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+{"headers": [], "text": "This is a list of characters in [[Ayn Rand]]'s 1957 novel ''[[Atlas Shrugged]].''", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Major characters", "Protagonists", "Dagny Taggart"], "text": "Dagny Taggart is the [[protagonist]] of the novel. She is vice-president in Charge of Operations for Taggart Transcontinental, under her brother, James Taggart. Given James' incompetence, Dagny is responsible for all the workings of the railroad.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Major characters", "Protagonists", "Francisco d'Anconia"], "text": "Francisco d'Anconia is one of the central characters in ''Atlas Shrugged'', an owner by inheritance of the world's largest [[copper]] mining operation. He is a childhood friend, and the first love, of Dagny Taggart. A child prodigy of exceptional talents, Francisco was dubbed the \"climax\" of the d'Anconia line, an already prestigious family of skilled industrialists. He was a classmate of John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld and student of both Hugh Akston and Robert Stadler. He began working while still in school, proving that he could have made a fortune without the aid of his family's wealth and power. Later, Francisco bankrupts the d'Anconia business to put it out of others' reach. His full name is given as \"Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastián d'Anconia\".", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Major characters", "Protagonists", "John Galt"], "text": "John Galt is the primary male hero of ''Atlas Shrugged''. He initially appears as an unnamed menial worker for Taggart Transcontinental, who often dines with Eddie Willers in the employees' cafeteria, and leads Eddie to reveal important information about Dagny Taggart and Taggart Transcontinental. Only Eddie's side of their conversations is given in the novel. Later in the novel, the reader discovers this worker's true identity. Before working for Taggart Transcontinental, Galt worked as an engineer for the Twentieth Century Motor Company, where he secretly invented a generator of usable electric energy from ambient static electricity, but abandoned his prototype, and his employment, when dissatisfied by an easily corrupted novel system of payment. This prototype was found by Dagny Taggart and Hank Rearden. Galt himself remains concealed throughout much of the novel, working a job and living by himself, where he unites the most skillful inventors and business leaders under his leadership. Much of the book's third division is given to his broadcast speech, which presents the author's philosophy of [[Objectivism (Ayn Rand)|Objectivism]].", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Major characters", "Protagonists", "Henry \"Hank\" Rearden"], "text": "Henry (known as \"Hank\") Rearden is one of the central characters in ''Atlas Shrugged''. He owns the most important steel company in the United States, and invents Rearden Metal, an [[alloy]] stronger, lighter, cheaper and tougher than steel. He lives in [[Philadelphia]] with his wife Lillian, his brother Philip, and his elderly mother. Rearden represents a type of [[self-made man]] and eventually divorces Lillian, abandons his steel mills following a bloody assault by government-planted workers, and joins John Galt's strike.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Major characters", "Protagonists", "Eddie Willers"], "text": "Edwin \"Eddie\" Willers is the Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operations at Taggart Transcontinental. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and himself likewise. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to Taggart Transcontinental. Willers does not possess the creative ability of Galt's associates, but matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations. After Dagny shifts her attention and loyalty to saving the captive Galt, Willers maintains the railroad until its collapse.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Major characters", "Protagonists", "Ragnar Danneskjöld"], "text": "One of Galt's first followers, and world-famous as a [[pirate]], who seizes relief ships sent from the United States to the People's States of Europe. He works to ensure that once those espousing Galt's philosophy are restored to their rightful place in society, they have enough capital to rebuild the world. Kept in the background for much of the book, Danneskjöld makes a personal appearance to encourage Rearden to persevere in his increasingly difficult situation, and gives him a bar of gold as compensation for the income taxes he has paid over the last several years. Danneskjöld is married to the actress Kay Ludlow; their relationship is kept hidden from the outside world, which only knows of Ludlow as a retired [[film star]]. Considered a misfit by Galt's other adherents, he views his actions as a means to speed the world along in understanding Galt's perspective. According to [[Barbara Branden]], who was closely associated with Rand at the time the book was written, there were sections written describing Danneskjöld's adventures at sea, cut from the final published text. In a 1974 comment at a lecture, Ayn Rand admitted that Danneskjöld's name was a tribute to Victor Hugo's novel, , wherein the hero becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. In the published book, Danneskjöld is always seen through the eyes of others (Dagny Taggart or Hank Rearden), except for a brief paragraph in the very last chapter.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Major characters", "Antagonists", "James Taggart"], "text": "The President of Taggart Transcontinental and the book's most important antagonist. Taggart is an expert influence peddler but incapable of making operational decisions on his own. He relies on his sister, Dagny Taggart, to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor because of his various anti-capitalist moral and political beliefs. In a sense, he is the antithesis of Dagny. This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to overcome those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this. In the final chapters of the novel, he suffers a complete mental breakdown upon realizing that he can no longer deceive himself in this respect.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Major characters", "Antagonists", "Lillian Rearden"], "text": "The unsupportive wife of Hank Rearden, who dislikes his habits and (secretly at first) seeks to ruin Rearden to prove her own value. Lillian achieves this, when she passes information to James Taggart about her husband's affair with his sister. This information is used to persuade Rearden to sign a Gift Certificate which delivers all the property rights of Rearden Metal to others. Lillian thereafter uses James Taggart for sexual satisfaction, until Hank abandons her.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Major characters", "Antagonists", "Dr. Floyd Ferris"], "text": "Ferris is a biologist who works as \"co-ordinator\" at the State Science Institute. He uses his position there to deride reason and productive achievement, and publishes a book entitled ''Why Do You Think You Think?'' He clashes on several occasions with Hank Rearden, and twice attempts to blackmail Rearden into giving up Rearden Metal. He is also one of the group of looters who tries to get Rearden to agree to the Steel Unification Plan. Ferris hosts the demonstration of the Project X weapon, and is the creator of the Ferris Persuader, a torture machine. When John Galt is captured by the looters, Ferris uses the device on Galt, but it breaks down before extracting the information Ferris wants from Galt. Ferris represents the group which uses brute force on the heroes to achieve the ends of the looters.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Major characters", "Antagonists", "Dr. Robert Stadler"], "text": "A former professor at Patrick Henry University, and along with colleague Hugh Akston, mentor to Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He has since become a sell-out, one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval, to the detriment of the free. He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military, including a sound-based weapon known as Project X (Xylophone). He is killed when Cuffy Meigs (see below) drunkenly overloads the circuits of Project X, causing it to destroy itself and every structure and living thing in a 100-mile radius. The character was, in part, modeled on [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]], whom Rand had interviewed for an earlier project, and his part in the creation of [[nuclear weapon]].` To his former student Galt, Stadler represents the epitome of human evil, as the \"man who knew better\" but chose not to act for the good.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Major characters", "Antagonists", "Wesley Mouch"], "text": "The incompetent and treacherous lobbyist whom Hank Rearden reluctantly employs in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]], who rises to prominence and authority throughout the novel through trading favours and disloyalty. In return for betraying Hank by helping broker the Equalization of Opportunity Bill (which, by restricting the number of businesses each person may own to one, forces Hank to divest most of his companies), he is given a senior position at the Bureau of Economic Planning and National Resources. Later in the novel he becomes its Top Co-ordinator, a position that eventually becomes Economic Dictator of the country.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Secondary characters"], "text": "The following secondary characters also appear in the novel. (-) '''Hugh Akston''' is identified as \"One of the last great advocates of reason.\" He was a renowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University, where he taught Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt, and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He was, along with Robert Stadler, a father figure to these three. Akston's name is so hallowed that a young lady, on hearing that Francisco had studied under him, is shocked. She thought he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century. He now works as a cook in a roadside diner, and proves extremely skillful at the job. When Dagny tracks him down, and before she discovers his true identity, he rejects her enthusiastic offer to manage the dining car services for Taggart Transcontinental. He is based on [[Aristotle]]. (-) '''Jeff Allen''' is a tramp who stows away on a Taggart train during one of Dagny's cross-country trips. Instead of throwing him out, she allows him to ride as her guest. It is from Allen that she learns the full story behind the collapse of the Twentieth Century Motor Company (Rand's extensive metaphor for the inherent flaws of communism), as well as a hint of John Galt's true background. (-) '''Calvin Atwood''' is owner of Atwood Light and Power Company and joins Galt's strike. (-) '''Mayor Bascom''' is the mayor of Rome, Wisconsin, who reveals part of the history of the Twentieth Century Motor Company. (-) '''Dr. Blodgett''' is the scientist who pulls the lever to demonstrate Project X. (-) '''Orren Boyle''' is the head of Associated Steel, antithesis of Hank Rearden and a friend of James Taggart. He is an investor in the San Sebastián Mines. He disappears from the story after having a nervous breakdown following the failed 'unification' of the steel industry. (-) '''Laura Bradford''' is an actress and Kip Chalmers' mistress. She is one of the passengers on his train, and dies in the Taggart Tunnel disaster. (-) '''Bill Brent''' is the chief dispatcher for the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental, who tries to prevent the Taggart Tunnel disaster. (-) '''Cherryl Brooks''' is a dime store shopgirl who marries James Taggart after a chance encounter in her store the night the John Galt Line was falsely deemed his greatest success. She marries him thinking he is the heroic person behind Taggart Transcontinental. Cherryl is at first harsh towards Dagny, having believed Jim Taggart's descriptions of his sister, until she questions employees of the railroad. Upon learning that her scorn had been misdirected, Cherryl puts off apologizing to Dagny out of shame, but eventually admits to Dagny that when she married Jim, she thought he had the heroic qualities that she had looked up to - she thought she was marrying someone like Dagny. Shortly after making this admission, she commits suicide by jumping over a street guardrail to her death, unable to live with her worthless husband and seeing no way to escape him.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Secondary characters"], "text": "(-) '''Millie Bush''' was \"a mean, ugly little eight-year-old\" girl voted to receive gold braces to straighten her teeth by the Marxist \"family\" committee who determined how pay was allocated at The Twentieth Century Motor Company. Her teeth are later knocked out by a man denied an allowance by the committee to purchase the things he valued. (-) '''Emma Chalmers''', Kip Chalmers' mother, gains some influence after his death. Known as \"Kip's Ma,\" she starts a soybean-growing project in Louisiana and commandeers thousands of railroad freight cars to move the harvest. As a result, the year's wheat crop from Minnesota never reaches the rest of the country, but instead rots in storage; also, the soybean crop is lost, having been reaped too early. (-) '''Kip Chalmers''' is a Washington man who has decided to run for election as Legislator from California. On the way to a campaign rally, the Taggart Transcontinental train that is carrying him encounters a split rail, resulting in the destruction of its diesel engine. His demands lead to a coal-burning steam engine being attached to his train in its stead and used to pull it through an eight-mile tunnel. The result is the suffocation of all passengers and the destruction of the Taggart Tunnel. (-) '''Dan Conway''' is the middle-aged president of the Phoenix-Durango railroad. Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows. When the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is used to drive his business out of [[Colorado]], he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing. He is ''not'' one of those who joined John Galt's strike, his resignation being a personal choice of his own. (-) '''Ken Danagger''' owns Danagger Coal in Pennsylvania. He helps Hank Rearden illegally make Rearden Metal, then later decides to quit and join Galt's strike moments before Dagny arrives to try to persuade him otherwise. (-) '''Quentin Daniels''' is an enterprising engineer hired by Dagny Taggart to reconstruct John Galt's motor. Partway through this process, Quentin withdraws his effort for the same reasons John Galt himself had. Dagny's pursuit of Quentin leads her to Galt's Gulch. Galt recognizes in him a younger version of himself, having emulated both Galt's achievements in physics and Galt's social reasoning. (-) '''Sebastian d'Anconia''' was the 16th (or 17th) Century founder of the d'Anconia dynasty. Escaped from Spain because of expressing his opinions too freely and coming in conflict with the [[Inquisition]], leaving behind a palace and his beloved. Started a small mine in South America, which became the beginning of a mining empire and a new fortune (and a new palace). Eventually sent for his beloved who had waited for him many years. He is the role model which Francisco d'Anconia looks to, as Dagny Taggart looks to Nathaniel Taggart. Francisco remarks that their respective ancestors would have liked each other.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Secondary characters"], "text": "(-) '''Balph Eubank''' is called \"the literary leader of the age\", despite the fact that no book he has written has sold more than 3,000 copies. He complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers, and that there should be a law limiting the sales of books to 10,000 copies. He is a [[misogynist]] who thinks it disgusting that Dagny Taggart is a railroad vice-president. (-) The '''Fishwife''' is one of the strikers, who earns her living by providing the fish for Hammond's grocery market; she is described as having \"dark, disheveled hair and large eyes\", and is a writer. Galt says she \"wouldn't be published outside. She believes that when one deals with words, one deals with the mind.\" According to Barbara Branden in her book ''[[The Passion of Ayn Rand]]'', \"The [[Fishwife]] is Ayn's [[List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances|Hitchcock-like]] appearance in ''Atlas Shrugged''.\" So says too Leonard Peikoff. (-) '''Lawrence Hammond''' runs Hammond Cars in Colorado, one of the few companies in existence that still produces top-quality vehicles. He eventually quits and joins the strike. (-) '''Richard Halley''' is Dagny Taggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph. Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer. At age 24, his opera ''[[Phaethon]]'' was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it. After 19 years, ''Phaethon'' was performed again, but this time it was received to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard. The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared. It is later revealed that he has joined the strike and settled in Galt's Gulch. (-) '''Mrs. William Hastings''' is the widow of the chief engineer at the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Her husband quit shortly after Galt did and joined the strike some years later. Her lead allows Dagny to find Hugh Akston. (-) '''Dr. Thomas Hendricks''' is a famous brain surgeon who developed a new method of preventing strokes. He joined Galt's strike when the American medical system was put under government control. (-) '''Tinky Holloway''' is one of the \"looters\" and is frequently referred to and quoted by other characters in the story, but he has only one major appearance: during the Washington meeting with Hank Rearden. (-) '''Lee Hunsacker''' is in charge of a company called Amalgamated Service when takes over the Twentieth Century Motor Company. He files a lawsuit that eventually leads to Midas Mulligan and Judge Narragansett joining the strike. A failed businessman, he laments constantly that no-one ever gave him a chance. (-) '''Gwen Ives''' is Hank Rearden's secretary, described as being in her late twenties and remaining calm and professional despite the chaos that threatens his business. When Rearden abandons his mills and joins Galt's strike, she and many other employees do the same.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Secondary characters"], "text": "(-) '''Gilbert Keith-Worthing''' is a British novelist of erstwhile fame, now neglected but still considered a \"walking classic,\" and a proponent of the idea that freedom is an illusion. Kip Chalmers brings him along on the train to California, \"for no reason that either of them could discover\"; he dies in the Taggart Tunnel disaster. (-) '''Owen Kellogg''' is Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in New York. He catches Dagny Taggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff. After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division, she decides to make him its new Superintendent. However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quitting his job. Owen Kellogg eventually reaches, and settles in, Galt's Gulch. (-) '''Fred Kinnan''' is a labor leader and member of the looter cabal. Unlike the others, however, Kinnan is straightforward and honest about his purpose. Kinnan is the only one to openly state the true motivations of himself and his fellow conspirators. At the end of Galt's three-hour speech, he expresses admiration for the man, as he says what he means. Despite this, Kinnan admits that he is one of the people Galt is out to destroy. (-) '''Paul Larkin''' is an unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family. He meets with the other Looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down. James Taggart knows he is friends with Hank Rearden and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them. (-) '''Eugene Lawson''' heads the Community Bank of Madison, then gets a job with the government when it his bank goes bankrupt. One of the looter's cabal, he is a collectivist who abhors production and money-making. (-) '''Mort Liddy''' is a [[hack writer|hack]] composer who writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies to which no one listens. He believes melody is a primitive vulgarity. He is one of Lillian Rearden's friends and a member of the cultural elite. (-) '''Clifton Locey''' is a friend of Jim Taggart who takes the position of vice-president of operation when Dagny Taggart quits. (-) '''Pat Logan''' is the engineer on the first run of the John Galt Line. He later strikes. (-) '''Kay Ludlow''' is a beautiful actress who quit Holywood because of the roles she was given and married secretly the pirate Ragnar Danneskjöld. (-) '''Dick McNamara''' is a contractor who finished the San Sebastian Line. Dagny Taggart plans to hire him to lay the new Rearden Metal track for the Rio Norte Line, but before she does so, he mysteriously disappears. She later discovers that he has joined the strike and settled in Galt's Gulch.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Secondary characters"], "text": "(-) '''Cuffy Meigs''' is the Director of Unification for the railroad business. He carries a pistol and a lucky rabbit's foot, and he dresses in a military uniform, and has been described as \"impervious to thought\". Meigs seizes control of Project X and accidentally destroys it, demolishing the country's last railroad bridge across the Mississippi River and killing himself, his men, and Dr. Stadler. (-) '''Dave Mitchum''' is a state-hired superintendent of the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental. He is partially responsible for the Taggart Tunnel disaster. (-) '''Chick Morrison''' holds the position of \"Morale Conditioner\" in the government. He quits when society begins to collapse and flees to a stronghold in Tennessee. His fellow looters consider it unlikely that he will survive. (-) '''Horace Bussby Mowen''' is the president of the Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc. of Connecticut. He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society. Dagny Taggart hires Mowen to produce switches made of Rearden Metal. He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology, and has to be cajoled into accepting the contract. When pressured by public opinion, he discontinues production of the switches, forcing Dagny to find an alternative source. (-) '''Midas Mulligan''' is a wealthy banker who mysteriously disappeared in protest after he was given a court order to lend money to an incompetent applicant. When the order came down, he liquidated his entire business, paid off his depositors, and joined Galt's strike. He is the legal owner of the land where Galt's Gulch is located. Mulligan's birth name was Michael, but he had it legally changed after a news article called him \"[[Midas]]\" in a derogatory fashion, which Mulligan took as a compliment. (-) '''Judge Narragansett''' is an American jurist who ruled in favor of Midas Mulligan during the case brought against him by the incompetent loan applicant. When Narragansett's ruling was reversed on appeal, he retired and joined the strike. At the end of the novel, he is seen editing the [[United States Constitution]], crossing out the contradicting amendments of it and adding an amendment to prohibit Congress from passing laws that restrain freedom of trade. (-) '''Ben Nealy''' is a railroad contractor whom Dagny Taggart hires to replace the track on the Rio Norte Line with Rearden Metal. Nealy is incompetent, but Dagny can find no one better in all the country. Nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power. He sees no role for intelligence in human achievement. He relies on Dagny and Ellis Wyatt to run things, and resents them for doing it, because it appears to him like they are just bossing people around. (-) '''Ted Nielsen''' is the head of Nielsen Motors. He eventually goes on strike, along with most of the other industrialist \"producer\" types, by closing his motor factory. Dagny later finds him when she visits Galt's Gulch for the first time.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Secondary characters"], "text": "(-) '''Betty Pope''' is a wealthy socialite who is having a meaningless sexual affair with James Taggart. She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position. (-) '''Dr. Potter''' holds some undefined position with the State Science Institute. He is sent to try to obtain the rights to Rearden Metal. (-) '''Dr. Simon Pritchett''' is the prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University and is considered the leading philosopher of the age. He believes that man is nothing but a collection of chemicals, reason is a superstition, it is futile to seek meaning in life, and the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood. (-) '''Rearden's mother''', whose name is not mentioned, lives with Rearden at his home in Philadelphia. She is involved in charity work, and berates Rearden whenever she can. She dotes on her weak son Philip Rearden. (-) '''Philip Rearden''' is the younger brother of Hank Rearden. He lives in his brother's home in Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him. He is resentful of his brother's charity. (-) '''Dwight Sanders''' owns Sanders Aircraft, a producer of high-quality airplanes, and joins the strike. (-) '''Bertram Scudder''' is an editorial writer for the magazine ''The Future''. He typically bashes business and businessmen, but he never says anything specific in his articles, relying on innuendo, sneers, and denunciation. He wrote a hatchet job on Hank Rearden called ''The Octopus''. He is also vocal in support of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. Scudder claims that the most important thing in life is \"brother love\" but seems to have nothing but hatred for those around him. He loses his job after Dagny Taggart reveals her affair with Hank Rearden over air on his radio show. (-) '''Claude Slagenhop''' is president of political organization Friends of Global Progress and one of Lillian Rearden's friends. He believes that ideas are just air, that this is no time for talk, but for action. Global Progress is a sponsor of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. (-) '''Gerald and Ivy Starnes''' are the two surviving children of Jed Starnes, the founder of the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Together with their since-deceased brother Eric, they instituted a communistic payment-and-benefits program that drove the company into bankruptcy. Gerald, a dying alcoholic, and Ivy, a [[New Age|pseudo-Buddhist]] ascetic, continue to insist that the plan was perfect and that the failure of their father's company was entirely due to the workers. Eric was a weak, attention-seeking man with a pathological desire to be loved. He committed suicide after the woman he loved married another man. Gerald claims that he always acted for the good of the employees, but he was vain and incompetent and often threw lavish parties using company funds. Ivy, on the other hand, is described as a sadist who relishes seeing others in poverty, but who has no desire for wealth of her own.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Secondary characters"], "text": "(-) '''Andrew Stockton''' runs the Stockton Foundry in Stockton, Colorado. When he joins the strike, he opens a foundry in Galt's Gulch. (-) '''Nathaniel \"Nat\" Taggart''' was the founder of Taggart Transcontinental. He built his railroad without any government handouts, and ran the business for no other reason than to turn a profit. He began as a penniless adventurer and ended up as one of the wealthiest men in the country. He never earned money by force or fraud (except for bribing government officials and throwing an opponent down a flight of stairs), and never apologized for becoming wealthy and successful. He was one of the most hated men of his time. Dagny is often inspired by looking at a statue of Nat Taggart at the railroad headquarters, and draws a dollar sign on its base as a signal to Francisco when she is ready to join Galt's strike. It is suspected that he is modeled after James Jerome Hill, builder of the Great Northern Railroad. (-) '''Mr. Thompson''' is the \"[[Head of state|Head of the State]]\" for the United States. He is not particularly intelligent and has a very undistinguished look. He knows politics, however, and is a master of public relations and back-room deals. Rand's notes indicate that she modeled him on President [[Harry S. Truman]], and that she deliberately decided not to call him \"President of the United States\" as this title has \"honorable connotations\" which the character does not deserve. (-) '''Lester Tuck''' is the campaign manager for Kip Chalmers and one of his guests on the train trip to California. He dies in the Taggart Tunnel disaster. (-) '''Clem Weatherby''' is a government representative on the board of directors of Taggart Transcontinental. Dagny considers him the least bad of the government representatives, since he does have some real knowledge on the running of trains. She notices, however, that he is the least appreciated by his own bosses. (-) The '''Wet Nurse (Tony)''' is a young bureaucrat sent by the government to watch over Rearden's mills. Though he starts out as a cynical follower of the looters' code, his experience at the mills transforms him, and he comes to respect and admire the producers. He is shot attempting to inform Hank Rearden about a government plot, but does succeed in warning Rearden just before he dies.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Secondary characters"], "text": "(-) '''Ellis Wyatt''' is the head of Wyatt Oil. He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of Colorado by discovering a new process for extracting more oil from what were thought to be exhausted oil wells. When first introduced, he is aggressive towards Dagny, whom he does not yet know and whom he blames for what are, in fact, her brother's policies which directly threaten his business. When the government passes laws and decrees which make it impossible for him to continue, he sets all his oil wells on fire, leaving a jeering note: \"I am leaving it as I found it. Take over. It's yours.\" One particular burning well that resists all efforts to extinguish it becomes known as \"Wyatt's Torch\". Later Dagny meets him in Galt's Gulch.", "id": "359", "title": "List of Atlas Shrugged characters", "categories": ["Atlas Shrugged characters", "Fictional socialites", "Lists of literary characters", "Literary characters introduced in 1957"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": [], "text": "'''Anthropology''' is the [[Science|scientific study]] of [[human]], concerned with [[human behavior]], [[human biology]], [[cultures]] and [[society|societies]], in both the present and past, including [[Homo|past human species]]. [[Social anthropology]] studies patterns of behaviour, while [[cultural anthropology]] studies cultural meaning, including norms and values. [[Linguistic anthropology]] studies how language influences social life. [[Biological anthropology|Biological or physical anthropology]] studies the biological development of humans. [[Visual anthropology]], which is usually considered to be a part of social anthropology, can mean both [[ethnographic film]] (where photography, film, and [[new media]] are used for study) as well as the study of \"visuals\", including art, visual images, cinema etc. [[Oxford Bibliographies]] describes visual anthropology as \"the anthropological study of the visual and the visual study of the anthropological\". [[Archaeology]], which studies human activity through investigation of physical evidence, is considered a branch of anthropology in the United States and Canada, while in Europe it is viewed as a discipline in its own right or grouped under other related disciplines, such as history. A key distinguishing factor between archeology and anthropology is the focus on analyzing material remains in archaeology.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The abstract noun ''[[wikt:anthropology|anthropology]]'' is first attested in reference to [[history]]. Its present use first appeared in [[German Renaissance|Renaissance]] [[Holy Roman Empire|Germany]] in the works of [[Magnus Hundt]] and [[Otto Casmann]]. Their [[New Latin]] '''' derived from the [[combining form]] of the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] words ''ánthrōpos'' (, \"[[human]]\") and ''lógos'' (, \"[[science|study]]\"). (Its adjectival form appeared in the works of [[Aristotle]].) It began to be used in English, possibly via [[French language|French]] '''', by the early 18th century.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Through the 19th century"], "text": "In 1647, the Bartholins, founders of the [[University of Copenhagen]], defined '''' as follows: Sporadic use of the term for some of the subject matter occurred subsequently, such as the use by [[Étienne Serres]] in 1839 to describe the natural history, or paleontology, of man, based on comparative anatomy, and the creation of a chair in anthropology and ethnography in 1850 at the [[National Museum of Natural History, France|French National Museum of Natural History]] by [[Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau]]. Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The [[Société Ethnologique de Paris]], the first to use the term ''[[ethnology]]'', was formed in 1839. Its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848, the ''Société'' was abandoned. Meanwhile, the Ethnological Society of New York, currently the [[American Ethnological Society]], was founded on its model in 1842, as well as the [[Ethnological Society of London]] in 1843, a break-away group of the [[Aborigines' Protection Society]]. These anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-[[Human rights|human-rights activists.]] They maintained international connections. Anthropology and many other current fields are the intellectual results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. Theorists in such diverse fields as [[Comparative anatomy|anatomy]], [[Comparative method (linguistics)|linguistics]], and [[ethnology]], making feature-by-feature comparisons of their subject matters, were beginning to suspect that similarities between animals, languages, and folkways were the result of processes or laws unknown to them then. For them, the publication of [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect. Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in [[agronomy]] and in the wild. Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s. There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. [[Paul Broca]] in Paris was in the process of breaking away from the [[Société de biologie]] to form the first of the explicitly anthropological societies, the [[Society of Anthropology of Paris|Société d'Anthropologie de Paris]], meeting for the first time in Paris in 1859. When he read Darwin, he became an immediate convert to ''Transformisme'', as the French called [[evolutionism]]. His definition now became \"the study of the human group, considered as a whole, in its details, and in relation to the rest of nature\". Broca, being what today would be called a [[Neurosurgery|neurosurgeon]], had taken an interest in the pathology of speech. He wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the human brain, today called [[Broca's area]] after him. His interest was mainly in [[Biological anthropology]], but a German philosopher specializing in psychology, [[Theodor Waitz]], took up the theme of general and social anthropology in his six-volume work, entitled ''Die Anthropologie der Naturvölker'', 1859–1864. The title was soon translated as \"The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples\". The last two volumes were published posthumously.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Through the 19th century"], "text": "Waitz defined anthropology as \"the science of the nature of man\". Following Broca's lead, Waitz points out that anthropology is a new field, which would gather material from other fields, but would differ from them in the use of comparative anatomy, physiology, and psychology to differentiate man from \"the animals nearest to him\". He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation. The history of civilization, as well as ethnology, are to be brought into the comparison. It is to be presumed fundamentally that the species, man, is a unity, and that \"the same laws of thought are applicable to all men\". Waitz was influential among the British ethnologists. In 1863 the explorer [[Richard Francis Burton]] and the speech therapist [[James Hunt (speech therapist)|James Hunt]] broke away from the [[Ethnological Society of London]] to form the [[Anthropological Society of London]], which henceforward would follow the path of the new anthropology rather than just ethnology. It was the 2nd society dedicated to general anthropology in existence. Representatives from the French ''Société'' were present, though not Broca. In his keynote address, printed in the first volume of its new publication, ''The Anthropological Review'', Hunt stressed the work of Waitz, adopting his definitions as a standard. Among the first associates were the young [[Edward Burnett Tylor]], inventor of [[cultural anthropology]], and his brother [[Alfred Tylor]], a geologist. Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist; subsequently, an anthropologist. Similar organizations in other countries followed: The Anthropological Society of Madrid (1865), the [[American Anthropological Association]] in 1902, the Anthropological Society of Vienna (1870), the Italian Society of Anthropology and Ethnology (1871), and many others subsequently. The majority of these were evolutionist. One notable exception was the [[Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte|Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory]] (1869) founded by [[Rudolph Virchow]], known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists. Not religious himself, he insisted that Darwin's conclusions lacked empirical foundation. During the last three decades of the 19th century, a proliferation of anthropological societies and associations occurred, most independent, most publishing their own journals, and all international in membership and association. The major theorists belonged to these organizations. They supported the gradual osmosis of anthropology curricula into the major institutions of higher learning. By 1898, 48 educational institutions in 13 countries had some curriculum in anthropology. None of the 75 faculty members were under a department named anthropology.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "20th and 21st centuries"], "text": "This meager statistic expanded in the 20th century to comprise anthropology departments in the majority of the world's higher educational institutions, many thousands in number. Anthropology has diversified from a few major subdivisions to dozens more. Practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene. The organization has reached global level. For example, the World Council of Anthropological Associations (WCAA), \"a network of national, regional and international associations that aims to promote worldwide communication and cooperation in anthropology\", currently contains members from about three dozen nations. Since the work of [[Franz Boas]] and [[Bronisław Malinowski]] in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, ''social'' anthropology in Great Britain and [[cultural anthropology|''cultural'' anthropology]] in the US have been distinguished from other social sciences by their emphasis on [[cross-cultural studies|cross-cultural comparisons]], long-term in-depth examination of context, and the importance they place on [[Participant observation|participant-observation]] or experiential immersion in the area of research. Cultural anthropology, in particular, has emphasized [[cultural relativism]], [[holism]], and the use of findings to frame cultural critiques. This has been particularly prominent in the United States, from [[Boasian anthropology|Boas' arguments]] against 19th-century racial [[ideology]], through [[Margaret Mead]]'s advocacy for [[gender equality]] and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of [[post-colonialism|post-colonial]] oppression and promotion of [[multiculturalism]]. [[Ethnography]] is one of its primary [[research design]] as well as the text that is generated from anthropological fieldwork. In Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of [[social anthropology]] tends to dominate. In the United States, anthropology has traditionally been divided into the [[four field approach]] developed by [[Franz Boas]] in the early 20th century: [[Biological anthropology|''biological'' or ''physical'' anthropology]]; [[social anthropology|''social'']], [[cultural anthropology|''cultural'']], or [[sociocultural anthropology|''sociocultural'' anthropology]]; and [[archaeology]]; plus [[linguistic anthropology|anthropological linguistics]]. These fields frequently overlap but tend to use different methodologies and techniques. European countries with overseas colonies tended to practice more [[ethnology]] (a term coined and defined by [[Adam František Kollár|Adam F. Kollár]] in 1783). It is sometimes referred to as sociocultural anthropology in the parts of the world that were influenced by the European tradition.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Fields"], "text": "Anthropology is a global discipline involving humanities, social sciences and natural sciences. Anthropology builds upon knowledge from [[natural science]], including the discoveries about the origin and evolution of ''[[Human|Homo sapiens]]'', human physical traits, [[human behavior]], the variations among different groups of humans, how the evolutionary past of ''Homo sapiens'' has influenced its social organization and culture, and from [[social science]], including the organization of human social and cultural relations, institutions, social conflicts, etc. Early anthropology originated in Classical Greece and Persia and studied and tried to understand observable cultural diversity, such as by [[Al-Biruni]] of the [[Islamic Golden Age]]. As such, anthropology has been central in the development of several new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such as [[cognitive science]], [[global studies]], and various [[ethnic studies]]. According to [[Clifford Geertz]], [[Sociocultural anthropology]] has been heavily influenced by [[structuralism|structuralist]] and postmodern theories, as well as a shift toward the analysis of modern societies. During the 1970s and 1990s, there was an [[epistemological]] shift away from the [[positivist]] traditions that had largely informed the discipline. During this shift, enduring questions about the nature and production of knowledge came to occupy a central place in cultural and social anthropology. In contrast, archaeology and biological anthropology remained largely positivist. Due to this difference in epistemology, the four sub-fields of anthropology have lacked cohesion over the last several decades.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Fields", "Sociocultural"], "text": "Sociocultural anthropology draws together the principle axes of [[cultural anthropology]] and [[social anthropology]]. Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people ''make sense'' of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the ''relationships'' among individuals and groups. Cultural anthropology is more related to [[philosophy]], literature and [[the arts]] (how one's culture affects the experience for self and group, contributing to a more complete understanding of the people's knowledge, customs, and institutions), while social anthropology is more related to [[sociology]] and history. In that, it helps develop an understanding of social structures, typically of others and other populations (such as minorities, subgroups, dissidents, etc.). There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them, and these categories overlap to a considerable degree. Inquiry in sociocultural anthropology is guided in part by [[cultural relativism]], the attempt to understand other societies in terms of their own cultural symbols and values. Accepting other cultures in their own terms moderates reductionism in cross-cultural comparison. This project is often accommodated in the field of [[ethnography]]. Ethnography can refer to both a methodology and the product of ethnographic research, i.e. an ethnographic [[monograph]]. As a methodology, ethnography is based upon long-term fieldwork within a community or other research site. [[Participant observation]] is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology. [[Ethnology]] involves the systematic comparison of different cultures. The process of participant-observation can be especially helpful to understanding a culture from an [[emic]] (conceptual, vs. [[etic]], or technical) point of view. The study of [[kinship]] and [[social organization]] is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a [[human universal]]. Sociocultural anthropology also covers [[Economic anthropology|economic]] and [[Political anthropology|political organization]], law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, values, etiquette, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language (which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology). Comparison across cultures is a key element of method in sociocultural anthropology, including the industrialized (and de-industrialized) West. The [[Standard Cross-Cultural Sample]] (SCCS) includes 186 such cultures.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Fields", "Biological"], "text": "Biological anthropology and physical anthropology are synonymous terms to describe anthropological research focused on the study of humans and non-human primates in their biological, evolutionary, and demographic dimensions. It examines the biological and social factors that have affected the evolution of humans and other primates, and that generate, maintain or change contemporary genetic and physiological variation.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Fields", "Archaeological"], "text": "[[Archaeology]] is the study of the human past through its material remains. Artifacts, faunal remains, and human altered landscapes are evidence of the cultural and material lives of past societies. Archaeologists examine material remains in order to deduce patterns of past human behavior and cultural practices. Ethnoarchaeology is a type of archaeology that studies the practices and material remains of living human groups in order to gain a better understanding of the evidence left behind by past human groups, who are presumed to have lived in similar ways.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Fields", "Linguistic"], "text": "[[Linguistic anthropology]] (not to be confused with [[anthropological linguistics]]) seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in [[language]] across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture. It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including [[sociolinguistics]], [[pragmatics]], [[cognitive linguistics]], [[semiotics]], [[discourse analysis]], and [[narrative]] analysis.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Art, media, music, dance and film", "Art"], "text": "One of the central problems in the anthropology of art concerns the universality of 'art' as a cultural phenomenon. Several anthropologists have noted that the Western categories of 'painting', 'sculpture', or 'literature', conceived as independent artistic activities, do not exist, or exist in a significantly different form, in most non-Western contexts. To surmount this difficulty, anthropologists of art have focused on formal features in objects which, without exclusively being 'artistic', have certain evident 'aesthetic' qualities. Boas' ''Primitive Art'', [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]' ''The Way of the Masks'' (1982) or Geertz's 'Art as Cultural System' (1983) are some examples in this trend to transform the anthropology of 'art' into an anthropology of culturally specific 'aesthetics'.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Art, media, music, dance and film", "Media"], "text": "Media anthropology (also known as the anthropology of media or mass media) emphasizes [[ethnography|ethnographic studies]] as a means of understanding producers, audiences, and other cultural and social aspects of mass media. The types of ethnographic contexts explored range from contexts of media production (e.g., ethnographies of newsrooms in newspapers, journalists in the field, film production) to contexts of media reception, following audiences in their everyday responses to media. Other types include [[cyber anthropology]], a relatively new area of [[internet research]], as well as ethnographies of other areas of research which happen to involve media, such as development work, [[social movement]], or health education. This is in addition to many classic ethnographic contexts, where media such as radio, [[newspaper|the press]], [[new media]], and television have started to make their presences felt since the early 1990s.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Art, media, music, dance and film", "Music"], "text": "[[Ethnomusicology]] is an academic field encompassing various approaches to the study of music (broadly defined), that emphasize its cultural, social, material, cognitive, biological, and other dimensions or contexts instead of or in addition to its isolated sound component or any particular repertoire. [[Ethnomusicology]] can be used in a wide variety of fields, such as teaching, politics, cultural anthropology etc.  While the origins of ethnomusicology date back to the 18th and 19th centuries, it was formally introduced as “ethnomusicology” by Dutch scholar [[Jaap Kunst]] around 1950. Later, the influence of study in this area spawned the creation of the periodical ''[[Ethnomusicology (academic journal)|Ethnomusicology]]'' and the [[Society for Ethnomusicology|Society of Ethnomusicology]].", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Art, media, music, dance and film", "Visual"], "text": "Visual anthropology is concerned, in part, with the study and production of [[ethnography|ethnographic]] photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, [[new media]]. While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with [[ethnographic film]], visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation, including areas such as performance, museums, art, and the production and [[reception theory|reception]] of [[anthropology of media|mass media]]. Visual representations from all cultures, such as sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphics, paintings, and photographs are included in the focus of visual anthropology.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Economic, political economic, applied and development", "Economic"], "text": "Economic anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cultural scope. It has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics, of which it is highly critical. Its origins as a sub-field of anthropology begin with the Polish-British founder of anthropology, [[Bronisław Malinowski]], and his French compatriot, [[Marcel Mauss]], on the nature of gift-giving exchange (or [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]]) as an alternative to market exchange. Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange. The school of thought derived from Marx and known as Political Economy focuses on production, in contrast. Economic anthropologists have abandoned the primitivist niche they were relegated to by economists, and have now turned to examine corporations, banks, and the [[global financial system]] from an anthropological perspective.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Economic, political economic, applied and development", "Political economy"], "text": "Political economy in anthropology is the application of the theories and methods of [[historical materialism]] to the traditional concerns of anthropology, including, but not limited to, non-capitalist societies. Political economy introduced questions of history and colonialism to ahistorical anthropological theories of social structure and culture. Three main areas of interest rapidly developed. The first of these areas was concerned with the \"pre-capitalist\" societies that were subject to evolutionary \"tribal\" stereotypes. Sahlin's work on hunter-gatherers as the \"original affluent society\" did much to dissipate that image. The second area was concerned with the vast majority of the world's population at the time, the peasantry, many of whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such as in Vietnam. The third area was on colonialism, imperialism, and the creation of the capitalist [[world-system]]. More recently, these political economists have more directly addressed issues of industrial (and post-industrial) capitalism around the world.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Economic, political economic, applied and development", "Applied"], "text": "Applied anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. It is a \"complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy\". More simply, applied anthropology is the practical side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community. It is closely related to [[development anthropology]] (distinct from the more critical [[anthropology of development]]).", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Economic, political economic, applied and development", "Development"], "text": "Anthropology of development tends to view development from a ''critical'' perspective. The kind of issues addressed and implications for the approach simply involve pondering why, if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty, is poverty increasing? Why is there such a gap between plans and outcomes? Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer? Why is development so externally driven rather than having an internal basis? In short, why does so much planned development fail?", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality", "Kinship"], "text": "''Kinship'' can refer both to ''the study of'' the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures, or it can refer to ''the patterns of social relationships'' themselves. Over its history, anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms, such as \"[[kinship|descent]]\", \"[[descent group]]\", \"[[lineage (anthropology)|lineages]]\", \"[[affinity (law)|affines]]\", \"[[cognatic kinship|cognates]]\", and even \"[[fictive kinship]]\". Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related both by descent (one's social relations during development), and also relatives by marriage. Within kinship you have two different families. People have their biological families and it is the people they share DNA with. This is called consanguineal relations or \"blood ties\". People can also have a chosen family Finding Connection Through \"Chosen Family\" in which they chose who they want to be a part of their family. In some cases people are closer with their chosen family more than with their biological families.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality", "Feminist"], "text": "Feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology ([[archaeology|archeological]], [[biological anthropology|biological]], [[cultural anthropology|cultural]], [[linguistic anthropology|linguistic]]) that seeks to reduce male bias in research findings, anthropological hiring practices, and the scholarly production of knowledge. Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white feminists of Europe, America, and elsewhere. From the perspective of the [[Western world]], historically such 'peripheral' perspectives have been ignored, observed only from an outsider perspective, and regarded as less-valid or less-important than knowledge from the Western world. Exploring and addressing that double bias against women from marginalized racial or ethnic groups is of particular interest in [[intersectional]] feminist anthropology. Feminist anthropologists have claimed that their research helps to correct these systematic biases in mainstream [[feminist theory]], [[history]], [[linguistics]], [[archaeology]], and anthropology. Feminist anthropologists are centrally concerned with the construction of [[gender]] across societies. Gender constructs are of particular interest when studying [[sexism]]. The first [[African-American]] female [[anthropologist]] and [[Caribbeanist]] is said to be [[Vera Mae Green]] who studied ethnic and family relations in the [[Caribbean]] as well as the United States, and thereby tried to improve the way black life, experiences, and culture were studied. Feminist anthropology is inclusive of the anthropology of birth as a specialization, which is the anthropological study of [[pregnancy]] and [[childbirth]] within cultures and societies.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal", "Medical"], "text": "Medical anthropology is an interdisciplinary field which studies \"human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation\". It is believed that William Caudell was the first to discover the field of medical anthropology. Currently, research in medical anthropology is one of the main growth areas in the field of anthropology as a whole. It focuses on the following six basic fields: Other subjects that have become central to medical anthropology worldwide are violence and social suffering (Farmer, 1999, 2003; Beneduce, 2010) as well as other issues that involve physical and psychological harm and suffering that are not a result of illness. On the other hand, there are fields that intersect with medical anthropology in terms of research methodology and theoretical production, such as ''cultural psychiatry'' and ''transcultural psychiatry'' or ''ethnopsychiatry''.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal", "Nutritional"], "text": "Nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between [[economic systems]], [[nutrition|nutritional status]] and [[food security]], and how changes in the former affect the latter. If economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food, food security, and dietary health, then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and economic trends associated with globalization. Nutritional status affects overall health status, work performance potential, and the overall potential for economic development (either in terms of human development or traditional western models) for any given group of people.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal", "Psychological"], "text": "Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of [[cultural anthropology|cultural]] and [[psychology|mental processes]]. This subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans' development and [[enculturation]] within a particular cultural group – with its own history, language, practices, and conceptual categories – shape processes of human [[cognition]], [[emotion]], [[perception]], [[motivation]], and [[mental health]]. It also examines how the understanding of cognition, emotion, motivation, and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal", "Cognitive"], "text": "Cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge, cultural [[innovation]], and transmission over time and space using the methods and [[theories]] of the [[cognitive sciences]] (especially [[experimental psychology]] and [[evolutionary biology]]) often through close collaboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists, linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and [[interpretation (logic)|interpretation]] of cultural forms. Cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal", "Transpersonal"], "text": "Transpersonal anthropology studies the relationship between [[altered states of consciousness]] and culture. As with [[transpersonal psychology]], the field is much concerned with altered states of consciousness (ASC) and [[transpersonal experience]]. However, the field differs from mainstream transpersonal psychology in taking more cognizance of cross-cultural issues – for instance, the roles of [[Mythology|myth]], [[ritual]], [[diet (nutrition)|diet]], and [[Literature|texts]] in evoking and interpreting extraordinary experiences.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Political and legal", "Political"], "text": "Political anthropology concerns the structure of [[Form of government|political systems]], looked at from the basis of the structure of societies. Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more \"complex\" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena. The turn towards complex societies meant that political themes were taken up at two main levels. Firstly, anthropologists continued to study [[political organization]] and political phenomena that lay outside the state-regulated sphere (as in patron-client relations or tribal political organization). Secondly, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions). An anthropology of the state developed, and it is a most thriving field today. Geertz' comparative work on \"Negara\", the Balinese state, is an early, famous example.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Political and legal", "Legal"], "text": "Legal anthropology or anthropology of law specializes in \"the cross-cultural study of social ordering\". Earlier legal anthropological research often focused more narrowly on conflict management, crime, sanctions, or formal regulation. More recent applications include issues such as [[human rights]], [[legal pluralism]], and political uprisings.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Political and legal", "Public"], "text": "Public anthropology was created by Robert Borofsky, a professor at Hawaii Pacific University, to \"demonstrate the ability of anthropology and anthropologists to effectively address problems beyond the discipline – illuminating larger social issues of our times as well as encouraging broad, public conversations about them with the explicit goal of fostering social change\".", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Nature, science, and technology", "Cyborg"], "text": "Cyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within the [[American Anthropological Association]]'s annual meeting in 1993. The sub-group was very closely related to [[science and technology studies|STS]] and the [[Society for the Social Studies of Science]]. [[Donna Haraway]]'s 1985 ''[[Cyborg Manifesto]]'' could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term. Cyborg anthropology studies humankind and its relations with the technological systems it has built, specifically modern technological systems that have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Nature, science, and technology", "Digital"], "text": "Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digital-era technology, and extends to various areas where anthropology and [[technology]] intersect. It is sometimes grouped with [[cultural anthropology|sociocultural anthropology]], and sometimes considered part of [[material culture]]. The field is new, and thus has a variety of names with a variety of emphases. These include techno-anthropology, digital ethnography, cyberanthropology, and virtual anthropology.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Nature, science, and technology", "Ecological"], "text": "Ecological anthropology is defined as the \"study of [[cultural adaptation]] to environments\". The sub-field is also defined as, \"the study of relationships between a population of humans and their [[biophysical environment]]\". The focus of its research concerns \"how cultural [[beliefs]] and practices helped human populations adapt to their environments, and how their environments change across space and time. The contemporary perspective of environmental anthropology, and arguably at least the backdrop, if not the focus of most of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of today, is [[political ecology]]. Many characterize this new perspective as more informed with culture, politics and power, globalization, localized issues, century anthropology and more. The focus and data interpretation is often used for arguments for/against or creation of policy, and to prevent corporate exploitation and damage of land. Often, the observer has become an active part of the struggle either directly (organizing, participation) or indirectly (articles, documentaries, books, ethnographies). Such is the case with environmental justice advocate Melissa Checker and her relationship with the people of Hyde Park.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Historical"], "text": "Ethnohistory is the study of [[Ethnography|ethnographic]] cultures and [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] customs by examining [[History|historical records]]. It is also the study of the history of various [[ethnic group]] that may or may not exist today. Ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. Its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts. Practitioners recognize the utility of such source material as maps, music, paintings, photography, [[folklore]], oral tradition, site exploration, archaeological materials, museum collections, enduring customs, language, and place names.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Religion"], "text": "The anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures. Modern anthropology assumes that there is complete continuity between [[magical thinking]] and religion, and that every religion is a cultural product, created by the human [[community]] that worships it.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: sociocultural", "Urban"], "text": "Urban anthropology is concerned with issues of [[urbanization]], poverty, and [[neoliberalism]]. [[Ulf Hannerz]] quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were \"a notoriously [[agoraphobic]] lot, anti-urban by definition\". Various social processes in the [[Western World]] as well as in the \"[[Third World]]\" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of \"[[Anthropology#Focus on the \"other cultures\"|specialists in 'other cultures']]\" closer to their homes. There are two main approaches to urban anthropology: examining the types of cities or examining the social issues within the cities. These two methods are overlapping and dependent of each other. By defining different types of cities, one would use social factors as well as economic and political factors to categorize the cities. By directly looking at the different social issues, one would also be studying how they affect the dynamic of the city.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: archaeological and biological", "Anthrozoology"], "text": "[[Anthrozoology]] (also known as \"human–animal studies\") is the study of interaction between living things. It is an [[interdisciplinary]] field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, [[ethology]], medicine, [[psychology]], [[veterinary medicine]] and [[zoology]]. A major focus of anthrozoologic research is the quantifying of the positive effects of human-animal relationships on either party and the study of their interactions. It includes scholars from a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, biology, and philosophy.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: archaeological and biological", "Biocultural"], "text": "Biocultural anthropology is the [[scientific]] exploration of the relationships between [[human biology]] and culture. [[Biological anthropology|Physical anthropologists]] throughout the first half of the 20th century viewed this relationship from a [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial]] perspective; that is, from the assumption that [[Typology (anthropology)|typological]] human biological differences lead to cultural differences. After World War II the emphasis began to shift toward an effort to explore the role culture plays in shaping human biology.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: archaeological and biological", "Evolutionary"], "text": "Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the [[human evolution|evolution]] of [[human physiology]] and [[human behaviour]] and the relation between [[hominins]] and non-hominin [[primate]]. Evolutionary anthropology is based in [[natural science]] and [[social science]], combining the [[Human development (biology)|human development]] with socioeconomic factors. Evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution of humans, past and present. It is based on a [[scientific]] approach, and brings together fields such as [[archaeology]], [[behavioral ecology]], [[psychology]], [[primatology]], and [[genetics]]. It is a dynamic and [[interdisciplinary]] field, drawing on many lines of evidence to understand the human experience, past and present.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: archaeological and biological", "Forensic"], "text": "Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of [[physical anthropology]] and human [[osteology]] in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of [[decomposition]]. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable. The adjective \"forensic\" refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Key topics by field: archaeological and biological", "Palaeoanthropology"], "text": "Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of [[paleontology]] and [[physical anthropology]]. It is the study of ancient humans, as found in [[fossil]] [[Hominidae|hominid]] evidence such as [[Petrifaction|petrifacted]] bones and footprints. Genetics and morphology of specimens are crucially important to this field. Markers on specimens, such as [[enamel fracture]] and [[Tooth decay|dental decay]] on [[Tooth|teeth]], can also give insight into the behaviour and diet of past populations.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Organizations"], "text": "Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. The single largest organization of anthropologists is the [[American Anthropological Association]] (AAA), which was founded in 1903. Its members are anthropologists from around the globe. In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the [[European Association of Social Anthropologists]] (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe. The EASA seeks to advance the status of anthropology in Europe and to increase visibility of marginalized anthropological traditions and thereby contribute to the project of a global anthropology or world anthropology. Hundreds of other organizations exist in the various sub-fields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation or region, and many anthropologists work with collaborators in other disciplines, such as [[geology]], [[physics]], [[zoology]], [[paleontology]], [[anatomy]], [[music theory]], [[art history]], [[sociology]] and so on, belonging to professional societies in those disciplines as well.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Organizations", "List of major organizations"], "text": "(-) [[American Anthropological Association]] (-) [[American Ethnological Society]] (-) [[AIBR. Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red|Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red, AIBR]] (-) [[Moving Anthropology Student Network]] (-) [[Anthropological Society of London]] (-) [[Center for World Indigenous Studies]] (-) [[Ethnological Society of London]] (-) [[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] (-) [[Network of Concerned Anthropologists]] (-) [[N.N. Miklukho-Maklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology]] (-) [[Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland]] (-) [[Society for anthropological sciences]] (-) [[Society for Applied Anthropology]] (-) [[USC Center for Visual Anthropology]]", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Ethics"], "text": "As the field has matured it has debated and arrived at ethical principles aimed at protecting both the subjects of anthropological research as well as the researchers themselves, and professional societies have generated codes of ethics. Anthropologists, like other researchers (especially historians and scientists engaged in field research), have over time assisted state policies and projects, especially colonialism. Some commentators have contended: (-) That the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derives some of its key notions from it, consciously or not. (See, for example, Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004). (-) That ethnographic work is often [[Ahistoricism|ahistorical]], writing about people as if they were \"out of time\" in an \"ethnographic present\" (Johannes Fabian, ''Time and Its Other''). (-) In his article \"The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and Its Consequence,\" [[Herbert S. Lewis]] critiqued older anthropological works that presented other cultures as if they were strange and unusual. While the findings of those researchers should not be discarded, the field should learn from its mistakes.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Ethics", "Cultural relativism"], "text": "As part of their quest for [[scientific objectivity]], present-day anthropologists typically urge [[cultural relativism]], which has an influence on all the sub-fields of anthropology. This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by another's values or viewpoints, but be examined dispassionately on their own terms. There should be no notions, in good anthropology, of one culture being better or worse than another culture. Ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting [[genocide]], [[infanticide]], [[racism]], [[sexism]], [[mutilation]] (including [[circumcision]] and [[subincision]]), and [[torture]]. Topics like racism, slavery, and human sacrifice attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies, to genes, to [[acculturation]], to [[colonialism]], have been proposed to explain their origins and continued recurrences. To illustrate the depth of an anthropological approach, one can take just one of these topics, such as \"racism\" and find thousands of anthropological references, stretching across all the major and minor sub-fields.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Ethics", "Military involvement"], "text": "Anthropologists' involvement with the U.S. government, in particular, has caused bitter controversy within the discipline. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists. But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the [[Axis Powers]] (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan). Many served in the armed forces, while others worked in intelligence (for example, [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the [[Office of War Information]]). At the same time, [[David Price (anthropologist)|David H. Price]]'s work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies. Attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little. Many anthropologists (students and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement. Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the [[American Anthropological Association]] (AAA). Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the [[State (polity)|state]]. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The [[Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth]] (ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous. The \"Principles of Professional Responsibility\" issued by the American Anthropological Association and amended through November 1986 stated that \"in relation with their own government and with host governments ... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given.\" The current \"Principles of Professional Responsibility\" does not make explicit mention of ethics surrounding state interactions. Anthropologists, along with other social scientists, are working with the US military as part of the US Army's strategy in Afghanistan. ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]'' reports that \"Counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs\" [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|in Afghanistan]], under the ''[[Human Terrain System]]'' (HTS) program; in addition, HTS teams are working with the [[US military in Iraq]]. In 2009, the American Anthropological Association's Commission on the Engagement of Anthropology with the US Security and Intelligence Communities released its final report concluding, in part, that, \"When ethnographic investigation is determined by military missions, not subject to external review, where data collection occurs in the context of war, integrated into the goals of counterinsurgency, and in a potentially coercive environment – all characteristic factors of the HTS concept and its application – it can no longer be considered a legitimate professional exercise of anthropology. In summary, while we stress that constructive engagement between anthropology and the military is possible, CEAUSSIC suggests that the AAA emphasize the incompatibility of HTS with disciplinary ethics and practice for job seekers and that it further recognize the problem of allowing HTS to define the meaning of \"anthropology\" within DoD.\"", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Post–World War II developments"], "text": "Before [[WWII]] British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. After the war, enough British and American anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as 'sociocultural' anthropology.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Post–World War II developments", "Basic trends"], "text": "There are several characteristics that tend to unite anthropological work. One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more [[Holism|holistic]] account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical. The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a particular place, problem or phenomenon in detail, using a variety of methods, over a more extensive period than normal in many parts of academia. In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological. Biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation and in the possibility of human universals (behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures). They use many different methods of study, but modern population [[genetics]], [[participant observation]] and other techniques often take anthropologists \"into the field,\" which means traveling to a community in its own setting, to do something called \"fieldwork.\" On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs. Along with dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material, such as the [[Paleolithic]] and the [[Neolithic]], of particular use in archaeology. Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as [[Olduwan]] or [[Mousterian]] or [[Levallois technique|Levalloisian]] help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past. Anthropologists and geographers share approaches to [[culture regions]] as well, since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making comparisons across cultural traditions (time-based) and cultural regions (space-based), anthropologists have developed various kinds of [[comparative method]], a central part of their science.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": ["Post–World War II developments", "Commonalities between fields"], "text": "Because anthropology developed from so many different enterprises (see [[History of anthropology]]), including but not limited to [[Fossil collecting|fossil-hunting]], [[Exploration|exploring]], documentary film-making, [[paleontology]], [[primatology]], antiquity dealings and curatorship, [[philology]], [[etymology]], [[genetics]], regional analysis, [[ethnology]], history, [[philosophy]], and [[religious studies]], it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made. Some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of \"other cultures\", both in terms of time (past societies) and space (non-European/non-Western societies). For example, the classic of [[urban anthropology]], [[Ulf Hannerz]] in the introduction to his seminal ''Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology'' mentions that the \"[[Third World]]\" had habitually received most of attention; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in \"other cultures\" looked for them far away and started to look \"across the tracks\" only in late 1960s. Now there exist many works focusing on peoples and topics very close to the author's \"home\". It is also argued that other fields of study, like History and [[Sociology]], on the contrary focus disproportionately on the West. In France, the study of Western societies has been traditionally left to [[sociologist]], but this is increasingly changing, starting in the 1970s from scholars like Isac Chiva and journals like ''[[Terrain (journal)|Terrain]]'' (\"fieldwork\"), and developing with the center founded by [[Marc Augé]] (''[[École des hautes études en sciences sociales|Le Centre d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains]]'', the Anthropological Research Center of Contemporary Societies). Since the 1980s it has become common for social and cultural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the North Atlantic region, frequently examining the connections between locations rather than limiting research to a single locale. There has also been a related shift toward broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary people; increasingly, research is set in settings such as scientific laboratories, social movements, governmental and nongovernmental organizations and businesses.", "id": "569", "title": "Anthropology", "categories": ["Anthropology"], "seealso": ["Christian anthropology", "Culture", "Memetics", "Human ethology", "Origins of society", "Qualitative research", "Engaged theory", "List of anthropologists", "Intangible cultural heritage", "Prehistoric medicine", "Ethnobiology", "Outline of anthropology", "Anthropological science fiction", "Human Relations Area Files", "Philosophical anthropology", "Circumscription theory", "List of indigenous peoples"]}
+{"headers": [], "text": "'''Agricultural science''' is a broad multidisciplinary field of [[biology]] that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and [[social science]] that are used in the practice and understanding of [[agriculture]]. Professionals of the agricultural science are called agricultural scientists or [[agriculturists]].", "id": "572", "title": "Agricultural science", "categories": ["Agricultural science"], "seealso": ["International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development", "Agroecology", "National FFA Organization", "Agriculture ministry", "Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences", "University of Agricultural Sciences", "Agricultural Research Council", "History of agricultural science", "American Society of Agronomy", "International Food Policy Research Institute", "List of agriculture topics", "Genomics of domestication", "Agricultural sciences basic topics", "Research Institute of Crop Production"]}
+{"headers": ["History"], "text": "In the 18th century, [[Johann Friedrich Mayer (agriculturist)|Johann Friedrich Mayer]] conducted experiments on the use of [[gypsum]] (hydrated [[calcium sulphate]]) as a fertilizer. In 1843, [[John Lawes]] and [[Joseph Henry Gilbert]] began a set of long-term field experiments at [[Rothamsted Research Station]] in England, some of which are still running as of 2018. In the United States, a scientific revolution in agriculture began with the [[Hatch Act of 1887]], which used the term \"agricultural science\". The Hatch Act was driven by farmers' interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer. The [[Smith-Hughes Act]] of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots, but the scientific foundation had been built. After 1906, public expenditures on agricultural research in the US exceeded private expenditures for the next 44 years.", "id": "572", "title": "Agricultural science", "categories": ["Agricultural science"], "seealso": ["International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development", "Agroecology", "National FFA Organization", "Agriculture ministry", "Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences", "University of Agricultural Sciences", "Agricultural Research Council", "History of agricultural science", "American Society of Agronomy", "International Food Policy Research Institute", "List of agriculture topics", "Genomics of domestication", "Agricultural sciences basic topics", "Research Institute of Crop Production"]}
+{"headers": ["Prominent agricultural scientists"], "text": "(-) [[Robert Bakewell (farmer)|Robert Bakewell]] (-) [[Norman Borlaug]] (-) [[Luther Burbank]] (-) [[George Washington Carver]] (-) [[Carl Henry Clerk]] (-) [[George C. Clerk]] (-) [[René Dumont]] (-) [[Sir Albert Howard]] (-) [[Kailas Nath Kaul]] (-) [[Justus von Liebig]] (-) [[Jay Lush]] (-) [[Gregor Mendel]] (-) [[Louis Pasteur]] (-) [[M. S. Swaminathan]] (-) [[Jethro Tull (agriculturist)|Jethro Tull]] (-) [[Artturi Ilmari Virtanen]] (-) [[Sewall Wright]] (-) [[Wilbur Olin Atwater]]", "id": "572", "title": "Agricultural science", "categories": ["Agricultural science"], "seealso": ["International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development", "Agroecology", "National FFA Organization", "Agriculture ministry", "Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences", "University of Agricultural Sciences", "Agricultural Research Council", "History of agricultural science", "American Society of Agronomy", "International Food Policy Research Institute", "List of agriculture topics", "Genomics of domestication", "Agricultural sciences basic topics", "Research Institute of Crop Production"]}
+{"headers": ["Fields or related disciplines"], "text": "(-) [[Agricultural biotechnology]] (-) [[Agricultural chemistry]] (-) [[Agricultural diversification]] (-) [[Agricultural education]] (-) [[Agricultural economics]] (-) [[Agricultural engineering]] (-) [[Agricultural geography]] (-) [[Agricultural philosophy]] (-) [[Agricultural marketing]] (-) [[Agricultural soil science]] (-) [[Agroecology]] (-) [[Agrophysics]] (-) [[Animal science]] (-) [[Animal breeding]] (-) [[Animal husbandry]] (-) [[Animal nutrition]] (-) [[Farm management]] (-) [[Agronomy]] (-) [[Botany]] (-) [[Theoretical production ecology]] (-) [[Horticulture]] (-) [[Plant breeding]] (-) [[fertilizer|Plant fertilization]] (-) [[Aquaculture]] (-) [[Biological engineering]] (-) [[Genetic engineering]] (-) [[Nematology]] (-) [[Microbiology]] (-) [[Plant pathology]] (-) [[Range management]] (-) [[Environmental science]] (-) [[Entomology]] (-) [[Food science]] (-) [[Human nutrition]] (-) [[Irrigation]] and [[water management]] (-) [[Soil science]] (-) [[Agrology]] (-) [[Waste management]] (-) [[Weed]] science (-) [[Agricultural biotechnology]]", "id": "572", "title": "Agricultural science", "categories": ["Agricultural science"], "seealso": ["International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development", "Agroecology", "National FFA Organization", "Agriculture ministry", "Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences", "University of Agricultural Sciences", "Agricultural Research Council", "History of agricultural science", "American Society of Agronomy", "International Food Policy Research Institute", "List of agriculture topics", "Genomics of domestication", "Agricultural sciences basic topics", "Research Institute of Crop Production"]}
+{"headers": ["Scope"], "text": "Agriculture, agricultural science, and agronomy are often confused. However, they cover different concepts: (-) Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use. Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research. (-) [[Agronomy]] is [[research and development]] related to studying and improving plant-based crops.", "id": "572", "title": "Agricultural science", "categories": ["Agricultural science"], "seealso": ["International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development", "Agroecology", "National FFA Organization", "Agriculture ministry", "Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences", "University of Agricultural Sciences", "Agricultural Research Council", "History of agricultural science", "American Society of Agronomy", "International Food Policy Research Institute", "List of agriculture topics", "Genomics of domestication", "Agricultural sciences basic topics", "Research Institute of Crop Production"]}
+{"headers": ["Research topics"], "text": "Agricultural sciences include research and development on: (-) Improving [[agricultural productivity]] in terms of quantity and quality (e.g., selection of [[drought]]-resistant crops and animals, development of new [[pesticide]], yield-sensing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, in-vitro [[cell culture]] techniques) (-) Minimizing the effects of pests ([[weed]], [[insect]], [[pathogen]], [[mollusk]], [[nematode]]) on crop or animal production systems. (-) Transformation of primary products into end-consumer products (e.g., production, preservation, and packaging of [[dairy product]]) (-) Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects (e.g., [[soil retrogression and degradation|soil degradation]], [[waste management]], [[bioremediation]]) (-) [[Theoretical production ecology]], relating to crop production modeling (-) Traditional agricultural systems, sometimes termed [[subsistence agriculture]], which feed most of the poorest people in the world. These systems are of interest as they sometimes retain a level of integration with natural ecological systems greater than that of [[industrial agriculture]], which may be more sustainable than some modern agricultural systems. (-) Food production and demand on a global basis, with special attention paid to the major producers, such as China, India, Brazil, the US and the EU. (-) Various sciences relating to agricultural resources and the environment (e.g. soil science, agroclimatology); biology of agricultural crops and animals (e.g. crop science, animal science and their included sciences, e.g. ruminant nutrition, farm animal welfare); such fields as agricultural economics and rural sociology; various disciplines encompassed in [[agricultural engineering]].", "id": "572", "title": "Agricultural science", "categories": ["Agricultural science"], "seealso": ["International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development", "Agroecology", "National FFA Organization", "Agriculture ministry", "Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences", "University of Agricultural Sciences", "Agricultural Research Council", "History of agricultural science", "American Society of Agronomy", "International Food Policy Research Institute", "List of agriculture topics", "Genomics of domestication", "Agricultural sciences basic topics", "Research Institute of Crop Production"]}
