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Researchers found that when managers were trained to be more self-aware, to demonstrate empathy toward employees, and to manage their own and other's emotions more effectively, workers were more motivated and worked harder. These researchers linked work performance and (A)emotional intelligence.

['(B)creative intelligence.', '(C)analytical intelligence.', '(D)linguistic intelligence.', '(E)general intelligence.']

(C)James Flynn first documented the rise in intelligence test scores in the 1920s. This increase in performance has been noted in many countries and has caused scientists to investigate its possible causes. Some suggest that better nutrition, health care, and educational opportunities may have contributed to this change. Choices A, B, D, and E are incorrect definitions of the Flynn effect.

Students in Mrs. Nielsen's third-period psychology class had 25 minutes to answer a free-response question, while students in her fourth-period class had only 15 minutes to answer the same question. To ensure that any differences in test scores were due to students' ability and not due to the time given, in the future Mrs. Nielsen should (A)make sure to use questions that reflect only the content covered in her class.

['(B)standardize the test.', "(C)administer a similar exam two weeks later and compare the students' scores.", '(D)conduct a split-half reliability test.', '(E)use the double-blind technique.']

(D)A test has reliability if, over repeated administrations, the scores are consistent. If a test is valid, choice A, it is testing what it has been designed to measure. A standardized test, choice B, has been pretested with a representative sample to provide comparison scores. Heritability, choice C, is an estimate of the role genetics plays in the differences in a specific trait in a population. A test that is positively skewed, choice E, has the majority of scores less than the mean score.

Mrs. Coburn wanted to determine if students interested in taking AP Psychology would be successful in the course. So, she designed the Psychology Abilities Test (PAT) and administered it to all of her incoming students. If the test has predictive validity, (A)Mrs. Coburn will find a positive correlation between PAT scores from the beginning and the end of the school year.

['(B)the mean, median, and mode of the PAT scores will be the same number.', '(C)the instructions, number of questions, and allotted time to take the test will be the same for every student.', "(D)students' responses on the PAT will accurately distinguish between fluid and crystallized intelligences.", "(E)the students' scores on the PAT will be positively correlated to their final grades in Mrs. Coburn's class."]

(C)Fluid intelligence refers to our ability to reason quickly and abstractly while integrating key information into our decision-making process. It is the type of intelligence that appears to decrease as we age. Crystallized intelligence, choice A, is the knowledge that we gain over a lifetime of experiences. Practical intelligence, choice B, was proposed by Robert Sternberg and is often referred to as street smarts. Intrapersonal intelligence, choice D, was described by Howard Gardner. It is found in those who are closely connected to their own feelings and needs. A person with savant syndrome, choice E, has cognitive limitations but also demonstrates an extraordinary ability, such as an incredible memory or a superior artistic ability.

Dr. Hammer developed an assessment to measure bias in the perception of women in STEM fields. He divided the assessment so that half of his subjects took the even-numbered items and the rest took the odd. He then looked at the correlation between the groups' scores. Dr. Hammer used this approach to determine if his scale (A)was standardized.

['(B)produced normally distributed scores.', '(C)accurately measured g.', '(D)had predictive validity.', '(E)was reliable.']

(B)Heritability is an estimate that reflects what causes a variation in traits within a population. It is a correlational term from 0 to 1. The closer the number is to 1, the more likely that genetics accounts for the differences in a trait within a population. In this case, the environment that the seeds are raised in are identical within each tray (either deprived or ideal). Thus, height differences in the plants within one of the trays (for example, within the deprived tray) are most likely due to the genetic diversity of the seeds. Heritability within the deprived tray would be high, probably close to 1. A statistically significant result, choice A, indicates that any differences between two tested groups are not likely due to chance. Factor analysis, choice C, is used by researchers who wish to group specific traits that are correlated together. Predictive validity, choice D, is found in tests that predict the future behavior they are designed to predict. Grit, choice E, is reflected in those who have passion and perseverance to complete a goal over a long period of time.

Robert has been a bus driver for 30 years. Since he has been driving the same route for a good part of his career, he knows the streets and those who regularly take his bus very well. Over time, Robert has developed many skills that have made him successful in his career. Raymond Cattell would suggest that Robert demonstrates a high level of (A)fluid intelligence.

['(B)heritability.', '(C)naturalistic intelligence.', '(D)crystallized intelligence.', '(E)analytical intelligence.']

(E)According to Robert Sternberg, creative intelligence includes the ability to use existing knowledge to deal with novel problems. In this case, Sue was able to take what she already knew, which is the structure of a paper clip, and apply it to a new situation, fixing her glasses. Practical intelligence, choice A, is referred to as street smarts or being able to adapt and thrive in an individual’s environment. Analytical intelligence, choice B, is closest to Spearman’s concept of g. It includes skills related to academic success, such as hypothetical reasoning. Bodily-kinesthetic, choice C, is part of Gardner’s multiple intelligences and refers to the ability to handle one’s body with skill and agility. Spatial intelligence, choice D, is also one of Gardner’s intelligences. It refers to the ability to think about and design three-dimensional objects.

It is suspected that 17-year-old Madelyn may have some learning disabilities. She is meeting with the school psychologist to take an intelligence test. This test measures not only her general intelligence but also assesses her verbal and performance abilities across 15 different subtests, including vocabulary and picture completion. Which of the following is Madelyn most likely taking?

['(A)The Stanford-Binet', '(B)The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)', '(C)The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)', '(D)The Binet-Simon intelligence scale', '(E)The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)']

(A)Emotional intelligence consists of the ability to perceive and understand others’ emotions while being able to manage your own and use emotions effectively. Thus, the managers in the given scenario were being trained to develop their emotional intelligence. Creative intelligence, choice B, refers to one of Sternberg’s triarchic intelligences. It refers, in part, to the ability to solve problems in novel ways. Analytical intelligence, choice C, is also one of Sternberg’s intelligences. It refers to our ability to engage in academic problem solving. Choice D, linguistic intelligence, is one of Gardner’s eight intelligences. It encompasses a facility for using language to communicate effectively. General intelligence (g), choice E, refers to the mental abilities that underlie all intelligent behaviors.

Leslie is intellectually disabled and blind, but he has a natural affinity for music. One evening, he listened to a song on a television program. In the morning, 14-year-old Leslie played Tchaikovsky's Piano Concerto No. 1 flawlessly, from memory. Since that time, Leslie only has to hear a piece and he can recreate it perfectly. Which of the following theories best explains savant syndrome?

["(A)Spearman's concept of g", "(B)Gardner's multiple intelligences", '(C)Emotional intelligence', "(D)Cattell's fluid intelligence", "(E)Binet's mental age"]

(B)When a test is standardized, the procedures are uniform for all those who take it. Such an approach helps ensure that differences in scores are due to differing abilities and not other variables. Thus, Mrs. Nielsen should be certain that students have the same amount of time to answer the same question. Choice A concerns a question of content validity, not standardization. Choices C and D reflect a concern with testing the reliability, or the consistency, of the test. The double-blind technique, choice E, is when the experimenter does not know if the subject has been assigned to either an experimental or a control condition. This technique is used to control for experimenter bias.

Which of the following statements reflects a fixed mindset rather than a growth mindset?

