area is north of 37°N and south of 19°N), and longitudes [[9th meridian west|9°W]] and [[12th meridian east|12°E]]. Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural [[harbour]]. The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a [[steppe]] landscape ending with the [[Saharan Atlas]]; farther south, there is the Sahara desert. The [[Hoggar Mountains]] (), also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria. They are located about south of the capital, Algiers, and just east of [[Tamanghasset]]. Algiers, [[Oran]], [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]], and [[Annaba]] are Algeria's main cities.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Climate and hydrology"], "text": "In this region, midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded. Rainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as in some years. Farther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. Algeria also has [[erg (landform)|ergs]], or sand dunes, between mountains. Among these, in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can go up to .", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Fauna and flora"], "text": "The varied vegetation of Algeria includes [[coastal]], [[mountainous]] and grassy [[desert]]-like regions which all support a wide range of wildlife. Many of the creatures comprising the Algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilisation. The most commonly seen animals include the wild [[boar]], [[jackal]], and [[gazelle]], although it is not uncommon to spot [[fennecs]] (foxes), and [[jerboas]]. Algeria also has a small [[African leopard]] and [[Saharan cheetah]] population, but these are seldom seen. A species of deer, the [[Barbary stag]], inhabits the dense humid forests in the north-eastern areas. A variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are inhabited by boars and jackals. [[Barbary macaque]] are the sole native monkey. Snakes, [[monitor lizard]], and numerous other reptiles can be found living among an array of [[rodent]] throughout the [[semi arid]] regions of Algeria. Many animals are now extinct, including the [[Barbary lion]], [[Atlas bear]] and [[West African crocodile|crocodile]]. In the north, some of the native flora includes [[Macchia]] scrub, [[Olive|olive trees]], [[oak]], [[cedrus|cedars]] and other [[Pinophyta|conifers]]. The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens ([[Aleppo pine]], [[juniper]], and [[evergreen oak]]) and some deciduous trees. [[Ficus|Fig]], [[eucalyptus]], [[agave]], and various [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grow in the warmer areas. The [[grape vine]] is indigenous to the coast. In the Sahara region, some oases have palm trees. [[Acacia]] with wild [[olive]] are the predominant flora in the remainder of the [[Sahara]]. Algeria had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 5.22/10, ranking it 106th globally out of 172 countries. [[Camel]] are used extensively; the desert also abounds with venomous and nonvenomous snakes, [[scorpion]], and numerous insects.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics"], "text": "Elected politicians have relatively little sway over Algeria. Instead, a group of unelected civilian and military \"décideurs\" (\"deciders\"), known as \"le pouvoir\" (\"the power\"), actually rule the country, even deciding who should be president. The most powerful man might have been [[Mohamed Mediène]], the head of military intelligence, before he was brought down during the [[2019–2020 Algerian protests|2019 protests]]. In recent years, many of these generals have died, retired, or been imprisoned. After the death of General [[Larbi Belkheir]], Previous president [[Bouteflika]] put loyalists in key posts, notably at [[Sonatrach]], and secured constitutional amendments that made him re-electable indefinitely, until he was brought down in 2019 during [[2019–2020 Algerian protests|protests]]. The head of state is the [[President of Algeria]], who is elected for a five-year term. The president was formerly limited to two five-year terms, but a constitutional amendment passed by the Parliament on 11 November 2008 removed this limitation. The [[2019 Algerian presidential election|most recent presidential election]] was planned to be in April 2019, but [[2019 Algerian protests|widespread protests]] erupted on 22 February against the president's decision to participate in the election, which resulted in President Bouteflika announcing his resignation on 3 April. [[Abdelmadjid Tebboune]], an independent candidate, was elected as president after the election eventually took place on 12 December 2019. Protestors refused to recognise Tebboune as president, citing demands for comprehensive reform of the political system. Algeria has universal [[suffrage]] at 18 years of age. The President is the head of the [[Algerian Army|army]], the [[Council of Ministers of Algeria|Council of Ministers]] and the [[High Security Council]]. He appoints the [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] who is also the head of government. The Algerian parliament is [[bicameral]]; the lower house, the [[People's National Assembly]], has 462 members who are directly elected for five-year terms, while the upper house, the [[Council of the Nation]], has 144 members serving six-year terms, of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and 48 are appointed by the president. According to the [[Constitution of Algeria|constitution]], no political association may be formed if it is \"based on differences in religion, language, race, gender, profession, or region\". In addition, political campaigns must be exempt from the aforementioned subjects. Parliamentary elections were last held in [[2017 Algerian legislative election|May 2017]]. In the elections, the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|FLN]] lost 44 of its seats, but remained the largest party with 164 seats, the military-backed [[National Rally for Democracy (Algeria)|National Rally for Democracy]] won 100, and the Muslim Brotherhood-linked [[Movement of Society for Peace|Movement of the Society for Peace]] won 33.