+{"headers": [], "text": "'''Alchemy''' (from [[Arabic]]: ''al-kīmiyā''; from [[Ancient Greek]]: ''khumeía'') is an ancient branch of [[natural philosophy]], a [[philosophical]] and [[protoscience|protoscientific]] tradition practiced throughout [[Europe]], [[Africa]], [[China]] and throughout [[Asia]], observable in [[Chinese alchemy|Chinese]] text from around 73–49 BCE and [[Egypt (Roman province)|Greco-Roman Egypt]] in the first few centuries CE. Alchemists attempted to purify, mature, and perfect certain materials. Common aims were [[chrysopoeia]], the [[Transmutation of elements|transmutation]] of \"[[base metal]]\" (e.g., [[lead]]) into \"[[noble metal]]\" (particularly [[gold]]); the creation of an [[Elixir of life|elixir of immortality]]; the creation of [[Panacea (medicine)|panaceas]] able to cure any disease; and the development of an [[alkahest]], a universal [[solvent]]. The perfection of the [[human body]] and [[soul]] was thought to permit or result from the [[Magnum opus (alchemy)|alchemical ''magnum opus'']] and, in the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] and [[Western mystery tradition]], the achievement of [[gnosis]]. In Europe, the creation of a [[philosopher's stone]] was variously connected with all of these projects. In [[English language|English]], the term is often limited to descriptions of European alchemy, but similar practices existed in the [[Chinese alchemy|Far East]], the [[Rasayana|Indian subcontinent]], and the [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|Muslim world]]. In Europe, following the [[Renaissance of the 12th century|12th-century Renaissance]] produced by the [[Latin translations of the 12th century|translation]] of [[Science in the medieval Islamic world|Medieval Islamic works on science]] and the [[Recovery of Aristotle|rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy]], [[List of alchemists|alchemists]] played a significant role in [[Early modern era|early modern]] science (particularly [[History of chemistry|chemistry]] and [[History of medicine|medicine]]). Islamic and European alchemists developed a structure of basic [[laboratory techniques]], theory, terminology, and [[experimental method]], some of which are still in use today. However, they continued [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]]'s belief in [[four elements]] and guarded their work in secrecy including [[History of cryptography|cyphers]] and cryptic symbolism. Their work was guided by [[Hermeticism|Hermetic principles]] related to [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]], [[mythology]], and [[religion]]. Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its [[exoteric]] practical applications and its [[esoteric]] spiritual aspects, despite criticisms by scholars such as [[Eric John Holmyard|Holmyard]] and [[Marie-Louise von Franz|von Franz]] that they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by [[History of the physical sciences|historians of the physical sciences]] who examine the subject in terms of [[History of chemistry|early chemistry]], [[History of medicine|medicine]], and [[charlatanism]], and the [[philosophical]] and [[Religion|religious]] contexts in which these events occurred. The latter interests historians of [[esotericism]], [[History of psychology|psychologists]], and some philosophers and [[Spirituality|spiritualists]]. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Despite this split, which von Franz believes has existed since the Western traditions' origin in a mix of [[Greek philosophy]] that was mixed with [[Ancient Egyptian technology|Egyptian]] and [[Mesopotamian science|Mesopotamian technology]], numerous sources have stressed an integration of esoteric and exoteric approaches to alchemy as far back as [[Pseudo-Democritus]]'s first-century AD ''On Physical and Mystical Matters'' (). Although alchemy is popularly associated with magic, historian [[Lawrence M. Principe]] argues that recent historical research has revealed that medieval and early modern alchemy embraced a much more diverse set of ideas, goals, techniques, and practices:", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": [], "text": "Most readers probably are aware of several common claims about alchemy—for example, ... that it is akin to magic, or that its practice then or now is essentially deceptive. These ideas about alchemy emerged during the eighteenth century or after. While each of them might have limited validity within a narrow context, none of them is an accurate depiction of alchemy in general.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The word alchemy comes from [[Old French]] ''alquemie'', ''alkimie'', used in [[Medieval Latin]] as . This name was itself brought from the [[Arabic]] word ''al-kīmiyā'' ( or ) composed of two parts: the [[Late Greek]] term ''khēmeía'' (χημεία), also spelled ''khumeia'' (χυμεία) and ''khēmía'' (χημία) - see below, and the Arabic [[definite article]] ''[[al-]]'' (), meaning 'The'. Together this association can be interpreted as 'the process of [[Magnum opus (alchemy)|transmutation]] by which to fuse or reunite with the divine or original form'. Several etymologies have been proposed for the Greek term. The first was proposed by Zosimos of Panopolis (3rd–4th centuries), who derived it from the name of a book, the ''Khemeu.'' Hermanm Diels argued in 1914 that it rather derived from χύμα, used to describe metallic objects formed by casting. Others trace its roots to the [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] name ''kēme'' (hieroglyphic 𓆎𓅓𓏏𓊖 ''khmi'' ), meaning 'black earth', which refers to the fertile and [[wikt:auriferous|auriferous]] soil of the Nile valley, as opposed to red desert sand. According to the Egyptologist [[Wallis Budge]], the Arabic word ''al-kīmiyaʾ'' actually means \"the Egyptian [science]\", borrowing from the [[Coptic language|Coptic]] word for \"Egypt\", ''kēme'' (or its equivalent in the Mediaeval [[Bohairic]] dialect of Coptic, ''khēme''). This Coptic word derives from [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]] ''kmỉ'', itself from ancient [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] ''kmt''. The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour \"black\" (Egypt was the \"Black Land\", by contrast with the \"Red Land\", the surrounding desert); so this etymology could also explain the nickname \"Egyptian black arts\".", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["History"], "text": "Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and \"genetic\" relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be mostly independent, at least in their earlier stages: [[Chinese alchemy]], centered in China and [[Rasayana|Indian alchemy]], centered on the [[Indian subcontinent]]; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] and whose center has shifted over the millennia from [[Egypt (Roman province)|Greco-Roman Egypt]] to the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]], and finally [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]]. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to [[Taoism]] and Indian alchemy with the [[Indian religions|Dharmic faiths]]. In contrast, Western alchemy developed its philosophical system mostly independent of but influenced by various [[Western religion]]. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Hellenistic Egypt"], "text": "The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient and [[Hellenistic Egypt]], where the city of [[Alexandria]] was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. Following the work of André-Jean Festugière, modern scholars see alchemical practice in the Roman Empire as originating from the Egyptian goldsmith's art, Greek philosophy and different religious traditions. Tracing the origins of the alchemical art in Egypt is complicated by the [[pseudepigraphic]] nature of texts from the Greek alchemical corpus. The treatises of [[Zosimos of Panopolis]], the earliest historically attested author ([[Floruit|fl.]] c. 300 CE), can however help in situating the other authors. Zosimus based his work on that of older alchemical authors, such as [[Mary the Jewess]], [[Pseudo-Democritus]], and [[Agathodaemon (alchemist)|Agathodaimon]], but very little is known about any of these authors. The most complete of their works, The ''Four Books'' of [[Pseudo-Democritus]], were probably written in the first century AD. Recent scholarship tend to emphasizes the testimony of Zosimus, who traced the alchemical arts back to Egyptian metallurgical and ceremonial practices. It has also been argued that early alchemical writers borrowed the vocabulary of Greek philosophical schools but did not implement any of its doctrines in a systematic way. Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in the ''Final Abstinence'' (also known as the \"Final Count\"). Zosimos explains that the ancient practice of \"tinctures\" (the technical Greek name for the alchemical arts) had been taken over by certain \"demons\" who taught the art only to those who offered them sacrifices. Since Zosimos also called the demons \"gardians of places\" (οἱ κατὰ τόπον ἔφοροι) and those who offered them sacrifices \"priests\" (ἱερέα), it is fairly clear that he was referring to the gods of Egypt and their priests. While critical of the kind alchemy he associated with the Egyptian priests and their followers, Zosimos nonetheless saw the tradition's recent past as rooted in the rites of the Egyptian temples. '''Mythology''' – Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to [[Ancient Egypt|Pharaonic Egypt]] where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion. Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation. These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, [[Isis]], [[Osiris]], [[Jason]], and many others. The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is [[Hermes Trismegistus]] (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the [[deity|god]] [[Thoth]] and his Greek counterpart [[Hermes]]. Hermes and his [[caduceus]] or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to [[Clement of Alexandria]], he wrote what were called the \"forty-two books of Hermes\", covering all fields of knowledge. The ''[[Hermetica]]'' of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the [[hermeticism|hermetic philosophy]] by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Hellenistic Egypt"], "text": "'''Technology''' – The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of [[metallurgy]], extending back to 3500 BC. Many writings were lost when the [[Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Diocletian]] ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (AD 292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the [[Stockholm papyrus]] and the [[Leyden papyrus X]]. Dating from AD 250–300, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver. These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of [[Bolus of Mendes]] (or [[Pseudo-Democritus]]), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the [[classical elements]]. Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art. '''Philosophy''' – Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of [[Pythagoreanism]], [[Platonism]], [[Stoicism]] and [[Gnosticism]] which formed the origin of alchemy's character. An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by [[Empedocles]] and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: [[Earth (classical element)|earth]], [[Air (classical element)|air]], [[Water (classical element)|water]], and [[Fire (classical element)|fire]]. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; \"...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form.\" Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging [[Christianity]]. [[Lactantius]] believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. [[Augustine of Hippo|St Augustine]] later affirmed this in the 4th & 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry. Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period. Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as [[Moses of Alexandria|Moses]], Isis, [[Cleopatra the Alchemist|Cleopatra]], [[Pseudo-Democritus|Democritus]], and [[Ostanes]]. Others authors such as Komarios, and [[Chymes]], we only know through fragments of text. After AD 400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors. By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline. It was at that time that [[Khalid Ibn Yazid]] sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Byzantium"], "text": "Greek alchemy is preserved in medieval Greek (Byzantine) manuscripts, and yet historians have only relatively recently begun to pay attention to the study and development of Greek alchemy in the Byzantine period.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "India"], "text": "The 2nd millennium BC text [[Vedas]] describe a connection between eternal life and gold. A considerable knowledge of metallurgy has been exhibited in a third-century CE text called [[Arthashastra]] which provides ingredients of explosives (Agniyoga) and salts extracted from fertile soils and plant remains (Yavakshara) such as saltpetre/[[Niter|nitre]], perfume making (different qualities of perfumes are mentioned), granulated (refined) Sugar. [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. According to some scholars Greek alchemy may have influenced Indian alchemy but there are no hard evidences to back this claim. The 11th-century [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|Persian chemist]] and [[Medicine in medieval Islam|physician]] [[Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī]], who visited Gujarat as part of the court of [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], reported that they The goals of alchemy in India included the creation of a divine body (Sanskrit ''divya-deham'') and immortality while still embodied (Sanskrit ''jīvan-mukti''). Sanskrit alchemical texts include much material on the manipulation of mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with the semen of the god Śiva and the menstrual blood of the goddess Devī. Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins in the [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]] tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of [[Matsyendranath]]. Other early writings are found in the Jaina medical treatise ''Kalyāṇakārakam'' of Ugrāditya, written in South India in the early 9th century. Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were [[Nagarjuna (metallurgist)|Nāgārjuna Siddha]] and Nityanātha Siddha. Nāgārjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, ''Rasendramangalam'', is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityanātha Siddha wrote ''Rasaratnākara'', also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, ''rasa'' translates to \"mercury\", and Nāgārjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into gold. Scholarship on Indian alchemy is in the publication of ''The Alchemical Body'' by David Gordon White. A modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has been written by White. The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in G. Jan Meulenbeld's ''History of Indian Medical Literature''. The discussion of these works in HIML gives a summary of the contents of each work, their special features, and where possible the evidence concerning their dating. Chapter 13 of HIML, ''Various works on rasaśāstra and ratnaśāstra'' (or ''Various works on alchemy and gems'') gives brief details of a further 655 (six hundred and fifty-five) treatises. In some cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorship of these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles. A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The content of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet (2014) been adequately integrated into the wider general history of alchemy.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Islamic world"], "text": "After [[the Fall of the Roman Empire]], the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about [[Islam]] alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations. The word ''alchemy'' itself was derived from the Arabic word ''al-kīmiyā'' (الكيمياء). The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries through [[Syriac language|Syriac]] translations and scholarship. In the late ninth and early tenth centuries, the Arabic works attributed to [[Jābir ibn Hayyān]] (Latinized as \"Geber\" or \"Geberus\") introduced a new approach to alchemy. [[Paul Kraus (Arabist)|Paul Kraus]], who wrote the standard reference work on Jabir, put it as follows: Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was ''[[Takwin]]'', the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of ''hotness'', ''coldness'', ''dryness'', and ''moistness''. According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. By this reasoning, the search for the [[philosopher's stone]] was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate [[numerology]] whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five [[classical element]] ([[aether (classical element)|aether]], [[Air (classical element)|air]], [[Earth (classical element)|earth]], [[Fire (classical element)|fire]], and [[Water (classical element)|water]]) in addition to two [[chemical element]] representing the metals: [[Sulfur|sulphur]], \"the stone which burns\", which characterized the principle of combustibility, and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]], which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and [[Salt (chemistry)|salt]] giving solidity. The [[atomic theory]] of [[corpuscularianism]], where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir. From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including [[Al-Kindi|Alkindus]], [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], [[Avicenna]] and [[Ibn Khaldun]]. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the [[Philosopher's stone|transmutation of metals]].", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "East Asia"], "text": "Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the [[Elixir of life|Grand Elixir of Immortality]] sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the [[Panacea (medicine)|universal panacea]]; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears. [[Black powder]] may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As previously stated above, [[China|Chinese]] alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a [[potion]] for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts and used in [[fireworks]] in China by the 10th century, it was used in [[cannon]] by 1290. From China, the use of [[gunpowder]] spread to Japan, the [[Mongol]], the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to [[Taoist]] forms of [[traditional Chinese medicine]], such as [[Acupuncture]] and [[Moxibustion]]. In the early [[Song dynasty]], followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest [[cinnabar|mercuric sulfide]], which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan, mastering of the [[qi]], etc.)", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Medieval Europe"], "text": "The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of [[Robert of Chester]]'s translation of the Arabic ''[[The Book of the Composition of Alchemy|Book of the Composition of Alchemy]]''. Although European craftsmen and technicians pre-existed, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy (though here still referring to the [[philosophers' stone|elixir]] rather than to the art itself) was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century [[Toledo, Spain]], through contributors like [[Gerard of Cremona]] and [[Adelard of Bath]]. Translations of the time included the [[Turba Philosophorum]], and the works of [[Avicenna]] and al-Razi. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples. Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century [[Anselm of Canterbury|St Anselm]] put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, [[Peter Abelard]] followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century, [[Robert Grosseteste]] used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking. Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century, [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[Roger Bacon]] were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms. Albertus Magnus, a [[Dominican Order|Dominican friar]], is known to have written works such as the ''Book of Minerals'' where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist. Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student [[Thomas Aquinas]].", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Medieval Europe"], "text": "Roger Bacon, a [[Franciscan Order|Franciscan friar]] who wrote on a wide variety of topics including [[optics]], [[comparative linguistics]], and medicine, composed his ''[[Opus Majus|Great Work]]'' () for as part of a project towards rebuilding the [[medieval university]] curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to [[soteriology]] and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy. Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical, however, confirmed the theoretical thought experiment, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine. In later European legend, however, Bacon became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a [[brazen head]] capable of answering its owner's questions. Soon after Bacon, the influential work of [[Pseudo-Geber]] (sometimes identified as [[Paul of Taranto]]) appeared. His ''Summa Perfectionis'' remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described. By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the [[soul|human soul]]). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded [[jargon]] set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made [[observation]] and [[theory|theories]] about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Medieval Europe"], "text": "In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves. [[Dante]], [[Piers Plowman]], and [[Chaucer]] all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. [[Pope John XXII]]'s 1317 edict, ''[[Spondent quas non-exhibent]]'' forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists. In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of [[Petrus Bonus]], [[John of Rupescissa]], and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova. [[Nicolas Flamel]] is a well-known alchemist, but a good example of [[pseudepigraphy]], the practice of giving your works the name of someone else, usually more famous. Although the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612. Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the [[philosopher's stone]]. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone. Through the [[late Middle Ages|14th and 15th centuries]], alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone. [[Bernard Trevisan]] and [[George Ripley (alchemist)|George Ripley]] made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and [[symbol]] led to wide variations in interpretation of the art.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Renaissance and early modern Europe"], "text": "During the [[Renaissance]], Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed. In the late 15th century, [[Marsilo Ficino]] translated the [[Corpus Hermeticum]] and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. [[Renaissance Humanism]] and [[Renaissance Neoplatonism]] guided alchemists away from [[physics]] to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel. Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala. A key figure in this development was German [[Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa]] (1486–1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his ''De Occulta Philosophia'', he attempted to merge [[Kabbalah]], Hermeticism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy. Philippus Aureolus [[Paracelsus]], (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from [[chrysopoeia]]. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, \"Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines.\" His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. Paracelsian practical alchemy, especially herbal medicine and plant remedies has since been named [[spagyric]] (a synonym for alchemy from the Greek words meaning ''to separate'' and ''to join together'', based on the Latin alchemic maxim: ''solve et coagula''). [[Iatrochemistry]] also refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus. [[John Dee]] (13 July 1527 – December, 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Although better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as [[astrologer]], cryptographer, and consultant to [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]], Dee's alchemical ''Monas Hieroglyphica'', written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom ''As above so below''. During the 17th century, a short-lived \"supernatural\" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the [[Royal Society]]: [[Robert Boyle]] and [[Elias Ashmole]]. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to summon and communicate with angels.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Renaissance and early modern Europe"], "text": "Entrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones. [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor]], in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate [[Edward Kelley]]. [[James IV of Scotland|King James IV of Scotland]], [[Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]], [[Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]], [[Augustus, Elector of Saxony]], [[Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn]], and [[Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel]] all contracted alchemists. John's son [[Arthur Dee]] worked as a court physician to [[Michael I of Russia]] and [[Charles I of England]] but also compiled the alchemical book ''[[Fasciculus Chemicus]]''. Although most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. ''Betrüger'' would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as [[Michael Maier]] and [[Heinrich Khunrath]] wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the [[con artist]]. False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud. The terms \"chemia\" and \"alchemia\" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, [[Tycho Brahe]] (1546–1601), an alchemist better known for his [[astronomical]] and [[astrological]] investigations, had a laboratory built at his [[Uraniborg]] observatory/research institute. [[Michał Sędziwój|Michael Sendivogius]] (''Michał Sędziwój'', 1566–1636), a [[Poland|Polish]] alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling [[oxygen]] in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to [[Cornelius Drebbel]] who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. [[Isaac Newton]] devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see [[Isaac Newton's occult studies]]) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include [[Robert Boyle]], and [[Jan Baptist van Helmont]]. Their Hermeticism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Later modern period"], "text": "The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for \"ancient wisdom\". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its peak in the 18th century. As late as 1781 [[James Price (chemist)|James Price]] claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, practices, and purposes: \"Scholastic and anti-Aristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Paracelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and more—plus virtually every combination and compromise thereof.\" [[Robert Boyle]] (1627–1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier]] and [[John Dalton]]. Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction began to be drawn for the first time between \"alchemy\" and \"chemistry\". By the 1740s, \"alchemy\" was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud. In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure to which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the 18th-century scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to divorce and separate the \"new\" chemistry from the \"old\" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries. During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science. The esoteric or occultist school, which arose during the 19th century, held (and continues to hold) the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical tradition or protoscience. This interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumination, as opposed to the physical manipulation of apparatus and chemicals, and claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Later modern period"], "text": "In the 19th-century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were [[Mary Anne Atwood]] and [[Ethan A. Hitchcock (general)|Ethan Allen Hitchcock]], who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: \"No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy.\" Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including [[Eliphas Levi]], [[Arthur Edward Waite]], and [[Rudolf Steiner]]. Hitchcock, in his ''Remarks Upon Alchymists'' (1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron [[Carl Reichenbach]], published his studies on [[Odic force]], a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion. In 1946, [[Louis Cattiaux]] published the Message Retrouvé, a work that was at once philosophical, mystical and highly influenced by alchemy. In his lineage, many researchers, including Emmanuel and Charles d'Hooghvorst, are updating alchemical studies in France and Belgium.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Women in alchemy"], "text": "Several women appear in the earliest history of alchemy. [[Michael Maier]] names [[Mary the Jewess]], [[Cleopatra the Alchemist]], [[Medera]], and [[Paphnutia the Virgin|Taphnutia]] as the four women who knew how to make the philosopher's stone. Zosimos' sister Theosebia (later known as Euthica the Arab) and [[Isis the Prophetess]] also played a role in early alchemical texts. The first alchemist whose name we know is said to have been Mary the Jewess (c. 200 A.D.). Early sources claim that Mary (or Maria) devised a number of improvements to alchemical equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry. Her best known advances were in heating and distillation processes. The laboratory water-bath, known eponymously (especially in France) as the [[bain-marie]], is said to have been invented or at least improved by her. Essentially a double-boiler, it was (and is) used in chemistry for processes that require gentle heating. The tribikos (a modified distillation apparatus) and the kerotakis (a more intricate apparatus used especially for sublimations) are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her. Although we have no writing from Mary herself, she is known from the early-fourth-century writings of [[Zosimos of Panopolis]]. Due to the proliferation of [[pseudepigrapha]] and anonymous works, it is difficult to know which of the alchemists were actually women. After the Greco-Roman period, women's names appear less frequently in the alchemical literature. Women vacate the history of alchemy during the medieval and renaissance periods, aside from the fictitious account of [[Perenelle Flamel]]. [[Mary Anne Atwood]]'s ''A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery'' (1850) marks their return during the nineteenth-century occult revival.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Modern historical research"], "text": "The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study. As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and [[philosophy]], the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, [[Kabbalah|kabbalism]], [[spiritualism]], [[Rosicrucianism]], and other mystic movements. Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at [[Indiana University]], the [[University of Exeter]] Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the [[European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism]] (ESSWE), and the [[University of Amsterdam]]'s Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the [[Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica]] in Amsterdam. A recipe found in a mid-19th-century kabbalah based book features step by step instructions on turning copper into gold. The author attributed this recipe to an ancient manuscript he located. Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include '[[Ambix]]', published by the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, and '[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]', published by The History of Science Society.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["Core concepts"], "text": "Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from [[Neoplatonism]] and earlier Greek [[cosmology]]. As such, the [[Classical elements]] appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven [[Classical planets]] and the corresponding seven [[metals of antiquity]]. Similarly, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of [[prima materia]] and [[anima mundi]] are central to the theory of the [[philosopher's stone]].", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["Core concepts", "Magnum opus"], "text": "The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors. (-) ''[[nigredo]]'', a blackening or melanosis (-) ''[[Albedo (alchemy)|albedo]]'', a whitening or leucosis (-) ''[[citrinitas]]'', a yellowing or xanthosis (-) ''[[rubedo]]'', a reddening, purpling, or iosis", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["Modern alchemy"], "text": "Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry; the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations. Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science [[Lawrence M. Principe]] and [[William R. Newman]], have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts. At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as George Calian and [[Anna Marie Roos]], who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts. Today new interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from [[New Age]] or radical environmentalism movements. Groups like the [[Rosicrucianism|Rosicrucians]] and [[Freemasonry|Freemasons]] have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, \"occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances\", which has contributed to a merger of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] and alchemy in popular thought.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["Modern alchemy", "Modern esoteric interpretations of historical texts"], "text": "In the eyes of a variety of modern [[Esotericism|esoteric]] and [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn|Neo-Hermeticist]] practitioners, alchemy is fundamentally spiritual. In this interpretation, transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection. According to this view, early alchemists such as [[Zosimos of Panopolis]] (c. AD 300) highlighted the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul. This approach is held to have continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes are supposed to have been used as metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were like a veil, hiding their true [[spiritual philosophy]]. In the Neo-Hermeticist interpretation, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea are held to symbolize evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are held to have been written according to this view, the cryptic [[alchemical symbol]], diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works are supposed to contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; which must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning. In his 1766 ''Alchemical Catechism'', Théodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usage of the metals was merely symbolic:", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["Modern alchemy", "Traditional medicine"], "text": "Traditional medicine can use the concept of the transmutation of natural substances, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In [[Ayurveda]], the [[Samskara (Ayurvedic)|samskaras]] are claimed to transform [[heavy metals]] and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively used to the present day. Spagyrists of the 20th century, [[Frater Albertus|Albert Richard Riedel]] and Jean Dubuis, merged Paracelsian alchemy with occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods. The schools they founded, ''Les Philosophes de la Nature'' and ''The Paracelsus Research Society'', popularized modern spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinctures and products. The courses, books, organizations, and conferences generated by their students continue to influence popular applications of alchemy as a New Age medicinal practice.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["Modern alchemy", "Psychology"], "text": "Alchemical symbolism has been important in depth and analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist [[Carl Jung|Carl Gustav Jung]]. Initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images, after being given a copy of the translation of ''The Secret of the Golden Flower'', a Chinese alchemical text, by his friend Richard Wilhelm, Jung discovered a direct correlation or parallels between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the inner, symbolic images coming up in dreams, visions or imaginations during the psychic processes of transformation occurring in his patients. A process, which he called \"process of individuation\". He regarded the alchemical images as symbols expressing aspects of this \"process of [[individuation]]\" of which the creation of the gold or lapis within were symbols for its origin and goal. Together with his alchemical ''mystica soror'', Jungian Swiss analyst [[Marie-Louise von Franz]], Jung began collecting all the old alchemical texts available, compiled a lexicon of key phrases with cross-references and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote brought new light into understanding the art of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the ''[[hieros gamos]]'' or divine marriage. His writings are influential in psychology and for persons who have an interest in understanding the importance of dreams, symbols and the unconscious archetypal forces ([[Jungian archetypes|archetypes]]) that influence all of life. Both von Franz and Jung have contributed greatly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Jung wrote volumes on alchemy and his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works, ''[[Mysterium Coniunctionis]]''.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["Modern alchemy", "Literature"], "text": "Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. ''Literary alchemy'' appears throughout the history of English literature from [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] to [[J. K. Rowling]], and also the popular Japanese manga ''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]''. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of the late Sir [[Terry Pratchett]]. Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": ["Modern alchemy", "Modern science"], "text": "One goal of alchemy, the transmutation of base substances into gold, is now known to be impossible by chemical means but possible by physical means. Although not financially worthwhile, [[Synthesis of precious metals#Gold|Gold was synthesized]] in particle accelerators as early as 1941.", "id": "573", "title": "Alchemy", "categories": ["Alchemy", "Esotericism", "Hermeticism", "Pseudoscience", "History of science"], "seealso": ["Nuclear transmutation", "Porta Alchemica", "Outline of alchemy", "History of chemistry", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "List of alchemists", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "Alchemical symbol", "Superseded theories in science", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"]}
+{"headers": [], "text": "'''Alien''' primarily refers to: (-) [[Alien (law)]], a person in a country who is not a national of that country (-) [[Enemy alien]], the above in times of war (-) [[Extraterrestrial life]], life which does not originate from Earth (-) Specifically, intelligent extraterrestrial beings; see [[List of alleged extraterrestrial beings]] (-) [[Introduced species]], a species not native to its environment '''Alien(s)''', or '''The Alien(s)''' may also refer to:", "id": "579", "title": "Alien", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Predator (disambiguation)", "Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)", "Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)", "Alians", "UFO (disambiguation)", "Astrobiology", "Alien Project (disambiguation)", "ATLiens"]}
+{"headers": ["Science and technology"], "text": "(-) [[AliEn (ALICE Environment)]], a grid framework (-) [[Alien (file converter)]], a Linux program (-) [[Alien Technology]], a manufacturer of RFID technology", "id": "579", "title": "Alien", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Predator (disambiguation)", "Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)", "Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)", "Alians", "UFO (disambiguation)", "Astrobiology", "Alien Project (disambiguation)", "ATLiens"]}
+{"headers": ["Arts and entertainment"], "text": "(-) [[Alien (franchise)|''Alien'' (franchise)]], a media franchise (-) [[Alien (creature in Alien franchise)|Alien (creature in ''Alien'' franchise)]]", "id": "579", "title": "Alien", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Predator (disambiguation)", "Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)", "Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)", "Alians", "UFO (disambiguation)", "Astrobiology", "Alien Project (disambiguation)", "ATLiens"]}
+{"headers": ["Arts and entertainment", "Films"], "text": "(-) [[Alien (film)|''Alien'' (film)]], a 1979 film by Ridley Scott (-) [[Aliens (film)|''Aliens'' (film)]], second film in the franchise from 1986 by James Cameron (-) ''[[Alien 3]]'', third film in the franchise from 1992 by David Fincher (-) ''[[Alien Resurrection]]'', fourth film in the franchise from 1997 by Jean-Pierre Jeunet (-) [[Alien vs. Predator (film)|''Alien vs. Predator'' (film)]], fifth film in the franchise from 2004 by Paul W. S. Anderson (-) ''[[Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem]]'', sixth film in the franchise from 2007 by the Brothers Strause (-) [[Prometheus (2012 film)]], seventh film in the franchise from 2012 by Ridley Scott (-) ''[[Alien: Covenant]]'', eighth film in the franchise from 2017 by Ridley Scott (-) ''[[Alien 2: On Earth]]'', a 1980 unofficial sequel of the 1979 ''Alien'' film (-) ''[[Alien Visitor]]'' (also titled ''Epsilon'') (1995 film) AustralianItalian science fiction film by Rolf de Heer (-) [[The Alien (2016 film)|''The Alien'' (2016 film)]], a 2016 Mexican film (-) [[The Alien (unproduced film)|''The Alien'' (unproduced film)]], an incomplete 1960s IndianAmerican film", "id": "579", "title": "Alien", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Predator (disambiguation)", "Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)", "Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)", "Alians", "UFO (disambiguation)", "Astrobiology", "Alien Project (disambiguation)", "ATLiens"]}
+{"headers": ["Arts and entertainment", "Literature"], "text": "(-) [[Alien novels|''Alien'' novels]], an extension of the ''Alien'' franchise (-) [[Aliens (Tappan Wright novel)|''Aliens'' (Tappan Wright novel)]], a 1902 novel by Mary Tappan Wright (-) [[The Alien (Animorphs)|''The Alien'' (Animorphs)]], the eighth book in the ''Animorphs'' series (-) [[The Aliens (play)|''The Aliens'' (play)]], a 2010 play by Annie Baker", "id": "579", "title": "Alien", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Predator (disambiguation)", "Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)", "Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)", "Alians", "UFO (disambiguation)", "Astrobiology", "Alien Project (disambiguation)", "ATLiens"]}
+{"headers": ["Arts and entertainment", "Music", "Performers"], "text": "(-) [[Alien (band)]], a 1980s Swedish rock group (-) [[The Aliens (Australian band)]], a 1970s new wave group (-) [[The Aliens (Scottish band)]], a 2005–2008 rock group", "id": "579", "title": "Alien", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Predator (disambiguation)", "Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)", "Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)", "Alians", "UFO (disambiguation)", "Astrobiology", "Alien Project (disambiguation)", "ATLiens"]}
+{"headers": ["Arts and entertainment", "Music", "Albums"], "text": "(-) [[Alien (Northlane album)|''Alien'' (Northlane album)]] (-) [[Alien (soundtrack)|''Alien'' (soundtrack)]] (-) [[Alien (Strapping Young Lad album)|''Alien'' (Strapping Young Lad album)]] (-) [[Alien (Tankard album)|''Alien'' (Tankard album)]] (-) [[Aliens (soundtrack)|''Aliens'' (soundtrack)]]", "id": "579", "title": "Alien", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Predator (disambiguation)", "Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)", "Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)", "Alians", "UFO (disambiguation)", "Astrobiology", "Alien Project (disambiguation)", "ATLiens"]}
+{"headers": ["Arts and entertainment", "Music", "Songs"], "text": "(-) [[Alien (Britney Spears song)|\"Alien\" (Britney Spears song)]] (-) [[Alien (Jonas Blue and Sabrina Carpenter song)|\"Alien\" (Jonas Blue and Sabrina Carpenter song)]] (-) [[Alien (Pennywise song)|\"Alien\" (Pennywise song)]] (-) [[Alien (Third Day song)|\"Alien\" (Third Day song)]] (-) \"Alien\", a song by Bush on the album ''[[Sixteen Stone]]'' (-) \"Alien\", a song by Erasure on the album ''[[Loveboat (album)|Loveboat]]'' (-) \"Alien\", a song by Japan on the album ''[[Quiet Life]]'' (-) \"Alien\", a song by Lamb on the album ''[[Fear of Fours]]'' (-) \"Alien\", a song by Nerina Pallot on the album ''[[Dear Frustrated Superstar]]'' (-) \"Alien\", a song by P-Model on the album ''[[Landsale (P-Model album)|Landsale]]'' (-) \"Alien\", a song by Thriving Ivory on [[Thriving Ivory (album)|their self-titled album]] (-) \"Alien\", a song by Tokio Hotel on the album ''[[Humanoid (album)|Humanoid]]''. Also, fans of the band call themselves Aliens (-) \"Alien\", a Top 40 hit by Atlanta Rhythm Section from the album ''[[Quinella (album)|Quinella]]'' (-) [[Aliens (Coldplay song)|\"Aliens\" (Coldplay song)]] (-) \"My Alien\", a song by Simple Plan on the album ''[[No Pads, No Helmets... Just Balls]]'' (-) \"The Aliens\", a song by [[Warlord (band)|Warlord]] (-) \"Alien\", a song by [[Lee Su-hyun (singer, born 1999)|Lee Suhyun]]", "id": "579", "title": "Alien", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Predator (disambiguation)", "Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)", "Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)", "Alians", "UFO (disambiguation)", "Astrobiology", "Alien Project (disambiguation)", "ATLiens"]}
+{"headers": ["Arts and entertainment", "Video games"], "text": "(-) [[Alien (1984 video game)|''Alien'' (1984 video game)]], based on the film (-) [[Alien (Atari 2600)|''Alien'' (Atari 2600)]], a 1982 maze game based on the 1979 film (-) ''[[Alien: Isolation]]'', a 2014 video game based on the ''Alien'' science fiction horror film series (-) [[Aliens (1982 video game)|''Aliens'' (1982 video game)]], a text-only clone of ''Space Invaders'' written for the CP/M operating system on the Kaypro computer (-) [[Aliens (1990 video game)|''Aliens'' (1990 video game)]], a game by Konami, based on the sequel of the film", "id": "579", "title": "Alien", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Predator (disambiguation)", "Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)", "Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)", "Alians", "UFO (disambiguation)", "Astrobiology", "Alien Project (disambiguation)", "ATLiens"]}
+{"headers": ["Arts and entertainment", "Other media"], "text": "(-) [[Alien (Armenian TV series)|''Alien'' (Armenian TV series)]], a 2017 melodrama series (-) [[Alien (sculpture)|''Alien'' (sculpture)]], a 2012 work by David Breuer-Weil, in Mottisfont, Hampshire, England (-) [[Aliens (Dark Horse Comics line)|''Aliens'' (Dark Horse Comics line)]] (-) [[The Aliens (TV series)|''The Aliens'' (TV series)]], 2016 British sci-fi television series", "id": "579", "title": "Alien", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Predator (disambiguation)", "Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)", "Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)", "Alians", "UFO (disambiguation)", "Astrobiology", "Alien Project (disambiguation)", "ATLiens"]}
+{"headers": ["Other uses"], "text": "(-) [[Alien (shipping company)]], a Russian company (-) [[Alien Sun]] (born 1974), Singaporean actress (-) ''Alien'', a perfume by [[Thierry Mugler#Fragrances|Thierry Mugler]]", "id": "579", "title": "Alien", "categories": [], "seealso": ["Predator (disambiguation)", "Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)", "Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)", "Alians", "UFO (disambiguation)", "Astrobiology", "Alien Project (disambiguation)", "ATLiens"]}
+{"headers": [], "text": "An '''astronomer''' is a [[scientist]] in the field of [[astronomy]] who focuses their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of [[Earth]]. They observe [[astronomical object]] such as [[star]], [[planet]], [[natural satellite|moons]], [[comet]] and [[galaxy|galaxies]] – in either [[observational astronomy|observational]] (by analyzing the data) or [[theoretical astronomy]]. Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include [[planetary science]], [[Sun|solar astronomy]], the origin or [[stellar evolution|evolution of stars]], or the [[galaxy formation and evolution|formation of galaxies]]. Related but distinct subjects like [[physical cosmology]], which studies the [[Universe]] as a whole.", "id": "580", "title": "Astronomer", "categories": ["Astronomy", "Astronomers", "Science occupations"], "seealso": ["List of Slovenian astronomers", "List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists", "List of astronomers", "List of Hungarian astronomers", "List of French astronomers", "List of Muslim astronomers", "List of women astronomers"]}
+{"headers": ["Types"], "text": "Astronomers usually fall under either of two main types: [[observational astronomy|observational]] and [[theoretical astronomy|theoretical]]. Observational astronomers make direct [[observation]] of [[Astronomical object|celestial objects]] and analyze the data. In contrast, theoretical astronomers create and investigate [[Conceptual model|model]] of things that cannot be observed. Because it takes millions to billions of years for a system of stars or a galaxy to complete a life cycle, astronomers must observe snapshots of different systems at unique points in their evolution to determine how they form, evolve, and die. They use these data to create models or [[simulation]] to theorize how different celestial objects work. Further subcategories under these two main [[branches of science|branches]] of astronomy include [[Planetary science|planetary astronomy]], [[galactic astronomy]], or [[physical cosmology]].", "id": "580", "title": "Astronomer", "categories": ["Astronomy", "Astronomers", "Science occupations"], "seealso": ["List of Slovenian astronomers", "List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists", "List of astronomers", "List of Hungarian astronomers", "List of French astronomers", "List of Muslim astronomers", "List of women astronomers"]}
+{"headers": ["Academic"], "text": "[[Image:Justus Sustermans - Portrait of Galileo Galilei (Uffizi).jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[Galileo]] is often referred to as the Father of [[modern astronomy]], portrait by [[Justus Sustermans]]]] [[History of astronomy|Historically]], astronomy was more concerned with the [[classification]] and description of [[phenomena]] in the sky, while [[astrophysics]] attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using [[Scientific law|physical laws]]. Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms \"astronomer\" and \"astrophysicist\" are interchangeable. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] in [[physics]] or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. They spend the majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory. The [[American Astronomical Society]], which is the major organization of professional astronomers in [[North America]], has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, [[geology]], and [[engineering]], whose research interests are closely related to astronomy. The [[International Astronomical Union]] comprises almost 10,145 members from 70 different countries who are involved in astronomical research at the PhD level and beyond. Contrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a [[telescope]] through the dark hours of the night, it is far more common to use a [[charge-coupled device]] (CCD) camera to record a long, deep exposure, allowing a more sensitive image to be created because the [[light]] is added over time. Before CCDs, [[photographic plates]] were a common method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes usually just a few weeks per year. Analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majority of observational astronomers' time. Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes. Most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometimes [[planetarium]] as a public service to encourage interest in the field. Those who become astronomers usually have a broad background in maths, sciences and computing in high school. Taking courses that teach how to research, write and present papers are also invaluable. In college/university most astronomers get a PhD in astronomy or physics.", "id": "580", "title": "Astronomer", "categories": ["Astronomy", "Astronomers", "Science occupations"], "seealso": ["List of Slovenian astronomers", "List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists", "List of astronomers", "List of Hungarian astronomers", "List of French astronomers", "List of Muslim astronomers", "List of women astronomers"]}
+{"headers": ["Amateur astronomers"], "text": "While there is a relatively low number of professional astronomers, the field is popular among [[amateurs]]. Most cities have amateur astronomy clubs that meet on a regular basis and often host [[star party|star parties]]. The [[Astronomical Society of the Pacific]] is the largest general astronomical society in the world, comprising both professional and amateur astronomers as well as educators from 70 different nations. Like any [[hobby]], most people who think of themselves as amateur astronomers may devote a few hours a month to [[stargazing]] and reading the latest developments in research. However, amateurs span the range from so-called \"armchair astronomers\" to the very ambitious, who own science-grade telescopes and instruments with which they are able to make their own discoveries and assist professional astronomers in research.", "id": "580", "title": "Astronomer", "categories": ["Astronomy", "Astronomers", "Science occupations"], "seealso": ["List of Slovenian astronomers", "List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists", "List of astronomers", "List of Hungarian astronomers", "List of French astronomers", "List of Muslim astronomers", "List of women astronomers"]}
+{"headers": [], "text": "'''ASCII''' ( ), abbreviated from '''American Standard Code for Information Interchange''', is a [[character encoding]] standard for electronic communication. ASCII codes represent text in computers, [[telecommunications equipment]], and other devices. Most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they support many additional characters. The [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) prefers the name '''US-ASCII''' for this character encoding. ASCII is one of the [[List of IEEE milestones|IEEE milestones]].", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Overview"], "text": "ASCII was developed from [[telegraph code]]. Its first commercial use was as a seven-[[bit]] [[teleprinter]] code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began on October 6, 1960, with the first meeting of the [[American Standards Association]]'s (ASA) (now the [[American National Standards Institute]] or ANSI) X3.2 subcommittee. The first edition of the standard was published in 1963, underwent a major revision during 1967, and experienced its most recent update during 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting (i.e., alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters. The use of ASCII format for Network Interchange was described in 1969. That document was formally elevated to an Internet Standard in 2015. Originally based on the [[English alphabet]], ASCII encodes 128 specified [[character (computing)|characters]] into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart above. Ninety-five of the encoded characters are printable: these include the digits ''0'' to ''9'', lowercase letters ''a'' to ''z'', uppercase letters ''A'' to ''Z'', and [[punctuation symbol]]. In addition, the original ASCII specification included 33 non-printing [[control code]] which originated with [[Teletype machine]]; most of these are now obsolete, although a few are still commonly used, such as the [[carriage return]], [[line feed]] and [[Tab key#Tab characters|tab]] codes. For example, lowercase ''[[i]]'' would be represented in the ASCII encoding by [[binary number|binary]] 1101001 = [[hexadecimal]] 69 (''i'' is the ninth letter) = [[decimal]] 105.", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["History"], "text": "The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) was developed under the auspices of a committee of the [[American Standards Association]] (ASA), called the X3 committee, by its X3.2 (later X3L2) subcommittee, and later by that subcommittee's X3.2.4 working group (now [[INCITS]]). The ASA became the [[United States of America Standards Institute]] (USASI) and ultimately the [[American National Standards Institute]] (ANSI). With the other special characters and control codes filled in, ASCII was published as ASA X3.4-1963, leaving 28 code positions without any assigned meaning, reserved for future standardization, and one unassigned control code. There was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters rather than the lowercase alphabet. The indecision did not last long: during May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to assign lowercase characters to ''sticks'' 6 and 7, and [[International Organization for Standardization]] TC 97 SC 2 voted during October to incorporate the change into its draft standard. The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting. Locating the lowercase letters in ''sticks'' 6 and 7 caused the characters to differ in bit pattern from the upper case by a single bit, which simplified [[case-insensitive]] character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers. The X3 committee made other changes, including other new characters (the [[brace (punctuation)|brace]] and [[vertical bar]] characters), renaming some control characters (SOM became start of header (SOH)) and moving or removing others (RU was removed). ASCII was subsequently updated as USAS X3.4-1967, then USAS X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986. Revisions of the ASCII standard: (-) ASA X3.4-1963 (-) ASA X3.4-1965 (approved, but not published, nevertheless used by [[IBM 2260]] & [[IBM 2265|2265]] Display Stations and [[IBM 2848]] Display Control) (-) USAS X3.4-1967 (-) USAS X3.4-1968 (-) ANSI X3.4-1977 (-) ANSI X3.4-1986 (-) ANSI X3.4-1986 (R1992) (-) ANSI X3.4-1986 (R1997) (-) ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2002) (-) ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2007) (-) (ANSI) INCITS 4-1986[R2012] (-) (ANSI) INCITS 4-1986[R2017] In the X3.15 standard, the X3 committee also addressed how ASCII should be transmitted ([[least significant bit]] first), and how it should be recorded on perforated tape. They proposed a [[9-track]] standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some [[punched card]] formats.", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Design considerations", "Bit width"], "text": "The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems. Like other [[character encoding]], ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and [[character (computing)|character]] symbols (i.e. [[grapheme]] and [[control character]]). This allows [[Digital data|digital]] devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information such as written language. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 [[English alphabet|alphabetic]] characters, 10 [[numerical digit]], and from 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include all these, and control characters compatible with the [[CCITT|Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique]] (CCITT) [[International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2]] (ITA2) standard of 1924, [[FIELDATA]] (1956), and early [[EBCDIC]] (1963), more than 64 codes were required for ASCII. ITA2 were in turn based on the 5-bit telegraph code [[Émile Baudot]] invented in 1870 and patented in 1874. The committee debated the possibility of a [[Shift code|shift]] function (like in [[ITA2]]), which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a [[six-bit character code|six-bit code]]. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is less reliable for [[data transmission]], as an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code. The committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits ([[octet (computing)|octet]]) would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with [[binary-coded decimal]]. However, it would require all data transmission to send eight bits when seven could suffice. The committee voted to use a seven-bit code to minimize costs associated with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position, it also allowed for a [[parity bit]] for [[error checking]] if desired. [[8-bit computing|Eight-bit]] machines (with octets as the native data type) that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0.", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Design considerations", "Internal organization"], "text": "The code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together and all graphic codes were together, for ease of identification. The first two so-called ''ASCII sticks'' (32 positions) were reserved for control characters. The [[Space (punctuation)|\"space\" character]] had to come before graphics to make [[sorting algorithm|sorting]] easier, so it became position 20; for the same reason, many special signs commonly used as separators were placed before digits. The committee decided it was important to support [[upper case|uppercase]] [[sixbit code pages|64-character alphabets]], and chose to pattern ASCII so it could be reduced easily to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes, as was done in the [[DEC SIXBIT]] code (1963). [[Lower case|Lowercase]] letters were therefore not interleaved with uppercase. To keep options available for lowercase letters and other graphics, the special and numeric codes were arranged before the letters, and the letter ''A'' was placed in position 41 to match the draft of the corresponding British standard. The digits 0–9 are prefixed with 011, but the remaining [[Nibble|4 bits]] correspond to their respective values in binary, making conversion with [[binary-coded decimal]] straightforward. Many of the non-alphanumeric characters were positioned to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters; an important subtlety is that these were based on ''mechanical'' typewriters, not ''electric'' typewriters. Mechanical typewriters followed the standard set by the Remington No. 2 (1878), the first typewriter with a shift key, and the shifted values of codice_1 were codice_2 early typewriters omitted ''0'' and ''1'', using ''O'' (capital letter ''o'') and ''l'' (lowercase letter ''L'') instead, but codice_3 and codice_4 pairs became standard once 0 and 1 became common. Thus, in ASCII codice_5 were placed in the second stick, positions 1–5, corresponding to the digits 1–5 in the adjacent stick. The parentheses could not correspond to ''9'' and ''0'', however, because the place corresponding to ''0'' was taken by the space character. This was accommodated by removing codice_6 (underscore) from ''6'' and shifting the remaining characters, which corresponded to many European typewriters that placed the parentheses with ''8'' and ''9''. This discrepancy from typewriters led to [[bit-paired keyboard]], notably the [[Teletype Model 33]], which used the left-shifted layout corresponding to ASCII, not to traditional mechanical typewriters. Electric typewriters, notably the [[IBM Selectric]] (1961), used a somewhat different layout that has become standard on computers following the [[IBM PC]] (1981), especially [[Model M]] (1984) and thus shift values for symbols on modern keyboards do not correspond as closely to the ASCII table as earlier keyboards did. The codice_7 pair also dates to the No. 2, and the codice_8 pairs were used on some keyboards (others, including the No. 2, did not shift codice_9 (comma) or codice_10 (full stop) so they could be used in uppercase without unshifting). However, ASCII split the codice_11 pair (dating to No. 2), and rearranged mathematical symbols (varied conventions, commonly codice_12) to codice_13.", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Design considerations", "Internal organization"], "text": "Some common characters were not included, notably codice_14, while codice_15 were included as diacritics for international use, and codice_16 for mathematical use, together with the simple line characters codice_17 (in addition to common codice_18). The ''@'' symbol was not used in continental Europe and the committee expected it would be replaced by an accented ''À'' in the French variation, so the ''@'' was placed in position 40, right before the letter A. The control codes felt essential for data transmission were the start of message (SOM), end of address (EOA), [[End of Message|end of message]] (EOM), end of transmission (EOT), \"who are you?\" (WRU), \"are you?\" (RU), a reserved device control (DC0), synchronous idle (SYNC), and acknowledge (ACK). These were positioned to maximize the [[Hamming distance]] between their bit patterns.", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Design considerations", "Character order"], "text": "ASCII-code order is also called ''ASCIIbetical'' order. [[Collation]] of data is sometimes done in this order rather than \"standard\" alphabetical order ([[collating sequence]]). The main deviations in ASCII order are: (-) All uppercase come before lowercase letters; for example, \"Z\" precedes \"a\" (-) Digits and many punctuation marks come before letters An intermediate order converts uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values.", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Character groups", "Control characters"], "text": "ASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for [[control character]]: codes originally intended not to represent printable information, but rather to control devices (such as [[computer printer|printers]]) that make use of ASCII, or to provide [[Metadata|meta-information]] about data streams such as those stored on magnetic tape. For example, character 10 represents the \"line feed\" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 8 represents \"backspace\". refers to control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or [[Whitespace (computer science)|white space]] as non-whitespace control characters. Except for the control characters that prescribe elementary line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as [[markup language]], address page and document layout and formatting. The original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character. The ambiguity this caused was sometimes intentional, for example where a character would be used slightly differently on a terminal link than on a [[data stream]], and sometimes accidental, for example with the meaning of \"delete\". Probably the most influential single device on the interpretation of these characters was the [[Teletype Model 33]] ASR, which was a printing terminal with an available [[punched tape|paper tape]] reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage until the 1980s, less costly and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular, the Teletype Model 33 machine assignments for codes 17 (Control-Q, DC1, also known as XON), 19 (Control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF), and 127 ([[Delete key|Delete]]) became de facto standards. The Model 33 was also notable for taking the description of Control-G (code 7, BEL, meaning audibly alert the operator) literally, as the unit contained an actual bell which it rang when it received a BEL character. Because the keytop for the O key also showed a left-arrow symbol (from ASCII-1963, which had this character instead of [[underscore]]), a noncompliant use of code 15 (Control-O, Shift In) interpreted as \"delete previous character\" was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually became neglected. When a Teletype 33 ASR equipped with the automatic paper tape reader received a Control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for transmit off), it caused the tape reader to stop; receiving Control-Q (XON, \"transmit on\") caused the tape reader to resume. This technique became adopted by several early computer operating systems as a \"handshaking\" signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow; it persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output. The 33 ASR also could be configured to employ Control-R (DC2) and Control-T (DC4) to start and stop the tape punch; on some units equipped with this function, the corresponding control character lettering on the keycap above the letter was TAPE and TAPE respectively.", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Character groups", "Control characters", "Delete & Backspace"], "text": "The Teletype could not move the head backwards, so it did not put a key on the keyboard to send a BS (backspace). Instead there was a key marked that sent code 127 (DEL). The purpose of this key was to erase mistakes in a hand-typed paper tape: the operator had to push a button on the tape punch to back it up, then type the rubout, which punched all holes and replaced the mistake with a character that was intended to be ignored. Teletypes were commonly used for the less-expensive computers from [[Digital Equipment Corporation]], so these systems had to use the available key and thus the DEL code to erase the previous character. Because of this, DEC video terminals (by default) sent the DEL code for the key marked \"Backspace\" while the key marked \"Delete\" sent an escape sequence, while many other terminals sent BS for the Backspace key. The Unix terminal driver could only use one code to erase the previous character, this could be set to BS ''or'' DEL, but not both, resulting in a long period of annoyance where users had to correct it depending on what terminal they were using (shells that allow line editing, such as [[KornShell|ksh]], [[Bash (Unix shell)|bash]], and [[Z shell|zsh]], understand both). The assumption that no key sent a BS caused Control+H to be used for other purposes, such as the \"help\" prefix command in [[GNU Emacs]].", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Character groups", "Control characters", "Escape"], "text": "Many more of the control codes have been given meanings quite different from their original ones. The \"escape\" character (ESC, code 27), for example, was intended originally to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of \"escape\" encountered in URL encodings, [[C (programming language)|C language]] strings, and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this meaning has been co-opted and has eventually been changed. In modern use, an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence usually in the form of a so-called \"[[ANSI escape code]]\" (or, more properly, a \"[[Control Sequence Introducer]]\") from ECMA-48 (1972) and its successors, beginning with ESC followed by a \"<nowiki>[</nowiki>\" (left-bracket) character. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an [[out-of-band data|out-of-band]] character used to terminate an operation, as in the [[Text Editor and Corrector|TECO]] and [[vi]] [[text editor]]. In [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) and [[window (computing)|windowing]] systems, ESC generally causes an application to abort its current operation or to [[exit (system call)|exit]] (terminate) altogether.", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Character groups", "Control characters", "End of Line"], "text": "The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, created problems when transferring \"plain text\" files between systems. The best example of this is the [[newline]] problem on various [[operating system]]. Teletype machines required that a line of text be terminated with both \"Carriage Return\" (which moves the printhead to the beginning of the line) and \"Line Feed\" (which advances the paper one line without moving the printhead). The name \"Carriage Return\" comes from the fact that on a manual [[typewriter]] the carriage holding the paper moved while the position where the typebars struck the ribbon remained stationary. The entire carriage had to be pushed (returned) to the right in order to position the left margin of the paper for the next line. [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] operating systems ([[OS/8]], [[RT-11]], [[RSX-11]], [[RSTS/E|RSTS]], [[TOPS-10]], etc.) used both characters to mark the end of a line so that the console device (originally [[Teleprinter|Teletype machines]]) would work. By the time so-called \"glass TTYs\" (later called CRTs or terminals) came along, the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing the convention. When [[Gary Kildall]] created [[CP/M]] he was inspired by some command line interface conventions used in [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]]'s [[RT-11]]. Until the introduction of [[PC DOS]] in 1981, [[IBM]] had no hand in this because their 1970s operating systems used EBCDIC instead of ASCII and they were oriented toward punch-card input and line printer output on which the concept of carriage return was meaningless. IBM's [[PC DOS]] (also marketed as [[MS-DOS]] by Microsoft) inherited the convention by virtue of being loosely based on CP/M, and [[Windows]] inherited it from MS-DOS. Unfortunately, requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduces unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone. To simplify matters [[plain text]] data streams, including files, on [[Multics]] used line feed (LF) alone as a line terminator. [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like]] systems, and [[Amiga]] systems, adopted this convention from Multics. The original [[Macintosh OS]], [[Apple DOS]], and [[ProDOS]], on the other hand, used carriage return (CR) alone as a line terminator; however, since Apple replaced these operating systems with the Unix-based [[macOS]] operating system, they now use line feed (LF) as well. The Radio Shack [[TRS-80]] also used a lone CR to terminate lines.", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Character groups", "Control characters", "End of Line"], "text": "Computers attached to the [[ARPANET]] included machines running operating systems such as TOPS-10 and [[TENEX (operating system)|TENEX]] using CR-LF line endings, machines running operating systems such as Multics using LF line endings, and machines running operating systems such as [[OS/360]] that represented lines as a character count followed by the characters of the line and that used [[EBCDIC]] rather than ASCII. The [[Telnet]] protocol defined an ASCII \"[[Network Virtual Terminal]]\" (NVT), so that connections between hosts with different line-ending conventions and character sets could be supported by transmitting a standard text format over the network. Telnet used ASCII along with CR-LF line endings, and software using other conventions would translate between the local conventions and the NVT. The [[File Transfer Protocol]] adopted the Telnet protocol, including use of the Network Virtual Terminal, for use when transmitting commands and transferring data in the default ASCII mode. This adds complexity to implementations of those protocols, and to other network protocols, such as those used for E-mail and the World Wide Web, on systems not using the NVT's CR-LF line-ending convention.", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Character groups", "Control characters", "End of File/Stream"], "text": "The PDP-6 monitor, and its PDP-10 successor TOPS-10, used Control-Z (SUB) as an end-of-file indication for input from a terminal. Some operating systems such as CP/M tracked file length only in units of disk blocks and used Control-Z to mark the end of the actual text in the file. For these reasons, EOF, or [[end-of-file]], was used colloquially and conventionally as a [[three-letter acronym]] for Control-Z instead of SUBstitute. The end-of-text code ([[End-of-text character|ETX]]), also known as [[Control-C]], was inappropriate for a variety of reasons, while using Z as the control code to end a file is analogous to it ending the alphabet and serves as a very convenient [[Mnemonic device|mnemonic aid]]. A historically common and still prevalent convention uses the ETX code convention to interrupt and halt a program via an input data stream, usually from a keyboard. In C library and [[Unix]] conventions, the [[null character]] is used to terminate text [[string (computer science)|strings]]; such [[null-terminated string]] can be known in abbreviation as ASCIZ or ASCIIZ, where here Z stands for \"zero\".", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Character groups", "Control code chart"], "text": "Other representations might be used by specialist equipment, for example [[ISO 2047]] graphics or [[hexadecimal]] numbers.", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Character groups", "Printable characters"], "text": "Codes 20 to 7E, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, [[punctuation mark]], and a few miscellaneous symbols. There are 95 printable characters in total. Code 20, the [[Space (punctuation)|\"space\" character]], denotes the space between words, as produced by the space bar of a keyboard. Since the space character is considered an invisible graphic (rather than a control character) it is listed in the table below instead of in the previous section. Code 7F corresponds to the non-printable \"delete\" (DEL) control character and is therefore omitted from this chart; it is covered in the previous section's chart. Earlier versions of ASCII used the up arrow instead of the [[caret]] (5E) and the left arrow instead of the [[underscore]] (5F).", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Character groups", "Character set"], "text": "Points which represented a different character in previous versions (the 1963 version or the 1965 draft) are shown boxed. Points assigned since the 1963 version but otherwise unchanged are shown lightly shaded relative to their legend colors.", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Use"], "text": "ASCII was first used commercially during 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for [[American Telephone & Telegraph]]'s TWX (TeletypeWriter eXchange) network. TWX originally used the earlier five-bit [[ITA2]], which was also used by the competing [[Telex]] teleprinter system. [[Robert William Bemer|Bob Bemer]] introduced features such as the [[Escape character|escape sequence]]. His British colleague [[Hugh McGregor Ross]] helped to popularize this work according to Bemer, \"so much so that the code that was to become ASCII was first called the ''Bemer–Ross Code'' in Europe\". Because of his extensive work on ASCII, Bemer has been called \"the father of ASCII\". On March 11, 1968, U.S. President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] mandated that all computers purchased by the [[United States Federal Government]] support ASCII, stating: I have also approved recommendations of the [[Secretary of Commerce]] [[[Luther H. Hodges]]] regarding standards for recording the Standard Code for Information Interchange on magnetic tapes and paper tapes when they are used in computer operations. All computers and related equipment configurations brought into the Federal Government inventory on and after July 1, 1969, must have the capability to use the Standard Code for Information Interchange and the formats prescribed by the magnetic tape and paper tape standards when these media are used. ASCII was the most common character encoding on the [[World Wide Web]] until December 2007, when [[UTF-8]] encoding surpassed it; UTF-8 is backward compatible with ASCII.", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Variants and derivations"], "text": "As computer technology spread throughout the world, different [[Standardization|standards bodies]] and corporations developed many variations of ASCII to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as \"[[ASCII extension]]\", although some misuse that term to represent all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range. Furthermore, the ASCII extensions have also been mislabelled as ASCII.", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Variants and derivations", "7-bit codes"], "text": "From early in its development, ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard. Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as [[ISO 646]] (1967) that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII, with extensions for characters outside the English [[alphabet]] and symbols used outside the United States, such as the symbol for the United Kingdom's [[pound sterling]] (£). Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII, since ASCII suited the needs of only the US and a few other countries. For example, Canada had its own version that supported French characters. Many other countries developed variants of ASCII to include non-English letters (e.g. [[é]], [[ñ]], [[ß]], [[Ł]]), currency symbols (e.g. [[£]], [[¥]]), etc. See also [[YUSCII]] (Yugoslavia). It would share most characters in common, but assign other locally useful characters to several [[code point]] reserved for \"national use\". However, the four years that elapsed between the publication of ASCII-1963 and ISO's first acceptance of an international recommendation during 1967 caused ASCII's choices for the national use characters to seem to be de facto standards for the world, causing confusion and incompatibility once other countries did begin to make their own assignments to these code points. ISO/IEC 646, like ASCII, is a 7-bit character set. It does not make any additional codes available, so the same code points encoded different characters in different countries. Escape codes were defined to indicate which national variant applied to a piece of text, but they were rarely used, so it was often impossible to know what variant to work with and, therefore, which character a code represented, and in general, text-processing systems could cope with only one variant anyway. Because the bracket and brace characters of ASCII were assigned to \"national use\" code points that were used for accented letters in other national variants of ISO/IEC 646, a German, French, or Swedish, etc. programmer using their national variant of ISO/IEC 646, rather than ASCII, had to write, and thus read, something such as codice_19 instead of codice_20 [[C trigraph]] were created to solve this problem for [[ANSI C]], although their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers limited their use. Many programmers kept their computers on US-ASCII, so plain-text in Swedish, German etc. (for example, in e-mail or [[Usenet]]) contained \"{, }\" and similar variants in the middle of words, something those programmers got used to. For example, a Swedish programmer mailing another programmer asking if they should go for lunch, could get \"N{ jag har sm|rg}sar\" as the answer, which should be \"Nä jag har smörgåsar\" meaning \"No I've got sandwiches\". In Japan and Korea, still as of 2020-ies, a variation of ASCII is used, in which the [[backslash]] (5C hex) is rendered as ¥ (a [[Yen sign]], in Japan) or ₩ (a [[Won sign]], in Korea). This means that for example the file path C:\\Users\\Smith is shown as C:¥Users¥Smith (in Japan) or C:₩Users₩Smith (in Korea).", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Variants and derivations", "8-bit codes"], "text": "Eventually, as 8-, [[16-bit computing|16-]] and [[32-bit computing|32-bit]] (and later [[64-bit computing|64-bit]]) computers began to replace [[12-bit computing|12-]], [[18-bit computing|18-]] and [[36-bit computing|36-bit]] computers as the norm, it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character in memory, providing an opportunity for extended, 8-bit relatives of ASCII. In most cases these developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact, but adding additional character definitions after the first 128 (i.e., 7-bit) characters. Encodings include [[ISCII]] (India), [[VISCII]] (Vietnam). Although these encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, true ASCII is defined strictly only by the ANSI standard. Most early home computer systems developed their own 8-bit character sets containing line-drawing and game glyphs, and often filled in some or all of the control characters from 0 to 31 with more graphics. [[Kaypro]] [[CP/M]] computers used the \"upper\" 128 characters for the Greek alphabet. The [[PETSCII]] code [[Commodore International]] used for their [[8-bit computing|8-bit]] systems is probably unique among post-1970 codes in being based on ASCII-1963, instead of the more common ASCII-1967, such as found on the [[ZX Spectrum character set|ZX Spectrum]] computer. [[ATASCII|Atari]] 8-bit computers and [[Galaksija (computer)#Character ROM|Galaksija]] computers also used ASCII variants. The IBM PC defined [[code page 437]], which replaced the control characters with graphic symbols such as [[Emoticon|smiley faces]], and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Operating systems such as [[DOS]] supported these code pages, and manufacturers of [[IBM PC]] supported them in hardware. [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] developed the [[Multinational Character Set]] (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular [[VT220]] [[computer terminal|terminal]] as one of the first extensions designed more for international languages than for block graphics. The Macintosh defined [[Mac OS Roman]] and Postscript also defined a set, both of these contained both international letters and typographic punctuation marks instead of graphics, more like modern character sets. The [[ISO/IEC 8859]] standard (derived from the DEC-MCS) finally provided a standard that most systems copied (at least as accurately as they copied ASCII, but with many substitutions). A popular further extension designed by Microsoft, [[Windows-1252]] (often mislabeled as [[ISO-8859-1]]), added the typographic punctuation marks needed for traditional text printing. ISO-8859-1, Windows-1252, and the original 7-bit ASCII were the most common character encodings until 2008 when [[UTF-8]] became more common. [[ISO/IEC 4873]] introduced 32 additional control codes defined in the 80–9F [[hexadecimal]] range, as part of extending the 7-bit ASCII encoding to become an 8-bit system.", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": ["Variants and derivations", "Unicode"], "text": "[[Unicode]] and the ISO/IEC 10646 [[Universal Character Set]] (UCS) have a much wider array of characters and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII is limited to 128 characters, Unicode and the UCS support more characters by separating the concepts of unique identification (using [[natural number]] called ''code points'') and encoding (to 8-, 16- or 32-bit binary formats, called [[UTF-8]], [[UTF-16]] and [[UTF-32]]). ASCII was incorporated into the Unicode (1991) character set as the first 128 symbols, so the 7-bit ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows [[UTF-8]] to be [[Backward compatibility|backward compatible]] with 7-bit ASCII, as a UTF-8 file containing only ASCII characters is identical to an ASCII file containing the same sequence of characters. Even more importantly, [[forward compatibility]] is ensured as software that recognizes only 7-bit ASCII characters as special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set (as is often done to support 8-bit ASCII extensions such as ISO-8859-1) will preserve UTF-8 data unchanged.", "id": "586", "title": "ASCII", "categories": ["ASCII", "Computer-related introductions in 1963", "Character sets", "Character encoding", "Latin-script representations", "Presentation layer protocols"], "seealso": ["List of Unicode characters", "ASCII Ribbon Campaign", "HTML decimal character rendering", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Alt codes", "Jargon File", "Ascii85", "3568 ASCII", "ASCII art", "List of computer character sets", "Extended ASCII"]}
+{"headers": [], "text": "'''[[Austin]]''' is the capital of Texas in the United States. '''Austin''' may also refer to:", "id": "590", "title": "Austin (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["All pages beginning with Austin", "Justice Austin (disambiguation)", "Austinburg (disambiguation)", "Augustine (disambiguation)", "August (disambiguation)", "Austen (disambiguation)", "Augustin (disambiguation)", "Austins (disambiguation)", "Austin station (disambiguation)"]}
+{"headers": ["Geographical locations", "Canada"], "text": "(-) [[Austin, Manitoba]] (-) [[Austin, Ontario]] (-) [[Austin, Quebec]] (-) [[Austin Island]], Nunavut", "id": "590", "title": "Austin (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["All pages beginning with Austin", "Justice Austin (disambiguation)", "Austinburg (disambiguation)", "Augustine (disambiguation)", "August (disambiguation)", "Austen (disambiguation)", "Augustin (disambiguation)", "Austins (disambiguation)", "Austin station (disambiguation)"]}
+{"headers": ["Geographical locations", "United States"], "text": "(-) [[Austin, Arkansas]] (-) [[Austin, Colorado]] (-) [[Austin Township, Macon County, Illinois]] (-) [[Austin, Chicago]], Cook County, Illinois (-) [[Austin, Indiana]] (-) [[Austin, Kentucky]] (-) [[Austin, Minnesota]] (-) [[Austin, Missouri]] (-) [[Austin, Nevada]] (-) [[Austin, Ohio]] (-) [[Austin, Oregon]] (-) [[Austin, Pennsylvania]] (-) [[Austin, Texas]] (-) [[Austin County, Texas]] (note that the city of Austin, Texas is located in Travis County)", "id": "590", "title": "Austin (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["All pages beginning with Austin", "Justice Austin (disambiguation)", "Austinburg (disambiguation)", "Augustine (disambiguation)", "August (disambiguation)", "Austen (disambiguation)", "Augustin (disambiguation)", "Austins (disambiguation)", "Austin station (disambiguation)"]}
+{"headers": ["Schools"], "text": "(-) [[Austin College]], Sherman, Texas (-) [[University of Texas at Austin]], flagship institution of the University of Texas System (-) [[Austin Peay State University]], Clarksville, Tennessee", "id": "590", "title": "Austin (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["All pages beginning with Austin", "Justice Austin (disambiguation)", "Austinburg (disambiguation)", "Augustine (disambiguation)", "August (disambiguation)", "Austen (disambiguation)", "Augustin (disambiguation)", "Austins (disambiguation)", "Austin station (disambiguation)"]}
+{"headers": ["Religion"], "text": "(-) [[Augustine of Hippo]] (-) An adjective for the [[Augustinians]]", "id": "590", "title": "Austin (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["All pages beginning with Austin", "Justice Austin (disambiguation)", "Austinburg (disambiguation)", "Augustine (disambiguation)", "August (disambiguation)", "Austen (disambiguation)", "Augustin (disambiguation)", "Austins (disambiguation)", "Austin station (disambiguation)"]}