['(A)"This may take some time and effort."', '(B)"I can always improve, so I\'ll keep trying."', '(C)"Mistakes help me learn better."', '(D)"I am going to figure out how she does it."', '(E)"I just can\'t learn this."']

(E)In order to determine predictive validity, the test score must be correlated with some criterion or to a specific behavior related to future performance. Thus, Mrs. Coburn would be able to determine predictive validity if the scores on the PAT are positively correlated with students’ grade performance in her AP Psychology class. Choice A reflects a test-retest reliability measure, not a measure of validity. If the mean, median, and mode of the PAT were all the same number, choice B, the distribution of test scores would be normally distributed. Choice C reflects measures to ensure standardization for different students taking the test. Fluid intelligence is reflected in abstract reasoning. Crystallized intelligence refers to knowledge learned over time. Distinguishing between these concepts, choice D, does not help determine a test’s predictive validity.

Who is known for introducing the concept of mental age?

['(A)Alfred Binet', '(B)Lewis Terman', '(C)Francis Galton', '(D)Charles Spearman', '(E)L. L. Thurstone']

(E)One way to determine the reliability, or consistency, of a test is to split the test in half (odds and evens) and look at the correlation between the groups’ scores. The higher the correlation is, the higher the reliability of the test is. Standardization, choice A, occurs when the measure is pretested with a representative sample to provide comparison scores for later test takers. If scores are normally distributed, choice B, they appear like a bell curve with 68% of the scores within 1 standard deviation away from the mean, 95% of the scores within 2 standard deviations from the mean, and 99.7% of the scores falling within 3 standard deviations from the mean. General intelligence, also called g, choice C, refers to the abilities that underlie intelligent behaviors. Tests have predictive validity, choice D, when they predict the behavior they are designed to measure.

Who developed the Stanford-Binet test that has been widely used to measure intelligence?

['(A)Alfred Binet', '(B)Francis Galton', '(C)Lewis Terman', '(D)Charles Spearman', '(E)David Wechsler']

(D)Raymond Cattell suggested that there are two types of intelligence, one of which is crystallized. Crystallized intelligence is based on the knowledge and skills that are acquired during a lifetime based on experiences. Fluid intelligence, choice A, is the other type of intelligence suggested by Cattell. This refers to the ability to reason quickly and abstractly. Heritability, choice B, refers to the extent to which variations in a specific trait within a group, like intelligence, can be attributed to genetics. A person with high naturalistic intelligence, choice C, according to Howard Gardner, demonstrates a sensitivity to and appreciation of nature. Analytical intelligence, choice E, was suggested by Robert Sternberg and refers to the ability to reason and problem solve.

Which of the following theorists would most likely agree that intelligence is fixed and determined solely by one's genetic inheritance?

['(A)Francis Galton', '(B)Carol Dweck', '(C)Howard Gardner', '(D)Raymond Cattell', '(E)Alfred Binet']

(C)The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) assesses not only a person’s general intelligence but also measures a person’s verbal and performance abilities across 15 subtests, including tests of vocabulary. It is widely used today and provides detailed information helpful in assessing a wide variety of cognitive abilities. The Stanford-Binet, choice A, was developed by Lewis Terman and generates an intelligence quotient to measure overall general intelligence. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), choice B, is a widely used scale to separate personality characteristics into four different areas. This assessment has been widely criticized as lacking scientific validity and reliability. The Binet-Simon intelligence scale, choice D, was developed by Alfred Binet and his colleague Theodore Simon. It is used to assess a child’s mental age and is used to place children into appropriate school classes. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), choice E, is used primarily in the diagnosis of mental disorders.

Which of the following theorists differentiated between his belief in multiple intelligences and the myth of learning styles?

['(A)Howard Gardner', '(B)Robert Sternberg', '(C)Albert Bandura', '(D)Raymond Cattell', '(E)L. L. Thurstone']

(B)Gardner suggests that we have eight different intelligences, or abilities, including musical intelligence. Brain damage can impact one type of intelligence while leaving the other intelligences undamaged. Savants tend to score below 70 on traditional IQ tests, which is considered intellectually disabled. However, they can demonstrate brilliance, like Leslie, in one area. Spearman’s concept of g, choice A, suggests that intelligence is one thing that underlies all intelligent behavior. Emotional intelligence, choice C, taps into our ability to read and manage our own, and others’, emotions. Cattell’s fluid intelligence, choice D, refers to our ability to solve abstract problems speedily. Binet believed that our mental age, choice E, corresponds to a particular level of cognitive performance for others of the same chronological age.

If researchers discovered a positive correlation between students' college entrance exam scores and their freshman grade point averages, the researchers might conclude that the college entrance exam (A)is reliable.

['(B)has high content validity.', '(C)is biased.', '(D)has high predictive validity.', '(E)has been standardized.']

(E)Those with a fixed mindset believe that a particular trait, like intelligence or talent, is something they are born with and that cannot be changed. When such individuals face academic challenges, they are likely to give up. This fixed mindset is reflected in the statement, “I just can’t learn this.” The statements in choices A, B, C, and D all reflect a growth mindset. A growth mindset is the understanding that basic abilities, including intelligence, can change with dedication and hard work.

A researcher developed a measure of happiness. She administered the measure to a group of 40 individuals and collected scores. Then the researcher waited for 3 months and administered it again. The researcher found that there was a +.80 correlation coefficient between scores on the measure. What might the researcher be able to conclude?

['(A)As scores on the first test increased, scores on the second test decreased.', '(B)The measure has high test-retest reliability.', '(C)The measure has high predictive validity.', '(D)The differences in scores are statistically significant.', '(E)The measure has high content validity.']

(A)Alfred Binet was hired by the French government to develop a measure to determine if a child needed remedial help when he or she entered school. Binet developed an assessment that measured a child’s mental age. Binet assumed that for a given chronological age, a child would have attained a set of specific abilities. These abilities were measured as the child’s mental age. Lewis Terman, choice B, developed the Stanford-Binet intelligence test. Francis Galton, choice C, is known for first using the phrase “nature versus nurture” and for focusing on how intelligence is inherited. Charles Spearman, choice D, first identified g, or general intelligence. L. L. Thurstone, choice E, suggested that intelligence is comprised of seven clusters of primary mental abilities, such as word fluency or spatial ability.

In 1921, Lewis Terman began studying children with IQ scores over 135. He followed these children into adulthood, repeatedly administering intelligence tests and recording other measures, such as education level. Terman's method of study is considered (A)a double-blind procedure.

['(B)cross-sectional.', '(C)a naturalistic observation.', '(D)experimental.', '(E)longitudinal.']

(C)Lewis Terman developed the Stanford-Binet test by adapting the test Alfred Binet originally made and creating his own. The Stanford-Binet test is still a widely used intelligence test. Alfred Binet, choice A, did not develop the Stanford-Binet test, although his work was used in developing the test. Francis Galton, choice B, is known for his belief that intelligence is inherited. Galton also founded the eugenics movement. Charles Spearman, choice D, developed the idea that general intelligence, or g, underlies all intelligent behavior and can be quantified. David Wechsler, choice E, developed another widely used intelligence test with subtests measuring both verbal and performance abilities.

