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Which of the following reflects the technique of free association?

['(A)The therapist listens carefully and paraphrases what he or she has heard.', '(B)The patient is asked to relax and then imagines a fear-evoking stimulus.', '(C)Antidepressant medications are prescribed to help balance depressed moods.', '(D)The therapist asks direct questions challenging illogical beliefs.', '(E)The patient is asked to relax and say aloud whatever comes to mind.']

(D)Philippe Pinel worked in the early 1800s to convince others that people who suffered from psychological disorders deserved empathy and humane treatment and shouldn’t be locked away in asylums and forgotten. Albert Ellis (choice A) and Sigmund Freud (choice B) influenced the treatment of psychological disorders but not the specific issue of humane treatment. David Rosenhan, choice C, researched how psychological labels influence treatment. John Watson, choice E, was a behaviorist, not a clinical psychologist.

When an individual unconsciously redirects his or her emotions from one person, often an individual from the patient's childhood, it is called (A)a token economy.

['(B)transference.', '(C)client-centered therapy.', '(D)resistance.', '(E)exposure therapy.']

(E)Rosenhan’s thud study investigated whether the fact that individuals were labeled as having psychological disorders would influence how they were treated by medical professionals even when the individuals were free of symptoms. The study involved psychology professors and graduate students pretending to have psychological disorders and getting themselves admitted to psychiatric hospitals. Then the participants stopped exhibiting those symptoms. The study indicated that the psychological labels strongly influenced how these people were treated, even after they stopped feigning any symptoms. Choices A, B, C, and D all incorrectly identify independent variables or do not correctly describe the study.

Providing acceptance and support of another person regardless of what that individual says or does is central to which therapeutic approach?

['(A)Client-centered therapy', '(B)Psychoanalysis', '(C)Aversive conditioning', '(D)Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT)', '(E)Flooding']

(A)Reliability is the degree to which a psychological instrument (such as the DSM) produces consistent results (such as the same label being used for the same symptoms across a group of psychiatrists). Choice B is an attempt to measure validity, not reliability. Choices C and D are somewhat random collections of psychological terms. Choice E is a generic description of the experimental method.

Which of the following demonstrates systematic desensitization?

['(A)Lorianne paints her fingernails with polish that tastes terrible if she chews her nails.', '(B)Bryan tries to maintain his relaxed state while being exposed to increasingly fearful stimuli.', '(C)When she feels anxious, Parvene thinks to herself, "Everything is OK. This feeling will pass."', '(D)Brenda keeps a diary and shares her dreams with her therapist who helps interpret their meaning.', '(E)While sedated, Alex is given a dose of electrical current that triggers a seizure.']

(B)Random assignment is used by researchers to make sure their groups (often the experimental group and the control group) are balanced by randomly assigning participants to each group. Choice A misuses the terms “independent variable” and “dependent variable.” Choice C refers to random sampling. Choices D and E do not use research methodology correctly.

While considered upsetting, harmful, ineffective, and unethical today, at one time researchers attempted to change people's homosexual feelings by showing them erotic pictures and then applying a shock when they became aroused. This approach is called:

['(A)aversive conditioning.', '(B)systematic desensitization.', '(C)transference.', '(D)flooding.', '(E)rational emotive behavioral therapy (REBT).']

(D)Observing video footage without interfering with these individuals or trying to add or measure changes in variables in any way is an example of a naturalistic observational study. It is not a case study, choice A, because multiple individuals are involved. It is not an experiment, choice B, because an independent variable is not used. Inferential statistics, choice C, is a statistical method and not a research method. Correlation, choice E, involves determining the relationship between two variables, which is not described in this scenario.

Which of the following benefits is unique to group therapy?

['(A)It provides hope that change is possible.', '(B)It allows individuals to see that they are not alone and that others face similar challenges.', '(C)It provides an explanation as to why a person feels like he or she does.', '(D)An individual can develop a trusting relationship with a therapist.', '(E)An individual learns to take on more personal responsibility for his or her thoughts and feelings.']

(C)In a double-blind study, neither the participants nor the researcher doing the data analysis knows which participants are in the experimental group and which participants are in the control group. Choices A, D, and E partly accurately describe different forms of a single-blind study. Choice B does not use psychological terms accurately.

Antipsychotic drugs are close enough in chemical structure to dopamine that they can occupy dopamine's receptor sites and block its activity. These chemicals are called

['(A)hallucinogens.', '(B)depressants.', '(C)agonists.', '(D)stimulants.', '(E)antagonists.']

(D)Since schizophrenia is highly influenced by genetic predisposition and brain chemistry, biological research is most likely to produce useful results about schizophrenia. Humanism (choice A), cognitive research (choice B), behaviorism (choice C), and sociocultural research (choice E) are not as likely to produce useful research because they are not likely to produce insights about either genetics or brain chemistry.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are most effective in treating the primary symptoms of

['(A)schizophrenia.', '(B)depression.', '(C)dissociative identity disorder (DID).', '(D)specific phobias.', '(E)borderline personality disorder.']

(E)Offering a reward for behavior (behaviorism) gives positive reinforcement to individuals who are willing to put themselves in the anxiety-producing situations that cause their phobias. Researchers interested in the sociocultural perspective (choice A), humanism (choice B), the cognitive perspective (choice C), and the biological perspective (choice D) are not likely to try to treat phobias using positive reinforcements.

Which of the following is commonly used to reduce the severity and frequency of the manic phase in the bipolar cycle?

['(A)Antipsychotics', '(B)Antidepressants', '(C)Lithium', '(D)Antianxiety drugs', '(E)Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)']

(B)One of the most common treatments for major depression involves cognitive interventions. These interventions help individuals change the ways they think about and remember events in their lives. Individuals with schizophrenia (choice A), antisocial personality disorder (choice C), dissociative identity disorder (choice D), and bipolar disorder (choice E) are less likely to respond to cognitive interventions.

Which of the following treatments may lead to memory loss?

['(A)Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)', '(B)Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)', '(C)Lithium', '(D)Deep brain stimulation', '(E)Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)']

(E)Case studies of people suffering from bulimia from around the world would be of interest to sociocultural psychologists. These international case studies might reveal the influences of different cultures on the cause and process of this psychological eating disorder. Researchers in behaviorism (choice A), the cognitive perspective (choice B), humanism (choice C), and the biological perspective (choice D) would not be specifically interested in case studies that contrast international influences on bulimia.

During free association, Jean notices that her patient changes the subject whenever she asks a probing question about the patient's relationship with her mother. Psychoanalysts call this experience

['(A)transference.', '(B)counterconditioning.', '(C)resistance.', '(D)cognitive restructuring.', '(E)meta-analysis.']

(C)Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is a cognitive therapy technique developed by Albert Ellis. Ellis believed that illness stems from irrational thinking. Thus, he believed that self-defeating and illogical thoughts have to be directly confronted. When a person confronts the negative ways he or she has been thinking, those negative thoughts can be replaced by more adaptive, healthier ways of viewing the world. Active listening, choice A, is a humanistic technique advanced by Carl Rogers. It involves a restating and clarifying of what a client says. This approach creates an environment based on acceptance, empathy, and genuineness, which are necessary for growth. Free association, choice B, is a psychoanalytic technique developed by Freud. A session typically begins with an open-ended question, followed by the patient speaking whatever comes to mind. Counterconditioning, choice D, is a behavioral technique that involves continual exposure to an anxiety-producing stimulus so that the fear is eventually replaced with a new response. Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR), choice E, is a controversial therapy technique where a person imagines a traumatic experience while watching the therapist’s finger move.

When Lark said, "No one really understands what I've gone through and no one really cares," her therapist responded, "What I'm hearing is that you are frustrated by how others have treated you." Her therapist is using which of the following techniques?

['(A)Free association', '(B)Counterconditioning', '(C)Cognitive restructuring', '(D)Aversive conditioning', '(E)Active listening']

(E)A therapist with an eclectic approach uses a number of approaches and techniques to treat an individual’s specific concerns. Thus, Megan is eclectic because her approach includes providing unconditional positive regard (humanistic), focusing on changing illogical thinking (cognitive), and role playing with the goal of learning more adaptive ways of behaving (behavioral). Emily, choice A, focuses on a psychodynamic approach to therapy. Shannon, choice B, provides an example of a humanistic therapeutic approach. Jake, choice C, uses systematic desensitization, which is derived from the principles of behaviorism. Jill, choice D, refers to changing thinking (“cognitive restructuring”), which is a focus of the cognitive perspective.

After Rik misbehaved, his parent said, "What you did was wrong, and I don't want you to do it again. While your behavior was bad, you are not bad, and I will always love you." This statement reflects

['(A)resistance.', '(B)unconditional positive regard.', '(C)transference.', '(D)cognitive restructuring.', '(E)aversive conditioning.']

(D)Repression is a central concept to the psychoanalytic approach. Psychoanalysts believe that trauma is pushed from the consciousness to protect the individual from anxiety. Such memories may be out of awareness but still exist and direct our behavior. Repressed trauma can be a source of mental disorders. To treat illness, the psychoanalyst must uncover what has been repressed. Resistance, choice A, occurs during psychoanalysis when the patient changes a subject during free association as a way of protecting himself or herself. Free association, choice B, is the primary tool of psychoanalysis. As a person freely speaks in response to an open-ended question, the psychoanalyst looks for clues into what has been repressed. Active listening, choice C, is a humanistic technique that involves rephrasing a client’s feelings. Transference, choice E, is a psychoanalytic concept. A therapist expects that during a session, the patient may transfer his or her feelings toward a family member, for example, onto the therapist.

As a child, Alan developed a fear of spiders after being surprised by one floating in a swimming pool. As an adult, Alan's therapist encourages him to relax while picturing a spider. The goal is to replace Alan's fear with a new response. This approach to therapy is called

['(A)psychoanalysis.', '(B)client-centered therapy.', '(C)a token economy.', '(D)cognitive restructuring.', '(E)counterconditioning.']

(D)Psychoanalysis, which is an insight therapy with the goal of uncovering unconscious trauma, was developed by Sigmund Freud. Aversive conditioning (choice A) and flooding (choice E) are both based on behavioral principles. Active listening, choice B, is a technique used by humanistic psychologists. Cognitive restructuring, choice C, which refers to the process of challenging and changing illogical thoughts, is a technique used by cognitive psychologists.