+{"headers": ["Business"], "text": "(-) [[American Austin Car Company]], short-lived American automobile maker (-) [[Austin Automobile Company]], short-lived American automobile company (-) [[Austin Motor Company]], British car manufacturer (-) Austin cookies and crackers, [[Keebler Company]] brand", "id": "590", "title": "Austin (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["All pages beginning with Austin", "Justice Austin (disambiguation)", "Austinburg (disambiguation)", "Augustine (disambiguation)", "August (disambiguation)", "Austen (disambiguation)", "Augustin (disambiguation)", "Austins (disambiguation)", "Austin station (disambiguation)"]}
+{"headers": ["Entertainment"], "text": "(-) [[Austin (song)|\"Austin\" (song)]], a single by Blake Shelton (-) Austin, a kangaroo [[Beanie Baby]] produced by Ty, Inc. (-) Austin the kangaroo from the children's television series ''[[The Backyardigans]]'' (-) [[Austin Moon]], titular character in the television show ''Austin & Ally''", "id": "590", "title": "Austin (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["All pages beginning with Austin", "Justice Austin (disambiguation)", "Austinburg (disambiguation)", "Augustine (disambiguation)", "August (disambiguation)", "Austen (disambiguation)", "Augustin (disambiguation)", "Austins (disambiguation)", "Austin station (disambiguation)"]}
+{"headers": ["Other uses"], "text": "(-) [[Austin (building)]], a building designed by artist Ellsworth Kelly under construction in Austin, Texas (-) [[Austin (name)]] - a short form of Augustin, or Augustine (-) [[USS Austin|USS ''Austin'']], three ships", "id": "590", "title": "Austin (disambiguation)", "categories": [], "seealso": ["All pages beginning with Austin", "Justice Austin (disambiguation)", "Austinburg (disambiguation)", "Augustine (disambiguation)", "August (disambiguation)", "Austen (disambiguation)", "Augustin (disambiguation)", "Austins (disambiguation)", "Austin station (disambiguation)"]}
+{"headers": [], "text": "'''Animation''' is a method in which [[Image|figures]] are manipulated to appear as moving images. In [[traditional animation]], images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent [[cel|celluloid sheets]] to be photographed and exhibited on [[film]]. Today, most animations are made with [[computer-generated imagery]] (CGI). [[Computer animation]] can be very detailed [[Computer animation#Animation methods|3D animation]], while [[Traditional animation#Computers and traditional animation|2D computer animation]] (which may have the look of traditional animation) can be used for stylistic reasons, low bandwidth, or faster [[real-time rendering]]. Other common animation methods apply a [[stop motion]] technique to two and three-dimensional objects like [[cutout animation|paper cutouts]], [[puppet]], or [[Clay animation|clay figures]]. Commonly, the effect of animation is achieved by a rapid succession of sequential images that minimally differ from each other. The illusion—as in motion pictures in general—is thought to rely on the [[phi phenomenon]] and [[beta movement]], but the exact causes are still uncertain. [[Analog device|Analog]] mechanical animation media that rely on the rapid display of sequential images include the [[phenakistiscope|phénakisticope]], [[zoetrope]], [[flip book]], [[praxinoscope]], and film. [[Television]] and [[video]] are popular electronic animation media that originally were analog and now operate [[digital media|digitally]]. For display on the computer, techniques like [[animated GIF]] and [[Flash animation]] were developed. Animation is more pervasive than many people know. Apart from [[short films]], [[feature films]], [[Television show|television series]], animated GIFs, and other media dedicated to the display of moving images, animation is also prevalent in [[video game]], [[motion graphics]], [[user interface]], and [[visual effects]]. The physical movement of image parts through simple mechanics—for instance moving images in [[magic lantern]] shows—can also be considered animation. The mechanical manipulation of three-dimensional puppets and objects to emulate living beings has a very long history in [[automaton|automata]]. Electronic automata were popularized by [[Disney]] as [[animatronics]]. [[Animator]] are artists who specialize in creating animation.", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The word \"animation\" stems from the Latin \"animātiōn\", stem of \"animātiō\", meaning \"a bestowing of life\". The primary meaning of the English word is \"liveliness\" and has been in use much longer than the meaning of \"moving image medium\".", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Before cinematography"], "text": "Hundreds of years before the introduction of true animation, people from all over the world enjoyed shows with moving figures that were created and manipulated manually in [[puppetry]], [[automaton|automata]], [[shadow play]], and the [[magic lantern]]. The multi-media [[phantasmagoria]] shows that were very popular in West-European theatres from the late 18th century through the first half of the 19th century, featured lifelike projections of moving ghosts and other frightful imagery in motion. In 1833, the [[stroboscope|stroboscopic]] disc (better known as the [[phenakistiscope|phénakisticope]]) introduced the principle of modern animation with sequential images that were shown one by one in quick succession to form an optical illusion of motion pictures. Series of sequential images had occasionally been made over thousands of years, but the stroboscopic disc provided the first method to represent such images in fluent motion and for the first time had artists creating series with a proper systematic breakdown of movements. The stroboscopic animation principle was also applied in the [[zoetrope]] (1866), the [[flip book]] (1868) and the [[praxinoscope]] (1877). The average 19th-century animation contained about 12 images that were displayed as a continuous loop by spinning a device manually. The flip book often contained more pictures and had a beginning and end, but its animation would not last longer than a few seconds. The first to create much longer sequences seems to have been [[Charles-Émile Reynaud]], who between 1892 and 1900 had much success with his 10- to 15-minute-long ''[[Théâtre Optique|Pantomimes Lumineuses]]''.", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Silent era"], "text": "When [[cinematography]] eventually broke through in 1895 after animated pictures had been known for decades, the wonder of the realistic details in the new medium was seen as its biggest accomplishment. Animation on film was not commercialized until a few years later by manufacturers of optical toys, with [[chromolithography]] film loops (often traced from live-action footage) for adapted toy magic lanterns intended for kids to use at home. It would take some more years before animation reached movie theaters. After earlier experiments by movie pioneers [[J. Stuart Blackton]], [[Arthur Melbourne-Cooper]], [[Segundo de Chomón]], and [[Edwin S. Porter]] (among others), Blackton's ''The Haunted Hotel'' (1907) was the first huge [[stop motion]] success, baffling audiences by showing objects that apparently moved by themselves in full photographic detail, without signs of any known stage trick. [[Émile Cohl]]'s ''[[Fantasmagorie (1908 film)|Fantasmagorie]]'' (1908) is the oldest known example of what became known as [[traditional animation|traditional (hand-drawn) animation]]. Other great artistic and very influential short films were created by [[Ladislas Starevich]] with his puppet animations since 1910 and by [[Winsor McCay]] with detailed drawn animation in films such as ''[[Little Nemo (1911 film)|Little Nemo]]'' (1911) and ''[[Gertie the Dinosaur]]'' (1914). During the 1910s, the production of animated \"[[cartoons]]\" became an industry in the US. Successful producer [[John Randolph Bray]] and animator [[Earl Hurd]], patented the [[cel animation]] process that dominated the animation industry for the rest of the century. [[Felix the Cat]], who debuted in 1919, became the first animated superstar.", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "American golden age"], "text": "In 1928, ''[[Steamboat Willie]]'', featuring [[Mickey Mouse]] and [[Minnie Mouse]], popularized film with synchronized sound and put [[Walt Disney]]'s studio at the forefront of the animation industry. In 1932, Disney also introduced the innovation of full color (in ''[[Flowers and Trees]]'') as part of a three-year-long exclusive deal with [[Technicolor]]. The enormous success of Mickey Mouse is seen as the start of the [[golden age of American animation]] that would last until the 1960s. The United States dominated the world market of animation with a plethora of cel-animated theatrical shorts. Several studios would introduce characters that would become very popular and would have long-lasting careers, including [[Walt Disney Productions]]' [[Goofy]] (1932) and [[Donald Duck]] (1934), [[Warner Bros. Cartoons]]' [[Looney Tunes]] characters like [[Daffy Duck]] (1937), [[Bugs Bunny]] (1938/1940), [[Tweety]] (1941/1942), [[Sylvester the Cat]] (1945), [[Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner]] (1949), [[Fleischer Studios]]/[[Paramount Cartoon Studios]]' [[Betty Boop]] (1930), [[Popeye#Theatrical animated cartoons|Popeye]] (1933), [[Superman (1940s cartoons)|Superman]] (1941) and [[Casper the friendly ghost|Casper]] (1945), [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio|MGM cartoon studio]]'s [[Tom and Jerry]] (1940) and [[Droopy]], [[Walter Lantz Productions]]/[[Universal Studio Cartoons]]' [[Woody Woodpecker]] (1940), [[Terrytoons]]/[[20th Century Fox]]'s [[Mighty Mouse]] (1942) and [[United Artists]]' [[Pink Panther (character)|Pink Panther]] (1963).", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Features before CGI"], "text": "In 1917, Italian-Argentine director [[Quirino Cristiani]] made the first feature-length film ''[[El Apóstol]]'' (now [[lost film|lost]]), which became a critical and commercial success. It was followed by Cristiani's ''[[Sin dejar rastros]]'' in 1918, but one day after its premiere the film was confiscated by the government. After working on it for three years, [[Lotte Reiniger]] released the German feature-length [[silhouette animation]] ''[[Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed]]'' in 1926, the oldest extant animated feature. In 1937, [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney Studios]] premiered their first animated feature, ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]'', still one of the highest-grossing traditional animation features . The Fleischer studios followed this example in 1939 with ''[[Gulliver's Travels (1939 film)|Gulliver's Travels]]'' with some success. Partly due to foreign markets being cut off by the Second World War, Disney's next features ''[[Pinocchio (1940 film)|Pinocchio]]'', ''[[Fantasia (1940 film)|Fantasia]]'' (both 1940) and Fleischer Studios' second animated feature ''[[Mr. Bug Goes to Town]]'' (1941/1942) failed at the box office. For decades afterwards Disney would be the only American studio to regularly produce animated features, until [[Ralph Bakshi]] became the first to also release more than a handful features. Sullivan-Bluth Studios began to regularly produce animated features starting with ''[[An American Tail]]'' in 1986. Although relatively few titles became as successful as Disney's features, other countries developed their own animation industries that produced both short and feature theatrical animations in a wide variety of styles, relatively often including [[stop motion]] and [[cutout animation]] techniques. Russia's [[Soyuzmultfilm]] animation studio, founded in 1936, produced 20 films (including shorts) per year on average and reached 1,582 titles in 2018. China, Czechoslovakia / Czech Republic, Italy, France and Belgium were other countries that more than occasionally released feature films, while Japan became a true powerhouse of animation production, with its own recognizable and influential [[anime]] style of effective [[limited animation]].", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Television"], "text": "Animation became very popular on television since the 1950s, when television sets started to become common in most developed countries. Cartoons were mainly programmed for children, on convenient time slots, and especially US youth spent many hours watching [[Saturday-morning cartoon]]. Many classic cartoons found a new life on the small screen and by the end of the 1950s, production of new animated cartoons started to shift from theatrical releases to TV series. [[Hanna-Barbera Productions]] was especially prolific and had huge hit series, such as ''[[The Flintstones]]'' (1960–1966) (the first [[prime time]] animated series), ''[[Scooby-Doo]]'' (since 1969) and Belgian co-production ''[[The Smurfs (TV series)|The Smurfs]]'' (1981–1989). The constraints of American television programming and the demand for an enormous quantity resulted in cheaper and quicker [[limited animation]] methods and much more formulaic scripts. Quality dwindled until more daring animation surfaced in the late 1980s and in the early 1990s with hit series such as ''[[The Simpsons]]'' (since 1989) as part of a \"renaissance\" of American animation. While US animated series also spawned successes internationally, many other countries produced their own child-oriented programming, relatively often preferring [[stop motion]] and [[puppetry]] over cel animation. Japanese [[anime]] TV series became very successful internationally since the 1960s, and European producers looking for affordable cel animators relatively often started co-productions with Japanese studios, resulting in hit series such as ''[[Barbapapa]]'' (The Netherlands/Japan/France 1973–1977), ''[[Vicky the Viking|Wickie und die starken Männer/小さなバイキング ビッケ (Vicky the Viking)]]'' (Austria/Germany/Japan 1974), and ''[[The Jungle Book (1989 TV series)|The Jungle Book]]'' (Italy/Japan 1989).", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Switch from cels to computers"], "text": "[[Computer animation]] was gradually developed since the 1940s. 3D wireframe animation started popping up in the mainstream in the 1970s, with an early (short) appearance in the sci-fi thriller ''[[Futureworld]]'' (1976). ''[[The Rescuers Down Under]]'' was the first feature film to be completely created digitally without a camera. It was produced in a style that's very similar to traditional cel animation on the [[Computer Animation Production System]] (CAPS), developed by [[The Walt Disney Company]] in collaboration with [[Pixar]] in the late 1980s. The so-called 3D style, more often associated with computer animation, has become extremely popular since Pixar's ''[[Toy Story]]'' (1995), the first computer-animated feature in this style. Most of the cel animation studios switched to producing mostly computer animated films around the 1990s, as it proved cheaper and more profitable. Not only the very popular 3D animation style was generated with computers, but also most of the films and series with a more traditional hand-crafted appearance, in which the charming characteristics of cel animation could be emulated with software, while new digital tools helped developing new styles and effects.", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Economic status"], "text": "In 2008, the animation market was worth US$68.4 billion. Animated feature-length films returned the highest [[gross margin]] (around 52%) of all [[film genre]] between 2004 and 2013. Animation as an art and industry continues to thrive as of the early 2020s.", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Education, propaganda and commercials"], "text": "The clarity of animation makes it a powerful tool for instruction, while its total malleability also allows exaggeration that can be employed to convey strong emotions and to thwart reality. It has therefore been widely used for other purposes than mere entertainment. During World War II, animation was widely exploited for propaganda. [[World War II and American animation|Many American studios]], including Warner Bros. and Disney, lent their talents and their cartoon characters to convey the public of certain war values. Some countries, including China, Japan and the United Kingdom, produced their first feature-length animation for their war efforts. Animation has been very popular in television commercials, both due to its graphic appeal, and the humour it can provide. Some animated characters in commercials have survived for decades, such as [[Snap, Crackle and Pop]] in advertisements for Kellogg's cereals. The legendary animation director [[Tex Avery]] was the producer of the first [[Raid (insecticide)|Raid]] \"[[Kills Bugs Dead]]\" commercials in 1966, which were very successful for the company.", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Other media, merchandise and theme parks"], "text": "Apart from their success in movie theaters and television series, many cartoon characters would also prove extremely lucrative when licensed for all kinds of merchandise and for other media. Animation has traditionally been very closely related to [[comic book]]. While many comic book characters found their way to the screen (which is often the case in Japan, where many [[manga]] are adapted into [[anime]]), original animated characters also commonly appear in comic books and magazines. Somewhat similarly, characters and plots for [[video game]] (an interactive animation medium) have been derived from films and vice versa. Some of the original content produced for the screen can be used and marketed in other media. Stories and images can easily be adapted into children's books and other printed media. Songs and music have appeared on records and as streaming media. While very many animation companies commercially exploit their creations outside moving image media, [[The Walt Disney Company]] is the best known and most extreme example. Since first being licensed for a children's writing tablet in 1929, their [[Mickey Mouse]] mascot has been [[Mickey Mouse#Merchandising|depicted on an enormous amount of products]], as have many other Disney characters. This may have influenced some [[Mickey Mouse#pejorative use of Mickey's name|pejorative use of Mickey's name]], but [[Disney Consumer Products|licensed Disney products]] sell well, and the so-called [[Disneyana]] has many avid collectors, and even a dedicated Disneyana fanclub (since 1984). [[Disneyland]] opened in 1955 and features many attractions that were based on Disney's cartoon characters. Its enormous success spawned several other [[Disney Parks, Experiences and Products#Disney resorts|Disney theme parks and resorts]]. [[The Walt Disney Company#Financial data|Disney's earnings]] from the theme parks have relatively often been higher than those from their movies.", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Criticism"], "text": "Criticism of animation has been common in media and cinema since its inception. With its popularity, a large amount of criticism has arisen, especially animated feature-length films. Many concerns of cultural representation, psychological effects on children have been brought up around the animation industry, which has remained rather politically unchanged and stagnant since its inception into mainstream culture.", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Awards"], "text": "As with any other form of media, animation has instituted awards for excellence in the field. The original awards for animation were presented by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] for animated shorts from the year 1932, during the 5th [[Academy Awards]] function. The first winner of the [[5th Academy Awards|Academy Award]] was the short ''Flowers and Trees'', a production by [[Walt Disney Productions]]. The Academy Award for a feature-length animated motion picture was only instituted for the year 2001, and awarded during the 74th Academy Awards in 2002. It was won by the film ''[[Shrek]]'', produced by [[DreamWorks Animation|DreamWorks]] and [[Pacific Data Images]]. [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Disney Animation]] and [[Pixar]] has produced the most films either to win or be nominated for the award. ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'' was the first animated film nominated for Best Picture. ''[[Up (2009 film)|Up]]'' and ''[[Toy Story 3]]'' also received Best Picture nominations after the Academy expanded the number of nominees from five to ten. (-) [[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature]] (-) [[Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film]] Several other countries have instituted an award for the best-animated feature film as part of their national film awards: [[Africa Movie Academy Award for Best Animation]] (since 2008), [[BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film]] (since 2006), [[César Award for Best Animated Film]] (since 2011), [[Golden Rooster Award for Best Animation]] (since 1981), [[Goya Award for Best Animated Film]] (since 1989), [[Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year]] (since 2007), [[National Film Award for Best Animated Film]] (since 2006). Also since 2007, the [[Asia Pacific Screen Award for Best Animated Feature Film]] has been awarded at the [[Asia Pacific Screen Awards]]. Since 2009, the [[European Film Awards]] have awarded the [[European Film Award for Best Animated Film]]. The [[Annie Award]] is another award presented for excellence in the field of animation. Unlike the Academy Awards, the Annie Awards are only received for achievements in the field of animation and not for any other field of technical and artistic endeavour. They were re-organized in 1992 to create a new field for Best Animated Feature. The 1990s winners were dominated by Walt Disney; however, newer studios, led by Pixar & DreamWorks, have now begun to consistently vie for this award. The list of awardees is as follows: (-) [[Annie Award for Best Animated Feature]] (-) [[Annie Award for Best Animated Short Subject]] (-) [[Annie Award for Best Animated Television Production]]", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Production"], "text": "The creation of non-trivial animation works (i.e., longer than a few seconds) has developed as a form of [[filmmaking]], with certain unique aspects. Traits common to both live-action and animated [[Feature film|feature-length films]] are labor intensity and high production costs. The most important difference is that once a film is in the production phase, the [[marginal cost]] of one more shot is higher for animated films than live-action films. It is relatively easy for a director to ask for one more [[take]] during [[principal photography]] of a live-action film, but every take on an animated film must be manually rendered by animators (although the task of rendering slightly different takes has been made less tedious by modern computer animation). It is pointless for a studio to pay the salaries of dozens of animators to spend weeks creating a visually dazzling five-minute scene if that scene fails to effectively advance the plot of the film. Thus, animation studios starting with Disney began the practice in the 1930s of maintaining story departments where [[storyboard artist]] develop every single scene through [[storyboard]], then handing the film over to the animators only after the production team is satisfied that all the scenes make sense as a whole. While live-action films are now also storyboarded, they enjoy more latitude to depart from storyboards (i.e., real-time improvisation). Another problem unique to animation is the requirement to maintain a film's consistency from start to finish, even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger. Animators, like all artists, necessarily have individual styles, but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to whatever style is employed on a particular film. Since the early 1980s, teams of about 500 to 600 people, of whom 50 to 70 are animators, typically have created feature-length animated films. It is relatively easy for two or three artists to match their styles; synchronizing those of dozens of artists is more difficult. This problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before the animation begins. Character designers on the visual development team draw [[model sheet]] to show how each character should look like with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles. On traditionally animated projects, [[maquette]] were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles. Unlike live-action films, animated films were traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage through the storyboard format; the storyboard artists would then receive credit for writing the film. In the early 1960s, animation studios began hiring professional screenwriters to write screenplays (while also continuing to use story departments) and screenplays had become commonplace for animated films by the late 1980s.", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Techniques", "Traditional"], "text": "'''Traditional animation''' (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) was the process used for most animated films of the 20th century. The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on paper. To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called [[cel]], which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings. The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by a [[rostrum camera]] onto motion picture film. The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century. Today, animators' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system. Various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects. The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery media, including traditional [[35 mm movie film|35 mm film]] and newer media with [[digital video]]. The \"look\" of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the [[Character animation|character animator]]' work has remained essentially the same over the past 70 years. Some animation producers have used the term \"[[tradigital art|tradigital]]\" (a play on the words \"traditional\" and \"digital\") to describe cel animation that uses significant computer technology. Examples of traditionally animated feature films include ''[[Pinocchio (1940 film)|Pinocchio]]'' (United States, 1940), ''[[Animal Farm (1954 film)|Animal Farm]]'' (United Kingdom, 1954), ''[[Lucky and Zorba]]'' (Italy, 1998), and ''[[The Illusionist (2010 film)|The Illusionist]]'' (British-French, 2010). Traditionally animated films produced with the aid of computer technology include ''[[The Lion King]]'' (US, 1994), ''[[The Prince of Egypt]]'' (US, 1998), ''[[Akira (1988 film)|Akira]]'' (Japan, 1988), ''[[Spirited Away]]'' (Japan, 2001), ''[[The Triplets of Belleville]]'' (France, 2003), and ''[[The Secret of Kells]]'' (Irish-French-Belgian, 2009).", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Techniques", "Traditional", "Full"], "text": "'''Full animation''' refers to the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement, having a smooth animation. Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works like those produced by the [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney studio]] (''[[The Little Mermaid (1989 film)|The Little Mermaid]]'', ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'', ''[[Aladdin (1992 Disney film)|Aladdin]]'', ''The Lion King'') to the more 'cartoon' styles of the [[Warner Bros. Cartoons|Warner Bros. animation studio]]. Many of the [[Disney animated features]] are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works, ''[[The Secret of NIMH]]'' (US, 1982), ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' (US, 1999), and ''[[Nocturna (Film)|Nocturna]]'' (Spain, 2007). Fully animated films are animated at 24 frames per second, with a combination of animation on ones and twos, meaning that drawings can be held for one frame out of 24 or two frames out of 24.", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Techniques", "Traditional", "Limited"], "text": "'''[[Limited animation]]''' involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings and methods of movement usually a choppy or \"skippy\" movement animation. Limited animation uses fewer drawings per second, thereby limiting the fluidity of the animation. This is a more economic technique. Pioneered by the artists at the American studio [[United Productions of America]], limited animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as in ''[[Gerald McBoing-Boing]]'' (US, 1951), ''[[Yellow Submarine (1968 film)|Yellow Submarine]]'' (UK, 1968), and certain [[anime]] produced in Japan. Its primary use, however, has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media for television (the work of Hanna-Barbera, [[Filmation]], and other TV animation studios) and later the [[Internet]] ([[web cartoon]]).", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Techniques", "Traditional", "Rotoscoping"], "text": "'''Rotoscoping''' is a technique patented by [[Max Fleischer]] in 1917 where animators trace live-action movement, frame by frame. The source film can be directly copied from actors' outlines into animated drawings, as in ''[[The Lord of the Rings (1978 film)|The Lord of the Rings]]'' (US, 1978), or used in a stylized and expressive manner, as in ''[[Waking Life]]'' (US, 2001) and ''[[A Scanner Darkly (film)|A Scanner Darkly]]'' (US, 2006). Some other examples are ''[[Fire and Ice (1983 film)|Fire and Ice]]'' (US, 1983), ''[[Heavy Metal (film)|Heavy Metal]]'' (1981), and ''[[The Flowers of Evil (manga)|Aku no Hana]]'' (Japan, 2013).", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Techniques", "Traditional", "Live-action blending"], "text": "'''[[List of films with live action and animation|Live-action/animation]]''' is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots or live-action actors into animated shots. One of the earlier uses was in [[Koko the Clown]] when Koko was drawn over live-action footage. Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks created a series of ''[[Alice Comedies]]'' (1923–1927), in which a live-action girl enters an animated world. Other examples include ''[[Allegro Non Troppo]]'' (Italy, 1976), ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'' (US, 1988), ''[[Volere volare]]'' (Italy 1991), ''[[Space Jam]]'' (US, 1996) and ''[[Osmosis Jones]]'' (US, 2001).", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Techniques", "Stop motion"], "text": "'''Stop-motion animation''' is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement. There are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the medium used to create the animation. Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation; traditional stop-motion animation is usually less expensive but more time-consuming to produce than current computer animation. (-) '''[[Puppet animation]]''' typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting in a constructed environment, in contrast to real-world interaction in model animation. The puppets generally have an [[armature (sculpture)|armature]] inside of them to keep them still and steady to constrain their motion to particular joints. Examples include ''[[The Tale of the Fox]]'' (France, 1937), ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas]]'' (US, 1993), ''[[Corpse Bride]]'' (US, 2005), ''[[Coraline (film)|Coraline]]'' (US, 2009), the films of [[Jiří Trnka]] and the adult animated sketch-comedy television series ''[[Robot Chicken]]'' (US, 2005–present). (-) '''[[Puppetoon]]''', created using techniques developed by [[George Pal]], are puppet-animated films that typically use a different version of a puppet for different frames, rather than simply manipulating one existing puppet.  (-) '''[[Clay animation]]''', or [[Plasticine]] animation (often called ''claymation'', which, however, is a [[Laika (company)|trademarked]] name), uses figures made of clay or a similar malleable material to create stop-motion animation. The figures may have an [[armature (sculpture)|armature]] or wire frame inside, similar to the related puppet animation (below), that can be manipulated to pose the figures. Alternatively, the figures may be made entirely of clay, in the films of [[Bruce Bickford (animator)|Bruce Bickford]], where clay creatures morph into a variety of different shapes. Examples of clay-animated works include ''The [[Gumby]] Show'' (US, 1957–1967), ''[[Mio Mao]]'' (Italy, 1974–2005), ''[[Morph (animation)|Morph]]'' shorts (UK, 1977–2000), ''[[Wallace and Gromit]]'' shorts (UK, as of 1989), [[Jan Švankmajer]]'s ''[[Dimensions of Dialogue]]'' ([[Czechoslovakia]], 1982), ''[[The Trap Door]]'' (UK, 1984). Films include ''[[Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit]]'', ''[[Chicken Run]]'' and ''[[The Adventures of Mark Twain (1985 film)|The Adventures of Mark Twain]]''. (-) '''[[Strata-cut animation]]''', Strata-cut animation is most commonly a form of clay animation in which a long bread-like \"loaf\" of clay, internally packed tight and loaded with varying imagery, is sliced into thin sheets, with the animation camera taking a frame of the end of the loaf for each cut, eventually revealing the movement of the internal images within. (-) '''[[Cutout animation]]''' is a type of stop-motion animation produced by moving two-dimensional pieces of material paper or cloth. Examples include [[Terry Gilliam]]'s animated sequences from ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' (UK, 1969–1974); ''[[Fantastic Planet]]'' (France/Czechoslovakia, 1973); ''[[Tale of Tales (1979 film)|Tale of Tales]]'' (Russia, 1979), The pilot episode of the adult television sitcom series (and sometimes in episodes) of ''[[South Park]]'' (US, 1997) and the music video Live for the moment, from Verona Riots band (produced by Alberto Serrano and Nívola Uyá, Spain 2014).", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Techniques", "Stop motion"], "text": "(-) '''[[Silhouette animation]]''' is a variant of cutout animation in which the characters are backlit and only visible as silhouettes. Examples include ''[[The Adventures of Prince Achmed]]'' ([[Weimar Republic]], 1926) and ''[[Princes et Princesses]]'' (France, 2000). (-) '''[[Model animation]]''' refers to stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world. Intercutting, [[matte (filmmaking)|matte]] effects and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings. Examples include the work of [[Ray Harryhausen]], as seen in films, ''[[Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film)|Jason and the Argonauts]]'' (1963), and the work of [[Willis H. O'Brien]] on films, ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'' (1933). (-) '''[[Go motion]]''' is a variant of model animation that uses various techniques to create [[motion blur]] between frames of film, which is not present in traditional stop motion. The technique was invented by [[Industrial Light & Magic]] and [[Phil Tippett]] to create [[special effect]] scenes for the film ''[[The Empire Strikes Back]]'' (1980). Another example is the dragon named \"Vermithrax\" from 1981 film ''[[Dragonslayer (1981 film)|Dragonslayer]]''. (-) '''[[Object animation]]''' refers to the use of regular inanimate objects in stop-motion animation, as opposed to specially created items. (-) '''[[Graphic animation]]''' uses non-drawn flat visual graphic material (photographs, newspaper clippings, magazines, etc.), which are sometimes manipulated frame by frame to create movement. At other times, the graphics remain stationary, while the stop-motion camera is moved to create on-screen action. (-) '''[[Brickfilm]]''' are a subgenre of object animation involving using [[Lego]] or other similar brick toys to make an animation. These have had a recent boost in popularity with the advent of video sharing sites, [[YouTube]] and the availability of cheap cameras and [[animation software]]. (-) '''[[Pixilation]]''' involves the use of live humans as stop-motion characters. This allows for a number of surreal effects, including disappearances and reappearances, allowing people to appear to slide across the ground, and other effects. Examples of pixilation include ''[[The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb]]'' and ''[[Angry Kid]]'' shorts, and the [[Academy Award]]-winning ''[[Neighbours (1952 film)|Neighbours]]'' by [[Norman McLaren]].", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Techniques", "Computer"], "text": "'''Computer animation''' encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer. 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact. 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer.", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Techniques", "Computer", "2D"], "text": "[[2D computer graphics|2D animation]] figures are created or edited on the computer using 2D [[Raster graphics|bitmap graphics]] and 2D [[vector graphics]]. This includes automated computerized versions of traditional animation techniques, [[Interpolation|interpolated]] [[morphing]], [[onion skinning]] and interpolated rotoscoping. 2D animation has many applications, including [[Scanimate|analog computer animation]], [[Flash animation]], and [[PowerPoint animation]]. [[Cinemagraph]] are [[Still life photography|still photographs]] in the form of an [[animated GIF]] file of which part is animated. Final line [[advection]] animation is a technique used in 2D animation, to give artists and animators more influence and control over the final product as everything is done within the same department. Speaking about using this approach in ''[[Paperman]]'', John Kahrs said that \"Our animators can change things, actually erase away the CG underlayer if they want, and change the profile of the arm.\"", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Techniques", "Computer", "3D"], "text": "3D animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. The 3D model maker usually starts by creating a 3D [[polygon mesh]] for the animator to manipulate. A mesh typically includes many vertices that are connected by edges and faces, which give the visual appearance of form to a 3D object or 3D environment. Sometimes, the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure called an [[Armature (computer animation)|armature]] that can be used to control the mesh by weighting the vertices. This process is called rigging and can be used in conjunction with [[key frame]] to create movement. Other techniques can be applied, mathematical functions (e.g., gravity, particle simulations), simulated fur or hair, and effects, fire and [[fluid animation|water simulations]]. These techniques fall under the category of 3D dynamics.", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Techniques", "Computer", "3D", "Terms"], "text": "(-) '''[[Cel-shaded animation]]''' is used to mimic traditional animation using computer software. Shading looks stark, with less blending of colors. Examples include ''[[Skyland]]'' (2007, France), ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' (1999, United States), ''[[Futurama]]'' (1999, United States) ''[[Appleseed Ex Machina]]'' (2007, Japan), ''[[The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker]]'' (2002, Japan), ''[[The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild]]'' (2017, Japan) (-) '''[[Machinima]]''' – Films created by screen capturing in video games and virtual worlds. The term originated from the software introduction in the 1980s [[demoscene]], as well as the 1990s recordings of the [[first-person shooter]] video game ''[[Quake (video game)|Quake]]''. (-) '''[[Motion capture]]''' is used when live-action actors wear special suits that allow computers to copy their movements into CG characters. Examples include ''[[The Polar Express (film)|Polar Express]]'' (2004, US), ''[[Beowulf (2007 film)|Beowulf]]'' (2007, US), ''[[A Christmas Carol (2009 film)|A Christmas Carol]]'' (2009, US), ''[[The Adventures of Tintin (film)|The Adventures of Tintin]]'' (2011, US) ''[[Kochadaiiyaan|kochadiiyan]]'' (2014, India) (-) '''[[Computer animation]]''' is used primarily for animation that attempts to resemble real life, using advanced rendering that mimics in detail skin, plants, water, fire, clouds, etc. Examples include ''[[Up (2009 film)|Up]]'' (2009, US), ''[[How to Train Your Dragon (film)|How to Train Your Dragon]]'' (2010, US) (-) '''[[Physically based animation]]''' is animation using [[computer simulation]].", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Techniques", "Mechanical"], "text": "(-) '''[[Animatronics]]''' is the use of [[mechatronics]] to create machines that seem animate rather than robotic. (-) '''[[Audio-Animatronics]] and Autonomatronics''' is a form of [[robotics]] animation, combined with 3-D animation, created by [[Walt Disney Imagineering]] for shows and attractions at Disney theme parks move and make noise (generally a recorded speech or song). They are fixed to whatever supports them. They can sit and stand, and they cannot walk. An Audio-Animatron is different from an [[android (robot)|android]]-type robot in that it uses prerecorded movements and sounds, rather than responding to external stimuli. In 2009, Disney created an interactive version of the technology called Autonomatronics. (-) '''Linear Animation Generator''' is a form of animation by using static picture frames installed in a tunnel or a shaft. The animation illusion is created by putting the viewer in a linear motion, parallel to the installed picture frames. The concept and the technical solution were invented in 2007 by Mihai Girlovan in Romania. (-) '''[[Chuckimation]]''' is a type of animation created by the makers of the television series ''[[Action League Now!]]'' in which characters/props are thrown, or chucked from off camera or wiggled around to simulate talking by unseen hands. (-) The '''[[Magic lantern#Moving images|magic lantern]]''' used mechanical slides to project moving images, probably since [[Christiaan Huygens]] invented this early image projector in 1659.", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": ["Techniques", "Other"], "text": "(-) '''Hydrotechnics''': a technique that includes lights, water, fire, fog, and lasers, with high-definition projections on mist screens. (-) '''[[Drawn on film animation]]''': a technique where footage is produced by creating the images directly on [[film stock]]; for example, by [[Norman McLaren]], [[Len Lye]] and [[Stan Brakhage]]. (-) '''[[Paint-on-glass animation]]''': a technique for making animated films by manipulating slow drying [[oil paint]] on sheets of glass, for example by [[Aleksandr Petrov (animator)|Aleksandr Petrov]]. (-) '''Erasure animation''': a technique using traditional 2D media, photographed over time as the artist manipulates the image. For example, [[William Kentridge]] is famous for his [[charcoal]] erasure films, and [[Piotr Dumała]] for his auteur technique of animating scratches on plaster. (-) '''[[Pinscreen animation]]''': makes use of a screen filled with movable pins that can be moved in or out by pressing an object onto the screen. The screen is lit from the side so that the pins cast shadows. The technique has been used to create animated films with a range of textural effects difficult to achieve with traditional cel animation. (-) '''[[Sand animation]]''': sand is moved around on a back- or front-[[light]] piece of glass to create each frame for an animated film. This creates an interesting effect when animated because of the light [[Contrast (vision)|contrast]]. (-) '''[[Flip book]]''': a flip book (sometimes, especially in British English, called a flick book) is a book with a series of pictures that vary gradually from one page to the next, so that when the pages are turned rapidly, the pictures appear to animate by simulating motion or some other change. Flip books are often illustrated books for children, they also be geared towards adults and employ a series of photographs rather than drawings. Flip books are not always separate books, they appear as an added feature in ordinary books or magazines, often in the page corners. Software packages and websites are also available that convert digital video files into custom-made flip books. (-) '''[[Character animation]]''' (-) '''[[Multi-sketch]]''' (-) '''[[Special effect]] animation'''", "id": "593", "title": "Animation", "categories": ["Animation", "Cartooning", "Articles containing video clips", "Film and video technology"], "seealso": ["Avar", "International Animated Film Association", "Animated war film", "List of film-related topics", "International Tournée of Animation", "Independent animation", "Society for Animation Studies", "Motion graphic design", "Twelve basic principles of animation", "International Animation Day", "Animation department", "Architectural animation", "Wire-frame model"]}
+{"headers": [], "text": "'''Apollo''' is one of the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian deities]] in [[Ancient Greek religion|classical Greek]] and [[Ancient Roman religion|Roman religion]] and [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]]. The national divinity of the Greeks, Apollo has been recognized as a god of archery, music and dance, truth and prophecy, healing and diseases, the [[Sun]] and light, poetry, and more. One of the most important and complex of the Greek gods, he is the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]], and the twin brother of [[Artemis]], goddess of the hunt. Seen as the most beautiful god and the ideal of the ''[[kouros]]'' (ephebe, or a beardless, athletic youth), Apollo is considered to be the most Greek of all the gods. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced [[Etruscan mythology]] as ''Apulu''. As the patron deity of [[Delphi]] (''Apollo Pythios''), Apollo is an [[oracular]] god—the prophetic [[deity]] of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]]. Apollo is the god who affords help and wards off evil; various epithets call him the \"averter of evil\". Delphic Apollo is the patron of seafarers, foreigners and the protector of fugitives and refugees. Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son [[Asclepius]]. Apollo delivered people from epidemics, yet he is also a god who could bring ill-health and deadly [[Plague (disease)|plague]] with his arrows. The invention of archery itself is credited to Apollo and his sister Artemis. Apollo is usually described as carrying a golden bow and a quiver of silver arrows. Apollo's capacity to make youths grow is one of the best attested facets of his panhellenic cult persona. As the protector of young (''kourotrophos''), Apollo is concerned with the health and education of children. He presided over their passage into adulthood. Long hair, which was the prerogative of boys, was cut at the coming of age (ephebeia) and dedicated to Apollo. Apollo is an important pastoral deity, and was the patron of herdsmen and shepherds. Protection of herds, flocks and crops from diseases, pests and predators were his primary duties. On the other hand, Apollo also encouraged founding new towns and establishment of civil constitution. He is associated with dominion over [[Colonies in antiquity|colonists]]. He was the giver of laws, and his oracles were consulted before setting laws in a city. As the god of ''mousike'' Apollo presides over all music, songs, dance and poetry. He is the inventor of string-music, and the frequent companion of the Muses, functioning as their chorus leader in celebrations. The lyre is a common [[Apollo#Attributes and symbols|attribute of Apollo]]. In Hellenistic times, especially during the 5th century BCE, as ''Apollo Helios'' he became identified among Greeks with [[Helios]], the personification of the sun. In Latin texts, however, there was no [[conflation]] of Apollo with [[Sol (Roman mythology)|Sol]] among the classical Latin poets until 1st century CE. Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 5th century CE.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "Apollo ([[Attic Greek|Attic]], [[Ionic Greek|Ionic]], and [[Homeric Greek]]: , ''Apollōn'' ( ); [[Doric Greek|Doric]]: , ''Apellōn''; [[Arcadocypriot Greek|Arcadocypriot]]: , ''Apeilōn''; [[Aeolic Greek|Aeolic]]: , ''Aploun''; ) The name ''Apollo''—unlike the related [[List of Mycenaean deities|older name]] ''Paean''—is generally not found in the [[Linear B]] ([[Mycenean Greek]]) texts, although there is a possible attestation in the [[Lacuna (manuscripts)|lacunose]] form '']pe-rjo-['' (Linear B: ]-[) on the [[Knossos|KN]] E 842 tablet. The [[etymology]] of the name is uncertain. The spelling ( in [[Attic Greek|Classical Attic]]) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the [[common era]], but the [[Dorians|Doric]] form, ''Apellon'' (), is more archaic, as it is derived from an earlier . It probably is a cognate to the Doric month ''Apellaios'' (), and the offerings [[apellaia]] () at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival [[apellai]] (). According to some scholars, the words are derived from the Doric word ''apella'' (), which originally meant \"wall,\" \"fence for animals\" and later \"assembly within the limits of the square.\" [[Apella]] () is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta, corresponding to the ''[[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|ecclesia]]'' (). [[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]] rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun ''apellai'' and suggested a [[Pre-Greek]] proto-form *''Apalun''. Several instances of [[popular etymology]] are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb (''apollymi''), \"to destroy\". [[Plato]] in ''[[Cratylus]]'' connects the name with (''apolysis''), \"redemption\", with (''apolousis''), \"purification\", and with (''[h]aploun''), \"simple\", in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, , and finally with (''aeiballon''), \"ever-shooting\". [[Hesychius of Alexandria|Hesychius]] connects the name Apollo with the Doric (''apella''), which means \"assembly\", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation (''sekos''), \"fold\", in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. In the [[ancient Macedonian language]] (''pella'') means \"stone,\" and some [[toponyms]] may be derived from this word: ([[Pella]], the capital of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|ancient Macedonia]]) and (''Pellēnē''/''[[Pallini|Pallene]]''). A number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name, The [[Hittite language|Hittite]] form ''[[Apaliunas]]'' ('''') is attested in the [[Manapa-Tarhunta letter]], perhaps related to [[Hurrian]] (and certainly the [[List of Etruscan mythological figures|Etruscan]]) ''[[Aplu (deity)|Aplu]]'', a god of plague, in turn likely from [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ''Aplu Enlil'' meaning simply \"the son of [[Enlil]]\", a title that was given to the god [[Nergal]], who was linked to [[Shamash]], Babylonian god of the sun. The role of Apollo as god of plague is evident in the invocation of [[Apollo Smintheus]] (\"mouse Apollo\") by Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, with the purpose of sending a plague against the Greeks (the reasoning behind a god of the plague becoming a god of healing is [[apotropaic]], meaning that the god responsible for bringing the plague must be appeased in order to remove the plague).", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The [[Hittite language|Hittite]] testimony reflects an early form '''', which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot with Doric . The name of the Lydian god ''Qλdãns'' /kʷʎðãns/ may reflect an earlier /kʷalyán-/ before palatalization, syncope, and the pre-Lydian sound change *y ''>'' d. Note the labiovelar in place of the labial /p/ found in pre-Doric ''Ἀπέλjων'' and Hittite ''Apaliunas''. A [[Luwian language|Luwian]] etymology suggested for ''Apaliunas'' makes Apollo \"The One of Entrapment\", perhaps in the sense of \"Hunter\".", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology", "Greco-Roman epithets"], "text": "Apollo's chief [[epithet]] was '''Phoebus''' ( ; , ''Phoibos'' ), literally \"bright\". It was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans for Apollo's role as the god of light. Like other Greek deities, he had a number of others applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in [[Latin literature]].", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology", "Greco-Roman epithets", "Sun"], "text": "(-) '''Aegletes''' ( ; Αἰγλήτης, ''Aiglētēs''), from , \"light of the sun\" (-) '''Helius''' ( ; , ''[[Helios]]''), literally \"sun\" (-) '''[[Apollo Lyceus|Lyceus]]''' ( ; , ''Lykeios'', from [[Proto-Greek language|Proto-Greek]] *) \"light\". The meaning of the epithet \"Lyceus\" later became associated with Apollo's mother [[Leto]], who was the patron goddess of [[Lycia]] () and who was identified with the wolf (). (-) '''Phanaeus''' ( ; , ''Phanaios''), literally \"giving or bringing light\" (-) '''Phoebus''' ( ; , ''Phoibos''), literally \"bright\", his most commonly used epithet by both the Greeks and Romans (-) '''[[Sol (Roman mythology)|Sol]]''' (Roman) (), \"sun\" in Latin", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology", "Greco-Roman epithets", "Wolf"], "text": "(-) '''Lycegenes''' ( ; , ''Lukēgenēs''), literally \"born of a wolf\" or \"born of Lycia\" (-) '''Lycoctonus''' ( ; , ''Lykoktonos''), from , \"wolf\", and , \"to kill\"", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology", "Greco-Roman epithets", "Origin and birth"], "text": "Apollo's birthplace was [[Cynthus|Mount Cynthus]] on the island of [[Delos]]. (-) '''Cynthius''' ( ; , ''Kunthios''), literally \"Cynthian\" (-) '''Cynthogenes''' ( ; , ''Kynthogenēs''), literally \"born of Cynthus\" (-) '''Delius''' ( ; Δήλιος, ''Delios''), literally \"Delian\" (-) '''Didymaeus''' ( ; , ''Didymaios'') from δίδυμος, \"twin\") as [[Artemis]]' twin ", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology", "Greco-Roman epithets", "Place of worship"], "text": "[[Delphi]] and [[Actium]] were his primary places of worship. (-) '''Acraephius''' ( ; , ''Akraiphios'', literally \"Acraephian\") or '''Acraephiaeus''' ( ; , ''Akraiphiaios''), \"Acraephian\", from the [[Boeotia]] town of [[Acraephia (Boeotia)|Acraephia]] (), reputedly founded by his son [[Acraepheus]]. (-) '''Actiacus''' ( ; , ''Aktiakos''), literally \"Actian\", after Actium () (-) '''Delphinius''' ( ; , ''Delphinios''), literally \"Delphic\", after Delphi (Δελφοί). An [[etiology]] in the ''[[Homeric Hymns]]'' associated this with dolphins. (-) '''[[Epactaeus]]''', meaning \"god worshipped on the coast\", in [[Samos]]. (-) '''Pythius''' ( ; , ''Puthios'', from Πυθώ, ''Pythō''), from the region around Delphi (-) '''[[Apollo Smintheus|Smintheus]]''' ( ; , ''Smintheus''), \"Sminthian\"—that is, \"of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe\" near the [[Troad]] town of [[Hamaxitus]]", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology", "Greco-Roman epithets", "Healing and disease"], "text": "(-) '''Acesius''' ( ; , ''Akesios''), from , \"healing\". Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in [[Elis]], where he had a temple in the [[agora]]. (-) '''[[Acestor]]''' ( ; , ''Akestōr''), literally \"healer\" (-) '''Culicarius''' (Roman) ( ), from Latin ''culicārius'', \"of midges\" (-) '''Iatrus''' ( ; , ''Iātros''), literally \"physician\" (-) '''Medicus''' (Roman) ( ), \"physician\" in Latin. A [[Roman temple|temple]] was dedicated to ''Apollo Medicus'' at Rome, probably next to the temple of [[Bellona (goddess)|Bellona]]. (-) '''[[Paean (god)|Paean]]''' ( ; , ''Paiān''), physician, healer (-) '''Parnopius''' ( ; , ''Parnopios''), from , \"locust\"", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology", "Greco-Roman epithets", "Founder and protector"], "text": "(-) '''[[Agyieus]]''' ( ; , ''Aguīeus''), from , \"street\", for his role in protecting roads and homes (-) '''[[Alexicacus]]''' ( ; , ''Alexikakos''), literally \"warding off evil\" (-) '''Apotropaeus''' ( ; , ''Apotropaios''), from , \"to avert\" (-) '''[[Archegetes]]''' ( ; , ''Arkhēgetēs''), literally \"founder\" (-) '''Averruncus''' (Roman) ( ; from Latin ''āverruncare''), \"to avert\" (-) '''Clarius''' ( ; , ''Klārios''), from [[Doric Greek|Doric]] , \"allotted lot\" (-) '''Epicurius''' ( ; , ''Epikourios''), from , \"to aid\" (-) '''Genetor''' ( ; , ''Genetōr''), literally \"ancestor\" (-) '''Nomius''' ( ; , ''Nomios''), literally \"pastoral\" (-) '''Nymphegetes''' ( ; , ''Numphēgetēs''), from , \"Nymph\", and , \"leader\", for his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life (-) '''Patroos''' from , \"related to one's father,\" for his role as father of [[Ion (mythology)|Ion]] and founder of the [[Ionians]], as worshipped at the [[Temple of Apollo Patroos]] in Athens (-) [[Apollo Sauroctonos|'''Sauroctunos''']], “lizard killer”, possibly a reference to his killing of [[Python (mythology)|Python]]", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology", "Greco-Roman epithets", "Prophecy and truth"], "text": "(-) '''Coelispex''' (Roman) ( ), from Latin ''coelum'', \"sky\", and ''specere'' \"to look at\" (-) '''Iatromantis''' ( ; , ''Iātromantis'',) from , \"physician\", and , \"prophet\", referring to his role as a god both of healing and of prophecy (-) '''Leschenorius''' ( ; , ''Leskhēnorios''), from , \"converser\" (-) '''Loxias''' ( ; , ''Loxias''), from , \"to say\", historically associated with , \"ambiguous\" (-) '''Manticus''' ( ; , ''Mantikos''), literally \"prophetic\"", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology", "Greco-Roman epithets", "Music and arts"], "text": "(-) '''Musagetes''' ( ; [[Doric Greek|Doric]] , ''Mousāgetās''), from , \"[[Muse]]\", and \"leader\" (-) '''Musegetes''' ( ; , ''Mousēgetēs''), as the preceding", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology", "Greco-Roman epithets", "Archery"], "text": "(-) '''Aphetor''' ( ; , ''Aphētōr''), from , \"to let loose\" (-) '''Aphetorus''' ( ; , ''Aphētoros''), as the preceding (-) '''Arcitenens''' (Roman) ( ), literally \"bow-carrying\" (-) '''Argyrotoxus''' ( ; , ''Argyrotoxos''), literally \"with silver bow\" (-) '''Hecaërgus''' ( ; , ''Hekaergos''), literally \"far-shooting\" (-) '''Hecebolus''' ( ; , ''Hekēbolos''), \"far-shooting\" (-) '''Ismenius''' ( ; , ''Ismēnios''), literally \"of Ismenus\", after Ismenus, the son of [[Amphion]] and [[Niobe]], whom he struck with an arrow", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology", "Greco-Roman epithets", "Amazons"], "text": "(-) '''[[Amazonius]]''' (), [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] at the [[Description of Greece]] writes that near [[Pyrrhichus]] there was a sanctuary of Apollo, called Amazonius () with image of the god said to have been dedicated by the [[Amazons]].", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology", "Celtic epithets and cult titles"], "text": "Apollo was worshipped throughout the [[Roman Empire]]. In the traditionally [[Celtic nations|Celtic]] lands, he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with [[List of Celtic gods|Celtic gods]] of similar character. (-) '''[[Apollo Atepomarus]]''' (\"the great horseman\" or \"possessing a great horse\"). Apollo was worshipped at [[Mauvières]] ([[Indre]]). Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun. (-) '''[[Apollo Belenus]]''' (\"bright\" or \"brilliant\"). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of [[Gaul]], Northern Italy and [[Noricum]] (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god. (-) '''[[Apollo Cunomaglus]]''' (\"hound lord\"). A title given to Apollo at a shrine at [[Nettleton Scrubb|Nettleton Shrub]], [[Wiltshire]]. May have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god. (-) '''[[Apollo Grannus]]'''. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo. (-) '''Apollo Maponus'''. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may be a local fusion of Apollo and [[Maponus]]. (-) '''[[Apollo Moritasgus]]''' (\"masses of sea water\"). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians. (-) '''[[Apollo Vindonnus]]''' (\"clear light\"). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at [[Essarois]], near [[Châtillon-sur-Seine]] in present-day [[Burgundy]]. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes. (-) '''[[Apollo Virotutis]]''' (\"benefactor of mankind\"). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy ([[Haute-Savoie]]) and at [[Jublains]] ([[Maine-et-Loire]]).", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Origins"], "text": "The cult centers of Apollo in Greece, [[Delphi]] and [[Delos]], date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to [[Artemis]], Apollo's twin sister. At Delphi, Apollo was venerated as the slayer of the monstrous serpent [[Python (mythology)|Python]]. For the Greeks, Apollo was the most Greek of all the gods, and through the centuries he acquired different functions. In [[Archaic Greece]] he was the [[prophet]], the oracular god who in older times was connected with \"healing\". In [[Classical Greece]] he was the god of light and of music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil. [[Walter Burkert]] discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship, which he termed \"a Dorian-northwest Greek component, a Cretan-Minoan component, and a Syro-Hittite component.\"", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Origins", "Healer and god-protector from evil"], "text": "In classical times, his major function in popular religion was to keep away evil, and he was therefore called \"apotropaios\" (, \"averting evil\") and \"alexikakos\" ( \"keeping off ill\"; from [[verb|v.]] + [[noun|n.]] ). Apollo also had many epithets relating to his function as a healer. Some commonly-used examples are \"paion\" ( literally \"healer\" or \"helper\") \"epikourios\" (, \"succouring\"), \"oulios\" (, \"healer, baleful\") and \"loimios\" (, \"of the plague\"). In later writers, the word, \"paion\", usually spelled \"Paean\", becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of [[healing]]. Apollo in his aspect of \"healer\" has a connection to the primitive god [[Paean (god)|Paean]] (), who did not have a cult of his own. Paean serves as the healer of the gods in the ''[[Iliad]]'', and seems to have originated in a pre-Greek religion. It is suggested, though unconfirmed, that he is connected to the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] figure ''pa-ja-wo-ne'' (Linear B: ). Paean was the personification of holy songs sung by \"seer-doctors\" (), which were supposed to cure disease. Homer illustrated Paeon the god and the song both of [[apotropaic]] thanksgiving or triumph. Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo and afterwards to other gods: to [[Dionysus]], to Apollo [[Helios]], to Apollo's son [[Asclepius]] the healer. About the 4th century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognized as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the [[Python (mythology)|Python]] led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won. In the ''Iliad'', Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the [[Vedic]] god of disease [[Rudra]]. He sends a plague () to the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]]. Knowing that Apollo can prevent a recurrence of the plague he sent, they purify themselves in a ritual and offer him a large sacrifice of cows, called a [[hecatomb]].", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Origins", "Dorian origin"], "text": "The ''[[Homeric Hymns|Homeric Hymn to Apollo]]'' depicts Apollo as an intruder from the north. The connection with the northern-dwelling [[Dorians]] and their initiation festival ''[[apellai]]'' is reinforced by the month ''Apellaios'' in northwest Greek calendars. The family-festival was dedicated to Apollo ([[Dorians|Doric]]: ). ''Apellaios'' is the month of these rites, and Apellon is the \"megistos kouros\" (the great Kouros). However it can explain only the Doric type of the name, which is connected with the [[Ancient Macedonian language|Ancient Macedonian]] word \"pella\" ([[Pella]]), ''stone''. Stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi ([[Omphalos]]).", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Origins", "Minoan origin"], "text": "George Huxley regarded the identification of Apollo with the Minoan deity Paiawon, worshipped in Crete, to have originated at Delphi. In the ''Homeric Hymn'', Apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried Cretan priests to Delphi, where they evidently transferred their religious practices. ''Apollo Delphinios'' or ''Delphidios'' was a sea-god especially worshipped in Crete and in the islands. Apollo's sister [[Artemis]], who was the Greek goddess of hunting, is identified with [[Britomartis]] (Diktynna), the Minoan \"Mistress of the animals\". In her earliest depictions she was accompanied by the \"Master of the animals\", a bow-wielding god of hunting whose name has been lost; aspects of this figure may have been absorbed into the more popular Apollo.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Origins", "Anatolian origin"], "text": "A non-Greek origin of Apollo has long been assumed in scholarship. The name of Apollo's mother [[Leto]] has [[Lydia]] origin, and she was worshipped on the coasts of [[Asia Minor]]. The inspiration oracular cult was probably introduced into Greece from [[Anatolia]], which is the origin of [[Sibyl]], and where some of the oldest oracular shrines originated. Omens, symbols, purifications, and exorcisms appear in old [[Assyria|Assyro]]-[[Babylon]] texts. These rituals were spread into the empire of the [[Hittites]], and from there into Greece. [[Homer]] pictures Apollo on the side of the [[Troy|Trojans]], fighting against the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]], during the [[Trojan War]]. He is pictured as a terrible god, less trusted by the Greeks than other gods. The god seems to be related to ''Appaliunas'', a tutelary god of [[Wilusa]] ([[Troy]]) in Asia Minor, but the word is not complete. The stones found in front of the gates of [[Homer]] Troy were the symbols of Apollo. A western Anatolian origin may also be bolstered by references to the parallel worship of ''Artimus'' ([[Artemis]]) and ''Qλdãns'', whose name may be cognate with the Hittite and Doric forms, in surviving [[Lydian language|Lydian]] texts''.'' However, recent scholars have cast doubt on the identification of ''Qλdãns'' with Apollo. The Greeks gave to him the name ''[[agyieus]]'' as the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil and his symbol was a tapered stone or column. However, while usually Greek festivals were celebrated at the [[full moon]], all the feasts of Apollo were celebrated at the seventh day of the month, and the emphasis given to that day (''sibutu'') indicates a [[Babylonia]] origin. The [[Late Bronze Age]] (from 1700 to 1200 BCE) [[Hittites|Hittite]] and [[Hurrian]] ''Aplu'' was a god of [[Plague (disease)|plague]], invoked during plague years. Here we have an [[apotrope|apotropaic]] situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it. Aplu, meaning ''the son of'', was a title given to the god [[Nergal]], who was linked to the Babylonian god of the sun [[Shamash]]. Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god () who brings death and disease with his arrows, but who can also heal, possessing a magic art that separates him from the other Greek gods. In ''[[Iliad]]'', his priest prays to ''Apollo Smintheus'', the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as the protector from field rats. All these functions, including the function of the healer-god [[Paean (god)|Paean]], who seems to have Mycenean origin, are fused in the cult of Apollo.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Origins", "Proto-Indo-European"], "text": "The [[Vedic]] [[Rudra]] has some similar functions with Apollo. The terrible god is called \"the archer\" and the bow is also an attribute of [[Shiva]]. Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows, but he was able to free people of them and his alternative Shiva is a healer physician god. However the [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]] component of Apollo does not explain his strong relation with omens, exorcisms, and with the oracular cult.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Oracular cult"], "text": "Unusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: [[Delos]] and [[Delphi]]. In cult practice, [[Delos|Delian Apollo]] and [[Pythian Apollo]] (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality. [[Lycia]] was sacred to the god, for this Apollo was also called Lycian. Apollo's [[Cult (religion)|cult]] was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the [[Archaic Greece|archaic period]], and the frequency of [[theophoric names]] such as ''Apollodorus'' or ''Apollonios'' and cities named ''Apollonia'' testify to his popularity. Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and 3rd century CE, those at [[Didyma]] and [[Claros]] pronounced the so-called \"theological oracles\", in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an [[Monism#Monism, pantheism, and panentheism|all-encompassing, highest deity]]. \"In the 3rd century, Apollo fell silent. [[Julian the Apostate]] (359–361) tried to revive the Delphic oracle, but failed.\"", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Oracular cult", "Oracular shrines"], "text": "Apollo had a famous [[oracle]] in Delphi, and other notable ones in [[Claros]] and [[Didyma]]. His oracular shrine in [[Abae]] in [[Phocis]], where he bore the [[toponym]] epithet ''[[Abaeus]]'' (, ''Apollon Abaios''), was important enough to be consulted by [[Croesus]]. His oracular shrines include: (-) [[Abae]] in [[Phocis]]. (-) [[Bassae]] in the [[Peloponnese]]. (-) At [[Clarus]], on the west coast of [[Asia Minor]]; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a ''pneuma'', from which the priests drank. (-) In [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]], the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of [[Tenea]], from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War. (-) At [[Khyrse]], in [[Troad]], the temple was built for Apollo Smintheus. (-) In [[Delos]], there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born. (-) In [[Delphi]], the [[Pythia]] became filled with the ''[[pneuma]]'' of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the [[Adyton]]. (-) In [[Didyma]], an oracle on the coast of [[Anatolia]], south west of [[Lydia]] ([[Luwian]]) [[Sardis]], in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. Was believed to have been founded by [[Branchus]], son or lover of Apollo. (-) In [[Manbij|Hierapolis Bambyce]], Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise ''[[De Dea Syria]]'', the sanctuary of the [[Atargatis|Syrian Goddess]] contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image. (-) At [[Patara (Lycia)|Patara]], in [[Lycia]], there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman. (-) In [[Segesta]] in Sicily. Oracles were also given by sons of Apollo. (-) In [[Oropus]], north of [[Athens]], the oracle [[Amphiaraus]], was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring. (-) in Labadea, east of Delphi, [[Trophonius]], another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Temples of Apollo"], "text": "Many temples were dedicated to Apollo in Greece and the Greek colonies. They show the spread of the cult of Apollo and the evolution of the Greek architecture, which was mostly based on the rightness of form and on mathematical relations. Some of the earliest temples, especially in [[Crete]], do not belong to any Greek order. It seems that the first peripteral temples were rectangular wooden structures. The different wooden elements were considered [[divinity|divine]], and their forms were preserved in the marble or stone elements of the temples of [[Doric order]]. The Greeks used standard types because they believed that the world of objects was a series of typical forms which could be represented in several instances. The temples should be [[Canon (basic principle)|canonic]], and the architects were trying to achieve this esthetic perfection. From the earliest times there were certain rules strictly observed in rectangular peripteral and prostyle buildings. The first buildings were built narrowly in order to hold the roof, and when the dimensions changed some mathematical relations became necessary in order to keep the original forms. This probably influenced the theory of numbers of [[Pythagoras]], who believed that behind the appearance of things there was the permanent principle of mathematics. The [[Doric order]] dominated during the 6th and the 5th century BC but there was a mathematical problem regarding the position of the triglyphs, which couldn't be solved without changing the original forms. The order was almost abandoned for the [[Ionic order]], but the Ionic capital also posed an insoluble problem at the corner of a temple. Both orders were abandoned for the [[Corinthian order]] gradually during the Hellenistic age and under Rome. The most important temples are:", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Temples of Apollo", "Greek temples"], "text": "(-) [[Thebes, Greece]]: The oldest temple probably dedicated to ''Apollo Ismenius'' was built in the 9th century B.C. It seems that it was a curvilinear building. The [[Doric order|Doric]] temple was built in the early 7th century B.C., but only some small parts have been found A festival called [[Daphnephoria]] was celebrated every ninth year in honour of Apollo Ismenius (or Galaxius). The people held laurel branches (daphnai), and at the head of the procession walked a youth (chosen priest of Apollo), who was called \"daphnephoros\". (-) [[Eretria]]: According to the Homeric hymn to Apollo, the god arrived to the plain, seeking for a location to establish its oracle. The first temple of ''Apollo Daphnephoros'', \"Apollo, laurel-bearer\", or \"carrying off Daphne\", is dated to 800 B.C. The temple was curvilinear ''hecatombedon'' (a hundred feet). In a smaller building were kept the bases of the laurel branches which were used for the first building. Another temple probably peripteral was built in the 7th century B.C., with an inner row of wooden columns over its Geometric predecessor. It was rebuilt peripteral around 510 B.C., with the [[stylobate]] measuring 21,00 x 43,00 m. The number of [[pteron]] column was 6 x 14. (-) [[Dreros]] ([[Crete]]). The temple of ''Apollo Delphinios'' dates from the 7th century B.C., or probably from the middle of the 8th century B.C. According to the legend, Apollo appeared as a dolphin, and carried Cretan priests to the port of [[Delphi]]. The dimensions of the plan are 10,70 x 24,00 m and the building was not peripteral. It contains column-bases of the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] type, which may be considered as the predecessors of the [[Doric order|Doric]] columns. (-) [[Gortyn]] ([[Crete]]). A temple of ''Pythian Apollo'', was built in the 7th century B.C. The plan measured 19,00 x 16,70 m and it was not peripteral. The walls were solid, made from limestone, and there was single door on the east side. (-) [[Thermon]] ([[West Greece]]): The [[Doric order|Doric]] temple of ''Apollo Thermios'', was built in the middle of the 7th century B.C. It was built on an older curvilinear building dating perhaps from the 10th century B.C., on which a [[peristyle]] was added. The temple was narrow, and the number of pteron columns (probably wooden) was 5 x 15. There was a single row of inner columns. It measures 12.13 x 38.23 m at the stylobate, which was made from stones.  (-) [[Corinth]]: A [[Doric order|Doric]] temple was built in the 6th century B.C. The temple's [[stylobate]] measures 21.36 x 53.30 m, and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 15. There was a double row of inner columns. The style is similar with the Temple of Alcmeonidae at [[Delphi]]. The Corinthians were considered to be the inventors of the [[Doric order]]. (-) Napes ([[Lesbos]]): An [[Aeolic order|Aeolic]] temple probably of ''Apollo Napaios'' was built in the 7th century B.C. Some special capitals with floral ornament have been found, which are called [[Aeolic order|Aeolic]], and it seems that they were borrowed from the East.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Temples of Apollo", "Greek temples"], "text": "(-) [[Cyrene, Libya]]: The oldest [[Doric order|Doric]] temple of Apollo was built in c. 600 B.C. The number of pteron columns was 6 x 11, and it measures 16.75 x 30.05 m at the stylobate. There was a double row of sixteen inner columns on stylobates. The capitals were made from stone. (-) [[Naukratis]]: An [[Ionic order|Ionic]] temple was built in the early 6th century B.C. Only some fragments have been found and the earlier, made from limestone, are identified among the oldest of the [[Ionic order]].  (-) [[Syracuse, Sicily]]: A [[Doric order|Doric]] temple was built at the beginning of the 6th century B.C. The temple's [[stylobate]] measures 21.47 x 55.36 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. It was the first temple in Greek west built completely out of stone. A second row of columns were added, obtaining the effect of an inner porch. (-) [[Selinus]] ([[Sicily]]):The [[Doric order|Doric]] [[Temple C (Selinus)|Temple C]] dates from 550 B.C., and it was probably dedicated to Apollo. The temple's stylobate measures 10.48 x 41.63 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. There was portico with a second row of columns, which is also attested for the temple at [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]]. (-) [[Delphi]]: The first temple dedicated to Apollo, was built in the 7th century B.C. According to the legend, it was wooden made of laurel branches. The \"Temple of Alcmeonidae\" was built in c. 513 B.C. and it is the oldest Doric temple with significant marble elements. The temple's stylobate measures 21.65 x 58.00 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 15. A fest similar with Apollo's fest at [[Thebes, Greece]] was celebrated every nine years. A boy was sent to the temple, who walked on the sacred road and returned carrying a laurel branch (''dopnephoros''). The maidens participated with joyful songs. (-) [[Chios]]: An [[Ionic order|Ionic]] temple of ''Apollo Phanaios'' was built at the end of the 6th century B.C. Only some small parts have been found and the capitals had floral ornament. (-) [[Abae]] ([[Phocis (ancient region)|Phocis]]). The temple was destroyed by the [[Persia]] in the invasion of [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes]] in 480 B.C., and later by the [[Boeotia]]. It was rebuilt by [[Hadrian]]. The oracle was in use from early [[Mycenae]] times to the Roman period, and shows the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion.  (-) [[Bassae]] ([[Peloponnesus]]):A temple dedicated to ''Apollo Epikourios'' (\"Apollo the helper\"), was built in 430 B.C. and it was designed by [[Iktinos]].It combined [[Doric order|Doric]] and [[Ionic order|Ionic]] elements, and the earliest use of column with a [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] capital in the middle. The temple is of a relatively modest size, with the [[stylobate]] measuring 14.5 x 38.3 metres containing a [[Doric order|Doric]] [[peristyle]] of 6 x 15 columns. The roof left a central space open to admit light and air.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Temples of Apollo", "Greek temples"], "text": "(-) [[Delos]]: A temple probably dedicated to Apollo and not peripteral, was built in the late 7th century B.C., with a plan measuring 10,00 x 15,60 m. The [[Doric order|Doric]] Great temple of Apollo, was built in c. 475 B.C. The temple's stylobate measures 13.72 x 29.78 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 13. Marble was extensively used. (-) [[Ambracia]]: A [[Doric order|Doric]] peripteral temple dedicated to ''Apollo Pythios Sotir'' was built in 500 B.C., and It is lying at the centre of the Greek city [[Arta, Greece|Arta]]. Only some parts have been found, and it seems that the temple was built on earlier sanctuaries dedicated to Apollo. The temple measures 20,75 x 44,00 m at the [[stylobate]]. The foundation which supported the statue of the god, still exists.  (-) [[Didyma]] (near [[Miletus]]): The gigantic [[Ionic order|Ionic]] temple of ''Apollo Didymaios'' started around 540 B.C. The construction ceased and then it was restarted in 330 B.C. The temple is dipteral, with an outer row of 10 x 21 columns, and it measures 28.90 x 80.75 m at the stylobate. (-) [[Clarus]] (near ancient [[Colophon (city)|Colophon]]): According to the legend, the famous seer Calchas, on his return from Troy, came to Clarus. He challenged the seer Mopsus, and died when he lost. The [[Doric order|Doric]] temple of ''Apollo Clarius'' was probably built in the 3rd century B.C., and it was peripteral with 6 x 11 columns. It was reconstructed at the end of the Hellenistic period, and later from the emperor [[Hadrian]] but Pausanias claims that it was still incomplete in the 2nd century B.C. (-) [[Hamaxitus]] ([[Troad]]): In [[Iliad]], [[Chryses]] the priest of Apollo, addresses the god with the epithet Smintheus (Lord of Mice), related with the god's ancient role as bringer of the disease (plague). Recent excavations indicate that the Hellenistic temple of ''Apollo Smintheus'' was constructed at 150–125 B.C., but the symbol of the mouse god was used on coinage probably from the 4th century B.C. The temple measures 40,00 x 23,00 m at the [[stylobate]], and the number of pteron columns was 8 x 14. (-) Pythion (), this was the name of a shrine of Apollo at [[Athens]] near the [[Ilisos]] river. It was created by Peisistratos, and tripods placed there by those who had won in the cyclic chorus at the [[Thargelia]]. (-) [[Setae (Lydia)]]: The temple of ''Apollo Aksyros'' located in the city. (-) [[Apollonia Pontica]]: There were two temples of Apollo Healer in the city. One from the Late Archaic period and the other from the Early Classical period. (-) [[Ikaros (Failaka Island)|Ikaros island in the Persian Gulf]] (modern [[Failaka Island]]): There was a temple of Apollo on the island.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Temples of Apollo", "Etruscan and Roman temples"], "text": "(-) [[Veii]] ([[Etruria]]): The temple of Apollo was built in the late 6th century B.C. and it indicates the spread of Apollo's culture (Aplu) in Etruria. There was a prostyle porch, which is called [[Tuscan order|Tuscan]], and a triple cella 18,50 m wide. (-) [[Falerii Veteres]] ([[Etruria]]): A temple of Apollo was built probably in the 4th-3rd century B.C. Parts of a teraccotta capital, and a teraccotta base have been found. It seems that the Etruscan columns were derived from the archaic Doric. A cult of [[Soranus (mythology)|Apollo Soranus]] is attested by one inscription found near Falerii.  (-) [[Pompeii]] (Italy): The cult of Apollo was widespread in the region of Campania since the 6th century B.C. The temple was built in 120 B.V, but its beginnings lie in the 6th century B.C. It was reconstructed after an earthquake in A.D. 63. It demonstrates a mixing of styles which formed the basis of Roman architecture. The columns in front of the cella formed a [[Tuscan order|Tuscan]] prostyle porch, and the cella is situated unusually far back. The peripteral colonnade of 48 [[Ionic order|Ionic]] columns was placed in such a way that the emphasis was given to the front side. (-) Rome: The [[temple of Apollo Sosianus]] and the ''temple of Apollo Medicus''. The first temple building dates to 431 B.C., and was dedicated to Apollo Medicus (the doctor), after a plague of 433 B.C. It was rebuilt by [[Gaius Sosius]], probably in 34 B.C. Only three columns with [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] capitals exist today. It seems that the cult of Apollo had existed in this area since at least to the mid-5th century B.C. (-) Rome:The [[temple of Apollo Palatinus]] was located on the Palatine hill within the sacred boundary of the city. It was dedicated by [[Augustus]] on 28 B.C. The façade of the original temple was [[Ionic order|Ionic]] and it was constructed from solid blocks of marble. Many famous statues by Greek masters were on display in and around the temple, including a marble statue of the god at the entrance and a statue of Apollo in the cella. (-) [[Melite (ancient city)|Melite]] (modern [[Mdina]], [[Malta]]): A [[Temple of Apollo (Melite)|Temple of Apollo]] was built in the city in the 2nd century A.D. Its remains were discovered in the 18th century, and many of its architectural fragments were dispersed among private collections or reworked into new sculptures. Parts of the temple's podium were rediscovered in 2002.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology"], "text": "Apollo appears often in the myths, plays and hymns. As Zeus' favorite son, Apollo had direct access to the mind of Zeus and was willing to reveal this knowledge to humans. A divinity beyond human comprehension, he appears both as a beneficial and a wrathful god.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Birth"], "text": "Apollo was the son of Zeus, the king of the gods, and Leto, his previous wife or one of his mistresses. Growing up, Apollo was nursed by the nymphs Korythalia and [[Aletheia (disambiguation)|Aletheia]], the personification of truth. When Zeus' wife [[Hera]] discovered that [[Leto]] was pregnant, she banned Leto from giving birth on ''[[Solid Earth|terra firma]]''. Leto sought shelter in many lands, only to be rejected by them. Finally, the voice of unborn Apollo informed his mother about a floating island named [[Delos]] that had once been [[Asteria (Titaness)|Asteria]], Leto's own sister. Since it was neither a mainland nor an island, Leto was readily welcomed there and gave birth to her children under a palm tree. All the goddesses except Hera were present to witness the event. It is also stated that Hera kidnapped [[Eileithyia]], the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace of amber 9 yards (8.2 m) long. When Apollo was born, clutching a golden sword, everything on Delos turned into gold and the island was filled with ambrosial fragrance. Swans circled the island seven times and the nymphs sang in delight. He was washed clean by the goddesses who then covered him in white garment and fastened golden bands around him. Since Leto was unable to feed him, [[Themis]], the goddess of divine law, fed him with nectar, or [[ambrosia]]. Upon tasting the divine food, Apollo broke free of the bands fastened onto him and declared that he would be the master of [[lyre]] and archery, and interpret the will of Zeus to humankind. Zeus, who had calmed Hera by then, came and adorned his son with a golden headband. Apollo's birth fixed the floating Delos to the earth. Leto promised that her son would be always favorable towards the Delians. According to some, Apollo secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean after some time. This island became sacred to Apollo and was one of the major cult centres of the god. Apollo was born on the seventh day (, ''hebdomagenes'') of the month [[Attic calendar#Festival calendar|Thargelion]]—according to Delian tradition—or of the month [[Hellenic calendars#Delphic|Bysios]]—according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him. Mythographers agree that [[Artemis]] was born first and subsequently assisted with the birth of Apollo or was born on the island of [[Ortygia]] then helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Hyperborea"], "text": "[[Hyperborea]], the mystical land of eternal spring, venerated Apollo above all the gods. The Hyperboreans always sang and danced in his honor and hosted [[Pythian games]]. There, a vast forest of beautiful trees was called \"the garden of Apollo\". Apollo spent the winter months among the Hyperboreans. His absence from the world caused coldness and this was marked as his annual death. No prophecies were issued during this time. He returned to the world during the beginning of the spring. The ''Theophania'' festival was held in [[Delphi]] to celebrate his return. It is said that Leto came to Delos from Hyperborea accompanied by a pack of wolves. Henceforth, Hyperborea became Apollo's winter home and wolves became sacred to him. His intimate connection to wolves is evident from his epithet ''Lyceus'', meaning ''wolf-like''. But Apollo was also the wolf-slayer in his role as the god who protected flocks from predators. The Hyperborean worship of Apollo bears the strongest marks of Apollo being worshipped as the sun god. Shamanistic elements in Apollo's cult are often liked to his Hyperborean origin, and he is likewise speculated to have originated as a solar shaman. Shamans like [[Abaris]] and [[Aristeas]] were also the followers of Apollo, who hailed from Hyperborea. In myths, the tears of amber Apollo shed when his son Asclepius died became the waters of the river Eridanos, which surrounded Hyperborea. Apollo also buried in Hyperborea the arrow which he had used to kill the [[Cyclopes]]. He later gave this arrow to Abaris.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Childhood and youth"], "text": "As a child, Apollo is said to have built a foundation and an altar on Delos using the horns of the goats that his sister Artemis hunted. Since he learnt the art of building when young, he later came to be known as [[Archegetes]], ''the founder (of towns)'' and god who guided men to build new cities. From his father Zeus, Apollo had also received a golden chariot drawn by swans. In his early years when Apollo spent his time herding cows, he was reared by [[Thriae]], the bee nymphs, who trained him and enhanced his prophetic skills. Apollo is also said to have invented the lyre, and along with Artemis, the art of archery. He then taught to the humans the art of healing and archery. [[Phoebe (mythological characters)|Phoebe]], his grandmother, gave the oracular shrine of [[Delphi]] to Apollo as a birthday gift. Themis inspired him to be the oracular voice of Delphi thereon.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Childhood and youth", "Python"], "text": "[[Python (mythology)|Python]], a [[chthonic]] serpent-dragon, was a child of Gaia and the guardian of the [[Delphic Oracle]], whose death was foretold by Apollo when he was still in Leto's womb. Python was the nurse of the giant [[Typhon]]. In most of the traditions, Apollo was still a child when he killed Python. Python was sent by Hera to hunt the pregnant Leto to death, and had assaulted her. To avenge the trouble given to his mother, Apollo went in search of Python and killed it in the sacred cave at Delphi with the bow and arrows that he had received from [[Hephaestus]]. The Delphian nymphs who were present encouraged Apollo during the battle with the cry \"Hie [[Paean]]\". After Apollo was victorious, they also brought him gifts and gave the [[Corycian cave]] to him. According to Homer, Apollo had encountered and killed the Python when he was looking for a place to establish his shrine. According to another version, when Leto was in Delphi, Python had attacked her. Apollo defended his mother and killed Python. [[Euripides]] in his ''[[Iphigenia in Aulis]]'' gives an account of his fight with Python and the event's aftermath. You killed him, o Phoebus, while still a baby, still leaping in the arms of your dear mother, and you entered the holy shrine, and sat on the golden tripod, on your truthful throne distributing prophecies from the gods to mortals. A detailed account of Apollo's conflict with Gaia and Zeus' intervention on behalf of his young son is also given. But when Apollo came and sent Themis, the child of Earth, away from the holy oracle of Pytho, Earth gave birth to dream visions of the night; and they told to the cities of men the present, and what will happen in the future, through dark beds of sleep on the ground; and so Earth took the office of prophecy away from Phoebus, in envy, because of her daughter. The lord made his swift way to Olympus and wound his baby hands around Zeus, asking him to take the wrath of the earth goddess from the Pythian home. Zeus smiled, that the child so quickly came to ask for worship that pays in gold. He shook his locks of hair, put an end to the night voices, and took away from mortals the truth that appears in darkness, and gave the privilege back again to Loxias. Apollo also demanded that all other methods of divination be made inferior to his, a wish that Zeus granted him readily. Because of this, Athena, who had been practicing divination by throwing pebbles, cast her pebbles away in displeasure.