Researchers randomly assigned black students and white students to one of three different groups. Students in the first group were given a test and told it would assess their intellectual ability. Students in the second group were given the same test but were told that it was a simple problem-solving task and had nothing to do with intellectual ability. Students in the third group were also given the same test. They were told it had nothing to do with intellectual ability but that the test was challenging. Researchers found that black subjects in the first group performed worse on the test than did the white students. The researchers concluded that when we believe that others view us through the lens of a negative label, performance decreases. What research method did these investigators use to study the impact of belief on performance?

['(A)A correlational study', '(B)A survey', '(C)A naturalistic observation', '(D)An experiment', '(E)A case study']

(A)Francis Galton first used the term “nature versus nurture” and was a strong proponent that intelligence was inherited. He was the founder of the eugenics movement that worked to restrict reproduction among those considered to be “unfit.” Carol Dweck, choice B, proposed that intelligence can be impacted by our own belief in our abilities to change our brains. Howard Gardner, choice C, believed that we all have eight multiple intelligences represented in us but to different degrees. He believed that we can learn and improve in certain intelligences through life experiences. Raymond Cattell, choice D, suggested that there are two types of intelligence, fluid and crystallized. Crystallized intelligence grows throughout the lifetime as we continue to learn from experience. Alfred Binet, choice E, was hired by the French government to develop a test able to place children into remedial classes if needed. Binet believed that low-performing children could improve in their intellectual performance if their educational opportunities improved.

Researchers randomly assigned black students and white students to one of three different groups. Students in the first group were given a test and told it would assess their intellectual ability. Students in the second group were given the same test but were told that it was a simple problem-solving task and had nothing to do with intellectual ability. Students in the third group were also given the same test. They were told it had nothing to do with intellectual ability but that the test was challenging. Researchers found that black subjects in the first group performed worse on the test than did the white students. The researchers concluded that when we believe that others view us through the lens of a negative label, performance decreases. Which group(s) acted as the control?

['(A)There was no need for a control group.', '(B)Group 1 was the control group.', '(C)Group 2 was the control group.', '(D)Group 3 was the control group.', '(E)Groups 2 and 3 were the control groups.']

(A)Howard Gardner proposed that intelligence is comprised of eight different abilities: naturalist, interpersonal, intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, musical, logical-mathematical, and linguistic intelligences. Gardner suggested that we have all eight abilities but that some are more developed than others. Yet, he claimed, we have the ability to develop and improve them. Gardner, however, did not support the idea of learning styles. This idea suggests that students can learn only through one modality, such as kinesthetic (hands-on) or verbal (lecture). Robert Sternberg, choice B, proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence. Albert Bandura, choice C, was a social-learning theorist known for his research in observational learning. Raymond Cattell, choice D, divided intelligence into fluid and crystallized forms. L. L. Thurstone, choice E, opposed Spearman’s idea of g (general intelligence) and suggested that we instead have seven clusters of primary mental abilities.

Researchers randomly assigned black students and white students to one of three different groups. Students in the first group were given a test and told it would assess their intellectual ability. Students in the second group were given the same test but were told that it was a simple problem-solving task and had nothing to do with intellectual ability. Students in the third group were also given the same test. They were told it had nothing to do with intellectual ability but that the test was challenging. Researchers found that black subjects in the first group performed worse on the test than did the white students. The researchers concluded that when we believe that others view us through the lens of a negative label, performance decreases. These researchers demonstrated that there is a decrease in performance when individuals believe that others will judge them according to a negative stereotype associated with their group membership. This is called (A)fundamental attribution error.

['(B)fixation.', '(C)belief perseverance.', '(D)framing.', '(E)stereotype threat.']

(D)If a test that has been designed to predict future performance successfully does, the test has predictive validity. This is ascertained by establishing whether there is a positive correlation between the test (the college entrance exam) and some related behavior (freshman grade point average). Reliability, choice A, refers to whether or not a test yields consistent scores. A test with content validity, choice B, contains questions that pertain to and measure a specific behavior. Bias, choice C, refers to the impact of a preconceived belief on performance. If a test has been standardized, choice E, it has been pretested with a representative sample.

Which of the following would be most interested in using twin studies to understand better the roles of nature and nurture on intelligence?

['(A)Psychoanalysts', '(B)Humanists', '(C)Behavior geneticists', '(D)Sociocultural psychologists', '(E)Behaviorists']

(B)To measure the reliability of a test, a researcher will often administer the test, wait for a period of time, and then give the test to the same people again to compare scores. If the test is reliable, there will be a correlation between the scores. The higher the correlation is, the higher the reliability of the measure is. Choice A is incorrect as it describes a negative correlation. The test-retest format is not used to determine the validity of a measure. Thus, choices C and E are incorrect. Statistical significance, choice D, allows a researcher to determine if differences in group outcomes are likely due to chance.

Which of the following best summarizes the information presented?

['(A)As individuals age, their scores on tests of reasoning ability decrease.', '(B)Cross-sectional studies reveal that intelligence test scores remain fairly stable over time, while longitudinal studies demonstrate a steady decline in intelligence test scores.', '(C)As individuals grow older, scores of reasoning ability increase.', '(D)There is no correlation between age and intelligence test scores.', '(E)The results of longitudinal studies suggest that intelligence is stable over the life span, while cross-sectional studies predict a decline.']

(E)When researchers follow the same group for many years to learn about how factors in early life influence later development, they are conducting a longitudinal study. A double-blind procedure, choice A, is carried out to prevent experimenter bias. In a double-blind procedure, both the subjects and experimenter are blind to which group the subject has been assigned to, experimental or control. A cross-sectional study, choice B, tests people of diverse ages at the same time. A naturalistic observation, choice C, allows a researcher to observe carefully and record the behavior of a person or an animal in his or her natural environment. An experiment, choice D, involves the random assignment of participants to different conditions in order to observe the impact of manipulating a variable on behavior.

Which of the following best represents the nature position in the historical debate between the forces of nature and nurture on development?

["(A)Albert Bandura's research revealed that children learn aggression through observation and imitation.", '(B)Diana Baumrind suggested that different parenting styles impact the social and emotional development of children.', '(C)Konrad Lorenz demonstrated that attachment was innate in young ducklings.', '(D)B. F. Skinner believed that children acquire language through the principles of reinforcement as they begin associating words with specific meanings.', '(E)John Locke believed that all children are born as a "blank slate," where experience determines knowledge.']

(D)Because researchers randomly assigned subjects to differing conditions, the researchers used an experiment. In a correlational study, choice A, researchers look at preexisting information and look to see if a relationship exists. There is no manipulation of an independent variable across the different groups in a correlational study. A researcher using a survey, choice B, collects self-report data concerning an individual’s behavior or attitudes. A naturalistic observation, choice C, includes carefully recording observed behaviors in the natural environment of the organism. A case study, choice E, involves an in-depth analysis of a single person or of a small group that shares a common, unique characteristic.

At conception, the egg and sperm fuse together to form a single cell called a (A)gene.

['(B)ovum.', '(C)zygote.', '(D)teratogen.', '(E)blastocyst.']