As a part of Darcy's treatment for depression, her therapist asked her to be mindful of when she thought, "I can never do anything right." Whenever Darcy had that thought, she was to make a list of evidence that either supported or disproved this illogical thinking. Then she was to practice thinking, "I've made some mistakes, but most of the time I make good choices." Darcy's therapist is using which of the following techniques?

['(A)Resistance', '(B)Active listening', '(C)Counterconditioning', '(D)Cognitive restructuring', '(E)Aversive conditioning']

(E)During free association, a person freely speaks in response to an open-ended question. The psychoanalyst looks for clues into what has been repressed and that may have led to the current issue. Choice A is an example of active listening, which is a tool of humanistic therapy. Choice B reflects systematic desensitization and is based on behavioral principles. Antidepressants, choice C, are most likely prescribed by a psychiatrist. Choice D reflects the approach of a cognitive psychologist.

Greg believes that others are plotting against him and often hears voices telling him that he is worthless. Which of the following would be most effective in helping decrease Greg's symptoms?

['(A)Antidepressants', '(B)Antianxiety drugs', '(C)Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)', '(D)Antipsychotics', '(E)Stimulants']

(B)Transference is an expected aspect of psychoanalysis. It occurs when a patient redirects emotions or feelings onto the therapist, whether these feelings are positive or negative. When transference occurs, the psychoanalyst has an opportunity to help the patient gain insight into his or her repressed feelings. A token economy, choice A, is a behavioral therapeutic approach based on operant conditioning. Client-centered therapy, choice C, describes the approach of humanistic psychologists. Resistance, choice D, is a psychoanalytic concept that describes when a patient quickly changes the subject during free association as a way to protect sensitive information. Exposure therapy, choice E, is based on behavioral principles of extinction. A patient is repeatedly exposed to an object as a way to reduce his or her fear of the object.

Which of the following best describes the use of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)?

['(A)A coil is placed near the skull, and then a magnetic field is directed to a specific area of the cortex.', '(B)Implanted electrodes are placed into specific brain regions and send electrical impulses to specific areas in the brain.', '(C)While using an orbitoclast, a doctor severs the connections to the frontal lobe.', '(D)Patients are exposed to intense artificial light for prescribed periods of time.', '(E)A doctor administers anesthesia and a muscle relaxant and then delivers an electrical current to the brain to produce a seizure.']

(A)Client-centered therapy is based on the humanistic principle of providing others with unconditional positive regard. Carl Rogers suggested that it is necessary to receive this acceptance in order to develop positive self-concept. Psychoanalysis, choice B, is based on the Freudian concept that repressed trauma leads to illness. Aversive conditioning (choice C) and flooding (choice E) are both based on the behavioral principles of classical conditioning. Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), choice D, is a cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that leads to changes in illogical thinking due to direct challenges made by the therapist.

Antidepressant drugs would be most effective in treating which of the following?

["(A)Arnold's thoughts are grandiose and disorganized as he strings together words that don't seem to make sense together.", '(B)For many months Mary has been experiencing profound sadness, difficulty concentrating, difficulty sleeping, and suicidal thoughts.', '(C)On the surface Don is charming, but he is a manipulative and accomplished liar who shows no remorse when he hurts others.', "(D)Jessica is so terrified of spiders that she won't walk barefoot in her own home or go into her basement.", '(E)Vivian worries that her headache signals that she is seriously ill even though she has no physical evidence of a disease.']

(B)Developed by Joseph Wolpe, systematic desensitization is a counterconditioning therapy used successfully to treat phobias. While relaxed, patients are exposed to their fear-producing stimuli in increasing increments. The goal is to replace the fear with a new response, relaxation. Choice A reflects another behavioral treatment called aversive conditioning where an unpleasant state (bad taste) is associated with an undesirable behavior (chewing fingernails). Identifying and restructuring one’s thinking, choice C, reflects a cognitive approach to psychotherapy. Dream interpretation, choice D, is consistent with the use of psychoanalysis. Choice E illustrates Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT), a biological approach to treatment.

Vickie was depressed. Her therapist first helped Vickie identify self-defeating thoughts, such as, "I am a failure at everything I do." Her therapist then helped Vickie restructure her thinking and schedule one pleasant activity a day that she wouldn't normally do but that would allow Vickie to feel successful. The therapist's approach to Vickie best illustrates

['(A)psychoanalysis.', '(B)a token economy.', '(C)systematic desensitization.', '(D)active listening.', '(E)cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).']

(A)Aversive conditioning is a behavioral therapy, a type of counterconditioning, that involves pairing something unpleasant with an unwanted behavior. The use of aversive conditioning as described in the scenario was acknowledged to be dangerous by the American Psychological Association in 1994. Many individuals subjected to this technique experienced increased depression and anxiety. Today it is considered a violation of professional conduct to engage in such practices. Systematic desensitization, choice B, is also a form of counterconditioning where a relaxed state is paired with stimuli that progressively produce more anxiety. Transference, choice C, occurs when a patient begins to treat the psychoanalyst like someone else important in his or her life. Flooding, choice D, is a behavioral technique where the individual becomes immersed in the stimulus that produces a phobic response. Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT), choice E, is a cognitive therapy where an individual’s illogical thought processes are directly challenged.

As a freshman in high school, Kai felt stressed and started to do poorly. His parents suggested he visit with a therapist. The therapist taught Kai more about his body's response to stress and helped Kai isolate what he was telling himself. So, instead of thinking, "This class is too difficult; I will fail," Kai practiced thinking, "I studied hard. I am willing to give it my best." This approach to therapy is called

['(A)exposure therapy', '(B)stress inoculation training', '(C)a token economy', '(D)active listening', '(E)free association']

(B)Although in group therapy an individual may have less one-on-one interaction with a therapist, group therapy can still be an effective approach primarily because it provides interaction with others. These interactions help an individual feel more connected to others who share similar problems with himself or herself. Because the group members have things in common, they can watch as others work on specific issues and recognize certain patterns in themselves. Choices A, C, D, and E are positive outcomes for therapy in general.

Who would be most likely to say the following?

['(A)Sigmund Freud', '(B)Aaron Beck', '(C)Carl Rogers', '(D)B. F. Skinner', '(E)Albert Ellis']

(E)Antagonists are chemicals that prevent other chemicals from binding with a receptor site. In this case, antipsychotics are close in structure to dopamine and can occupy dopamine’s receptor sites, thus blocking the action of dopamine. Hallucinogens, choice A, such as LSD, produce hallucinations. Depressants, choice B, such as alcohol, slow down the central nervous system and produce feelings of relaxation. Agonists, choice C, increase a chemical’s action. Stimulants, choice D, such as cocaine, speed up the central nervous system and produce increased energy and a rush of euphoria.

Mary Cover Jones worked with Peter, a child terrified of rabbits. While Peter was calmly eating a snack, she would introduce a rabbit in a cage. Over time, she moved the cage closer and closer to Peter. After 2 months, Peter was able to hold the rabbit in his arms. Which of the following techniques is Mary Cover Jones known for developing?

['(A)Free association', '(B)Electroconvulsive therapy', '(C)Active listening', '(D)Rational emotive behavior therapy', '(E)Counterconditioning']

(B)Depression is associated with decreased amounts of serotonin and norepinephrine. SSRIs block the reuptake process of serotonin, thus making more serotonin available. SSRIs do not appear to be helpful in reducing the primary symptoms of schizophrenia (choice A), Dissociative Identity Disorder—DID (choice C), specific phobias (choice D), or borderline personality disorder, (choice E).

In treating depression, which of the following psychologists would use gentle questioning techniques aimed at helping the patient become more aware of his or her illogical thinking and restructuring such thought patterns?

['(A)Sigmund Freud', '(B)Carl Rogers', '(C)Abraham Maslow', '(D)Aaron Beck', '(E)Joseph Wolpe']

(C)Lithium, which is a simple salt, is a mood stabilizer. Although researchers are unsure of how it works to lessen extremes in mood, it can be very effective. Antipsychotics, choice A, are primarily used to treat psychotic illnesses, such as schizophrenia. Antidepressants, choice B, are used to treat the lows of depression as well as anxiety disorders. Antianxiety drugs, choice D, such as Xanax, depress the activity in the central nervous system and can be used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT), choice E, is primarily used to treat severe depression in those who do not respond well to drug therapies.

Behavior modification therapies strive to change the way individuals respond to environmental stimuli using both positive and negative reinforcement. Which of the following provided the bases for this approach to treatment?

['(A)Aaron Beck', '(B)B. F. Skinner', '(C)Albert Ellis', '(D)Carl Rogers', '(E)Joseph Wolpe']

(B)Although Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) can be very effective in treating severe depression, one side effect is memory loss. Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS), choice A, is used to treat depression. However, rTMS does not seem to have memory loss as a side effect. Lithium (choice C), deep brain stimulation (choice D), and Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors—SSRIs (choice E) do have side effects. However, memory loss is not primarily associated with each treatment.

Sigmund Freud believed that repressed traumatic events could contribute to a person's present-day problems. Freud based his beliefs on the many interviews he conducted with individuals who presented unique problems. Freud's approach to developing his core beliefs stems from which of the following methods?

['(A)Surveys', '(B)Experiments', '(C)Case studies', '(D)Correlational studies', '(E)Naturalistic observations']

(C)When patients change the subject, make a joke, or forget relevant details, psychoanalysts believe that they are trying to protect themselves from anxiety-producing information. Psychoanalysts call this resistance and expect it to occur during psychoanalysis. Transference, choice A, is another part of psychoanalysis. In transference, patients transfer their feelings about a person close to them onto the therapist. Counterconditioning, choice B, is a behavioral technique based on classical conditioning. Cognitive restructuring, choice D, occurs when a therapist challenges illogical beliefs and helps patients create new, healthier ways of thinking. Meta-analysis, choice E, is a statistical technique used to combine the findings of numerous studies about a common phenomenon.

Dr. Pozniak was interested in the effectiveness of a new antianxiety medication. Three hundred patients were randomly assigned to two groups. Group A received the new medication, while Group B received a pill that had no active ingredients. After 6 months, Dr. Pozniak measured anxiety-related symptoms as reported by the participants. It is important for Dr. Pozniak to have two groups because sometimes just believing in a cure can lead to an improvement. By having Group B, Dr. Pozniak is helping to control for

['(A)ethical concerns.', '(B)subject bias.', '(C)perceptual adaptation.', '(D)the placebo effect.', '(E)sampling bias.']