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Childhood and youth", "Python"], "text": "However, Apollo had committed a blood murder and had to be purified. Because Python was a child of [[Gaia]], Gaia wanted Apollo to be banished to Tartarus as a punishment. Zeus didn't agree and instead exiled his son from [[Mount Olympus|Olympus]], and instructed him to get purified. Apollo had to serve as a slave for nine years. After the servitude was over, as per his father's order, he travelled to the [[Vale of Tempe]] to bath in waters of [[Pineios (Thessaly)|Peneus]]. There Zeus himself performed purificatory rites on Apollo. Purified, Apollo was escorted by his half sister [[Athena]] to Delphi where the oracular shrine was finally handed over to him by Gaia. According to a variation, Apollo had also travelled to Crete, where [[Carmanor (of Crete)|Carmanor]] purified him. Apollo later established the [[Pythian games]] to appropriate Gaia. Henceforth, Apollo became the god who cleansed himself from the sin of murder and, made men aware of their guilt and purified them. Soon after, Zeus instructed Apollo to go to Delphi and establish his law. But Apollo, disobeying his father, went to the land of [[Hyperborea]] and stayed there for a year. He returned only after the Delphians sang hymns to him and pleaded him to come back. Zeus, pleased with his son's integrity, gave Apollo the seat next to him on his right side. He also gave to Apollo various gifts, like a golden tripod, a golden bow and arrows, a golden chariot and the city of Delphi. Soon after his return, Apollo needed to recruit people to Delphi. So, when he spotted a ship sailing from Crete, he sprang aboard in the form of a dolphin. The crew was awed into submission and followed a course that led the ship to Delphi. There Apollo revealed himself as a god. Initiating them to his service, he instructed them to keep righteousness in their hearts. The [[Pythia]] was Apollo's high priestess and his mouthpiece through whom he gave prophecies. Pythia is arguably the constant favorite of Apollo among the mortals.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Childhood and youth", "Tityos"], "text": "Hera once again sent another giant, [[Tityos]] to rape Leto. This time Apollo shot him with his arrows and attacked him with his golden sword. According to other version, Artemis also aided him in protecting their mother by attacking Tityos with her arrows. After the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down to [[Tartarus]]. There, he was pegged to the rock floor, covering an area of , where a pair of [[vulture]] feasted daily on his liver.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Admetus"], "text": "[[Admetus]] was the king of [[Pherae]], who was known for his hospitality. When Apollo was exiled from Olympus for killing Python, he served as a herdsman under Admetus, who was then young and unmarried. Apollo is said to have shared a romantic relationship with Admetus during his stay. After completing his years of servitude, Apollo went back to Olympus as a god. Because Admetus had treated Apollo well, the god conferred great benefits on him in return. Apollo's mere presence is said to have made the cattle give birth to twins. Apollo helped Admetus win the hand of [[Alcestis]], the daughter of [[Pelias|King Pelias]], by taming a lion and a boar to draw Admetus' chariot. He was present during their wedding to give his blessings. When Admetus angered the goddess Artemis by forgetting to give her the due offerings, Apollo came to the rescue and calmed his sister. When Apollo learnt of Admetus' untimely death, he convinced or tricked the [[Moirai|Fates]] into letting Admetus live past his time. According to another version, or perhaps some years later, when Zeus struck down Apollo's son [[Asclepius]] with a lightning bolt for resurrecting the dead, Apollo in revenge killed the [[Cyclopes]], who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to [[Tartarus]] for this, but his mother [[Leto]] intervened, and reminding Zeus of their old love, pleaded him not to kill their son. Zeus obliged and sentenced Apollo to one year of [[Penal labour|hard labor]] once again under Admetus. The love between Apollo and Admetus was a favored topic of Roman poets like [[Ovid]] and [[Maurus Servius Honoratus|Servius]].", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Niobe"], "text": "The fate of [[Niobe]] was prophesied by Apollo while he was still in Leto's womb. Niobe was the queen of [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] and wife of [[Amphion]]. She displayed [[hubris]] when she boasted that she was superior to Leto because she had fourteen children ([[Niobids]]), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. She further mocked Apollo's effeminate appearance and Artemis' manly appearance. Leto, insulted by this, told her children to punish Niobe. Accordingly, Apollo killed Niobe's sons, and Artemis her daughters. According to some versions of the myth, among the Niobids, Chloris and her brother Amyclas were not killed because they prayed to Leto. Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge. A devastated Niobe fled to [[Spil Mount|Mount Sipylos]] in [[Asia Minor]] and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river [[Achelous]]. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them. When Chloris married and had children, Apollo granted her son [[Nestor (mythology)|Nestor]] the years he had taken away from the Niobids. Hence, Nestor was able to live for 3 generations.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Building the walls of Troy"], "text": "Once Apollo and [[Poseidon]] served under the Trojan king [[Laomedon]] in accordance to Zeus' words. Apollodorus states that the gods willingly went to the king disguised as humans in order to check his hubris. Apollo guarded the cattle of Laomedon in the valleys of mount Ida, while Poseidon built the walls of Troy. Other versions make both Apollo and Poseidon the builders of the wall. In Ovid's account, Apollo completes his task by playing his tunes on his lyre. In [[Pindar]]'s odes, the gods took a mortal named [[Aeacus]] as their assistant. When the work was completed, three snakes rushed against the wall, and though the two that attacked the sections of the wall built by the gods fell down dead, the third forced its way into the city through the portion of the wall built by Aeacus. Apollo immediately prophesied that [[Troy]] would fall at the hands of Aeacus's descendants, the [[Aeacidae]] (i.e. his son Telamon joined [[Heracles]] when he sieged the city during Laomedon's rule. Later, his great grandson [[Neoptolemus]] was present in the wooden horse that lead to the downfall of Troy). However, the king not only refused to give the gods the wages he had promised, but also threatened to bind their feet and hands, and sell them as slaves. Angered by the unpaid labour and the insults, Apollo infected the city with a pestilence and Posedion sent the sea monster [[Cetus (mythology)|Cetus]]. To deliver the city from it, Laomedon had to sacrifice his daughter [[Hesione]] (who would later be saved by [[Heracles]]). During his stay in Troy, Apollo had a lover named Ourea, who was a nymph and daughter of Poseidon. Together they had a son named Ileus, whom Apollo loved dearly.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Trojan War"], "text": "Apollo sided with the Trojans during the [[Trojan War]] waged by the Greeks against the Trojans. During the war, the Greek king [[Agamemnon]] captured [[Chryseis]], the daughter of Apollo's priest [[Chryses]], and refused to return her. Angered by this, Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment. He demanded that they return the girl, and the Achaeans (Greeks) complied, indirectly causing the ''[[Achilles and Patroclus#In the Iliad|anger of Achilles]]'', which is the theme of the ''[[Iliad]]''. Receiving the [[aegis]] from Zeus, Apollo entered the battlefield as per his father's command, causing great terror to the enemy with his war cry. He pushed the Greeks back and destroyed many of the soldiers. He is described as \"the rouser of armies\" because he rallied the Trojan army when they were falling apart. When Zeus allowed the other gods to get involved in the war, Apollo was provoked by Poseidon to a duel. However, Apollo declined to fight him, saying that he wouldn't fight his uncle for the sake of mortals. When the Greek hero [[Diomedes]] injured the Trojan hero [[Aeneas]], [[Aphrodite]] tried to rescue him, but Diomedes injured her as well. Apollo then enveloped Aeneas in a cloud to protect him. He repelled the attacks Diomedes made on him and gave the hero a stern warning to abstain himself from attacking a god. Aeneas was then taken to Pergamos, a sacred spot in [[Troy]], where he was healed. After the death of [[Sarpedon (Trojan War hero)|Sarpedon]], a son of Zeus, Apollo rescued the corpse from the battlefield as per his father's wish and cleaned it. He then gave it to Sleep ([[Hypnos]]) and Death ([[Thanatos]]). Apollo had also once convinced Athena to stop the war for that day, so that the warriors can relieve themselves for a while. The Trojan hero [[Hector]] (who, according to some, was the god's own son by [[Hecuba]]) was favored by Apollo. When he got severely injured, Apollo healed him and encouraged him to take up his arms. During a duel with Achilles, when Hector was about to lose, Apollo hid Hector in a cloud of mist to save him. When the Greek warrior [[Patroclus]] tried to get into the fort of Troy, he was stopped by Apollo. Encouraging Hector to attack Patroclus, Apollo stripped the armour of the Greek warrior and broke his weapons. Patroclus was eventually killed by Hector. At last, after Hector's fated death, Apollo protected his corpse from Achilles' attempt to mutilate it by creating a magical cloud over the corpse. Apollo held a grudge against Achilles throughout the war because Achilles had murdered his son [[Tenes]] before the war began and brutally assassinated his son [[Troilus]] in his own temple. Not only did Apollo save Hector from Achilles, he also tricked Achilles by disguising himself as a Trojan warrior and driving him away from the gates. He foiled Achilles' attempt to mutilate Hector's dead body.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Trojan War"], "text": "Finally, Apollo caused Achilles' death by guiding an arrow shot by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] into [[Achilles]]' heel. In some versions, Apollo himself killed Achilles by taking the disguise of Paris. Apollo helped many Trojan warriors, including [[Agenor]], [[Polydamas (mythology)|Polydamas]], [[Glaucus]] in the battlefield. Though he greatly favored the Trojans, Apollo was bound to follow the orders of Zeus and served his father loyally during the war.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Heracles"], "text": "After [[Heracles]] (then named Alcides) was struck with madness and killed his family, he sought to purify himself and consulted the oracle of Apollo. Apollo, through the Pythia, commanded him to serve king [[Eurystheus]] for twelve years and complete the ten tasks the king would give him. Only then would Alcides be absolved of his sin. Apollo also renamed him as Heracles. To complete his third task, Heracles had to capture the [[Ceryneian Hind]], a hind sacred to Artemis, and bring it alive. He chased the hind for one year. When the animal eventually got tired and tried crossing the river Ladon, he captured it. While he was taking it back, he was confronted by Apollo and Artemis, who were angered at Heracles for this act. However, Heracles soothed the goddess and explained his situation to her. After much pleading, Artemis permitted him to take the hind and told him to return it later. After he was freed from his servitude to Eurystheus, Heracles fell in conflict with Iphytus, a prince of Oechalia, and murdered him. Soon after, he contracted a terrible disease. He consulted the oracle of Apollo once again, in hope of ridding himself of the disease. The Pythia, however, denied to give any prophesy. In anger, Heracles snatched the sacred tripod and started walking away, intending to start his own oracle. However, Apollo did not tolerate this and stopped Heracles; a duel ensued between them. Artemis rushed to support Apollo, while Athena supported Heracles. Soon, Zeus threw his thunderbolt between the fighting brothers and separated them. He reprimanded Heracles for this act of violation and asked Apollo to give a solution to Heracles. Apollo then ordered the hero to serve under [[Omphale]], queen of [[Lydia]] for one year in order to purify himself.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Periphas"], "text": "[[Periphas]] was an Attican king and a priest of Apollo. He was noble, just and rich. He did all his duties justly. Because of this people were very fond of him and started honouring him to the same extent as Zeus. At one point, they worshipped Periphas in place of Zeus and set up shrines and temples for him. This annoyed Zeus, who decided to annihilate the entire family of Periphas. But because he was a just king and a good devotee, Apollo intervened and requested his father to spare Periphas. Zeus considered Apollo's words and agreed to let him live. But he metamorphosed Periphas into an eagle and made the eagle the king of birds. When Periphas' wife requested Zeus to let her stay with her husband, Zeus turned her into a vulture and fulfilled her wish.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Plato's concept of soulmates"], "text": "A long time ago, there were three kinds of human beings: male, descended from the sun; female, descended from the earth; and androgynous, descended from the moon. Each human being was completely round, with four arms and fours legs, two identical faces on opposite sides of a head with four ears, and all else to match. They were powerful and unruly. [[Aloadae|Otis]] and [[Aloadae|Ephialtes]] even dared to scale [[Mount Olympus]]. To check their insolence, Zeus devised a plan to humble them and improve their manners instead of completely destroying them. He cut them all in two and asked Apollo to make necessary repairs, giving humans the individual shape they still have now. Apollo turned their heads and necks around towards their wounds, he pulled together their skin at the [[abdomen]], and sewed the skin together at the middle of it. This is what we call [[navel]] today. He smoothened the wrinkles and shaped the chest. But he made sure to leave a few wrinkles on the abdomen and around the navel so that they might be reminded of their punishment. \"As he [Zeus] cut them one after another, he bade Apollo give the face and the half of the neck a turn... Apollo was also bidden to heal their wounds and compose their forms. So Apollo gave a turn to the face and pulled the skin from the sides all over that which in our language is called the belly, like the purses which draw in, and he made one mouth at the centre [of the belly] which he fastened in a knot (the same which is called the navel); he also moulded the breast and took out most of the wrinkles, much as a shoemaker might smooth leather upon a last; he left a few wrinkles, however, in the region of the belly and navel, as a memorial of the primeval state.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Nurturer of the young"], "text": "Apollo ''Kourotrophos'' is the god who nurtures and protects children and the young, especially boys. He oversees their education and their passage into adulthood. Education is said to have originated from Apollo and the [[Muses]]. Many myths have him train his children. It was a custom for boys to cut and dedicate their long hair to Apollo after reaching adulthood. [[Chiron]], the abandoned [[centaur]], was fostered by Apollo, who instructed him in medicine, prophecy, archery and more. Chiron would later become a great teacher himself. [[Asclepius]] in his childhood gained much knowledge pertaining to medicinal arts by his father. However, he was later entrusted to Chiron for further education. [[Anius]], Apollo's son by [[Rhoeo]], was abandoned by his mother soon after his birth. Apollo brought him up and educated him in mantic arts. Anius later became the priest of Apollo and the king of Delos. [[Iamus]] was the son of Apollo and [[Evadne]]. When Evadne went into labour, Apollo sent the [[Moirai]] to assist his lover. After the child was born, Apollo sent snakes to feed the child some honey. When Iamus reached the age of education, Apollo took him to Olympia and taught him many arts, including the ability to understand and explain the languages of birds. [[Idmon]] was educated by Apollo to be a seer. Even though he foresaw his death that would happen in his journey with the [[Argonauts]], he embraced his destiny and died a brave death. To commemorate his son's bravery, Apollo commanded Boetians to build a town around the tomb of the hero, and to honor him. Apollo adopted [[Carnus]], the abandoned son of Zeus and [[Europa (consort of Zeus)|Europa]]. He reared the child with the help of his mother Leto and educated him to be a seer. When his son [[Melaneus of Oechalia|Melaneus]] reached the age of marriage, Apollo asked the princess [[Stratonice (mythology)|Stratonice]] to be his son's bride and carried her away from her home when she agreed. Apollo saved a shepherd boy (name unknown) from death in a large deep cave, by the means of vultures. To thank him, the shepherd built Apollo a temple under the name Vulturius.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "God of music"], "text": "Immediately after his birth, Apollo demanded a lyre and invented the [[paean]], thus becoming the god of music. As the divine singer, he is the patron of poets, singers and musicians. The invention of string music is attributed to him. [[Plato]] said that the innate ability of humans to take delight in music, rhythm and harmony is the gift of Apollo and the Muses. According to [[Socrates]], ancient Greeks believed that Apollo is the god who directs the harmony and makes all things move together, both for the gods and the humans. For this reason, he was called ''Homopolon'' before the ''Homo'' was replaced by ''A''. Apollo's harmonious music delivered people from their pain, and hence, like Dionysus, he is also called the liberator. The swans, which were considered to be the most musical among the birds, were believed to be the \"singers of Apollo\". They are Apollo's sacred birds and acted as his vehicle during his travel to [[Hyperborea]]. [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]] says that when the singers would sing hymns to Apollo, the swans would join the chant in unison. Among the [[Pythagoreanism|Pythagoreans]], the study of mathematics and music were connected to the worship of Apollo, their principal deity. Their belief was that the music purifies the soul, just as medicine purifies the body. They also believed that music was delegated to the same mathematical laws of harmony as the mechanics of the cosmos, evolving into an idea known as the [[music of the spheres]]. Apollo appears as the companion of the [[Muses]], and as [[Musagetes]] (\"leader of Muses\") he leads them in dance. They spend their time on [[Parnassus]], which is one of their sacred places. Apollo is also the lover of the Muses and by them he became the father of famous musicians like [[Orpheus]] and [[Linus of Thrace|Linus]]. Apollo is often found delighting the immortal gods with his songs and music on the [[lyre]]. In his role as the god of banquets, he was always present to play music in weddings of the gods, like the marriage of [[Eros]] and [[Cupid and Psyche|Psyche]], [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]]. He is a frequent guest of the [[Bacchanalia]], and many ancient ceramics depict him being at ease amidst the [[maenads]] and satyrs. Apollo also participated in musical contests when challenged by others. He was the victor in all those contests, but he tended to punish his opponents severely for their [[hubris]].", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "God of music", "Apollo's lyre"], "text": "The invention of lyre is attributed either to Hermes or to Apollo himself. Distinctions have been made that Hermes invented lyre made of tortoise shell, whereas the lyre Apollo invented was a regular lyre. Myths tell that the infant Hermes stole a number of Apollo's cows and took them to a cave in the woods near [[Pylos]], covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a [[tortoise]] and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made his [[lyre]]. Upon discovering the theft, Apollo confronted Hermes and asked him to return his cattle. When Hermes acted innocent, Apollo took the matter to Zeus. Zeus, having seen the events, sided with Apollo, and ordered Hermes to return the cattle. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo fell in love with the instrument and offered to exchange the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo then became the master of the lyre. According to other versions, Apollo had invented the lyre himself, whose strings he tore in repenting of the excess punishment he had given to [[Marsyas]]. Hermes' lyre, therefore, would be a reinvention.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "God of music", "Contest with Pan"], "text": "Once [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo and to challenge the god of music to a contest. The mountain-god [[Tmolus (son of Ares)|Tmolus]] was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, [[Midas]], who happened to be present. Then, Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. It was so beautiful that Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and everyone was pleased with the judgement. Only Midas dissented and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo did not want to suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a [[donkey]].", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "God of music", "Contest with Marsyas"], "text": "[[Marsyas]] was a [[satyr]] who was punished by Apollo for his [[hubris]]. He had found an [[aulos]] on the ground, tossed away after being invented by [[Athena]] because it made her cheeks puffy. Athena had also placed a curse upon the instrument, that whoever would pick it up would be severely punished. When Marsyas played the flute, everyone became frenzied with joy. This led Marsyas to think that he was better than Apollo, and he challenged the god to a musical contest. The contest was judged by the [[Muse]], or the nymphs of [[Nysa (mythology)|Nysa]]. Athena was also present to witness the contest. Marsyas taunted Apollo for \"wearing his hair long, for having a fair face and smooth body, for his skill in so many arts\". He also further said, 'His [Apollo] hair is smooth and made into tufts and curls that fall about his brow and hang before his face. His body is fair from head to foot, his limbs shine bright, his tongue gives oracles, and he is equally eloquent in prose or verse, propose which you will. What of his robes so fine in texture, so soft to the touch, aglow with purple? What of his lyre that flashes gold, gleams white with ivory, and shimmers with rainbow gems? What of his song, so cunning and so sweet? Nay, all these allurements suit with naught save luxury. To virtue they bring shame alone!' The Muses and Athena sniggered at this comment. The contestants agreed to take turns displaying their skills and the rule was that the victor could \"do whatever he wanted\" to the loser. According to one account, after the first round, they both were deemed equal by the [[Nysiads]]. But in the next round, Apollo decided to play on his lyre and add his melodious voice to his performance. Marsyas argued against this, saying that Apollo would have an advantage and accused Apollo of cheating. But Apollo replied that since Marsyas played the flute, which needed air blown from the throat, it was similar to singing, and that either they both should get an equal chance to combine their skills or none of them should use their mouths at all. The nymphs decided that Apollo's argument was just. Apollo then played his lyre and sang at the same time, mesmerising the audience. Marsyas could not do this. Apollo was declared the winner and, angered with Marsyas' haughtiness and his accusations, decided to flay the satyr. According to another account, Marsyas played his flute out of tune at one point and accepted his defeat. Out of shame, he assigned to himself the punishment of being skinned for a wine sack. Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument. So the Muses who were the judges declared Apollo the winner. Apollo hung Marsyas from a tree to flay him.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "God of music", "Contest with Marsyas"], "text": "Apollo [[flaying|flayed]] the limbs of Marsyas alive in a cave near [[Celaenae]] in [[Phrygia]] for his [[hubris]] to challenge a god. He then gave the rest of his body for proper burial and nailed Marsyas' flayed skin to a nearby pine-tree as a lesson to the others. Marsyas' blood turned into the river Marsyas. But Apollo soon repented and being distressed at what he had done, he tore the strings of his lyre and threw it away. The lyre was later discovered by the Muses and Apollo's sons [[Linus of Thrace|Linus]] and [[Orpheus]]. The Muses fixed the middle string, Linus the string struck with the forefinger, and Orpheus the lowest string and the one next to it. They took it back to Apollo, but the god, who had decided to stay away from music for a while, laid away both the lyre and the pipes at Delphi and joined [[Cybele]] in her wanderings to as far as [[Hyperborea]].", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "God of music", "Contest with Cinyras"], "text": "Cinyras was a ruler of [[Cyprus]], who was a friend of [[Agamemnon]]. Cinyras promised to assist Agamemnon in the Trojan war, but did not keep his promise. Agamemnon cursed Cinyras. He invoked Apollo and asked the god to avenge the broken promise. Apollo then had a [[lyre]]-playing contest with [[Cinyras]], and defeated him. Either Cinyras committed suicide when he lost, or was killed by Apollo.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Patron of sailors"], "text": "Apollo functions as the patron and protector of sailors, one of the duties he shares with [[Poseidon]]. In the myths, he is seen helping heroes who pray to him for safe journey. When Apollo spotted a ship of Cretan sailors that was caught in a storm, he quickly assumed the shape of a dolphin and guided their ship safely to Delphi. When the [[Argonauts]] faced a terrible storm, [[Jason]] prayed to his patron, Apollo, to help them. Apollo used his bow and golden arrow to shed light upon an island, where the Argonauts soon took shelter. This island was renamed \"[[Anafi|Anaphe]]\", which means \"He revealed it\". Apollo helped the Greek hero [[Diomedes]], to escape from a great tempest during his journey homeward. As a token of gratitude, Diomedes built a temple in honor of Apollo under the epithet Epibaterius (\"the embarker\"). During the Trojan War, [[Odysseus]] came to the Trojan camp to return Chriseis, the daughter of Apollo's priest [[Chryses]], and brought many offerings to Apollo. Pleased with this, Apollo sent gentle breezes that helped Odysseus return safely to the Greek camp. [[Arion]] was a poet who was kidnapped by some sailors for the rich prizes he possessed. Arion requested them to let him sing for the last time, to which the sailors consented. Arion began singing a song in praise of Apollo, seeking the god's help. Consequently, numerous dolphins surrounded the ship and when Arion jumped into the water, the dolphins carried him away safely.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Wars", "Titanomachy"], "text": "Once [[Hera]], out of spite, aroused the Titans to war against [[Zeus]] and take away his throne. Accordingly, when the Titans tried to climb [[Mount Olympus]], Zeus with the help of Apollo, [[Artemis]] and [[Athena]], defeated them and cast them into tartarus.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Wars", "Trojan War"], "text": "Apollo played a pivotal role in the entire Trojan War. He sided with the Trojans, and sent a terrible plague to the Greek camp, which indirectly led to the conflict between [[Achilles]] and [[Agamemnon]]. He killed the Greek heroes [[Patroclus]], Achilles, and numerous Greek soldiers. He also helped many Trojan heroes, the most important one being [[Hector]]. After the end of the war, Apollo and Poseidon together cleaned the remains of the city and the camps.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Wars", "Telegony war"], "text": "A war broke out between the [[Brygoi]] and the Thesprotians, who had the support of [[Odysseus]]. The gods Athena and [[Ares]] came to the battlefield and took sides. Athena helped the hero Odysseus while Ares fought alongside of the Brygoi. When Odysseus lost, Athena and Ares came into a direct duel. To stop the battling gods and the terror created by their battle, Apollo intervened and stopped the duel between them .", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Wars", "Indian war"], "text": "When Zeus suggested that [[Dionysus]] defeat the Indians in order to earn a place among the gods, Dionysus declared war against the Indians and travelled to [[India]] along with his army of [[Bacchantes]] and [[satyrs]]. Among the warriors was [[Aristaeus]], Apollo's son. Apollo armed his son with his own hands and gave him a bow and arrows and fitted a strong shield to his arm. After Zeus urged Apollo to join the war, he went to the battlefield. Seeing several of his [[nymphs]] and Aristaeus drowning in a river, he took them to safety and healed them. He taught Aristaeus more useful healing arts and sent him back to help the army of Dionysus.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Wars", "Theban war"], "text": "During the war between the sons of [[Oedipus]], Apollo favored [[Amphiaraus]], a seer and one of the leaders in the war. Though saddened that the seer was fated to be doomed in the war, Apollo made Amphiaraus' last hours glorious by \"lighting his shield and his helm with starry gleam\". When [[Hypseus]] tried to kill the hero by a spear, Apollo directed the spear towards the charioteer of Amphiaraus instead. Then Apollo himself replaced the charioteer and took the reins in his hands. He deflected many spears and arrows away them. He also killed many of the enemy warriors like [[Melaneus (mythology)|Melaneus]], [[Antiphus]], Aetion, Polites and [[Lampus]]. At last when the moment of departure came, Apollo expressed his grief with tears in his eyes and bid farewell to Amphiaraus, who was soon engulfed by the Earth.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Slaying of giants"], "text": "Apollo killed the giants Python and Tityos, who had assaulted his mother Leto.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Slaying of giants", "Gigantomachy"], "text": "During the [[gigantomachy]], Apollo killed the giant [[Ephialtes (disambiguation)|Ephialtes]] by shooting him in his eyes. He also killed [[Porphyrion]], the king of giants, using his bow and arrows.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Slaying of giants", "Aloadae"], "text": "Otis and Ephialtes, the twin giants were together called the [[Aloadae]]. These giants are said to have grown every year by one cubit in breadth and three cubits in height. They once threatened to wage a war on gods and attempted to storm Mt. Olympus by piling up mountains. They also threatened to change land into sea and sea into land. Some say they even dared to seek the hand of Hera and Artemis in marriage. Angered by this, Apollo killed them by shooting arrows at them. According to another tale, Apollo killed them with a trick. He sent a deer between them. As they tried to kill it with their javelins, they accidentally stabbed each other and died.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Slaying of giants", "Phorbas"], "text": "[[Phorbas]] was a savage giant king of [[Phlegyas (Boeotia)|Phlegyas]] who was described as having swine like features. He wished to plunder Delphi for its wealth. He seized the roads to Delphi and started harassing the pilgrims. He captured the old people and children and sent them to his army to hold them for ransom. And he challenged the young and sturdy men to a match of boxing, only to cut their heads off when they would get defeated by him. He hung the chopped off heads to an oak tree. Finally, Apollo came to put an end to this cruelty. He entered a boxing contest with Phorbas and killed him with a single blow.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Other stories"], "text": "In the first [[Olympic games]], Apollo defeated [[Ares]] and became the victor in wrestling. He outran [[Hermes]] in the race and won first place. Apollo divides months into summer and winter. He rides on the back of a swan to the land of the [[Hyperborea]] during the winter months, and the absence of warmth in winters is due to his departure. During his absence, Delphi was under the care of [[Dionysus]], and no prophecies were given during winters.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Other stories", "Molpadia and Parthenos"], "text": "Molpadia and Parthenos were the sisters of [[Rhoeo]], a former lover of Apollo. One day, they were put in charge of watching their father's ancestral wine jar but they fell asleep while performing this duty. While they were asleep, the wine jar was broken by the swines their family kept. When the sisters woke up and saw what had happened, they threw themselves off a cliff in fear of their father's wrath. Apollo, who was passing by, caught them and carried them to two different cities in Chersonesus, Molpadia to Castabus and Parthenos to Bubastus. He turned them into goddesses and they both received divine honors. Molpadia's name was changed to [[Hemithea (mythology)|Hemithea]] upon her deification.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Other stories", "Prometheus"], "text": "[[Prometheus]] was the titan who was punished by Zeus for stealing fire. He was bound to a rock, where each day an eagle was sent to eat Prometheus' liver, which would then grow back overnight to be eaten again the next day. Seeing his plight, Apollo pleaded Zeus to release the kind Titan, while Artemis and Leto stood behind him with tears in their eyes. Zeus, moved by Apollo's words and the tears of the goddesses, finally sent Heracles to free Prometheus.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Other stories", "The rock of Leukas"], "text": "Leukatas was believed to be a white colored rock jutting out from the island of [[Lefkada|Leukas]] into the sea. It was present in the sanctuary of Apollo Leukates. A leap from this rock was believed to have put an end to the longings of love. Once, Aphrodite fell deeply in love with [[Adonis]], a young man of great beauty who was later accidentally killed by a boar. Heartbroken, Aphrodite wandered looking for the rock of Leukas. When she reached the sanctuary of Apollo in Argos, she confided in him her love and sorrow. Apollo then brought her to the rock of Leukas and asked her to throw herself from the top of the rock. She did so and was freed from her love. When she sought for the reason behind this, Apollo told her that Zeus, before taking another lover, would sit on this rock to free himself from his love to Hera. Another tale relates that a man named Nireus, who fell in love with the cult statue of Athena, came to the rock and jumped in order relieve himself. After jumping, he fell into the net of a fisherman in which, when he was pulled out, he found a box filled with gold. He fought with the fisherman and took the gold, but Apollo appeared to him in the night in a dream and warned him not to appropriate gold which belonged to others. It was an ancestral custom among the Leukadians to fling a criminal from this rock every year at the sacrifice performed in honor of Apollo for the sake of averting evil. However, a number of men would be stationed all around below rock to catch the criminal and take him out of the borders in order to exile him from the island. This was the same rock from which, according to a legend, Sappho took her suicidal leap.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Female lovers"], "text": "Love affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology. Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favorites of painters since the Renaissance, the result being that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination. [[Daphne]] was a [[nymph]] whose parentage varies. She scorned Apollo's advances and ran away from him. When Apollo chased her in order to persuade her, she changed herself into a laurel tree. According to other versions, she cried for help during the chase, and [[Gaia]] helped her by taking her in and placing a laurel tree in her place. According to Roman poet [[Ovid]], the chase was brought about by [[Cupid]], who hit Apollo with golden arrow of love and Daphne with leaden arrow of hatred. The myth explains the origin of the [[Bay Laurel|laurel]] and connection of Apollo with the laurel and its leaves, which his priestess employed at [[Delphi]]. The leaves became the symbol of victory and laurel wreaths were given to the victors of the [[Pythian games]]. Apollo is said to have been the lover of all nine [[Muses]], and not being able to choose one of them, decided to remain unwed. He fathered the [[Corybantes]] by the Muse [[Thalia (Muse)|Thalia]], [[Orpheus]] by [[Calliope]], [[Linus (Thracian)|Linus of Thrace]] by Calliope or [[Urania]] and [[Hymenaios]] (Hymen) by either [[Terpsichore]] or [[Clio]] or Calliope. [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]], was a Thessalian princess whom Apollo loved. In her honor, he built the city Cyrene and made her its ruler. She was later granted longevity by Apollo who turned her into a nymph. The couple had two sons, [[Aristaeus]], and [[Idmon]]. [[Evadne]] was a nymph daughter of Poseidon and a lover of Apollo. She bore him a son, [[Iamos]]. During the time of the childbirth, Apollo sent [[Eileithyia]], the goddess of childbirth to assist her. [[Rhoeo]], a princess of the island of Naxos was loved by Apollo. Out of affection for her, Apollo turned her sisters into goddesses. On the island Delos she bore Apollo a son named [[Anius]]. Not wanting to have the child, she entrusted the infant to Apollo and left. Apollo raised and educated the child on his own. Ourea, a daughter of [[Poseidon]], fell in love with Apollo when he and Poseidon were serving the Trojan king [[Laomedon]]. They both united on the day the walls of [[Troy]] were built. She bore to Apollo a son, whom Apollo named Ileus, after the city of his birth, Ilion ([[Troy]]). Ileus was very dear to Apollo. [[Thero (mythology)|Thero]], daughter of [[Phylas]], a maiden as beautiful as the moonbeams, was loved by the radiant Apollo, and she loved him in return. By their union, she became mother of Chaeron, who was famed as \"the tamer of horses\". He later built the city [[Chaeronea]]. Hyrie or Thyrie was the mother of [[Cycnus (son of Apollo)|Cycnus]]. Apollo turned both the mother and son into swans when they jumped into a lake and tried to kill themselves.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Female lovers"], "text": "[[Hecuba]] was the wife of King [[Priam]] of [[Troy]], and Apollo had a son with her named [[Troilus]]. An [[oracle]] prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by [[Achilleus]], and Apollo avenged his death by killing Achilles. After the sack of Troy, Hecuba was taken to Lycia by Apollo. [[Coronis (Greek mythology)|Coronis]] was daughter of [[Phlegyas]], King of the [[Lapiths]]. While pregnant with [[Asclepius]], Coronis fell in love with [[Ischys]], son of [[Elatus]] and slept with him. When Apollo found out about her infidelity through his prophetic powers, he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis. Apollo rescued the baby by cutting open Koronis' belly and gave it to the [[centaur]] [[Chiron]] to raise. [[Dryope (daughter of Dryops)|Dryope]], the daughter of Dryops, was impregnated by Apollo in the form of a snake. She gave birth to a son named Amphissus. In [[Euripides]]' play ''[[Ion (play)|Ion]]'', Apollo fathered [[Ion (mythology)|Ion]] by [[Creusa (daughter of Erechtheus)|Creusa]], wife of [[Xuthus]]. He used his powers to conceal her pregnancy from her father. Later, when Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, Apollo asked [[Hermes]] to save the child and bring him to the oracle at [[Delphi]], where he was raised by a priestess.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Male lovers"], "text": "[[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinth]] or Hyacinthus was one of Apollo's favorite lovers. He was a [[Sparta]] prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair was practicing throwing the [[Discus throw|discus]] when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the jealous [[Zephyrus]] and struck Hyacinthus in the head, killing him instantly. Apollo is said to be filled with grief. Out of Hyacinthus' blood, Apollo created a [[hyacinth (plant)|flower]] named after him as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with the interjection , meaning ''alas''. He was later resurrected and taken to heaven. The festival [[Hyacinthia]] was a national celebration of Sparta, which commemorated the death and rebirth of Hyacinthus. Another male lover was [[Cyparissus]], a descendant of [[Heracles]]. Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a [[Pilum|javelin]] as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus was so saddened by its death that he asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo granted the request by turning him into the [[Cupressaceae|Cypress]] named after him, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk. [[Admetus]], the king of Pherae, was also Apollo's lover. During his exile, which lasted either for one year or nine years, Apollo served Admetus as a herdsman. The romantic nature of their relationship was first described by [[Callimachus]] of Alexandria, who wrote that Apollo was \"fired with love\" for Admetus. Plutarch lists Admetus as one of Apollo's lovers and says that Apollo served Admetus because he doted upon him. Latin poet [[Ovid]] in his [[Ars Amatoria]] said that even though he was a god, Apollo forsook his pride and stayed in as a servant for the sake of Admetus. [[Tibullus]] desrcibes Apollo's love to the king as ''servitium amoris'' (slavery of love) and asserts that Apollo became his servant not by force but by choice. He would also make cheese and serve it to Admetus. His domestic actions caused embarrassment to his family. When Admetus wanted to marry princess [[Alcestis]], Apollo provided a chariot pulled by a lion and a boar he had tamed. This satisfied Alcestis' father and he let Admetus marry his daughter. Further, Apollo saved the king from Artemis' wrath and also convinced the [[Moirai]] to postpone Admetus' death once. [[Branchus]], a shepherd, one day came across Apollo in the woods. Captivated by the god's beauty, he kissed Apollo. Apollo requited his affections and wanting to reward him, bestowed prophetic skills on him. His descendants, the Branchides, were an influential clan of prophets. Other male lovers of Apollo include: (-) [[Adonis]], who is said to have been the lover of both Apollo and Aphrodite. He behaved as a man with Aphrodite and as a woman with Apollo. (-) [[Atymnius]], otherwise known as a beloved of [[Sarpedon (brother of Minos)|Sarpedon]] (-) [[Boreas (god)|Boreas]], the god of North winds", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Male lovers"], "text": "(-) [[Helenus]], the son of Priam and a Trojan Prince, was a lover of Apollo and received from him an ivory bow with which he later wounded Achilles in the hand. (-) Hippolytus of [[Sicyon]] (not the same as [[Hippolytus (mythology)|Hippolytus, the son of Theseus]]) (-) [[Hymenaios]], the son of [[Magnes (son of Argos)|Magnes]] (-) [[Iapis]], to whom Apollo taught the art of healing (-) [[Phorbas]], the dragon slayer (probably the son of Triopas)", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Children"], "text": "Apollo sired many children, from mortal women and nymphs as well as the goddesses. His children grew up to be physicians, musicians, poets, seers or archers. Many of his sons founded new cities and became kings. They were all usually very beautiful. [[Asclepius]] is the most famous son of Apollo. His skills as a physician surpassed that of Apollo's. Zeus killed him for bringing back the dead, but upon Apollo's request, he was resurrected as a god. [[Aristaeus]] was placed under the care of Chiron after his birth. He became the god of beekeeping, cheese making, animal husbandry and more. He was ultimately given immortality for the benefits he bestowed upon the humanity. The [[Corybantes]] were spear-clashing, dancing demigods. The sons of Apollo who participated in the Trojan War include the Trojan princes [[Hector]] and [[Troilus]], as well as [[Tenes]], the king of [[Tenedos]], all three of whom were killed by Achilles over the course of the war. Apollo's children who became musicians and bards include [[Orpheus]], [[Linus (mythology)|Linus]], [[Ialemus]], [[Hymen (god)|Hymen]], [[Philammon]], [[Eumolpus]] and [[Eleuther]]. Apollo fathered 3 daughters, [[Apollonis]], [[Borysthenis]] and [[Cephisso]], who formed a group of minor Muses, the \"Musa Apollonides\". They were nicknamed Nete, Mese and Hypate after the highest, middle and lowest strings of his lyre. [[Phemonoe]] was a seer and a poetess who was the inventor of Hexameter. [[Apis (Greek mythology)|Apis]], [[Idmon]], [[Iamus]], [[Tenerus (son of Apollo)|Tenerus]], [[Mopsus]], [[Themisto (disambiguation)|Galeus]], Telmessus and others were gifted seers. [[Anius]], Pythaeus and [[Ismenus]] lived as high priests. Most of them were trained by Apollo himself. [[Arabius (mythology)|Arabus]], [[Delphos (mythology)|Delphos]], [[Dryops (mythology)|Dryops]], [[Miletos]], [[Tenes]], [[Epidaurus (mythology)|Epidaurus]], Ceos, [[Lycorus|Lycoras]], [[Syrus]], Pisus, Marathus, Megarus, Patarus, [[Acraepheus]], Cicon, Chaeron and many other sons of Apollo, under the guidance of his words, founded eponymous cities. He also had a son named Chrysorrhoas who was a mechanic artist. His other daughters include [[Eurynome]], [[Chariclo]] wife of [[Chiron]], [[Eurydice]] the wife of Orpheus, [[Eriopis]], famous for her beautiful hair, [[Melite (heroine)|Melite]] the heroine, [[Pamphile]] the silk weaver, Parthenos, and by some accounts, Phoebe, Hilyra and [[Scylla]]. Apollo turned Parthenos into a constellation after her early death. Additionally, Apollo fostered and educated [[Chiron]], the centaur who later became the greatest teacher and educated many demigods, including Apollo's sons. Apollo also fostered [[Carnus]], the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Europa (consort of Zeus)|Europa]].", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Failed love attempts"], "text": "[[Marpessa]] was kidnapped by [[Idas]] but was loved by Apollo as well. [[Zeus]] made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old. [[Sinope (mythology)|Sinope]], a nymph, was approached by the amorous Apollo. She made him promise that he would grant to her whatever she would ask for, and then cleverly asked him to let her stay a virgin. Apollo kept his promise and went back. [[Bolina]] was admired by Apollo but she refused him and jumped into the sea. To avoid her death, Apollo turned her into a nymph and let her go. [[Castalia]] was a [[nymph]] whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dove into the [[castalian Spring|spring]] at Delphi, at the base of [[Mt. Parnassos]], which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire the priestesses. [[Cassandra]], was a daughter of Hecuba and Priam. Apollo wished to court her. Cassandra promised to return his love on one condition - he should give her the power to see the future. Apollo fulfilled her wish, but she went back on her word and rejected him soon after. Angered that she broke her promise, Apollo cursed her that even though she would see the future, no one would ever believe her prophecies. [[Hestia]], the goddess of the hearth, rejected both Apollo's and Poseidon's marriage proposals and swore that she would always stay unmarried.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Female counterparts", "Artemis"], "text": "Artemis as the sister of Apollo, is ''thea apollousa'', that is, she as a female divinity represented the same idea that Apollo did as a male divinity. In the pre-Hellenic period, their relationship was described as the one between husband and wife, and there seems to have been a tradition which actually described Artemis as the wife of Apollo. However, this relationship was never sexual but spiritual, which is why they both are seen being unmarried in the [[Hellenic period]]. Artemis, like her brother, is armed with a bow and arrows. She is the cause of sudden deaths of women. She also is the protector of the young, especially girls. Though she has nothing to do with oracles, music or poetry, she sometimes led the female chorus on Olympus while Apollo sang. The laurel (''[[daphne]]'') was sacred to both. ''Artemis Daphnaia'' had her temple among the Lacedemonians, at a place called Hypsoi. ''Apollo Daphnephoros'' had a temple in [[Eretria]], a \"place where the citizens are to take the oaths\". In later times when Apollo was regarded as identical with the sun or [[Helios]], Artemis was naturally regarded as [[Selene]] or the moon.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Female counterparts", "Hecate"], "text": "[[Hecate]], the goddess of witchcraft and magic, is the chthonic counterpart of Apollo. They both are cousins, since their mothers - [[Leto]] and [[Asteria (Titaness)|Asteria]] - are sisters. One of Apollo's epithets, ''Hecatos'', is the masculine form of Hecate, and both the names mean \"working from afar\". While Apollo presided over the prophetic powers and magic of light and heaven, Hecate presided over the prophetic powers and magic of night and chthonian darkness. If Hecate is the \"gate-keeper\", Apollo ''Agyieus'' is the \"door-keeper\". Hecate is the goddess of crossroads and Apollo is the god and protector of streets. The oldest evidence found for Hecate's worship is at Apollo's temple in Miletos. There, Hecate was taken to be Apollo's sister counterpart in the absence of Artemis. Hecate's lunar nature makes her the goddess of the waning moon and contrasts and complements, at the same time, Apollo's solar nature.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Female counterparts", "Athena"], "text": "As a deity of knowledge and great power, Apollo was seen being the male counterpart of [[Athena]]. Being Zeus' favorite children, they were given more powers and duties. Apollo and Athena often took up the role as protectors of cities, and were patrons of some of the important cities. Athena was the principle goddess of [[Athens]], Apollo was the principle god of [[Sparta]]. As patrons of arts, Apollo and Athena were companions of the [[Muses]], the former a much more frequent companion than the latter. Apollo was sometimes called the son of Athena and Hephaestus due to his wise and artistic nature. In the Trojan war, as Zeus' executive, Apollo is seen holding the [[aegis]] like Athena usually does. Apollo's decisions were usually approved by his sister Athena, and they both worked to establish the law and order set forth by Zeus.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Apollo in the ''Oresteia''"], "text": "In [[Aeschylus]]' ''[[Oresteia]]'' trilogy, [[Clytemnestra]] kills her husband, King [[Agamemnon]] because he had sacrificed their daughter [[Iphigenia]] to proceed forward with the Trojan war. Apollo gives an order through the Oracle at Delphi that Agamemnon's son, [[Orestes]], is to kill Clytemnestra and [[Aegisthus]], her lover. Orestes and Pylades carry out the revenge, and consequently Orestes is pursued by the [[Erinyes]] or Furies (female personifications of [[revenge|vengeance]]). Apollo and the Furies argue about whether the [[matricide]] was justified; Apollo holds that the bond of marriage is sacred and Orestes was avenging his father, whereas the Erinyes say that the bond of blood between mother and son is more meaningful than the bond of marriage. They invade his temple, and he drives them away. He says that the matter should be brought before Athena. Apollo promises to protect Orestes, as Orestes has become Apollo's [[Supplication|supplicant]]. Apollo advocates Orestes at the trial, and ultimately Athena rules in favor of Apollo.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Mythology", "Roman Apollo"], "text": "The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially [[List of Greek mythological figures|Greek god]], Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as '''Phoebus'''. There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the [[Roman Kingdom|kings of Rome]] during the reign of [[Tarquinius Superbus]]. On the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BCE, Apollo's [[Temple of Apollo Sosianus|first temple]] at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the \"Apollinare\". During the [[Second Punic War]] in 212 BCE, the ''[[Ludi Apollinares]]'' (\"Apollonian Games\") were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius. In the time of [[Augustus]], who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome. After the [[battle of Actium]], which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo's temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted [[quinquennial]] games in his honour. He also erected [[Temple of Apollo (Palatine)|a new temple]] to the god on the [[Palatine Hill|Palatine hill]]. Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]] formed the culmination of the [[Secular Games]], held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Festivals"], "text": "The chief Apollonian festival was the [[Pythian Games]] held every four years at Delphi and was one of the four great [[Panhellenic Games]]. Also of major importance was the [[Delia (festival)|Delia]] held every four years on Delos. Athenian annual festivals included the [[Boedromia]], [[Metageitnia]], [[Pyanepsia]], and [[Thargelia]]. Spartan annual festivals were the [[Carneia]] and the [[Hyacinthia]]. [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] every nine years held the [[Daphnephoria]].", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Attributes and symbols"], "text": "Apollo's most common attributes were the bow and [[arrow]]. Other attributes of his included the [[kithara]] (an advanced version of the common [[lyre]]), the [[plectrum]] and the sword. Another common emblem was the [[sacrificial tripod]], representing his prophetic powers. The [[Pythian Games]] were held in Apollo's honor every four years at [[Delphi]]. The [[bay laurel]] plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the [[laurel wreath|crown of victory]] at these games. The [[palm tree]] was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in [[Delos]]. Animals sacred to Apollo included [[wolf|wolves]], dolphins, [[roe deer]], [[swan]], [[cicada]] (symbolizing music and song), [[raven]], [[hawk]], [[Corvus (genus)|crow]] (Apollo had hawks and crows as his messengers), snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice and [[griffin]], mythical eagle–lion hybrids of Eastern origin. [[Homer]] and [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] wrote that Apollo had a hawk as his messenger. In many myths Apollo is transformed into a hawk. In addition, [[Claudius Aelianus]] wrote that in [[Egyptians|Ancient Egypt]] people believed that hawks were sacred to the god and that according to the ministers of Apollo in Egypt there were certain men called \"hawk-keepers\" (ἱερακοβοσκοί) who fed and tended the hawks belonging to the god. [[Eusebius]] wrote that the second appearance of the moon is held sacred in the city of Apollo in Egypt and that the city's symbol is a man with a hawklike face ([[Horus]]). [[Claudius Aelianus]] wrote that Egyptians called Apollo [[Horus]] in their own language. As god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE. According to Greek tradition, he helped [[Crete|Cretan]] or [[Arcadia (ancient region)|Arcadia]] colonists found the city of [[Troy]]. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: [[Hittites|Hittite]] [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] texts mention an Asia Minor god called ''Appaliunas'' or ''Apalunas'' in connection with the city of [[Wilusa]] attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek [[Troy|Ilion]] by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo's title of ''Lykegenes'' can simply be read as \"born in Lycia\", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a [[folk etymology]]). In literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of [[Dionysus]], god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives [[Apollonian and Dionysian]]. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for [[Hyperborea]], he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the [[Borghese Vase]]. Apollo is often associated with the [[Golden mean (philosophy)|Golden Mean]]. This is the Greek [[Ideal (ethics)|ideal]] of [[moderation]] and a [[virtue]] that opposes [[gluttony]].", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Apollo in the arts"], "text": "Apollo is a common theme in Greek and Roman art and also in the art of the [[Renaissance]]. The earliest Greek word for a statue is \"delight\" (, ''agalma''), and the sculptors tried to create forms which would inspire such guiding vision. Greek art puts into Apollo the highest degree of power and beauty that can be imagined. The sculptors derived this from observations on human beings, but they also embodied in concrete form, issues beyond the reach of ordinary thought. The naked bodies of the statues are associated with the cult of the body that was essentially a religious activity. The muscular frames and limbs combined with slim waists indicate the Greek desire for health, and the physical capacity which was necessary in the hard Greek environment. The statues of Apollo embody beauty, balance and inspire awe before the beauty of the world.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Apollo in the arts", "Archaic sculpture"], "text": "Numerous free-standing statues of male youths from [[Archaic Greece]] exist, and were once thought to be representations of Apollo, though later discoveries indicated that many represented mortals. In 1895, V. I. Leonardos proposed the term ''[[kouros]]'' (\"male youth\") to refer to those from [[Keratea]]; this usage was later expanded by Henri Lechat in 1904 to cover all statues of this format. The earliest examples of life-sized statues of Apollo may be two figures from the [[Ionians|Ionic]] sanctuary on the island of [[Delos]]. Such statues were found across the Greek speaking world, the preponderance of these were found at the sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of ''Apollo Ptoios'', [[Boeotia]] alone. Significantly more rare are the life-sized bronze statues. One of the few originals which survived into the present day—so rare that its discovery in 1959 was described as \"a miracle\" by Ernst Homann-Wedeking—is the masterpiece bronze, ''[[Piraeus Apollo]]''. It was found in [[Piraeus]], a [[port city]] close to Athens, and is believed to have come from north-eastern [[Peloponnesus]]. It is the only surviving large-scale Peloponnesian statue.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Apollo in the arts", "Classical sculpture"], "text": "The famous [[Apollo of Mantua]] and its variants are early forms of the Apollo Citharoedus statue type, in which the god holds the [[cithara]], a sophisticated seven-stringed variant of the lyre, in his left arm. While none of the Greek originals have survived, several Roman copies from approximately the late 1st or early 2nd century exist. Other notable forms are the [[Apollo Citharoedus]] and the [[Apollo Barberini]].", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Apollo in the arts", "Hellenistic Greece-Rome"], "text": "Apollo as a handsome beardless young man, is often depicted with a cithara (as Apollo Citharoedus) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the [[Apollo Lykeios]] and [[Apollo Sauroctonos]] types). The [[Apollo Belvedere]] is a [[marble]] sculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of [[Classical Antiquity]] for Europeans, from the [[Renaissance]] through the 19th century. The marble is a [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor [[Leochares]], made between 350 and 325 BCE. The life-size so-called \"[[Adonis]]\" found in 1780 on the site of a ''[[Roman villa|villa suburbana]]'' near the [[Via Labicana]] in the Roman suburb of Centocelle is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. In the late 2nd century CE floor mosaic from [[El Djem]], Roman ''Thysdrus'', he is identifiable as [[Helios|Apollo Helios]] by his effulgent [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]], though now even a god's divine [[nudity|nakedness]] is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later [[Roman Empire|Empire]]. Another haloed Apollo in mosaic, from [[Hadrumentum]], is in the museum at [[Sousse]]. The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling [[Hairstyle|hair cut]] in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict [[Alexander the Great]]. Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ would also be beardless and haloed.", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": ["Modern reception"], "text": "Apollo has often featured in postclassical art and literature. [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] composed a \"Hymn of Apollo\" (1820), and the god's instruction of the Muses formed the subject of [[Igor Stravinsky]]'s ''[[Apollon musagète]]'' (1927–1928). In 1978, the Canadian band [[Rush (band)|Rush]] released [[Hemispheres (Rush album)|an album]] with songs [[Cygnus X-1 Book II|\"Apollo: Bringer of Wisdom\"/\"Dionysus: Bringer of Love\"]]. Apollo was also depicted by [[Keith David]] in [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]'s 1997 animated feature film, ''[[Hercules (1997 film)|Hercules]].'' In 2016, author [[Rick Riordan]] published the first book in the [[Trials of Apollo]] series, publishing four other books in the series in 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020. In discussion of the arts, a distinction is sometimes made between the [[Apollonian and Dionysian]] impulses where the former is concerned with imposing intellectual order and the latter with chaotic creativity. [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] argued that a fusion of the two was most desirable. [[Carl Jung]]'s [[Apollo archetype]] represents what he saw as the disposition in people to over-intellectualise and maintain emotional distance. [[Charles Handy]], in ''Gods of Management'' (1978) uses Greek gods as a metaphor to portray various types of [[organizational culture|organisational culture]]. Apollo represents a 'role' culture where order, reason, and [[bureaucracy]] prevail. In spaceflight, the 1960s and 1970s [[NASA]] program for orbiting and landing astronauts on the Moon was named [[Apollo program|Apollo]].", "id": "594", "title": "Apollo", "categories": ["Apollo", "Beauty gods", "Deities in the Iliad", "Divine twins", "Dragonslayers", "Greek Muses", "Health gods", "Homosexuality and bisexuality deities", "Knowledge gods", "LGBT themes in Greek mythology", "Light deities", "Maintenance deities", "Metamorphoses characters", "Music and singing gods", "Mythological Greek archers", "Mythological rapists", "Oracular gods", "Roman gods", "Solar gods"], "seealso": ["Pasiphaë", "Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)", "Phoebus (disambiguation)", "Epirus", "Tegyra", "Dryad", "Sibylline oracles"]}
+{"headers": [], "text": "'''Andre Kirk Agassi''' ( ; born April 29, 1970) is an American former [[List of ATP number 1 ranked singles players|world No. 1]] [[tennis]] player. In singles, Agassi is an eight-time [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] champion and a [[Tennis at the 1996 Summer Olympics|1996 Olympic gold medalist]], as well as a runner-up in seven other Grand Slam tournaments. During the [[Open Era]], Agassi was the first male player to win four Australian Open titles, a record that was later surpassed by [[Novak Djokovic]] when he won his fifth title in 2015, and then by [[Roger Federer]] in 2017. Agassi is second of five male singles players to achieve the [[Grand Slam (tennis)#Career Grand Slam|Career Grand Slam]] in the Open Era after [[Rod Laver]] and before Federer, [[Rafael Nadal]] and Djokovic; he is the fifth of eight in history to make the achievement. He is also the first of two men to achieve the [[Career Golden Slam]] (Career Grand Slam and Olympic gold medal, the other being Nadal), and the only man to win a [[Grand Slam (tennis)#Career Super Slam|Career Super Slam]] (Career Grand Slam, plus the Olympic gold medal, plus a title at the [[ATP Finals|year-end championships]]). Agassi was the first male player to win all four Grand Slam tournaments on three different surfaces (hard, clay and grass), and the last American male to win both the French Open (in 1999) and the Australian Open (in 2003). He also won 17 [[ATP World Tour Masters 1000|ATP Masters Series]] titles and was part of the winning [[Davis Cup]] teams in [[1990 Davis Cup|1990]], [[1992 Davis Cup|1992]] and [[1995 Davis Cup|1995]]. Agassi reached the world No. 1 ranking for the first time in 1995 but was troubled by personal issues during the mid-to-late 1990s and sank to No. 141 in 1997, prompting many to believe that his career was over. Agassi returned to No. 1 in 1999 and enjoyed the most successful run of his career over the next four years. During his 20-plus year tour career, Agassi was known by the nickname \"The Punisher\". After suffering from [[sciatica]] caused by two bulging discs in his back, a [[spondylolisthesis]] ([[vertebra]] displacement) and a [[bone spur]] that interfered with the [[nerve]], Agassi retired from professional tennis on September 3, 2006, after losing in the third round of the [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]] to [[Benjamin Becker]]. He is the founder of the Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation, which has raised over $60 million for at-risk children in Southern Nevada. In 2001, the Foundation opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas, a K-12 public charter school for at-risk children. He has been married to fellow tennis player [[Steffi Graf]] since 2001.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["1970–1985: Early life"], "text": "Andre Agassi was born in Las Vegas, Nevada to [[Emmanuel Agassi|Emmanuel \"Mike\" Agassi]], a former Olympic boxer from Iran and Elizabeth \"Betty\" Agassi ([[née]] Dudley). His father is of [[Iranian Armenians|Armenian]] and [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] heritage. One of his ancestors changed his surname from Armenian Aghassian to less noticeable Agassi as \"a skin-saving measure during a time when Turks frequently used Armenians for target practice\". Andre Agassi's mother, Betty, is a breast cancer survivor. He has three older siblings – Rita (last wife to [[Pancho Gonzales]]), Philip and Tami. Andre was given the middle name Kirk after [[Kirk Kerkorian]], an Armenian American billionaire. Agassi, a waiter at [[Tropicana Las Vegas]], met Kerkorian in 1963. Agassi at the age of 12 (with his good friend and doubles partner Roddy Parks) won the 1982 National Indoor Boys 14s Doubles Championship in Chicago. Agassi describes more of his memorable experiences and juvenile pranks with Roddy in his book ''Open''. At the age of 13, Agassi was sent to [[Nick Bollettieri]]'s Tennis Academy in Florida. He was meant to stay for only three months, because that was all his father could afford. After thirty minutes of watching Agassi play, Bollettieri, deeply impressed by his talent, called Mike and said: \"Take your check back. He's here for free.\" Agassi then dropped out of school in the ninth grade to pursue a full-time tennis career.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["1986–2006: Professional career", "1986–1993: Breakthrough and the first major title"], "text": "Agassi turned professional at the age of 16 and competed in his first tournament at [[La Quinta, California]]. He won his first match against [[John Austin (tennis)|John Austin]], but then lost his second match to [[Mats Wilander]]. By the end of 1986, Agassi was ranked No. 91. He won his first top-level singles title in 1987 at the [[ATP Itaparica|Sul American Open]] in [[Itaparica]] and ended the year ranked No. 25. He won six additional tournaments in 1988 (Memphis, [[1988 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships|U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships]], [[World Championship Tennis#WCT 1988|Forest Hills WCT]], Stuttgart Outdoor, [[1988 Volvo International|Volvo International]] and [[1988 Livingston Open|Livingston Open]]), and, by December of that year, he had surpassed US$1 million in career prize money after playing in just 43 tournaments—the fastest anyone in history had reached that level. During 1988, he also set the open-era record for most consecutive victories by a male teenager (a record that stood for 17 years until [[Rafael Nadal]] broke it in 2005). His year-end ranking was No. 3, behind second-ranked [[Ivan Lendl]] and top-ranked [[Mats Wilander]]. Both the [[Association of Tennis Professionals]] and ''Tennis'' magazine named Agassi the Most Improved Player of the Year for 1988. In addition to not playing the Australian Open (which later became his best Grand Slam event) for the first eight years of his career, Agassi chose not to play at [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] from 1988 through 1990 and publicly stated that he did not wish to play there because of the event's traditionalism, particularly its \"predominantly white\" dress code to which players at the event are required to conform. Strong performances on the tour meant that Agassi was quickly tipped as a future Grand Slam champion. While still a teenager, he reached the semi-finals of both the French Open and the [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]] in 1988 and made the [[United States|US]] Open semi-finals in 1989. He began the 1990s with a series of near-misses. He reached his first Grand Slam final in 1990 at the French Open, where he was favored before losing in four sets to [[Andrés Gómez]], which he later attributed in his book to worrying about his wig falling off during the match. He reached his second Grand Slam final of the year at the US Open, defeating defending champion [[Boris Becker]] in the semi-finals. His opponent in the final was [[Pete Sampras]]; a year earlier, Agassi had crushed Sampras, after which time he told his coach that he felt bad for Sampras because he was never going to make it as a pro. Agassi lost the US Open final to Sampras in three sets. The rivalry between these two American players became the biggest one in tennis over the rest of the decade. Agassi ended 1990 on a high note as he helped the United States win its first [[Davis Cup]] in 8 years and won his only [[Tennis Masters Cup]], beating reigning Wimbledon champion [[Stefan Edberg]] in the final.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["1986–2006: Professional career", "1986–1993: Breakthrough and the first major title"], "text": "In 1991, Agassi reached his second consecutive French Open final, where he faced fellow Bollettieri Academy alumnus [[Jim Courier]]. Courier emerged the victor in a five-set final. Agassi decided to play at Wimbledon in 1991, leading to weeks of speculation in the media about the clothes he would wear. He eventually emerged for the first round in a completely white outfit. He reached the quarterfinals on that occasion, losing in five sets to [[David Wheaton]]. Agassi's Grand Slam tournament breakthrough came at Wimbledon, not at the French Open or the [[United States|US]] Open, where he had previously enjoyed success. In 1992, he defeated [[Goran Ivanišević]] in a five-set final. Along the way, Agassi overcame two former Wimbledon champions: [[Boris Becker]] and [[John McEnroe]]. No other baseliner would triumph at Wimbledon until [[Lleyton Hewitt]] ten years later. Agassi was named the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality|BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year]] in 1992. Agassi once again played on the United States' [[Davis Cup]] winning team in 1992. It was their second Davis cup title in three years. In 1993, Agassi won the only doubles title of his career, at the [[Cincinnati Masters]], partnered with [[Petr Korda]]. He missed much of the early part of that year due to injuries. Although he made the quarterfinals in his Wimbledon title defense, he lost to eventual champion and No. 1 Pete Sampras in five sets. Agassi lost in the first round at the US Open to [[Thomas Enqvist]] and required wrist surgery late in the year.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["1986–2006: Professional career", "1994–1997: Rise to the top, Olympic Gold and the fall"], "text": "With new coach [[Brad Gilbert]] on board, Agassi began to employ more of a tactical, consistent approach, which fueled his resurgence. He started slowly in 1994, losing in the first week at the French Open and Wimbledon. Nevertheless, he emerged during the hard-court season, winning the [[Canada Masters|Canadian Open]]. His comeback culminated at the [[1994 US Open (tennis)|1994 US Open]] with a five-set fourth-round victory against [[Michael Chang]]. He then became the first man to capture the US Open as an [[Seed (tennis)|unseeded]] player, beating [[Michael Stich]] in the final. Along the way, he beat 5 seeded players. In 1995, Agassi shaved his balding head, breaking with his old \"image is everything\" style. He competed in the [[1995 Australian Open]] (his first appearance at the event) and won, beating Sampras in a four-set final. Agassi and Sampras met in five tournament finals in 1995, all on [[hardcourt]], with Agassi winning three. Agassi won three Masters Series events in 1995 ([[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati]], [[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]], and the Canadian Open) and seven titles total. He compiled a career-best 26-match winning streak during the summer hard-court circuit, with the last victory being in an intense late-night four-set semi-final of the [[1995 US Open (tennis)|US Open]] against [[Boris Becker]]. The streak ended the next day when Agassi lost the final to Sampras. Agassi reached the [[List of ATP number 1 ranked singles tennis players|world No. 1]] ranking for the first time in April 1995. He held that ranking until November, for a total of 30 weeks. Agassi skipped most of the fall indoor season which allowed Sampras to surpass him and finish ranked No. 1 at the year-end ranking. In terms of win/loss record, 1995 was Agassi's best year. He won 73 and lost 9 matches, and was also once again a key player on the United States' [[Davis Cup]] winning team—the third and final Davis Cup title of his career. 1996 was a less successful year for Agassi, as he failed to reach any Grand Slam final. He suffered two early-round losses to [[Chris Woodruff]] and [[Doug Flach]] at the French Open and Wimbledon, respectively, and lost to Chang in straight sets in the Australian and US Open semi-finals. At the time, Agassi blamed the Australian Open loss on the windy conditions, but later said in his biography that he had lost the match on purpose, as he did not want to play Boris Becker, whom he would have faced in that final. The high point for Agassi was winning the men's singles gold medal at the [[1996 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] in [[Atlanta]], beating [[Sergi Bruguera]] of Spain in the final. Agassi also successfully defended his singles titles in Cincinnati and Key Biscayne.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["1986–2006: Professional career", "1994–1997: Rise to the top, Olympic Gold and the fall"], "text": "1997 was the low point of Agassi's career. His wrist injury resurfaced, and he played only 24 matches during the year. He later confessed that he started using [[methamphetamine|crystal methamphetamine]] at that time, allegedly on the urging of a friend. He failed an ATP drug test, but wrote a letter claiming the same friend had spiked a drink. The ATP dropped the failed drug test as a warning. In his autobiography, Agassi admitted that the letter was a lie. He quit the drug soon after. At this time Agassi was also in a failing marriage with actress, model, and socialite [[Brooke Shields]] and had lost interest in the game. He won no top-level titles, and his ranking sank to No. 141 on November 10, 1997, prompting many to believe that his run as one of the sport's premier competitors was over and he would never again win any significant championships.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["1986–2006: Professional career", "1998–2003: Return to glory and Career Super Slam"], "text": "In 1998, Agassi began a rigorous conditioning program and worked his way back up the rankings by playing in Challenger Series tournaments, a circuit for pro players ranked outside the world's top 50. After returning to top physical and mental shape, Agassi recorded the most successful period of his tennis career and also played classic matches in that period against [[Pete Sampras]] and [[Patrick Rafter]]. In 1998, Agassi won five titles and leapt from No. 110 to No. 6, the highest jump into the top 10 made by any player during a calendar year. At Wimbledon, he had an early loss in the second round to [[Tommy Haas]]. He won five titles in ten finals and was runner-up at the [[Miami Masters|Masters Series tournament in Key Biscayne]], losing to [[Marcelo Ríos]], who became No. 1 as a result. At the year end he was awarded the ATP Most Improved Player of the Year for the second time in his career (the first being 10 years earlier in 1988). Agassi entered the history books in 1999 when he came back from two sets to love down to beat [[Andrei Medvedev (tennis)|Andrei Medvedev]] in a five-set French Open final, becoming, at the time, only the fifth male player (joining [[Rod Laver]], [[Fred Perry]], [[Roy Emerson]] and [[Don Budge]]—these have since been joined by [[Roger Federer]], [[Rafael Nadal]], and [[Novak Djokovic]]) to win all four Grand Slam singles titles during his career. Only Laver, Agassi, Federer, Nadal and Djokovic have achieved this feat during the [[Open Era]]. This win also made him the first (of only four, the next being Federer, Nadal and Djokovic respectively) male player in history to have won all four Grand Slam titles on three different surfaces (clay, grass and hard courts). Agassi also became the only male player to win the [[Career Super Slam]], consisting of all four Grand Slam tournaments plus an Olympic gold medal in singles and a [[ATP World Tour Finals|Year-End Championship]]. Agassi followed his 1999 French Open victory by reaching the Wimbledon final, where he lost to Sampras in straight sets. He rebounded from his Wimbledon defeat by winning the [[1999 US Open (tennis)|US Open]], beating [[Todd Martin]] in five sets (rallying from a two sets to one deficit) in the final. Overall during the year Agassi won 5 titles including two majors and the ATP Masters Series in Paris, where he beat [[Marat Safin]]. Agassi ended 1999 as the No. 1, ending Sampras's record of six consecutive year-ending top rankings (1993–98). This was the only time Agassi ended the year at No. 1. Agassi was runner-up to Sampras at the year-end [[1999 Tennis Masters Cup|Tennis Masters Cup]] losing 1–6, 5–7, 4-6 after thrashing Sampras in the round-robin 6–2, 6–2.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["1986–2006: Professional career", "1998–2003: Return to glory and Career Super Slam"], "text": "He began the next year 2000 by capturing his second Australian Open title, beating Sampras in a five-set semi-final and [[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] in a four-set final. He was the first male player to have reached four consecutive Grand Slam finals since [[Rod Laver]] achieved the Grand Slam in 1969. At the time, Agassi was also only the fourth player since Laver to be the reigning champion of three of four Grand Slam events, missing only the Wimbledon title.. 2000 also saw Agassi reach the semi-finals at Wimbledon, where he lost in five sets to Rafter in a match considered by many to be one of the best ever at Wimbledon. At the inaugural [[2000 Tennis Masters Cup|Tennis Masters Cup]] in Lisbon, Agassi reached the final after defeating Marat Safin in the semi-finals to end the Russian's hopes to become the youngest No. 1 in the history of tennis. Agassi then lost to [[Gustavo Kuerten]] in the final, allowing Kuerten to be crowned year-end No. 1. Agassi opened 2001 by successfully defending his Australian Open title with a straight-sets final win over [[Arnaud Clément]]. En route, he beat a cramping Rafter in five sets in front of a sell-out crowd in what turned out to be the Aussie's last Australian Open. At Wimbledon, they met again in the semi-finals, where Agassi lost another close match to Rafter, 8–6 in the fifth set. In the quarterfinals at the US Open, Agassi lost a 3-hour, 33 minute epic match with Sampras, 7–6, 6–7, 6–7, 6–7, with no breaks of serve during the 52-game match. Despite the setback, Agassi finished 2001 ranked No. 3, becoming the only male tennis player to finish a year ranked in the top 3 in three different decades (1980s, 1990s, 2000s). He was also the oldest player at the time (age 31) to finish in the top three since 32-year-old Connors finished at No. 2 in 1984. 2002 opened with disappointment for Agassi, as injury forced him to skip the Australian Open, where he was a two-time defending champion. Agassi recovered from the injury and later that year defended his [[Key Biscayne]] title beating then rising Roger Federer in a four-set final. The last duel between Agassi and Sampras came in the final of the US Open, which Sampras won in four sets and left Sampras with a 20–14 edge in their 34 career meetings. The match was the last of Sampras's career. Agassi's US Open finish, along with his Masters Series victories in Key Biscayne, [[Rome Masters|Rome]] and [[Madrid Open (tennis)|Madrid]], helped him finish 2002 as the oldest year-end No. 2 at 32 years and 8 months.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["1986–2006: Professional career", "1998–2003: Return to glory and Career Super Slam"], "text": "In 2003, Agassi won the eighth (and final) Grand Slam title of his career at the Australian Open, where he beat [[Rainer Schüttler]] in straight sets in the final. In March, he won his sixth career and third consecutive [[Key Biscayne]] title, in the process surpassing his wife, [[Steffi Graf]], who was a five-time winner of the event. The final was his 18th straight win in that tournament, which broke the previous record of 17 set by Sampras from 1993 to 1995. (Agassi's winning streak continued to 20 after winning his first two matches at the 2004 edition of that tournament before bowing to [[Agustín Calleri]].) With the victory, Agassi became the youngest (19 years old) and oldest (32) winner of the Key Biscayne tournament (before Djokovic and Federer overtook him in 2007 and 2017 respectively). On April 28, 2003, he recaptured the No. 1 ranking after winning the [[2003 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships – Singles|U.S. Men's Clay Court Championship]] and regained it after a quarterfinal victory over [[Xavier Malisse]] at the [[Queen's Club Championships]] to become the oldest top-ranked male player since the ATP rankings began at 33 years and 13 days. The record was later surpassed by [[Roger Federer]] in 2018. He had held the No. 1 ranking for two weeks, when [[Lleyton Hewitt]] took it back on May 12, 2003. Agassi then recaptured the No. 1 ranking once again on June 16, 2003, which he held for 12 weeks until September 7, 2003. There he managed to reach the US Open semi-finals, where he lost to [[Juan Carlos Ferrero]], surrendering his No. 1 ranking to him. During his career, Agassi held the ranking for a total of 101 weeks. Agassi's ranking slipped when injuries forced him to withdraw from a number of events. At the year-end Tennis Masters Cup, Agassi lost in the final to Federer, his third time to finish as runner-up in the event after losses in 1999 and 2000, and finished the year ranked No. 4. At age 33, he had been one of the oldest players to rank in the top 5 since Connors, at age 35, was No. 4 in 1987.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["1986–2006: Professional career", "2004–2006: Final years"], "text": "[[file:Andre Agassi Indian Wells 2006.jpg|thumb|Agassi in 2006]] In 2004, Agassi began the year with a five-set loss in the semi-finals of the Australian Open to [[Marat Safin]]; the loss ended Agassi's 26-match winning streak at the event. He won the [[Cincinnati Masters|Masters series event in Cincinnati]] to bring his career total to 59 top-level singles titles and a record 17 ATP Masters Series titles, having already won seven of the nine ATP Masters tournament—all except the tournaments in [[Monte Carlo Masters|Monte Carlo]] and [[Hamburg Masters|Hamburg]]. At 34, he became the second-oldest singles champion in Cincinnati tournament history (the tournament began in 1899), tied with Roger Federer and surpassed only by [[Ken Rosewall]], who won the title in 1970 at age 35. He finished the year ranked No. 8, one of the oldest players to finish in the top 10 since the 36-year-old Connors was No. 7 in 1988. At the time, Agassi also became the sixth male player during the [[Tennis open era|open era]] to reach 800 career wins with his first-round victory over [[Alex Bogomolov]] in [[Countrywide Classic]] in Los Angeles. Agassi's 2005 began with a quarterfinal loss to Federer at the Australian Open. Agassi had several other deep runs at tournaments, but had to withdraw from several events due to injury. He lost to [[Jarkko Nieminen]] in the first round of the French Open. He won his fourth title in Los Angeles and reached the final of the [[Canada Masters|Rogers Cup]], before falling to No. 2 [[Rafael Nadal]]. Agassi's 2005 was defined by an improbable run to the US Open final. After beating [[Răzvan Sabău]] and [[Ivo Karlović]] in straight sets and [[Tomáš Berdych]] in four sets, Agassi won three consecutive five-set matches to advance to the final. The most notable of these matches was his quarterfinal victory over [[James Blake (tennis)|James Blake]], where he rallied from two sets down to win in the fifth set tie-breaker. His other five-set victories were on [[Xavier Malisse]] in the fourth round and [[Robby Ginepri]] in the semi-finals. In the final, Agassi faced Federer, who was seeking his second consecutive US Open title and his sixth Grand Slam title in two years. Federer defeated Agassi in four sets. Agassi finished 2005 ranked No. 7, his 16th time in the year-end top-10 rankings, which tied Connors for the most times ranked in the top 10 at year's end.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["1986–2006: Professional career", "2004–2006: Final years"], "text": "Agassi had a poor start to 2006, as he was still recovering from an ankle injury and also suffering from back and leg pain and lack of match play. Agassi withdrew from the Australian Open because of the ankle injury, and his back injury and other pains forced him to withdraw from several other events, eventually skipping the entire clay-court season including the French Open. This caused his ranking to drop out of the top 10 for the last time. Agassi returned for the grass-court season, playing a tune-up, and then [[2006 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|Wimbledon]]. He was defeated in the third round by world No. 2 (and eventual runner-up) [[Rafael Nadal]]. Against conventions, Agassi, the losing player, was interviewed on court after the match. At Wimbledon, Agassi announced his plans to retire following the US Open. Agassi played only two events during the summer hard-court season with his best result being a quarterfinal loss at the [[Countrywide Classic]] in Los Angeles to [[Fernando González]] of Chile, which resulted in him being unseeded at the US Open. Agassi had a short, but dramatic, run in his final US Open. Because of extreme back pain, Agassi was forced to receive anti-inflammatory injections after every match. After a tough four-set win against [[Andrei Pavel]], Agassi faced eighth-seeded [[Marcos Baghdatis]] in the second round who had earlier advanced to the [[2006 Australian Open]] final and Wimbledon semi-finals. Agassi won in five tough sets as the younger Baghdatis succumbed to muscle cramping in the final set. In his last match, Agassi fell to 112th-ranked big-serving [[Benjamin Becker]] of Germany in four sets. Agassi received a four-minute standing ovation from the crowd after the match and delivered a retirement speech.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Rivalries", "Agassi vs. Sampras"], "text": "The rivalry has been called the greatest of the generation of players competing in the 90's, as [[Pete Sampras|Sampras]] and Agassi were the most successful players of that decade. They also had very contrasting playing styles, with Sampras being considered the greatest [[serve (tennis)|server]] and Agassi the greatest serve returner at the time. Agassi and Sampras met 34 times on the tour level with Agassi trailing 14–20. The [[1990 U.S. Open (tennis)|1990 US Open]] was their first meeting in a Grand Slam tournament final. Agassi was favored as he was ranked No. 4 at the time, compared to the No. 12 ranking of Sampras and because Agassi had defeated Sampras in their only previously completed match. Agassi, however, lost the final to Sampras in straight sets. Their next meeting in a Grand Slam was at the [[1992 French Open]], where they met in the quarterfinals. Although Sampras was ranked higher, Agassi came out winning in straight sets. They met again on a Grand Slam level at the quarterfinals of Wimbledon in 1993, where Agassi was the defending champion and Sampras was the newly minted world No. 1. Agassi dug himself out from a two-sets-to-love hole, levelling the match at 2 sets apiece; however, Sampras prevailed in five sets, and went on to win his first Wimbledon championship. With both Sampras and Agassi participating, the [[USA Davis Cup team|US]] won the Davis Cup in 1995. The year should be considered the peak of the rivalry as together they won 3 out of 4 major titles, meeting each other twice in the finals, and were occupying the top two spots in the rankings for the whole year. They met 5 times during the year, all in the title matches, including the [[1995 Australian Open|Australian Open]], the [[Indian Wells Masters|Newsweek Champions Cup]] (now Indian Wells), the [[Lipton International Players Championships]] (now Miami Open), the [[Canada Masters|Canadian Open]], and the [[1995 US Open (tennis)|US Open]]. Agassi won three of the finals, including the Australian Open; however, Sampras took the US Open title, ending Agassi's 26-match winning streak. After Agassi had taken most of the fall season off, Sampras took over the No. 1 ranking for the end of the season. In the following 3 years, while Sampras continued winning Grand Slam titles every season, Agassi slumped in the rankings and struggled in major competitions. The next time Sampras and Agassi met in a Grand Slam final was at Wimbledon in 1999, where Sampras won in straight sets. For both, it was considered a career rejuvenation, as Sampras had suffered a string of disappointments in the previous year while Agassi was regaining his status as a top-ranked player after winning the French Open. Sampras forfeited the No. 1 ranking to Agassi when injury forced him to withdraw from that year's US Open, which Agassi went on to win. They faced each other twice in the season-ending [[Tennis Masters Cup|ATP Tour World Championships]], with Sampras losing the round-robin match, but winning the final.