(D)Control groups receive no manipulation and serve as a comparison to the groups where a manipulation has taken place. In this study, the third group acted as the control. Its members were told the test has nothing to do with intellectual ability but, instead, was just a challenging task. Members of this control group received similar instructions as did members of groups 1 and 2. Members of group 3 were expected to perform like members of group 2. Choice A is incorrect because group 3 was the control group. Choices B, C, and E are incorrect because only group 3 is the control group. Because of the information given to members of groups 1 and 2, these groups were manipulated.

Nine weeks after conception, the developing human organism is called a(n) (A)zygote.

['(B)neonate.', '(C)fetus.', '(D)gamete.', '(E)embryo.']

(E)When people are aware of a negative stereotype pertaining to a group with which they identify, they are likely to experience a decrease in performance when they believe others will judge them through that lens. The fundamental attribution error, choice A, occurs when we judge others based on perceived personality characteristics and discount the role of environmental forces. Fixation, choice B, occurs when we are unable to view a problem from a new perspective. Belief perseverance, choice C, happens when we have been presented with overwhelming evidence but continue to cling to a previous belief. Framing, choice D, refers to how a question or a statement is presented to us. How the question or statement is framed can influence the decisions we make.

Phenytoin is medication used to control seizures associated with epilepsy. If taken during the first trimester of pregnancy, there is a 10% chance that the baby will be born with birth defects, such as heart malformations. Phenytoin is

['(A)a monocular cue.', '(B)a glial cell.', '(C)dizygotic.', '(D)a teratogen.', '(E)heritable.']

(C)Behavior genetics is the study of the influence of the environment and of genetics on behaviors. Researchers in this field often use twin studies as part of their methodology. Psychoanalysts, choice A, focus on the role of the unconscious in producing behaviors. Humanists, choice B, are interested in the factors that influence our potential. Sociocultural psychologists, choice D, investigate the influence of societal factors on our cognition and behaviors. Behaviorists, choice E, focus on how our behaviors are learned through our interactions with the environment.

Typically, 4-month-old infants can lift their heads off the floor while lying on their stomachs. By 8 months, most can sit independently. This ordered sequence of motor development is a result of which of the following?

['(A)Assimilation', '(B)Scaffolding', '(C)Imprinting', '(D)Maturation', '(E)Accommodation']

(E)The chart reflects a difference in outcomes regarding the stability of intelligence test scores over time. Longitudinal studies, which retest the same sample over time, suggest that intelligence test scores remain fairly stable across the life span. Cross-sectional studies, which test different age groups at the same time, tell a very different story about intelligence. Based on the chart, there is a steady drop in intelligence test scores across the different ages. Choices A, B, C, and D all summarize the information incorrectly.

Research has demonstrated that children have very few, if any, conscious memories of events before age 4. Which of the following is most likely immature and therefore responsible for this infantile amnesia?

['(A)Reticular formation', '(B)Medulla', '(C)Hippocampus', '(D)Somatosensory cortex', '(E)Pituitary gland']

(C)Proponents of the nature position suggest that our behaviors are determined by our genetic inheritance. Thus, Konrad Lorenz is a proponent of nature in the debate because he believed that ducklings were predisposed to imprint, or attach, to the first moving thing they saw after hatching. The other responses (choices A, B, D, and E) reflect the alternative influences of nurture, including learning, parenting styles, and experience.

Of the following children, who is demonstrating object permanence?

['(A)Three-year-old Amanda is upset when her pancake is cut into 5 pieces and her brother\'s identical pancake is cut into 10 pieces because "He gets more!"', '(B)When asked by her mother if she can "See her mommy" when 2-year-old Whitney has her own eyes covered, Whitney responds, "No!"', '(C)Ten-year-old Curtis understands that when 8 ounces of juice are poured from a short, wide glass into a tall, thin glass, the amount of juice remains the same.', '(D)Eight-month-old Brackstyn searches for his bunny toy when it is covered with his blanket.', '(E)Four-year-old Beau believes that his teddy bear gets cold if not covered with a blanket at night.']

(C)A zygote is the single cell that forms as a result of uniting the sperm and egg cell at conception. A gene, choice A, is a section of a DNA molecule that carries instructions for making proteins that support cell functions. An ovum, choice B, is a mature egg cell in a woman. The ovum can unite with a sperm cell to form a zygote. A teratogen, choice D, is a substance, such as a drug, that is able to cross the placenta. A blastocyst, choice E, is a ball of cells that forms after several days of cell division following conception.

Which of the following represents the correct order of Piaget's stages of cognitive development?

['(A)Sensorimotor, concrete operational, preoperational, formal operational', '(B)Preoperational, sensorimotor, concrete operational, formal operational', '(C)Sensorimotor, preoperational, formal operational, concrete operational', '(D)Concrete operational, preoperational, formal operational, sensorimotor', '(E)Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational']

(C)From the beginning of the ninth week after conception to birth, a developing human organism is called a fetus. A zygote, choice A, refers to the fertilized egg directly after conception. A neonate, choice B, is a newborn baby. A gamete, choice D, is a reproductive cell—a sperm cell or an egg cell. An embryo, choice E, describes the developing human organism from 2 to 8 weeks after fertilization.

Twelve-year-old Devin was asked, "If you were given a third eye, where would you put it?" Devin responded that he would put the eye onto his hand so he could see around corners. Devin's 10-year-old brother Brad said he would put a third eye "onto my forehead." According to Piaget, Devin's response demonstrates which stage of cognitive development?

['(A)Preoperational', '(B)Concrete operational', '(C)Conventional', '(D)Formal operational', '(E)Sensorimotor']

(D)A teratogen is a substance that can cross the placenta during prenatal development and that has the ability to disrupt fetal development or lead to physical malformations. Choice A, a monocular cue, is a visual cue for depth perception, such as relative height, that requires the use of one eye. Glial cells, choice B, are found in the nervous system and provide support and nourishment for neurons. Dizygotic, choice C, typically refers to fraternal twins that develop from two separate fertilized cells. Heritable, choice E, refers to a characteristic that can be passed down from parents to their offspring.

Konrad Lorenz found that ducklings imprinted to the first moving object they see right after hatching. If ducklings saw Lorenz during this time, they followed him wherever he went and could not unlearn this behavior. Imprinting must occur during (A)the sensorimotor stage.

['(B)a critical period.', '(C)the identity stage of psychosocial development.', '(D)a zone of proximal development.', '(E)the preconventional stage.']

(D)Maturation refers to the orderly developmental processes. Thus, the universal sequence of motor skill development in infancy is considered a maturational process. Assimilation, choice A, refers to the cognitive process of incorporating new information into existing schemata. Scaffolding, choice B, occurs when an adult provides modeling of a new skill to a child and then allows the child to practice that ability in order to master it. Imprinting, choice C, occurs in specific animals, such as ducklings, when they attach to the first moving object they see after hatching. Accommodation, choice E, is a cognitive process where a child must change an existing schema to account for newly learned information.

Shawna is a very demanding parent. She is strict and expects her orders to be obeyed without question. If her children disobey, she withholds her affection from them. Shawna's parenting style is most likely (A)authoritative.

['(B)responsive.', '(C)authoritarian.', '(D)permissive.', '(E)neglecting.']