(E)Active listening involves the therapist restating and clarifying the statements made by the client. It is a way for the therapist to demonstrate acceptance, genuineness, and empathy for the client and to provide an atmosphere where the client can grow. Free association, choice A, involves speaking without censoring thoughts. The psychoanalyst’s goal is to help the client discover repressed memories. Counterconditioning (choice B) and aversive conditioning (choice D) are both behavioral techniques based on classical conditioning. Cognitive restructuring, choice C, results from challenges made by the therapist to illogical thinking.

Dr. Pozniak was interested in the effectiveness of a new antianxiety medication. Three hundred patients were randomly assigned to two groups. Group A received the new medication, while Group B received a pill that had no active ingredients. After 6 months, Dr. Pozniak measured anxiety-related symptoms as reported by the participants. It is important for Dr. Pozniak to have two groups because sometimes just believing in a cure can lead to an improvement. Based on Dr. Pozniak's experiment, what is the dependent variable?

['(A)The antianxiety medication', '(B)The number of patients', '(C)The method used to divide subjects into groups (D)The anxiety-related symptoms', '(E)The 6-month time period after first receiving the medication']

(B)Carl Rogers suggested that unconditional positive regard, shown through accepting and valuing others regardless of their actions or beliefs, was central to the development of positive self-concept. Resistance (choice A) and transference (choice C) are both a part of psychoanalysis. Resistance occurs when a patient changes the subject during free association as a way of protecting the ego. Transference happens when a patient begins to treat the therapist as a proxy for someone else by transferring the emotions he or she has for that person onto the psychoanalyst. Cognitive restructuring, choice D, is the change from illogical to logical thinking. Aversive conditioning, choice E, is based on counterconditioning. It involves pairing an unwanted behavior with a negative stimulus.

Dr. Thomas listens carefully to what her patients say. She pays special attention to their dreams and what happened in their early childhood. She encourages her patients to identify what they are feeling and helps them understand the unconscious factors that drive their behavior. What psychological perspective does Dr. Thomas most likely identify with?

['(A)Cognitive', '(B)Behavioral', '(C)Psychodynamic', '(D)Evolutionary', '(E)Sociocultural']

(E)Counterconditioning is based on behavioral principles. Phobias are likely learned through classical conditioning. Based on this, if a conditioned stimulus (for example, seeing a spider) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (being surprised by a spider floating in a swimming pool), the conditioned response (fear) will decrease and eventually become extinct. Counterconditioning techniques, such as systematic desensitization, require repeatedly exposing the individual to the stimulus that causes fear so that, eventually, the fear will be replaced with a new response. Psychoanalysis, choice A, involves techniques to uncover repressed trauma, such as free association. Client-centered therapy, choice B, is the primary technique of humanistic psychologists. A token economy, choice C, is an operant conditioning technique based on receiving rewards for appropriate behavior. Cognitive restructuring, choice D, involves identifying and changing illogical thinking patterns.

In the 1970s, hospitalized patients with schizophrenia earned small tokens for doing specific target behaviors, such as brushing their teeth or making their beds. Such tokens could be exchanged for other reinforcers, such as ice cream, puzzle books, or other desirable items. Which of the following perspectives provides the basis for this approach?

['(A)Cognitive', '(B)Biological', '(C)Humanistic', '(D)Behavioral', '(E)Psychodynamic']

(D)Cognitive restructuring was developed by cognitive psychologist Aaron Beck. It involves developing an awareness of illogical thoughts and then challenging and changing such self-defeating ways of thinking. Resistance, choice A, occurs during free association with a psychoanalyst when the patient changes the subject whenever asked about potentially sensitive information. Active listening, choice B, is a humanistic technique advanced by Carl Rogers. It involves a restating of what the client has said to provide a sense of empathy and genuineness. Counterconditioning, choice C, is a behavioral technique that involves continual exposure to an anxiety-producing stimulus so that, eventually, the fear is replaced with a new response. Aversive conditioning, choice E, is a type of counterconditioning that involves pairing something unpleasant with an unwanted behavior.

The electrical activity in the brain is altered in depressed patients undergoing repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS). In this procedure, a coil is held close to the scalp that focuses a magnetic field onto a specific area of the cortex. This approach to treating depression reflects which of the following perspectives?

['(A)Cognitive', '(B)Evolutionary', '(C)Biological', '(D)Behavioral', '(E)Psychodynamic']

(D)Antipsychotics would be most effective in helping decrease Greg’s delusions and hallucinations. Such drugs are similar in their chemical composition to dopamine and can occupy dopamine’s receptor sites, reducing the amount of available dopamine. Increased levels of dopamine appear to play a role in psychotic symptoms. Antidepressants, choice A, such as Prozac, work to increase levels of serotonin at the synapse. Antianxiety drugs, choice B, such as Xanax, depress the central nervous system. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT), choice C, is currently used to treat severe depression. Stimulants, choice E, such as cocaine, increase nervous system activity and would not decrease Greg’s symptoms.

Maya was terrified of flying. Her therapist suggested that she try virtual reality exposure therapy in which she would be immersed in a computer-generated, three-dimensional world and guided through the experience of flying. Which type of therapist would be most likely to use this approach to treating specific phobias?

['(A)Behavioral', '(B)Biological', '(C)Psychodynamic', '(D)Humanistic', '(E)Evolutionary']

(E)Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) is primarily used for depressed patients who don’t respond well to psychotherapies or standard drug treatments. Although how it works is still largely a mystery, it can be very effective in alleviating severe symptoms of depression. Choice A is a description of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS), which has also been found to be effective in treating depression. Choice B describes deep brain stimulation, which shows some promise in treating the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Choice C describes a lobotomy, which is no longer used in the treatment of mental illness. Choice D illustrates the controversial use of light to treat depression tied to seasonal changes.

Dr. Rao, whose treatment techniques focus on an individual's decision making, was ineffective in helping a Chinese client with a collectivist approach to problem solving. Which perspective focuses on the impact of a client's life experiences and values when approaching therapy?

['(A)Psychodynamic', '(B)Biological', '(C)Sociocultural', '(D)Humanistic', '(E)Evolutionary']

(B)The description of Mary’s symptoms appears to be related to severe depression. Antidepressants, such as Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs), may be effective in reducing her symptoms. Arnold’s symptoms, choice A, appear to be psychotic, possibly schizophrenia, which are best treated with antipsychotics. Don’s symptoms, choice C, seem to illustrate antisocial personality disorder, which does not appear to respond to antidepressant medications. Jessica’s specific phobia, choice D, is best treated with behavioral therapies such as systematic desensitization. Vivian, choice E, appears to have illness anxiety disorder, whose symptoms don’t respond to drug therapies.

Which of the following best describes an important difference between the study described in the newspaper clipping and the Zimbardo prison study?

['(A)The Zimbardo prison study took place at an actual prison, while this study seems to take place on a college campus.', '(B)In this study, this researcher highlights the IRB procedures followed and that participants can leave any time. Zimbardo has been criticized for potentially violating ethical requirements.', "(C)Zimbardo's study focused on obedience to the prison guards. The study described in the newspaper article seems to focus on authority rather than on obedience.", '(D)The research described in the newspaper article is most likely an experiment, while the Zimbardo prison study was a correlational study.', "(E)Zimbardo's prison study was concentrated over the course of 2 days, while the study described in the newspaper article will take place over a longer period of time."]

(E)Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies (CBT) assumes that what an individual thinks impacts his or her behavior. If Vickie is thinking self-defeating thoughts, it can lead to depression. To help Vickie, her therapist will help Vickie identify and change her illogical thinking. In addition, her therapist will use techniques that will give Vickie more activities that produce positive emotions, such as scheduling one pleasant activity per day. Psychoanalysis, choice A, focuses on the analyst interpreting dreams or free associations for unconscious conflict that has led to illness. A token economy (choice B) and systematic desensitization (choice C) are behavioral techniques used to change the target behavior only, not the underlying thoughts that produce it. Active listening, choice D, involves an echoing of a client’s statements during therapy. It is a humanistic technique used to promote an environment where the client can reach his or her full potential.

Which of the following best describes an important difference between the study described in the newspaper clipping and Asch's social psychology study?

["(A)Asch's study focused on ingroup and outgroup bias rather than on the responses to authority as described in the newspaper clipping.", "(B)Both studies research perceptions of authority. However, Asch's participants were children while the study in the newspaper clipping uses college students.", '(C)The study described in the newspaper article is most likely a case study of the college students who respond to the ad. The Asch study was a true experiment with both experimental and control groups.', "(D)Asch's study investigated influences on conformity. The goal of the study in the newspaper clipping is to research influences on authority and obedience.", '(E)The researcher who posted the ad in the newspaper is most likely studying who responds to the newspaper article. Asch investigated responses to personal letters.']

(B)Stress inoculation training is based in cognitive therapy. It focuses on helping individuals become more resistant to stressors in their lives. It teaches people about how their bodies respond to stress as well as the illogical thinking they might engage in that causes stress. Much like an inoculation to stop disease, clients design in advance steps to take when they are feeling stressed. For Kai, planning positive statements to think before class might help him control the stress that is inhibiting his performance. Exposure therapy, choice A, is a behavioral technique based on classical conditioning. In exposure therapy, a fear-producing stimulus is paired with a new response, such as relaxation. A token economy, choice C, is a behavioral technique based on operant conditioning. In a token economy, an individual earns small rewards, or tokens, in order to earn other reinforcers. Active listening, choice D, is a technique where the therapist restates what the client has said and asks the client for clarification with the goal of helping the individual feel total acceptance. Free association, choice E, is a psychoanalytic technique to discover unconscious trauma. Free association begins with the therapist asking an open-ended question that allows the person to speak freely without censoring his or her thoughts.

Which of the following best describes an important difference between the study described in the newspaper clipping and Milgram's obedience study?

["(A)The independent variable in Milgram's study was age, while the independent variable in the study described in the newspaper clipping is most likely year in school (college).", '(B)Milgram was a social psychologist, and the researcher described in the newspaper clipping is most likely a behaviorist.', '(C)The researcher in the newspaper clipping reveals that deception and confederates will be used in the study, while Milgram kept the use of confederates secret.', "(D)Milgram's obedience study was a qualitative study, while the study in the newspaper clipping is probably a quantitative study.", "(E)The research in the newspaper article includes deception, and Milgram's study did not."]