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics", "Foreign relations"], "text": "Algeria is included in the European Union's [[European Neighbourhood Policy]] (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI) that came into force in 2014. It has a budget of €15.4 billion and provides the bulk of funding through a number of programmes. In 2009, the French government agreed to compensate victims of nuclear tests in Algeria. Defence Minister Herve Morin stated that \"It's time for our country to be at peace with itself, at peace thanks to a system of compensation and reparations,\" when presenting the draft law on the payouts. Algerian officials and activists believe that this is a good first step and hope that this move would encourage broader reparation. Tensions between Algeria and Morocco in relation to the [[Western Sahara]] have been an obstacle to tightening the [[Arab Maghreb Union]], nominally established in 1989, but which has carried little practical weight.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics", "Military"], "text": "The military of Algeria consists of the [[People's National Army]] (ANP), the [[Algerian National Navy]] (MRA), and the [[Algerian Air Force]] (QJJ), plus the [[Territorial Air Defence Forces]]. It is the direct successor of the [[National Liberation Army (Algeria)|National Liberation Army]] (Armée de Libération Nationale or ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front which fought French colonial [[military occupation|occupation]] during the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62). Total military personnel include 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff (2008 estimate). Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of 12 months. The military expenditure was 4.3% of the [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) in 2012. Algeria has the [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|second largest military]] in North Africa with the largest defence budget in Africa ($10 billion). Most of Algeria's weapons are imported from [[Russia]], with whom they are a close ally. In 2007, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49 [[MiG-29]] and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated cost of $1.9 billion. Russia is also building two [[Kilo class submarine|636-type]] diesel [[submarines]] for Algeria.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics", "Human rights"], "text": "Algeria has been categorised by [[Freedom House]] as \"not free\" since it began publishing such ratings in 1972, with the exception of 1989, 1990, and 1991, when the country was labelled \"partly free.\" In December 2016, the ''Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor'' issued a report regarding violation of [[media freedom]] in Algeria. It clarified that the Algerian government imposed restriction on [[freedom of the press]]; expression; and right to peaceful demonstration, protest and assembly as well as intensified censorship of the [[Broadcast media|media]] and websites. Due to the fact that the journalists and activists criticise the ruling government, some media organisations' licenses are cancelled. Independent and autonomous trade unions face routine harassment from the government, with many leaders imprisoned and protests suppressed. In 2016 a number of unions, many of which were involved in the 2010–2012 Algerian Protests, have been deregistered by the government. [[LGBT rights in Algeria|Homosexuality]] is illegal in Algeria. Public homosexual behavior is punishable by up to two years in prison. [[Human Rights Watch]] has accused the Algerian authorities of using the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] as an excuse to prevent pro-democracy movements and protests in the country, leading to the arrest of youths as part of [[social distancing]].", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Government and politics", "Administrative divisions"], "text": "Algeria is divided into 58 [[provinces of Algeria|provinces]] (''[[wilaya]]''), 553 [[districts of Algeria|districts]] (''[[daïra]]'') and 1,541 [[Municipalities of Algeria|municipalities]] (''[[baladiyah]]''). Each province, district, and municipality is named after its [[Capital city|seat]], which is usually the largest city. The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy"], "text": "Algeria is classified as an upper middle income country by the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]]. Algeria's currency is the [[Algerian dinar|dinar]] (DZD). The economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist post-independence development model. In recent years, the Algerian government has halted the privatization of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign involvement in its economy. These restrictions are just starting to be lifted off recently although questions about Algeria's slowly-diversifying economy remain. Algeria has struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages. The country is facing a number of short-term and medium-term problems, including the need to diversify the economy, strengthen political, economic and financial reforms, improve the business climate and reduce inequalities amongst regions. A wave of economic protests in February and March 2011 prompted the Algerian government to offer more than $23 billion in public grants and retroactive salary and benefit increases. Public spending has increased by 27% annually during the past 5 years. The 2010–14 public-investment programme will cost US$286 billion, 40% of which will go to human development. Thanks to strong hydrocarbon revenues, Algeria has a cushion of $173 billion in [[foreign currency reserves]] and a large hydrocarbon stabilisation fund. In addition, Algeria's [[List of countries by external debt|external debt]] is extremely low at about 2% of GDP. The economy remains very dependent on hydrocarbon wealth, and, despite high foreign exchange reserves (US$178 billion, equivalent to three years of imports), current expenditure growth makes Algeria's budget more vulnerable to the risk of prolonged lower hydrocarbon revenues. Algeria has not joined the [[WTO]], despite several years of negotiations.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Oil and natural resources"], "text": "Algeria, whose economy is reliant on petroleum, has been an [[OPEC]] member since 1969. Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1 million barrels/day, but it is also a major gas producer and exporter, with important links to Europe. Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|10th-largest reserves of natural gas]] in the world and is the [[List of countries by natural gas exports|sixth-largest gas exporter]]. The U.S. [[Energy Information Administration]] reported that in 2005, Algeria had of proven [[natural gas reserves|natural-gas reserves]]. It also ranks [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|16th in oil reserves]]. Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands, the authorities raised expenditure, especially on basic food support, employment creation, support for SMEs, and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account and the already large international reserves position. Income from oil and gas rose in 2011 as a result of continuing high oil prices, though the trend in production volume is downwards. Production from the oil and gas sector in terms of volume, continues to decline, dropping from 43.2 million tonnes to 32 million tonnes between 2007 and 2011. Nevertheless, the sector accounted for 98% of the total volume of exports in 2011, against 48% in 1962, and 70% of budgetary receipts, or US$71.4 billion. The Algerian national oil company is [[Sonatrach]], which plays a key role in all aspects of the oil and natural gas sectors in Algeria. All foreign operators must work in partnership with Sonatrach, which usually has majority ownership in production-sharing agreements. Access to [[biocapacity]] in Algeria is lower than world average. In 2016, Algeria had 0.53 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Algeria used 2.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their [[ecological footprint]] of consumption. This means they use just under 4.5 times as much biocapacity as Algeria contains. As a result, Algeria is running a biocapacity deficit.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Research and alternative energy sources"], "text": "Algeria has invested an estimated 100 billion dinars towards developing research facilities and paying researchers. This development program is meant to advance alternative energy production, especially solar and wind power. Algeria is estimated to have the largest solar energy potential in the Mediterranean, so the government has funded the creation of a solar science park in Hassi R'Mel. Currently, Algeria has 20,000 research professors at various universities and over 780 research labs, with state-set goals to expand to 1,000. Besides solar energy, areas of research in Algeria include space and satellite telecommunications, nuclear power and medical research.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Labour market"], "text": "Despite a decline in total [[unemployment]], youth and women unemployment is high. Unemployment particularly affects the young, with a jobless rate of 21.5% among the 15–24 age group. The overall rate of unemployment was 10% in 2011, but remained higher among young people, with a rate of 21.5% for those aged between 15 and 24. The government strengthened in 2011 the job programmes introduced in 1988, in particular in the framework of the programme to aid those seeking work (Dispositif d'Aide à l'Insertion Professionnelle).", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Tourism"], "text": "The development of the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built. There are several [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]] in Algeria including [[Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad]], the first capital of the [[Hammadid]] empire; [[Tipasa]], a Phoenician and later Roman town; and [[Djémila]] and [[Timgad]], both [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] ruins; [[M'Zab Valley]], a limestone valley containing a large urbanized [[oasis]]; and the [[Casbah]] of Algiers, an important citadel. The only natural [[World Heritage Site]] is the [[Tassili n'Ajjer]], a mountain range.