(C)The hippocampus is primarily responsible for the formation of new memories. This brain region is immature in young children and therefore inhibits the formation of long-term memories. The reticular formation, choice A, is located in the brainstem and activates the brain in regulating arousal and attention. The medulla, choice B, is responsible for regulating autonomic functions, such as breathing and heart rate. The somatosensory cortex, choice D, interprets signals related to the skin senses, including pressure on the skin. The pituitary gland, choice E, is the master gland of the endocrine system and regulates growth processes.

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested 30 times for demonstrating and participating in nonviolent protests against segregation. He felt that the laws at the time were unjust and that he had to break the law to bring attention to injustice in American society. Dr. King's reasoning would be characterized by Lawrence Kohlberg as (A)formal operational.

['(B)preconventional.', '(C)preoperational.', '(D)conventional.', '(E)postconventional.']

(D)Jean Piaget suggested that object permanence is a cognitive milestone achieved during the sensorimotor stage. Beginning at 8 months, children understand that physical objects continue to exist when outside of their visual field. Thus, Brackstyn understands that his toy continues to exist even though he can’t see it under his blanket. Therefore, Brackstyn understands that the bunny toy has object permanence. Choice A illustrates a child who is not yet able to conserve. In other words, Amanda doesn’t know that despite changes in shape, the amount of pancake remains the same. Whitney demonstrates egocentrism in choice B. She has difficulty perceiving the world from her mother’s perspective. Curtis, in choice C, demonstrates conservation as he understands that the amount of juice may appear different in separate glasses, yet the amount remains the same. Beau, in choice E, represents a child who believes in animism, that all inanimate objects have human-like characteristics.

Ryan is 20 years old and doesn't really feel like an adolescent anymore, but he doesn't feel like an adult either. He has changed jobs several times in the past few years while he has been going to school and living with his parents. Ryan feels unsure about his college major. However, he feels like he still has time to figure out what he wants his life to be like. Ryan's experiences best reflect which of the following?

["(A)Piaget's concrete operational stage of cognitive development", "(B)Erikson's psychosocial stage of initiative versus guilt", "(C)Freud's psychosexual stage of latency", "(D)Arnett's emerging adulthood", "(E)Kohlberg's preconventional morality"]

(E)Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development, in order, are the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Choices A, B, C, and D all list the stages in incorrect order.

Regina is in her mid-30s and wants to find a romantic partner but is afraid of being rejected. She is not sure she could handle the pain of a breakup, so she tends to avoid getting into long-term relationships even though she is lonely. Erik Erikson would suggest that Regina is experiencing the psychosocial crises of (A)identity versus role confusion.

['(B)trust versus mistrust.', '(C)autonomy versus shame and doubt.', '(D)integrity versus despair.', '(E)intimacy versus isolation.']

(D)Formal operational children are able to think abstractly and creatively about how the world could be, not necessarily how it is. Thus, Devin’s response better illustrates formal operational thinking than Brad’s. Brad’s thinking is a more accurate representation of concrete operational thinking because his response is more accurate to how the world actually operates. Choices A, B, and E are earlier stages of Piaget’s theory. Choice C is the second stage of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.

During childhood, connections between neurons increase. However, in adolescence, neurons that are underutilized are removed. This process is called (A)the all-or-none response.

['(B)a refractory period.', '(C)pruning.', '(D)habituation.', '(E)sensory adaptation.']

(B)Imprinting is vital for the survival of certain animals. Ducklings must imprint so that they can follow their parents to obtain food and protection. Imprinting occurs during a critical period for learning this crucial behavior. The sensorimotor stage, choice A, is the first of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development. The identity stage of psychosocial development, choice C, happens during adolescence according to Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages. According to Lev Vygotsky, a zone of proximal development, choice D, occurs when a behavior is modeled by a parent so that the child may learn it with support. The preconventional stage, choice E, is the first stage of Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.

LaMar is 85 years old and has difficulty remembering to take his daily heart medication. The type of memory that involves remembering something that we must do later and that commonly declines in older adulthood is called (A)flashbulb memory.

['(B)implicit memory.', '(C)iconic memory.', '(D)mood congruent memory.', '(E)prospective memory.']

(C)Authoritarian parents tend to be strict disciplinarians and expect their orders to be followed without question. Authoritative parents, choice A, are responsive to their children’s needs. Authoritative parents are demanding and controlling but have a more democratic style of parenting than authoritarian parents. Responsive parenting, choice B, is a larger category described in Baumrind’s parenting styles theory. Baumrind included both the authoritative and permissive parents in the overall “responsive parenting” category. Permissive parents, choice D, are undemanding and rarely use punishment. Neglecting parents, choice E, are inattentive to the needs of their children and are emotionally withdrawn.

Which of the following is a common early symptom of Alzheimer's disease?

['(A)Failing to recognize a close family member', '(B)Forgetting events from many years past', '(C)Telling the same stories repeatedly', '(D)The inability to communicate with others', '(E)Difficulty learning new tasks']

(E)Postconventional reasoning is characterized by an internalized sense of morality. Those in this stage believe in a social contract, where governments exist because of the will of its citizens. These citizens have the right and responsibility to disobey unjust laws. According to postconventional reasoning, human life and the desire for justice may take precedence over the law. Formal operational (choice A) and preoperational (choice C) are both stages in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Preconventional morality, choice B, focuses on self-interest: avoiding punishment or gaining a reward. Conventional reasoning, choice D, focuses on upholding the law or on gaining approval from others.

Research has found that regular exercise can slow the aging process by maintaining the DNA on either end of the chromosomes. These endings are called (A)telomeres.

['(B)agonists.', '(C)the myelin sheath.', '(D)synapses.', '(E)glial cells.']

(D)Arnett found that individuals between the ages of 18 and 25 postpone adult responsibilities. During this in-between and unstable period of emerging adulthood, young people are focused on establishing their identities and feel that the world is open to all possibilities. Those in Piaget’s concrete operational stage, choice A, do not focus on self-exploration and lack abstract thinking. Erikson’s psychosocial stage of initiative versus guilt, choice B, is the focus of preschool children. Freud’s psychosexual stage of latency, choice C, is the time between the age of 6 and puberty. During this stage, according to Freud, sexual feelings are repressed. Kohlberg’s preconventional morality stage, choice E, is primarily for children younger than age 9.

Which of the following refers to the biological differences between males and females, including differences in genitalia and genetics?

['(A)Sexual orientation', '(B)Sex', '(C)Androgyny', '(D)Gender', '(E)Identity']

(E)Erikson suggested that the psychosocial crisis of young adulthood is intimacy versus isolation. In this stage, individuals seek out others to form long-term personal relationships but must struggle with the fear of rejection. If individuals are not willing to make the commitments and sacrifices that relationships require, they will become isolated and lonely.

What is gender identity?

['(A)The cultural expectations for the behavior of men and women', '(B)The blending of masculine and feminine personality characteristics', "(C)Learning one's gender through modeling and imitation", "(D)One's internal sense of being male, female, or a blending of the two", '(E)The biological category we are assigned to based on our chromosomes and genitalia']

(C)Pruning refers to the process of removing neurons and the connections among them that are not being used in the adolescent brain. This process makes the brain work more efficiently. The all-or-none response, choice A, refers to how a neuron fires with the same intensity each time it reaches threshold. A refractory period, choice B, is a brief pause after a neuron fires so that it can recharge to fire again. Habituation, choice D, is the decrease in responsiveness to a stimulus that is repeatedly presented. Sensory adaptation, choice E, occurs when a constant external stimulation is present and leads to a decrease in neural firing that creates a diminished sensitivity to the stimulus.