(C)Carl Rogers was a major influence in humanistic psychology. He developed client-centered therapy and urged psychologists to create therapeutic environments that demonstrated their genuineness, acceptance, and empathy. Therapists using active listening would echo, restate, and clarify clients’ statements, thereby establishing the human connection that served as the bases for growth. Sigmund Freud, choice A, focused on the role of the unconscious. He used free association as a vehicle to uncover repressed trauma. Aaron Beck (choice B) and Albert Ellis (choice E) were both cognitive psychologists who helped patients identify faulty thinking as a way to help them establish more adaptive ways of viewing their lives. B. F. Skinner, choice D, was a behavioral psychologist who studied the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behavior.

Which of the following is the most likely independent variable in the study described in the newspaper clipping?

['(A)Perception of authority', '(B)Conformity', '(C)Perception of behavior', '(D)Response to authority', '(E)Age']

(E)Mary Cover Jones’s therapy techniques were known as counterconditioning. They were grounded in behavioral principles. Mary Cover Jones believed she could remove a phobia if she paired the trigger stimulus, in this case a rabbit, with a new response, relaxation. Thus, the fear was countered by relaxation because such opposing states cannot be experienced simultaneously. Free association, choice A, is a technique of psychoanalysis and was developed by Sigmund Freud. Electroconvulsive therapy, choice B, is a biological intervention used to treat severe depression. Active listening, choice C, was proposed by the humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers. Rational emotive behavior therapy, choice D, is a cognitive therapy developed by Albert Ellis.

Which of the following theories explores how we explain the behaviors of other people by combining both situational and personality factors?

['(A)Trait theory', '(B)Attribution theory', '(C)Drive reduction theory', '(D)Fundamental attribution error', '(E)Locus of control theory']

(D)Aaron Beck developed a form of cognitive therapy aimed at treating depression. He believed that people are depressed because they form self-defeating ways of thinking about themselves. Beck’s technique, called cognitive restructuring, uses gentle questioning that helps individuals discover their own illogical thinking patterns as well as develop new ways of interpreting events in their lives. Sigmund Freud, choice A, developed psychoanalysis to help individuals gain insight into the unconscious forces impacting their behavior. Carl Rogers (choice B) and Abraham Maslow (choice C) were humanistic psychologists. Carl Rogers developed client-centered therapy techniques, including active listening, while Maslow focused on discussing which unmet needs might be blocking a client’s progress. Joseph Wolpe, choice E, built upon the work of Mary Cover Jones in developing counterconditioning techniques, such as systematic desensitization.

What concept can best explain why we are more likely to judge the behaviors of strangers harshly but give ourselves the benefit of the doubt?

['(A)Similarity', '(B)Attribution theory', '(C)Social facilitation', '(D)Fundamental attribution error', '(E)Social loafing']

(B)B. F. Skinner was a major figure in behaviorism. He furthered our understanding of the law of effect, that reinforced behavior is maintained and that behavior that is punished is eliminated. Therapies, such as a token economy, are based upon these operant conditioning principles. Aaron Beck (choice A) and Albert Ellis (choice C) were cognitive psychologists who focused on how our thinking influences our behavior. Carl Rogers, choice D, was a humanistic psychologist who stressed the importance of unconditional positive regard in developing a positive self-concept. Joseph Wolpe, choice E, was also a behaviorist. He developed the method of systematic desensitization to treat phobias. This method is based on classical conditioning principles.

Which of the following statements is the most accurate summary of the fundamental attribution error?

['(A)We are more likely to attribute human behaviors to environmental factors, like stress, than to temporary biological factors, like genetics or brain chemistry.', '(B)Nonexperts are more likely to attribute successful performances to luck or chance, while experts are more likely to attribute success correctly to hard work and practice.', '(C)Behavioral attributions are more likely to be correct if they are based on long-term empirical data.', "(D)Inaccurate cognitive schemata are likely to cause incorrect attributions of others' behaviors.", '(E)We tend to attribute the behaviors of strangers to their character or personality but to attribute our own behavior to situational factors.']

(C)Case studies allow researchers to study an unusual instance in detail. Freud published numerous case studies that served as the foundation for his psychoanalysis, including “Dora,” “Little Hans,” and the “Rat Man.” Surveys, choice A, provide researchers with self-report data on individuals’ attitudes. Experiments, choice B, involve the random assignment of subjects to two groups where one group receives the independent variable while all other conditions remain constant. Correlational studies, choice D, involve using a statistical measure, called a correlation coefficient, to determine how closely two variables are related. Naturalistic observations, choice E, are conducted within the natural environment of the organisms so the researcher can closely study their behavior.

An advertisement that uses emotional language and attention-grabbing visuals in order to try to convince you to make a specific choice is using which persuasive method?

['(A)Norm of reciprocity', '(B)Central route to persuasion', '(C)Peripheral route to persuasion', '(D)The foot-in-the-door phenomenon', '(E)External locus of control']

(D)The placebo effect occurs when an individual believes in a treatment and a change in symptoms occurs. To control for the power of belief, researchers include a placebo group, one that receives a fake treatment. The inclusion of Group B does not impact the ethics of the study, making ethical concerns (choice A) incorrect. For example, to adhere to the ethical guidelines, Dr. Pozniak would need to obtain informed consent before beginning the experiment. Subject bias, choice B, could be controlled for by using either a single-or a double-blind technique. Perceptual adaptation, choice C, is not related to the placebo effect. Sampling bias, choice E, which can lead to having an unrepresentative sample, can be controlled for by obtaining a random sample from the population.

An advertisement uses compelling statistics and other relevant factual evidence to try to influence viewers' decisions. Which persuasion method is this advertisement using?

['(A)Norm of reciprocity', '(B)Central route to persuasion', '(C)Peripheral route to persuasion', '(D)The foot-in-the-door phenomenon', '(E)External locus of control']

(D)The dependent variable in an experiment is the outcome that is measured. That variable is called “dependent” because it depends on the manipulation of the independent variable. In this case, the number of anxiety-related symptoms as reported by the subjects was the measured outcome. The independent variable, choice A, is the administration of the antianxiety medication. Choices B, C, and E were identical in both groups, meaning that none were variables.

Which persuasion technique involves starting with a small request and then gradually increasing the request slightly until you eventually reach your final target request?

['(A)The door-in-the-face phenomenon', '(B)Central route to persuasion', '(C)Peripheral route to persuasion', '(D)The foot-in-the-door phenomenon', '(E)Norm of reciprocity']

(C)Psychodynamic psychologists focus on the unconscious forces that shape our behavior. Cognitive psychologists, choice A, look at how our thinking influences our actions. The behavioral perspective, choice B, concentrates on how our actions are learned from the environment. Evolutionary psychologists, choice D, investigate the role of natural selection in shaping adaptive human behaviors. The sociocultural perspective, choice E, looks to the role of a person’s cultural background in affecting his or her behavior.

Which term describes the discomfort people feel when their actions aren't consistent with their thinking or internal attitudes?

['(A)Cognitive dissonance', '(B)Role playing', '(C)Self-serving bias', '(D)Ethnocentrism', '(E)Mere exposure effect']

(D)The behavioral perspective provides the basis for this approach. Token economies are based on the principles of operant conditioning, which were studied extensively by B. F. Skinner. If a behavior is reinforced, that behavior will likely be repeated. The tokens act as reinforcers to be exchanged for other reinforcers. The cognitive perspective, choice A, focuses on how our thinking impacts our behavior. The biological perspective, choice B, emphasizes the role of the nervous and other systems on our behavior. The humanistic perspective, choice C, looks to human fulfillment as its primary focus. The psychodynamic perspective, choice E, stresses the role of the unconscious in influencing behavior.

Which of the following factors most influences whether or not a person's behavior is influenced by conformity?

['(A)Genetic factors that are either activated or inhibited by environmental factors', '(B)Internal personality characteristics, such as extroversion or neuroticism', '(C)Past operant conditioning experiences, such as positive reinforcements for conforming', '(D)The presence of a strong, respected authority figure who is giving clear, forceful directions', '(E)Being surrounded by a unanimous group who are all making the same decision']

(C)Since rTMS focuses on changing how the brain operates, it is coming from the biological perspective. The cognitive perspective, choice A, emphasizes the thought processes that influence our behavior. Evolutionary psychology, choice B, stresses the role of natural selection in shaping adaptive human behaviors. Behavioral psychologists, choice D, highlight the role of environmental forces on our behavior. Psychodynamic psychologists, choice E, focus on the unconscious forces that shape our behavior.

Which of the following factors most influences whether or not a person's behavior is influenced by obedience?

['(A)Genetic factors that are either activated or inhibited by environmental factors', '(B)Internal personality characteristics, such as extroversion or neuroticism', '(C)Past operant conditioning experiences, such as positive reinforcements for conforming', '(D)The presence of a strong, respected authority figure who is giving clear, forceful directions', '(E)Being surrounded by a unanimous group who are all making the same decision']

(A)Behavioral psychologists focus on changing maladaptive behavior using learning principles. Exposure therapies are based on classical conditioning. Using virtual reality provides a safe environment for the individual to be exposed to the fear-producing stimulus. Biological psychologists, choice B, focus on how the workings of the brain and the body systems influence behavior. Psychodynamic psychologists, choice C, stress how unconscious thought processes impact our behavior. Humanistic psychologists, choice D, believe in the power of the individual to fulfill his or her potential. Evolutionary psychologists, choice E, seek choices to human behavior using the Darwinian principle of natural selection.

Which term describes enhanced performance that occurs in front of a group of people?

['(A)Group polarization', '(B)Social facilitation', '(C)Groupthink', '(D)Yerkes-Dodson law', '(E)Social loafing']

(C)The sociocultural perspective stresses how an individual’s culture influences the way he or she thinks and learns. Cultural differences can impact the effectiveness of a therapist. As shown in the scenario, a therapist with an individualistic cultural background may focus on meeting with the client individually and speaking with the client about his or her life goals. That therapist might neglect including the family in treatment, which may be very important to the client with a collectivist perspective. The psychodynamic perspective, choice A, focuses on helping the patient develop insights into the unconscious forces that shape his or her behavior. The biological perspective, choice B, focuses on how the workings of the nervous and other body systems shape behavior. The humanistic perspective, choice D, believes that people are basically good and work toward fulfilling their potential. The evolutionary perspective, choice E, looks to the forces of natural selection in determining the behaviors that allow humans to survive in their environment.

Which term best describes the decreased effort a person is likely to give when the person knows that he or she is acting as part of a group?