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Transport"], "text": "The Algerian road network is the densest in Africa; its length is estimated at of highways, with more than 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85%. This network will be complemented by the [[Algeria East–West Highway|East-West Highway]], a major infrastructure project currently under construction. It is a 3-way, highway, linking [[Annaba]] in the extreme east to the [[Tlemcen]] in the far west. Algeria is also crossed by the [[Trans-Sahara Highway]], which is now completely paved. This road is supported by the Algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed: Algeria, [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Chad]], and [[Tunisia]].", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics"], "text": "Algeria has a population of an estimated 44 million, of which the vast majority are [[Arab-Berber]] ethnically. At the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately four million. About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in [[oasis|oases]], although some 1.5 million remain [[nomad]] or partly nomadic. 28.1% of Algerians are under the age of 15. Between 90,000 and 165,000 [[Sahrawi people|Sahrawis]] from Western Sahara live in the [[Sahrawi refugee camps]], in the western Algerian Sahara desert. There are also more than 4,000 [[Palestinian refugee]], who are well integrated and have not asked for assistance from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). In 2009, 35,000 [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] migrant workers lived in Algeria. The largest concentration of Algerian migrants outside Algeria is in France, which has reportedly over 1.7 million Algerians of up to the second generation.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Ethnic groups"], "text": "Indigenous [[Berbers]] as well as [[Phoenicians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Byzantine Greeks]], [[Arab people|Arabs]], [[Turkish people|Turks]], various [[Sub-Saharan Africans]], and [[French people|French]] have contributed to the history of Algeria. Descendants of [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] refugees are also present in the population of Algiers and other cities. Moreover, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] was spoken by these [[Aragon]] and [[Castilian people|Castillian]] [[Moriscos|Morisco]] descendants deep into the 18th century, and even [[Catalan language|Catalan]] was spoken at the same time by [[Catalonia|Catalan]] [[Moriscos|Morisco]] descendants in the small town of Grish El-Oued. Despite the dominance of the Berber ethnicity in Algeria, the majority of Algerians identify with an Arabic-based identity, especially after the Arab nationalism rising in the 20th century. Berbers and Berber-speaking Algerians are divided into many groups with varying languages. The largest of these are the Kabyles, who live in the [[Kabylie]] region east of Algiers, the Chaoui of Northeast Algeria, the Tuaregs in the southern desert and the [[Chenouas|Shenwa people]] of North Algeria. During the colonial period, there was a large (10% in 1960) [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European]] population who became known as ''[[Pied-Noir]]''. They were primarily of French, [[Spanish people|Spanish]] and [[Italian people|Italian]] origin. Almost all of this population left during the war of independence or immediately after its end.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Languages"], "text": "[[Modern Standard Arabic]] and [[Berber language|Berber]] are the official languages. [[Algerian Arabic]] (Darja) is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian Arabic is heavily infused with borrowings from French and Berber. [[Berber language|Berber]] has been recognised as a \"national language\" by the constitutional amendment of 8 May 2002. [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]], the predominant Berber language, is taught and is partially co-official (with a few restrictions) in parts of [[Kabylie]]. In February 2016, the Algerian constitution passed a resolution that made Berber an official language alongside Arabic. Although [[French language|French]] has no official status, Algeria is the second-largest Francophone country in the world in terms of speakers, and French is widely used in government, media (newspapers, radio, local television), and both the education system (from primary school onwards) and academia due to [[French rule in Algeria|Algeria's colonial history]]. It can be regarded as a [[lingua franca]] of Algeria. In 2008, 11.2 million Algerians could read and write in French. An Abassa Institute study in April 2000 found that 60% of households could speak and understand French or 18 million in a population of 30 million then. After an earlier period during which the Algerian government tried to phase out French, in recent decades the government has backtracked and reinforced the study of French, and some television programs are broadcast in the language. Algeria emerged as a bilingual state after 1962. Colloquial [[Algerian Arabic]] is spoken by about 72% of the population and Berber by 27–30%.