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Rivalries", "Agassi vs. Sampras"], "text": "In the 2000s, they met three more times on the Grand Slam level offering three memorable contests. In 2000, the top-ranked Agassi defeated No. 3 Sampras in the semi-finals of the [[2000 Australian Open|Australian Open]] in five sets, which was an important win for Agassi who had lost 4 of the previous 5 matches against Sampras. In arguably their most memorable match ever, Sampras defeated Agassi in the [[2001 U.S. Open (tennis)|2001 US Open]] quarterfinals in four sets. There were no breaks of serve during the entire match. Reruns of the match are frequently featured on television, especially during US Open rain delays, and the match is considered one of the best in history because of the level of play presented by both players. Their last meeting was the final of the [[2002 U.S. Open (tennis)|2002 US Open]], which was their third meeting in a US Open final, but the first since 1995. The match was also notable because they had defeated several up-and-coming players en route to the final. Sampras had defeated No. 3 [[Tommy Haas]] in the fourth round and future No. 1 [[Andy Roddick]] in the quarterfinals, while Agassi had defeated No. 1 and defending champion [[Lleyton Hewitt]] in the semi-finals. Sampras defeated Agassi in four sets. This was the final [[ATP tour]] singles match of Sampras's career.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Rivalries", "Agassi vs. Chang"], "text": "[[Michael Chang]] was the opponent Agassi faced most frequently from all the players other than Sampras. They met 22 times on the tour level with Agassi leading 15–7. Chang, unlike most of Agassi's big rivals, had a playing style similar to his. Both players preferred to stay at the baseline with Chang being more defensive-minded. The outcome was that most of their meetings were built on long and entertaining rallies. The rivalry began late in the 1980s with both players being considered the prodigies of the next great generation of American tennis players and both having foreign descent. Agassi won the first four matches including a straight-set victory in round 16 of the 1988 US Open and defeating Chang, the defending champion, in the 1990 French Open in a four-set quarterfinal. Arguably their best match took place in the round of 16 of the 1994 US Open. While both players presented high-quality shot-making, the momentum changed from set to set with Agassi eventually prevailing in a five-set victory. It turned out to be the toughest contest on his way to his first US Open title. Their next two Grand Slam meetings came in 1996, with Chang recording easy straight-set victories in the semi-finals of both the Australian Open and the US Open. Years after, Agassi shockingly admitted in his book that he had lost the first of the matches on purpose as he did not want to face Boris Becker, who was awaiting the winner in the final. Agassi won the last four of their matches, with the last being in 2003 at the Miami Open with Chang being clearly past his prime.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Rivalries", "Agassi vs. Becker"], "text": "[[Boris Becker]] and Agassi played 14 times with Agassi leading 10–4. Becker won their first three matches in 1988 and 1989 before Agassi reversed the rivalry in 1990, and won 10 of their last 11 matches. They first played at Indian Wells in 1988, with Becker prevailing. Their most notable match was the 1989 [[Davis Cup]] semi-final match, which Becker won in five sets after losing the first two in tiebreaks. Agassi, considered a baseliner with a playing style not suiting grass, shocked Becker, a three-time champion, in a five-set quarterfinal at Wimbledon in 1992 on his way to his first Grand Slam title. The intensity of the rivalry peaked in 1995. Becker won that year's Wimbledon semi-final after being down a set and two breaks, to eventually win in four sets. In a highly anticipated rematch in the US Open semi-final, this time it was Agassi who came out victorious in four tight sets. Their final match was played at Hong Kong in 1999, which Agassi won in three sets.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Rivalries", "Agassi vs. Rafter"], "text": "Agassi and [[Pat Rafter]] played fifteen times with Agassi leading 10–5. The rivalry has been considered special and delivered memorable encounters, because of the players' contrasting styles of play, with Rafter using traditional serve-&-volley methods against Agassi's variety of return of serves and passing shots as his main weapons. Agassi led 8–2 on hard courts, but Rafter surprisingly won their sole match on clay at the [[1999 Italian Open (tennis)|1999 Rome Masters]]. They played four matches at [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] with both winning two matches each. Agassi won the first two in 1993 and 1999, while Rafter took their 2000 and 2001 encounters, both of the gruelling 5-setters often being presented on the lists of best matches ever played. Agassi also won both their meetings at the Australian Open, in 1995 and 2001, on his way to the title on both occasions. Rafter, however, took their only US Open encounter in 1997 and went on to win the title.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Rivalries", "Agassi vs. Federer"], "text": "Agassi and [[Roger Federer]] played 11 times, and Federer led their head-to-head series 8–3. With the retirement of Sampras, the rivalry against the 11-years-younger Federer, who was another great server like Sampras, became Agassi's main rivalry for the final years of his career. Agassi won their first three matches, but then went on to lose eight consecutive ones. They first met in just the third tournament of Federer's career at the 1998 Swiss Indoors in Federer's hometown, with Agassi prevailing over the 17-year-old. Agassi also defeated Federer at the [[2001 US Open (tennis)|2001 US Open]] and the finals of the [[Miami Open (tennis)|Miami Open]] in 2002. Federer began to turn the tide at the Masters Cup in 2003, when he defeated Agassi in both the round-robin and the final. They played a memorable quarterfinal match at the [[2004 US Open (tennis)|2004 US Open]] that spanned over two windy days, with Federer eventually prevailing in five sets. At the 2005 Dubai Championships, Federer and Agassi attracted worldwide headlines with a publicity stunt that saw the two tennis legends play on a helipad almost 220 meters above sea level at the hotel Burj al-Arab. Their final duel took place in the final of the [[2005 US Open (tennis)|2005 US Open]]. In the historic clash of generations, Federer was victorious in four sets in front of a pro-Agassi crowd. The match was the last appearance by Agassi in any tournament final.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Rivalries", "Agassi vs. Lendl"], "text": "Agassi and [[Ivan Lendl]] played 8 times, and Lendl led their head-to-head series 6–2.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Rivalries", "Agassi vs. Edberg"], "text": "Agassi and [[Stefan Edberg]] played 9 times, and Agassi led their head-to-head series 6–3.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Earnings"], "text": "Agassi earned more than $30 million in prize-money during his career, sixth only to Djokovic, Federer, Nadal, Sampras and Murray to date (May 2018). He also earned more than $25 million a year through endorsements during his career, which was ranked fourth in all sports at the time.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Post-retirement"], "text": "Since retiring after the [[2006 US Open (tennis)|2006 US Open]], Agassi has participated in a series of charity tournaments and continues his work with his own charity. On September 5, 2007, he was a surprise guest commentator for the [[Andy Roddick]]/[[Roger Federer]] [[2007 US Open (tennis)|US Open]] quarterfinal. He played an exhibition match at Wimbledon, teaming with his wife, Steffi Graf, to play with [[Tim Henman]] and [[Kim Clijsters]]. He played [[World Team Tennis]] for the [[Philadelphia Freedoms]] in the summer of 2009. At the [[2009 French Open]], Agassi was on hand to present Roger Federer, who completed his Career Grand Slam by winning the tournament and joined Agassi as one of six men to complete the Career Grand Slam, with the trophy. Also in 2009, Agassi played at the [[Outback Champions Series]] event for the first time. He played the [[Cancer Treatment Centers of America Championship at Surprise|Cancer Treatment Centers of America Tennis Championships]] at [[Surprise, Arizona]], where he reached the final before bowing to eventual champion [[Todd Martin]]. He also announced that he will not be playing the tour on a full-time basis, and played the tournament as a favor to long-time friend [[Jim Courier]]. Agassi returned to the tour renamed for the PowerShares Series in 2011 and participated in a total of seven events while winning two. Agassi beat Courier in the final of the Staples Champions Cup in [[Boston]] and later defeated Sampras at the CTCA Championships at his hometown Las Vegas. In 2012, Agassi took part in five tournaments, winning three of those. In November, at first he won BILT Champions Showdown in [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], beating [[John McEnroe]] in the final. The following day, he defended his title of the CTCA Championships, while defeating Courier in the decisive match. In the series season finale, he beat [[Michael Chang]] for the Acura Champions Cup. The series and Agassi came back to action in 2014. Agassi won both tournaments he participated in. At the Camden Wealth Advisors Cup's final in Houston, Agassi beat [[James Blake (tennis)|James Blake]] for a rematch of their 2005 US Open quarterfinal. He defeated Blake again in [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] to win the title of the Cancer Treatment Centers of America Championships. In 2015, Agassi took part in just one event of the PowerShares Series, losing to [[Mark Philippoussis]] in the final of the Champions Shootout. The following year he took part in two events, at first losing to Blake in Chicago, and the next day defeating Mardy Fish, but losing to Roddick in Charleston.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Post-retirement"], "text": "In 2009, in [[Macau]] Agassi and Sampras met for the first time on court since the 2002 US Open final. Sampras won the exhibition in three sets. The rivalry between the former champions headlined sports media again in March 2010 after the two participated in the \"Hit for Haiti\" charity event organized to raise money for the victims of the [[2010 Haiti earthquake|earthquake]]. Partnered with Roger Federer and [[Rafael Nadal]], the old rivals began making jokes at each other's expense, which ended up with Sampras intentionally striking a serve at Agassi's body. After the event, Agassi admitted that he had crossed the line with his jokes and publicly apologized to Sampras. Agassi and Sampras met again one year later for an exhibition match at [[Madison Square Garden]] in New York in front of 19 000 spectators as Sampras defeated Agassi in two sets. On March 3, 2014, Agassi and Sampras squared off for an exhibition in London for the annual [[World Tennis Day]]. This time, it was Agassi who came out on top in two straight sets. He returned to the tour in May 2017 in the position of coach to [[Novak Djokovic]] for the French Open. Agassi announced the end of the partnership on March 31, 2018, stating that there were too many disagreements in the relationship.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Playing style"], "text": "Early in his career, Agassi would look to end points quickly by playing first-strike tennis, typically by inducing a weak return with a deep, hard shot, and then playing a winner at an extreme angle. On the rare occasion that he charged the net, Agassi liked to take the ball in the air and hit a swinging volley for a winner. His favored groundstroke was his flat, accurate two-handed backhand, hit well cross-court but especially down the line. His forehand was nearly as strong, especially his inside-out to the ad court. Agassi's strength was in dictating play from the baseline, and he was able to consistently take the ball on the rise. While he was growing up, his father and Nick Bollettieri trained him in this way. When in control of a point, Agassi would often pass up an opportunity to attempt a winner and hit a conservative shot to minimize his errors, and to make his opponent run more. This change to more methodical, less aggressive baseline play was largely initiated by his longtime coach, Brad Gilbert, in their first year together in 1994. Gilbert encouraged Agassi to wear out opponents with his deep, flat groundstrokes and to use his fitness to win attrition wars, and noted Agassi's two-handed backhand down the line as his very best shot. A signature play later in his career was a change-up drop shot to the deuce court after deep penetrating groundstrokes. This would often be followed by a passing shot or lob if the opponent was fast enough to retrieve it. Agassi was raised on hardcourts, but found much of his early major-tournament success on the red clay of Roland Garros, reaching two consecutive finals there early in his career. Despite grass being his worst surface, his first major win was at the slick grass of Wimbledon in 1992, a tournament that he professed to hating at the time. His strongest surface over the course of his career, was indeed hardcourt, where he won six of his eight majors.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Business ventures"], "text": "Agassi established a [[limited liability company]] named Andre Agassi Ventures (formerly named Agassi Enterprises). Agassi, along with five athlete partners (including [[Wayne Gretzky]], [[Joe Montana]], [[Shaquille O'Neal]], [[Ken Griffey, Jr.]], and [[Monica Seles]]) opened a chain of sports-themed restaurant named [[Official All Star Café]] in April 1996. The restaurant closed down in 2001. In 1999, he paid $1 million for a 10 percent stake in Nevada First Bank and made a $10 million profit when it was sold to Western Alliance Bancorp in 2006. In 2002, he joined the [[Tennis Channel]] to promote the channel to consumers and cable and satellite industry, and made an equity investment in the network. After meeting chef [[Michael Mina]] at one of his restaurants in San Francisco, Agassi partnered with him in 2002 to start Mina Group Inc. and opened 18 concept restaurants in San Francisco, [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], [[Dana Point]], [[Atlantic City]] and Las Vegas. Agassi was an equity investor of a group that acquired [[Golden Nugget Las Vegas]] and [[Golden Nugget Laughlin]] from [[Mirage Resorts|MGM Mirage]] for $215 million in 2004. One year later, the group sold the hotel-casino to [[Landry's, Inc.]] for $163 million in cash and $182 million in assumed debt. In 2007, he sat on the board of Meadows Bank, an independent bank in Nevada. He has invested in start-up companies backed by [[Allen & Company]]. Agassi and Graf formed a company called Agassi Graf Holdings. They invested in PURE, a nightclub at [[Caesars Palace]], which opened in 2004, and sold it to Angel Management Group in 2010. In August 2006, Agassi and Graf developed a joint venture with high-end furniture maker [[Kreiss]] Enterprises. They launched a furniture line called Agassi Graf Collection. In September, Agassi and Graf, through their company Agassi Graf Development LLC, along with Bayview Financial LP, finalized an agreement to develop a condominium hotel, Fairmont Tamarack, at [[Tamarack Resort]] in [[Donnelly, Idaho]]. Due to difficult market conditions and delays, they withdrew from the project in 2009. The group still owns three small chunks of land. In September, they collaborated with [[Steve Case]]'s Exclusive Resorts to co-develop luxury resorts and design Agassi-Graf Tennis and Fitness Centers. They also invested in online ticket reseller [[viagogo]] in 2009 and both serve as board members and advisors of the company. In October 2012, [[Village Roadshow]] and investors including Agassi and Graf announced plans to build a new water park called [[Wet'n'Wild Las Vegas]] in Las Vegas. Village Roadshow has a 51% stake in the park while Agassi, Graf, and other private investors hold the remaining 49%. The park opened in May 2013. [[IMG (company)|IMG]] managed Agassi from the time he turned pro in 1986 through January 2000 before switching to SFX Sports Group. His business manager, lawyer and agent was childhood friend Perry Rogers, but they have been estranged since 2008. In 2009, he and Graf signed with [[Creative Artists Agency|CAA]].", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Business ventures", "Equipment and endorsements"], "text": "Agassi used [[Prince Sports|Prince]] [[Prince original graphite|Graphite]] rackets early in his career. He signed a $7 million endorsement contract with Belgian tennis racquet makers [[Donnay (sports)|Donnay]]. He later switched to [[Head (company)|Head Ti Radical]] racket and Head's LiquidMetal Radical racket, having signed a multimillion-dollar endorsement deal with Head in 1993. He renewed his contract in 1999, and in November 2003 he signed a lifetime agreement with Head. He also endorses Penn tennis balls. On July 25, 2005, Agassi left [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] after 17 years and signed an endorsement deal with [[Adidas]]. A major reason for Agassi leaving Nike was because Nike refused to donate to Agassi's charities, and Adidas was more than happy to do so. On May 13, 2013, Agassi rejoined Nike. Agassi was sponsored by [[DuPont (1802–2017)|DuPont]], [[Ebel]], [[Mountain Dew]] in 1993, [[Mazda]] in 1997, [[Kia Motors]] in 2002, [[American Express]] and [[Deutsche Bank]] in 2003. In 1990, he appeared in a television commercial for [[Canon Inc.]], promoting the [[Canon EOS]] Rebel camera. Between 1999 and 2000, he signed a multimillion-dollar, multiyear endorsement deal with [[Schick (razors)|Schick]] and became the worldwide spokesman for the company. Agassi signed a multiyear contract with [[Twinlab]] and promoted the company's nutritional supplements. In mid-2003, he was named the spokesman of Aramis Life, a fragrance by [[Estée Lauder Companies|Aramis]], and signed a five-year deal with the company. In March 2004, he signed a ten-year agreement worth $1.5 million a year with [[24 Hour Fitness]], which will open five Andre Agassi fitness centers by year-end. Prior to the 2012 Australian Open, Agassi and Australian winemaker [[Jacobs Creek (Australia)|Jacobs Creek]] announced a three-year partnership and created the Open Film Series to \"[share] personal stories about the life defining moments that shaped his character on and off the court.\" In 2007, watchmaker [[Longines]] named Agassi as their brand ambassador. Agassi and his mother appeared in a [[Got Milk?]] advertisement in 2002. Agassi has appeared in many advertisements and television commercials with Graf. They both endorsed [[Deutsche Telekom]] in 2002, [[Genworth Financial]] and [[Canon Inc.]] in 2004, [[LVMH]] in 2007, and [[Nintendo]] [[Wii]] and [[Wii Fit U]] and [[Longines]] in 2013.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Personal life", "Relationships and family"], "text": "In the early 1990s, after dating Wendi Stewart, Agassi dated American singer and entertainer [[Barbra Streisand]]. He wrote about the relationship in his 2009 autobiography, \"We agree that we're good for each other, and so what if she's twenty-eight years older? We're sympatico, and the public outcry only adds spice to our connection. It makes our friendship feel forbidden, taboo – another piece of my overall rebellion. Dating Barbra Streisand is like wearing Hot Lava.\" He was married to [[Brooke Shields]] from 1997 to 1999. He married [[Steffi Graf]] on October 22, 2001 at their [[Las Vegas]] home; the only witnesses were their mothers. They have two children: son Jaden Gil (born 2001) and daughter Jaz Elle (born 2003). Agassi has said that he and Graf are not pushing their children toward becoming tennis players. The Graf-Agassi family resides in [[Summerlin, Nevada|Summerlin]], a community in the [[Las Vegas Valley]]. Graf's mother and brother, Michael, with his four children also live there. Long-time trainer [[Gil Reyes (tennis)|Gil Reyes]] has been called one of Agassi's closest friends; some have described him as being a \"father figure\" to Agassi. In 2012, Agassi and Reyes introduced their own line of fitness equipment, BILT By Agassi and Reyes. In December 2008, Agassi's childhood friend and former business manager, Perry Rogers, sued Graf for $50,000 in management fees he claimed that she owed him.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Personal life", "Autobiography"], "text": "Agassi's autobiography, ''[[Open: An Autobiography]]'', (written with assistance from [[J. R. Moehringer]]), was published in November 2009. In it, Agassi talks about his childhood and his unconventional Armenian father, who came to the United States from Iran where he was a professional boxer. Overly demanding and emotionally abusive to the whole family, his father groomed young Agassi for tennis greatness by building a tennis court in their backyard and sending Agassi to tennis boarding school under the supervision of Nick Bollettieri, who later coached and managed part of Agassi's professional career. There is also mention in the book of using and testing positive for [[methamphetamine]] in 1997. In response to this revelation, [[Roger Federer]] declared himself shocked and disappointed, while [[Marat Safin]] argued that Agassi should return his prize money and be stripped of his titles. In an interview with CBS, Agassi justified himself and asked for understanding, saying that \"It was a period in my life where I needed help.\" Agassi said that he had always hated tennis during his career because of the constant pressure it exerted on him. He also said he wore a hairpiece earlier in his career and thought [[Pete Sampras]] was \"robotic\". The book reached No. 1 on the [[New York Times Best Seller list|''New York Times'' Best Seller list]] and received favorable reviews. It won the Autobiography category of the 2010 [[British Sports Book Awards]]. In 2018 the book was listed on ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]'' as one of \"The 30 Best Sports Books Ever Written\", and was also recommended by self-help author [[Tim Ferriss]] who described it as \"very candid, very amusing, and very instructional\".", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["In media"], "text": "In 2017, Agassi appeared in the documentary film ''[[Love Means Zero]]'', which highlighted the troubled relationship between his coach [[Nick Bollettieri]] and him.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Politics"], "text": "Agassi has donated more than $100,000 to Democratic candidates, and $2,000 to Republicans. On September 1, 2010, when he appeared on daily [[WNYC]] public radio program ''[[The Brian Lehrer Show]]'', he stated that he is registered as Independent.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Philanthropy"], "text": "Agassi founded the [[Andre Agassi Charitable Association]] in 1994, which assists Las Vegas' young people. He was awarded the [[ATP Arthur Ashe Humanitarian award]] in 1995 for his efforts to help disadvantaged youth. He has been cited as the most charitable and socially involved player in professional tennis. It has also been claimed that he may be the most charitable athlete of his generation. Agassi's charities help in assisting children reach their athletic potential. His Boys & Girls Club sees 2,000 children throughout the year and boasts a world-class junior tennis team. It also has a basketball program (the Agassi Stars) and a rigorous system that encourages a mix of academics and athletics. In 2001, Agassi opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas, a tuition-free charter school for at-risk children in the area. He personally donated $35 million to the school. In 2009, the graduating class had a 100 percent graduation rate and expected a 100 percent college acceptance rate. Among other child-related programs that Agassi supports through his Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation is Clark County's only residential facility for abused and neglected children, Child Haven. In 1997, Agassi donated funding to Child Haven for a six-room classroom building now named the Agassi Center for Education. His foundation also provided $720,000 to assist in the building of the Andre Agassi Cottage for Medically Fragile Children. This 20-bed facility opened in December 2001, and accommodates developmentally delayed or handicapped children and children quarantined for infectious diseases. In 2007, along with several other athletes, Agassi founded the charity [[Athletes for Hope]], which helps professional athletes get involved in charitable causes and aims to inspire all people to volunteer and support their communities. He created the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund, now known as the Turner-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund. The Fund is an investment initiative for social change, focusing on the \"nationwide effort to move charters from stopgap buildings into permanent campuses.\" In September 2013, the Andre Agassi Foundation for Education formed a partnership with V20 Foods to launch Box Budd!es, a line of kids' healthy snacks. All proceeds go to the Foundation. In February 2014, Agassi remodeled the vacant [[University of Phoenix]] building as a new school called the Doral Academy West through the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund. Doral Academy opened in August 2014. The Fund purchased a 4.6-acre plot in [[Henderson, Nevada]] to house the Somerset Academy of Las Vegas, which will relocate from its campus inside a church.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Career statistics", "Grand Slam finals (8 titles, 7 runners-up)"], "text": "By winning the [[1999 French Open]], Agassi completed a men's singles Career Grand Slam. He is the 5th of 8 male players in history (after [[Don Budge|Budge]], [[Fred Perry|Perry]], [[Rod Laver|Laver]] and [[Roy Emerson|Emerson]], and before [[Roger Federer|Federer]], [[Rafael Nadal|Nadal]] and [[Novak Djokovic|Djokovic]]) to achieve this.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Career statistics", "Grand Slam finals (8 titles, 7 runners-up)", "Open Era records"], "text": "(-) These records were attained in the [[Open Era]] of tennis and in [[ATP World Tour Masters 1000]] series since 1990. (-) Records in '''bold''' indicate peer-less achievements. ", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Legacy"], "text": "Considered by numerous sources to be one of the greatest tennis players of all time, Agassi has also been called one of the greatest service returners ever to play the game, and was described by the [[BBC]] upon his retirement as \"perhaps the biggest worldwide star in the sport's history\". As a result, he is credited for helping to revive the popularity of tennis during the 1990s.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Professional awards"], "text": "(-) [[Tennis world champions named by the International Tennis Federation|ITF World Champion]]: 1999. (-) [[ATP Awards|ATP Player of the Year]]: 1999. (-) [[ATP Awards|ATP Most Improved Player]]: 1988, 1998", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Recognition"], "text": "(-) In 1992, Agassi was named the [[BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year]]. (-) In 2010, ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' named Agassi the 7th greatest male player of all time. (-) On July 9, 2011, Agassi was inducted into the [[International Tennis Hall of Fame]] at a ceremony in Newport, Rhode Island.", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Video"], "text": "(-) ''Wimbledon 2000 Semi-final – Agassi vs. Rafter (2003)'' Starring: Andre Agassi, Patrick Rafter; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: August 16, 2005, Run Time: 213 minutes, . (-) ''Charlie Rose with Andre Agassi (May 7, 2001)'' Charlie Rose, Inc., DVD Release Date: August 15, 2006, Run Time: 57 minutes. (-) ''Wimbledon: The Record Breakers (2005)'' Starring: Andre Agassi, Boris Becker; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: August 16, 2005, Run Time: 52 minutes, .", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": ["Video games"], "text": "(-) ''[[Andre Agassi Tennis]]'' for the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]], [[Sega Genesis]], [[Sega Game Gear]], [[Master System]], and Mobile phone (-) ''[[Agassi Tennis Generation]]'' for [[PlayStation 2|PS2]] and [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]] (-) ''[[Agassi Tennis Generation 2002]]'' for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] (-) ''Smash Court Pro Tournament'' for PS2 (-) ''[[Top Spin 4]]'' (On cover of game) for [[Xbox 360]], [[PlayStation 3]] and [[Wii]]", "id": "595", "title": "Andre Agassi", "categories": ["1970 births", "20th-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesspeople", "American autobiographers", "American investors", "American male tennis players", "American sportspeople of Armenian descent", "American people of Iranian descent", "American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent", "American real estate businesspeople", "American sportspeople in doping cases", "Armenian-American tennis players", "Assyrian sportspeople", "Australian Open (tennis) champions", "Doping cases in tennis", "French Open champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles", "International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees", "Iranian Assyrian people", "Iranian people of Armenian descent", "Living people", "Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "Nevada Democrats", "Novak Djokovic coaches", "Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis", "Olympic tennis players of the United States", "Philanthropists from Nevada", "Sportspeople from Las Vegas", "Sportspeople of Iranian descent", "Steffi Graf", "Tennis people from Nevada", "Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics", "US Open (tennis) champions", "Wimbledon champions", "World No. 1 tennis players", "Writers from Las Vegas"], "seealso": ["Tennis male players statistics", "Agassi–Sampras rivalry", "List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions", "Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles", "All-time tennis records – men's singles"]}
+{"headers": [], "text": "The '''Austroasiatic languages''' , also known as '''Mon–Khmer''' , are a large [[language family]] of [[Mainland Southeast Asia]], also scattered throughout parts of [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]], and southern [[China]]. There are around 117 million speakers of Austroasiatic languages. Of these languages, only [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Khmer language|Khmer]] and [[Mon language|Mon]] have a long-established recorded history and only Vietnamese and Khmer have official status as modern [[national language]] (in [[Vietnam]] and [[Cambodia]], respectively). The Mon language is a recognized indigenous language in [[Myanmar]] and [[Thailand]]. In Myanmar, the [[Wa language]] is the de facto official language of [[Wa State]]. [[Santali language|Santali]] is one of the 22 [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India|scheduled languages of India]]. The rest of the languages are spoken by minority groups and have no official status. ''[[Ethnologue]]'' identifies 168 Austroasiatic languages. These form thirteen established families (plus perhaps [[Shompen language|Shompen]], which is poorly attested, as a fourteenth), which have traditionally been grouped into two, as Mon–Khmer and [[Munda languages|Munda]]. However, one recent classification posits three groups (Munda, Nuclear Mon-Khmer and [[Khasi–Palaungic languages|Khasi–Khmuic]]), while another has abandoned Mon–Khmer as a taxon altogether, making it synonymous with the larger family. Austroasiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across Southeast Asia and parts of India, Bangladesh, Nepal and East Asia, separated by regions where other languages are spoken. They appear to be the extant [[Indigenous language|autochthonous languages]] of Mainland Southeast Asia (excluding the [[Andaman Islands]]), with the neighboring [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]], [[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong-Mien]], [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]], and [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] being the result of later migrations.", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The name ''Austroasiatic'' comes from a combination of the [[Latin]] words for \"South\" and \"Asia\", hence \"South Asia\".", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Typology"], "text": "Regarding word structure, Austroasiatic languages are well known for having an iambic [[sesquisyllable|\"sesquisyllabic\"]] pattern, with basic nouns and verbs consisting of an initial, unstressed, reduced [[minor syllable]] followed by a stressed, full syllable. This reduction of presyllables has led to a variety among modern languages of phonological shapes of the same original Proto-Austroasiatic prefixes, such as the causative prefix, ranging from CVC syllables to consonant clusters to single consonants. As for word formation, most Austroasiatic languages have a variety of derivational prefixes, many have [[infix]], but suffixes are almost completely non-existent in most branches except Munda, and a few specialized exceptions in other Austroasiatic branches. The Austroasiatic languages are further characterized as having unusually large vowel inventories and employing some sort of [[Register (phonology)|register]] contrast, either between [[modal voice|modal]] (normal) voice and [[breathy voice|breathy]] (lax) voice or between modal voice and [[creaky voice]]. Languages in the Pearic branch and some in the Vietic branch can have a three- or even four-way voicing contrast. However, some Austroasiatic languages have lost the register contrast by evolving more diphthongs or in a few cases, such as Vietnamese, [[tonogenesis]]. Vietnamese has been so heavily influenced by Chinese that its original Austroasiatic phonological quality is obscured and now resembles that of South Chinese languages, whereas Khmer, which had more influence from Sanskrit, has retained a more typically Austroasiatic structure.", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Proto-language"], "text": "Much work has been done on the reconstruction of [[Proto-Mon–Khmer]] in [[Harry L. Shorto]]'s ''Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary''. Little work has been done on the [[Munda languages]], which are not well documented. With their demotion from a primary branch, Proto-Mon–Khmer becomes synonymous with Proto-Austroasiatic. Paul Sidwell (2005) reconstructs the consonant inventory of Proto-Mon–Khmer as follows: This is identical to earlier reconstructions except for . is better preserved in the [[Katuic languages]], which Sidwell has specialized in.", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Internal classification"], "text": "Linguists traditionally recognize two primary divisions of Austroasiatic: the [[Mon–Khmer languages]] of [[Southeast Asia]], [[North-East India|Northeast India]] and the [[Nicobar Islands]], and the [[Munda languages]] of [[East India|East]] and [[Central India]] and parts of [[Bangladesh]], parts of [[Nepal]]. However, no evidence for this classification has ever been published. Each of the families that is written in boldface type below is accepted as a valid clade. By contrast, the relationships ''between'' these families within Austroasiatic are debated. In addition to the traditional classification, two recent proposals are given, neither of which accepts traditional \"Mon–Khmer\" as a valid unit. However, little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published, and therefore cannot be evaluated by peer review. In addition, there are suggestions that additional branches of Austroasiatic might be preserved in substrata of [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]] in Sumatra (Diffloth), the [[Chamic languages]] of Vietnam, and the [[Land Dayak languages]] of Borneo (Adelaar 1995).", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Internal classification", "Diffloth (1974)"], "text": "[[Gérard Diffloth|Diffloth]]'s widely cited original classification, now abandoned by Diffloth himself, is used in ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' and—except for the breakup of Southern Mon–Khmer—in ''Ethnologue.'' (-) '''[[Munda languages|Munda]]''' (-) North Munda (-) Korku (-) '''Kherwarian''' (-) South Munda (-) '''Kharia–Juang''' (-) '''Koraput Munda''' (-) Mon–Khmer (-) Eastern Mon–Khmer (-) '''[[Khmer language|Khmer]]''' (Cambodian) (-) '''[[Pearic languages|Pearic]]''' (-) '''[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]]''' (-) '''[[Katuic languages|Katuic]]''' (-) '''[[Vietic languages|Vietic]]''' (includes Vietnamese) (-) Northern Mon–Khmer (-) '''[[Khasi language|Khasi]]''' ([[Meghalaya]], India) (-) '''[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]]''' (-) '''[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]]''' (-) Southern Mon–Khmer (-) '''[[Mon language|Mon]]''' (-) '''[[Aslian languages|Aslian]]''' ([[Peninsular Malaysia|Malaya]]) (-) '''[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]]''' ([[Nicobar Islands]])", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Internal classification", "Peiros (2004)"], "text": "Peiros is a [[lexicostatistics|lexicostatistic]] classification, based on percentages of shared vocabulary. This means that languages can appear to be more distantly related than they actually are due to [[language contact]]. Indeed, when Sidwell (2009) replicated Peiros's study with languages known well enough to account for loans, he did not find the internal (branching) structure below. (-) '''[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]]''' (-) Munda–Khmer (-) '''[[Munda languages|Munda]]''' (-) Mon–Khmer (-) '''[[Khasi language|Khasi]]''' (-) Nuclear Mon–Khmer (-) [[Pakanic languages|Mangic]] ([[Mang language|Mang]] + [[Bolyu language|Palyu]]) (perhaps in Northern MK) (-) '''[[Vietic languages|Vietic]]''' (perhaps in Northern MK) (-) Northern Mon–Khmer (-)  '''[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]]''' (-)  '''[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]]''' (-) Central Mon–Khmer (-)  '''[[Khmer language|Khmer]]''' dialects (-)  '''[[Pearic languages|Pearic]]''' (-)  Asli-Bahnaric (-)   '''[[Aslian languages|Aslian]]''' (-)   Mon–Bahnaric (-)    '''[[Monic languages|Monic]]''' (-)    Katu–Bahnaric (-)     '''[[Katuic languages|Katuic]]''' (-)     '''[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]]'''", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Internal classification", "Diffloth (2005)"], "text": "[[Gérard Diffloth|Diffloth]] compares reconstructions of various clades, and attempts to classify them based on shared innovations, though like other classifications the evidence has not been published. As a schematic, we have: Or in more detail, (-) '''[[Munda languages]]''' (India)  '''Koraput''': 7 languages Core Munda languages  '''Kharian–Juang''': 2 languages North Munda languages  ''[[Korku language|Korku]]''  '''Kherwarian''': 12 languages (-) [[Khasi–Khmuic languages]] (Northern Mon–Khmer)  '''[[Khasic languages|Khasian]]''': 3 languages of north eastern India and adjacent region of Bangladesh Palaungo-Khmuic languages  '''[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]]''': 13 languages of Laos and Thailand Palaungo-Pakanic languages  '''Pakanic''' or '''[[Pakanic languages|Palyu]]''': 4 or 5 languages of southern China and Vietnam  '''[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]]''': 21 languages of Burma, southern China, and Thailand (-) Nuclear Mon–Khmer languages  Khmero-Vietic languages (Eastern Mon–Khmer)  Vieto-Katuic languages ?  '''[[Vietic languages|Vietic]]''': 10 languages of Vietnam and Laos, including the [[Vietnamese language]], which has the most speakers of any Austroasiatic language.  '''[[Katuic languages|Katuic]]''': 19 languages of Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand.  Khmero-Bahnaric languages  '''[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]]''': 40 languages of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Khmeric languages  The '''[[Khmer language|Khmer]]''' dialects of Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam.  '''[[Pearic languages|Pearic]]''': 6 languages of Cambodia.  Nico-Monic languages (Southern Mon–Khmer)  '''[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]]''': 6 languages of the [[Nicobar Islands]], a territory of India.  Asli-Monic languages  '''[[Aslian languages|Aslian]]''': 19 languages of peninsular Malaysia and Thailand.  '''[[Monic languages|Monic]]''': 2 languages, the [[Mon language]] of Burma and the [[Nyah Kur language|Nyahkur language]] of Thailand.", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Internal classification", "Sidwell (2009, 2011)"], "text": "[[Paul Sidwell]] (2009), in a [[lexicostatistical]] comparison of 36 languages which are well known enough to exclude loan words, finds little evidence for internal branching, though he did find an area of increased contact between the Bahnaric and Katuic languages, such that languages of all branches apart from the geographically distant [[Munda languages|Munda]] and Nicobarese show greater similarity to Bahnaric and Katuic the closer they are to those branches, without any noticeable innovations common to Bahnaric and Katuic. He therefore takes the conservative view that the thirteen branches of Austroasiatic should be treated as equidistant on current evidence. Sidwell & [[Roger Blench|Blench]] (2011) discuss this proposal in more detail, and note that there is good evidence for a Khasi–Palaungic node, which could also possibly be closely related to Khmuic. If this would the case, Sidwell & Blench suggest that Khasic may have been an early offshoot of Palaungic that had spread westward. Sidwell & Blench (2011) suggest [[Shompen language|Shompen]] as an additional branch, and believe that a Vieto-Katuic connection is worth investigating. In general, however, the family is thought to have diversified too quickly for a deeply nested structure to have developed, since Proto-Austroasiatic speakers are believed by Sidwell to have radiated out from the central [[Mekong]] river valley relatively quickly. Subsequently, Sidwell (2015a: 179) proposed that [[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]] subgroups with [[Aslian languages|Aslian]], just as how Khasian and Palaungic subgroup with each other. A subsequent computational phylogenetic analysis of the Austroasiatic language family by Sidwell (2015b) suggests that Austroasiatic branches may have a loosely nested structure rather than a completely rake-like structure, with an east–west division (consisting of Munda, Khasic, Palaungic, and Khmuic forming a western group as opposed to all of the other branches) occurring possibly as early as 7,000 years before present. Integrating computational phylogenetic linguistics with recent archaeological findings, Paul Sidwell (2015c) further expanded his Mekong riverine hypothesis by proposing that Austroasiatic had ultimately expanded into [[Indochina]] from the [[Lingnan]] area of [[southern China]], with the subsequent Mekong riverine dispersal taking place after the initial arrival of Neolithic farmers from southern China. Sidwell (2015c) tentatively suggests that Austroasiatic may have begun to split up 5,000 years B.P. during the [[Neolithic transition]] era of [[mainland Southeast Asia]], with all the major branches of Austroasiatic formed by 4,000 B.P. Austroasiatic would have had two possible dispersal routes from the western periphery of the [[Pearl River (China)|Pearl River]] watershed of [[Lingnan]], which would have been either a coastal route down the coast of Vietnam, or downstream through the [[Mekong River]] via [[Yunnan]]. Both the reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic and the archaeological record clearly show that early Austroasiatic speakers around 4,000 B.P. cultivated rice and [[millet]], kept livestock such as dogs, pigs, and chickens, and thrived mostly in estuarine rather than coastal environments.", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Internal classification", "Sidwell (2009, 2011)"], "text": "At 4,500 B.P., this \"Neolithic package\" suddenly arrived in Indochina from the Lingnan area without cereal grains and displaced the earlier pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherer cultures, with grain husks found in northern Indochina by 4,100 B.P. and in southern Indochina by 3,800 B.P. However, Sidwell (2015c) found that iron is not reconstructable in Proto-Austroasiatic, since each Austroasiatic branch has different terms for iron that had been borrowed relatively lately from Tai, Chinese, Tibetan, Malay, and other languages. During the [[Iron Age]] about 2,500 B.P., relatively young Austroasiatic branches in Indochina such as [[Vietic languages|Vietic]], [[Katuic languages|Katuic]], [[Pearic languages|Pearic]], and [[Khmer language|Khmer]] were formed, while the more internally diverse [[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]] branch (dating to about 3,000 B.P.) underwent more extensive internal diversification. By the Iron Age, all of the Austroasiatic branches were more or less in their present-day locations, with most of the diversification within Austroasiatic taking place during the Iron Age. Paul Sidwell (2018) considers the Austroasiatic language family to have rapidly diversified around 4,000 years B.P. during the arrival of rice agriculture in Indochina, but notes that the origin of Proto-Austroasiatic itself is older than that date. The lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic can be divided into an early and late stratum. The early stratum consists of basic lexicon including body parts, animal names, natural features, and pronouns, while the names of cultural items (agriculture terms and words for cultural artifacts, which are reconstructable in Proto-Austroasiatic) form part of the later stratum. [[Roger Blench]] (2017) suggests that vocabulary related to aquatic subsistence strategies (such as boats, waterways, river fauna, and fish capture techniques) can be reconstructed for Proto-Austroasiatic. Blench (2017) finds widespread Austroasiatic roots for 'river, valley', 'boat', 'fish', 'catfish sp.', 'eel', 'prawn', 'shrimp' (Central Austroasiatic), 'crab', 'tortoise', 'turtle', 'otter', 'crocodile', 'heron, fishing bird', and 'fish trap'. Archaeological evidence for the presence of agriculture in northern [[Indochina]] (northern Vietnam, Laos, and other nearby areas) dates back to only about 4,000 years B.P. (2,000 BC), with agriculture ultimately being introduced from further up to the north in the Yangtze valley where it has been dated to 6,000 B.P. Hence, this points to a relatively late riverine dispersal of Austroasiatic as compared to [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]], whose speakers had a distinct non-riverine culture. In addition to living an aquatic-based lifestyle, early Austroasiatic speakers would have also had access to livestock, crops, and newer types of watercraft. As early Austroasiatic speakers dispersed rapidly via waterways, they would have encountered speakers of older language families who were already settled in the area, such as Sino-Tibetan.", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Internal classification", "Possible extinct branches"], "text": "[[Roger Blench]] (2009) also proposes that there might have been other primary branches of Austroasiatic that are now extinct, based on [[Stratum (linguistics)|substrate]] evidence in modern-day languages. (-) '''Pre-[[Chamic language|Chamic]] languages''' (the languages of coastal Vietnam before the Chamic migrations). Chamic has various Austroasiatic loanwords that cannot be clearly traced to existing Austroasiatic branches (Sidwell 2006, 2007). Larish (1999) also notes that [[Moklenic languages]] contain many Austroasiatic loanwords, some of which are similar to the ones found in Chamic. (-) '''[[Acehnese language|Acehnese]] substratum''' (Sidwell 2006). Acehnese has many basic words that are of Austroasiatic origin, suggesting that either Austronesian speakers have absorbed earlier Austroasiatic residents in northern Sumatra, or that words might have been borrowed from Austroasiatic languages in southern Vietnam – or perhaps a combination of both. Sidwell (2006) argues that Acehnese and Chamic had often borrowed Austroasiatic words independently of each other, while some Austroasiatic words can be traced back to Proto-Aceh-Chamic. Sidwell (2006) accepts that Acehnese and Chamic are related, but that they had separated from each other before Chamic had borrowed most of its Austroasiatic lexicon. (-) '''[[Bornean languages|Bornean]] substrate languages''' (Blench 2010). Blench cites Austroasiatic-origin words in modern-day Bornean branches such as [[Land Dayak languages|Land Dayak]] ([[Bidayuh languages|Bidayuh]], [[Bakati’ language|Dayak Bakatiq]], etc.), [[Dusunic languages|Dusunic]] ([[Dusun language|Central Dusun]], [[Brunei Bisaya language|Visayan]], etc.), [[Kayan–Murik languages|Kayan]], and [[Kenyah languages|Kenyah]], noting especially resemblances with [[Aslian languages|Aslian]]. As further evidence for his proposal, Blench also cites ethnographic evidence such as musical instruments in Borneo shared in common with Austroasiatic-speaking groups in mainland Southeast Asia. Adelaar (1995) has also noticed phonological and lexical similarities between [[Land Dayak languages|Land Dayak]] and [[Aslian languages|Aslian]]. (-) '''[[Lepcha language|Lepcha]] substratum''' (\"'''''Rongic'''''\"). Many words of Austroasiatic origin have been noticed in [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]], suggesting a [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] superstrate laid over an Austroasiatic substrate. Blench (2013) calls this branch \"''Rongic''\" based on the Lepcha autonym ''Róng''. Other languages with proposed Austroasiatic substrata are: (-) '''[[Jiamao language|Jiamao]]''', based on evidence from the register system of Jiamao, a [[Hlai languages|Hlai]] language (Thurgood 1992). Jiamao is known for its highly aberrant vocabulary in relation to other [[Hlai languages]]. (-) '''[[Kerinci language|Kerinci]]''': van Reijn (1974) notes that Kerinci, a [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] language of central [[Sumatra]], shares many phonological similarities with Austroasiatic languages, such as [[sesquisyllabic]] word structure and vowel inventory. John Peterson (2017) suggests that \"pre-[[Munda languages|Munda]]\" languages may have once dominated the eastern [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]], and were then absorbed by Indo-Aryan languages at an early date as Indo-Aryan spread east. Peterson notes that eastern [[Indo-Aryan languages]] display many morphosyntactic features similar to those of Munda languages, while western Indo-Aryan languages do not.", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Writing systems"], "text": "Other than Latin-based alphabets, many Austroasiatic languages are written with the [[Khmer alphabet|Khmer]], [[Thai alphabet|Thai]], [[Lao alphabet|Lao]], and [[Burmese alphabet|Burmese]] alphabets. Vietnamese divergently had an indigenous script based on Chinese logographic writing. This has since been supplanted by the Latin alphabet in the 20th century. The following are examples of past-used alphabets or current alphabets of Austroasiatic languages. (-) [[Chữ Nôm]] (-) [[Khmer alphabet]] (-) [[Khom script]] (used for a short period in the early 20th century for indigenous languages in Laos) (-) [[Old Mon script]] (-) [[Mon language#Alphabet|Mon script]] (-) [[Pahawh Hmong]] was once used to write [[Khmu language|Khmu]], under the name \"Pahawh Khmu\" (-) [[Tai Le script|Tai Le]] ([[Palaung language|Palaung]], [[Blang language|Blang]]) (-) [[Tai Tham]] ([[Blang language|Blang]]) (-) [[Ol Chiki alphabet]] ([[Santali language|Santali]] alphabet) (-) Mundari Bani ([[Mundari language|Mundari]] alphabet) (-) [[Warang Citi]] ([[Ho language|Ho]] alphabet) (-) [[Sorang Sompeng alphabet]] ([[Sora language|Sora]] alphabet)", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["External relations", "Austric languages"], "text": "Austroasiatic is an integral part of the controversial [[Austric languages|Austric hypothesis]], which also includes the [[Austronesian languages]], and in some proposals also the [[Kra–Dai languages]] and the [[Hmong–Mien languages]].", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["External relations", "Hmong-Mien"], "text": "Several lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic language families (Ratliff 2010), some of which had earlier been proposed by [[André-Georges Haudricourt|Haudricourt]] (1951). This could imply a relation or early language contact along the [[Yangtze]]. According to Cai (et al. 2011), [[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong–Mien]] is at least partially related to Austroasiatic but was heavily influenced by [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]], especially [[Tibeto-Burman languages]].", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["External relations", "Indo-Aryan languages"], "text": "It is suggested that the Austroasiatic languages have some influence on Indo-Aryan languages including [[Sanskrit]] and middle Indo-Aryan languages. Indian linguist [[Suniti Kumar Chatterji]] pointed that a specific number of substantives in languages such as [[Hindi]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and [[Bengali language|Bengali]] were borrowed from [[Munda languages]]. Additionally, French linguist [[Jean Przyluski]] suggested a similarity between the tales from the Austroasiatic realm and the Indian mythological stories of [[Satyavati|Matsyagandha]] (from ''[[Mahabharata]]'') and the [[Nāga]].", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Austroasiatic migrations"], "text": "[[:ja:崎谷満|Mitsuru Sakitani]] suggests that [[Haplogroup O-M95|Haplogroup O1b1]], which is common in Austroasiatic people and some other ethnic groups in [[southern China]], and haplogroup O1b2, which is common in today [[Japanese people|Japanese]], [[Koreans]] and some [[Manchu people|Manchu]], are the carriers of Yangtze civilization ([[Baiyue]]). Another study suggests that the haplogroup O1b1 is the major Austroasiatic paternal lineage and O1b2 the \"para-Austroasiatic\" lineage of the [[Yayoi people]]. A 2021 study by Tagore et al. found that proto-Austroasiatic likely originated from a \"southern East Asian\" source population, native to [[Mainland Southeast Asia]] and [[Northeast India]]. The \"southern East Asian\" component descended from a \"basal East Asian\" source population, which also gave rise to the \"northern East Asian\" component of East and Northeast Asia. From Mainland Southeast Asia, the Austroasiatic-speakers expanded into the Indian-subcontinent and [[Maritime Southeast Asia]]. There is evidence that continuing migration of agriculturalists from more northerly East Asia merged with the \"southern East Asians\", forming modern day Southeast Asians, and contributed to the fragmentation observed among modern day Austroasiatic-speakers. Similarly, Austroasiatic-speakers in India intermixed with local tribals. The authors also found that the ancient [[Hoabinhian]] people likely spoke a variant of [[Proto-Austroasiatic language|Proto-Austroasiatic]], and had largely \"southern East Asian ancestry\". They concluded that their new genetic evidence does not support a partial relationship between Hoabinhians and [[Andamanese peoples|Andamanese (Onge)]]/[[Papuans]], as suggested by Mc.Coll 2018, but in contrary, points to genetic influence (geneflow) of \"southern East Asians\" towards the Onge/Andamanese (previous studies estimated about 32% East Asian-related ancestry in Andamanese people). Additionally, it was found that East Asian-like ancestry (East-Eurasian, including both \"southern East Asian\" and \"northern East Asian\" components) originated likely in Mainland Southeast Asia and southern China, and expanded from this region towards the South and North respectively. The authors finally concluded that genetics do not necessarily correspond with linguistic identity, pointing to the fragmentation of modern Austroasiatic-speakers.", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Austroasiatic migrations", "Migration into India"], "text": "According to Chaubey et al., \"Austro-Asiatic speakers in India today are derived from dispersal from [[Southeast Asia]], followed by extensive sex-specific admixture with local Indian populations.\" According to Riccio et al., the Munda people are likely descended from Austroasiatic migrants from Southeast Asia. According to Zhang et al., Austroasiatic migrations from Southeast Asia into India took place after the last Glacial maximum, circa 10,000 years ago. Arunkumar et al. suggest Austroasiatic migrations from Southeast Asia occurred into Northeast India 5.2 ± 0.6 kya and into East India 4.3 ± 0.2 kya.", "id": "597", "title": "Austroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Austroasiatic languages", "Agglutinative languages", "Language families", "Sino-Austronesian languages"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": [], "text": "'''Afroasiatic''' ('''Afro-Asiatic'''), also known as '''Afrasian''' or '''Hamito-Semitic''' or '''Semito-Hamitic''', is a large [[language family]] of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], the [[Horn of Africa]] and parts of the [[Sahel]]. With the exception of Semitic, which is also spoken in the Middle-East and in [[Malta]], all branches of the Afrosiatic family are spoken exclusively on the African continent. Afroasiatic languages have over 500 million native speakers, the fourth largest number of any language family (after [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] and [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]]). The phylum has six branches: [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Chadic languages|Chadic]], [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]], [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]], [[Omotic languages|Omotic]] and [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]. By far the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language or dialect continuum is [[Arabic]]. A ''[[de facto]]'' group of distinct [[Varieties of Arabic|language varieties]] within the Semitic branch, the languages that evolved from [[Proto-Arabic]] have around 313 million native speakers, concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa. In addition to languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes several important ancient languages, such as [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]], which forms a distinct branch of the family, and [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], [[Biblical Hebrew]] and [[Old Aramaic language|Old Aramaic]], all of which are from the Semitic branch. The [[Afroasiatic Urheimat|original homeland]] of the Afroasiatic family, and when the parent language (i.e. [[Proto-Afroasiatic]]) was spoken, are yet to be agreed upon by [[historical linguistics|historical linguists]]. Proposed locations include the [[Horn of Africa]], [[North Africa]], the Eastern [[Sahara]] and the [[Levant]].", "id": "599", "title": "Afroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Afroasiatic languages", "Afroasiatic peoples", "Language families", "Ethnic groups in Africa", "Ethnic groups in Asia", "Ethnic groups in Europe"], "seealso": ["Languages of Asia", "Indo-Semitic languages", "Borean languages", "Nostratic languages", "Languages of Africa", "Languages of Europe", "Proto-Afroasiatic language", "Indo-European languages"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "In the early 19th century, linguists grouped the [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] and [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] languages within a \"Hamitic\" phylum, in acknowledgement of these languages' [[genetic relationship (linguistics)|genetic relation]] with each other and with those in the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] phylum. The terms \"Hamitic\" and \"Semitic\" were etymologically derived from the [[Book of Genesis]], which describes various Biblical tribes descended from [[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]] and [[Shem]], two sons of [[Noah]]. By the 1860s, the main constituent elements within the broader Afroasiatic family had been worked out. [[Friedrich Müller (linguist)|Friedrich Müller]] introduced the name \"Hamito-Semitic\" for the entire language family in his ''Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft'' (1876). [[Maurice Delafosse]] (1914) later coined the term \"Afroasiatic\" (often now spelled \"Afro-Asiatic\"). However, it did not come into general use until [[Joseph Greenberg]] (1950) formally proposed its adoption. In doing so, Greenberg sought to emphasize the fact that 'Hamitic' was not a valid group and that language [[cladistics]] did not reflect race. Individual scholars have also called the family \"Erythraean\" (Tucker 1966) and \"Lisramic\" (Hodge 1972). In lieu of \"Hamito-Semitic\", the Russian linguist [[Igor Diakonoff]] later suggested the term \"Afrasian\", meaning \"half African, half Asiatic\", in reference to the geographic distribution of the family's constituent languages. The term \"Hamito-Semitic\" remains in use in the academic traditions of some European countries, as well as in the official census of the government of India.", "id": "599", "title": "Afroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Afroasiatic languages", "Afroasiatic peoples", "Language families", "Ethnic groups in Africa", "Ethnic groups in Asia", "Ethnic groups in Europe"], "seealso": ["Languages of Asia", "Indo-Semitic languages", "Borean languages", "Nostratic languages", "Languages of Africa", "Languages of Europe", "Proto-Afroasiatic language", "Indo-European languages"]}
+{"headers": ["Distribution and branches"], "text": "Scholars generally treat the Afroasiatic language family as including the following five branches, whereas Omotic is disputed: (-) [[Berber languages|Berber]] (-) [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] (-) [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] (-) [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] (-) [[Omotic languages|Omotic]] (-) [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] Although there is general agreement on these six families, [[linguistics|linguists]] who study Afroasiatic raise some points of disagreement, in particular: (-) The [[Omotic]] language branch is the most controversial member of Afroasiatic because the grammatical formatives to which most linguists have given the greatest weight in classifying languages in the family \"are either absent or distinctly wobbly\" (Hayward 1995). Greenberg (1963) and others considered it a subgroup of Cushitic, whereas others have raised doubts about its being part of Afroasiatic at all (e.g. Theil 2006). (-) The Afroasiatic identity of [[Ongota language|Ongota]] is also broadly questioned, as is its position within Afroasiatic among those who accept it, due to the \"mixed\" appearance of the language and a paucity of research and data. [[Harold C. Fleming|Harold Fleming]] (2006) proposes that Ongota constitutes a separate branch of Afroasiatic. finds the proposal by Savà and Tosco (2003) the most convincing: namely that Ongota is an East Cushitic language with a [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] [[substratum]]. In other words, it would appear that the Ongota people once spoke a Nilo-Saharan language but then shifted to speaking a Cushitic language but retained some characteristics of their earlier Nilo-Saharan language. (-) [[Beja language|Beja]], sometimes listed as a separate branch of Afroasiatic, is more often included in the Cushitic branch, which has a substantial degree of internal diversity. (-) There is no consensus on the interrelationships of the five non-Omotic branches of Afroasiatic (see [[#Subgrouping|§ Subgrouping]] below). This situation is not unusual, even among long-established language families: scholars also frequently disagree on the internal classification of the [[Indo-European languages]], for instance. (-) The extinct [[Meroitic language]] has been proposed ([[Bruce Trigger]], 1964, 1977) as an unclassified Afroasiatic language, because it shares the [[phonotactics]] characteristic of the family, but there is not enough evidence to secure a classification (Fritz Hintze, 1974, (-) The classification of [[Kujargé language|Kujargé]] within Afroasiatic is not agreed upon. Blench (2008) notes that much of the basic vocabulary looks [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]], and speculates that Kujargé could even be a conservative language transitional between Chadic and Cushitic.", "id": "599", "title": "Afroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Afroasiatic languages", "Afroasiatic peoples", "Language families", "Ethnic groups in Africa", "Ethnic groups in Asia", "Ethnic groups in Europe"], "seealso": ["Languages of Asia", "Indo-Semitic languages", "Borean languages", "Nostratic languages", "Languages of Africa", "Languages of Europe", "Proto-Afroasiatic language", "Indo-European languages"]}
+{"headers": ["Demographics"], "text": "In descending order of the number of speakers, widely-spoken Afroasiatic languages include: (-) [[Arabic]] ([[Semitic languages|Semitic]]), the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language, has over 300 million native speakers. (-) [[Hausa language|Hausa]] ([[Chadic languages|Chadic]]), the dominant language of northern [[Nigeria]] and southern [[Niger]], spoken as a first language by over 40 million people and used as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' by another 20 million across West Africa and the [[Sahel]]. (-) [[Oromo language|Oromo]] ([[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]]), spoken in [[Ethiopia]] and [[Kenya]] by around 34 million people (-) [[Amharic]] (Semitic), spoken in Ethiopia, with over 25 million native speakers in addition to millions of other Ethiopians speaking it as a second language. (-) [[Somali language|Somali]] (Cushitic), spoken by 21.8 million people in [[Somalia]], [[Somaliland]], [[Djibouti]], [[Somali Region|eastern Ethiopia]] and [[North Eastern Province (Kenya)|northeastern Kenya]]. (-) [[Afar language|Afar]] (Cushitic), spoken by around 7.5 million people in Ethiopia, Djibouti, and [[Eritrea]]. (-) [[Shilha language|Shilha]] ([[Berber languages|Berber]]), spoken by around 7 million people in [[Morocco]]. (-) [[Tigre language|Tigre]] (Semitic), spoken by around 2 million people in [[Eritrea]] (-) [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] (Semitic), spoken by around 9.73 million people in [[Eritrea]] and Tigray (-) [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]] (Berber), spoken by around 5.6 million people in [[Algeria]]. (-) [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] (Semitic), spoken by around 9 million people (5 million native first-language speakers and 4 million second-language speakers) in [[Israel]] and the [[Jewish diaspora]]; premodern Hebrew is the [[liturgical language]] of [[Judaism]] and of the [[Samaritan]] people. (-) [[Central Atlas Tamazight]] (Berber), spoken by around 4.6 million people in Morocco. (-) [[Riffian language|Riffian]] (Berber), spoken by around 4.2 million people in Morocco. (-) [[Gurage languages]] (Semitic), a group of languages spoken by more than 2 million people in [[Ethiopia]]. (-) [[Maltese language|Maltese]] (Semitic), spoken by around half a million people in [[Malta]] and the [[Emigration from Malta|Maltese diaspora]]. It descended from [[Classical Arabic]] independently from modern [[Varieties of Arabic|Arabic dialects]], features [[Romance languages|Romance]] [[Stratum (linguistics)|superstrates]] and has been written in the [[Latin script]] since at least the 14th century. (-) [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]] (Semitic), a variety of [[modern Aramaic]], spoken by more than 500,000 people in the [[Assyrian diaspora]].", "id": "599", "title": "Afroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Afroasiatic languages", "Afroasiatic peoples", "Language families", "Ethnic groups in Africa", "Ethnic groups in Asia", "Ethnic groups in Europe"], "seealso": ["Languages of Asia", "Indo-Semitic languages", "Borean languages", "Nostratic languages", "Languages of Africa", "Languages of Europe", "Proto-Afroasiatic language", "Indo-European languages"]}
+{"headers": ["Classification history"], "text": "In the 9th century, the Hebrew grammarian [[Judah ibn Kuraish|Judah ibn Quraysh]] of [[Tiaret]] in [[Algeria]] was the first to link two branches of Afroasiatic together; he perceived a relationship between Berber and Semitic. He knew of Semitic through his study of Arabic, Hebrew, and [[Aramaic]]. In the course of the 19th century, Europeans also began suggesting such relationships. In 1844, [[Theodor Benfey]] suggested a language family consisting of Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic (calling the latter \"Ethiopic\"). In the same year, T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and Hausa, but this would long remain a topic of dispute and uncertainty. [[Friedrich Müller (linguist)|Friedrich Müller]] named the traditional Hamito-Semitic family in 1876 in his ''Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft'' (\"Outline of Linguistics\"), and defined it as consisting of a Semitic group plus a \"Hamitic\" group containing Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic; he excluded the Chadic group. It was the [[Egyptology|Egyptologist]] [[Karl Richard Lepsius]] (1810–1884) who restricted Hamitic to the non-Semitic languages in Africa, which are characterized by a grammatical [[Grammatical gender|gender system]]. This \"Hamitic language group\" was proposed to unite various, mainly North-African, languages, including the Ancient [[Egyptian language]], the [[Berber languages]], the [[Cushitic languages]], the [[Beja language]], and the [[Chadic languages]]. Unlike Müller, Lepsius considered that [[Hausa language|Hausa]] and [[Nama language|Nama]] were part of the Hamitic group. These classifications relied in part on non-linguistic anthropological and racial arguments. Both authors used the skin-color, mode of subsistence, and other characteristics of native speakers as part of their arguments that particular languages should be grouped together. In 1912, [[Carl Meinhof]] published ''Die Sprachen der Hamiten'' (\"The Languages of the Hamites\"), in which he expanded Lepsius's model, adding the [[Fula language|Fula]], [[Maasai language|Maasai]], [[Bari language|Bari]], [[Nandi languages|Nandi]], [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]] and [[Hadza language|Hadza]] languages to the Hamitic group. Meinhof's model was widely supported in the 1940s. Meinhof's system of classification of the Hamitic languages was based on a belief that \"speakers of Hamitic became largely coterminous with cattle herding peoples with essentially Caucasian origins, intrinsically different from and superior to the 'Negroes of Africa'.\" However, in the case of the so-called [[Nilo-Hamitic languages]] (a concept he introduced), it was based on the typological feature of gender and a \"fallacious theory of [[mixed language|language mixture]].\" Meinhof did this although earlier work by scholars such as Lepsius and Johnston had substantiated that the languages which he would later dub \"Nilo-Hamitic\" were in fact Nilotic languages, with numerous similarities in vocabulary to other Nilotic languages.", "id": "599", "title": "Afroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Afroasiatic languages", "Afroasiatic peoples", "Language families", "Ethnic groups in Africa", "Ethnic groups in Asia", "Ethnic groups in Europe"], "seealso": ["Languages of Asia", "Indo-Semitic languages", "Borean languages", "Nostratic languages", "Languages of Africa", "Languages of Europe", "Proto-Afroasiatic language", "Indo-European languages"]}
+{"headers": ["Classification history"], "text": "[[Leo Reinisch]] (1909) had already proposed linking Cushitic and Chadic while urging their more distant affinity with Egyptian and Semitic. However, his suggestion found little acceptance. [[Marcel Cohen]] (1924) rejected the idea of a distinct \"Hamitic\" subgroup and included [[Hausa language|Hausa]] (a Chadic language) in his comparative Hamito-Semitic vocabulary. Finally, [[Joseph Greenberg]]'s 1950 work led to the widespread rejection of \"Hamitic\" as a language category by linguists. Greenberg refuted Meinhof's linguistic theories and rejected the use of racial and social evidence. In dismissing the notion of a separate \"Nilo-Hamitic\" language category, in particular, Greenberg was \"returning to a view widely held a half-century earlier.\" He consequently rejoined Meinhof's so-called Nilo-Hamitic languages with their appropriate Nilotic siblings. He also added (and sub-classified) the Chadic languages, and proposed the new name Afroasiatic for the family. Almost all scholars have accepted this classification as the new and continued consensus. Greenberg's model was fully developed in his book ''[[The Languages of Africa]]'' (1963), in which he reassigned most of Meinhof's additions to Hamitic to other language families, notably [[Nilo-Saharan]]. Following [[Isaac Schapera]] and rejecting Meinhof, he classified the [[Hottentot language|Khoekhoe language]] as a member of the [[Khoisan languages]], a grouping that has since proven inaccurate and excessively motivated on the presence of [[Click consonant|click sounds]]. To Khoisan he also added the Tanzanian [[Hadza language|Hadza]] and [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]], though this view has been discredited as linguists working on these languages consider them to be [[Language isolate|linguistic isolates]]. Despite this, Greenberg's classification remains a starting point for modern work of many languages spoken in Africa, and the Hamitic category (and its extension to Nilo-Hamitic) has no part in this. Since the three traditional branches of the Hamitic languages (Berber, Cushitic and Egyptian) have not been shown to form an exclusive ([[Monophyly|monophyletic]]) phylogenetic unit of their own, separate from other Afroasiatic languages, linguists no longer use the term in this sense. Each of these branches is instead now regarded as an independent subgroup of the larger Afroasiatic family. In 1969, [[Harold C. Fleming|Harold Fleming]] proposed that what had previously been known as Western Cushitic is an independent branch of Afroasiatic, suggesting for it the new name [[Omotic languages|Omotic]]. This proposal and name have met with widespread acceptance. Based on typological differences with the other Cushitic languages, [[Robert Hetzron]] proposed that Beja has to be removed from Cushitic, thus forming an independent branch of Afroasiatic. Most scholars, however, reject this proposal, and continue to group Beja as the sole member of a Northern branch within Cushitic. ''[[Glottolog]]'' does not accept that the inclusion or even unity of Omotic has been established, nor that of Ongota or the unclassified Kujarge. It therefore splits off the following groups as small families: [[South Omotic languages|South Omotic]], [[Mao languages|Mao]], [[Dizoid languages|Dizoid]], [[Gonga–Gimojan languages|Gonga–Gimojan]] (North Omotic apart from the preceding), [[Ongota language|Ongota]], [[Kujarge language|Kujarge]].", "id": "599", "title": "Afroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Afroasiatic languages", "Afroasiatic peoples", "Language families", "Ethnic groups in Africa", "Ethnic groups in Asia", "Ethnic groups in Europe"], "seealso": ["Languages of Asia", "Indo-Semitic languages", "Borean languages", "Nostratic languages", "Languages of Africa", "Languages of Europe", "Proto-Afroasiatic language", "Indo-European languages"]}
+{"headers": ["Classification history", "Subgrouping"], "text": "Little agreement exists on the [[subgrouping (linguistics)|subgrouping]] of the five or six branches of Afroasiatic: Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Omotic. However, [[Christopher Ehret]] (1979), Harold Fleming (1981), and Joseph Greenberg (1981) all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first. Otherwise: (-) [[Paul Newman (linguist)|Paul Newman]] (1980) groups Berber with Chadic and Egyptian with Semitic, while questioning the inclusion of Omotic in Afroasiatic. Rolf Theil (2006) concurs with the exclusion of Omotic but does not otherwise address the structure of the family. (-) Harold Fleming (1981) divides non-Omotic Afroasiatic, or \"Erythraean\", into three groups, Cushitic, Semitic, and Chadic-Berber-Egyptian. He later added Semitic and Beja to Chadic-Berber-Egyptian and tentatively proposed [[Ongota language|Ongota]] as a new third branch of Erythraean. He thus divided Afroasiatic into two major branches, Omotic and Erythraean, with Erythraean consisting of three sub-branches, Cushitic, Chadic-Berber-Egyptian-Semitic-Beja, and Ongota. (-) Like Harold Fleming, [[Christopher Ehret]] (1995: 490) divides Afroasiatic into two branches, Omotic and Erythrean. He divides Omotic into two branches, North Omotic and South Omotic. He divides Erythrean into Cushitic, comprising Beja, Agaw, and East-South Cushitic, and North Erythrean, comprising Chadic and \"Boreafrasian.\" According to his classification, Boreafrasian consists of Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic. (-) [[Vladimir Orel]] and Olga Stolbova (1995) group Berber with Semitic and Chadic with Egyptian. They split up Cushitic into five or more independent branches of Afroasiatic, viewing Cushitic as a [[Sprachbund]] rather than a [[language family]]. (-) [[Igor M. Diakonoff]] (1996) subdivides Afroasiatic in two, grouping Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic together as East-West Afrasian (ESA), and Chadic with Egyptian as North-South Afrasian (NSA). He excludes Omotic from Afroasiatic. (-) [[Lionel Bender (linguist)|Lionel Bender]] (1997) groups Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic together as \"Macro-Cushitic\". He regards Chadic and Omotic as the branches of Afroasiatic most remote from the others. (-) Alexander Militarev (2000), on the basis of [[lexicostatistics]], groups Berber with Chadic and both more distantly with Semitic, as against Cushitic and Omotic. He places Ongota in South Omotic.", "id": "599", "title": "Afroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Afroasiatic languages", "Afroasiatic peoples", "Language families", "Ethnic groups in Africa", "Ethnic groups in Asia", "Ethnic groups in Europe"], "seealso": ["Languages of Asia", "Indo-Semitic languages", "Borean languages", "Nostratic languages", "Languages of Africa", "Languages of Europe", "Proto-Afroasiatic language", "Indo-European languages"]}
+{"headers": ["Position among the world's languages"], "text": "Afroasiatic is one of the four major [[Languages of Africa|language families]] spoken in Africa identified by Joseph Greenberg in his book ''[[The Languages of Africa]]'' (1963). It is one of the few whose speech area is transcontinental, with languages from Afroasiatic's Semitic branch also spoken in the Middle East and Europe. There are no generally accepted relations between Afroasiatic and any other language family. However, several proposals grouping Afroasiatic with one or more other language families have been made. The best-known of these are the following: (-) [[Hermann Möller]] (1906) argued for a relation between [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] and the [[Indo-European languages]]. This proposal was accepted by a few linguists (e.g. [[Holger Pedersen (linguist)|Holger Pedersen]] and [[Louis Hjelmslev]]). (For a fuller account, see [[Indo-Semitic languages]].) However, the theory has little currency today, although most linguists do not deny the existence of grammatical similarities between both families (such as [[grammatical gender]], noun-adjective [[Agreement (linguistics)|agreement]], three-way [[Grammatical number|number]] distinction, and [[vowel alternation]] as a means of derivation). (-) Apparently influenced by Möller (a colleague of his at the [[University of Copenhagen]]), [[Holger Pedersen (linguist)|Holger Pedersen]] included Hamito-Semitic (the term replaced by Afroasiatic) in his proposed [[Nostratic languages|Nostratic macro-family]] (cf. Pedersen 1931:336–338), also included the Indo-European, [[Uralic languages|Uralic]], [[Altaic languages|Altaic]], [[Yukaghir languages]], and [[Dravidian languages]]. This inclusion was retained by subsequent Nostraticists, starting with [[Vladislav Illich-Svitych]] and [[Aharon Dolgopolsky]]. (-) [[Joseph Greenberg]] (2000–2002) did not reject a relationship of Afroasiatic to these other languages, but he considered it more distantly related to them than they were to each other, grouping instead these other languages in a separate macro-family, which he called [[Eurasiatic languages|Eurasiatic]], and to which he added [[Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages|Chukotian]], [[Nivkh language|Gilyak]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Japonic languages|Japanese-Ryukyuan]], [[Eskimo–Aleut languages|Eskimo–Aleut]], and [[Ainu languages|Ainu]]. (-) Most recently, [[Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin|Sergei Starostin]]'s school has accepted Eurasiatic as a subgroup of Nostratic, with Afroasiatic, Dravidian, and Kartvelian in Nostratic outside of Eurasiatic. The even larger [[Borean languages|Borean super-family]] contains Nostratic as well as [[Dené–Caucasian languages|Dené-Caucasian]] and [[Austric languages|Austric]].", "id": "599", "title": "Afroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Afroasiatic languages", "Afroasiatic peoples", "Language families", "Ethnic groups in Africa", "Ethnic groups in Asia", "Ethnic groups in Europe"], "seealso": ["Languages of Asia", "Indo-Semitic languages", "Borean languages", "Nostratic languages", "Languages of Africa", "Languages of Europe", "Proto-Afroasiatic language", "Indo-European languages"]}
+{"headers": ["Date of Afroasiatic"], "text": "The earliest written evidence of an Afroasiatic language is an [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]] inscription dated to c. 3400 BC (5,400 years ago). Symbols on [[Gerzeh culture|Gerzean]] (Naqada II) pottery resembling [[Egyptian hieroglyphs#History and evolution|Egyptian hieroglyphs]] date back to c. 4000 BC, suggesting an earlier possible dating. This gives us a minimum date for the age of Afroasiatic. However, Ancient Egyptian is highly divergent from [[Proto-Afroasiatic language|Proto-Afroasiatic]], and considerable time must have elapsed in between them. Estimates of the date at which the Proto-Afroasiatic language was spoken vary widely. They fall within a range between approximately 7,500 BC (9,500 years ago), and approximately 16,000 BC (18,000 years ago). According to [[Igor M. Diakonoff]] (1988: 33n), Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken [[circa|c.]] 10,000 BC. Christopher Ehret (2002: 35–36) asserts that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken c. 11,000 BC at the latest, and possibly as early as c. 16,000 BC. These dates are older than those associated with other [[proto-language]].", "id": "599", "title": "Afroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Afroasiatic languages", "Afroasiatic peoples", "Language families", "Ethnic groups in Africa", "Ethnic groups in Asia", "Ethnic groups in Europe"], "seealso": ["Languages of Asia", "Indo-Semitic languages", "Borean languages", "Nostratic languages", "Languages of Africa", "Languages of Europe", "Proto-Afroasiatic language", "Indo-European languages"]}
+{"headers": ["Afroasiatic Urheimat"], "text": "The Afroasiatic ''[[urheimat]]'', the hypothetical place where [[Proto-Afroasiatic language]] speakers lived in a single linguistic community, or complex of communities, before this original language dispersed geographically and divided into distinct languages, is unknown. Afroasiatic languages are today primarily spoken in [[Western Asia|West Asia]], [[North Africa]], the [[Horn of Africa]], and parts of the [[Sahel]]. Their distribution seems to have been influenced by the [[Sahara pump theory|Sahara pump]] operating over the last 10,000 years. While there is no definitive agreement on when or where the original homeland of this language family existed, most scholarly work in linguistics favor an East African or Saharan origin. A Levant/Fertile Crescent origin has also been proposed.", "id": "599", "title": "Afroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Afroasiatic languages", "Afroasiatic peoples", "Language families", "Ethnic groups in Africa", "Ethnic groups in Asia", "Ethnic groups in Europe"], "seealso": ["Languages of Asia", "Indo-Semitic languages", "Borean languages", "Nostratic languages", "Languages of Africa", "Languages of Europe", "Proto-Afroasiatic language", "Indo-European languages"]}
+{"headers": ["Similarities in grammar and syntax"], "text": "Widespread (though not universal) features of the Afroasiatic languages include: (-) A set of [[emphatic consonant]], variously realized as glottalized, pharyngealized, or implosive. (-) [[Verb–subject–object|VSO]] [[linguistic typology|typology]] with [[subject–verb–object|SVO]] tendencies. (-) A two-[[grammatical gender|gender]] system in the singular, with the feminine marked by the sound /t/. (-) All Afroasiatic subfamilies show evidence of a [[causative]] affix ''s''. (-) Semitic, Berber, Cushitic (including Beja), and Chadic support [[possessive suffix]]. (-) [[Arabic nouns and adjectives#Nisba|Nisba]] derivation in ''-j'' (earlier Egyptian) or ''-ī'' (Semitic) (-) [[Morphology (linguistics)|Morphology]] in which words inflect by changes within the root (vowel changes or [[gemination]]) as well as with prefixes and suffixes. One of the most remarkable shared features among the Afroasiatic languages is the prefixing verb conjugation (see the table at the start of this section), with a distinctive pattern of prefixes beginning with /ʔ t n y/, and in particular a pattern whereby third-singular masculine /y-/ is opposed to third-singular feminine and second-singular /t-/. According to Ehret (1996), [[tonal language]] appear in the Omotic and Chadic branches of Afroasiatic, as well as in certain Cushitic languages. The Semitic, Berber and Egyptian branches generally do not use tones [[phoneme|phonemically]]. The Berber and Semitic branches share certain grammatical features (e.g. alternative feminine endings *-ay/*-āy; corresponding vowel templates for verbal conjugations) which can be reconstructed for a higher-order proto-language (provisionally called \"Proto-Berbero-Semitic\" by Kossmann & Suchard (2018) and Putten (2018)). Whether this proto-language is ancestral to Berber and Semitic only, or also to other branches of Afroasiatic, still remains to be established.", "id": "599", "title": "Afroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Afroasiatic languages", "Afroasiatic peoples", "Language families", "Ethnic groups in Africa", "Ethnic groups in Asia", "Ethnic groups in Europe"], "seealso": ["Languages of Asia", "Indo-Semitic languages", "Borean languages", "Nostratic languages", "Languages of Africa", "Languages of Europe", "Proto-Afroasiatic language", "Indo-European languages"]}
+{"headers": ["Shared vocabulary"], "text": "The following are some examples of Afroasiatic [[cognate]], including ten [[pronoun]], three [[noun]], and three [[verb]]. '' Source:'' Christopher Ehret, ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). ''Note:'' Ehret does not make use of Berber in his etymologies, stating (1995: 12): \"the kind of extensive reconstruction of proto-Berber lexicon that might help in sorting through alternative possible etymologies is not yet available.\" The Berber cognates here are taken from the previous version of the table in this article and need to be completed and referenced. ''Abbreviations:'' NOm = 'North Omotic', SOm = 'South Omotic'. MSA = 'Modern South Arabian', PSC = 'Proto-Southern Cushitic', PSom-II = 'Proto-Somali, stage 2'. masc. = 'masculine', fem. = 'feminine', sing. = 'singular', pl. = 'plural'. 1s. = 'first person singular', 2s. = 'second person singular'. ''Symbols:'' Following Ehret (1995: 70), a [[caron]] ˇ over a vowel indicates rising [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], and a [[circumflex]] ^ over a vowel indicates falling tone. V indicates a [[vowel]] of unknown quality. Ɂ indicates a [[glottal stop]]. * indicates [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed forms]] based on [[Comparative method (linguistics)|comparison of related languages]]. There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova. The two dictionaries disagree on almost everything. The following table contains the thirty roots or so (out of thousands) that represent a fragile consensus of present research:", "id": "599", "title": "Afroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Afroasiatic languages", "Afroasiatic peoples", "Language families", "Ethnic groups in Africa", "Ethnic groups in Asia", "Ethnic groups in Europe"], "seealso": ["Languages of Asia", "Indo-Semitic languages", "Borean languages", "Nostratic languages", "Languages of Africa", "Languages of Europe", "Proto-Afroasiatic language", "Indo-European languages"]}
+{"headers": ["Shared vocabulary", "Etymological bibliography"], "text": "Some of the main sources for Afroasiatic etymologies include: (-) Cohen, Marcel. 1947. ''Essai comparatif sur le vocabulaire et la phonétique du chamito-sémitique.'' Paris: Champion. (-) Diakonoff, Igor M. et al. 1993–1997. \"Historical-comparative vocabulary of Afrasian,\" ''St. Petersburg Journal of African Studies'' 2–6. (-) Ehret, Christopher. 1995. ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary'' (= ''University of California Publications in Linguistics'' 126). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. (-) Orel, Vladimir E. and Olga V. Stolbova. 1995. ''Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary: Materials for a Reconstruction.'' Leiden: Brill. .", "id": "599", "title": "Afroasiatic languages", "categories": ["Afroasiatic languages", "Afroasiatic peoples", "Language families", "Ethnic groups in Africa", "Ethnic groups in Asia", "Ethnic groups in Europe"], "seealso": ["Languages of Asia", "Indo-Semitic languages", "Borean languages", "Nostratic languages", "Languages of Africa", "Languages of Europe", "Proto-Afroasiatic language", "Indo-European languages"]}