['(A)Group polarization', '(B)Social facilitation', '(C)Groupthink', '(D)Yerkes-Dodson law', '(E)Social loafing']

(B)Zimbardo’s prison study has been criticized for potentially violating ethical requirements for research with human participants. Some participants in the prison study asked to leave and were not allowed to (although Zimbardo and others dispute this criticism). The prison study took place on the Stanford campus (choice A). Choice C is incorrect because the Zimbardo study also investigated authority. Choices D and E include incorrect statements about the Zimbardo prison study.

Many psychological concepts help us gain insight into our sense of self—our inner attitudes, beliefs, and ways of thinking. Which psychological concept could be said to involve the loss of self?

['(A)Self-actualization', '(B)Group polarization', '(C)Deindividuation', '(D)Self-fulfilling prophecy', '(E)Egocentrism']

(D)Asch studied conformity—whether people changed their behaviors to be in line with the unanimous group decision. The study in the newspaper explicitly focuses on authority, which is related to obedience—following orders from a perceived authority figure. Choices A, B, and E include incorrect information about Asch’s study. Choice C is incorrect because nothing in the newspaper ad implies that this is a case study.

Which term might be most helpful in predicting the influence of a series of discussion groups on controversial topics?

['(A)Obedience', '(B)Group polarization', '(C)Deindividuation', '(D)Social facilitation', '(E)Social loafing']

(C)Milgram’s study famously depended on keeping participants from knowing that deception/confederates were involved. The “learners” in the study did not know that the “teachers” were confederates. However, the newspaper ad specifically states that deception and confederates will be used. Choices A, D, and E include incorrect information about the Milgram study. Choice B is incorrect because nothing in the newspaper clipping implies that the researcher is a behaviorist.

Which of the following group discussion rules might help prevent groupthink? (A)Requiring that every group include at least one person who disagrees with the other members of the group about the issue being discussed (B)Making sure that no one individual in each group discussion is perceived as an authority figure or an expert (C)Ensuring that every person in the group discussion has an equal amount of speaking time and that no one interrupts others during the discussion (D)Establishing clear and understandable group norms, which are rules for behavior during the discussion (E)Measuring the anxiety of group members both before and after the group discussion in order to determine whether or not stress played a role in the group's decisions 565.What is the most important difference between the definitions of prejudice and discrimination?

['(A)Discrimination is a cognitive psychology concept, and prejudice is a social psychology concept.', '(B)Prejudice occurs among groups, while discrimination occurs within a group.', '(C)Discrimination occurs among "low-power" groups, while prejudice occurs between a "high-power" and a "low-power" group.', '(D)Prejudices are attitudes, and discrimination involves behaviors.', '(E)Discrimination is a historical term, and prejudice is a modern term.']

(A)The newspaper clipping says that the research is about “responses to different kinds of authority.” This means that perception of authority is the independent variable. Nothing in the newspaper clipping implies that conformity (choice B) or age (choice E) are elements of the study. Choice C, perception of behavior, is very general, and behavior is more likely to be an aspect of the dependent variable. The response to authority, choice D, is the dependent variable.

Which of the following concepts could help explain why we tend to like places and people that are more familiar to us because of repeated contact?

['(A)Similarity', '(B)Companionate love', '(C)Social facilitation', '(D)Locus of control', '(E)Mere exposure effect']

(B)The goal of attribution theory is to investigate how we explain behaviors. People usually explain the behaviors of others by attributing them to either situational (environmental) causes or disposition (personality) causes. Trait theory, choice A, is a personality theory. Drive reduction theory, choice C, is a motivation theory. Fundamental attribution error, choice D, is related to attribution theory. However, the fundamental attribution error specifically describes our tendency to attribute the behaviors of others to their dispositions rather than to situational factors. The locus of control theory, choice E, refers to our cognitions about ourselves, not others.

Which social psychology principle is most closely related to the saying "You scratch my back, I'll scratch yours."

['(A)Foot-in-the-door strategy', '(B)Groupthink', '(C)Norm of reciprocity', '(D)Social facilitation', '(E)Altruism']

(D)The fundamental attribution error specifically describes our tendency to attribute the behaviors of others to their inner dispositions (their personalities) rather than to situational (environmental) factors. Similarity, choice A, is involved in attraction research. The fundamental attribution error is a specific application of attribution theory, choice B. However, fundamental attribution error is a more specific and correct choice for this question. Social facilitation (choice C) and social loafing (choice E) are related to whether we are likely to exert an effort in different kinds of social situations.

Which of the following concepts can best help explain the increase in crime that occurs as temperatures rise?

['(A)Social scripts', '(B)Frustration-aggression principle', '(C)Operant conditioning', '(D)Fundamental attribution error', '(E)Observational learning']

(E)The fundamental attribution error specifically describes our tendency to attribute the behaviors of others to their inner dispositions (their personalities) rather than to situational (environmental) factors. Choice A is an incorrect summary of attribution research. Choice B refers to an irrelevant factor (luck). Choices C and D refer to factors not related to attribution theory.

Which concept might help explain why we are more likely to appreciate social media posts by people whom we agree with and are similar to than posts by people who don't meet these criteria?

['(A)Ingroup bias', '(B)Similarity theory', '(C)Groupthink', '(D)Self-fulfilling prophecy', '(E)Discrimination']

(C)The peripheral route to persuasion involves using visuals and emotional appeals that aren’t necessarily relevant to the central message but that will grab the attention of viewers and perhaps influence their decisions. Norm of reciprocity (choice A) and the foot-in-the-door phenomenon (choice D) are other kinds of persuasion techniques. The central route to persuasion, choice B, involves making a convincing argument using relevant facts or other details rather than emotional language or attention-grabbing details. The external locus of control, choice E, refers to whether we attribute what happens in our lives to luck or to our own efforts.

Children's literature and stories often end with a satisfying moral conclusion: the evil characters are punished, and the good characters are rewarded. This storytelling pattern may be satisfying to young people because of which of the following?

['(A)Positive reinforcement', '(B)Feel-good, do-good phenomenon', '(C)Ingroup bias', '(D)Just-world phenomenon', '(E)Preconventional morality']

(B)The central route to persuasion uses relevant and fact-based evidence, like statistics or research findings, to try to influence viewers’ decisions. This contrasts with the peripheral route to persuasion, choice C, which involves using irrelevant, emotional details in order to influence viewers. Norm of reciprocity (choice A) and the foot-in-the-door phenomenon (choice D) are other kinds of persuasion techniques. The external locus of control, choice E, refers to whether we attribute what happens in our lives to luck or to our own efforts.

Social psychology researchers find that superordinate goals help reduce which of the following?

['(A)Ingroup bias', '(B)Generalization', '(C)Frustration-aggression principle', '(D)Confounding variables', '(E)Selection bias']

(D)Using the foot-in-the-door persuasion technique involves making a small initial request and then gradually increasing that request until you reach your ultimate goal. Gradually increasing these requests increases the chance that your eventual end request will be granted. The door-in-the-face phenomenon, choice A, is the opposite technique. You ask for more than you want at the beginning and then gradually reduce the request. Central route to persuasion (choice B), peripheral route to persuasion (choice C), and norm of reciprocity (choice E) are other kinds of persuasion techniques.

Lorenzo is excited about buying a motorcycle. He researches what brand to buy. During his research, though, he reads about the number of brain injuries caused by motorcycle accidents. After completing this research, Lorenzo decides to not buy a motorcycle after all. This change of heart is an example of which social psychology process?

['(A)Attitudes affecting actions', '(B)Conformity', '(C)Obedience', '(D)Actions affecting attitudes', '(E)Social facilitation']

(A)Cognitive dissonance occurs when we realize that something we have done (an action) isn’t consistent with the way we think or with our internal attitudes. We usually resolve this dissonance by changing our cognitions. Role playing (choice B), self-serving bias (choice C), ethnocentrism (choice D), and mere exposure effect (choice E) are not relevant to the specific dissonance between cognitions and actions.

Lance and Carter are hanging out with their friends Guy and Sam. Guy and Sam talk Lance and Carter into playing basketball, even though Lance and Carter really don't like basketball. Later that week, the P.E. teacher asks them how they feel about basketball, and Lance and Carter say, "Oh, it's OK. I don't love it, but I don't hate it." This change may be an example of what social psychology process?

['(A)Attitudes affecting actions', '(B)Conformity', '(C)Obedience', '(D)Actions affecting attitudes', '(E)Social facilitation']

(E)Conformity occurs when someone is surrounded by a unanimous group, all its members making the same decision, and the person conforms to the decision/opinion of the group. The social psychology concept of conformity doesn’t have anything to do with genetics (choice A), personality (choice B), or operant conditioning (choice C). Choice D describes obedience, not conformity.

On his first day at a new school, Wolfgang wears his Nebraska Huskers cap pulled down tightly on his head all day. His classmates conclude that Wolfgang is a big football fan. However, the only reason Wolfgang wore his hat that day was that he woke up with horrible bed head. Wolfgang's classmates are guilty of which of the following?

['(A)Stereotyping', '(B)Concept formation', '(C)Ingroup bias', '(D)Fundamental attribution error', '(E)Selection bias']

(D)Obedience occurs when someone follows the orders of a person who is perceived as an authority figure. The social psychology concept of obedience doesn’t have anything to do with genetics (choice A), personality (choice B), or operant conditioning (choice C). Choice E describes conformity, not obedience.

Which of the following is an example of the central route to persuasion?

['(A)A television commercial that uses a well-liked actor to endorse life insurance', '(B)A vitamin ad that explains the health benefits and side effects of a vitamin pill (C)A case study that describes in detail a woman who is forced to give up her daughter for adoption (D)A nonfiction book with a cover designed by a famous graphic artist', '(E)An online TED Talk with over one million likes and over a thousand comments']

(B)Social facilitation occurs when we perform a task in the presence of a group of people and the presence of others enhances our performance. Group polarization (choice A) and groupthink (choice C) refer to social principles that influence group decision making or rationale. The Yerkes-Dodson law, choice D, is similar to social facilitation. However, the Yerkes-Dodson law describes something more specific: performance is enhanced when arousal (caused by the presence of others or by other factors) is at an optimum level. Social loafing, choice E, is a principle that works in opposition to social facilitation. Social loafing is the lack of effort while in the presence of others.

Which of the following is an example of the peripheral route to persuasion?