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Religion"], "text": "[[Islam]] is the predominant religion in Algeria, with its adherents, mostly Sunnis, accounting for 99% of the population according to a 2021 CIA ''[[World Factbook]]'' estimate, and 97.9% according to Pew Research in 2020. There are about 290,000 [[Ibadi]] in the M'zab Valley in the region of [[Ghardaia]]. Estimates of the [[Christianity in Algeria|Christian population]] range from 20,000 to 200,000 Algerian citizens who are Christians predominantly belong to [[Protestant]] groups, which have seen increased pressure from the government in recent years including many forced closures. Algeria has given the [[Muslim]] world a number of prominent thinkers, including [[Emir Abdelkader]], [[Abdelhamid Ben Badis]], [[Mouloud Kacem Naît Belkacem]], [[Malek Bennabi]] and [[Mohamed Arkoun]].", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Health"], "text": "In 2002, Algeria had inadequate numbers of physicians (1.13 per 1,000 people), nurses (2.23 per 1,000 people), and dentists (0.31 per 1,000 people). Access to \"improved water sources\" was limited to 92% of the population in urban areas and 80% of the population in the rural areas. Some 99% of Algerians living in urban areas, but only 82% of those living in rural areas, had access to \"improved sanitation\". According to the World Bank, Algeria is making progress toward its goal of \"reducing by half the number of people without sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015\". Given Algeria's young population, policy favours preventive health care and clinics over hospitals. In keeping with this policy, the government maintains an immunisation program. However, poor sanitation and unclean water still cause [[tuberculosis]], [[hepatitis]], [[measles]], [[typhoid fever]], [[cholera]] and [[dysentery]]. The poor generally receive health care free of charge. Health records have been maintained in Algeria since 1882 and began adding Muslims living in the south to their vital record database in 1905 during French rule.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Education"], "text": "Since the 1970s, in a centralised system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy, the Algerian government introduced a decree by which school attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since independence, now the literacy rate is around 78.7%. Since 1972, Arabic is used as the language of instruction during the first nine years of schooling. From the third year, French is taught and it is also the language of instruction for science classes. The students can also learn English, Italian, Spanish and German. In 2008, new programs at the elementary appeared, therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore, but at the age of five. Apart from the 122 private schools, the Universities of the State are free of charge. After nine years of primary school, students can go to the high school or to an educational institution. The school offers two programs: general or technical. At the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the baccalaureate, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes. Education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. In 2008, the illiteracy rate for people over 10 was 22.3%, 15.6% for men and 29.0% for women. The province with the lowest rate of illiteracy was [[Algiers Province]] at 11.6%, while the province with the highest rate was [[Djelfa Province]] at 35.5%. Algeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a million Algerians and 80,000 foreign students in 2008. The [[University of Algiers]], founded in 1879, is the oldest, it offers education in various disciplines (law, medicine, science and letters). TWenty-five of these universities and almost all of the institutions of higher education were founded after the independence of the country. Even if some of them offer instruction in [[Arabic]] like areas of law and the economy, most of the other sectors as science and medicine continue to be provided in French and English. Among the most important universities, there are the [[University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene]], the [[University of Mentouri]] Constantine, and [[University of Oran]] Es-Senia. The [[University of Abou Bekr Belkaïd]] in Tlemcen and [[University of Batna]] Hadj Lakhdar occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Cities"], "text": "Below is a list of the most important Algerian cities:", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture"], "text": "Modern Algerian literature, split between [[Classical Arabic|Arabic]], [[Berber languages|Tamazight]] and [[French Language|French]], has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. [[List of Algerian writers|Famous novelists]] of the 20th century include [[Mohammed Dib]], [[Albert Camus]], [[Kateb Yacine]] and [[Ahlam Mosteghanemi]] while [[Assia Djebar]] is widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were [[Rachid Mimouni]], later