+{"headers": [], "text": "'''Andorra''' (, ; ), officially the '''Principality of Andorra''' (), is a [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] landlocked [[microstate]] on the [[Iberian Peninsula]], in the eastern [[Pyrenees]], bordered by [[France]] to the north and [[Spain]] to the south. Believed to have been created by [[Charlemagne]], Andorra was ruled by the [[count of Urgell]] until 988, when it was transferred to the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Urgell]]. The present principality was formed by [[Paréage of Andorra 1278|a charter in 1278]]. It is headed by two co-princes: the [[Bishop of Urgell]] in [[Catalonia, Spain]] and the [[President of the French Republic|President of France]]. Andorra is the [[European microstates|sixth-smallest state in Europe]], having an area of and a population of approximately . The [[Andorran people]] are a [[Italic peoples|Romance]] ethnic group of originally [[Catalans|Catalan]] descent. Andorra is the 16th-smallest country in the world by land and the 11th-smallest by population. Its capital, [[Andorra la Vella]], is the highest capital city in Europe, at an elevation of [[above mean sea level|above sea level]]. The official language is [[Catalan language|Catalan]], but Spanish, Portuguese, and French are also commonly spoken. [[Tourism in Andorra]] sees an estimated 10.2 million visitors annually. Andorra is not a member state of the [[European Union]], but the [[euro]] is its official currency. It has been a member of the [[United Nations]] since 1993. In 2013, Andorra had [[List of countries by life expectancy|the highest life expectancy in the world]] at 81 years, according to the [[Global Burden of Disease Study]].", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The origin of the word Andorra is unknown, although several hypotheses have been formulated. The oldest derivation of the word Andorra is from the Greek historian [[Polybius]] (''[[The Histories (Polybius)|The Histories]]'' III, 35, 1) who describes the Andosins, an [[Iberians|Iberian]] [[Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula|Pre-Roman tribe]], as historically located in the valleys of Andorra and facing the [[Ancient Carthage|Carthaginian]] army in its passage through the Pyrenees during the [[Punic Wars]]. The word Andosini or Andosins (Ἀνδοσίνοι) may derive from the [[Basque language|Basque]] ''handia'' whose meaning is \"big\" or \"giant\". The Andorran [[toponymy]] shows evidence of Basque language in the area. Another theory suggests that the word Andorra may derive from the old word Anorra that contains the Basque word ''ur'' (water). Another theory suggests that Andorra may derive from , meaning \"the thickly wooded place\". When the [[Arabs]] and [[Moors]] conquered the Iberian Peninsula, the valleys of the High Pyrenees were covered by large tracts of forest. These regions were not administered by Muslims, because of the geographic difficulty of direct rule. Other theories suggest that the term derives from the [[Navarro-Aragonese]] andurrial, which means \"land covered with bushes\" or \"scrubland\". The [[folk etymology]] holds that [[Charlemagne]] had named the region as a reference to the Biblical [[Canaan]] valley of [[Endor (village)|Endor]] or [[Endor (village)|Andor]] (where the [[Midianites]] had been defeated), a name bestowed by his heir and son [[Louis le Debonnaire]] after defeating the Moors in the \"wild valleys of Hell\".", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Prehistory"], "text": "La Balma de la [[La Margineda|Margineda]], found by archaeologists at [[Sant Julià de Lòria]], was settled in 9,500 BC as a passing place between the two sides of the Pyrenees. The seasonal camp was perfectly located for hunting and fishing by the groups of hunter-gatherers from [[Ariège (river)|Ariege]] and [[Segre (river)|Segre]]. During the [[Neolithic Age]], a group of people moved to the [[Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley|Valley of Madriu]] (the present-day Natural Parc located in [[Escaldes-Engordany]] declared [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]) as a permanent camp in 6640 BC. The population of the valley grew cereals, raised domestic livestock, and developed a commercial trade with people from the [[Sègre (department)|Segre]] and [[Occitania]]. Other archaeological deposits include the Tombs of [[Segudet]] ([[Ordino]]) and Feixa del Moro (Sant Julià de Lòria) both dated in 4900–4300 BC as an example of the [[Urnfield culture|Urn culture]] in Andorra. The model of small settlements began to evolve to a complex urbanism during the [[Bronze Age]]. [[Metallurgy|Metallurgical]] items of iron, ancient coins, and relicaries can be found in the [[Sanctuary|ancient sanctuaries]] scattered around the country. The sanctuary of Roc de les Bruixes (Stone of the Witches) is perhaps the most important archeological complex of this age in Andorra, located in the parish of [[Canillo]], about the rituals of funerals, ancient scripture and engraved stone [[mural]].", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Iberian and Roman Andorra"], "text": "The inhabitants of the valleys were traditionally associated with the [[Iberians]] and historically located in Andorra as the Iberian tribe Andosins or Andosini (Ἀνδοσίνους) during the 7th and 2nd centuries BC. Influenced by the [[Aquitanian language|Aquitanian]], [[Basque language|Basque]] and [[Iberian languages]], the locals developed some current toponyms. Early writings and documents relating to this group of people goes back to the second century BC by the Greek writer [[Polybius]] in his ''Histories'' during the [[Punic Wars]]. Some of the most significant remains of this era are the Castle of the Roc d'Enclar (part of the early [[Marca Hispanica]]), l'Anxiu in [[Les Escaldes]] and Roc de L'Oral in [[Encamp]]. The presence of [[Roman Empire|Roman]] influence is recorded from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD. The places found with more Roman presence are in Camp Vermell (Red Field) in Sant Julià de Lòria, and in some places in Encamp, as well as in the Roc d'Enclar. People continued trading, mainly with wine and cereals, with the Roman cities of [[Urgellet]] (the present-day [[La Seu d'Urgell]]) and all across Segre through the [[Roman roads|''via romana'']] Strata Ceretana (also known as Strata Confluetana).", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Visigoths and Carolingians: the legend of Charlemagne"], "text": "After the [[fall of the Roman Empire]], Andorra came under the influence of the [[Visigothic Kingdom|Visigoths]], the [[History of Toledo, Spain#Visigothic Toledo|Kingdom of Toledo]], and from the [[Diocese of Urgell]]. The Visigoths remained in the valleys for 200 years, during which time [[Gothic Christianity|Christianity]] spread. When the [[Al-Andalus|Muslim Empire of Al-Andalus]] replaced the ruling Visigoths in most of the Iberian Peninsula, Andorra was sheltered from these invaders by the [[Francia|Franks]]. Tradition holds that Charles the Great (Charlemagne) granted a charter to the Andorran people for a contingent of five thousand soldiers under the command of Marc Almugaver, in return for fighting against the [[Moors]] near [[Porté-Puymorens]] ([[Cerdanya]]). Andorra remained part of the [[Hispanic Marches|Frankish ''Marca Hispanica'']], the buffer-zone between the [[Francia|Frankish Empire]] and the Muslim territories, Andorra being part of the territory ruled by the [[Counts of Urgell|Count of Urgell]] and eventually by the [[Bishop of Urgel|bishop]] of the Diocese of Urgell. Also tradition holds that it was guaranteed by the son of Charlemagne, [[Louis the Pious]], writing the ''Carta de Poblament'' or a local [[municipal charter]] circa 805. In 988, [[Borrell II]], Count of Urgell, gave the Andorran valleys to the Diocese of Urgell in exchange for land in Cerdanya. Since then, the Bishop of Urgell, based in Seu d'Urgell, has been [[Co-Princes of Andorra|Co-prince]] of Andorra. The first document that mentions Andorra as a territory is the ''Acta de Consagració i Dotació de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell'' (Deed of Consecration and Endowment of the Cathedral of La Seu d'Urgell). The old document dated from 839 depicts the six old [[Parishes of Andorra|parishes]] of the Andorran valleys and therefore the administrative division of the country.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Medieval Age: The Paréages and the founding of the Co-Principality"], "text": "Before 1095, Andorra did not have any type of military protection and the Bishop of Urgell, who knew that the count of Urgell wanted to reclaim the Andorran valleys, asked the [[lord of Caboet]] for help and protection. In 1095, the Lord of Caboet and the bishop of Urgell signed under oath a declaration of their co-sovereignty over Andorra. Arnalda, daughter of Arnau of Caboet, married the viscount of Castellbò. Their daughter, Ermessenda, married the [[count of Foix]], [[Roger-Bernard II, Count of Foix|Roger-Bernard II]]. Roger-Bernard II and Ermessenda shared rule over Andorra with the bishop of Urgell. In the 13th century, a military dispute arose between the bishop of Urgell and the count of Foix as aftermath of the [[Cathar Crusade]]. The conflict was resolved in 1278 with the mediation of the [[king of Aragon]], [[Peter III of Aragon|Peter III]], between the bishop and the count, by the signing of the [[Paréage of Andorra 1278|first paréage]] which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the count of Foix (whose title would ultimately transfer to the French head of state) and the bishop of Urgell, in [[Catalonia]]. This gave the principality its territory and political form. A second paréage was signed in 1288 after a dispute when the count of Foix ordered the construction of a castle in Roc d'Enclar. The document was ratified by the noble notary [[County of Cerdanya|Jaume Orig of Puigcerdà]] and the construction of military structures in the country was prohibited. In 1364 the political organization of the country named the figure of the [[syndic]] (now spokesman and president of the parliament) as representative of the Andorrans to their co-princes making possible the creation of [[Parishes of Andorra|local departments]] (comuns, quarts and veïnats). After being ratified by Bishop Francesc Tovia and Count [[John I, Count of Foix|John I]], the Consell de la Terra or [[General Council (Andorra)|Consell General de les Valls]] (General Council of the Valleys) was founded in 1419, the second oldest parliament in Europe. The syndic Andreu d'Alàs and the General Council organized the creation of the [[Politics of Andorra#Judicial branch|Justice Courts]] (La Cort de Justicia) in 1433 with the co-Princes and the collection of taxes like foc i lloc (literally fire and site, a national tax active since then). Although there are remains of ecclesiastical works dating before the 9th century (Sant Vicenç d'Enclar or [[Església de Santa Coloma]]), Andorra developed exquisite [[Romanesque Art and Architecture|Romanesque Art]] during the 9th through 14th centuries, particularly in the construction of churches, bridges, religious murals and statues of the [[Virgin and Child]] ([[Our Lady of Meritxell]] being the most important). Nowadays, the [[List of regional characteristics of Romanesque churches#Romanesque churches in Spain, Portugal and Andorra|Romanesque]] buildings that form part of [[Cultural Heritage of Andorra|Andorra's cultural heritage]] stand out in a remarkable way, with an emphasis on [[Església de Sant Esteve]], [[Sant Joan de Caselles]], [[Església de Sant Miquel d'Engolasters]], [[Sant Martí de la Cortinada]] and the medieval bridges of [[Pont de la Margineda|Margineda]] and [[Pont dels Escalls|Escalls]] among many others.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Medieval Age: The Paréages and the founding of the Co-Principality"], "text": "The Catalan Pyrenees were embryonic of the [[Catalan language]] at the end of the 11th century. Andorra was influenced by this language, which was adopted locally decades before it expanded to the rest of the Crown of Aragon. The local population based its economy during the Middle Ages in livestock and agriculture, as well as in furs and weavers. Later, at the end of the 11th century, the first [[Bloomery#Medieval Europe|iron foundries]] began to appear in Northern Parishes like [[Ordino]], much appreciated by the master artisans who developed the art of the forges, an important economic activity in the country from the 15th century.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "16th to 18th centuries"], "text": "In 1601 the [[Andorra#Law and criminal justice|Tribunal de Corts]] (High Court of Justice) was created as a result of [[Huguenot rebellions]] in France, [[Spanish Inquisition|Inquisition]] courts coming from Spain and [[Catalan mythology about witches|witchcraft-related beliefs native to the area]], in the context of the [[Reformation]] and [[Counter-Reformation]]. With the passage of time, the co-title to Andorra passed to the kings of [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]]. After [[Henry IV of France|Henry III of Navarre]] became [[king of France]], he issued an edict in 1607 that established the head of the French state and the bishop of Urgell as [[Co-Princes of Andorra|co-princes of Andorra]], a political arrangement that continues up to the present time. During 1617, communal councils form the sometent (popular militia or army) to deal with the rise of bandolerisme ([[brigandage]]) and the Consell de la Terra was defined and structured in terms of its composition, organization and competences current today. Andorra continued with the same economic system that it had during the 12th–14th centuries with a large production of metallurgy (fargues, a system similar to Farga Catalana) and with the introduction of tobacco circa 1692 and import trade. The fair of Andorra la Vella was ratified by the co-princes in 1371 and 1448 being the most important annual national festival commercially ever since. The country had a unique and experienced [[guild]] of weavers, Confraria de Paraires i Teixidors, located in [[Escaldes-Engordany]] founded in 1604 taking advantage of the thermal waters of the area. By this time, the country was characterized by the social system of prohoms (wealthy society) and casalers (rest of the population with smaller economic acquisition), deriving from the tradition of [[pubilla]] and [[Heir|hereu]]. Three centuries after its foundation the Consell de la Terra located its headquarters and the Tribunal de Corts in [[Casa de la Vall]] in 1702. The [[manor house]] built in 1580 served as a noble fortress of the Busquets family. Inside the parliament was placed the Closet of the six keys (Armari de les sis claus) representative of each Andorran parish and where the [[Andorran constitution]] and other documents and laws were kept later on. In both the [[Reapers' War]] and the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], the Andorran people (although professing to be a neutral country) supported the [[Catalans]] who saw their [[Catalan constitutions|rights]] reduced in [[Nueva Planta decrees|1716]]. The reaction was the promotion of Catalan writings in Andorra, with cultural works such as the ''Book of Privileges'' (''Llibre de Privilegis de 1674''), ''Manual Digest'' (1748) by Antoni Fiter i Rossell or the ''Polità andorrà'' (1763) by Antoni Puig.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "19th century: the New Reform and the Andorran Question"], "text": "After the [[French Revolution]], [[Napoleon I]] reestablished the Co-Principate in 1809 and removed the French medieval title. In 1812–1813, the [[First French Empire]] annexed Catalonia during the [[Peninsular War]] () and divided the region into four [[département]], with Andorra as a part of the district of [[Puigcerdà]]. In 1814, an imperial decree reestablished the independence and economy of Andorra. During this period, Andorra's late medieval institutions and rural culture remained largely unchanged. In 1866, the [[syndic]] [[Guillem d'Areny-Plandolit]] led the reformist group in a Council General of 24 members elected by suffrage limited to heads of families. The Council General replaced the aristocratic oligarchy that previously ruled the state. The New Reform () began after ratification by both Co-Princes and established the basis of the [[Constitution of Andorra|constitution]] and symbols—such as the [[Flag of Andorra|tricolour flag]]—of Andorra. A new [[service economy]] arose as a demand of the valley inhabitants and began to build infrastructure such as hotels, spa resorts, roads and telegraph lines. The authorities of the Co-Princes banned casinos and betting houses throughout the country. The ban resulted in an economic conflict for the Andorran people. The conflict led to the so-called revolution of 1881, when revolutionaries assaulted the house of the syndic on 8 December 1880, and established the Provisional Revolutionary Council led by Joan Pla i Calvo and Pere Baró i Mas. The Provisional Revolutionary Council allowed for the construction of casinos and spas by foreign companies. From 7 to 9 June 1881, the loyalists of [[Canillo]] and [[Encamp]] reconquered the parishes of [[Ordino]] and [[La Massana]] by establishing contact with the revolutionary forces in [[Escaldes-Engordany]]. After a day of combat the [[Pont dels Escalls|Treaty of the Bridge of Escalls]] was signed on 10 June. The council was replaced and new elections were held. The economic situation worsened, as the populace was divided over the  – the \"Andorran Question\" in relation to the [[Eastern Question]]). The struggles continued between pro-bishops, pro-French, and nationalists based on the troubles of Canillo in 1882 and 1885. Andorra participated in the cultural movement of the Catalan [[Renaixença]]. Between 1882 and 1887, the first academic schools were formed where trilingualism coexisted with the official language, Catalan. [[Romanticism|Romantic]] authors from France and Spain reported the awakening of the [[Romantic nationalism|national consciousness]] of the country. [[Jacint Verdaguer]] lived in Ordino during the 1880s where he wrote and shared works related to the Renaixença with writer and photographer, [[Casa Rossell|Joaquim de Riba]]. In 1848, [[Fromental Halévy]] had premiered the opera ''[[Le val d'Andorre|Le Val d'Andorre]]'' to great success in Europe, where the national consciousness of the valleys was exposed in the romantic work during the Peninsular War.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "20th and 21st century: Modernisation of the country and the Constitutional Andorra"], "text": "In 1933 France occupied Andorra following social unrest which occurred before elections due to the [[Andorran Revolution|Revolution of 1933]] and the FHASA strikes (Vagues de FHASA); the revolt led by [[Young Andorrans|Joves Andorrans]] (a [[Trade union|labour union group]] related to the Spanish [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] and [[Federación Anarquista Ibérica|FAI]]) called for political reforms, the [[universal suffrage|universal suffrage vote]] of all Andorrans and acted in defense of the rights of local and foreign workers during the construction of FHASA's hydroelectric power station in [[Encamp]]. On 5 April 1933 Joves Andorrans seized the Andorran Parliament. These actions were preceded by the arrival of Colonel René-Jules Baulard with 50 [[National Gendarmerie|gendarmes]] and the mobilization of 200 local militias or sometent led by the Síndic Francesc Cairat. On 6 July 1934, adventurer and nobleman [[Boris Skossyreff]], with his promise of freedoms and modernization of the country and wealth through the establishment of a tax haven and foreign investments, received the support of the members of the General Council to proclaim himself the sovereign of Andorra. On 8 July 1934 Boris issued a proclamation in Urgell, declaring himself Boris I, King of Andorra, simultaneously declaring war on the Bishop of Urgell and approving the King's constitution on 10 July. He was arrested by the Co-Prince and Bishop [[Justí Guitart i Vilardebó]] and their authorities on 20 July and ultimately expelled from Spain. From 1936 until 1940, a French military detachment of [[Garde Mobile]] led by well-known Colonel René-Jules Baulard was garrisoned in Andorra to secure the principality against disruption from the [[Spanish Civil War]] and [[Francoist Spain]] and also face the rise of [[Republicanism]] in the aftermath of the 1933 Revolution. During the Spanish Civil War, the inhabitants of Andorra welcomed refugees from both sides, and many of them settled permanently in the country thus contributing to the subsequent economic boom and the entry into the [[Neoliberalism|capitalist era]] of Andorra. Francoist troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war. During World War II, Andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route between [[Vichy France]] and Francoist Spain, two fascist states. Many Andorrans criticized the passivity of the General Council for impeding both the entry and expulsion of foreigners and refugees, committing economic crimes, reducing the rights of citizens and being sympathetic to [[Francoism]]. General Council members justified the council's political and diplomatic actions as necessary for Andorra's survival and the protection of its sovereignty. Andorra was relatively unscathed by the two world wars and the Spanish Civil War. Certain [[Resistance during World War II|groups]] organized themselves to help victims of oppression in Nazi-occupied countries, while participating in smuggling to help Andorra survive. Among the groups that were most prominent there was the [[Hostal Palanques]] Evasion Network Command. The Evasion Network Command, in contact with the British [[Mi6]], helped almost 400 fugitives, among whom were [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] military personnel. The Command remained active between 1941 and 1944, although there were struggles with [[Axis powers|pro-Axis]] informers and [[Gestapo]] agents within Andorra.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "20th and 21st century: Modernisation of the country and the Constitutional Andorra"], "text": "In the capital city there was a smuggling [[black market]] network of propaganda, culture and cinematic art not prone to totalitarian regimes, promulgated in some places as the Hotel Mirador or the Casino Hotel, as a meeting place for people of ideologies close to Andorran and [[Spanish republicanism|Spanish Republicanism]], and [[Free France]]. The network was maintained after the war, when film societies were formed, where movies, music and books [[Censorship in Francoist Spain|censored in Franco's Spain]] were imported, thus becoming an anti-censorship attraction for the Catalan or foreign public even within Andorra. Andorran Group (Agrupament Andorrà), an [[Anti-fascism|anti-fascist organization]] linked to the Occitanie's [[French Resistance]], accused the French representative (veguer) of [[Collaboration with the Axis Powers|collaboration with Nazism]]. The Andorran opening to the [[capitalist economy]] resulted in two axes: mass tourism and the country's tax exemption. The first steps toward the capitalist boom date from the 1930s, with the construction of FHASA and the creation of professional banking with [[Andbank|Banc Agrícol]] (1930) and [[Crèdit Andorrà]] (1949), later with [[Mora Banc Grup|Banca Mora]] (1952), [[Banca Privada d'Andorra|Banca Cassany]] (1958) and [[SOBANCA]] (1960). Shortly after activities such as skiing and shopping become a tourist attraction, with the inauguration of ski resorts and cultural entities in the late 1930s. All in all, a renovated hotel industry has developed. In April 1968 a social health insurance system was created ([[Caixa Andorrana de Seguretat Social|CASS]]). The Andorran Government necessarily involved planning, projection and forecasts for the future: with the official visit of the French co-prince [[Charles de Gaulle]] in 1967 and 1969, it was given approval for the economic boom and national demands within the framework of [[Human rights in Andorra|human rights]] and international openness. Andorra lived an era commonly known as \"Andorran dream\" (in relation to the [[American Dream|American dream]]) along with the [[Trente Glorieuses]]: the [[mass culture]] rooted the country experiencing radical changes in the economy and culture. Proof of this event was [[Ràdio Andorra]], number one transmitter musical radio station in Europe in this period, with guests and speakers of great importance promoting musical hits of [[chanson française]], [[Swing (dance)|swing]], [[rhythm & blues]], [[jazz]], [[rock and roll]] or [[Country music|American country music]]. During this period Andorra achieved a [[GDP]] per capita and a life expectancy higher than the most standard countries of the current economy.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "20th and 21st century: Modernisation of the country and the Constitutional Andorra"], "text": "Given its relative isolation, Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history, with few ties to countries other than France, Spain and Portugal. In recent times, however, its thriving tourist industry along with developments in transport and communications have removed the country from its isolation. Since 1976 the country sees the need to reform Andorran institutions due to the anachronisms in the field of sovereignty, human rights and the balance of powers as well as the need to adapt legislation to modern demands. In 1982 a first separation of powers took place when instituting the Govern d'Andorra, under the name of Executive Board (Consell Executiu), chaired by the first prime minister [[Òscar Ribas Reig]] with the approval of the Co-Princes. In 1989 the Principality signed an agreement with the [[European Economic Community]] to regularize trade relations. Its political system was modernized in 1993 after the [[Andorran constitutional referendum, 1993|Andorran constitutional referendum]], when the [[Constitution of Andorra|constitution]] was drafted by the Co-Princes and the General Council and approved on 14 March by 74.2% of voters, with a 76% turnout. The [[Andorran parliamentary election, 1993|first elections]] under the new constitution were held later in the year. The same year Andorra became a member of the [[United Nations]] and the [[Council of Europe]]. Andorra formalized diplomatic relations with the United States in 1996 participating in the 51st [[UN General Assembly]], a very important fact in view of the normalization that the country aspired to. First General Syndic [[Marc Forné Molné|Marc Forné]] took part on a speech in Catalan in the General Assembly to defend the reform of the organization, and after three days Forné took part in the parliamentary assembly of the Council of Europe to defend the linguistic rights and the economy of Andorra. In mid-2006 the monetary agreement with the European Union is formalized, which allows Andorra to use the [[euro]] in an official way, as well as coin its own Euro currency.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Politics"], "text": "Andorra is a parliamentary [[co-principality]] with the president of France and the Catholic [[bishop of Urgell]] ([[Catalonia]], Spain) as [[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|co-princes]]. This peculiarity makes the president of France, in his capacity as [[prince of Andorra]], an elected monarch, although he is not elected by a popular vote of the Andorran people. The politics of Andorra take place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy]], whereby the [[List of heads of government of Andorra|head of government]] is the [[head of government|chief executive]], and of a [[wikt:pluriform|pluriform]] multi-party system. The current head of government is [[Xavier Espot Zamora]] of the [[Democrats for Andorra]] (DA). [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both government and parliament. The Parliament of Andorra is known as the General Council. The General Council consists of between 28 and 42 councillors. The councillors serve for four-year terms, and elections are held between the 30th and 40th days following the dissolution of the previous Council. Half are elected in equal numbers by each of the seven administrative parishes, and the other half of the councillors are elected in a single national constituency. Fifteen days after the election, the councillors hold their inauguration. During this session, the Syndic General, who is the head of the General Council, and the Subsyndic General, his assistant, are elected. Eight days later, the Council convenes once more. During this session the head of government is chosen from among the councillors. Candidates can be proposed by a minimum of one-fifth of the councillors. The Council then elects the candidate with the absolute majority of votes to be head of government. The Syndic General then notifies the co-princes, who in turn appoint the elected candidate as the head of government of Andorra. The General Council is also responsible for proposing and passing laws. Bills may be presented to the council as Private Members' Bills by three of the local Parish Councils jointly or by at least one tenth of the citizens of Andorra. The council also approves the annual budget of the principality. The government must submit the proposed budget for parliamentary approval at least two months before the previous budget expires. If the budget is not approved by the first day of the next year, the previous budget is extended until a new one is approved. Once any bill is approved, the Syndic General is responsible for presenting it to the Co-Princes so that they may sign and enact it. If the head of government is not satisfied with the council, he may request that the co-princes dissolve the council and order new elections. In turn, the councillors have the power to remove the head of government from office. After a motion of censure is approved by at least one-fifth of the councillors, the council will vote and if it receives the absolute majority of votes, the head of government is removed.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Law and criminal justice"], "text": "The judiciary is composed of the Magistrates Court, the Criminal Law Court, the High Court of Andorra, and the Constitutional Court. The High Court of Justice is composed of five judges: one appointed by the head of government, one each by the co-princes, one by the Syndic General, and one by the judges and magistrates. It is presided over by the member appointed by the Syndic General and the judges hold office for six-year terms. The magistrates and judges are appointed by the High Court, as is the president of the Criminal Law Court. The High Court also appoints members of the Office of the Attorney General. The Constitutional Court is responsible for interpreting the Constitution and reviewing all appeals of unconstitutionality against laws and treaties. It is composed of four judges, one appointed by each of the co-princes and two by the General Council. They serve eight-year terms. The Court is presided over by one of the judges on a two-year rotation so that each judge at one point will preside over the Court.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Foreign relations, defence, and security"], "text": "Andorra does not have its own armed forces, although there is a small ceremonial army. Responsibility for defending the nation rests primarily with France and Spain. However, in case of emergencies or natural disasters, the Sometent (an alarm) is called and all able-bodied men between 21 and 60 of Andorran nationality must serve. This is why all Andorrans, and especially the head of each house (usually the eldest able-bodied man of a house) should, by law, keep a rifle, even though the law also states that the police will offer a firearm in case of need. Andorra is a full member of the United Nations (UN), the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE), and has a special agreement with the [[European Union]] (EU), it also has observer status at the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO). On 16 October 2020, Andorra became the 190th member of the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Foreign relations, defence, and security", "Military"], "text": "Andorra has a small army, which has historically been raised or reconstituted at various dates, but has never in modern times amounted to a standing army. The basic principle of Andorran defence is that all able-bodied men are available to fight if called upon by the sounding of the Sometent. Being a [[landlocked country]], Andorra has no navy. Before World War I, Andorra maintained an armed force of about 600 part-time militiamen under the supervision of a Captain (Capità or Cap de Sometent) and a Lieutenant (Desener or Lloctinent del Capità). This body was not liable for service outside the principality and was commanded by two officials (veguers) appointed by France and the Bishop of Urgell. In the modern era, the army has consisted of a very small body of volunteers willing to undertake ceremonial duties. Uniforms and weaponry were handed down from generation to generation within families and communities. The army's role in internal security was largely taken over by the formation of the [[Police Corps of Andorra]] in 1931. Brief civil disorder associated with the elections of 1933 led to assistance being sought from the French [[National Gendarmerie]], with a detachment resident in Andorra for two months under the command of René-Jules Baulard. The Andorran Police was reformed in the following year, with eleven soldiers appointed to supervisory roles. The force consisted of six [[Corporal]], one for each parish (although there are currently seven parishes, there were only six until 1978), plus four junior staff officers to co-ordinate action, and a commander with the rank of major. It was the responsibility of the six corporals, each in his own parish, to be able to raise a fighting force from among the able-bodied men of the parish. Today a small, twelve-man ceremonial unit remains the only permanent section of the Sometent, but all able-bodied men remain technically available for military service, with a requirement for each family to have access to a firearm. A shotgun per household is unregulated. Rifles and pistols require a license. The army has not fought for more than 700 years, and its main responsibility is to present the [[flag of Andorra]] at official ceremonial functions. According to [[Marc Forné Molné]], Andorra's military budget is strictly from voluntary donations, and the availability of full-time volunteers. In more recent times there has only been a general emergency call to the popular army of Sometent during the floods of 1982 in the Catalan Pyrenees, where 12 citizens perished in Andorra, to help the population and establish a public order along with the Local Police units.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Foreign relations, defence, and security", "Police Corps"], "text": "Andorra maintains a small but modern and well-equipped internal police force, with around 240 police officers supported by civilian assistants. The principal services supplied by the corps are uniformed community policing, criminal detection, border control, and traffic policing. There are also small specialist units including police dogs, mountain rescue, and a bomb disposal team.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Foreign relations, defence, and security", "Police Corps", "GIPA"], "text": "The ''Grup d'Intervenció Policia d'Andorra'' (GIPA) is a small special forces unit trained in [[counter-terrorism]], and [[Hostage negotiator|hostage recovery]] tasks. Although it is the closest in style to an active military force, it is part of the [[Police Corps of Andorra|Police Corps]], and not the [[Military of Andorra|army]]. As terrorist and hostage situations are a rare threat to the country, the GIPA is commonly assigned to prisoner escort duties, and at other times to routine policing.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Foreign relations, defence, and security", "Fire brigade"], "text": "The Andorran Fire Brigade, with headquarters at [[Santa Coloma d'Andorra|Santa Coloma]], operates from four modern fire stations, and has a staff of around 120 firefighters. The service is equipped with 16 heavy appliances (fire tenders, turntable ladders, and specialist four-wheel drive vehicles), four light support vehicles (cars and vans) and four ambulances. Historically, the families of the six ancient parishes of Andorra maintained local arrangements to assist each other in fighting fires. The first fire pump purchased by the government was acquired in 1943. Serious fires which lasted for two days in December 1959 led to calls for a permanent fire service, and the Andorran Fire Brigade was formed on 21 April 1961. The fire service maintains full-time cover with five fire crews on duty at any time: two at the brigade's headquarters in Santa Coloma, and one crew at each of the other three fire stations.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography", "Parishes"], "text": "Andorra consists of seven parishes: (-) [[Andorra la Vella]] (-) [[Canillo]] (-) [[Encamp]] (-) [[Escaldes-Engordany]] (-) [[La Massana]] (-) [[Ordino]] (-) [[Sant Julià de Lòria]]", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography", "Physical geography"], "text": "Due to its location in the eastern [[Pyrenees]] mountain range, Andorra consists predominantly of rugged mountains, the highest being the [[Coma Pedrosa]] at , and the average elevation of Andorra is . These are dissected by three narrow valleys in a Y shape that combine into one as the main stream, the [[Gran Valira]] river, leaves the country for Spain (at Andorra's lowest point of ). Andorra's land area is .", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography", "Environment"], "text": "[[Phytogeography|Phytogeographically]], Andorra belongs to the Atlantic European province of the [[Circumboreal Region]] within the [[Boreal Kingdom]]. According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]], the territory of Andorra belongs to the [[ecoregion]] of [[Pyrenees conifer and mixed forests]]. Andorra had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 4.45/10, ranking it 127th globally out of 172 countries.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography", "Important Bird Area"], "text": "The whole country has been recognised as a single [[Important Bird Area]] (IBA) by [[BirdLife International]], because it is important for forest and mountain birds and supports populations of [[red-billed chough]], [[citril finch]] and [[rock bunting]].", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography", "Climate"], "text": "Andorra has [[alpine climate|alpine]], [[continental climate|continental]] and [[oceanic climate]], depending on altitude. Its higher elevation means there is, on average, more snow in winter and it is slightly cooler in summer. The diversity of landmarks, the different orientation of the valleys and the irregularity relief typical of the [[Mediterranean climate]] make the country have a great diversity of [[microclimate]] that hinder the general dominance of the [[Mountain climate|high mountain climate]]. The great differences of altitude in the minimum and maximum points, together with the influence of a Mediterranean climate, develop the climate of the Andorran Pyrenees. When in precipitation, a global model characterized by convective and abundant rains can be defined during spring and summer, which can last until autumn (May, June and August are usually the rainiest months); In winter, however, it is less rainy, except in the highlands, subject to the influence of fronts from the [[Atlantic Europe|Atlantic]], which explains the great amount of snowfall in the Andorran mountains. The temperature regime is characterized, broadly, by a temperate summer and a long and cold winter; in accordance with the mountainous condition of the Principality.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Economy"], "text": "Tourism, the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy, accounts for roughly 80% of GDP. An estimated 10.2 million tourists visit annually, attracted by Andorra's [[duty-free shopping|duty-free]] status and by its summer and winter resorts. One of the main sources of income in Andorra is tourism from ski resorts which total over of ski ground. The sport brings in over 7 million visitors annually and an estimated 340 million euros per year, sustaining 2,000 direct and 10,000 indirect jobs at present since 2007. The banking sector, with its [[tax haven]] status, also contributes substantially to the economy with revenues raised exclusively through import tariffs (the financial and insurance sector accounts for approximately 19% of GDP). However, during the [[European sovereign-debt crisis]] of the 21st century, the tourist industry suffered a decline, partly caused by a drop in the prices of goods in Spain, undercutting [[duty-free shop]] and increasing unemployment. On 1 January 2012, a business tax of 10% was introduced, followed by a sales tax of 2% a year later, which raised just over 14 million euros in its first quarter. Agricultural production is limited; only 1.7% of the land is arable, and most food has to be imported. Some tobacco is grown locally. The principal livestock activity is domestic sheep raising. Manufacturing output consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Andorra's natural resources include hydroelectric power, mineral water, timber, iron ore, and lead. Andorra is not a member of the European Union, but enjoys a [[Andorra–European Union relations|special relationship]] with it, such as being treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) and as a non-EU member for agricultural products. Andorra lacked a currency of its own and used both the [[French franc]] and the [[Spanish peseta]] in banking transactions until 31 December 1999, when both currencies were replaced by the EU's single currency, the euro. Coins and notes of both the franc and the peseta remained legal tender in Andorra until 31 December 2002. Andorra negotiated to issue its own euro coins, beginning in 2014. Andorra has traditionally had one of the world's lowest unemployment rates. In 2019 it stood at 2%. On 31 May 2013, it was announced that Andorra intended to legislate for the introduction of an income tax by the end of June, against a background of increasing dissatisfaction with the existence of tax havens among EU members. The announcement was made following a meeting in Paris between the Head of Government [[Antoni Martí]] and the French President and Prince of Andorra [[François Hollande]]. Hollande welcomed the move as part of a process of Andorra \"bringing its taxation in line with international standards\". By the mid-2010s, the financial system comprised five banking groups, one specialised credit entity, eight investment undertaking management entities, three asset management companies, and 29 insurance companies, 14 of which are branches of foreign insurance companies authorised to operate in the principality.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Demographics", "Population"], "text": "The population of Andorra is estimated at (). The [[Andorran people|Andorrans]] are a [[Romance-speaking world|Romance]] [[ethnic group]] of originally [[Catalans|Catalan]] descent. The population has grown from 5,000 in 1900. Two-thirds of residents lack Andorran nationality and do not have the right to vote in communal elections. Moreover, they are not allowed to be elected as prime minister or to own more than 33% of the capital stock of a privately held company.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Demographics", "Languages"], "text": "The historic and [[official language]] is [[Catalan language|Catalan]], a [[Romance language]]. The Andorran government encourages the use of Catalan. It funds a Commission for Catalan [[Toponymy]] in Andorra (Catalan: ), and provides free Catalan classes to assist immigrants. Andorran television and radio stations use Catalan. Because of immigration, historical links, and close geographic proximity, Spanish, Portuguese and French are commonly spoken. Most Andorran residents can speak one or more of these, in addition to Catalan. English is less commonly spoken among the general population, though it is understood to varying degrees in the major tourist resorts. Andorra is one of only four European countries (together with France, [[Monaco]], and [[Turkey]]) that have never signed the [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities|Council of Europe Framework Convention on National Minorities]]. According to mother tongue percentage statistics by the Andorran Government released in 2018 the principality has the following:", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Demographics", "Religion"], "text": "The population of Andorra is predominantly (88.2%) Catholic. Their patron saint is [[Our Lady of Meritxell]]. Though it is not an official state religion, the constitution acknowledges a special relationship with the Catholic Church, offering some special privileges to that group. Other Christian denominations include the [[Anglican Church]], the [[Unification Church]], the [[New Apostolic Church]], and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. The small [[Islam in Andorra|Muslim community]] is primarily made up of North African immigrants. There is a small community of [[Hinduism|Hindus]] and [[Bahá'í Faith in Andorra|Bahá'ís]], and roughly 100 Jews live in Andorra. (See [[History of the Jews in Andorra]].)", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Education", "Schools"], "text": "Children between the ages of 6 and 16 are required by law to have full-time education. Education up to secondary level is provided free of charge by the government. There are three systems of school, Andorran, French and Spanish, which use Catalan, French and Spanish languages respectively, as the main language of instruction. Parents may choose which system their children attend. All schools are built and maintained by Andorran authorities, but teachers in the French and Spanish schools are paid for the most part by France and Spain. 39% of Andorran children attend Andorran schools, 33% attend French schools, and 28% Spanish schools.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Education", "University of Andorra"], "text": "The [[Universitat d'Andorra]] (UdA) is the state public university and is the only university in Andorra. It was established in 1997. The university provides first-level degrees in nursing, computer science, business administration, and educational sciences, in addition to higher professional education courses. The only two graduate schools in Andorra are the Nursing School and the School of Computer Science, the latter having a PhD programme.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Education", "University of Andorra", "Virtual Studies Centre"], "text": "The geographical complexity of the country as well as the small number of students prevents the University of Andorra from developing a full academic programme, and it serves principally as a centre for virtual studies, connected to Spanish and French universities. The Virtual Studies Centre (Centre d'Estudis Virtuals) at the University runs approximately 20 different academic degrees at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels in fields including tourism, law, Catalan [[philology]], humanities, psychology, political sciences, audiovisual communication, telecommunications engineering, and East Asia studies. The centre also runs various postgraduate programmes and continuing-education courses for professionals.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Transport"], "text": "Until the 20th century, Andorra had very limited transport links to the outside world, and development of the country was affected by its physical isolation. Even now, the nearest major airports at Toulouse and Barcelona are both three hours' drive from Andorra. Andorra has a road network of , of which is unpaved. The two main roads out of [[Andorra la Vella]] are the CG-1 to the Spanish border near [[Sant Julià de Lòria]], and the CG-2 to the French border via the Envalira Tunnel near [[El Pas de la Casa]]. Bus services cover all metropolitan areas and many rural communities, with services on most major routes running half-hourly or more frequently during peak travel times. There are frequent long-distance bus services from Andorra to [[Barcelona]] and [[Toulouse]], plus a daily tour from the former city. Bus services mostly are run by private companies, but some local ones are operated by the government. There are no airports for fixed-wing aircraft within Andorra's borders but there are, however, heliports in [[La Massana]] (Camí Heliport), [[Arinsal]] and [[Escaldes-Engordany]] with commercial helicopter services and an airport located in the neighbouring Spanish comarca of [[Alt Urgell]], south of the Andorran-Spanish border. Since July 2015, [[Andorra–La Seu d'Urgell Airport]] has operated commercial flights to [[Adolfo Suárez Madrid–Barajas Airport|Madrid]] and [[Palma de Mallorca Airport|Palma de Mallorca]], and is the [[airline hub|main hub]] for [[Air Andorra]] and [[Andorra Airlines]]. As of 11 July 2018, there are no regular commercial flights at the airport. Nearby airports located in Spain and France provide access to international flights for the principality. The nearest airports are at [[Perpignan–Rivesaltes Airport|Perpignan]], France ( from Andorra) and [[Lleida-Alguaire Airport|Lleida]], Spain ( from Andorra). The largest nearby airports are at Toulouse, France ( from Andorra) and Barcelona, Spain ( from Andorra). There are hourly bus services from both Barcelona and Toulouse airports to Andorra. The nearest railway station is [[L'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorre]] east of Andorra which is on the [[Standard gauge|-gauge]] line from [[Latour-de-Carol]] () southeast of Andorra, to [[Toulouse]] and on to Paris by the French [[TGV|high-speed trains]]. This line is operated by the [[SNCF]]. Latour-de-Carol has a scenic [[Yellow Train|trainline]] to [[Villefranche-de-Conflent]], as well as the SNCF's gauge line connecting to [[Perpignan]], and the [[RENFE|RENFE's]] [[Iberian gauge|-gauge]] line to Barcelona. There are also direct [[Intercités#Night trains|Intercités de Nuit]] trains between L'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorre and Paris on certain dates.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Media and telecommunications"], "text": "In Andorra, mobile and fixed telephone and internet services are operated exclusively by the Andorran national telecommunications company, SOM, also known as [[Andorra Telecom]] (STA). The same company also manages the technical infrastructure for national broadcasting of digital television and radio. In 2010 Andorra became the first country to provide a direct [[optical fiber]] link to all homes ([[FTTx|FTTH]]) and businesses. The first commercial radio station to broadcast was [[Radio Andorra]], which was active from 1939 to 1981. On 12 October 1989, the General Council established radio and television as essential public services creating and managing the entity ORTA, becoming on 13 April 2000, in the public company [[Ràdio i Televisió d'Andorra]] (RTVA). In 1990, the public radio was founded on the Radio Nacional d'Andorra. As an autochthonous television channel, there is only the national public television network Andorra Televisió, created in 1995. Additional TV and radio stations from Spain and France are available via digital terrestrial television and IPTV. There are three national newspapers, ''[[Diari d'Andorra]]'', ''[[El Periòdic d'Andorra]]'', and ''[[Bondia (newspaper)|Bondia]]'' as well as several local newspapers. The history of the Andorran press begins in the period between 1917 and 1937 with the appearance of several periodicals papers such as ''Les Valls d'Andorra'' (1917), ''Nova Andorra'' (1932) and ''Andorra Agrícola'' (1933). In 1974, the ''Poble Andorrà'' became the first regular newspaper in Andorra. There is also an [[amateur radio]] society and news agency ANA with independent management.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Culture"], "text": "Andorra is home to folk dances like the contrapàs and marratxa, which survive in [[Sant Julià de Lòria]] especially. Andorran folk music has similarities to the music of its neighbours, but is especially [[music of Catalonia|Catalan]] in character, especially in the presence of dances such as the [[sardana]]. Other Andorran folk dances include contrapàs in [[Andorra la Vella]] and Saint Anne's dance in Escaldes-Engordany. Andorra's national holiday is [[Our Lady of Meritxell]] Day, 8 September. Among the more important festivals and traditions are the [[Canòlic|Canólich Gathering]] in May, the Roser d'Ordino in July, the Meritxell Day (National Day of Andorra), the Andorra la Vella Fair, the [[Sant Jordi|Sant Jordi Day]], the Santa Llúcia Fair, the Festivity from La Candelera to Canillo, the [[Carnival]] of Encamp, the sung of caramelles, the Festivity of [[Saint Stephen|Sant Esteve]] and the Festa del Poble. Andorra participated regularly in the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] between 2004 and 2009, being the only [[List of countries in the Eurovision Song Contest|participating country]] presenting songs in [[Catalan language|Catalan]]. In popular folklore, the best-known Andorran legends are the legend of Charlemagne, according to which this Frankish King would have founded the country, the White Lady of [[Auvinyà]], the [[El buner d'Ordino|Buner d'Ordino]], the legend of [[Engolasters|Engolasters Lake]] and the legend of [[Our Lady of Meritxell]]. Andorran gastronomy is mainly [[Catalan cuisine|Catalan]], although it has also adopted other elements of [[French cuisine|French]] and [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] cuisines. The cuisine of the country has similar characteristics with the neighbours of the [[Cerdanya]] and the [[Alt Urgell]], with whom it has a strong cultural ties. Andorra's cuisine is marked by its nature as mountain valleys. Typical dishes of the country are the [[quince]] [[Aioli|all-i-oli]], the duck with winter pear, the lamb in the oven with nuts, pork civet, the massegada cake, the escarole with pear trees, confited duck and mushrooms, [[escudella]], spinach with raisins and pine nuts, jelly marmalade, stuffed murgues (mushrooms) with pork, [[dandelion]] salad and the Andorran [[trout|trout of river]]. To drink, the [[mulled wine]] and [[beer]] are also popular. Some of the dishes are very common in the [[Alt Pirineu i Aran|mountainous regions of Catalonia]], such as [[trinxat]], [[Embutido|embotits]], cooked snails, rice with mushrooms, mountain rice and [[mató]]. [[Pre-Romanesque]] and [[Romanesque art]] are one of the most important artistic manifestations and characteristics of the Principality. The Romanesque one allows to know the formation of the [[Parishes of Andorra|parochial communities]], the relations of (social and political) power and the national culture. There are a total of forty Romanesque churches that stand out as being small austere ornamentation constructions, as well as [[Romanesque architecture|bridges]], fortresses and [[manor houses]] of the same period. [[Summer solstice fire festivals]] in the Pyrenees was included as [[Intangible cultural heritage|UNESCO Intangible cultural heritage]] in 2015. Also the [[Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley]] became Andorra's first, and to date its only, [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] in 2004, with a small extension in 2006.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": ["Culture", "Sports"], "text": "Andorra is famous for the practice of [[winter sports]]. Andorra has the largest territory of ski slopes in the [[Pyrenees]] (3100 hectares and about 350 km of slopes) and two ski resorts. Grandvalira is the largest and most popular resort. Other popular sports played in Andorra include [[Association football|football]], [[rugby union]], [[basketball]], and [[Roller hockey (quad)|roller hockey]]. For [[Roller hockey (quad)|roller hockey]], [[Andorra national roller hockey team|Andorra]] usually plays in [[CERH European Roller Hockey Championship|CERH Euro Cup]] and in [[FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup]]. In 2011, Andorra was the host country to the [[2011 European League Final Eight]]. The country is represented in association football by the [[Andorra national football team]]. The team gained its first competitive win in a European Championship qualifier on 11 October 2019, against Moldova. Football is governed in Andorra by the [[Andorran Football Federation]] - founded in 1994, it organizes the national competitions of association football ([[Primera Divisió]], [[Copa Constitució]] and [[Andorran Supercup|Supercopa]]) and [[futsal]]. Andorra was admitted to [[UEFA]] and [[FIFA]] in the same year, 1996. [[FC Andorra]], a club based in [[Andorra la Vella]] founded in 1942, compete in the [[Spanish football league system]]. [[Rugby union|Rugby]] is a traditional sport in Andorra, mainly influenced by the popularity in southern France. The [[Andorra national rugby union team]], nicknamed Els Isards, plays on the international stage in [[rugby union]] and [[rugby sevens]]. [[VPC Andorra XV]] is a rugby team based in Andorra la Vella actually playing in the French championship. Basketball popularity has increased in the country since the 1990s, when the Andorran team [[BC Andorra]] played in the top league of Spain ([[Liga ACB]]). After 18 years the club returned to the top league in 2014. Other sports practised in Andorra include cycling, volleyball, judo, Australian Rules football, handball, swimming, gymnastics, tennis, and motorsports. In 2012, Andorra raised its first national cricket team and played a home match against the Dutch Fellowship of Fairly Odd Places Cricket Club, the first match played in the history of Andorra at an altitude of . Andorra first participated at the [[Olympic Games]] in 1976. The country has appeared in every [[Winter Olympic]] Games since [[1976 Winter Olympics|1976]]. Andorra competes in the [[Games of the Small States of Europe]], being twice the host country in [[1991 Games of the Small States of Europe|1991]] and [[2005 Games of the Small States of Europe|2005]]. As one of the [[Catalan Countries]], Andorra is home to a team of [[castell]], or Catalan human tower builders. The , based in the town of [[Santa Coloma d'Andorra]], are recognized by the , the governing body of castells.", "id": "600", "title": "Andorra", "categories": ["Andorra", "Diarchies", "Duty-free zones of Europe", "French-speaking countries and territories", "Iberian Peninsula", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the United Nations", "Monarchies of Europe", "Catalan Countries", "Prince-bishoprics", "Pyrenees", "Southwestern European countries", "Spanish-speaking countries and territories", "Special economic zones", "States and territories established in 1278", "1278 establishments in Europe", "Southern European countries", "Principalities", "Countries in Europe", "Christian states", "Important Bird Areas of Andorra"], "seealso": ["Index of Andorra-related articles", "Outline of Andorra", "Bibliography of Andorra"]}
+{"headers": [], "text": "In [[mathematics]] and [[statistics]], the '''arithmetic mean''' (, stress on first and third syllables of \"arithmetic\"), or simply the [[mean]] or the '''average''' (when the context is clear), is the sum of a collection of numbers divided by the count of numbers in the collection. The collection is often a set of results of an [[experiment]] or an [[observational study]], or frequently a set of results from a [[Survey (statistics)|survey]]. The term \"arithmetic mean\" is preferred in some contexts in mathematics and statistics, because it helps distinguish it from other [[average|mean]], such as the [[geometric mean]] and the [[harmonic mean]]. In addition to mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean is used frequently in many diverse fields such as [[economics]], [[anthropology]] and [[history]], and it is used in almost every academic field to some extent. For example, [[per capita income]] is the arithmetic average income of a nation's population. While the arithmetic mean is often used to report [[central tendency|central tendencies]], it is not a [[robust statistic]], meaning that it is greatly influenced by [[outlier]] (values that are very much larger or smaller than most of the values). For [[skewed distribution]], such as the [[distribution of income]] for which a few people's incomes are substantially greater than most people's, the arithmetic mean may not coincide with one's notion of \"middle\", and robust statistics, such as the [[median]], may provide better description of central tendency.", "id": "612", "title": "Arithmetic mean", "categories": ["Means"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Definition"], "text": "Given a [[data set]] formula_1, the '''arithmetic mean''' (or '''mean''' or '''average'''), denoted formula_2 (read formula_3 ''bar''), is the mean of the formula_4 values formula_5. The arithmetic mean is the most commonly used and readily understood measure of central tendency in a data set. In statistics, the term [[average]] refers to any of the measures of central tendency. The arithmetic mean of a set of observed data is defined as being equal to the sum of the numerical values of each and every observation, divided by the total number of observations. Symbolically, if we have a data set consisting of the values formula_6, then the arithmetic mean formula_7 is defined by the formula: formula_8 For example, consider the monthly salary of 10 employees of a firm: 2500, 2700, 2400, 2300, 2550, 2650, 2750, 2450, 2600, 2400. The arithmetic mean is  formula_9 If the data set is a [[statistical population]] (i.e., consists of every possible observation and not just a subset of them), then the mean of that population is called the '''population mean''', and denoted by the [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] formula_10. If the data set is a [[sampling (statistics)|statistical sample]] (a subset of the population), then we call the statistic resulting from this calculation a '''sample mean''' (which for a data set formula_11 is denoted as formula_12). The arithmetic mean can be similarly defined for [[Vector (mathematics and physics)|vectors]] in multiple dimension, not only [[Scalar (mathematics)|scalar]] values; this is often referred to as a [[centroid]]. More generally, because the arithmetic mean is a [[convex combination]] (coefficients sum to 1), it can be defined on a [[convex space]], not only a vector space.", "id": "612", "title": "Arithmetic mean", "categories": ["Means"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Motivating properties"], "text": "The arithmetic mean has several properties that make it useful, especially as a measure of central tendency. These include: (-) If numbers formula_13 have mean formula_2, then formula_15. Since formula_16 is the distance from a given number to the mean, one way to interpret this property is as saying that the numbers to the left of the mean are balanced by the numbers to the right of the mean. The mean is the only single number for which the [[errors and residuals in statistics|residuals]] (deviations from the estimate) sum to zero. (-) If it is required to use a single number as a \"typical\" value for a set of known numbers formula_13, then the arithmetic mean of the numbers does this best, in the sense of minimizing the sum of squared deviations from the typical value: the sum of formula_18. (It follows that the sample mean is also the best single predictor in the sense of having the lowest [[root mean squared error]].) If the arithmetic mean of a population of numbers is desired, then the estimate of it that is [[unbiased estimate|unbiased]] is the arithmetic mean of a sample drawn from the population. ", "id": "612", "title": "Arithmetic mean", "categories": ["Means"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Contrast with median"], "text": "The arithmetic mean may be contrasted with the [[median]]. The median is defined such that no more than half the values are larger than, and no more than half are smaller than, the median. If elements in the data [[arithmetic progression|increase arithmetically]], when placed in some order, then the median and arithmetic average are equal. For example, consider the data sample formula_19. The average is formula_20, as is the median. However, when we consider a sample that cannot be arranged so as to increase arithmetically, such as formula_21, the median and arithmetic average can differ significantly. In this case, the arithmetic average is 6.2, while the median is 4. In general, the average value can vary significantly from most values in the sample, and can be larger or smaller than most of them. There are applications of this phenomenon in many fields. For example, since the 1980s, the median income in the United States has increased more slowly than the arithmetic average of income.", "id": "612", "title": "Arithmetic mean", "categories": ["Means"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Generalizations", "Weighted average"], "text": "A weighted average, or weighted mean, is an average in which some data points count more heavily than others, in that they are given more weight in the calculation.<ref>", "id": "612", "title": "Arithmetic mean", "categories": ["Means"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": [], "text": "The '''American Football Conference''' ('''AFC''') is one of the two [[Athletic conference|conferences]] of the [[National Football League]] (NFL), the highest professional level of American football in the United States. This conference currently contains 16 teams organized into 4 [[Division (sport)|divisions]], as does its counterpart, the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC). Both conferences were created as part of the [[AFL–NFL merger|1970 merger]] between the National Football League, and the [[American Football League]] (AFL). All ten of the AFL teams, and three NFL teams, became members of the new AFC, with the remaining thirteen NFL teams forming the NFC. A series of league expansions and division realignments have occurred since the merger, thus making the current total of 16 teams in each conference. The current AFC champions are the [[Kansas City Chiefs]], who defeated the [[Buffalo Bills]] in the 2020 [[AFC Championship Game]] for their second consecutive conference championship.", "id": "615", "title": "American Football Conference", "categories": ["National Football League", "American Football League", "Sports organizations established in 1970"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Teams"], "text": "Like the NFC, the conference has 16 teams organized into four [[Division (sport)|divisions]] each with four teams: [[AFC East|East]], [[AFC North|North]], [[AFC South|South]] and [[AFC West|West]].", "id": "615", "title": "American Football Conference", "categories": ["National Football League", "American Football League", "Sports organizations established in 1970"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Season structure"], "text": "Currently, the fourteen opponents each team faces over the 17-game regular season schedule are set using a pre-determined formula: Each AFC team plays the other teams in their respective division twice (home and away) during the regular season, in addition to eleven other games assigned to their schedule by the NFL: three games are assigned on the basis of a particular team's final divisional standing from the previous season, and the remaining eight games are split between the roster of two other NFL divisions. This assignment shifts each year and will follow a standard cycle. Using the 2021 regular season schedule as an example, each team in the AFC West plays against every team in the AFC North and NFC East. In this way, non-divisional competition will be mostly among common opponents – the exception being the three games assigned based on the team's prior-season divisional standing. At the end of each season, the four division winners and three [[Wild card (sports)|wild cards]] (non-division winners with best regular season record) in the AFC qualify for the [[NFL playoffs|playoffs]]. The AFC playoffs culminate in the [[AFC Championship Game]], with the winner receiving the [[Lamar Hunt]] Trophy. The AFC champion then plays the [[National Football Conference|NFC]] champion in the [[Super Bowl]].", "id": "615", "title": "American Football Conference", "categories": ["National Football League", "American Football League", "Sports organizations established in 1970"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["History"], "text": "Both the AFC and the NFC were created after the NFL [[AFL–NFL merger|merged]] with the [[American Football League]] (AFL) in 1970. The AFL began play in 1960 with eight teams, and added two more expansion clubs (the [[Miami Dolphins]] in 1966 and the [[Cincinnati Bengals]] in 1968) before the merger. In order to equalize the number of teams in each conference, three NFL teams that predated the AFL's launch (the [[Cleveland Browns]], [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], and the then-[[Baltimore Colts]]) joined the ten former AFL teams to form the AFC. The two AFL divisions [[AFL East]] and [[AFL West]] were more or less intact, while the NFL's [[National Football League Century Division|Century Division]], in which the Browns and the Steelers had played since 1967, was moved from the NFL to become the new AFC Central. Upon the completion of the merger of the AFL and NFL in 1970, the newly minted American Football Conference had already agreed upon their divisional setup along mostly geographical lines for the [[1970 NFL season|1970 season]]; the National Football Conference, however, could not agree upon their setup, and one was chosen from a fishbowl on January 16, 1970. Since the merger, five expansion teams have joined the AFC and two have left, thus making the current total 16. When the [[Seattle Seahawks]] and the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]] joined the league in 1976, they were temporarily placed in the NFC and AFC respectively. This arrangement lasted for one season only before the two teams switched conferences. The Seahawks eventually returned to the NFC as a result of the [[2002 NFL season#Expansion and realignment|2002 realignment]]. The expansion [[Jacksonville Jaguars]] joined the AFC in 1995. There have been five teams that have relocated at least once. In 1984, the [[History of the Baltimore Colts|Baltimore Colts]] [[Baltimore Colts relocation to Indianapolis|relocated]] to Indianapolis. In 1995, the [[Cleveland Browns]] had attempted to move to Baltimore; the resulting [[Cleveland Browns relocation controversy|dispute]] between Cleveland and the team led to Modell establishing the [[Baltimore Ravens]] with the players and personnel from the Browns, while the Browns were placed in suspended operations before they were reinstated by the NFL. The Ravens were treated as an expansion team. In [[California]], the [[Oakland Raiders]] relocated to [[Los Angeles]] in 1982, back to Oakland in 1995, and then to [[Las Vegas]] in 2020, while the [[History of the San Diego Chargers|San Diego Chargers]] returned to [[Los Angeles]] in 2017 after 56 years in [[San Diego]]. The [[History of the Houston Oilers|Houston Oilers]] moved to [[Tennessee]] in 1997, where they were renamed the Tennessee Oilers. The team would change its name again, two years later, to the [[Tennessee Titans]]. The NFL would again expand in 2002, adding the [[Houston Texans]] to the AFC. With the exception of the aforementioned relocations since that time, the divisional setup has remained static ever since.", "id": "615", "title": "American Football Conference", "categories": ["National Football League", "American Football League", "Sports organizations established in 1970"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["History"], "text": "Between 1995 and 2019, the AFC has sent only half of its 16 teams to the [[Super Bowl]]: [[New England Patriots]] (10 times), [[Denver Broncos]] (4 times), [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] (4 times), [[Baltimore Ravens]] (2 times), [[Indianapolis Colts]] (2 times), [[Kansas City Chiefs]] (1 time), [[Las Vegas Raiders]] (1 time), and [[Tennessee Titans]] (1 time). By contrast, the [[National Football Conference|NFC]] has sent 13 of the 16 NFC teams during that same time frame with only the [[Detroit Lions]], [[Minnesota Vikings]], and [[Washington Football Team]] missing out on an appearance in the [[Super Bowl]]. 16 of the last 19 AFC champions have started one of just three quarterbacks - [[Tom Brady]], [[Peyton Manning]] and [[Ben Roethlisberger]] - in the Super Bowl. The AFC has started 6 quarterbacks in the last 19 Super Bowls, while the NFC has started 16.", "id": "615", "title": "American Football Conference", "categories": ["National Football League", "American Football League", "Sports organizations established in 1970"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Logo"], "text": "[[Image:American Football Conference logo old.svg|right|thumb|2nd American Football Conference logo used from 1970 to 2009|216x216px]] The merged league created a new logo for the AFC that took elements of the old AFL logo, specifically the \"A\" and the six stars surrounding it. The AFC logo basically remained unchanged from 1970 to 2009. The 2010 NFL season introduced an updated AFC logo, with the most notable revision being the removal of two stars (leaving four representing the four divisions of the AFC), and moving the stars inside the letter, similar to the NFC logo.", "id": "615", "title": "American Football Conference", "categories": ["National Football League", "American Football League", "Sports organizations established in 1970"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": ["Television"], "text": "[[NFL on NBC|NBC]] aired the AFC's Sunday afternoon and playoff games from 1970 through the 1997 season. From 1998 to 2013, [[NFL on CBS|CBS]] was the primary broadcast rightsholder to the AFC; in those years, all interconference games in which the AFC team was the visiting team were broadcast on either NBC or CBS. Since 2014, the cross-flex policy allows select AFC games (that involve them playing an NFC team at home or intraconference games) to be moved from CBS to Fox. Since 1990, select AFC playoffs games have been seen on ABC or ESPN.", "id": "615", "title": "American Football Conference", "categories": ["National Football League", "American Football League", "Sports organizations established in 1970"], "seealso": []}
+{"headers": [], "text": "'''''Animal Farm''''' is an [[allegory|allegorical]] [[novella]] by [[George Orwell]], first published in England on 17 August 1945. The book tells the story of a group of farm animals who rebel against their human farmer, hoping to create a society where the animals can be equal, free, and happy. Ultimately, however, the rebellion is betrayed, and the farm ends up in a state as bad as it was before, under the dictatorship of a pig named [[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]]. According to Orwell, the [[fable]] reflects events leading up to the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] and then on into the [[History of the Soviet Union (1927–53)|Stalinist era]] of the [[Soviet Union]]. Orwell, a [[democratic socialism|democratic socialist]], was a critic of [[Joseph Stalin]] and hostile to Moscow-directed [[Stalinism]], an attitude that was critically shaped by his experiences during the [[May Days]] conflicts between the [[POUM]] and Stalinist forces during the [[Spanish Civil War]]. The Soviet Union had become a totalitarian autocracy built upon a [[cult of personality]] while engaging in the practice of mass incarcerations and secret summary trials and executions. In a letter to Yvonne Davet, Orwell described ''Animal Farm'' as a [[satire|satirical]] tale against Stalin (\"''''\"), and in his essay \"[[Why I Write]]\" (1946), wrote that ''Animal Farm'' was the first book in which he tried, with full consciousness of what he was doing, \"to fuse political purpose and artistic purpose into one whole\". The original title was ''Animal Farm: A Fairy Story,'' but U.S. publishers dropped the subtitle when it was published in 1946, and only one of the translations during Orwell's lifetime kept it. Other titular variations include subtitles like \"A Satire\" and \"A Contemporary Satire\". Orwell suggested the title '''' for the French translation, which abbreviates to URSA, the [[Latin]] word for \"bear\", a [[Russian bear|symbol of Russia]]. It also played on the French name of the Soviet Union, ''''. Orwell wrote the book between November 1943 and February 1944, when the United Kingdom was in its [[Allies of World War II|wartime alliance]] with the Soviet Union against [[Nazi Germany]], and the British intelligentsia held Stalin in high esteem, a phenomenon Orwell hated. The manuscript was initially rejected by a number of British and American publishers, including one of Orwell's own, [[Victor Gollancz]], which delayed its publication. It became a great commercial success when it did appear partly because international relations were transformed as the wartime alliance gave way to the [[Cold War]]. ''Time'' magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005); it also featured at number 31 on the [[Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels]], and number 46 on the [[BBC]]'s [[The Big Read]] poll. It won a [[Retro-Hugo|Retrospective Hugo Award]] in 1996 and is included in the [[Great Books of the Western World]] selection.", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Plot summary"], "text": "The poorly-run Manor Farm near [[Willingdon and Jevington|Willingdon]], [[England]], is ripened for rebellion from its animal populace by neglect at the hands of the irresponsible and alcoholic farmer, [[Jones (Animal Farm)|Mr. Jones]]. One night, the exalted boar, [[Old Major]], holds a conference, at which he calls for the overthrow of humans and teaches the animals a revolutionary song called \"[[Beasts of England]]\". When Old Major dies, two young pigs, [[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]] and [[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]], assume command and stage a revolt, driving Mr. Jones off the farm and renaming the property \"Animal Farm\". They adopt the Seven Commandments of Animalism, the most important of which is, \"All animals are equal\". The decree is painted in large letters on one side of the barn. Snowball teaches the animals to read and write, while Napoleon educates young puppies on the principles of [[#Animalism|Animalism]]. To commemorate the start of Animal Farm, Snowball raises a green flag with a white hoof and horn. Food is plentiful, and the farm runs smoothly. The pigs elevate themselves to positions of leadership and set aside special food items, ostensibly for their personal health. Following an unsuccessful attempt by Mr. Jones and his associates to retake the farm (later dubbed the \"Battle of the Cowshed\"), Snowball announces his plans to modernise the farm by building a [[windmill]]. Napoleon disputes this idea, and matters come to head, which culminate in Napoleon's dogs chasing Snowball away and Napoleon declaring himself supreme commander. Napoleon enacts changes to the governance structure of the farm, replacing meetings with a committee of pigs who will run the farm. Through a young porker named [[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]], Napoleon claims credit for the windmill idea, claiming that Snowball was only trying to win animals to his side. The animals work harder with the promise of easier lives with the windmill. When the animals find the windmill collapsed after a violent storm, Napoleon and Squealer persuade the animals that Snowball is trying to sabotage their project and begin to [[purge]] the farm of animals Napoleon accuses of consorting with his old rival. When some animals recall the Battle of the Cowshed, Napoleon (who was nowhere to be found during the battle) gradually smears Snowball to the point of saying he is a collaborator of Mr. Jones, even dismissing the fact that Snowball was given an award of courage while falsely representing himself as the main hero of the battle. \"Beasts of England\" is replaced with \"Animal Farm\", while an anthem glorifying Napoleon, who appears to be adopting the lifestyle of a man (\"Comrade Napoleon\"), is composed and sung. Napoleon then conducts a second purge, during which many animals who are alleged to be helping Snowball in plots are executed by Napoleon's dogs, which troubles the rest of the animals. Despite their hardships, the animals are easily placated by Napoleon's retort that they are better off than they were under Mr. Jones, as well as by the sheep's continual bleating of “four legs good, two legs bad”.", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Plot summary"], "text": "Mr. Frederick, a neighbouring farmer, attacks the farm, using [[Explosive material|blasting powder]] to blow up the restored windmill. Although the animals win the battle, they do so [[Pyrrhic victory|at great cost]], as many, including [[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer the workhorse]], are wounded. Although he recovers from this, Boxer eventually collapses while working on the windmill (being almost 12 years old at that point). He is taken away in a [[knacker]]'s van, and a donkey called Benjamin alerts the animals of this, but Squealer quickly waves off their alarm by persuading the animals that the van had been purchased from the knacker by an animal hospital and that the previous owner's signboard had not been repainted. Squealer subsequently reports Boxer's death and honours him with a festival the following day. (However, Napoleon had in fact engineered the sale of Boxer to the knacker, allowing him and his inner circle to acquire money to buy [[whisky]] for themselves.) Years pass, the windmill is rebuilt, and another windmill is constructed, which makes the farm a good amount of income. However, the ideals that Snowball discussed, including stalls with electric lighting, heating, and running water, are forgotten, with Napoleon advocating that the happiest animals live simple lives. Snowball has been forgotten, alongside Boxer, with \"the exception of the few who knew him\". Many of the animals who participated in the rebellion are dead or old. Mr. Jones is also dead, saying he \"died in an inebriates' home in another part of the country\". The pigs start to resemble humans, as they walk upright, carry whips, drink alcohol, and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are abridged to just one phrase: ''\"All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.\"'' The maxim ''\"Four legs good, two legs bad\"'' is similarly changed to ''\"Four legs good, two legs better.\"'' Other changes include the Hoof and Horn flag being replaced with a plain green banner and Old Major's skull, which was previously put on display, being reburied. Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and local farmers, with whom he celebrates a new alliance. He abolishes the practice of the revolutionary traditions and restores the name \"The Manor Farm\". The men and pigs start playing cards, flattering and praising each other while cheating at the game. Both Napoleon and Mr. Pilkington, one of the farmers, play the [[Ace of spades|Ace of Spades]] at the same time and both sides begin fighting loudly over who cheated first. When the animals outside look at the pigs and men, they can no longer distinguish between the two.", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Characters", "Pigs"], "text": "(-) [[Old Major]] – An aged prize [[Middle White|Middle White boar]] provides the inspiration that fuels the rebellion. He is also called Willingdon Beauty when [[Show (animal)|showing]]. He is an allegorical combination of [[Karl Marx]], one of the creators of communism, and [[Vladimir Lenin]], the communist leader of the [[Russian Revolution]] and the early Soviet nation, in that he draws up the principles of the revolution. His skull being put on revered public display recalls Lenin, whose [[Lenin's Mausoleum|embalmed body was put on display]]. By the end of the book, the skull is reburied. (-) [[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]] – \"A large, rather fierce-looking [[Berkshire pig|Berkshire]] boar, the only Berkshire on the farm, not much of a talker, but with a reputation for getting his own way\". An allegory of [[Joseph Stalin]], Napoleon is the leader of Animal Farm. (-) [[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]] – Napoleon's rival and original head of the farm after Jones' overthrow. His life parallels that of [[Leon Trotsky]], but may also combine elements from Lenin. (-) [[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]] – A small, white, fat porker who serves as Napoleon's second-in-command and minister of propaganda, holding a position similar to that of [[Vyacheslav Molotov]]. (-) Minimus – A poetic pig who writes the second and third national anthems of Animal Farm after the singing of \"Beasts of England\" is banned. Rodden compares him to the poet [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]]. (-) The piglets – Hinted to be the children of Napoleon and are the first generation of animals subjugated to his idea of animal inequality. (-) The young pigs – Four pigs who complain about Napoleon's takeover of the farm but are quickly silenced and later executed, the first animals killed in Napoleon's farm purge. Probably based on the [[Great Purge]] of [[Grigori Zinoviev]], [[Lev Kamenev]], [[Nikolai Bukharin]], and [[Alexei Rykov]]. (-) Pinkeye – A minor pig who is mentioned only once; he is the taste tester that samples Napoleon's food to make sure it is not poisoned, in response to rumours about an assassination attempt on Napoleon.", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Characters", "Humans"], "text": "(-) [[Jones (Animal Farm)|Mr. Jones]] – A heavy drinker who is the original owner of Manor Farm, a farm in disrepair with farmhands who often loaf on the job. He is an allegory of Russian [[Tsar Nicholas II]], who abdicated following the [[February Revolution]] of 1917 and was murdered, along with the rest of his family, by the [[Bolsheviks]] on 17 July 1918. The animals revolt after Jones drinks so much he does not care for them. (-) Mr. Frederick – The tough owner of Pinchfield Farm, a small but well-kept neighbouring farm, who briefly enters into an alliance with Napoleon. Animal Farm shares land boundaries with Pinchfield on one side and Foxwood on another, making Animal Farm a \"buffer zone\" between the two bickering farmers. The animals of Animal Farm are terrified of Frederick, as rumours abound of him abusing his animals and entertaining himself with [[cockfighting]] (a likely allegory for the human rights abuses of [[Adolf Hitler]]). Napoleon enters into an alliance with Frederick in order to sell surplus timber that Pilkington also sought, but is enraged to learn Frederick paid him in counterfeit money. Shortly after the swindling, Frederick and his men invade Animal Farm, killing many animals and destroying the windmill. The brief alliance and subsequent invasion may allude to the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] and [[Operation Barbarossa]]. (-) Mr. Pilkington – The easy-going but crafty and well-to-do owner of Foxwood Farm, a large neighbouring farm overgrown with weeds. Pilkington is wealthier than Frederick and owns more land, but his farm is in need of care as opposed to Frederick's smaller but more efficiently run farm. Although on bad terms with Frederick, Pilkington is also concerned about the animal revolution that deposed Jones and worried that this could also happen to him. (-) Mr. Whymper – A man hired by Napoleon to act as the liaison between Animal Farm and human society. At first, he is used to acquire necessities that cannot be produced on the farm, such as dog biscuits and [[paraffin wax]], but later he procures luxuries like alcohol for the pigs.", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Characters", "Equines"], "text": "(-) [[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer]] – A loyal, kind, dedicated, extremely strong, hard-working, and respectable cart-horse, although quite naive and gullible. Boxer does a large share of the physical labour on the farm. He is shown to hold the belief that \"Napoleon is always right.\" At one point, he had challenged Squealer's statement that Snowball was always against the welfare of the farm, earning him an attack from Napoleon's dogs. But Boxer's immense strength repels the attack, worrying the pigs that their authority can be challenged. Boxer has been compared to [[Alexey Stakhanov]], a diligent and enthusiastic role model of the [[Stakhanovite movement]]. He has been described as \"faithful and strong\"; he believes any problem can be solved if he works harder. When Boxer is injured, Napoleon sells him to a local [[knacker]] to buy himself whisky, and Squealer gives a moving account, falsifying Boxer's death. (-) Mollie – A self-centred, self-indulgent, and vain young white mare who quickly leaves for another farm after the revolution, in a manner similar to those who left Russia after the fall of the Tsar. She is only once mentioned again. (-) Clover – A gentle, caring mare, who shows concern especially for Boxer, who often pushes himself too hard. Clover can read all the letters of the alphabet, but cannot \"put words together\". She seems to catch on to the sly tricks and schemes set up by Napoleon and Squealer. (-) [[Benjamin (Animal Farm)|Benjamin]] – A donkey, one of the oldest, wisest animals on the farm, and one of the few who can read properly. He is sceptical, temperamental and cynical: his most frequent remark is, \"Life will go on as it has always gone on – that is, badly.\" The academic Morris Dickstein has suggested there is \"a touch of Orwell himself in this creature's timeless scepticism\" and indeed, friends called Orwell \"Donkey George\", \"after his grumbling donkey Benjamin, in ''Animal Farm''.\"", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Characters", "Other animals"], "text": "(-) Muriel – A wise old goat who is friends with all of the animals on the farm. Similarly to Benjamin, Muriel is one of the few animals on the farm who is not a pig but can read. (-) The puppies – Offspring of Jessie and Bluebell, the puppies were taken away at birth by Napoleon and raised by him to serve as his powerful security force. (-) Moses – The Raven, \"Mr. Jones's especial pet, was a spy and a tale-bearer, but he was also a clever talker.\" Initially following Mrs. Jones into exile, he reappears several years later and resumes his role of talking but not working. He regales Animal Farm's denizens with tales of a wondrous place beyond the clouds called \"Sugarcandy Mountain, that happy country where we poor animals shall rest forever from our labours!\" Orwell portrays [[Religion and politics|established religion]] as \"the black raven of priestcraft – promising pie in the sky when you die, and faithfully serving whoever happens to be in power.