['(A)A television commercial that uses a well-liked actor to endorse life insurance', '(B)A vitamin ad that explains the health benefits and side effects of a vitamin pill (C)A research paper that uses inferential statistics to determine whether or not a result is significant (D)Survey results that indicate whether or not a politician is gaining popularity', '(E)A YouTube woodworking instructional video with an advertisement for a power saw 577.Swedish Ambassador Felmet met with the delegation from Norway to discuss fishing rights in disputed waters between their countries. Which of the following psychological concepts might be most useful during these negotiations?', '(A)Self-serving bias', '(B)Bystander effect', '(C)Foot-in-the-door phenomenon', '(D)Self-disclosure', '(E)Just-world phenomenon']

(E)Social loafing occurs when we know we are in a group and that everyone is (or may be) working on the same task or toward the same goal. In this kind of situation, people have the tendency to loaf or not give as much effort as they might if they were working alone. Group polarization (choice A) and groupthink (choice C) refer to social principles that influence group decision making or rationale. Social facilitation, choice B, is almost the opposite of social loafing: sometimes the presence of others enhances our performance. The Yerkes-Dodson law, choice D, is similar to social facilitation. However, the Yerkes-Dodson law describes something more specific: performance is enhanced when arousal (caused by the presence of others or by other factors) is at an optimum level.

Mr. Miller's classmates in high school remember his disturbing opinions about women and ethnic minorities. Later in life, the company that Mr. Miller works for is acquired by a different corporation, and Mr. Miller now works for a female boss. Over the next few months, Mr. Miller's friends notice that he becomes less misogynistic and more open-minded. Which psychological principle might be the cause of Mr. Miller's attitude change?

['(A)Ingroup bias', '(B)Collectivism', '(C)Superordinate goals', '(D)Just-noticeable difference', '(E)Cognitive dissonance']

(C)Deindividuation occurs when we lose our sense of restraint, feel anonymous (we are a part of the crowd), and act with a group rather than make our own decisions and use our usual internal guidelines for our behavior. Self-actualization, choice A, is part of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory. Group polarization, choice B, describes how our attitudes may change because of conversations with a like-minded group. Self-fulfilling prophecy, choice D, describes how our beliefs about ourselves may influence how others treat us. Egocentrism, choice E, is part of Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory.

Which of the following concepts might be one of the most powerful forces that leads people to join and stay in religious cults?

['(A)Absolute threshold', '(B)Conformity', '(C)Variable-interval schedules', '(D)Selective attention', '(E)Attribution']

(B)If a group of people who generally agree about a controversial topic discuss that topic, they are likely to leave the discussion more polarized. In other words, at the end of the discussion they will be more convinced of their initial position than they were when the discussion began. Obedience (choice A) and deindividuation (choice C) are incorrect because they involve individuals behaving because they are following orders from an authority figure or blindly following the actions of a group. Social facilitation (choice D) and social loafing (choice E) both describe how being in a group influences whether we exert more or less effort than we would if we were alone.

Ms. Band, a third-grade teacher, likes to talk with new teachers at her school about "the look"—a way of looking at an individual student as a discipline technique. Which type of psychological research might be most interesting to Ms. Band?

['(A)Binocular disparity', '(B)Visual capture', '(C)Conformity research', '(D)Obedience research', '(E)Norms of reciprocity research']

(A)Groupthink occurs when a group of individuals who admire/respect each other make a poor decision because no one in the group is willing to contradict or critique the ideas of the others. Making sure that there is at least one dissenting voice in each group may help prevent groupthink. Choices B, C, D, and E include factors that are not related to groupthink.

Dr. Wolfe declares that he is going to start using social facilitation to help improve student performance in class. Students will be randomly chosen to write a response to a free-response question (FRQ) and project it onto the screen at the front of the room. If Dr. Wolfe wants this technique to help performance, which of the following is a key factor according to social facilitation theory?

['(A)Social facilitation predicts that the ingroup (the group that is perceived as more skilled) in the class will perform better in this social situation.', "(B)The class will perceive this challenge as a superordinate goal and will socially facilitate classmates' answers in order to maintain group cohesion.", '(C)The FRQ tasks must be fairly easy for the students so that the social situation enhances, rather than hurts, their performance.', "(D)This high-pressure social situation will inhibit students' performance on cognitive tasks, such as writing an FRQ.", '(E)Writing in front of other students is likely to increase selective attention and self-efficacy, enhancing student performance.']

(D)Prejudice is a negative, unjustifiable attitude toward a group. Discrimination occurs when these beliefs/attitudes are acted upon—negative, unjustified behaviors are exhibited toward a group of people. The differences mentioned in choices A, B, and C are not relevant to the actual definitions of prejudice and discrimination. Choice E is incorrect because both are modern psychological terms.

Professor Herting decides to require her introductory psychology students to organize themselves into groups and ask each group to complete an independent research project. Which of the following concepts might interfere most when Professor Herting assigns grades to individual students in each group?

['(A)Social loafing', '(B)Operational definition', '(C)Group polarization', '(D)Availability heuristic', '(E)Confidence interval']

(E)The mere exposure effect predicts that we will like stimuli (such as places or people) that we encounter often. We like people and places we are exposed to more frequently. Similarly (choice A) and companionate love (choice B) are both involved in attraction research. However, neither of them is relevant to the idea that we prefer stimuli that we are exposed to more often. Social facilitation (choice C) refers to enhanced performance in social situations. Locus of control (choice D) relates to our explanations about the causes of outcomes in our lives—whether we attribute outcomes to causes within our control or to causes beyond our control.

Which social psychology concept might explain why so many people are attracted to the following social situations that all involve large crowds behaving in unison: a soccer game, a pop music concert, a religious revival meeting, and a dance/rave?

['(A)Debriefing', '(B)Obedience', '(C)Attribution', '(D)Groupthink', '(E)Deindividuation']

(C)The norm of reciprocity (sometimes referred to as the reciprocity norm) predicts that we are more likely to help others if we perceive they have also helped us. The foot-in-the-door strategy (choice A) is a compliance strategy that is used to convince someone to agree to a request gradually. Groupthink (choice B) involves influences on group discussions. Social facilitation (choice D) refers to how social situations can sometimes enhance performance. The norm of reciprocity is an aspect of altruism research, choice E. The norm of reciprocity, choice C, is the correct choice because it answers the question more specifically than does choice E.

A group of social psychologists wants to organize political discussion groups in order to reduce hostilities and misunderstandings in their community. The psychologists decide to make sure each discussion group includes people with different opinions about the discussion topic. Which psychological concept may have convinced them to organize the discussion groups in this way?

['(A)Group polarization', '(B)Obedience', '(C)Social facilitation', '(D)Groupthink', '(E)Deindividuation']

(B)The frustration-aggression principle predicts that increasing frustration and annoyances, which may be caused by increasing temperatures, are associated with increases in crime. Social scripts, choice A, are also associated with aggression as well as with many other behaviors. However, they are not specifically related to increasing temperatures. Operant conditioning (choice C), fundamental attribution error (choice D), and observational learning (choice E) are all concepts that might help explain individual acts of aggression. However, none are specifically related to the relationship between temperature and aggression.

A small town is surprised when a young man wins its mayoral election. The young man appoints several people he admires from the local community college to serve as his consultation cabinet. The individuals in the cabinet all respect each other and want to be sure to maintain group harmony. Together, they decide to revitalize the town by investing a significant amount of money in a winter sports complex to attract tourists. They call the complex Ice Town. It quickly fails, nearly bankrupting the town. Which psychological concept might help explain why the mayor and the consultation cabinet made such a poor decision?

['(A)Fundamental attribution error', '(B)Groupthink', '(C)Cognitive dissonance', '(D)Fluid intelligence', '(E)Long-term potentiation']

(A)Ingroup bias describes our tendency to favor a group we think we belong to. We are more likely to appreciate the opinions (including social media posts) by people who we perceive are in our ingroup. Similarity theory, choice B, is related to attraction research. Groupthink, choice C, is involved in how groups make decisions. Self-fulfilling prophecy (choice D) and discrimination (choice E) are not specifically related to perceptions of others’ opinions.

Participants in a research study are convinced to perform a boring task, and then their attitudes about that task are measured. The study finds that people change their attitudes about how boring the task is based on whether they are rewarded for performing the task. Which psychological researcher might be most interested in this research study?

['(A)Solomon Asch', '(B)Stanley Milgram', '(C)Leon Festinger', '(D)Philip Zimbardo', '(E)Bibb Latane']

(D)The just-world phenomenon describes the human tendency to believe that the world is a fair place, that good actions are rewarded, and that if something bad happens to a person, he or she must have done something to deserve that outcome. Choice A, positive reinforcement, is not related to questions of morality or a sense of right and wrong. The feel-good, do-good phenomenon, choice B, predicts that doing good for others helps us feel better. Choice C, ingroup bias, describes our tendency to appreciate the opinions of people in our social group. Preconventional morality, choice E, is a stage in Kohlberg’s moral development theory. However, preconventional morality involves rewards and punishments, not a sense of justice or morality.

Which of the following questions would Solomon Asch's research help answer?

['(A)What determines whether a person will cause harm to another person?', '(B)Why are some people more likely to perform altruistic acts, while others refuse to help even in obvious emergency situations?', '(C)Are we more influenced by our inner morals and character or by the social roles and influences we encounter daily?', '(D)Why do some people dress the same as their friends and social group, while others take risks with their fashion choices?', '(E)Are our actions influenced by cultural stereotypes we are not consciously aware of?']

(A)Muzafer Sherif’s Robbers Cave study demonstrated that social conditions can create ingroup and outgroup biases. The study also showed that superordinate goals can help reduce those same biases. Generalization, choice B, is a process in operant or classical conditioning. One possible impact of superordinate goals might be a reduction in frustration. This is the frustration-aggression principle, choice C. However, superordinate goals do not necessarily or directly impact the relationship between frustration and aggression. Confounding variables (choice D) and selection bias (choice E) are important elements of the experimental method.

In the future, some individuals involved in atrocities committed during the ongoing war in Syria might be brought to trial for war crimes. Research from which of the following psychologists might be most relevant during these trials?

['(A)Solomon Asch', '(B)Stanley Milgram', '(C)Leon Festinger', '(D)Hermann Ebbinghaus', '(E)Bibb Latane']

(A)Changing our internal thoughts and feelings (attitudes) can often influence our later actions. In this scenario, the research changed Lorenzo’s attitude about motorcycles, which influenced his later action. Actions affecting attitudes, choice D, is the opposite effect. This scenario is not an example of either conformity (choice B) or obedience (choice C) because there is no unanimous group or authority figure involved. Social facilitation, choice E, refers to increased performance in social situations.