vice-president of [[Amnesty International]], and [[Tahar Djaout]], murdered by an [[Islamist]] group in 1993 for his secularist views. [[Malek Bennabi]] and [[Frantz Fanon]] are noted for their thoughts on [[decolonization]]; [[Augustine of Hippo]] was born in [[Tagaste]] (modern-day [[Souk Ahras]]); and [[Ibn Khaldun]], though born in [[Tunis]], wrote the [[Muqaddima]] while staying in Algeria. The works of the [[Senussi|Sanusi]] family in pre-colonial times, and of [[Emir Abdelkader]] and Sheikh [[Abdelhamid Ben Badis|Ben Badis]] in colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author [[Apuleius]] was born in [[Madaurus]] (Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria. Contemporary [[Algerian cinema]] is various in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. There has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to films more concerned with the everyday lives of Algerians.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Art"], "text": "Algerian painters, like [[:fr:Mohamed Racim|Mohamed Racim]] or Baya, attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French colonisation, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation of the authentic values of Algeria. In this line, [[Mohamed Temam]], [[Abdelkhader Houamel]] have also returned through this art, scenes from the history of the country, the habits and customs of the past and the country life. Other new artistic currents including the one of [[M'hamed Issiakhem]], [[Mohammed Khadda]] and [[Bachir Yelles]], appeared on the scene of Algerian painting, abandoning figurative classical painting to find new pictorial ways, in order to adapt Algerian paintings to the new realities of the country through its struggle and its aspirations. [[Mohammed Khadda]] and [[M'hamed Issiakhem]] have been notable in recent years.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Literature"], "text": "The historic roots of Algerian literature go back to the [[Numidia]] and [[Africa (Roman province)|Roman Africa]] era, when [[Apuleius]] wrote ''[[The Golden Ass]]'', the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. This period had also known [[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Nonius Marcellus]] and [[Martianus Capella]], among many others. The Middle Ages have known many Arabic writers who revolutionised the Arab world literature, with authors like [[Ahmad al-Buni]], [[Ibn Manzur]] and [[Ibn Khaldoun]], who wrote the [[Muqaddimah]] while staying in Algeria, and many others. [[Albert Camus]] was an Algerian-born French Pied-Noir author. In 1957 he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in literature]]. Today Algeria contains, in its literary landscape, big names having not only marked the Algerian literature, but also the universal literary heritage in Arabic and French. As a first step, Algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the Algerian national entity, there is the publication of novels as the ''Algerian trilogy'' of [[Mohammed Dib]], or even ''Nedjma'' of [[Kateb Yacine]] novel which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. Other known writers will contribute to the emergence of Algerian literature whom include [[Mouloud Feraoun]], [[Malek Bennabi]], [[Malek Haddad]], [[Moufdi Zakaria]], Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mohamed Laïd Al-Khalifa, [[Mouloud Mammeri]], [[Frantz Fanon]], and [[Assia Djebar]]. In the aftermath of the independence, several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene, they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems, among them there are [[Rachid Boudjedra]], [[Rachid Mimouni]], [[Leila Sebbar]], [[Tahar Djaout]] and [[Tahir Wattar]]. Currently, a part of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the writer, ''the swallows of Kabul'' and ''the attack'' of [[Yasmina Khadra]], ''the oath of barbarians'' of [[Boualem Sansal]], ''memory of the flesh'' of [[Ahlam Mosteghanemi]] and the last novel by Assia Djebar ''nowhere in my father's House''.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Music"], "text": "[[Chaabi (Algeria)|Chaâbi music]] is a typically Algerian musical genre characterized by specific rhythms and of Qacidate (popular poems) in Arabic dialect. The undisputed master of this music is [[El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka]]. The Constantinois [[Andalusian classical music|Malouf]] style is saved by musician from whom [[Mohamed Tahar Fergani]] is a performer. Folk music styles include [[Bedouin music]], characterized by the poetic songs based on long kacida (poems); Kabyle music, based on a rich repertoire that is poetry and old tales passed through generations; Shawiya music, a folklore from diverse areas of the [[Aurès Mountains]]. Rahaba music style is unique to the Aures. [[Souad Massi]] is a rising Algerian folk singer. Other Algerian singers of the diaspora include [[Manel Filali]] in [[Germany]] and [[Kenza Farah]] in France. Tergui music is sung in [[Tuareg languages]] generally, [[Tinariwen]] had a worldwide success. Finally, the staïfi music is born in [[Sétif]] and remains a unique style of its kind. Modern music is available in several facets, [[Raï]] music is a style typical of western Algeria. [[Hip hop music|Rap]], a relatively recent style in Algeria, is experiencing significant growth.