Gerald is a fussy baby who does not like to be held, startles easily, and cries often. Gerald's characteristic pattern of behaving is referred to as

['(A)habituation.', '(B)object permanence.', '(C)animism.', '(D)androgyny.', '(E)temperament.']

(E)Prospective memory is the ability to remember to carry out planned actions, such as remembering to take daily medications. A flashbulb memory, choice A, is an emotionally salient memory that is encoded into memory with a “photographic” quality. An implicit memory, choice B, is demonstrated without conscious recall, such as a skill like tying one’s shoe. An iconic memory, choice C, is a brief sensory memory of a visual stimulus stored in the sensory receptors. A mood congruent memory, choice D, is a memory triggered by an emotion that acts as a retrieval cue.

Risa was raised in the United States and is familiar with fruit-flavored hard candies. In psychology class, she tastes a musk-flavored candy from Australia. Risa can't accept musk as a flavor because she associates it only with the scent of cologne. Apparently, Risa is struggling with which of the following?

['(A)Assimilation', '(B)Egocentrism', '(C)Conservation', '(D)Artificialism', '(E)Habituation']

(C)Repetitiveness is an early symptom of Alzheimer’s disease. It may be evident by the individual asking the same question or repeating the same story many times in a short period. Failing to recognize a close family member, forgetting personal events from the past, difficulty communicating, and having difficulty learning new tasks (choices A, B, D, and E) are associated with a progression of the disease.

A researcher shows a child a box of crayons and asks, "What do you think is in this box?" The child replies, "Crayons." The researcher then opens the box to reveal candles. The researcher closes the box and shows the child a stuffed dog toy that has been under the table. The researcher says, "This dog hasn't heard what we've said or seen what's inside the box. What do you think the dog will think is in the box?" If the child replies "Candles," this reflects that she most likely lacks

['(A)conservation.', '(B)a theory of mind.', '(C)artificialism.', '(D)object permanence.', '(E)basic trust.']

(A)Telomeres are the DNA at the end of the chromosomes. The telomeres protect the chromosomes during cell division. Without these endings, cells would lose genes. As cells continue to divide as they must, the telomeres shorten. When the telomeres get too short, the cell can no longer divide and the cell dies. Research has demonstrated that regular exercise can protect the telomeres and slow aging. Agonists, choice B, are chemicals that activate receptors in the brain. The myelin sheath, choice C, insulates the axon and speeds neural impulses. Synapses, choice D, are the spaces between nerve cells. Glial cells, choice E, provide support and nourishment for neurons.

Pam took her 8 month old, Lisa, to see the pediatrician. When the doctor reached to take the child for her examination, Lisa began to cry and cling to her mother. Lisa is showing the signs of

['(A)imprinting.', '(B)habituation.', '(C)conservation.', '(D)animism.', '(E)stranger anxiety.']

(B)Sex refers to the biological differences, including genitalia and genetics, between males and females. Sexual orientation, choice A, relates to which sex one is sexually attracted to. Androgyny, choice C, is the blending of male and female personality characteristics in one individual. Gender, choice D, refers to the cultural expectations held for men and women in a specific society. Identity, choice E, is an individual’s personal conception of himself or herself.

Three-year-old Bergen is shown two equal-sized balls of clay and is asked, "Is there the same amount of clay in each ball?" The researcher then takes one of the balls and smashes it flat. Then he asks Bergen, "Now does each piece have the same amount of clay, or does one have more?" Bergen responds, "The smashed one has more." Bergen's response indicates that she in which stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

['(A)Preoperational', '(B)Sensorimotor', '(C)Formal operational', '(D)Postformal thought', '(E)Concrete operational']

(D)Gender identity is a personal sense of knowing if you are a man, a woman, or a combination of both. Choice A refers to gender roles. Choice B is a description of androgyny. Social learning theory is illustrated in choice C. Choice E is the definition for sex, which is based on a biological category defined by genetics. Sex is often confused with gender and gender identity.

When 2-year-old Andi has some bright red color dabbed on her nose, she immediately touches her nose when shown her face in the mirror. It appears that Andi has developed

['(A)object permanence.', '(B)self-concept.', '(C)basic trust.', '(D)secure attachment.', '(E)concrete operational thought.']

(E)Temperament refers to characteristic emotional reactivity in infancy. Gerald’s behaviors are consistent with being a “difficult” baby. Habituation, choice A, refers to the decrease in responsiveness with the repetition of a stimulus. Children show object permanence, choice B, when they demonstrate an understanding that an object continues to exist when outside of their visual field. Animism, choice C, is a child’s belief that inanimate objects have human characteristics, such as believing a doll feels pain when dropped. Androgyny, choice D, refers to the blending of masculine and feminine characteristics in an individual’s personality.

Katie will not speed while driving to school because she's afraid of getting a ticket. Katie's reasoning best reflects which of Kohlberg's stages of moral development?

['(A)Preoperational', '(B)Preconventional', '(C)Conventional', '(D)Concrete operational', '(E)Postconventional']

(A)When we are exposed to new information, we try to make it fit our current schema. This is called assimilation. When Risa was exposed to a new flavor of candy, she had difficulty accepting as a flavor something she associated with a scent. Thus, she was having difficulty assimilating musk as a flavor. Children exhibiting egocentrism, choice B, have difficulty perceiving an experience from another’s point of view. Conservation, choice C, is the understanding that the basic properties of objects remain the same if the objects change in appearance. When preoperational children believe that all objects have been manufactured by humans, they demonstrate artificialism, choice D. Choice E, habituation, occurs when a response decreases with repeated presentations of a stimulus.

Lillie is 81 years old, is widowed, and lives alone. As she thinks about her long life, Lillie is comfortable with the choices she made and has come to terms with the thought that her time yet to live is short. Erik Erikson would suggest that Lillie has achieved a sense of

['(A)trust.', '(B)identity.', '(C)generativity.', '(D)integrity.', '(E)competence.']

(B)When a child develops a theory of mind, he or she is able to make inferences about others’ mental states. The child in this example assumes that the dog knows what the child knows, that there are candles in the box. Conservation, choice A, is the understanding that despite changes in shape, the basic properties of an object remain the same. Artificialism, choice C, is the belief that everything in the world has been manufactured by humankind. Object permanence, choice D, is understanding that an object exists when not perceived. Developing basic trust, choice E, is the result of a favorable outcome in Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages. A child whose basic needs are met learns that the world is a predictable and safe place.

Every morning, 6-year-old Jackie watches her mother clean the house and take care of her baby sister. When Jackie plays, she often plays house and takes care of her dolls. When she does, Jackie's mother praises her and tells her that she is "just like Mommy." Which theory explains how Jackie is acquiring her sense of gender?

['(A)Gender schema', '(B)Social learning', '(C)Psychodynamic', '(D)Biological', '(E)Evolutionary']

(E)Stranger anxiety begins around 8 months of age and corresponds to the development of object permanence. A child experiencing stranger anxiety shows distress in the presence of an unknown person. Imprinting, choice A, occurs in animals, such as ducklings, as they attach to the first object they see moving after hatching. Habituation, choice B, is demonstrated when an individual’s response to an external stimulus decreases when the stimulus is continually presented. Conservation, choice C, is an ability demonstrated by those in the concrete operational stage who understand that a specific quantity remains the same even if the object’s appearance changes. Animism, choice D, is the belief of preoperational children that inanimate objects have human-like characteristics.