Which psychologist's research has been criticized based on its methodological flaws, such as the lack of a true control group and ethical violations?

['(A)Solomon Asch', '(B)Elliott Aronson', '(C)Leon Festinger', '(D)Philip Zimbardo', '(E)Bibb Latane']

(D)Social psychology research frequently finds that what we do can impact how we feel. Once we perform an action, our attitudes about that action may change. In this scenario, for some reason Lance and Carter played basketball, which impacted their later attitude about the sport. Attitudes affecting actions, choice A, is the opposite effect. This scenario is not an example of either conformity (choice B) or obedience (choice C) because there is no unanimous group or authority figure involved. Social facilitation, choice E, refers to increased performance in social situations.

Which of the following researchers are most associated with bystander intervention research?

['(A)Watson and Skinner', '(B)Asch and Milgram', '(C)Festinger and Carlsmith', '(D)Darley and Latane', '(E)Myers and Dewall']

(D)Fundamental attribution error specifically describes our tendency to attribute the behaviors of others to their inner dispositions (their personalities, like being a football fan) rather than situational factors (environmental factors, like waking up with bed head). This is not an example of either stereotyping (choice A) or ingroup bias (choice C) because no one is forming an expectation about a group of people or is showing a preference toward their own group above others. Choice B is involved in this scenario; concept formation is involved in almost all kinds of cognition. However, choice D is a more specific and correct choice. Selection bias, choice E, is a term related to research methods and sample group selection.

Which of the following is the closest description of an independent variable in the Zimbardo Stanford prison study?

['(A)The instructions given to the guards about how to treat the prisoners', "(B)Manipulating prisoners' conditions over the course of the experiment", '(C)Films and experimenter notes about the behaviors of the guards and the prisoners (D)Students who responded to the newspaper advertisement asking for participants in the study (E)Whether a participant was randomly assigned to the guard role or to the prisoner role 592.How was the dependent variable in the Milgram obedience study operationally defined?', '(A)The level of shock the teacher administered', '(B)Whether the participant was assigned the teacher role or the learner role', '(C)Measures of the verbal and nonverbal behaviors of the teachers', '(D)Learner performance on the tasks', '(E)Whether or not the teachers obeyed the orders of the authority figure']

(B)The central route to persuasion uses relevant fact-based evidence, like statistics or research findings, to try to influence viewers’ decisions. This ad uses relevant evidence about health and side effects to sell vitamins. Choices A, C, and D use emotion or other compelling elements that are not relevant to the claim. Choice E is ambiguous. Not enough information is provided in this choice to determine whether it is an example of the central route to persuasion.

Which of the following statements accurately describes the role of confederates in the Zimbardo, Asch, and Milgram studies?

['(A)Asch used confederates to research conformity. No confederates were used in either the Milgram or the Zimbardo study.', '(B)The Milgram obedience study depended on the use of confederates since deception was used. Neither the Asch nor the Zimbardo study required confederates.', '(C)Confederates were used in the Asch (conformity) and Milgram (obedience) studies but not in the Zimbardo prison study.', '(D)Confederates add power to the inferential power of the experimental method. So, all three researchers used confederates in order to best measure social influences.', '(E)Confederates and deception were essential in the Zimbardo prison and in the Asch conformity studies. In contrast, the Milgram obedience study used a true control group.']

(A)The peripheral route to persuasion involves using visuals and emotional appeals that aren’t necessarily relevant to the central message but that will grab the attention of viewers and perhaps influence their decisions. The celebrity endorsement in choice A is an example of the peripheral route to persuasion. Choices B and C are examples of the central route to persuasion. Choices D and E are somewhat ambiguous. Not enough information is provided to conclude whether these are examples of the peripheral route to persuasion.

What was the dependent variable in Sherif's Robbers Cave study?

['(A)Superordinate goals', '(B)Random assignment to experimental and control conditions', "(C)Careful observations of the participants' behaviors toward each other", '(D)Evidence of ingroup/outgroup bias', '(E)A physical description of the supposed thief based on eyewitness testimony']

(C)Using the foot-in-the-door persuasion technique involves making a small initial request and then gradually increasing that request toward your ultimate goal. This technique can be useful during any kind of negotiation, including political negotiations. The concepts mentioned in choices A, B, and E influence how we think and feel in social situations. They are not useful in the scenario described in the question. Choice D, self-disclosure, is involved in attraction research.

Which of the following is one possible independent variable that Asch may have tested in his conformity study?

['(A)The proximity of the authority figure to the participants', '(B)Varying how many confederates gave the wrong answer to the key question', '(C)Whether or not confederates were used', '(D)Determining whether participants conformed to the incorrect answer given by the confederates (E)The number of times participants gave the same answer to the key question as did the confederates 596.Which elements of the experimental method are used more often in social psychology research than in other kinds of psychology research?', '(A)Random sampling and assignment', '(B)Independent variables', '(C)Dependent variables', '(D)Double-blind technique', '(E)Deception and confederates']

(E)Cognitive dissonance occurs when we realize that something we have done (an action) isn’t consistent with the way we think or our internal attitudes. Mr. Miller was forced to work for a woman, and this action is most likely inconsistent with his previous misogynistic attitudes. Since he can’t change his work situation, cognitive dissonance may have led to Mr. Miller’s change in attitude. Ingroup bias, choice A, would lead Mr. Miller to be more not less biased about groups outside his ingroup. Collectivism, choice B, refers to different kinds of societies. There is no indication of an outside group goal, which is necessary for superordinate goals, choice C. A just-noticeable difference, choice D, is a sensation and perception concept and is not related to this scenario.

A psychology researcher hypothesizes that participants in Asch's conformity study conformed to the incorrect answer because of their schemata about how adults should behave politely in groups. Which psychological perspective does this hypothesis represent?

['(A)Humanistic psychology', '(B)Sociocultural psychology', '(C)Cognitive psychology', '(D)Behaviorism', '(E)Biological']

(B)Conformity occurs when someone is surrounded by a unanimous group, with all members making the same decision, and the person conforms to the decision/opinion of the group. Religious cults rely on a group of people who are all united in thought and attitude (and often clothing, living situations, and other contexts) that increases the pressure on new recruits to conform to the group. Absolute threshold, choice A, is a concept from sensation and perception. A variable-interval schedule, choice C, refers to an operant reinforcement schedule. Selective attention, choice D, is a step in the memory process. Choice E, attributing the behavior of others to situational or attributional reasons, may be involved in cult groups. However, it is not likely a driving force in joining a cult.

A social psychology study finds that no matter what kind of social situation participants are placed in, the hierarchy of needs usually predicts the participants' behaviors well. For example, participants act to reduce physiological needs if needed before other kinds of needs. This research most supports which psychological perspective?

['(A)Humanistic psychology', '(B)Sociocultural psychology', '(C)Cognitive psychology', '(D)Behaviorism', '(E)Biological']

(D)Obedience occurs when someone follows the orders of a person who is perceived as an authority figure. The effectiveness of “the look” Ms. Band uses may be due to her students’ perception of her as an authority figure. Binocular disparity (choice A) and visual capture (choice B) are elements of our visual sensation and perception system. Conformity, choice C, is not likely to be involved because this scenario does not describe a unanimous group. Norms of reciprocity research, choice E, refers to a compliance technique involving giving someone a tangible reward with the expectation that he or she will be more likely to comply with your request.

Professor Brunsman discovers that positive reinforcements cause specific kinds of reactions to social cues. These reactions are consistent no matter which individuals receive the positive reinforcements. These reactions are also consistent across social contexts. Professor Brunsman is exploring the interaction between which of the following?

['(A)Humanistic and positive psychology', '(B)Sociocultural and social psychology', '(C)Cognitive and humanistic psychology', '(D)Behaviorism and social psychology', '(E)Biological and behavioral psychology']

(C)Social facilitation occurs when we perform a task in the presence of a group of people and when the presence of others enhances our performance. If the task comes fairly easily, the presence of others will enhance our performance. However, if the task is too difficult, being in a social situation will inhibit our performance. The explanations included in choices A, B, D, and E either are inaccurate or are not relevant to social facilitation theory.

Researchers discover that a recently discovered neurotransmitter is involved in several important aspects of human behavior. They found that when this neurotransmitter is blocked by an antagonist, we are far less likely to commit the fundamental attribution error. This research could be used to argue that which psychological perspective might explain many social psychology findings?

['(A)Humanistic psychology', '(B)Sociocultural psychology', '(C)Cognitive psychology', '(D)Behaviorism', '(E)Biological']

(A)Social loafing occurs when we know we are in a group and that everyone in the group is (or may be) working on the same task or toward the same goal. In this situation, people have the tendency to loaf, or not give as much effort as they might if they were working alone. In the group task assigned by Professor Herting, some students may loaf, which complicates the grading process. Grades are a kind of operational definition, choice B, but that concept doesn’t specifically relate to this scenario. Group polarization, choice C, wouldn’t necessarily complicate grading because, even if the group interactions intensified some students’ beliefs, this wouldn’t necessarily impact the quality of the group’s work, or the group grade. An availability heuristic, choice D, does not relate to the scenario. A confidence interval, choice E, is a statistical concept that doesn’t relate to this scenario about grading.

If Group A is the control group and Group B is the experimental group, which statement below is most accurate about the impact of the independent variable in this experiment?

['(A)Group A is a larger sample because its SD is slightly higher, although the Group A mean is significantly lower.', '(B)The independent variable may have increased performance since the mean of Group B is higher and the variance of each group is about equal.', '(C)There is likely a high correlation between the independent variable in Group A and Group B.', '(D)The independent variable must have been operationally defined incorrectly because if the means are different, the SD must be very different, too.', '(E)The independent variable worked more effectively in Group B than it did in Group A.']

(E)Deindividuation occurs when we lose our sense of restraint and act with a group rather than make our own decisions, using our usual internal guidelines for our behavior. All the social situations listed often involve acting with the group as part of enjoying the activity. None of the other concepts listed in choices A, B, C, and D have a specific connection to the social activities listed in this question.

Conditioning occurs most quickly when which of the following is used?