\" His preaching to the animals heartens them, and Napoleon allows Moses to reside at the farm \"with an allowance of a gill of beer daily\", akin to how Stalin brought back the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] during the Second World War. (-) The sheep – They show limited understanding of Animalism and the political atmosphere of the farm, yet nonetheless they are the voice of blind conformity as they bleat their support of Napoleon's ideals with jingles during his speeches and meetings with Snowball. Their constant bleating of \"four legs good, two legs bad\" was used as a device to drown out any opposition or alternative views from Snowball, much as Stalin used hysterical crowds to drown out Trotsky. Towards the latter section of the book, Squealer (the propagandist) trains the sheep to alter their slogan to \"four legs good, two legs better,\" which they dutifully do. (-) The hens – The hens are promised at the start of the revolution that they will get to keep their eggs, which are stolen from them under Mr. Jones. However, their eggs are soon taken from them under the premise of buying goods from outside Animal Farm. The hens are among the first to rebel, albeit unsuccessfully, against Napoleon. (-) The cows – The cows are enticed into the revolution by promises that their milk will not be stolen but can be used to raise their own calves. Their milk is then stolen by the pigs, who learn to milk them. The milk is stirred into the pigs' mash every day, while the other animals are denied such luxuries.", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Characters", "Other animals"], "text": "(-) The cat – Never seen to carry out any work, the cat is absent for long periods and is forgiven because her excuses are so convincing and she \"purred so affectionately that it was impossible not to believe in her good intentions.\" She has no interest in the politics of the farm, and the only time she is recorded as having participated in an election, she is found to have actually \"voted on both sides.\"", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Genre and style"], "text": "George Orwell's ''Animal Farm'' is an example of a political satire that was intended to have a \"wider application,\" according to Orwell himself, in terms of its relevance. Stylistically, the work shares many similarities with some of Orwell's other works, most notably ''1984,'' as both have been considered works of Swiftian Satire. Furthermore, these two prominent works seem to suggest Orwell's bleak view of the future for humanity; he seems to stress the potential/current threat of dystopias similar to those in ''Animal Farm'' and ''1984''. In these kinds of works, Orwell distinctly references the disarray and traumatic conditions of Europe following the Second World War. Orwell's style and writing philosophy as a whole were very concerned with the pursuit of truth in writing. Orwell was committed to communicating in a way that was straightforward, given the way that he felt words were commonly used in politics to deceive and confuse. For this reason, he is careful, in ''Animal Farm'', to make sure the narrator speaks in an unbiased and uncomplicated fashion. The difference is seen in the way that the animals speak and interact, as the generally moral animals seem to speak their minds clearly, while the wicked animals on the farm, such as Napoleon, twist language in such a way that it meets their own insidious desires. This style reflects Orwell's close proximation to the issues facing Europe at the time and his determination to comment critically on Stalin's Soviet Russia.", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Background", "Origin and writing"], "text": "George Orwell wrote the manuscript between November 1943 and February 1944 after his experiences during the [[Spanish Civil War]], which he described in ''[[Homage to Catalonia]]'' (1938). In the preface of a 1947 Ukrainian edition of ''Animal Farm'', he explained how escaping the communist purges in Spain taught him \"how easily totalitarian propaganda can control the opinion of enlightened people in democratic countries.\" This motivated Orwell to expose and strongly condemn what he saw as the [[Stalinist]] corruption of the original socialist ideals. ''Homage to Catalonia'' sold poorly; after seeing [[Arthur Koestler]]'s best-selling, ''[[Darkness at Noon]],'' about the [[Moscow Trials]], Orwell decided that fiction was the best way to describe totalitarianism. Immediately prior to writing the book, Orwell had quit the [[BBC]]. He was also upset about a booklet for propagandists the Ministry of Information had put out. The booklet included instructions on how to quell ideological fears of the Soviet Union, such as directions to claim that the Red Terror was a figment of Nazi imagination. In the preface, Orwell described the source of the idea of setting the book on a farm: In 1944 the manuscript was almost lost when a German [[V-1 flying bomb]] destroyed his London home. Orwell spent hours sifting through the rubble to find the pages intact.", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Publication", "Publishing"], "text": "Orwell initially encountered difficulty getting the manuscript published, largely due to fears that the book might upset the alliance between Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. Four publishers refused to publish ''Animal Farm'', yet one had initially accepted the work, but declined it after consulting the [[Ministry of Information (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Information]]. Eventually, [[Secker and Warburg]] published the first edition in 1945. During the [[World War II|Second World War]], it became clear to Orwell that anti-Soviet literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch – including his regular publisher [[Victor Gollancz Ltd|Gollancz]]. He also submitted the manuscript to [[Faber and Faber]], where the poet [[T. S. Eliot]] (who was a director of the firm) rejected it; Eliot wrote back to Orwell praising the book's \"good writing\" and \"fundamental integrity\", but declared that they would only accept it for publication if they had some sympathy for the viewpoint \"which I take to be generally [[Deformed workers' state|Trotskyite]]\". Eliot said he found the view \"not convincing\", and contended that the pigs were made out to be the best to run the farm; he posited that someone might argue \"what was needed... was not more communism but more public-spirited pigs\". Orwell let [[André Deutsch]], who was working for Nicholson & Watson in 1944, read the typescript, and Deutsch was convinced that Nicholson & Watson would want to publish it; however, they did not, and \"lectured Orwell on what they perceived to be errors in ''Animal Farm''.\" In his ''London Letter'' on 17 April 1944 for ''[[Partisan Review]]'', Orwell wrote that it was \"now next door to impossible to get anything overtly anti-Russian printed. Anti-Russian books do appear, but mostly from Catholic publishing firms and always from a religious or frankly reactionary angle.\" The publisher [[Jonathan Cape]], who had initially accepted ''Animal Farm'', subsequently rejected the book after an official at the British Ministry of Information warned him off – although the civil servant who it is assumed gave the order was later found to be a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] spy. Writing to [[Leonard Moore (literary agent)|Leonard Moore]], a partner in the literary agency of Christy & Moore, publisher Jonathan Cape explained that the decision had been taken on the advice of a senior official in the Ministry of Information. Such flagrant anti-Soviet bias was unacceptable, and the choice of pigs as the dominant class was thought to be especially offensive. It may reasonably be assumed that the \"important official\" was a man named [[Peter Smollett]], who was later unmasked as a Soviet agent. Orwell was suspicious of Smollett/Smolka, and he would be one of the names Orwell [[Orwell's list|included in his list]] of Crypto-Communists and Fellow-Travellers sent to the [[Information Research Department]] in 1949. The publisher wrote to Orwell, saying:", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Publication", "Publishing"], "text": "[[Frederic Warburg]] also faced pressures against publication, even from people in his own office and from his wife Pamela, who felt that it was not the moment for ingratitude towards Stalin and the heroic [[Red Army]], which had [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|played a major part]] in defeating [[Adolf Hitler]]. A Russian translation was printed in the paper ''Posev'', and in giving permission for a Russian translation of ''Animal Farm'', Orwell refused in advance all royalties. A translation in Ukrainian, which was produced in Germany, was confiscated in large part by the American wartime authorities and handed over to the Soviet repatriation commission. In October 1945, Orwell wrote to Frederic Warburg expressing interest in pursuing the possibility that the political cartoonist [[David Low (cartoonist)|David Low]] might illustrate ''Animal Farm''. Low had written a letter saying that he had had \"a good time with ''ANIMAL FARM'' – an excellent bit of satire – it would illustrate perfectly.\" Nothing came of this, and a trial issue produced by Secker & Warburg in 1956 illustrated by John Driver was abandoned, but the [[Folio Society]] published an edition in 1984 illustrated by [[Quentin Blake]] and an edition illustrated by the cartoonist [[Ralph Steadman]] was published by Secker & Warburg in 1995 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the first edition of ''Animal Farm''.", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Publication", "Preface"], "text": "Orwell originally wrote a preface complaining about British [[self-censorship]] and how the British people were suppressing criticism of the USSR, their World War II ally: Although the first edition allowed space for the preface, it was not included, and as of June 2009 most editions of the book have not included it. Secker and Warburg published the first edition of ''Animal Farm'' in 1945 without an introduction. However, the publisher had provided space for a preface in the author's proof composited from the manuscript. For reasons unknown, no preface was supplied, and the page numbers had to be renumbered at the last minute. In 1972, [[Ian Angus (librarian)|Ian Angus]] found the original typescript titled \"The Freedom of the Press\", and [[Bernard Crick]] published it, together with his own introduction, in ''[[The Times Literary Supplement]]'' on 15 September 1972 as \"How the essay came to be written\". Orwell's essay criticised British self-censorship by the press, specifically the suppression of unflattering descriptions of Stalin and the Soviet government. The same essay also appeared in the Italian 1976 edition of ''Animal Farm'' with another introduction by Crick, claiming to be the first edition with the preface. Other publishers were still declining to publish it.", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Reception"], "text": "Contemporary reviews of the work were not universally positive. Writing in the American ''[[The New Republic|New Republic]]'' magazine, George Soule expressed his disappointment in the book, writing that it \"puzzled and saddened me. It seemed on the whole dull. The allegory turned out to be a creaking machine for saying in a clumsy way things that have been said better directly.\" Soule believed that the animals were not consistent enough with their real-world inspirations, and said, \"It seems to me that the failure of this book (commercially it is already assured of tremendous success) arises from the fact that the satire deals not with something the author has experienced, but rather with stereotyped ideas about a country which he probably does not know very well\". ''[[The Guardian]]'' on 24 August 1945 called ''Animal Farm'' \"a delightfully humorous and caustic satire on the rule of the many by the few\". [[Tosco Fyvel]], writing in ''[[Tribune (magazine)|Tribune]]'' on the same day, called the book \"a gentle satire on a certain State and on the illusions of an age which may already be behind us.\" [[Julian Symons]] responded, on 7 September, \"Should we not expect, in ''Tribune'' at least, acknowledgement of the fact that it is a satire not at all gentle upon a particular State – Soviet Russia? It seems to me that a reviewer should have the courage to identify Napoleon with Stalin, and Snowball with Trotsky, and express an opinion favourable or unfavourable to the author, upon a political ground. In a hundred years time perhaps, ''Animal Farm'' may be simply a fairy story; today it is a political satire with a good deal of point.\" ''Animal Farm'' has been subject to much comment in the decades since these early remarks. The [[CIA]], from 1952 to 1957 in Operation Aedinosaur, sent millions of balloons carrying copies of the novel into Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, whose air forces tried to shoot the balloons down. ''Time'' magazine chose ''Animal Farm'' as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005); it also featured at number 31 on the [[Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels]]. It won a [[Retro-Hugo|Retrospective Hugo Award]] in 1996 and is included in the [[Great Books of the Western World]] selection. Popular reading in schools, ''Animal Farm'' was ranked the nation's favourite book from school in a 2016 UK poll. ''Animal Farm'' has also faced an array of challenges in school settings around the US. The following are examples of this controversy that has existed around Orwell's work: (-) The [[John Birch Society]] in Wisconsin challenged the reading of ''Animal Farm'' in 1965 because of its reference to masses revolting. (-) New York State English Council's Committee on Defense Against Censorship found that in 1968, ''Animal Farm'' had been widely deemed a \"problem book.\" (-) A censorship survey conducted in DeKalb County, Georgia, relating to the years 1979–1982, revealed that many schools had attempted to limit access to ''Animal Farm'' due to its \"political theories.\"", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Reception"], "text": "(-) Superintendent in Bay County, Florida, bans ''Animal Farm'' at the middle school and high school levels in 1987. (-) The Board quickly brought back the book, however, after receiving complaints of the ban as \"unconstitutional\". (-) ''Animal Farm'' was removed from the Stonington, Connecticut school district curriculum in 2017. ''Animal Farm'' has also faced similar forms of resistance in other countries. The ALA also mentions the way that the book was prevented from being featured at the International Book Fair in Moscow, Russia, in 1977 and banned from schools in the United Arab Emirates for references to practices or actions that defy Arab or Islamic beliefs, such as pigs or alcohol. In the same manner, ''Animal Farm'' has also faced relatively recent issues in China. In 2018, the government made the decision to censor all online posts about or referring to ''Animal Farm''. However the book itself, as of 2019, remains sold in stores. Amy Hawkins and Jeffrey Wasserstrom of ''[[The Atlantic]]'' stated in 2019 that the book is widely available in Mainland China for several reasons: the general public by and large no longer reads books, because the elites who do read books feel connected to the ruling party anyway, and because the Communist Party sees being too aggressive in blocking cultural products as a liability. The authors stated \"It was—and remains—as easy to buy ''1984'' and ''Animal Farm'' in [[Shenzhen]] or [[Shanghai]] as it is in London or Los Angeles.\" An enhanced version of the book, launched in India in 2017, was widely praised for capturing the author's intent, by republishing the proposed preface of the First Edition and the preface he wrote for the Ukrainian edition.", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Analysis", "Animalism"], "text": "The pigs Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer adapt Old Major's ideas into \"a complete system of thought\", which they formally name Animalism, an allegoric reference to [[Communism]], not to be confused with [[Animalism (philosophy)|the philosophy Animalism]]. Soon after, Napoleon and Squealer partake in activities associated with the humans (drinking alcohol, sleeping in beds, trading), which were explicitly prohibited by the Seven Commandments. Squealer is employed to alter the Seven Commandments to account for this humanisation, an [[allusion]] to the Soviet government's revising of history in order to exercise control of the people's beliefs about themselves and their society. The original commandments are: (1) Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy. (2) Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend. (3) No animal shall wear clothes. (4) No animal shall sleep in a bed. (5) No animal shall drink alcohol. (6) No animal shall kill any other animal. (7) All animals are equal. These commandments are also distilled into the maxim \"Four legs good, two legs bad!\" which is primarily used by the sheep on the farm, often to disrupt discussions and disagreements between animals on the nature of Animalism. Later, Napoleon and his pigs secretly revise some commandments to clear themselves of accusations of law-breaking. The changed commandments are as follows, with the changes bolded: Eventually, these are replaced with the maxims, \"All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others\", and \"Four legs good, two legs better\" as the pigs become more human. This is an [[Irony|ironic]] twist to the original purpose of the Seven Commandments, which were supposed to keep order within Animal Farm by uniting the animals together against the humans and preventing animals from following the humans' evil habits. Through the revision of the commandments, Orwell demonstrates how simply political [[dogma]] can be turned into malleable [[propaganda]].", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Analysis", "Significance and allegory"], "text": "Orwell biographer Jeffrey Meyers has written, \"virtually every detail has political significance in this allegory.\" Orwell himself wrote in 1946, \"Of course I intended it primarily as a satire on the Russian revolution... [and] ''that kind'' of revolution (violent conspiratorial revolution, led by unconsciously power-hungry people) can only lead to a change of masters [-] revolutions only effect a radical improvement when the masses are alert.\" In a preface for a 1947 Ukrainian edition, he stated, \"... for the past ten years I have been convinced that the destruction of the Soviet myth was essential if we wanted a revival of the socialist movement. On my return from Spain [in 1937] I thought of exposing the Soviet myth in a story that could be easily understood by almost anyone and which could be easily translated into other languages.\" The revolt of the animals against Farmer Jones is Orwell's analogy with the [[October Revolution|October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution]]. The ''Battle of the Cowshed'' has been said to represent the [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|allied invasion]] of [[Russian SFSR|Soviet Russia]] in 1918, and the defeat of the [[White movement|White Russians]] in the [[Russian Civil War]]. The pigs' rise to preeminence mirrors the rise of a Stalinist bureaucracy in the USSR, just as Napoleon's emergence as the farm's sole leader reflects Stalin's emergence. The pigs' appropriation of milk and apples for their own use, \"the turning point of the story\" as Orwell termed it in a letter to [[Dwight Macdonald]], stands as an analogy for the crushing of the left-wing 1921 [[Kronstadt rebellion|Kronstadt revolt]] against the Bolsheviks, and the difficult efforts of the animals to build the windmill suggest the various [[Five-Year Plans for the National Economy of the Soviet Union|Five Year Plans]]. The puppies controlled by Napoleon parallel the nurture of the secret police in the Stalinist structure, and the pigs' treatment of the other animals on the farm recalls the internal terror faced by the populace in the 1930s. In chapter seven, when the animals confess their non-existent crimes and are killed, Orwell directly alludes to the purges, confessions and [[Moscow show trials|show trials]] of the late 1930s. These contributed to Orwell's conviction that the Bolshevik revolution had been corrupted and the Soviet system become rotten. [[Peter Edgerly Firchow]] and [[Peter Davison (professor)|Peter Davison]] contend that the ''Battle of the Windmill,'' specifically referencing ''the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] and the [[Battle of Moscow]],'' represents [[World War II]]. During the battle, Orwell first wrote, \"All the animals, including Napoleon\" took cover. Orwell had the publisher alter this to \"All the animals except Napoleon\" in recognition of Stalin's decision to remain in Moscow during the German advance. Orwell requested the change after he met [[Józef Czapski]] in Paris in March 1945. Czapski, a survivor of the [[Katyn Massacre]] and an opponent of the Soviet regime, told Orwell, as Orwell wrote to [[Arthur Koestler]], that it had been \"the character [and] greatness of Stalin\" that saved Russia from the German invasion.", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Analysis", "Significance and allegory"], "text": "Other connections that writers have suggested illustrate Orwell's telescoping of Russian history from 1917 to 1943 include the wave of rebelliousness that ran through the countryside after the Rebellion, which stands for the abortive revolutions [[Hungarian Revolution of 1919|in Hungary]] and [[German Revolution of 1918–19|in Germany]] (Ch IV); the conflict between Napoleon and Snowball (Ch V), parallelling \"the two rival and quasi-Messianic beliefs that seemed pitted against one another: [[Trotskyism]], with its faith in the [[Permanent revolution|revolutionary vocation]] of the proletariat of the West; and Stalinism with its glorification of [[socialism in one country|Russia's socialist destiny]]\"; Napoleon's dealings with Whymper and the Willingdon markets (Ch VI), paralleling the [[Treaty of Rapallo (1922)|Treaty of Rapallo]]; and Frederick's forged bank notes, parallelling the [[Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Soviet Union|Hitler-Stalin pact of August 1939]], after which Frederick attacks Animal Farm without warning and destroys the windmill. The book's close, with the pigs and men in a kind of [[rapprochement]], reflected Orwell's view of the 1943 [[Tehran Conference]] that seemed to display the establishment of \"the best possible relations between the USSR and the West\" – but in reality were destined, as Orwell presciently predicted, to continue to unravel. The disagreement between the allies and the start of the [[Cold War]] is suggested when Napoleon and Pilkington, both suspicious, \"played an ace of spades simultaneously\". Similarly, the music in the novel, starting with \"Beasts of England\" and the later anthems, parallels \"[[The Internationale]]\" and its adoption and repudiation by the Soviet authorities as the anthem of the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s.", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Adaptations", "Films"], "text": "''Animal Farm'' has been adapted to film twice. Both differ from the novel and have been accused of taking significant liberties, including sanitising some aspects. (-) [[Animal Farm (1954 film)|''Animal Farm'']] (1954) is an animated film, in which Napoleon is eventually overthrown in a second revolution. In 1974, [[E. Howard Hunt]] revealed that he had been sent by the [[CIA]]'s [[Psychological Warfare]] department to obtain the film rights from Orwell's widow, and the resulting 1954 animation was funded by the agency. (-) [[Animal Farm (1999 film)|''Animal Farm'']] (1999) is a live-action TV version that shows Napoleon's regime collapsing in on itself, with the farm having new human owners, reflecting the collapse of Soviet communism. In 2012, an HFR-3D version of ''Animal Farm'' was announced. [[Andy Serkis]] is directing the film after [[Netflix]] acquired the rights in 2018.", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Adaptations", "Radio dramatizations"], "text": "A BBC radio version, produced by [[Rayner Heppenstall]], was broadcast in January 1947. Orwell listened to the production at his home in Canonbury Square, London, with [[Hugh Gordon Porteus|Hugh Gordon Porteous]], amongst others. Orwell later wrote to Heppenstall that Porteous, \"who had not read the book, grasped what was happening after a few minutes.\" A further radio production, again using Orwell's own dramatisation of the book, was broadcast in January 2013 on BBC [[Radio Four|Radio 4]]. [[Tamsin Greig]] narrated, and the cast included [[Nicky Henson]] as Napoleon, [[Toby Jones]] as the propagandist Squealer, and [[Ralph Ineson]] as Boxer.", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Adaptations", "Stage productions"], "text": "A theatrical version, with music by [[Richard Peaslee]] and lyrics by [[Adrian Mitchell]], was staged at the [[Royal National Theatre|National Theatre]] London on 25 April 1984, directed by [[Peter Hall (director)|Peter Hall]]. It toured nine cities in 1985. A solo version, adapted and performed by Guy Masterson, premièred at the [[Traverse Theatre]] Edinburgh in January 1995 and has toured worldwide since. A new theatrical stage adaptation is in development. [[Alan Menken]] and [[Glenn Slater]] will write songs for the musical, with the book written by [[James Graham (playwright)|James Graham]].", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": ["Adaptations", "Comic strip"], "text": "In 1950 [[Norman Pett]] and his writing partner [[Don Freeman]] were secretly hired by the [[Information Research Department|Information Research Department (IRD)]], a secret wing of the [[British Foreign Office]], to adapt ''Animal Farm'' into a comic strip. This comic was not published in the U.K. but ran in Brazilian and Burmese newspapers.", "id": "620", "title": "Animal Farm", "categories": ["Animal Farm", "1945 British novels", "Allegory", "Dystopian novels", "English novels", "Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works", "British novellas", "Novels by George Orwell", "Political literature", "British political novels", "Roman à clef novels", "Satirical novels", "Novels about revolutionaries", "Novels about totalitarianism", "Novels about propaganda", "British satirical novels", "Novels about animals", "Secker &amp; Warburg books", "Pigs in literature", "Cattle in literature", "Cats in literature", "Dogs in literature", "British novels adapted into films", "British novels adapted into plays", "Novels adapted into radio programs", "British novels adapted into television shows", "Novels adapted into comics", "Censored books"], "seealso": ["History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)", "New class", "Authoritarian personality", "Anthems in ''Animal Farm''", "Władysław Reymont", "Ideocracy", "Information Research Department", "Animals", "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "Revolt", "Nobel laureate"]}
+{"headers": [], "text": "'''Amphibians''' are [[ectotherm]], [[tetrapod]] [[vertebrate]] of the [[Class (biology)|class]] '''Amphibia'''. All living amphibians belong to the group [[Lissamphibia]]. They inhabit a wide variety of [[habitat]], with most species living within [[terrestrial animal|terrestrial]], [[fossorial]], [[arboreal]] or freshwater [[aquatic ecosystems]]. Thus amphibians typically start out as [[larva]] living in water, but some species have developed behavioural adaptations to bypass this. The young generally undergo [[metamorphosis]] from larva with gills to an adult air-breathing form with [[lung]]. Amphibians use their skin as a secondary respiratory surface and some small terrestrial [[salamander]] and [[frog]] lack lungs and rely entirely on their skin. They are superficially similar to [[lizard]] but, along with mammals and birds, reptiles are [[amniote]] and do not require water bodies in which to breed. With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins, amphibians are often [[ecological indicator]]; in recent decades there has been a dramatic [[decline in amphibian populations]] for many species around the globe. The earliest amphibians [[evolution of tetrapods|evolved]] in the [[Devonian]] period from [[sarcopterygian]] fish with lungs and bony-limbed fins, features that were helpful in adapting to dry land. They diversified and became dominant during the [[Carboniferous]] and [[Permian]] periods, but were later displaced by reptiles and other vertebrates. Over time, amphibians shrank in size and decreased in diversity, leaving only the modern subclass Lissamphibia. The three modern orders of amphibians are [[Anura (frog)|Anura]] (the frogs and toads), [[Urodela]] (the salamanders), and [[caecilian|Apoda]] (the caecilians). The number of known amphibian species is approximately 8,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. The smallest amphibian (and vertebrate) in the world is a frog from [[New Guinea]] (''[[Paedophryne amauensis]]'') with a length of just . The largest living amphibian is the [[South China giant salamander]] (''Andrias sligoi''), but this is dwarfed by the extinct ''[[Prionosuchus]]'' from the [[Guadalupian|middle Permian]] of Brazil. The study of amphibians is called [[batrachology]], while the study of both reptiles and amphibians is called [[herpetology]].", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Classification"], "text": "The word \"amphibian\" is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] term ἀμφίβιος (''amphíbios''), which means \"both kinds of life\", ''ἀμφί'' meaning \"of both kinds\" and ''βιος'' meaning \"life\". The term was initially used as a general adjective for animals that could live on land or in water, including seals and otters. Traditionally, the class Amphibia includes all tetrapod vertebrates that are not amniotes. Amphibia in its widest sense (''[[sensu lato]]'') was divided into three [[Class (biology)|subclasses]], two of which are extinct: (-) Subclass [[Lepospondyli]]† (small Paleozoic group, which are more closely related to amniotes than Lissamphibia) (-) Subclass [[Temnospondyli]]† (diverse Paleozoic and early Mesozoic grade) (-) Subclass [[Lissamphibia]] (all modern amphibians, including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts and caecilians) (-) Salientia ([[frog]], [[toad]] and relatives): Jurassic to present—7,299 current species in 53 families (-) Caudata ([[salamander]], [[newt]] and relatives): Jurassic to present—760 current species in 9 families (-) Gymnophiona ([[caecilian]] and relatives): Jurassic to present—214 current species in 10 families (-) Allocaudata† ([[Albanerpetontidae]]) Middle Jurassic - Early Pleistocene  The actual number of species in each group depends on the taxonomic classification followed. The two most common systems are the classification adopted by the website AmphibiaWeb, [[University of California, Berkeley]] and the classification by [[Herpetology|herpetologist]] [[Darrel Frost]] and the [[American Museum of Natural History]], available as the online reference database \"Amphibian Species of the World\". The numbers of species cited above follows Frost and the total number of known amphibian species as of March 31, 2019 is exactly 8,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. With the [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetic]] classification, the taxon [[Labyrinthodontia]] has been discarded as it is a [[Paraphyly|polyparaphyletic]] group without unique defining features apart from [[Cladistics#plesiomorphy|shared primitive characteristics]]. Classification varies according to the preferred phylogeny of the author and whether they use a [[Cladistics#Three definitions of clade|stem-based or a node-based]] classification. Traditionally, amphibians as a class are defined as all tetrapods with a larval stage, while the group that includes the common ancestors of all living amphibians (frogs, salamanders and caecilians) and all their descendants is called Lissamphibia. The phylogeny of Paleozoic amphibians is uncertain, and Lissamphibia may possibly fall within extinct groups, like the Temnospondyli (traditionally placed in the subclass Labyrinthodontia) or the Lepospondyli, and in some analyses even in the amniotes. This means that advocates of [[phylogenetic nomenclature]] have removed a large number of [[basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] Devonian and Carboniferous amphibian-type tetrapod groups that were formerly placed in Amphibia in [[Linnaean taxonomy]], and included them elsewhere under [[cladistic taxonomy]]. If the common ancestor of amphibians and amniotes is included in Amphibia, it becomes a paraphyletic group.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Classification"], "text": "All modern amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia, which is usually considered a [[clade]], a group of species that have evolved from a common ancestor. The three modern orders are Anura (the frogs and toads), Caudata (or Urodela, the salamanders), and Gymnophiona (or Apoda, the caecilians). It has been suggested that salamanders arose separately from a Temnospondyl-like ancestor, and even that caecilians are the sister group of the advanced [[reptiliomorpha|reptiliomorph]] amphibians, and thus of amniotes. Although the fossils of several older proto-frogs with primitive characteristics are known, the oldest \"true frog\" is ''[[Prosalirus bitis]]'', from the [[Early Jurassic]] [[Kayenta Formation]] of Arizona. It is anatomically very similar to modern frogs. The oldest known caecilian is another Early Jurassic species, ''[[Eocaecilia micropodia]]'', also from Arizona. The earliest salamander is ''[[Beiyanerpeton jianpingensis]]'' from the [[Late Jurassic]] of northeastern China. Authorities disagree as to whether Salientia is a superorder that includes the order Anura, or whether Anura is a sub-order of the order Salientia. The Lissamphibia are traditionally divided into three [[Order (biology)|orders]], but an extinct salamander-like family, the Albanerpetontidae, is now considered part of Lissamphibia alongside the superorder Salientia. Furthermore, Salientia includes all three recent orders plus the Triassic proto-frog, ''[[Triadobatrachus]]''.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Evolutionary history"], "text": "The first major groups of amphibians developed in the [[Devonian]] period, around 370 million years ago, from [[Sarcopterygii|lobe-finned fish]] which were similar to the modern [[coelacanth]] and [[lungfish]]. These ancient lobe-finned fish had evolved multi-jointed leg-like fins with digits that enabled them to crawl along the sea bottom. Some fish had developed primitive lungs that help them breathe air when the stagnant pools of the Devonian swamps were low in oxygen. They could also use their strong fins to hoist themselves out of the water and onto dry land if circumstances so required. Eventually, their bony fins would [[evolution|evolve]] into limbs and they would become the ancestors to all [[tetrapod]], including modern amphibians, reptiles, birds, and [[mammal]]. Despite being able to crawl on land, many of these prehistoric [[tetrapodomorph]] fish still spent most of their time in the water. They had started to develop lungs, but still breathed predominantly with gills. Many examples of species showing [[transitional fossil|transitional features]] have been discovered. ''[[Ichthyostega]]'' was one of the first primitive amphibians, with nostrils and more efficient lungs. It had four sturdy limbs, a neck, a tail with fins and a skull very similar to that of the lobe-finned fish, ''[[Eusthenopteron]]''. Amphibians evolved adaptations that allowed them to stay out of the water for longer periods. Their lungs improved and their skeletons became heavier and stronger, better able to support the weight of their bodies on land. They developed \"hands\" and \"feet\" with five or more digits; the skin became more capable of retaining body fluids and resisting desiccation. The fish's [[hyomandibula]] bone in the [[hyoid bone|hyoid]] region behind the gills diminished in size and became the [[stapes]] of the amphibian ear, an adaptation necessary for hearing on dry land. An affinity between the amphibians and the [[teleost]] fish is the multi-folded structure of the teeth and the paired [[Occipital bone|supra-occipital bones]] at the back of the head, neither of these features being found elsewhere in the animal kingdom.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Evolutionary history"], "text": "At the end of the Devonian period (360 million years ago), the seas, rivers and lakes were teeming with life while the land was the realm of early plants and devoid of vertebrates, though some, such as ''Ichthyostega'', may have sometimes hauled themselves out of the water. It is thought they may have propelled themselves with their forelimbs, dragging their hindquarters in a similar manner to that used by the [[elephant seal]]. In the early [[Carboniferous]] (360 to 345 million years ago), the climate became wet and warm. Extensive swamps developed with [[moss]], [[fern]], [[horsetail]] and [[calamites]]. Air-breathing [[arthropod]] evolved and invaded the land where they provided food for the [[Carnivore|carnivorous]] amphibians that began to adapt to the terrestrial environment. There were no other tetrapods on the land and the amphibians were at the top of the food chain, occupying the ecological position currently held by the crocodile. Though equipped with limbs and the ability to breathe air, most still had a long tapering body and strong tail. They were the top land predators, sometimes reaching several metres in length, preying on the large insects of the period and the many types of fish in the water. They still needed to return to water to lay their shell-less eggs, and even most modern amphibians have a fully aquatic larval stage with gills like their fish ancestors. It was the development of the [[amniote|amniotic]] egg, which prevents the developing embryo from drying out, that enabled the reptiles to reproduce on land and which led to their [[Dominance (ecology)|dominance]] in the period that followed. After the [[Carboniferous rainforest collapse]] amphibian dominance gave way to reptiles, and amphibians were further devastated by the [[Permian–Triassic extinction event]]. During the [[Triassic|Triassic Period]] (250 to 200 million years ago), the reptiles continued to out-compete the amphibians, leading to a reduction in both the amphibians' size and their importance in the [[biosphere]]. According to the fossil record, [[Lissamphibia]], which includes all modern amphibians and is the only surviving lineage, may have branched off from the extinct groups [[Temnospondyli]] and [[Lepospondyli]] at some period between the Late Carboniferous and the Early Triassic. The relative scarcity of fossil evidence precludes precise dating, but the most recent molecular study, based on [[multilocus sequence typing]], suggests a Late Carboniferous/[[Cisuralian|Early Permian]] origin for extant amphibians.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Evolutionary history"], "text": "The origins and evolutionary relationships between the three main groups of amphibians is a matter of debate. A 2005 molecular phylogeny, based on [[Ribosomal DNA|rDNA]] analysis, suggests that salamanders and caecilians are more closely related to each other than they are to frogs. It also appears that the divergence of the three groups took place in the [[Paleozoic]] or early [[Mesozoic]] (around 250 million years ago), before the breakup of the supercontinent [[Pangaea]] and soon after their divergence from the lobe-finned fish. The briefness of this period, and the swiftness with which radiation took place, would help account for the relative scarcity of primitive amphibian fossils. There are large gaps in the [[fossil record]], but the discovery of a [[Gerobatrachus hottoni]] from the Early Permian in Texas in 2008 provided a missing link with many of the characteristics of modern frogs. [[Molecular phylogenetics|Molecular analysis]] suggests that the frog–salamander divergence took place considerably earlier than the [[Paleontology|palaeontological]] evidence indicates. Newer research indicates that the common ancestor of all Lissamphibians lived about 315 million years ago, and that [[Stereospondyli|stereospondyls]] are the closest relatives to the caecilians. As they evolved from lunged fish, amphibians had to make certain adaptations for living on land, including the need to develop new means of locomotion. In the water, the sideways thrusts of their tails had propelled them forward, but on land, quite different mechanisms were required. Their vertebral columns, limbs, limb girdles and musculature needed to be strong enough to raise them off the ground for locomotion and feeding. Terrestrial adults discarded their [[lateral line]] systems and adapted their sensory systems to receive stimuli via the medium of the air. They needed to develop new methods to regulate their body heat to cope with fluctuations in ambient temperature. They developed behaviours suitable for reproduction in a terrestrial environment. Their skins were exposed to harmful [[ultraviolet]] rays that had previously been absorbed by the water. The skin changed to become more protective and prevent excessive water loss.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Characteristics"], "text": "The superclass [[Tetrapoda]] is divided into four classes of vertebrate animals with four limbs. Reptiles, birds and mammals are amniotes, the eggs of which are either laid or carried by the female and are surrounded by several membranes, some of which are impervious. Lacking these membranes, amphibians require water bodies for reproduction, although some species have developed various strategies for protecting or bypassing the vulnerable aquatic larval stage. They are not found in the sea with the exception of one or two frogs that live in [[brackish water]] in [[mangrove]] swamps; the [[Anderson's salamander]] meanwhile occurs in brackish or salt water lakes. On land, amphibians are restricted to moist habitats because of the need to keep their skin damp. Modern amphibians have a simplified anatomy compared to their ancestors due to [[Neoteny|paedomorphosis]], caused by two evolutionary trends: miniaturization and an unusually large genome, which result in a slower growth and development rate compared to other vertebrates. Another reason for their size is associated with their rapid metamorphosis, which seems to have evolved only in the ancestors of lissamphibia; in all other known lines the development was much more gradual. Because a remodeling of the feeding apparatus means they don't eat during the metamorphosis, the metamorphosis has to go faster the smaller the individual is, so it happens at an early stage when the larvae are still small. (The largest species of salamanders don't go through a metamorphosis.) Amphibians that lay eggs on land often go through the whole metamorphosis inside the egg. An anamniotic terrestrial egg is less than 1 cm in diameter due to diffusion problems, a size which puts a limit on the amount of posthatching growth. The smallest amphibian (and vertebrate) in the world is a [[microhylid]] frog from [[New Guinea]] (''[[Paedophryne amauensis]]'') first discovered in 2012. It has an average length of and is part of a genus that contains four of the world's ten smallest frog species. The largest living amphibian is the [[Chinese giant salamander]] (''Andrias davidianus'') but this is a great deal smaller than the largest amphibian that ever existed—the extinct ''[[Prionosuchus]]'', a crocodile-like temnospondyl dating to 270 million years ago from the middle Permian of Brazil. The largest frog is the African [[Goliath frog]] (''Conraua goliath''), which can reach and weigh .", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Characteristics"], "text": "Amphibians are ectothermic (cold-blooded) vertebrates that do not maintain their body temperature through internal [[Physiology|physiological]] processes. Their [[Basal metabolic rate|metabolic rate]] is low and as a result, their food and energy requirements are limited. In the adult state, they have tear ducts and movable eyelids, and most species have ears that can detect airborne or ground vibrations. They have muscular tongues, which in many species can be protruded. Modern amphibians have fully [[Ossification|ossified]] vertebrae with [[articular processes]]. Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short, and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little [[keratin]] and lacks scales, apart from a few fish-like scales in certain caecilians. The skin contains many [[mucous gland]] and in some species, [[Skin|poison glands]] (a type of granular gland). The hearts of amphibians have three chambers, two [[atrium (heart)|atria]] and one [[ventricle (heart)|ventricle]]. They have a [[urinary bladder]] and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as [[urea]]. Most amphibians lay their eggs in water and have aquatic larvae that undergo metamorphosis to become terrestrial adults. Amphibians breathe by means of a pump action in which air is first drawn into the [[Buccopharyngeal membrane|buccopharyngeal]] region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat. They supplement this with [[gas exchange]] through the skin.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Characteristics", "Anura"], "text": "The order [[Anura (frog)|Anura]] (from the Ancient Greek ''[[Privative a|a(n)-]]'' meaning \"without\" and ''oura'' meaning \"tail\") comprises the frogs and toads. They usually have long hind limbs that fold underneath them, shorter forelimbs, webbed toes with no claws, no tails, large eyes and glandular moist skin. Members of this order with smooth skins are commonly referred to as frogs, while those with [[wikt:warty|warty]] skins are known as toads. The difference is not a formal one taxonomically and there are numerous exceptions to this rule. Members of the family [[Bufonidae]] are known as the \"true toads\". Frogs range in size from the [[Goliath frog]] (''Conraua goliath'') of West Africa to the ''[[Paedophryne amauensis]]'', first described in Papua New Guinea in 2012, which is also the smallest known vertebrate. Although most species are associated with water and damp habitats, some are specialised to live in trees or in deserts. They are found worldwide except for polar areas. Anura is divided into three suborders that are broadly accepted by the scientific community, but the relationships between some families remain unclear. Future [[molecular genetics|molecular]] studies should provide further insights into their evolutionary relationships. The suborder [[Archaeobatrachia]] contains four families of primitive frogs. These are [[Ascaphidae]], [[Bombinatoridae]], [[Discoglossidae]] and [[Leiopelmatidae]] which have few derived features and are probably paraphyletic with regard to other frog lineages. The six families in the more evolutionarily advanced suborder [[Mesobatrachia]] are the [[fossorial]] [[Megophryidae]], [[Pelobatidae]], [[Pelodytidae]], [[Scaphiopodidae]] and [[Rhinophrynidae]] and the obligatorily aquatic [[Pipidae]]. These have certain characteristics that are intermediate between the two other suborders. [[Neobatrachia]] is by far the largest suborder and includes the remaining families of modern frogs, including most common species. Ninety-six percent of the over 5,000 extant species of frog are neobatrachians.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Characteristics", "Caudata"], "text": "The order [[Caudata]] (from the Latin ''cauda'' meaning \"tail\") consists of the salamanders—elongated, low-slung animals that mostly resemble lizards in form. This is a [[Symplesiomorphy|symplesiomorphic trait]] and they are no more closely related to lizards than they are to mammals. Salamanders lack claws, have scale-free skins, either smooth or covered with [[tubercle]], and tails that are usually flattened from side to side and often finned. They range in size from the [[Chinese giant salamander]] (''Andrias davidianus''), which has been reported to grow to a length of , to the diminutive ''[[Thorius pennatulus]]'' from Mexico which seldom exceeds in length. Salamanders have a mostly [[Laurasia]] distribution, being present in much of the [[Holarctic]] region of the northern hemisphere. The family [[Plethodontidae]] is also found in Central America and South America north of the [[Amazon basin]]; South America was apparently invaded from Central America by about the start of the [[Miocene]], 23 million years ago. Urodela is a name sometimes used for all the [[extant taxon|extant]] species of salamanders. Members of several salamander families have become [[Neoteny|paedomorphic]] and either fail to complete their metamorphosis or retain some larval characteristics as adults. Most salamanders are under long. They may be terrestrial or aquatic and many spend part of the year in each habitat. When on land, they mostly spend the day hidden under stones or logs or in dense vegetation, emerging in the evening and night to forage for worms, insects and other invertebrates. The suborder [[Cryptobranchoidea]] contains the primitive salamanders. A number of fossil cryptobranchids have been found, but there are only three living species, the Chinese giant salamander (''Andrias davidianus''), the [[Japanese giant salamander]] (''Andrias japonicus'') and the [[hellbender]] (''Cryptobranchus alleganiensis'') from North America. These large amphibians retain several larval characteristics in their adult state; gills slits are present and the eyes are unlidded. A unique feature is their ability to feed by suction, depressing either the left side of their lower jaw or the right. The males excavate nests, persuade females to lay their egg strings inside them, and guard them. As well as breathing with lungs, they respire through the many folds in their thin skin, which has [[Capillary|capillaries]] close to the surface. The suborder [[Salamandroidea]] contains the advanced salamanders. They differ from the cryptobranchids by having fused [[Mandible|prearticular bones]] in the lower jaw, and by using internal fertilisation. In salamandrids, the male deposits a bundle of sperm, the [[spermatophore]], and the female picks it up and inserts it into her cloaca where the sperm is stored until the eggs are laid. The largest family in this group is Plethodontidae, the lungless salamanders, which includes 60% of all salamander species. The [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Salamandridae]] includes the true salamanders and the name \"[[newt]]\" is given to members of its subfamily [[Pleurodelinae]].", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Characteristics", "Caudata"], "text": "The third suborder, [[Sirenoidea]], contains the four species of sirens, which are in a single family, [[Sirenidae]]. Members of this order are [[eel]]-like aquatic salamanders with much reduced forelimbs and no hind limbs. Some of their features are primitive while others are derived. Fertilisation is likely to be external as sirenids lack the cloacal glands used by male salamandrids to produce spermatophores and the females lack [[spermatheca]] for sperm storage. Despite this, the eggs are laid singly, a behaviour not conducive for external fertilisation.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Characteristics", "Gymnophiona"], "text": "The order [[Gymnophiona]] (from the Greek ''gymnos'' meaning \"naked\" and ''ophis'' meaning \"serpent\") or Apoda comprises the caecilians. These are long, cylindrical, limbless animals with a snake- or [[Annelid|worm-like]] form. The adults vary in length from 8 to 75 centimetres (3 to 30 inches) with the exception of [[Caecilia thompsoni|Thomson's caecilian]] (''Caecilia thompsoni''), which can reach . A caecilian's skin has a large number of transverse folds and in some species contains tiny embedded dermal scales. It has rudimentary eyes covered in skin, which are probably limited to discerning differences in light intensity. It also has a pair of short [[tentacle]] near the eye that can be extended and which have [[Somatosensory system|tactile]] and [[Olfaction|olfactory]] functions. Most caecilians live underground in burrows in damp soil, in rotten wood and under plant debris, but some are aquatic. Most species lay their eggs underground and when the larvae hatch, they make their way to adjacent bodies of water. Others brood their eggs and the larvae undergo metamorphosis before the eggs hatch. A few species give birth to live young, nourishing them with glandular secretions while they are in the oviduct. Caecilians have a mostly [[Gondwana]] distribution, being found in tropical regions of Africa, Asia and Central and South America.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Anatomy and physiology", "Skin"], "text": "The [[Wikt:integument|integumentary]] structure contains some typical characteristics common to terrestrial vertebrates, such as the presence of highly [[Keratin#Cornification|cornified]] outer layers, renewed periodically through a moulting process controlled by the [[pituitary gland|pituitary]] and [[thyroid]] glands. Local thickenings (often called warts) are common, such as those found on toads. The outside of the skin is shed periodically mostly in one piece, in contrast to mammals and birds where it is shed in flakes. Amphibians often eat the sloughed skin. Caecilians are unique among amphibians in having mineralized dermal scales embedded in the [[dermis]] between the furrows in the skin. The similarity of these to the scales of bony fish is largely superficial. [[Squamata|Lizards]] and some frogs have somewhat similar [[osteoderm]] forming bony deposits in the dermis, but this is an example of [[convergent evolution]] with similar structures having arisen independently in diverse vertebrate lineages. Amphibian skin is permeable to water. Gas exchange can take place through the skin ([[cutaneous respiration]]) and this allows adult amphibians to respire without rising to the surface of water and to hibernate at the bottom of ponds. To compensate for their thin and delicate skin, amphibians have evolved mucous glands, principally on their heads, backs and tails. The secretions produced by these help keep the skin moist. In addition, most species of amphibian have granular glands that secrete distasteful or poisonous substances. Some amphibian toxins can be lethal to humans while others have little effect. The main poison-producing glands, the [[Parotoid gland|parotoids]], produce the neurotoxin [[bufotoxin]] and are located behind the ears of toads, along the backs of frogs, behind the eyes of salamanders and on the upper surface of caecilians. The skin colour of amphibians is produced by three layers of pigment cells called [[chromatophore]]. These three cell layers consist of the melanophores (occupying the deepest layer), the guanophores (forming an intermediate layer and containing many granules, producing a blue-green colour) and the lipophores (yellow, the most superficial layer). The colour change displayed by many species is initiated by [[hormone]] secreted by the pituitary gland. Unlike bony fish, there is no direct control of the pigment cells by the nervous system, and this results in the colour change taking place more slowly than happens in fish. A vividly coloured skin usually indicates that the species is toxic and is a warning sign to predators.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Anatomy and physiology", "Skeletal system and locomotion"], "text": "Amphibians have a skeletal system that is structurally [[Homology (biology)|homologous]] to other tetrapods, though with a number of variations. They all have four limbs except for the legless caecilians and a few species of salamander with reduced or no limbs. The bones are hollow and lightweight. The musculoskeletal system is strong to enable it to support the head and body. The bones are fully [[ossification|ossified]] and the vertebrae interlock with each other by means of overlapping processes. The [[pectoral girdle]] is supported by muscle, and the well-developed [[pelvic girdle]] is attached to the backbone by a pair of sacral ribs. The [[ilium (bone)|ilium]] slopes forward and the body is held closer to the ground than is the case in mammals. In most amphibians, there are four digits on the fore foot and five on the hind foot, but no claws on either. Some salamanders have fewer digits and the [[amphiuma]] are eel-like in appearance with tiny, stubby legs. The [[Siren (genus)|sirens]] are aquatic salamanders with stumpy forelimbs and no hind limbs. The caecilians are limbless. They burrow in the manner of earthworms with zones of muscle contractions moving along the body. On the surface of the ground or in water they move by undulating their body from side to side. In frogs, the hind legs are larger than the fore legs, especially so in those species that principally move by jumping or swimming. In the walkers and runners the hind limbs are not so large, and the burrowers mostly have short limbs and broad bodies. The feet have adaptations for the way of life, with webbing between the toes for swimming, broad adhesive toe pads for climbing, and keratinised tubercles on the hind feet for digging (frogs usually dig backwards into the soil). In most salamanders, the limbs are short and more or less the same length and project at right angles from the body. Locomotion on land is by walking and the tail often swings from side to side or is used as a prop, particularly when climbing. In their normal gait, only one leg is advanced at a time in the manner adopted by their ancestors, the lobe-finned fish. Some salamanders in the genus ''[[Aneides]]'' and certain [[lungless salamander|plethodontids]] climb trees and have long limbs, large toepads and prehensile tails. In aquatic salamanders and in frog tadpoles, the tail has [[dorsal fin|dorsal]] and [[ventral fin|ventral]] fins and is moved from side to side as a means of propulsion. Adult frogs do not have tails and caecilians have only very short ones. Salamanders use their tails in defence and some are prepared to jettison them to save their lives in a process known as [[autotomy]]. Certain species in the Plethodontidae have a weak zone at the base of the tail and use this strategy readily. The tail often continues to twitch after separation which may distract the attacker and allow the salamander to escape. Both tails and limbs can be regenerated. Adult frogs are unable to regrow limbs but tadpoles can do so.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Anatomy and physiology", "Circulatory system"], "text": "Amphibians have a juvenile stage and an adult stage, and the circulatory systems of the two are distinct. In the juvenile (or tadpole) stage, the circulation is similar to that of a fish; the two-chambered heart pumps the blood through the gills where it is oxygenated, and is spread around the body and back to the heart in a single loop. In the adult stage, amphibians (especially frogs) lose their gills and develop lungs. They have a heart that consists of a single ventricle and two atria. When the ventricle starts contracting, deoxygenated blood is pumped through the [[pulmonary artery]] to the lungs. Continued contraction then pumps oxygenated blood around the rest of the body. Mixing of the two bloodstreams is minimized by the anatomy of the chambers.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Anatomy and physiology", "Nervous and sensory systems"], "text": "The [[nervous system]] is basically the same as in other vertebrates, with a central brain, a spinal cord, and nerves throughout the body. The amphibian brain is less well developed than that of reptiles, birds and mammals but is similar in morphology and function to that of a fish. It is believed amphibians are capable of perceiving [[Pain in amphibians|pain]]. The brain consists of equal parts, [[cerebrum]], [[midbrain]] and [[cerebellum]]. Various parts of the cerebrum process sensory input, such as smell in the olfactory lobe and sight in the optic lobe, and it is additionally the centre of behaviour and learning. The cerebellum is the center of muscular coordination and the [[medulla oblongata]] controls some organ functions including heartbeat and respiration. The brain sends signals through the spinal cord and nerves to regulate activity in the rest of the body. The [[pineal body]], known to regulate sleep patterns in humans, is thought to produce the hormones involved in [[hibernation]] and [[aestivation]] in amphibians. Tadpoles retain the lateral line system of their ancestral fishes, but this is lost in terrestrial adult amphibians. Some caecilians possess [[Electroreception|electroreceptors]] that allow them to locate objects around them when submerged in water. The ears are well developed in frogs. There is no external ear, but the large circular [[Tympanum (anatomy)|eardrum]] lies on the surface of the head just behind the eye. This vibrates and sound is transmitted through a single bone, the [[stapes]], to the inner ear. Only high-frequency sounds like mating calls are heard in this way, but low-frequency noises can be detected through another mechanism. There is a patch of specialized haircells, called ''papilla amphibiorum'', in the inner ear capable of detecting deeper sounds. Another feature, unique to frogs and salamanders, is the columella-operculum complex adjoining the auditory capsule which is involved in the transmission of both airborne and seismic signals. The ears of salamanders and caecilians are less highly developed than those of frogs as they do not normally communicate with each other through the medium of sound. The eyes of tadpoles lack lids, but at metamorphosis, the [[cornea]] becomes more dome-shaped, the [[Lens (anatomy)|lens]] becomes flatter, and [[eyelid]] and associated glands and ducts develop. The adult eyes are an improvement on invertebrate eyes and were a first step in the development of more advanced vertebrate eyes. They allow colour vision and depth of focus. In the retinas are green rods, which are receptive to a wide range of wavelengths.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Anatomy and physiology", "Digestive and excretory systems"], "text": "Many amphibians catch their prey by flicking out an elongated tongue with a sticky tip and drawing it back into the mouth before seizing the item with their jaws. Some use inertial feeding to help them swallow the prey, repeatedly thrusting their head forward sharply causing the food to move backwards in their mouth by [[inertia]]. Most amphibians swallow their prey whole without much chewing so they possess voluminous stomachs. The short [[Esophagus|oesophagus]] is lined with [[Cilium|cilia]] that help to move the food to the stomach and [[mucus]] produced by glands in the mouth and [[pharynx]] eases its passage. The enzyme [[chitinase]] produced in the stomach helps digest the [[chitin]] cuticle of arthropod prey. Amphibians possess a [[pancreas]], [[liver]] and [[gall bladder]]. The liver is usually large with two lobes. Its size is determined by its function as a [[glycogen]] and fat storage unit, and may change with the seasons as these reserves are built or used up. [[Adipose tissue]] is another important means of storing energy and this occurs in the abdomen (in internal structures called fat bodies), under the skin and, in some salamanders, in the tail. There are two [[kidney]] located dorsally, near the roof of the body cavity. Their job is to filter the blood of metabolic waste and transport the urine via ureters to the urinary bladder where it is stored before being passed out periodically through the cloacal vent. Larvae and most aquatic adult amphibians excrete the nitrogen as ammonia in large quantities of dilute urine, while terrestrial species, with a greater need to conserve water, excrete the less toxic product urea. Some tree frogs with limited access to water excrete most of their metabolic waste as uric acid.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Anatomy and physiology", "Respiratory system"], "text": "The lungs in amphibians are primitive compared to those of amniotes, possessing few internal [[alveolar septum|septa]] and large [[Pulmonary alveolus|alveoli]], and consequently having a comparatively slow diffusion rate for oxygen entering the blood. Ventilation is accomplished by [[buccal pumping]]. Most amphibians, however, are able to exchange gases with the water or air via their skin. To enable sufficient [[cutaneous respiration]], the surface of their highly vascularised skin must remain moist to allow the oxygen to diffuse at a sufficiently high rate. Because oxygen concentration in the water increases at both low temperatures and high flow rates, aquatic amphibians in these situations can rely primarily on cutaneous respiration, as in the [[Telmatobius culeus|Titicaca water frog]] and the [[Cryptobranchus|hellbender salamander]]. In air, where oxygen is more concentrated, some small species can rely solely on cutaneous gas exchange, most famously the [[Plethodontidae|plethodontid salamanders]], which have neither lungs nor gills. Many aquatic salamanders and all tadpoles have gills in their larval stage, with some (such as the [[axolotl]]) retaining gills as aquatic adults.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Reproduction"], "text": "For the purpose of [[Biological reproduction|reproduction]] most amphibians require [[fresh water]] although some lay their eggs on land and have developed various means of keeping them moist. A few (e.g. ''[[Fejervarya raja]]'') can inhabit brackish water, but there are no true [[marine (ocean)|marine]] amphibians. There are reports, however, of particular amphibian populations unexpectedly invading marine waters. Such was the case with the [[Black Sea]] invasion of the natural hybrid ''[[Pelophylax esculentus]]'' reported in 2010. Several hundred frog species in [[adaptive radiation]] (e.g., ''[[Eleutherodactylus]]'', the Pacific ''[[Platymantis]]'', the Australo-Papuan [[microhylid]], and many other tropical frogs), however, do not need any water for [[breeding in the wild]]. They reproduce via direct development, an ecological and evolutionary adaptation that has allowed them to be completely independent from free-standing water. Almost all of these frogs live in wet [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical rainforests]] and their eggs hatch directly into miniature versions of the adult, passing through the [[tadpole]] stage within the egg. Reproductive success of many amphibians is dependent not only on the quantity of rainfall, but the seasonal timing. In the tropics, many amphibians breed continuously or at any time of year. In temperate regions, breeding is mostly seasonal, usually in the spring, and is triggered by increasing day length, rising temperatures or rainfall. Experiments have shown the importance of temperature, but the trigger event, especially in arid regions, is often a storm. In anurans, males usually arrive at the breeding sites before females and the vocal chorus they produce may stimulate ovulation in females and the endocrine activity of males that are not yet reproductively active. In caecilians, fertilisation is internal, the male extruding an [[intromittent organ]], the , and inserting it into the female cloaca. The paired Müllerian glands inside the male cloaca secrete a fluid which resembles that produced by mammalian [[prostate]] glands and which may transport and nourish the sperm. Fertilisation probably takes place in the oviduct. The majority of salamanders also engage in [[internal fertilisation]]. In most of these, the male deposits a spermatophore, a small packet of sperm on top of a gelatinous cone, on the [[Substrate (biology)|substrate]] either on land or in the water. The female takes up the sperm packet by grasping it with the lips of the cloaca and pushing it into the vent. The spermatozoa move to the spermatheca in the roof of the cloaca where they remain until ovulation which may be many months later. Courtship rituals and methods of transfer of the spermatophore vary between species. In some, the spermatophore may be placed directly into the female cloaca while in others, the female may be guided to the spermatophore or restrained with an embrace called [[amplexus]]. Certain primitive salamanders in the families Sirenidae, [[Hynobiidae]] and [[Cryptobranchidae]] practice external fertilisation in a similar manner to frogs, with the female laying the eggs in water and the male releasing sperm onto the egg mass.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Reproduction"], "text": "With a few exceptions, frogs use external fertilisation. The male grasps the female tightly with his forelimbs either behind the arms or in front of the back legs, or in the case of ''[[Epipedobates tricolor]]'', around the neck. They remain in amplexus with their cloacae positioned close together while the female lays the eggs and the male covers them with sperm. Roughened nuptial pads on the male's hands aid in retaining grip. Often the male collects and retains the egg mass, forming a sort of basket with the hind feet. An exception is the [[granular poison frog]] (''Oophaga granulifera'') where the male and female place their cloacae in close proximity while facing in opposite directions and then release eggs and sperm simultaneously. The [[tailed frog]] (''Ascaphus truei'') exhibits internal fertilisation. The \"tail\" is only possessed by the male and is an extension of the cloaca and used to inseminate the female. This frog lives in fast-flowing streams and internal fertilisation prevents the sperm from being washed away before fertilisation occurs. The sperm may be retained in storage tubes attached to the [[oviduct]] until the following spring. Most frogs can be classified as either prolonged or explosive breeders. Typically, prolonged breeders congregate at a breeding site, the males usually arriving first, calling and setting up territories. Other satellite males remain quietly nearby, waiting for their opportunity to take over a territory. The females arrive sporadically, mate selection takes place and eggs are laid. The females depart and territories may change hands. More females appear and in due course, the breeding season comes to an end. Explosive breeders on the other hand are found where temporary pools appear in dry regions after rainfall. These frogs are typically [[wikt:fossorial|fossorial]] species that emerge after heavy rains and congregate at a breeding site. They are attracted there by the calling of the first male to find a suitable place, perhaps a pool that forms in the same place each rainy season. The assembled frogs may call in unison and frenzied activity ensues, the males scrambling to mate with the usually smaller number of females. There is a direct competition between males to win the attention of the females in salamanders and newts, with elaborate courtship displays to keep the female's attention long enough to get her interested in choosing him to [[mating|mate]] with. Some species store [[sperm]] through long breeding seasons, as the extra time may allow for interactions with rival sperm.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Life cycle"], "text": "Most amphibians go through [[metamorphosis]], a process of significant morphological change after birth. In typical amphibian development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. Frogs, toads and salamanders all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills. Metamorphosis in amphibians is regulated by [[thyroxine]] concentration in the blood, which stimulates metamorphosis, and [[prolactin]], which counteracts thyroxine's effect. Specific events are dependent on threshold values for different tissues. Because most embryonic development is outside the parental body, it is subject to many adaptations due to specific environmental circumstances. For this reason tadpoles can have horny ridges instead of teeth, whisker-like skin extensions or fins. They also make use of a sensory lateral line organ similar to that of fish. After metamorphosis, these organs become redundant and will be reabsorbed by controlled cell death, called [[apoptosis]]. The variety of adaptations to specific environmental circumstances among amphibians is wide, with many discoveries still being made.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Life cycle", "Eggs"], "text": "The egg of an amphibian is typically surrounded by a transparent gelatinous covering secreted by the oviducts and containing [[mucoprotein]] and [[mucopolysaccharide]]. This capsule is permeable to water and gases, and swells considerably as it absorbs water. The ovum is at first rigidly held, but in fertilised eggs the innermost layer liquefies and allows the [[embryo]] to move freely. This also happens in salamander eggs, even when they are unfertilised. Eggs of some salamanders and frogs contain unicellular green algae. These penetrate the jelly envelope after the eggs are laid and may increase the supply of oxygen to the embryo through photosynthesis. They seem to both speed up the development of the larvae and reduce mortality. Most eggs contain the pigment [[melanin]] which raises their temperature through the absorption of light and also protects them against [[ultraviolet radiation]]. Caecilians, some [[plethodontid]] salamanders and certain frogs lay eggs underground that are unpigmented. In the [[wood frog]] (''Rana sylvatica''), the interior of the globular egg cluster has been found to be up to warmer than its surroundings, which is an advantage in its cool northern habitat. The eggs may be deposited singly or in small groups, or may take the form of spherical egg masses, rafts or long strings. In terrestrial caecilians, the eggs are laid in grape-like clusters in burrows near streams. The amphibious salamander ''[[Ensatina]]'' attaches its similar clusters by stalks to underwater stems and roots. The [[Eleutherodactylus planirostris|greenhouse frog]] (''Eleutherodactylus planirostris'') lays eggs in small groups in the soil where they develop in about two weeks directly into juvenile frogs without an intervening larval stage. The [[tungara frog]] (''Physalaemus pustulosus'') builds a floating nest from foam to protect its eggs. First a raft is built, then eggs are laid in the centre, and finally a foam cap is overlaid. The foam has anti-microbial properties. It contains no [[detergent]] but is created by whipping up [[protein]] and [[lectin]] secreted by the female.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Life cycle", "Larvae"], "text": "The eggs of amphibians are typically laid in water and hatch into free-living larvae that complete their development in water and later transform into either aquatic or terrestrial adults. In many species of frog and in most lungless salamanders (Plethodontidae), direct development takes place, the larvae growing within the eggs and emerging as miniature adults. Many caecilians and some other amphibians lay their eggs on land, and the newly hatched larvae wriggle or are transported to water bodies. Some caecilians, the [[alpine salamander]] (''Salamandra atra'') and some of the [[Nectophrynoides|African live-bearing toads]] (''Nectophrynoides spp.'') are [[Viviparity|viviparous]]. Their larvae feed on glandular secretions and develop within the female's oviduct, often for long periods. Other amphibians, but not caecilians, are [[Ovoviviparity|ovoviviparous]]. The eggs are retained in or on the parent's body, but the larvae subsist on the yolks of their eggs and receive no nourishment from the adult. The larvae emerge at varying stages of their growth, either before or after metamorphosis, according to their species. The toad genus ''Nectophrynoides'' exhibits all of these developmental patterns among its dozen or so members.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Life cycle", "Larvae", "Frogs"], "text": "Frog larvae are known as tadpoles and typically have oval bodies and long, vertically flattened tails with fins. The free-living larvae are normally fully aquatic, but the tadpoles of some species (such as ''[[Nannophrys ceylonensis]]'') are semi-terrestrial and live among wet rocks. Tadpoles have cartilaginous skeletons, gills for respiration (external gills at first, internal gills later), [[lateral line system]] and large tails that they use for swimming. Newly hatched tadpoles soon develop gill pouches that cover the gills. The lungs develop early and are used as accessory breathing organs, the tadpoles rising to the water surface to gulp air. Some species complete their development inside the egg and hatch directly into small frogs. These larvae do not have gills but instead have specialised areas of skin through which respiration takes place. While tadpoles do not have true teeth, in most species, the jaws have long, parallel rows of small keratinized structures called keradonts surrounded by a horny beak. Front legs are formed under the gill sac and hind legs become visible a few days later. Iodine and T4 (over stimulate the spectacular [[apoptosis]] [programmed cell death] of the cells of the larval gills, tail and fins) also stimulate the [[evolution of nervous systems]] transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous frog with better neurological, visuospatial, olfactory and cognitive abilities for hunting. In fact, tadpoles developing in ponds and streams are typically [[herbivore|herbivorous]]. Pond tadpoles tend to have deep bodies, large caudal fins and small mouths; they swim in the quiet waters feeding on growing or loose fragments of vegetation. Stream dwellers mostly have larger mouths, shallow bodies and caudal fins; they attach themselves to plants and stones and feed on the surface films of [[algae]] and bacteria. They also feed on [[diatom]], filtered from the water through the [[gill]], and stir up the sediment at bottom of the pond, ingesting edible fragments. They have a relatively long, spiral-shaped gut to enable them to digest this diet. Some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage, eating insects, smaller tadpoles and fish. Young of the [[Cuban tree frog]] (''Osteopilus septentrionalis'') can occasionally be [[Cannibalism (zoology)|cannibalistic]], the younger tadpoles attacking a larger, more developed tadpole when it is undergoing metamorphosis. At metamorphosis, rapid changes in the body take place as the lifestyle of the frog changes completely. The spiral‐shaped mouth with horny tooth ridges is reabsorbed together with the spiral gut. The animal develops a large jaw, and its gills disappear along with its gill sac. Eyes and legs grow quickly, and a tongue is formed. There are associated changes in the neural networks such as development of stereoscopic vision and loss of the lateral line system. All this can happen in about a day. A few days later, the tail is reabsorbed, due to the higher thyroxine concentration required for this to take place.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Life cycle", "Larvae", "Salamanders"], "text": "At hatching, a typical salamander larva has eyes without lids, teeth in both upper and lower jaws, three pairs of feathery external gills, a somewhat laterally flattened body and a long tail with [[Anatomical terms of location#Dorsal and ventral|dorsal]] and [[Anatomical terms of location#Dorsal and ventral|ventral]] fins. The forelimbs may be partially developed and the hind limbs are rudimentary in pond-living species but may be rather more developed in species that reproduce in moving water. Pond-type larvae often have a pair of balancers, rod-like structures on either side of the head that may prevent the gills from becoming clogged up with sediment. Some members of the genera ''[[Ambystoma]]'' and ''[[Dicamptodon]]'' have larvae that never fully develop into the adult form, but this varies with species and with populations. The [[northwestern salamander]] (''Ambystoma gracile'') is one of these and, depending on environmental factors, either remains permanently in the larval state, a condition known as [[neoteny]], or transforms into an adult. Both of these are able to breed. Neoteny occurs when the animal's growth rate is very low and is usually linked to adverse conditions such as low water temperatures that may change the response of the tissues to the hormone thyroxine. Other factors that may inhibit metamorphosis include lack of food, lack of trace elements and competition from [[conspecific]]. The [[tiger salamander]] (''Ambystoma tigrinum'') also sometimes behaves in this way and may grow particularly large in the process. The adult tiger salamander is terrestrial, but the larva is aquatic and able to breed while still in the larval state. When conditions are particularly inhospitable on land, larval breeding may allow continuation of a population that would otherwise die out. There are fifteen species of [[wikt:obligate|obligate]] neotenic salamanders, including species of ''[[Necturus]]'', ''[[Olm|Proteus]]'' and ''Amphiuma'', and many examples of [[wikt:facultative|facultative]] ones that adopt this strategy under appropriate environmental circumstances. Lungless salamanders in the family Plethodontidae are terrestrial and lay a small number of unpigmented eggs in a cluster among damp leaf litter. Each egg has a large yolk sac and the larva feeds on this while it develops inside the egg, emerging fully formed as a juvenile salamander. The female salamander often broods the eggs. In the genus ''[[Ensatinas]]'', the female has been observed to coil around them and press her throat area against them, effectively massaging them with a mucous secretion.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Life cycle", "Larvae", "Salamanders"], "text": "In newts and salamanders, metamorphosis is less dramatic than in frogs. This is because the larvae are already carnivorous and continue to feed as predators when they are adults so few changes are needed to their digestive systems. Their lungs are functional early, but the larvae do not make as much use of them as do tadpoles. Their gills are never covered by gill sacs and are reabsorbed just before the animals leave the water. Other changes include the reduction in size or loss of tail fins, the closure of gill slits, thickening of the skin, the development of eyelids, and certain changes in dentition and tongue structure. Salamanders are at their most vulnerable at metamorphosis as swimming speeds are reduced and transforming tails are encumbrances on land. Adult salamanders often have an aquatic phase in spring and summer, and a land phase in winter. For adaptation to a water phase, prolactin is the required hormone, and for adaptation to the land phase, thyroxine. External gills do not return in subsequent aquatic phases because these are completely absorbed upon leaving the water for the first time.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Life cycle", "Larvae", "Caecilians"], "text": "Most terrestrial caecilians that lay eggs do so in burrows or moist places on land near bodies of water. The development of the young of ''[[Ichthyophis glutinosus]]'', a species from Sri Lanka, has been much studied. The eel-like larvae hatch out of the eggs and make their way to water. They have three pairs of external red feathery gills, a blunt head with two rudimentary eyes, a lateral line system and a short tail with fins. They swim by undulating their body from side to side. They are mostly active at night, soon lose their gills and make sorties onto land. Metamorphosis is gradual. By the age of about ten months they have developed a pointed head with sensory tentacles near the mouth and lost their eyes, lateral line systems and tails. The skin thickens, embedded scales develop and the body divides into segments. By this time, the caecilian has constructed a burrow and is living on land. In the majority of species of caecilians, the young are produced by viviparity. ''[[Typhlonectes compressicauda]]'', a species from South America, is typical of these. Up to nine larvae can develop in the oviduct at any one time. They are elongated and have paired sac-like gills, small eyes and specialised scraping teeth. At first, they feed on the yolks of the eggs, but as this source of nourishment declines they begin to rasp at the ciliated epithelial cells that line the oviduct. This stimulates the secretion of fluids rich in [[lipid]] and mucoproteins on which they feed along with scrapings from the oviduct wall. They may increase their length sixfold and be two-fifths as long as their mother before being born. By this time they have undergone metamorphosis, lost their eyes and gills, developed a thicker skin and mouth tentacles, and reabsorbed their teeth. A permanent set of teeth grow through soon after birth. The ringed caecilian (''[[Siphonops annulatus]]'') has developed a unique adaptation for the purposes of reproduction. The progeny feed on a skin layer that is specially developed by the adult in a phenomenon known as maternal dermatophagy. The brood feed as a batch for about seven minutes at intervals of approximately three days which gives the skin an opportunity to regenerate. Meanwhile, they have been observed to ingest fluid exuded from the maternal cloaca.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Life cycle", "Parental care"], "text": "The care of offspring among amphibians has been little studied but, in general, the larger the number of eggs in a batch, the less likely it is that any degree of parental care takes place. Nevertheless, it is estimated that in up to 20% of amphibian species, one or both adults play some role in the care of the young. Those species that breed in smaller water bodies or other specialised habitats tend to have complex patterns of behaviour in the care of their young. Many woodland salamanders lay clutches of eggs under dead logs or stones on land. The [[black mountain salamander]] (''Desmognathus welteri'') does this, the mother brooding the eggs and guarding them from predation as the embryos feed on the yolks of their eggs. When fully developed, they break their way out of the egg capsules and disperse as juvenile salamanders. The male hellbender, a primitive salamander, excavates an underwater nest and encourages females to lay there. The male then guards the site for the two or three months before the eggs hatch, using body undulations to fan the eggs and increase their supply of oxygen. The male ''[[Colostethus subpunctatus]]'', a tiny frog, protects the egg cluster which is hidden under a stone or log. When the eggs hatch, the male transports the tadpoles on his back, stuck there by a mucous secretion, to a temporary pool where he dips himself into the water and the tadpoles drop off. The male [[Common midwife toad|midwife toad]] (''Alytes obstetricans'') winds egg strings round his thighs and carries the eggs around for up to eight weeks. He keeps them moist and when they are ready to hatch, he visits a pond or ditch and releases the tadpoles. The female [[gastric-brooding frog]] (''Rheobatrachus spp.'') reared larvae in her stomach after swallowing either the eggs or hatchlings; however, this stage was never observed before the species became extinct. The tadpoles secrete a hormone that inhibits digestion in the mother whilst they develop by consuming their very large yolk supply. The [[pouched frog]] (''Assa darlingtoni'') lays eggs on the ground. When they hatch, the male carries the tadpoles around in brood pouches on his hind legs. The aquatic [[Surinam toad]] (''Pipa pipa'') raises its young in pores on its back where they remain until metamorphosis. The granular poison frog (''Oophaga granulifera'') is typical of a number of tree frogs in the poison dart frog family [[Dendrobatidae]]. Its eggs are laid on the forest floor and when they hatch, the tadpoles are carried one by one on the back of an adult to a suitable water-filled crevice such as the [[wikt:axil|axil]] of a leaf or the [[Rosette (botany)|rosette]] of a [[Bromeliaceae|bromeliad]]. The female visits the nursery sites regularly and deposits unfertilised eggs in the water and these are consumed by the tadpoles.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Feeding and diet"], "text": "With a few exceptions, adult amphibians are [[Predation|predators]], feeding on virtually anything that moves that they can swallow. The diet mostly consists of small prey that do not move too fast such as beetles, caterpillars, earthworms and spiders. The sirens (''[[Siren (genus)|Siren spp.]]'') often ingest aquatic plant material with the invertebrates on which they feed and a Brazilian tree frog (''[[Xenohyla truncata]]'') includes a large quantity of fruit in its diet. The [[Mexican burrowing toad]] (''Rhinophrynus dorsalis'') has a specially adapted tongue for picking up ants and termites. It projects it with the tip foremost whereas other frogs flick out the rear part first, their tongues being hinged at the front. Food is mostly selected by sight, even in conditions of dim light. Movement of the prey triggers a feeding response. Frogs have been caught on fish hooks baited with red flannel and [[Rana clamitans|green frogs]] (''Rana clamitans'') have been found with stomachs full of elm seeds that they had seen floating past. Toads, salamanders and caecilians also use smell to detect prey. This response is mostly secondary because salamanders have been observed to remain stationary near odoriferous prey but only feed if it moves. Cave-dwelling amphibians normally hunt by smell. Some salamanders seem to have learned to recognize immobile prey when it has no smell, even in complete darkness. Amphibians usually swallow food whole but may chew it lightly first to subdue it. They typically have small hinged [[pedicellate teeth]], a feature unique to amphibians. The base and crown of these are composed of [[dentine]] separated by an [[Calcification|uncalcified]] layer and they are replaced at intervals. Salamanders, caecilians and some frogs have one or two rows of teeth in both jaws, but some frogs (''Rana spp.'') lack teeth in the lower jaw, and toads (''Bufo spp.'') have no teeth. In many amphibians there are also [[vomerine teeth]] attached to a facial bone in the roof of the mouth. The [[tiger salamander]] (''Ambystoma tigrinum'') is typical of the frogs and salamanders that hide under cover ready to ambush unwary invertebrates. Others amphibians, such as the ''Bufo spp.'' toads, actively search for prey, while the [[Argentine horned frog]] (''Ceratophrys ornata'') lures inquisitive prey closer by raising its hind feet over its back and vibrating its yellow toes. Among leaf litter frogs in Panama, frogs that actively hunt prey have narrow mouths and are slim, often brightly coloured and toxic, while ambushers have wide mouths and are broad and well-camouflaged. Caecilians do not flick their tongues, but catch their prey by grabbing it with their slightly backward-pointing teeth. The struggles of the prey and further jaw movements work it inwards and the caecilian usually retreats into its burrow. The subdued prey is gulped down whole.