To test a child's cognitive development, Jean Piaget presented a three-dimensional model of 3 mountains. The mountains were of different sizes, colors, and features. For example, one had a house on it. Another mountain had snow on it. The child was allowed to look at the model and then was introduced to a doll that was able to see the mountains from a perspective different from the child's. When asked what the doll could see, that child might report that the doll could see exactly what the child could see, describing features that would be impossible for the doll to see. According to Piaget, this child is demonstrating

['(A)conservation.', '(B)preconventional reasoning.', '(C)insecure avoidant attachment.', '(D)generativity.', '(E)egocentrism.']

(A)According to Jean Piaget, preoperational children lack the ability to conserve. The test described in the scenario is a common test for the conservation of a solid quantity. If a child can conserve, he or she knows that despite changes in appearance, the basic properties of the substance remain the same. Children in the sensorimotor stage, choice B, are between birth and 2 years of age. The test as described would not be used with children this age because they lack language ability. Formal operational thought, choice C, typically begins after puberty when a child begins thinking abstractly. Postformal thought, choice D, has been suggested by psychologists who have furthered Piaget’s initial work. They suggest that older adults’ thinking is more flexible, complex, and able to deal with uncertainties. Concrete operational children, choice E, comprehend conservation because they think logically about events in the physical world.

Pablo is 17 years old and has recently begun questioning his beliefs. He has engaged in heated debates with his parents over differences in their political and religious ideals. Jean Piaget would suggest that Pablo is (A)entering the postconventional stage.

['(B)becoming formal operational.', '(C)struggling with the conflict of identity versus role confusion.', '(D)having an insecure attachment with his parents.', '(E)dealing with an unresolved Oedipal conflict.']

(B)The experimental procedure described in the scenario is called “the rouge test.” It is used to test the development of self-concept. A child who understands that he or she is separate from others and has individual thoughts and needs has self-concept. As this child looks in the mirror, the child recognizes himself or herself as an individual and notices that something is on his or her face. Thus, the child touches his or her nose. Object permanence, choice A, is first attained during the sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s cognitive development. A child with this ability understands that objects continue to exist outside of his or her ability to see them. Basic trust, choice C, is the first stage of Erikson’s psychosocial stages. As a result of responsive parenting, a child develops the belief that the world is predictable and safe. A child with a secure attachment, choice D, develops a trusting relationship with his or her primary caregiver. Concrete operational thought, choice E, is the third of Piaget’s stages. In it, a child first develops logical reasoning concerning how the physical world operates.

Chandler and Alex's youngest child just graduated from high school and is moving to a different state for college. If they experience depression, stress, and loneliness as a result, some might suggest Chandler and Alex are experiencing

['(A)a midlife crisis.', '(B)identity versus role confusion.', '(C)stranger anxiety.', '(D)empty-nest syndrome.', '(E)insecure attachment.']

(B)According to Kohlberg, preconventional morality focuses on self-interest—avoiding punishment or gaining a reward. If Katie’s main concern is avoiding a ticket, she is preconventional. Preoperational thinking, choice A, is the second stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Conventional reasoning, choice C, focuses on upholding the law or gaining approval from others. If Katie did not speed because speeding is “against the law,” she would be in this stage. Concrete operational, choice D, is Piaget’s third stage in his theory of cognitive development. Those who are in the postconventional stage of moral development, choice E, are guided by an internalized sense of right and wrong. If Katie believed that speeding might be justified if a person’s life was in danger, even if it broke the law, she would be a postconventional thinker.

Chuck is 45 years old and unmarried, lives with his parents, and is a freshman in college. Chuck's current state is atypical for someone his age. The expectations to marry, establish a home, and go to college by a certain time are determined by

['(A)the zone of proximal development.', '(B)heritability.', '(C)a critical period.', '(D)theory of mind.', '(E)the social clock.']

(D)The last stage of Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages is integrity versus despair. This is a time for older adults to reflect on their lives. Those with integrity, like Lillie described in the scenario, feel a sense of satisfaction with their lives. Establishing basic trust, choice A, in a predictable world is the crisis of infancy. Establishing a firm sense of identity, choice B, is the concern of adolescents. Generativity, choice C, is the concern of middle adulthood, where adults use their talents to guide the next generation. Competence, choice E, is the task of older elementary-school-aged children who find joy in learning that they can succeed at hard tasks.

Harry Harlow studied infant monkeys raised with surrogate mothers. One mother was covered in soft cloth, while the other was made of wire. The wire mother provided nourishment, while the cloth mother was warm and able to rock. Based on Harlow's findings, what did he believe was the key factor in developing a strong attachment between a mother and her infant?

['(A)If the infant had developed a theory of mind', '(B)The development of object permanence', '(C)The warmth associated with close body contact', '(D)Receiving nourishment from the mother', '(E)The temperament of the infant']

(B)Children acquire gender by watching adult models and imitating what those models do. When the children are praised for this behavior, like Jackie is, they become more likely to repeat it. This is social learning. Gender schema theory, choice A, explains that we form schemata to organize the world around us. We learn from our environment about how boys and girls are supposed to behave. Then we organize the world around these frameworks. Psychodynamic theorists, choice C, believe that we adopt our gender identity as a way to resolve the unconscious conflict associated with the phallic stage. Biological psychologists, choice D, focus on how our nervous system and other body systems influence behavior. Evolutionary psychologists, choice E, focus on how our behaviors have allowed us to survive in our environment.

For his seventh birthday, Crew receives a new bicycle. He has never tried riding a two-wheeled bicycle without training wheels before. Crew's dad takes him out to a deserted parking lot. The dad helps by holding the bicycle and steadying Crew until Crew can balance and pedal on his own. This time period from beginner to expert that requires the help of an adult is referred to by Lev Vygotsky as

['(A)a period of assimilation.', '(B)the theory of mind.', '(C)formal operational thinking.', '(D)a zone of proximal development.', '(E)the conflict of autonomy versus shame and doubt.']

(E)Egocentrism, according to Jean Piaget, is the inability of a child to take the perspective of another person. When a child reports that the doll perceives the same scene as himself or herself, the child reflects this type of egocentric thought. Conservation, choice A, is the understanding that even if an object changes in appearance, its basic properties remain unchanged. Preconventional reasoning, choice B, is the first stage of Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. A child reflecting this type of reasoning determines if something is right or wrong based on an expectation of punishment or reward. Insecure avoidant attachment, choice C, refers to a pattern of behavior exhibited in Ainsworth’s strange situation. This child avoids connection with his or her caregiver and does not seem to care about a caregiver’s presence, absence, or return to the playroom. Generativity, choice D, is the psychosocial crisis of middle age according to Erik Erikson. At this stage, adults consider their legacy and the impact they can have on future generations.

What was the key feature in the parenting style of those tested in Mary Ainsworth's strange situation procedure that led to a secure attachment between the toddlers and their mothers?