['(A)Variable-ratio', '(B)Variable-interval', '(C)Continuous reinforcement', '(D)Punishment', '(E)Negative reinforcement']

(A)Group polarization predicts that if a group of people who generally agree about a controversial topic discuss that topic, they are likely to leave the discussion feeling more polarized, or more convinced of their initial position, than when the discussion began. Organizing the discussion groups to ensure that individuals with a variety of opinions are in each group may help prevent group polarization. No authority figures are involved, so obedience, choice B, is incorrect. Social facilitation (choice C) and deindividuation (choice E) aren’t relevant to the organization of the discussion groups. Groupthink, choice D, may occur in a discussion group. However, this concept is more relevant to groups making decisions or plans rather than discussing political issues.

Esme practices the viola every day over the summer without fail, even though no one is tracking her practice hours and she doesn't have orchestra rehearsal or private lessons during summer break. Which of the following explains Esme's dedication?

['(A)Heuristics', '(B)Algorithms', '(C)Extrinsic motivation', '(D)Intrinsic motivation', '(E)Overconfidence']

(B)Groupthink occurs when a group of individuals who admire and respect each other make a poor decision because no one in the group is willing to contradict or critique the ideas of others. Since the young mayor appointed people he admires to the consultation cabinet, they may have made the unwise Ice Town decision because no one in the group was willing to contradict or speak against the idea. The social psychology concepts listed in choices A and C (fundamental attribution error and cognitive dissonance) do not have any specific connection to this scenario. Fluid intelligence, choice D, relates to aging and intelligence. Long-term potentiation, choice E, describes how memories are physically stored in the brain.

Which of the following cognitive developmental stages described by Jean Piaget most likely describes the thought processes of young adults?

['(A)Formal operations', '(B)Concrete operations', '(C)Postconventional reasoning', '(D)Preoperational thinking', '(E)Identity versus role confusion']

(C)Leon Festinger’s research helped establish cognitive dissonance theory, which describes how cognitions/attitudes might change because a person’s actions are in conflict with his or her attitudes. In the research study described in this question, people are compelled to perform a boring task. The researchers measure how participants’ attitudes change based on the independent variable of rewards. Solomon Asch (choice A), Stanley Milgram (choice B), Philip Zimbardo (choice D), and Bibb Latane (choice E) all studied the impact of social groups on our actions/attitudes, not the cognitive changes described in the question.

In an experiment, which term refers to the variable a researcher manipulates, making the experimental group different from the control group?

['(A)Dependent', '(B)Confounding', '(C)Independent', '(D)Random', '(E)Control']

(D)Solomon Asch’s research investigated conformity. This occurs when someone is surrounded by a unanimous group, with all of its members making the same decision, and the person conforms to the decision/opinion of the group. Choice A is closely related to the work of Stanley Milgram. Choice B is a summary of some of the research done by John Darley and Bibb Latane. Choice C might be most interesting to Philip Zimbardo. Choice E is an interesting social psychology question but is not associated with one particular psychologist.

Clinical therapists who use the behavioral perspective to help clients change unwanted behaviors are most likely to use which of the following techniques?

['(A)Helping someone understand her or his own unhealthy thinking patterns', '(B)Analyzing dreams and other evidence of unconscious thinking', '(C)Changing the existing reinforcements or punishments for the behavior', '(D)Exploring the feelings associated with the undesired behavior', "(E)Relating past events in the client's life to the current undesired behavior"]

(B)Stanley Milgram was interested in researching the excuses provided by Nazis during the Nuremberg trials. Milgram’s research established the theory of obedience, which occurs when someone follows the orders of a person who is perceived as an authority figure. Research from Solomon Asch (choice A), Leon Festinger (choice C), Hermann Ebbinghaus (choice D), and Bibb Latane (choice E) would not be as specifically relevant to war crime trials as would Milgram’s research.

Disorientation to place is seen in

['A. Severe anxiety', 'B. Wernicke’s encephalopathy', 'C. Korsakoff’s psychosis', 'D. Acute manic episode', 'E. Depression']

Answer: B. Disorientation is a sign of confusion and altered levels of consciousness. Among the conditions listed, only Wernicke’s encephalopathy is associated with a confusional state. Manic episode, schizophrenia, and anxiety occur on a background of clear consciousness.

Somatic symptoms of severe anxiety include all of the following except A. Diarrhea

['B. Constipation', 'C. Sighing', 'D. Hypoventilation', 'E. Impotence']

Answer: D. Somatic symptoms of anxiety include gastrointestinal symptoms like dry mouth, swallowing difficulties, diarrhea, and constipation; respiratory symptoms like difficulty inhaling and hyperventilation; cardiovascular symptoms like palpitations and chest discomfort; genitourinary symptoms like frequent micturition, erectile dysfunction, amenorrhea; and neuromuscular system symptoms like tremor, tinnitus, dizziness, and headache.

All of the following are normal experiences except A. Déjà vu

['B. Jamais vu', 'C. Derealization', 'D. Hallucinations', 'E. Delusional perception']

Answer: E. In delusional perception, a normal perception acquires a delusional significance. It is a first-rank symptom of schizophrenia. In derealization, objects appear unreal and lifeless. These can be normal phenomena, especially in fatigue. Déjà vu is the recognition of events that are unfamiliar, and jamais vu is failing to recognize events that have been encountered before. Hallucinations of the hypnagogic and hypnopompic variety are not necessarily pathological.

Which of the following is true about a primary delusion?

['A. It is always grandiose.', 'B. It can occur in normal people.', 'C. It is frequently systematized to secondary delusions.', 'D. It may be secondary to auditory hallucinations.', 'E. It is rarely preceded by delusional mood.']

Answer: C. The concept of primary delusions was introduced by Jaspers. Primary delusions are characterized by their “psychological irreducibility.” Secondary delusions emerge from disturbing life experiences or pathological mood states or misperceptions. Primary delusions are usually persecutory. Primary delusions always reflect an illness. “Delusional mood” or “delusional atmosphere” refers to an ensemble of miniscule and almost un-noticed experiences that impart a new and bewildering aspect or meaning to a situation. To the patient, the world seems to be subtly altered; something uncanny seems to be going on in which the patient feels personally involved without knowing how. The delusional atmosphere usually precedes a primary delusion.

Which of the following is true about concrete thinking?

['A. It is usually seen in bipolar disorder.', 'B. It is diagnostic of schizophrenia.', 'C. It is diagnostic of organic brain disease.', 'D. It is a defect of conceptual abstract thought.', 'E. It is always seen in schizophrenia.']

Answer: D. In concrete thinking, the patient cannot keep in mind the abstract use of a notion relevant in a given context and slips into more concrete meanings. In organic mental disorders and subnormality of intelligence, patients may have an inability to think abstractly that may be attributed to a diminished capacity to understand the concept. It is not diagnostic of schizophrenia or organic brain disease, nor is it always seen in schizophrenia.

Psychotic depression is characterized by A. Circumstantiality

['B. Jamais vu', 'C. Hypnagogic hallucinations', 'D. Nihilistic delusions', 'E. Flight of ideas']

Answer: D. In nihilistic delusion, the patient believes that the real world has disappeared completely and that he no longer exists. It is seen in severe depression with psychotic features. In circumstantiality, the patient has to go through many irrelevant details in his conversation before returning to a point. Jamais vu and hypnagogic hallucinations may be normal phenomena. Flight of ideas is classically seen in mania.

Which of the following is true about pseudohallucinations?

['A. They possess the vivid quality of normal perceptions.', 'B. They are dependent on external stimuli.', 'C. They cannot be overcome voluntarily.', 'D. They arise in inner space.', 'E. They do not appear spontaneously.']

Answer: D. The term “pseudohallucination” is used when a hallucination is recognized as unreal. According to Jaspers, pseudohallucinations are not as tangible and real as hallucinations, though they do appear spontaneously and are discernible from real perception. They can be overcome voluntarily. They arise in inner space and are not dependent on external stimuli.

Obsessions can occur in the form of A. Cravings

['B. Delusions', 'C. Panic attacks', 'D. Sexual impulses', 'E. Hallucinations']

Answer: D. Obsessions occur as repeated thoughts, ruminations, memories, images, or impulses that patients know are their own but are unable to prevent. Compulsions are actions, rituals, or behaviors that patient recognize as their own but cannot resist successfully.

Pseudodementia is characterized by

['A. Abnormal EEG', 'B. Chronic course', 'C. Onset with depressive features', 'D. Localized neurological signs', 'E. Confabulation']

Answer: C. Pseudodementia is a presentation of depression, particularly in the elderly with cognitive impairment. This is not a true dementia, and patients respond to the treatment of depression. Patients typically give “Don’t know” answers rather than the confabulation seen in dementia. EEG is normal and there are no localized neurological signs unless another condition is present.

Which of the following is true of tangentiality?

['A. It is pathognomonic of schizophrenia.', 'B. It is characteristic of mania.', 'C. It is a disorder of thought.', 'D. It is a disorder of perception.', 'E. It is the same as circumstantiality.']

Answer: C. Tangentiality is a disorder of the thinking process in which ideas deviate toward an obliquely related theme. It may be seen in schizophrenia although it is not pathognomonic of schizophrenia or mania.

Which of the following is true about Capgras syndrome?

['A. It is also called erotomania.', 'B. It is also called delusion of doubles.', 'C. It is usually associated with brain disease.', 'D. It is the same as hysteria.', 'E. It is seen in husbands of pregnant women.']

Answer: B. In Capgras syndrome, patients falsely perceive that someone in their environment, usually a close relative or friend, has been replaced by a double. In erotomania, the individual has strong erotic feelings toward another person and has the persistent unfounded belief that the other person is deeply in love with him or her. Erotomania is also called de Clerambault syndrome. The condition seen in husbands of pregnant women is called Couvade syndrome.

First-rank symptoms of schizophrenia A. Include second-person and third-person hallucinations B. Include incongruity of affect

['C. Are diagnostic of schizophrenia', 'D. Include passivity phenomena', 'E. Are not seen in conditions other than schizophrenia 13. Which of the following is not a Schneider first-rank symptom?', 'A. Thought withdrawal', 'B. Somatic passivity', 'C. Third-person auditory hallucinations D. Delusional perception', 'E. Thought block']

Answer: D. Schneider identified a set of phenomena that he considered strongly indicative of schizophrenia in the absence of brain disease. They are not diagnostic of schizophrenia. They include third-person hallucinations, voices commenting, and audible thoughts. Thought broadcast, withdrawal, and insertion along with made will, made affect, made acts, and somatic passivity are also first-rank symptoms. They may be seen in other organic and affective states.