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Cinema"], "text": "The Algerian state's interest in film-industry activities can be seen in the annual budget of DZD 200 million (EUR 1.3 million) allocated to production, specific measures and an ambitious programme plan implemented by the Ministry of Culture in order to promote national production, renovate the cinema stock and remedy the weak links in distribution and exploitation. The financial support provided by the state, through the Fund for the Development of the Arts, Techniques and the Film Industry (FDATIC) and the Algerian Agency for Cultural Influence (AARC), plays a key role in the promotion of national production. Between 2007 and 2013, FDATIC subsidised 98 films (feature films, documentaries and short films). In mid-2013, AARC had already supported a total of 78 films, including 42 feature films, 6 short films and 30 documentaries. According to the European Audiovisual Observatory's LUMIERE database, 41 Algerian films were distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013; 21 films in this repertoire were Algerian-French co-productions. [[Days of Glory (2006 film)|''Days of Glory'' (2006)]] and [[Outside the Law (2010 film)|''Outside the Law'' (2010)]] recorded the highest number of admissions in the European Union, 3,172,612 and 474,722, respectively. Algeria won the [[Palme d'Or]] for ''[[Chronicle of the Years of Fire]]'' (1975), two Oscars for [[Z (1969 film)|''Z'' (1969)]], and other awards for the Italian-Algerian movie ''[[The Battle of Algiers]]''.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Cuisine"], "text": "Algerian cuisine is rich and diverse. The country was considered as the \"granary of Rome\". It offers a component of dishes and varied dishes, depending on the region and according to the seasons. The cuisine uses cereals as the main products, since they are always produced with abundance in the country. There is not a dish where cereals are not present. Algerian cuisine varies from one region to another, according to seasonal vegetables. It can be prepared using meat, fish and vegetables. Among the dishes known, [[couscous]], [[chorba]], rechta, chakhchoukha, berkoukes, [[shakshouka]], mthewem, chtitha, mderbel, dolma, brik or bourek, garantita, lham'hlou, etc. [[Merguez]] sausage is widely used in Algeria, but it differs, depending on the region and on the added spices. Cakes are marketed and can be found in cities either in Algeria, in Europe or North America. However, traditional cakes are also made at home, following the habits and customs of each family. Among these cakes, there are Tamina, Baklawa, Chrik, Garn logzelles, Griouech, Kalb el-louz, Makroud, Mbardja, Mchewek, Samsa, Tcharak, Baghrir, Khfaf, Zlabia, Aarayech, Ghroubiya and Mghergchette. Algerian pastry also contains Tunisian or French cakes. Marketed and home-made bread products include varieties such as Kessra or Khmira or Harchaya, chopsticks and so-called washers Khoubz dar or Matloue. Other traditional meals sold often as street food include mhadjeb or mahjouba, karantika, doubara, chakhchoukha, hassouna, and t'chicha.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Sports"], "text": "Various games have existed in Algeria since antiquity. In the [[Aurès Mountains|Aures]], people played several games such as El Kherba or El khergueba ([[chess]] variant). Playing cards, [[checkers]] and chess games are part of Algerian culture. Racing ([[Fantasia (culture)|fantasia]]) and [[rifle shooting]] are part of cultural recreation of the Algerians. The first Algerian and African gold medalist is [[Boughera El Ouafi]] in [[1928 Summer Olympics|1928 Olympics of Amsterdam]] in the [[Marathon]]. The second Algerian Medalist was [[Alain Mimoun]] in [[1956 Summer Olympics]] in Melbourne. Several men and women were champions in athletics in the 1990s including [[Noureddine Morceli]], [[Hassiba Boulmerka]], [[Nouria Mérah-Benida|Nouria Merah-Benida]], and [[Taoufik Makhloufi]], all specialized in [[middle-distance running]]. [[Football in Algeria|Football]] is the most popular sport in Algeria. Several names are engraved in the history of the sport, including [[Lakhdar Belloumi]], [[Rachid Mekhloufi]], [[Hacène Lalmas|Hassen Lalmas]], [[Rabah Madjer]], [[Salah Assad]] and [[Djamel Zidane]]. The [[Algeria national football team]] qualified for the [[1982 FIFA World Cup]], [[1986 FIFA World Cup]], [[2010 FIFA World Cup]] and [[2014 FIFA World Cup]]. In addition, several football clubs have won continental and international trophies as the club [[ES Sétif]] or [[JS Kabylia]]. The [[Algerian Football Federation]] is an association of Algeria football clubs organizing national competitions and international matches of the selection of Algeria national football team.", "id": "358", "title": "Algeria", "categories": ["Algeria", "North African countries", "Maghrebi countries", "Saharan countries", "Arab republics", "Republics", "Arabic-speaking countries and territories", "Berber-speaking countries and territories", "French-speaking countries and territories", "G15 nations", "Member states of OPEC", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Arab League", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1962", "1962 establishments in Algeria", "1962 establishments in Africa", "Countries in Africa"], "seealso": ["Outline of Algeria", "Index of Algeria-related articles"]}