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Feeding and diet"], "text": "When they are newly hatched, frog larvae feed on the yolk of the egg. When this is exhausted some move on to feed on bacteria, algal crusts, detritus and raspings from submerged plants. Water is drawn in through their mouths, which are usually at the bottom of their heads, and passes through branchial food traps between their mouths and their gills where fine particles are trapped in mucus and filtered out. Others have specialised mouthparts consisting of a horny beak edged by several rows of labial teeth. They scrape and bite food of many kinds as well as stirring up the bottom sediment, filtering out larger particles with the papillae around their mouths. Some, such as the spadefoot toads, have strong biting jaws and are carnivorous or even cannibalistic. [[file:Sophisticated-Communication-in-the-Brazilian-Torrent-Frog-Hylodes-japi-pone.0145444.s001.oga|left|thumb|Audio showing Brazilian torrent frog males executing advertisement, peep, and squeal calls.]]", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Vocalization"], "text": "The calls made by caecilians and salamanders are limited to occasional soft squeaks, grunts or hisses and have not been much studied. A clicking sound sometimes produced by caecilians may be a means of orientation, as in bats, or a form of communication. Most salamanders are considered voiceless, but the [[California giant salamander]] (''Dicamptodon ensatus'') has vocal cords and can produce a rattling or barking sound. Some species of salamander emit a quiet squeak or yelp if attacked. Frogs are much more vocal, especially during the breeding season when they use their voices to attract mates. The presence of a particular species in an area may be more easily discerned by its characteristic call than by a fleeting glimpse of the animal itself. In most species, the sound is produced by expelling air from the lungs over the vocal cords into an [[Gular skin|air sac]] or sacs in the throat or at the corner of the mouth. This may distend like a balloon and acts as a resonator, helping to transfer the sound to the atmosphere, or the water at times when the animal is submerged. The main vocalisation is the male's loud advertisement call which seeks to both encourage a female to approach and discourage other males from intruding on its territory. This call is modified to a quieter courtship call on the approach of a female or to a more aggressive version if a male intruder draws near. Calling carries the risk of attracting predators and involves the expenditure of much energy. Other calls include those given by a female in response to the advertisement call and a release call given by a male or female during unwanted attempts at amplexus. When a frog is attacked, a distress or fright call is emitted, often resembling a scream. The usually nocturnal Cuban tree frog (''Osteopilus septentrionalis'') produces a rain call when there is rainfall during daylight hours.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Territorial behaviour"], "text": "Little is known of the territorial behaviour of caecilians, but some frogs and salamanders defend home ranges. These are usually feeding, breeding or sheltering sites. Males normally exhibit such behaviour though in some species, females and even juveniles are also involved. Although in many frog species, females are larger than males, this is not the case in most species where males are actively involved in territorial defence. Some of these have specific adaptations such as enlarged teeth for biting or spines on the chest, arms or thumbs. In salamanders, defence of a territory involves adopting an aggressive posture and if necessary attacking the intruder. This may involve snapping, chasing and sometimes biting, occasionally causing the loss of a tail. The behaviour of [[red back salamander]] (''Plethodon cinereus'') has been much studied. 91% of marked individuals that were later recaptured were within a metre (yard) of their original daytime retreat under a log or rock. A similar proportion, when moved experimentally a distance of , found their way back to their home base. The salamanders left odour marks around their territories which averaged in size and were sometimes inhabited by a male and female pair. These deterred the intrusion of others and delineated the boundaries between neighbouring areas. Much of their behaviour seemed stereotyped and did not involve any actual contact between individuals. An aggressive posture involved raising the body off the ground and glaring at the opponent who often turned away submissively. If the intruder persisted, a biting lunge was usually launched at either the tail region or the naso-labial grooves. Damage to either of these areas can reduce the fitness of the rival, either because of the need to regenerate tissue or because it impairs its ability to detect food. In frogs, male territorial behaviour is often observed at breeding locations; calling is both an announcement of ownership of part of this resource and an advertisement call to potential mates. In general, a deeper voice represents a heavier and more powerful individual, and this may be sufficient to prevent intrusion by smaller males. Much energy is used in the vocalization and it takes a toll on the territory holder who may be displaced by a fitter rival if he tires. There is a tendency for males to tolerate the holders of neighbouring territories while vigorously attacking unknown intruders. Holders of territories have a \"home advantage\" and usually come off better in an encounter between two similar-sized frogs. If threats are insufficient, chest to chest tussles may take place. Fighting methods include pushing and shoving, deflating the opponent's vocal sac, seizing him by the head, jumping on his back, biting, chasing, splashing, and ducking him under the water.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Defence mechanisms"], "text": "Amphibians have soft bodies with thin skins, and lack claws, defensive armour, or spines. Nevertheless, they have evolved various defence mechanisms to keep themselves alive. The first line of defence in salamanders and frogs is the mucous secretion that they produce. This keeps their skin moist and makes them slippery and difficult to grip. The secretion is often sticky and distasteful or toxic. Snakes have been observed yawning and gaping when trying to swallow [[African clawed frog]] (''Xenopus laevis''), which gives the frogs an opportunity to escape. Caecilians have been little studied in this respect, but the Cayenne caecilian (''Typhlonectes compressicauda'') produces toxic mucus that has killed predatory fish in a feeding experiment in Brazil. In some salamanders, the skin is poisonous. The [[rough-skinned newt]] (''Taricha granulosa'') from North America and other members of its genus contain the neurotoxin [[tetrodotoxin]] (TTX), the most toxic non-protein substance known and almost identical to that produced by [[pufferfish]]. Handling the newts does not cause harm, but ingestion of even the most minute amounts of the skin is deadly. In feeding trials, fish, frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals were all found to be susceptible. The only predators with some tolerance to the poison are certain populations of [[Common Garter Snake|common garter snake]] (''Thamnophis sirtalis''). In locations where both snake and salamander co-exist, the snakes have developed immunity through genetic changes and they feed on the amphibians with impunity. [[Coevolution]] occurs with the newt increasing its toxic capabilities at the same rate as the snake further develops its immunity. Some frogs and toads are toxic, the main poison glands being at the side of the neck and under the warts on the back. These regions are presented to the attacking animal and their secretions may be foul-tasting or cause various physical or neurological symptoms. Altogether, over 200 toxins have been isolated from the limited number of amphibian species that have been investigated. Poisonous species often use bright colouring to warn potential predators of their toxicity. These warning colours tend to be red or yellow combined with black, with the [[fire salamander]] (''Salamandra salamandra'') being an example. Once a predator has sampled one of these, it is likely to remember the colouration next time it encounters a similar animal. In some species, such as the [[fire-bellied toad]] (''Bombina spp.''), the warning colouration is on the belly and these animals adopt a defensive pose when attacked, exhibiting their bright colours to the predator. The frog ''[[Allobates zaparo]]'' is not poisonous, but [[Batesian mimicry|mimics]] the appearance of other toxic species in its locality, a strategy that may deceive predators.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Defence mechanisms"], "text": "Many amphibians are nocturnal and hide during the day, thereby avoiding diurnal predators that hunt by sight. Other amphibians use [[camouflage]] to avoid being detected. They have various colourings such as mottled browns, greys and olives to blend into the background. Some salamanders adopt defensive poses when faced by a potential predator such as the North American [[northern short-tailed shrew]] (''Blarina brevicauda''). Their bodies writhe and they raise and lash their tails which makes it difficult for the predator to avoid contact with their poison-producing granular glands. A few salamanders will autotomise their tails when attacked, sacrificing this part of their anatomy to enable them to escape. The tail may have a constriction at its base to allow it to be easily detached. The tail is regenerated later, but the energy cost to the animal of replacing it is significant. Some frogs and toads inflate themselves to make themselves look large and fierce, and some spadefoot toads (''[[Pelobates]] spp'') scream and leap towards the attacker. Giant salamanders of the genus ''[[Andrias]]'', as well as [[Ceratophryinae|Ceratophrine]] and ''[[Pyxicephalus]]'' frogs possess sharp teeth and are capable of drawing blood with a defensive bite. The [[blackbelly salamander]] (''Desmognathus quadramaculatus'') can bite an attacking common garter snake (''Thamnophis sirtalis'') two or three times its size on the head and often manages to escape.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Cognition"], "text": "In amphibians, there is evidence of [[habituation]], [[associative learning]] through both [[Classical conditioning|classical]] and [[instrumental learning]], and discrimination abilities. In one experiment, when offered live fruit flies (''[[Drosophila]] virilis''), salamanders chose the larger of 1 vs 2 and 2 vs 3. Frogs can distinguish between low numbers (1 vs 2, 2 vs 3, but not 3 vs 4) and large numbers (3 vs 6, 4 vs 8, but not 4 vs 6) of prey. This is irrespective of other characteristics, i.e. surface area, volume, weight and movement, although discrimination among large numbers may be based on surface area.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Conservation"], "text": "Dramatic declines in amphibian populations, including population crashes and mass localized [[extinction]], have been noted since the late 1980s from locations all over the world, and amphibian declines are thus perceived to be one of the most critical threats to global [[biodiversity]]. In 2004, the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) reported stating that currently birds, mammals, and amphibians extinction rates were at minimum 48 times greater than natural extinction rates—possibly 1,024 times higher. In 2006 there were believed to be 4,035 species of amphibians that depended on water at some stage during their life cycle. Of these, 1,356 (33.6%) were considered to be threatened and this figure is likely to be an underestimate because it excludes 1,427 species for which there was insufficient data to assess their status. A number of causes are believed to be involved, including [[habitat destruction]] and modification, [[over-exploitation]], [[pollution]], [[introduced species]], [[global warming]], [[endocrine-disrupting chemical|endocrine-disrupting pollutants]], destruction of the [[ozone layer]] ([[ultraviolet radiation]] has shown to be especially damaging to the skin, eyes, and eggs of amphibians), and diseases like [[chytridiomycosis]]. However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and are a topic of ongoing discussion. With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins, amphibians are often considered to be [[ecological indicator]]. In many terrestrial ecosystems, they constitute one of the largest parts of the vertebrate biomass. Any decline in amphibian numbers will affect the patterns of predation. The loss of carnivorous species near the top of the food chain will upset the delicate ecosystem balance and may cause dramatic increases in opportunistic species. In the Middle East, a growing appetite for eating frog legs and the consequent gathering of them for food was linked to an increase in [[mosquito]]. Predators that feed on amphibians are affected by their decline. The [[western terrestrial garter snake]] (''Thamnophis elegans'') in California is largely aquatic and depends heavily on two species of frog that are decreasing in numbers, the [[Yosemite toad]] (''Bufo canorus'') and the [[mountain yellow-legged frog]] (''Rana muscosa''), putting the snake's future at risk. If the snake were to become scarce, this would affect birds of prey and other predators that feed on it. Meanwhile, in the ponds and lakes, fewer frogs means fewer tadpoles. These normally play an important role in controlling the growth of algae and also forage on [[detritus]] that accumulates as sediment on the bottom. A reduction in the number of tadpoles may lead to an overgrowth of algae, resulting in depletion of oxygen in the water when the algae later die and decompose. Aquatic invertebrates and fish might then die and there would be unpredictable ecological consequences.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": ["Conservation"], "text": "A [[global strategy]] to stem the crisis was released in 2005 in the form of the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan. Developed by over eighty leading experts in the field, this call to action details what would be required to curtail amphibian declines and extinctions over the following five years and how much this would cost. The Amphibian Specialist Group of the IUCN is spearheading efforts to implement a comprehensive global strategy for amphibian conservation. [[Amphibian Ark]] is an organization that was formed to implement the ex-situ conservation recommendations of this plan, and they have been working with zoos and aquaria around the world, encouraging them to create assurance colonies of threatened amphibians. One such project is the Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project that built on existing conservation efforts in Panama to create a country-wide response to the threat of chytridiomycosis.", "id": "621", "title": "Amphibian", "categories": ["Amphibians", "Amphibious organisms", "Animal classes", "Extant Late Devonian first appearances", "Taxa named by John Edward Gray"], "seealso": ["List of amphibian genera", "List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States", "List of amphibians"]}
+{"headers": [], "text": "'''Alaska''' (; ; ; ; [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language|Yup'ik]]: ''Alaskaq''; ) is a [[U.S. state]] in the [[Western United States]], on the [[northwest]] extremity of the country's [[West Coast of the United States|west coast]]. A [[enclave and exclave|semi-exclave]] of the U.S., it borders the [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian province]] of [[British Columbia]] and territory of [[Yukon]] to the east and has a [[maritime border]] with Russia's [[Chukotka Autonomous Okrug]] to the west, just across the [[Bering Strait]]. To the north are the [[Chukchi Sea|Chukchi]] and [[Beaufort Sea|Beaufort]] seas of the Arctic Ocean, while the [[Pacific Ocean]] lies to the south and southwest. Alaska is by far the [[list of U.S. states and territories by area|largest U.S. state]] by area, comprising more total area than the next three largest states [[Texas]], [[California]], and [[Montana]] combined, and the [[list of country subdivisions by area|seventh largest subnational division in the world]]. It is the [[list of U.S. states and territories by population|third-least populous]] and the [[list of U.S. states and territories by population density|most sparsely populated]] state, but by far the continent's most populous territory located mostly north of the [[60th parallel north|60th parallel]], with a population of 736,081 as of 2020 — more than quadruple the combined populations of [[Northern Canada]] and [[Greenland]]. Approximately half of Alaska's residents live within the [[Anchorage metropolitan area]]. The state capital of [[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]] is the second-[[list of United States cities by area|largest city in the United States by area]], comprising more territory than the states of [[Rhode Island]] and [[Delaware]]. The former capital of Alaska, [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]], is the largest US city by area. Alaska was occupied by various indigenous peoples for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans. The state is considered the entry point for the settlement of [[North America]] by way of the [[Bering land bridge]]. The [[Russians]] were the first Europeans to settle the area beginning in the 18th century, eventually establishing [[Russian America]], which spanned most of the current state. The expense and difficulty of maintaining this distant possession prompted [[Alaska Purchase|its sale to the U.S.]] in 1867 for [[US$]].2 million (equivalent to $ million in ), or approximately two cents per acre ($4.74/km). The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a [[territories of the United States|territory]] on May 11, 1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3, 1959. While it has one of the smallest state economies in the country, Alaska's [[list of U.S. states by GDP per capita|per capita income is among the highest]], owing to a diversified economy dominated by fishing, natural gas, and [[petroleum|oil]], all of which it has in abundance. [[United States armed forces]] bases and [[tourism in Alaska|tourism]] are also a significant part of the [[economy of Alaska|economy]]; more than half the state is federally owned public land, including a multitude of [[United States National Forest|national forests]], parks, and [[national wildlife refuge|wildlife refuges]].", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": [], "text": "The [[Alaska Natives|indigenous population]] of Alaska is proportionally the highest of any U.S. state, at over 15 percent. Close to two dozen native languages are spoken, and Alaskan Natives exercise considerable influence in local and state politics.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The name \"Alaska\" () was introduced in the [[Russian America|Russian colonial period]] when it was used to refer to the [[Alaska Peninsula]]. It was derived from an [[Aleut language|Aleut-language]] [[idiom]], which figuratively refers to the mainland. Literally, it means ''object to which the action of the sea is directed''.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography"], "text": "Located at the northwest corner of [[North America]], Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States, but also has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the [[Aleutian Islands]] extend into the [[Eastern Hemisphere]]. Alaska is the only non-[[Contiguous United States|contiguous]] U.S. state on continental North America; about of [[British Columbia]] (Canada) separates Alaska from [[Washington (state)|Washington]]. It is technically part of the [[Continental United States|continental U.S.]], but is sometimes not included in colloquial use; Alaska is not part of the [[Contiguous United States|contiguous U.S.]], often called [[Outside (Alaska)|\"the Lower 48\"]]. The capital city, [[Juneau]], is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. The state is bordered by Canada's [[Yukon]] and [[British Columbia]] to the east (making it the only state to border a [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian territory]]), the [[Gulf of Alaska]] and the Pacific Ocean to the south and southwest, the [[Bering Sea]], [[Bering Strait]], and [[Chukchi Sea]] to the west and the Arctic Ocean to the north. Alaska's territorial waters touch Russia's territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian [[Big Diomede Island]] and Alaskan [[Little Diomede Island]] are only apart. Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U.S. states combined. At in area, Alaska is by far the largest state in the United States, and is more than twice the size of the second-largest U.S. state, [[Texas]]. Alaska is the seventh [[List of the largest country subdivisions by area|largest subnational division in the world]], and if it was an independent nation would be the 16th largest country in the world, as it is larger than [[Iran]].", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography", "Regions"], "text": "There are no officially defined borders demarcating the various regions of Alaska, but there are six widely accepted regions:", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography", "Regions", "South Central"], "text": "The most populous region of Alaska, containing [[Anchorage]], the [[Matanuska-Susitna Valley]] and the [[Kenai Peninsula]]. Rural, mostly unpopulated areas south of the [[Alaska Range]] and west of the [[Wrangell Mountains]] also fall within the definition of South Central, as do the [[Prince William Sound]] area and the communities of [[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]] and [[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]].", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography", "Regions", "Southeast"], "text": "Also referred to as the Panhandle or [[Inside Passage]], this is the region of Alaska closest to the contiguous states. As such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the [[Alaska Purchase]]. The region is dominated by the [[Alexander Archipelago]] as well as the [[Tongass National Forest]], the largest national forest in the United States. It contains the state capital [[Juneau]], the former capital [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]], and [[Ketchikan]], at one time Alaska's largest city. The [[Alaska Marine Highway]] provides a vital surface transportation link throughout the area and country, as only three communities ([[Haines, Alaska|Haines]], [[Hyder, Alaska|Hyder]] and [[Skagway, Alaska|Skagway]]) enjoy direct connections to the contiguous North American road system.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography", "Regions", "Interior"], "text": "The Interior is the largest region of Alaska; much of it is uninhabited wilderness. [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] is the only large city in the region. [[Denali National Park and Preserve]] is located here. [[Denali]], formerly Mount McKinley, is the highest mountain in North America, and is also located here.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography", "Regions", "Southwest"], "text": "Southwest Alaska is a sparsely inhabited region stretching some inland from the Bering Sea. Most of the population lives along the coast. [[Kodiak Island]] is also located in Southwest. The massive [[Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta]], one of the largest river deltas in the world, is here. Portions of the [[Alaska Peninsula]] are considered part of Southwest, with the remaining portions included with the Aleutian Islands (see below).", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography", "Regions", "North Slope"], "text": "The North Slope is mostly [[tundra]] peppered with small villages. The area is known for its massive reserves of crude oil and contains both the [[National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska]] and the [[Prudhoe Bay Oil Field]]. The city of [[Utqiaġvik, Alaska|Utqiaġvik]], formerly known as Barrow, is the northernmost city in the United States and is located here. The [[Northwest Arctic Borough, Alaska|Northwest Arctic area]], anchored by [[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]] and also containing the [[Kobuk River]] valley, is often regarded as being part of this region. However, the respective [[Inupiat people|Inupiat]] of the North Slope and of the Northwest Arctic seldom consider themselves to be one people.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography", "Regions", "Aleutian Islands"], "text": "More than 300 small volcanic islands make up this chain, which stretches more than into the Pacific Ocean. Some of these islands fall in the Eastern Hemisphere, but the [[International Date Line]] was drawn west of [[180th meridian|180°]] to keep the whole state, and thus the entire North American continent, within the same legal day. Two of the islands, [[Attu Island|Attu]] and [[Kiska]], were occupied by Japanese forces during World War II.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography", "Natural features"], "text": "With its myriad islands, Alaska has nearly of tidal shoreline. The [[Aleutian Islands]] chain extends west from the southern tip of the [[Alaska Peninsula]]. Many active [[volcano]] are found in the Aleutians and in coastal regions. [[Unimak Island]], for example, is home to [[Mount Shishaldin]], which is an occasionally smoldering volcano that rises to above the North Pacific. The chain of volcanoes extends to [[Mount Spurr]], west of Anchorage on the mainland. Geologists have identified Alaska as part of [[Wrangellia]], a large region consisting of multiple states and Canadian provinces in the [[Pacific Northwest]], which is actively undergoing [[plate tectonics|continent building]]. One of the world's largest tides occurs in [[Turnagain Arm]], just south of Anchorage, where tidal differences can be more than .", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography", "Lakes"], "text": "Alaska has more than three million lakes. [[Marshland]] and wetland [[permafrost]] cover (mostly in northern, western and southwest flatlands). Glacier ice covers about of Alaska. The [[Bering Glacier]] is the largest glacier in North America, covering alone.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography", "Land ownership"], "text": "According to an October 1998 report by the [[United States Bureau of Land Management]], approximately 65% of Alaska is owned and managed by the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. federal government]] as public lands, including a multitude of [[United States National Forest|national forests]], national parks, and [[national wildlife refuge]]. Of these, the [[Bureau of Land Management]] manages , or 23.8% of the state. The [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]] is managed by the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]]. It is the world's largest wildlife refuge, comprising . Of the remaining land area, the state of Alaska owns , its entitlement under the [[Alaska Statehood Act]]. A portion of that acreage is occasionally ceded to the organized boroughs presented above, under the statutory provisions pertaining to newly formed boroughs. Smaller portions are set aside for rural subdivisions and other homesteading-related opportunities. These are not very popular due to the often remote and roadless locations. The [[University of Alaska]], as a [[land grant university]], also owns substantial acreage which it manages independently. Another are owned by 12 regional, and scores of local, Native corporations created under the [[Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act]] (ANCSA) of 1971. [[Alaska Native Regional Corporation|Regional Native corporation]] [[Doyon, Limited]] often promotes itself as the largest private landowner in Alaska in advertisements and other communications. Provisions of ANCSA allowing the corporations' land holdings to be sold on the open market starting in 1991 were repealed before they could take effect. Effectively, the corporations hold title (including subsurface title in many cases, a privilege denied to individual Alaskans) but cannot sell the land. [[Alaska Native Allotment Act|Individual Native allotments]] can be and are sold on the open market, however. Various private interests own the remaining land, totaling about one percent of the state. Alaska is, by a large margin, the state with the smallest percentage of private land ownership when Native corporation holdings are excluded.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Geography", "Climate"], "text": "The climate in South and Southeast Alaska is a mid-latitude [[oceanic climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]]: ''Cfb''), and a subarctic oceanic climate (Köppen ''Cfc'') in the northern parts. On an annual basis, Southeast is both the wettest and warmest part of Alaska with milder temperatures in the winter and high precipitation throughout the year. Juneau averages over of precipitation a year, and [[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]] averages over . This is also the only region in Alaska in which the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months. The climate of [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] and south central Alaska is mild by Alaskan standards due to the region's proximity to the seacoast. While the area gets less rain than southeast Alaska, it gets more snow, and days tend to be clearer. On average, [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] receives of precipitation a year, with around of snow, although there are areas in the south central which receive far more snow. It is a subarctic climate ([[Köppen climate classification#GROUP D: Continental/microthermal climate|Köppen: ''Dfc'']]) due to its brief, cool summers. The climate of [[Southwest Alaska|Western Alaska]] is determined in large part by the [[Bering Sea]] and the [[Gulf of Alaska]]. It is a subarctic oceanic climate in the southwest and a continental subarctic climate farther north. The temperature is somewhat moderate considering how far north the area is. This region has a tremendous amount of variety in precipitation. An area stretching from the northern side of the Seward Peninsula to the [[Kobuk River]] valley (i. e., the region around [[Kotzebue Sound]]) is technically a [[desert]], with portions receiving less than of precipitation annually. On the other extreme, some locations between [[Dillingham, Alaska|Dillingham]] and [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]] average around of precipitation. The climate of the interior of Alaska is subarctic. Some of the highest and lowest temperatures in Alaska occur around the area near [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]]. The summers may have temperatures reaching into the 90s °F (the low-to-mid 30s °C), while in the winter, the temperature can fall below . Precipitation is sparse in the Interior, often less than a year, but what precipitation falls in the winter tends to stay the entire winter. The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in Alaska are both in the Interior. The highest is in [[Fort Yukon, Alaska|Fort Yukon]] (which is just inside the arctic circle) on June 27, 1915, making Alaska tied with Hawaii as the state with the lowest high temperature in the United States. The lowest official Alaska temperature is in [[Prospect Creek, Alaska|Prospect Creek]] on January 23, 1971, one degree above the lowest temperature recorded in continental North America (in [[Snag, Yukon|Snag, Yukon, Canada]]). The climate in the extreme north of Alaska is [[polar climate|Arctic]] ([[Köppen climate classification#GROUP E: Polar climates|Köppen: ''ET'']]) with long, very cold winters and short, cool summers. Even in July, the average low temperature in [[Utqiaġvik, Alaska|Utqiaġvik]] is . Precipitation is light in this part of Alaska, with many places averaging less than per year, mostly as snow which stays on the ground almost the entire year.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Pre-colonization"], "text": "Numerous indigenous peoples occupied Alaska for thousands of years before the arrival of European peoples to the area. Linguistic and DNA studies done here have provided evidence for the settlement of North America by way of the [[Bering land bridge]]. At the [[Upward Sun River site]] in the Tanana River Valley in Alaska, remains of a six-week-old infant were found. The baby's DNA showed that she belonged to a population that was genetically separate from other native groups present elsewhere in the [[New World]] at the end of the [[Pleistocene]]. Ben Potter, the [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] archaeologist who unearthed the remains at the Upward Sun River site in 2013, named this new group [[Ancient Beringians]]. The [[Tlingit people]] developed a society with a [[matrilineal]] kinship system of property inheritance and descent in what is today Southeast Alaska, along with parts of British Columbia and the Yukon. Also in Southeast were the [[Haida people|Haida]], now well known for their unique arts. The [[Tsimshian]] people came to Alaska from British Columbia in 1887, when President [[Grover Cleveland]], and later the U.S. Congress, granted them permission to settle on [[Annette Island]] and found the town of [[Metlakatla, Alaska|Metlakatla]]. All three of these peoples, as well as other [[indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast]], experienced [[smallpox]] outbreaks from the late 18th through the mid-19th century, with the most devastating [[epidemics]] occurring in the 1830s and 1860s, resulting in high fatalities and social disruption. The Aleutian Islands are still home to the [[Aleut people]]'s seafaring society, although they were the first Native Alaskans to be exploited by the Russians. Western and Southwestern Alaska are home to the [[Yup'ik]], while their cousins the [[Alutiiq people|Alutiiq ~ Sugpiaq]] live in what is now Southcentral Alaska. The [[Gwich'in people]] of the northern Interior region are [[Alaskan Athabaskans|Athabaskan]] and primarily known today for their dependence on the caribou within the much-contested [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]]. The North Slope and [[Little Diomede Island]] are occupied by the widespread [[Inupiat people]].", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Colonization"], "text": "Some researchers believe the first Russian settlement in Alaska was established in the 17th century. According to this hypothesis, in 1648 several [[Koch (boat)|koches]] of [[Semyon Dezhnyov]]'s expedition came ashore in Alaska by storm and founded this settlement. This hypothesis is based on the testimony of [[Chukchi people|Chukchi]] geographer Nikolai Daurkin, who had visited Alaska in 1764–1765 and who had reported on a village on the Kheuveren River, populated by \"bearded men\" who \"pray to the [[icons]]\". Some modern researchers associate Kheuveren with [[Koyuk River]]. The first European vessel to reach Alaska is generally held to be the ''St. Gabriel'' under the authority of the surveyor [[Mikhail Gvozdev|M. S. Gvozdev]] and assistant navigator [[Ivan Fyodorov (navigator)|I. Fyodorov]] on August 21, 1732, during an expedition of Siberian cossack A. F. Shestakov and Russian explorer [[Dmitry Pavlutsky]] (1729–1735). Another European contact with Alaska occurred in 1741, when [[Vitus Bering]] led an [[second Kamchatka expedition|expedition]] for the Russian Navy aboard the ''St. Peter''. After his crew returned to Russia with [[sea otter]] pelts judged to be the finest fur in the world, small associations of fur traders began to sail from the shores of Siberia toward the Aleutian Islands. The first permanent European settlement was founded in 1784. Between 1774 and 1800, [[Viceroyalty of New Spain|Spain]] sent several [[Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest|expeditions to Alaska]] to assert its claim over the Pacific Northwest. In 1789, a Spanish settlement and [[Fort San Miguel|fort]] were built in [[Nootka Sound]]. These expeditions gave names to places such as [[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]], [[Bucareli Sound]], and [[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]]. Later, the [[Russian-American Company]] carried out an expanded colonization program during the early-to-mid-19th century. [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]], renamed [[New Archangel]] from 1804 to 1867, on [[Baranof Island]] in the [[Alexander Archipelago]] in what is now [[Southeast Alaska]], became the capital of [[Russian America]]. It remained the capital after the colony was transferred to the United States. The Russians never fully colonized Alaska, and the colony was never very profitable. Evidence of Russian settlement in names and churches survive throughout southeast Alaska.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Colonization"], "text": "[[William H. Seward]], the 24th [[United States Secretary of State]], negotiated the [[Alaska Purchase]] (also known as Seward's Folly) with the Russians in 1867 for $7.2 million. Russia's contemporary ruler [[Tsar]] [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]], the [[Emperor of the Russian Empire]], [[King of Poland]] and [[Grand Duke of Finland]], also planned the sale; the purchase was made on March 30, 1867. Six months later the commissioners arrived in Sitka and the formal transfer was arranged; the formal flag-raising took place at Fort Sitka on October 18, 1867. In the ceremony 250 uniformed U.S. soldiers marched to the governor's house at \"Castle Hill\", where the Russian troops lowered the Russian flag and the U.S. flag was raised. This event is celebrated as [[Alaska Day]], a legal holiday on October 18. Alaska was loosely governed by the military initially, and was administered as a [[District of Alaska|district]] starting in 1884, with a governor appointed by the President of the United States. A federal [[United States territorial court|district court]] was headquartered in Sitka. For most of Alaska's first decade under the United States flag, Sitka was the only community inhabited by American settlers. They organized a \"provisional city government\", which was Alaska's first municipal government, but not in a legal sense. Legislation allowing Alaskan communities to legally incorporate as cities did not come about until 1900, and [[Home rule#Home rule in the United States|home rule]] for cities was extremely limited or unavailable until statehood took effect in 1959.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Alaska as an incorporated U.S. territory"], "text": "Starting in the 1890s and stretching in some places to the early 1910s, gold rushes in Alaska and the nearby [[Yukon|Yukon Territory]] brought thousands of miners and settlers to Alaska. Alaska was officially incorporated as an organized territory in 1912. Alaska's capital, which had been in [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]] until 1906, was moved north to [[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]]. Construction of the [[Alaska Governor's Mansion]] began that same year. European immigrants from Norway and Sweden also settled in southeast Alaska, where they entered the fishing and logging industries. During World War II, the [[Aleutian Islands Campaign]] focused on [[Attu Island|Attu]], [[Agattu]] and [[Kiska Island|Kiska]], all which were occupied by the [[Empire of Japan]]. During the Japanese occupation, a white American civilian and two [[United States Navy]] personnel were killed at Attu and Kiska respectively, and nearly a total of 50 Aleut civilians and eight sailors were interned in Japan. About half of the Aleuts died during the period of internment. [[Unalaska]]/[[Dutch Harbor]] and [[Adak, Alaska|Adak]] became significant bases for the [[United States Army]], [[United States Army Air Forces]] and [[United States Navy]]. The United States [[Lend-Lease]] program involved flying American warplanes through Canada to Fairbanks and then Nome; Soviet pilots took possession of these aircraft, ferrying them to fight the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The construction of military bases contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Statehood"], "text": "Statehood for Alaska was an important cause of [[James Wickersham]] early in his tenure as a congressional delegate. Decades later, the statehood movement gained its first real momentum following a territorial referendum in 1946. The Alaska Statehood Committee and Alaska's Constitutional Convention would soon follow. Statehood supporters also found themselves fighting major battles against political foes, mostly in the U.S. Congress but also within Alaska. Statehood was approved by Congress on July 7, 1958. Alaska was officially proclaimed a state on January 3, 1959. In 1960, the Census Bureau reported Alaska's population as 77.2% White, 3% Black, and 18.8% American Indian and Alaska Native.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Good Friday earthquake"], "text": "On March 27, 1964, the massive [[1964 Alaska earthquake|Good Friday earthquake]] killed 133 people and destroyed several villages and portions of large coastal communities, mainly by the resultant [[tsunamis]] and landslides. It was the [[Largest earthquakes by magnitude|second-most-powerful earthquake]] in recorded history, with a [[moment magnitude scale|moment magnitude]] of 9.2 (more than a thousand times as powerful as the [[1989 Loma Prieta earthquake|1989 San Francisco earthquake]]). The time of day (5:36 pm), time of year (spring) and location of the [[epicenter]] were all cited as factors in potentially sparing thousands of lives, particularly in Anchorage.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Oil"], "text": "The 1968 discovery of oil at [[Prudhoe Bay]] and the 1977 completion of the [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline System]] led to an oil boom. Royalty revenues from oil have funded large state budgets from 1980 onward. That same year, not coincidentally, Alaska repealed its state income tax. In 1989, the ''[[Exxon Valdez]]'' hit a reef in the [[Prince William Sound]], [[Exxon Valdez oil spill|spilling]] more than of crude oil over of coastline. Today, the battle between philosophies of development and conservation is seen in the contentious debate over oil drilling in the [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]] and the proposed [[Pebble Mine]].", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["History", "Alaska Heritage Resources Survey"], "text": "The Alaska Heritage Resources Survey (AHRS) is a restricted [[inventory]] of all reported [[historic site|historic]] and [[prehistoric]] sites within the state of Alaska; it is maintained by the Office of History and Archaeology. The survey's inventory of cultural resources includes objects, structures, buildings, sites, districts, and travel ways, with a general provision that they are more than fifty years old. , more than 35,000 sites have been reported.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Demographics"], "text": "The [[United States Census Bureau]] found in the [[2020 United States census]] that the population of Alaska was 736,081 on April 1, 2020, a 3.6% increase since the [[2010 United States Census]]. In 2010, Alaska ranked as the 47th state by population, ahead of [[North Dakota]], [[Vermont]], and [[Wyoming]] (and Washington, D.C.). Estimates show North Dakota ahead . Alaska is the least densely populated state, and one of the most sparsely populated areas in the world, at , with the next state, Wyoming, at . Alaska is by far the largest U.S. state by [[List of U.S. states and territories by area|area]], and the tenth wealthiest (per capita income). , the state's unemployment rate was 6.6%. , it is one of 14 U.S. states that still have only one telephone [[Telephone numbering plan|area code]].", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Demographics", "Race and ethnicity"], "text": "According to the [[2010 United States Census]], Alaska had a population of 710,231. In terms of race and ethnicity, the state was 66.7% [[White American|White]] (64.1% Non-Hispanic [[Non-Hispanic Whites|White]]), 14.8% [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]] and Alaska Native, 5.4% [[Asian American|Asian]], 3.3% [[African American|Black]] or African American, 1.0% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 1.6% from Some Other Race, and 7.3% from Two or More Races. [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanics]] or Latinos of any race made up 5.5% of the population. , 50.7% of Alaska's population younger than one year of age belonged to minority groups (i.e., did not have two parents of non-Hispanic white ancestry).", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Demographics", "Languages"], "text": "According to the 2011 [[American Community Survey]], 83.4% of people over the age of five spoke only English at home. About 3.5% spoke Spanish at home, 2.2% spoke another [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]], about 4.3% spoke an [[Languages of Asia|Asian]] language (including [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]), and about 5.3% spoke other languages at home. The [[Alaska Native Language Center]] at the [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] claims that at least 20 [[Alaska Native languages|Alaskan native languages]] exist and there are also some languages with different dialects. Most of Alaska's native languages belong to either the [[Eskimo–Aleut languages|Eskimo–Aleut]] or [[Na-Dene languages|Na-Dene]] language families; however, some languages are thought to be [[Language isolate|isolates]] (e.g. [[Haida language|Haida]]) or have not yet been classified (e.g. [[Tsimshianic languages|Tsimshianic]]). nearly all of Alaska's native languages were classified as either threatened, shifting, moribund, nearly extinct, or dormant languages. A total of 5.2% of Alaskans speak one of the state's 20 [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|indigenous languages]], known locally as \"native languages\". In October 2014, the governor of Alaska signed a bill declaring the state's 20 indigenous languages to have official status. This bill gave them symbolic recognition as official languages, though they have not been adopted for official use within the government. The 20 languages that were included in the bill are: (1) [[Inupiat language|Inupiaq]] (2) [[Central Siberian Yupik language|Siberian Yupik]] (3) [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language|Central Alaskan Yup'ik]] (4) [[Alutiiq language|Alutiiq]] (5) [[Aleut language|Unangax]] (6) [[Dena'ina language|Dena'ina]] (7) [[Deg Xinag language|Deg Xinag]] (8) [[Holikachuk language|Holikachuk]] (9) [[Koyukon language|Koyukon]] (10) [[Upper Kuskokwim language|Upper Kuskokwim]] (11) [[Gwich'in language|Gwich'in]] (12) [[Lower Tanana language|Tanana]] (13) [[Upper Tanana language|Upper Tanana]] (14) [[Tanacross language|Tanacross]] (15) [[Hän language|Hän]] (16) [[Ahtna language|Ahtna]] (17) [[Eyak language|Eyak]] (18) [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]] (19) [[Haida language|Haida]] (20) [[Coast Tsimshian dialect|Tsimshian]]", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Demographics", "Religion"], "text": "According to statistics collected by the Association of Religion Data Archives from 2010, about 34% of Alaska residents were members of religious congregations. 100,960 people identified as [[Evangelical Protestant]], 50,866 as Roman Catholic, and 32,550 as mainline Protestants. Roughly 4% are Mormon, 0.5% are Jewish, 1% are Muslim, 0.5% are Buddhist, 0.2% are Baháʼí, and 0.5% are Hindu. The largest religious denominations in Alaska were the [[Catholic Church]] with 50,866 adherents, non-denominational Evangelical Protestants with 38,070 adherents, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] with 32,170 adherents, and the [[Southern Baptist Convention]] with 19,891 adherents. Alaska has been identified, along with Pacific Northwest states Washington and Oregon, as being [[Unchurched Belt|the least religious states of the USA]], in terms of church membership, In 1795, the First [[Russian Orthodox Church]] was established in [[Kodiak Island Borough, Alaska|Kodiak]]. Intermarriage with Alaskan Natives helped the Russian immigrants integrate into society. As a result, an increasing number of Russian Orthodox churches gradually became established within Alaska. Alaska also has the largest [[Quaker]] population (by percentage) of any state. In 2009 there were 6,000 Jews in Alaska (for whom observance of [[halakha]] [[Jewish law in the polar regions|may pose special problems]]). Alaskan Hindus often share venues and celebrations with members of other Asian religious communities, including [[Sikhism|Sikhs]] and [[Jainism|Jains]]. In 2010, Alaskan Hindus established the [[Sri Ganesha Temple of Alaska]], making it the first Hindu Temple in Alaska and the northernmost Hindu Temple in the world. There are an estimated 2,000–3,000 Hindus in Alaska. The vast majority of Hindus live in Anchorage or Fairbanks. Estimates for the number of Muslims in Alaska range from 2,000 to 5,000. The [[Islamic Community Center of Anchorage, Alaska|Islamic Community Center of Anchorage]] began efforts in the late 1990s to construct a mosque in Anchorage. They broke ground on a building in south Anchorage in 2010 and were nearing completion in late 2014. When completed, the mosque will be the first in the state and one of the northernmost mosques in the world. There's also a [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]] Center.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Economy"], "text": "(-) Total employment (2016): 266,072 (-) Number of employer establishments: 21,077 The 2018 [[gross state product]] was $55 billion, 48th in the nation. Its [[List of U.S. states by GDP per capita (nominal)|per capita personal income]] for 2018 was $73,000, ranking 7th in the nation. According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Alaska had the fifth-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 6.75 percent. The oil and gas industry dominates the Alaskan economy, with more than 80% of the state's revenues derived from petroleum extraction. Alaska's main export product (excluding oil and natural gas) is seafood, primarily salmon, cod, Pollock and crab. Agriculture represents a very small fraction of the Alaskan economy. Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock, dairy products, vegetables, and livestock. Manufacturing is limited, with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere. Employment is primarily in government and industries such as natural resource extraction, shipping, and transportation. Military bases are a significant component of the economy in the Fairbanks North Star, Anchorage and Kodiak Island boroughs, as well as Kodiak. Federal subsidies are also an important part of the economy, allowing the state to keep taxes low. Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum, natural gas, coal, gold, precious metals, zinc and other mining, seafood processing, timber and wood products. There is also a growing service and tourism sector. Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Economy", "Energy"], "text": "Alaska has vast energy resources, although its oil reserves have been largely depleted. Major oil and gas reserves were found in the [[Alaska North Slope]] (ANS) and Cook Inlet basins, but according to the [[Energy Information Administration]], by February 2014 Alaska had fallen to fourth place in the nation in crude oil production after Texas, North Dakota, and California. Prudhoe Bay on Alaska's North Slope is still the second highest-yielding oil field in the United States, typically producing about , although by early 2014 North Dakota's [[Bakken Formation]] was producing over . Prudhoe Bay was the largest [[conventional oil]] field ever discovered in North America, but was much smaller than Canada's enormous [[Athabasca oil sands]] field, which by 2014 was producing about of [[unconventional oil]], and had hundreds of years of producible reserves at that rate. The [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline]] can transport and pump up to of crude oil per day, more than any other crude oil pipeline in the United States. Additionally, substantial coal deposits are found in Alaska's bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite coal basins. The [[United States Geological Survey]] estimates that there are of undiscovered, technically recoverable gas from natural gas hydrates on the Alaskan North Slope. Alaska also offers some of the highest hydroelectric power potential in the country from its numerous rivers. Large swaths of the Alaskan coastline offer wind and geothermal energy potential as well. Alaska's economy depends heavily on increasingly expensive diesel fuel for heating, transportation, electric power and light. Although wind and hydroelectric power are abundant and underdeveloped, proposals for statewide energy systems (e.g. with special [[single-wire earth return#Use in interties|low-cost electric interties]]) were judged uneconomical (at the time of the report, 2001) due to low (less than 50¢/gal) fuel prices, long distances and low population. The cost of a gallon of gas in urban Alaska today is usually thirty to sixty cents higher than the national average; prices in rural areas are generally significantly higher but vary widely depending on transportation costs, seasonal usage peaks, nearby petroleum development infrastructure and many other factors.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Economy", "Energy", "Permanent Fund"], "text": "The [[Alaska Permanent Fund]] is a constitutionally authorized appropriation of oil revenues, established by voters in 1976 to manage a surplus in state petroleum revenues from oil, largely in anticipation of the then recently constructed [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline System]]. The fund was originally proposed by Governor [[Keith Harvey Miller|Keith Miller]] on the eve of the 1969 Prudhoe Bay lease sale, out of fear that the legislature would spend the entire proceeds of the sale (which amounted to $900 million) at once. It was later championed by Governor [[Jay Hammond]] and [[Kenai, Alaska|Kenai]] [[Alaska House of Representatives|state representative]] Hugh Malone. It has served as an attractive political prospect ever since, diverting revenues which would normally be deposited into the general fund. The [[Alaska Constitution]] was written so as to discourage dedicating state funds for a particular purpose. The Permanent Fund has become the rare exception to this, mostly due to the political climate of distrust existing during the time of its creation. From its initial principal of $734,000, the fund has grown to $50 billion as a result of oil royalties and capital investment programs. Most if not all the principal is invested conservatively outside Alaska. This has led to frequent calls by Alaskan politicians for the Fund to make investments within Alaska, though such a stance has never gained momentum. Starting in 1982, dividends from the fund's annual growth have been paid out each year to eligible Alaskans, ranging from an initial $1,000 in 1982 (equal to three years' payout, as the distribution of payments was held up in a lawsuit over the distribution scheme) to $3,269 in 2008 (which included a one-time $1,200 \"Resource Rebate\"). Every year, the state legislature takes out 8% from the earnings, puts 3% back into the principal for inflation proofing, and the remaining 5% is distributed to all qualifying Alaskans. To qualify for the Permanent Fund Dividend, one must have lived in the state for a minimum of 12 months, maintain constant residency subject to allowable absences, and not be subject to court judgments or criminal convictions which fall under various disqualifying classifications or may subject the payment amount to civil garnishment. The Permanent Fund is often considered to be one of the leading examples of a \"[[Basic income]]\" policy in the world.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Economy", "Cost of living"], "text": "The cost of goods in Alaska has long been higher than in the contiguous 48 states. Federal government employees, particularly [[United States Postal Service]] (USPS) workers and active-duty military members, receive a Cost of Living Allowance usually set at 25% of base pay because, while the cost of living has gone down, it is still one of the highest in the country. Rural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods compared to the rest of the country, due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Economy", "Agriculture and fishing"], "text": "Due to the northern climate and short growing season, relatively little farming occurs in Alaska. Most farms are in either the [[Matanuska Valley]], about northeast of [[Anchorage]], or on the [[Kenai Peninsula]], about southwest of Anchorage. The short 100-day growing season limits the crops that can be grown, but the long sunny summer days make for productive growing seasons. The primary crops are potatoes, carrots, lettuce, and cabbage. The [[Tanana Valley]] is another notable agricultural locus, especially the [[Delta Junction, Alaska|Delta Junction]] area, about southeast of Fairbanks, with a sizable concentration of farms growing agronomic crops; these farms mostly lie north and east of [[Fort Greely]]. This area was largely set aside and developed under a state program spearheaded by Hammond during his second term as governor. Delta-area crops consist predominantly of barley and hay. West of Fairbanks lies another concentration of small farms catering to restaurants, the hotel and tourist industry, and [[community-supported agriculture]]. Alaskan agriculture has experienced a surge in growth of [[market gardener]], small farms and [[farmers' market]] in recent years, with the highest percentage increase (46%) in the nation in growth in farmers' markets in 2011, compared to 17% nationwide. The [[peony]] industry has also taken off, as the growing season allows farmers to harvest during a gap in supply elsewhere in the world, thereby filling a niche in the flower market. Alaska, with no counties and lacks county fairs. However, a small assortment of state and local fairs (with the [[Alaska State Fair]] in [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]] the largest), are held mostly in the late summer. The fairs are mostly located in communities with historic or current agricultural activity, and feature local farmers exhibiting produce in addition to more high-profile commercial activities such as carnival rides, concerts and food. \"Alaska Grown\" is used as an agricultural slogan. Alaska has an abundance of seafood, with the primary fisheries in the Bering Sea and the North Pacific. Seafood is one of the few food items that is often cheaper within the state than outside it. Many Alaskans take advantage of salmon seasons to harvest portions of their household diet while fishing for subsistence, as well as sport. This includes fish taken by hook, net or wheel. Hunting for subsistence, primarily [[caribou]], [[moose]], and [[Dall sheep]] is still common in the state, particularly in remote [[The Bush (Alaska)|Bush]] communities. An example of a traditional native food is [[Akutaq]], the Eskimo ice cream, which can consist of reindeer fat, seal oil, dried fish meat and local berries. Alaska's reindeer herding is concentrated on [[Seward Peninsula]], where wild caribou can be prevented from mingling and migrating with the domesticated reindeer.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Economy", "Agriculture and fishing"], "text": "Most food in Alaska is transported into the state from [[Outside (Alaska)|\"Outside\"]] (the other 49 US states), and shipping costs make food in the cities relatively expensive. In rural areas, subsistence hunting and gathering is an essential activity because imported food is prohibitively expensive. Although most small towns and villages in Alaska lie along the coastline, the cost of importing food to remote villages can be high, because of the terrain and difficult road conditions, which change dramatically, due to varying climate and precipitation changes. The cost of transport can reach as high as 50¢ per pound ($1.10/kg) or more in some remote areas, during the most difficult times, if these locations can be reached at all during such inclement weather and terrain conditions. The cost of delivering a of milk is about $3.50 in many villages where per capita income can be $20,000 or less. Fuel cost per gallon is routinely twenty to thirty cents higher than the contiguous United States average, with only Hawaii having higher prices.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Transportation", "Roads"], "text": "Alaska has few road connections compared to the rest of the U.S. The state's road system, covering a relatively small area of the state, linking the central population centers and the [[Alaska Highway]], the principal route out of the state through Canada. The state capital, Juneau, is not accessible by road, only a car ferry; this has spurred debate over decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system, or building a road connection from [[Haines, Alaska|Haines]]. The western part of Alaska has no road system connecting the communities with the rest of Alaska. The [[Interstate Highways in Alaska]] consists of a total of . One unique feature of the Alaska Highway system is the [[Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel]], an active [[Alaska Railroad]] tunnel recently upgraded to provide a paved roadway link with the isolated community of [[Whittier, Alaska|Whittier]] on [[Prince William Sound]] to the [[Seward Highway]] about southeast of Anchorage at [[Portage, Alaska|Portage]]. At , the tunnel was the longest road tunnel in North America until 2007. The tunnel is the longest combination [[List of road-rail tunnels|road and rail tunnel]] in North America.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Transportation", "Rail"], "text": "Built around 1915, the [[Alaska Railroad]] (ARR) played a key role in the development of Alaska through the 20th century. It links north Pacific shipping through providing critical infrastructure with tracks that run from [[Seward, Alaska|Seward]] to [[Interior Alaska]] by way of [[South Central Alaska]], passing through Anchorage, [[Eklutna]], Wasilla, [[Talkeetna, Alaska|Talkeetna]], [[Denali]], and Fairbanks, with spurs to [[Whittier, Alaska|Whittier]], [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]] and [[North Pole, Alaska|North Pole]]. The cities, towns, villages, and region served by ARR tracks are known statewide as \"The Railbelt\". In recent years, the ever-improving paved highway system began to eclipse the railroad's importance in Alaska's economy. The railroad played a vital role in Alaska's development, moving freight into Alaska while transporting natural resources southward, such as coal from the Usibelli coal mine near [[Healy, Alaska|Healy]] to Seward and gravel from the [[Matanuska Valley]] to Anchorage. It is well known for its summertime tour passenger service. The Alaska Railroad was one of the last railroads in North America to use [[caboose]] in regular service and still uses them on some gravel trains. It continues to offer one of the last [[Request stop|flag stop]] routes in the country. A stretch of about of track along an area north of Talkeetna remains inaccessible by road; the railroad provides the only transportation to rural homes and cabins in the area. Until construction of the Parks Highway in the 1970s, the railroad provided the only land access to most of the region along its entire route. In northern Southeast Alaska, the [[White Pass and Yukon Route]] also partly runs through the state from [[Skagway, Alaska|Skagway]] northwards into Canada (British Columbia and Yukon Territory), crossing the border at [[White Pass]] Summit. This line is now mainly used by tourists, often arriving by cruise liner at Skagway. It was featured in the 1983 [[BBC]] television series ''[[Great Little Railways]].'' The Alaska Rail network is not connected to Outside. (The nearest link to the North American railway network is the northwest terminus of the [[Canadian National Railway]] at [[Prince Rupert, British Columbia]], several hundred miles to the southeast.) In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized $6 million to study the feasibility of a rail link between Alaska, Canada, and the lower 48. Some private companies provides [[car float]] service between [[Whittier, Alaska|Whittier]] and [[Seattle]].", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Transportation", "Marine transport"], "text": "Many cities, towns and villages in the state do not have road or highway access; the only modes of access involve travel by air, river, or the sea. Alaska's well-developed state-owned ferry system (known as the [[Alaska Marine Highway]]) serves the cities of [[Southeast Alaska|southeast]], the Gulf Coast and the Alaska Peninsula. The ferries transport vehicles as well as passengers. The system also operates a ferry service from [[Bellingham, Washington]] and [[Prince Rupert, British Columbia]], in Canada through the [[Inside Passage]] to [[Skagway, Alaska|Skagway]]. The [[Inter-Island Ferry Authority]] also serves as an important marine link for many communities in the [[Prince of Wales Island (Alaska)|Prince of Wales Island]] region of Southeast and works in concert with the Alaska Marine Highway. In recent years, cruise lines have created a summertime tourism market, mainly connecting the Pacific Northwest to Southeast Alaska and, to a lesser degree, towns along Alaska's gulf coast. The population of [[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]] for example fluctuates dramatically on many days—up to four large cruise ships can dock there at the same time.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Transportation", "Air transport"], "text": "Cities not served by road, sea, or river can be reached only by air, foot, dogsled, or snowmachine, accounting for Alaska's extremely well developed [[Alaskan Bush|bush]] air services—an Alaskan novelty. Anchorage and, to a lesser extent Fairbanks, is served by [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport#Airlines and destinations|many major airlines]]. Because of limited highway access, air travel remains the most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state. Anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]] to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism (in 2012–2013, Alaska received almost two million visitors). Regular flights to most villages and towns within the state that are commercially viable are challenging to provide, so they are heavily subsidized by the federal government through the [[Essential Air Service]] program. [[Alaska Airlines]] is the only major airline offering in-state travel with jet service (sometimes in combination cargo and passenger [[Boeing 737]]-400s) from Anchorage and [[Fairbanks International Airport|Fairbanks]] to regional hubs like [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]], [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]], [[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]], [[Dillingham, Alaska|Dillingham]], [[Kodiak, Alaska|Kodiak]], and other larger communities as well as to major Southeast and Alaska Peninsula communities. The bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines such as [[Ravn Alaska]], [[PenAir]], and [[Frontier Flying Service]]. The smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the [[Cessna Caravan]], the most popular aircraft in use in the state. Much of this service can be attributed to the Alaska bypass mail program which subsidizes bulk mail delivery to Alaskan rural communities. The program requires 70% of that subsidy to go to carriers who offer passenger service to the communities. Many communities have small air taxi services. These operations originated from the demand for customized transport to remote areas. Perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the bush seaplane. The world's busiest seaplane base is [[Lake Hood Seaplane Base|Lake Hood]], located next to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers, cargo, and many items from stores and warehouse clubs. In 2006 Alaska had the highest number of pilots per capita of any U.S. state.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Transportation", "Other transport"], "text": "Another Alaskan transportation method is the [[dogsled]]. In modern times (that is, any time after the mid-late 1920s), dog [[mushing]] is more of a sport than a true means of transportation. Various races are held around the state, but the best known is the [[Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race]], a trail from Anchorage to Nome (although the distance varies from year to year, the official distance is set at ). The race commemorates the famous [[1925 serum run to Nome]] in which mushers and dogs like [[Togo (dog)|Togo]] and [[Balto]] took much-needed medicine to the [[diphtheria]]-stricken community of [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] when all other means of transportation had failed. Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash, prizes, and prestige. The \"Serum Run\" is another sled dog race that more accurately follows the route of the famous 1925 relay, leaving from the community of [[Nenana, Alaska|Nenana]] (southwest of Fairbanks) to Nome. In areas not served by road or rail, primary transportation in summer is by [[all-terrain vehicle]] and in winter by [[snowmobile]] or \"snow machine\", as it is commonly referred to in Alaska.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Transportation", "Data transport"], "text": "Alaska's internet and other data transport systems are provided largely through the two major telecommunications companies: [[GCI (company)|GCI]] and [[Alaska Communications]]. GCI owns and operates what it calls the Alaska United Fiber Optic system and, as of late 2011, Alaska Communications advertised that it has \"two fiber optic paths to the lower 48 and two more across Alaska. In January 2011, it was reported that a $1 billion project to connect Asia and rural Alaska was being planned, aided in part by $350 million in stimulus from the federal government.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Law and government", "State government"], "text": "Like all other U.S. states, Alaska is governed as a republic, with three [[separation of powers|branches of government]]: an [[executive branch]] consisting of the [[governor of Alaska]] and his or her appointees which head executive departments; a [[legislative branch]] consisting of the [[Alaska House of Representatives]] and [[Alaska Senate]]; and a [[judicial branch]] consisting of the [[Alaska Supreme Court]] and lower courts. The state of Alaska employs approximately 16,000 people statewide. The [[Alaska Legislature]] consists of a 40-member [[Alaska House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] and a 20-member [[Alaska Senate|Senate]]. Senators serve four-year terms and House members two. The [[governor of Alaska]] serves four-year terms. The [[List of Lieutenant Governors of Alaska|lieutenant governor]] runs separately from the governor in the [[Primary election|primaries]], but during the general election, the nominee for governor and nominee for lieutenant governor run together on the same ticket. Alaska's court system has four levels: the [[Alaska Supreme Court]], the [[Alaska Court of Appeals]], the superior courts and the district courts. The superior and district courts are [[trial court]]. Superior courts are courts of general jurisdiction, while district courts hear only certain types of cases, including misdemeanor criminal cases and civil cases valued up to $100,000. The Supreme Court and the Court of Appeals are [[appellate court]]. The Court of Appeals is required to hear appeals from certain lower-court decisions, including those regarding criminal prosecutions, juvenile delinquency, and [[habeas corpus]]. The Supreme Court hears civil appeals and may in its discretion hear criminal appeals.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Law and government", "State politics"], "text": "Although in its early years of statehood Alaska was a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] state, since the early 1970s it has been characterized as [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]-leaning. Local political communities have often worked on issues related to land use development, fishing, tourism, and individual rights. [[Alaska Natives]], while organized in and around their communities, have been active within the [[Alaska Native Regional Corporations|Native corporations]]. These have been given ownership over large tracts of land, which require stewardship. Alaska was formerly the only state in which possession of one ounce or less of marijuana in one's home was completely legal under state law, though the federal law remains in force. The state has an independence movement favoring a vote on secession from the United States, with the [[Alaskan Independence Party]]. Six [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] and four [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] have served as governor of Alaska. In addition, Republican governor [[Wally Hickel]] was elected to the office for a second term in 1990 after leaving the Republican party and briefly joining the Alaskan Independence Party ticket just long enough to be reelected. He officially rejoined the Republican party in 1994. Alaska's [[2014 Alaska Measure 2|voter initiative making marijuana legal]] took effect on February 24, 2015, placing Alaska alongside Colorado and Washington as the first three U.S. states where recreational marijuana is legal. The new law means people over 21 can consume small amounts of pot. The first legal marijuana store opened in Valdez in October 2016.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Law and government", "Taxes"], "text": "To finance state government operations, Alaska depends primarily on petroleum revenues and federal subsidies. This allows it to have the lowest individual tax burden in the United States. It is one of five states with no [[sales tax]], one of seven states with no individual [[income tax]], and—along with [[New Hampshire]]—one of two that has neither. The Department of Revenue Tax Division reports regularly on the state's revenue sources. The Department also issues an annual summary of its operations, including new state laws that directly affect the tax division. In 2014 the [[Tax Foundation]] ranked Alaska as having the fourth most \"business friendly\" tax policy, behind only [[Wyoming]], [[South Dakota]], and [[Nevada]]. While Alaska has no state sales tax, 89 municipalities collect a local sales tax, from 1.0 to 7.5%, typically 3–5%. Other local taxes levied include raw fish taxes, hotel, motel, and bed-and-breakfast 'bed' taxes, [[severance tax]], liquor and tobacco taxes, gaming (pull tabs) taxes, tire taxes and fuel transfer taxes. A part of the revenue collected from certain state taxes and license fees (such as petroleum, aviation motor fuel, telephone cooperative) is shared with municipalities in Alaska. The fall in oil prices after the [[Hydraulic fracturing in the United States|fracking boom]] in the early 2010s has decimated Alaska's state treasury, which has historically received about 85 percent of its revenue from taxes and fees imposed on oil and gas companies. The state government has had to drastically reduce its budget, and has brought its budget shortfall from over $2 billion in 2016 to under $500 million by 2018. In 2020, Alaska's state government budget was $4.8 billion, while projected government revenues were only $4.5 billion.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Law and government", "Federal politics"], "text": "Alaska regularly supports [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] in presidential elections and has done so since statehood. Republicans have won the state's [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral college]] votes in all but one election that it has participated in ([[1964 United States presidential election|1964]]). No state has voted for a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] presidential candidate fewer times. Alaska was carried by Democratic nominee [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] during his landslide election in [[1964 United States presidential election|1964]], while the [[1960 United States presidential election|1960]] and [[1968 United States presidential election|1968]] elections were close. Since [[1972 United States presidential election|1972]], however, Republicans have carried the state by large margins. In [[2008 United States presidential election|2008]], Republican [[John McCain]] defeated Democrat [[Barack Obama]] in Alaska, 59.49% to 37.83%. McCain's running mate was [[Sarah Palin]], the state's governor and the first Alaskan on a major party ticket. Obama lost Alaska again in [[2012 United States presidential election|2012]], but he captured 40% of the state's vote in that election, making him the first Democrat to do so since 1968. The [[The Bush (Alaska)|Alaska Bush]], central Juneau, midtown and downtown Anchorage, and the areas surrounding the [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] campus and Ester have been strongholds of the Democratic Party. The Matanuska-Susitna Borough, the majority of Fairbanks (including North Pole and the military base), and South Anchorage typically have the strongest Republican showing.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Law and government", "Elections"], "text": "In the [[2020 Alaska elections|2020 election]] cycle, Alaskan voters approved Ballot Measure 2. Bipartisan coalitions led the campaigns for and against the bill. The measure passed by a margin of 1.1%, or about 4,000 votes. Supporters of the measure claim that it will reduce \"[[dark money]]\" in Alaskan elections by requiring anyone giving over $2,000 to a campaign to disclose the true source of such contributions and all intermediaries. The measure also establishes [[Nonpartisan blanket primary|non-partisan blanket primaries]] for statewide elections (like in [[Washington (state)#Elections|Washington state]] and [[California#Government_and_politics|California]]) and [[ranked-choice voting]] (like in [[Maine#Politics|Maine]]). Alaska is the third state with [[Jungle primary|jungle primaries]] for all statewide races, the second state with [[ranked voting]], and the only state with both. The first race to use the new system of elections will be the [[2022 United States Senate election in Alaska|2022 Senate election]] in which Lisa Murkowski will run for re-election.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Cities, towns and boroughs"], "text": "Alaska is not divided into [[County (United States)|counties]], as most of the other U.S. states, but it is divided into ''[[List of boroughs and census areas in Alaska|boroughs]]''. Many of the more densely populated parts of the state are part of Alaska's 16 boroughs, which function somewhat similarly to counties in other states. However, unlike county-equivalents in the other 49 states, the boroughs do not cover the entire land area of the state. The area not part of any borough is referred to as the [[Unorganized Borough, Alaska|Unorganized Borough]]. The Unorganized Borough has no government of its own, but the [[U.S. Census Bureau]] in cooperation with the state divided the Unorganized Borough into 11 [[census area]] solely for the purposes of statistical analysis and presentation. A ''recording district'' is a mechanism for management of the [[public record]] in Alaska. The state is divided into 34 recording districts which are centrally administered under a State [[recorder of deeds|Recorder]]. All recording districts use the same acceptance criteria, fee schedule, etc., for accepting documents into the public record. Whereas many U.S. states use a three-tiered system of decentralization—state/county/township—most of Alaska uses only two tiers—state/borough. Owing to the low population density, most of the land is located in the [[Unorganized Borough]]. As the name implies, it has no intermediate borough government but is administered directly by the state government. In 2000, 57.71% of Alaska's area has this status, with 13.05% of the population. Anchorage merged the city government with the Greater Anchorage Area Borough in 1975 to form the Municipality of Anchorage, containing the city proper and the communities of Eagle River, Chugiak, Peters Creek, Girdwood, Bird, and Indian. Fairbanks has a separate borough (the [[Fairbanks North Star Borough]]) and municipality (the City of Fairbanks). The state's most populous city is [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]], home to 278,700 people in 2006, 225,744 of whom live in the urbanized area. The richest [[Alaska locations by per capita income|location in Alaska by per capita income]] is [[Denali Borough, Alaska|Denali]] ($42,245). [[Yakutat City]], Sitka, Juneau, and Anchorage are the four [[List of U.S. cities by area|largest cities in the U.S. by area]].", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Cities, towns and boroughs", "Cities and census-designated places (by population)"], "text": "As reflected in the [[2010 United States Census]], Alaska has a total of 355 incorporated cities and [[census-designated place]] (CDPs). The tally of cities includes four unified municipalities, essentially the equivalent of a [[consolidated city–county]]. The majority of these communities are located in the rural expanse of Alaska known as \"[[The Bush (Alaska)|The Bush]]\" and are unconnected to the contiguous North American road network. The table at the bottom of this section lists the 100 largest cities and census-designated places in Alaska, in population order. Of Alaska's 2010 Census population figure of 710,231, 20,429 people, or 2.88% of the population, did not live in an incorporated city or census-designated place. Approximately three-quarters of that figure were people who live in urban and suburban neighborhoods on the outskirts of the city limits of Ketchikan, Kodiak, Palmer and Wasilla. CDPs have not been established for these areas by the [[United States Census Bureau]], except that seven CDPs were established for the Ketchikan-area neighborhoods in the [[1980 United States Census|1980 Census]] (Clover Pass, Herring Cove, Ketchikan East, Mountain Point, North [[Tongass Highway]], [[Pennock Island]] and [[Saxman, Alaska|Saxman]] East), but have not been used since. The remaining population was scattered throughout Alaska, both within organized boroughs and in the [[Unorganized Borough]], in largely remote areas.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Education"], "text": "The [[Alaska Department of Education and Early Development]] administers many [[List of school districts in Alaska|school districts]] in Alaska. In addition, the state operates a boarding school, [[Mt. Edgecumbe High School]] in [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]], and provides partial funding for other boarding schools, including [[Nenana Student Living Center]] in [[Nenana, Alaska|Nenana]] and The Galena Interior Learning Academy in [[Galena, Alaska|Galena]]. There are more than a dozen [[List of colleges and universities in Alaska|colleges and universities in Alaska]]. Accredited universities in Alaska include the [[University of Alaska Anchorage]], [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]], [[University of Alaska Southeast]], and [[Alaska Pacific University]]. Alaska is the only state that has no institutions that are part of [[NCAA Division I]]. The Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development operates AVTEC, Alaska's Institute of Technology. Campuses in Seward and Anchorage offer one-week to 11-month training programs in areas as diverse as Information Technology, Welding, Nursing, and Mechanics. Alaska has had a problem with a \"[[brain drain]]\". Many of its young people, including most of the highest academic achievers, leave the state after high school graduation and do not return. , Alaska did not have a [[Legal education in Alaska|law school]] or medical school. The [[University of Alaska]] has attempted to combat this by offering partial four-year scholarships to the top 10% of Alaska high school graduates, via the Alaska Scholars Program.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Public health and public safety"], "text": "The [[Alaska State Troopers]] are Alaska's statewide police force. They have a long and storied history, but were not an official organization until 1941. Before the force was officially organized, law enforcement in Alaska was handled by various federal agencies. Larger towns usually have their own local police and some villages rely on \"Public Safety Officers\" who have police training but do not carry firearms. In much of the state, the troopers serve as the only police force available. In addition to enforcing traffic and criminal law, wildlife Troopers enforce hunting and fishing regulations. Due to the varied terrain and wide scope of the Troopers' duties, they employ a wide variety of land, air, and water patrol vehicles. Many rural communities in Alaska are considered \"dry\", having outlawed the importation of alcoholic beverages. Suicide rates for rural residents are higher than urban. [[Domestic abuse]] and other violent crimes are also at high levels in the state; this is in part linked to alcohol abuse. Alaska has the highest rate of sexual assault in the nation, especially in rural areas. The average age of sexually assaulted victims is 16 years old. In four out of five cases, the suspects were relatives, friends or acquaintances.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Culture"], "text": "Some of Alaska's popular annual events are the [[Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race]] from Anchorage to Nome, World Ice Art Championships in Fairbanks, the Blueberry Festival and Alaska Hummingbird Festival in [[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]], the Sitka Whale Fest, and the Stikine River Garnet Fest in [[Wrangell, Alaska|Wrangell]]. The [[Stikine River]] attracts the largest springtime concentration of [[American bald eagle]] in the world. The [[Alaska Native Heritage Center]] celebrates the rich heritage of Alaska's 11 cultural groups. Their purpose is to encourage cross-cultural exchanges among all people and enhance self-esteem among Native people. The [[Alaska Native Arts Foundation]] promotes and markets Native art from all regions and cultures in the State, using the internet.", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Culture", "Music"], "text": "Influences on music in Alaska include the traditional music of Alaska Natives as well as folk music brought by later immigrants from Russia and Europe. Prominent musicians from Alaska include singer [[Jewel (singer)|Jewel]], traditional Aleut flautist [[Mary Youngblood]], folk singer-songwriter [[Libby Roderick]], Christian music singer-songwriter [[Lincoln Brewster]], metal/post hardcore band [[36 Crazyfists]] and the groups [[Pamyua]] and [[Portugal. The Man]]. There are many established music festivals in Alaska, including the [[Alaska Folk Festival]], the Fairbanks Summer Arts Festival the Anchorage Folk Festival, the [[Athabascan Old-Time Fiddling Festival]], the Sitka Jazz Festival, and the [[Sitka Summer Music Festival]]. The most prominent orchestra in Alaska is the [[Anchorage Symphony Orchestra]], though the Fairbanks Symphony Orchestra and [[Juneau Symphony]] are also notable. The [[Anchorage Opera]] is currently the state's only professional opera company, though there are several volunteer and semi-professional organizations in the state as well. The official [[List of U.S. state songs|state song]] of Alaska is \"[[Alaska's Flag]]\", which was adopted in 1955; it celebrates the [[flag of Alaska]].", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["Culture", "Alaska in film and on television"], "text": "Alaska's first independent picture entirely made in Alaska was ''[[The Chechahcos]]'', produced by Alaskan businessman [[Austin E. Lathrop]] and filmed in and around Anchorage. Released in 1924 by the Alaska Moving Picture Corporation, it was the only film the company made. One of the most prominent movies filmed in Alaska is [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer|MGM]]'s ''[[Eskimo/Mala The Magnificent]]'', starring Alaska Native [[Ray Mala]]. In 1932 an expedition set out from [[MGM]]'s studios in Hollywood to Alaska to film what was then billed as \"The Biggest Picture Ever Made\". Upon arriving in Alaska, they set up \"Camp Hollywood\" in Northwest Alaska, where they lived during the duration of the filming. [[Louis B. Mayer]] spared no expense in spite of the remote location, going so far as to hire the chef from the [[Roosevelt Hotel (Hollywood)|Hotel Roosevelt]] in Hollywood to prepare meals. When ''Eskimo'' premiered at the [[Astor Theatre, New York City|Astor Theatre]] in New York City, the studio received the largest amount of feedback in its history. ''Eskimo'' was critically acclaimed and released worldwide; as a result, Mala became an international movie star. ''Eskimo'' won the first Oscar for [[Academy Award for Best Film Editing|Best Film Editing]] at the Academy Awards, and showcased and preserved aspects of [[Inupiat people|Inupiat]] culture on film. The 1983 Disney movie ''[[Never Cry Wolf (film)|Never Cry Wolf]]'' was at least partially shot in Alaska. The 1991 film ''[[White Fang (1991 film)|White Fang]]'', based on [[Jack London]]'s 1906 novel and starring [[Ethan Hawke]], was filmed in and around [[Haines, Alaska|Haines]]. [[Steven Seagal]]'s 1994 ''[[On Deadly Ground]]'', starring [[Michael Caine]], was filmed in part at the [[Worthington Glacier]] near [[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]]. The 1999 [[John Sayles]] film ''[[Limbo (1999 film)|Limbo]]'', starring [[David Strathairn]], [[Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio]], and [[Kris Kristofferson]], was filmed in Juneau. The psychological thriller ''[[Insomnia (2002 film)|Insomnia]]'', starring [[Al Pacino]] and [[Robin Williams]], was shot in Canada, but was set in Alaska. The 2007 film directed by Sean Penn, ''[[Into the Wild (film)|Into The Wild]]'', was partially filmed and set in Alaska. The film, which is based on the novel of the same name, follows the adventures of [[Christopher McCandless]], who died in a remote abandoned bus along the [[Stampede Trail]] west of [[Healy, Alaska|Healy]] in 1992. Many films and television shows set in Alaska are not filmed there; for example, ''[[Northern Exposure]]'', set in the fictional town of Cicely, Alaska, was filmed in [[Roslyn, Washington]]. The 2007 horror feature ''[[30 Days of Night (film)|30 Days of Night]]'' is set in [[Utqiaġvik, Alaska|Barrow, Alaska]], but was filmed in New Zealand. Many reality television shows are filmed in Alaska. In 2011 the ''Anchorage Daily News'' found ten set in the state. In 2020 [[Netflix]] published [[Win the Wilderness]], a reality TV series produced for [[BBC Two]].", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}
+{"headers": ["State symbols"], "text": "(-) State motto: North to the Future (-) Nicknames: \"The Last Frontier\" or \"Land of the Midnight Sun\" or \"Seward's Icebox\" (-) State bird: [[willow ptarmigan]], adopted by the Territorial Legislature in 1955. It is a small () Arctic grouse that lives among willows and on open tundra and muskeg. Plumage is brown in summer, changing to white in winter. The willow ptarmigan is common in much of Alaska. (-) State fish: [[Chinook salmon|king salmon]], adopted 1962. (-) State flower: wild/native [[forget-me-not]], adopted by the Territorial Legislature in 1917. It is a perennial found throughout Alaska, from Hyder to the Arctic Coast, and west to the Aleutians. (-) State fossil: [[woolly mammoth]], adopted 1986. (-) State gem: [[nephrite|jade]], adopted 1968. (-) State insect: [[Four-spotted chaser|four-spot skimmer]] dragonfly, adopted 1995. (-) State land mammal: [[moose]], adopted 1998. (-) State marine mammal: [[bowhead whale]], adopted 1983. (-) State mineral: gold, adopted 1968. (-) State song: \"[[Alaska's Flag]]\" (-) State sport: [[Mushing|dog mushing]], adopted 1972. (-) State tree: [[Sitka spruce]], adopted 1962. (-) State dog: [[Alaskan Malamute]], adopted 2010. (-) State soil: [[Tanana (soil)|Tanana]], unknown when adopted .", "id": "624", "title": "Alaska", "categories": ["Alaska", "Arctic Ocean", "Former Russian colonies", "States and territories established in 1959", "States of the United States", "States of the West Coast of the United States", "U.S. states with multiple time zones", "1959 establishments in the United States", "Western United States"], "seealso": ["Index of Alaska-related articles", "Outline of Alaska"]}