['(A)Postconventional reasoning', '(B)Demands for obedience', '(C)Little use of punishment', "(D)Responsiveness to a child's needs", '(E)Extroverted personality']

(B)According to Jean Piaget, formal operational thinking is characterized by abstract reasoning. Adolescents who become formal operational begin to consider what is possible in the world, leading them to consider their own beliefs within the context of what they have been taught in childhood. This questioning can lead to conflicts with parents. The postconventional stage, choice A, is the final stage of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. Identity versus role confusion, choice C, is the psychosocial conflict of adolescence according to Erik Erikson. Choice D, insecure attachment, is incorrect as it concerns social, not cognitive, development. Choice E reflects a Freudian view of development.

Two-month-old infants were shown a toy lion before it was hidden by a screen. When the lion reappeared, it was in a different location than the infants expected. Researchers found that these young infants stared longer at this impossible event, demonstrating surprise. The ability of these young infants challenges the conclusions of which of the following theorists?

['(A)Erik Erikson', '(B)Jean Piaget', '(C)Lawrence Kohlberg', '(D)Lev Vygotsky', '(E)Mary Ainsworth']

(D)Some authors suggested that empty-nest syndrome occurs when children leave the family home and, as a result, parents experience negative emotions. However, recent research questions this as a universal experience. The recent research suggests that having an empty nest is not necessarily a negative experience for middle-aged adults. A midlife crisis, choice A, which is a period of self-reflection that is supposed to occur during midlife, has also been questioned. Identity versus role confusion, choice B, is the psychosocial crisis proposed by Erik Erikson for adolescents. Stranger anxiety, choice C, occurs during infancy when object permanence is first observed. Insecure attachment, choice E, is an early childhood attachment style described by Mary Ainsworth.

What was Carol Gilligan's main criticism of Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development?

['(A)What individuals say in response to the fictional Heinz dilemma would not be predictive of how they would behave in real life.', "(B)Kohlberg shouldn't have used a cross-sectional design because a longitudinal design would be a more accurate reflection of changes in moral development over the life span.", "(C)Kohlberg's theories favored individualistic cultures that emphasize personal rights over collectivist cultures that focus on the well-being of the group.", "(D)Kohlberg's scoring system was unreliable as coding certain responses as being exclusively in one specific stage of development was difficult.", "(E)Kohlberg's all-male sample was biased and reflected a male focus on justice in deciding moral questions while discounting female values, such as compassion."]

(E)The social clock refers to a particular age or period in one’s lifetime when certain social events should take place, such as marriage. Lev Vygotsky suggested that the zone of proximal development, choice A, is the time period when a child needs help from an adult to master a new task. Heritability, choice B, concerns the impact of genetics on observed differences in a trait within a population. A critical period, choice C, is the time when specific development must occur. The theory of mind, choice D, refers to the ability to infer what another person is thinking or feeling.

Correlational studies have linked parenting styles to specific outcomes in children. For example, children with authoritative parents tend to have higher levels of social competence. What is the primary reason we must be cautious before suggesting that a causal relationship exists?

['(A)Correlational studies do not show the relationship between two variables.', "(B)The situation might be artificial, and you can't generalize the results to the real world.", '(C)A third variable might be producing the relationship between the two variables.', '(D)Researchers may not have followed all ethical guidelines in the treatment of participants.', '(E)It must be determined if a double-blind procedure was used to reduce experimenter bias.']

(C)Harlow found that the infant monkeys spent most of their time with the soft, warm, rocking mother and went to the wire mother only to eat. He concluded that the warmth associated with close body contact was the key factor that led to attachment. Prior to Harlow’s research, it was commonly believed that the nourishment provided by the mother, choice D, was the most important element leading to infant attachment. Choices A, B, and E were not factors Harlow included in these attachment studies.

Researchers were interested in how reasoning ability may change across the life span. Researchers tested 5,000 individuals at 7-year intervals beginning in 1956. This research technique is called a(n)

['(A)case study.', '(B)longitudinal study.', '(C)experiment.', '(D)cross-sectional study.', '(E)naturalistic observation.']

(D)According to Lev Vygotsky, children advance in their cognitive development through social interactions. Parents play a key role by modeling new skills. This is necessary in helping a child advance from novice to veteran during this zone of proximal development. A period of assimilation, choice A, occurs when we try to incorporate new information into our existing schemata. The theory of mind, choice B, refers to the ability to infer what others are perceiving. Formal operational thinking, choice C, is the fourth stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. According to Erik Erikson, the psychosocial conflict of autonomy versus shame and doubt, choice E, occurs when a toddler learns to do tasks for himself or herself.

Which of the following depicts the use of habituation to investigate child development?

['(A)Measure the amount of time that infants stare when repeatedly shown a red circle and then compare it to the amount of time they stare when the shape becomes a green square.', "(B)Observe infants' reactions when shown a favorite toy and then when the toy is covered by a blanket.", '(C)Test infants for whether or not they can stand on their own and then compare those results to those for same-aged children.', '(D)Watch how a baby responds when separated from his or her mother and then when the baby is reunited with the mother.', "(E)Dab rouge onto a baby's nose, and then hold him or her up to a mirror to see if the baby will touch his or her nose."]

(D)Ainsworth found that mothers who were caring and responsive to their child’s needs were more likely to have a secure attachment. Postconventional reasoning, choice A, refers to a type of moral reasoning based on internalized principles. However, it was not the primary feature in the parenting style of those tested in Mary Ainsworth’s strange situation procedure. Demands for obedience (choice B) and little use of punishment (choice C) are characteristic of authoritarian and permissive parenting styles, respectively. Neither one was the key factor in developing a secure attachment. An extroverted personality, choice E, or having an outgoing, sociable personality, was not the key element in Ainsworth’s procedure.

In the 1960s, Walter Mischel tested children's ability to delay gratification by offering them one marshmallow they could eat immediately or two if they could wait. Later he found that those able to delay gratification had higher SAT scores. In 2018, researchers repeated Mischel's study and found the mother's educational level determined whether a child could delay gratification or had academic success. This case is an example of the importance of which of the following to science?

['(A)Using random sampling', '(B)Employing a double-blind technique', '(C)Replication', '(D)Determining statistical significance', '(E)Controlling for the placebo effect']

(B)Jean Piaget suggested that infants younger than 6 months of age do not exhibit object permanence, that is, knowing that items continue to exist when they are not in direct view. Researchers have demonstrated object permanence in children at earlier ages, such as in the described scenario. Erik Erikson, choice A, focused on the psychosocial crises that occur during eight stages (trust, autonomy, initiative, competence, identity, intimacy, generativity, and integrity). Lawrence Kohlberg, choice C, focused on moral development, not cognitive development. He suggested that our moral reasoning can be categorized into three stages (preconventional, conventional, and postconventional). Lev Vygotsky, choice D, studied cognitive development and suggested that social interaction was the key to fostering cognitive growth. Mary Ainsworth, choice E, designed the strange situation procedures to investigate the quality of attachment between child and caregiver.

Harry Harlow isolated newborn infant monkeys from other monkeys for a year. He demonstrated that those who were not part of a social group when young exhibited dysfunctional behavior when older, such as difficulty mating. Why has Harlow's study been criticized?

['(A)Harlow did not obtain informed consent before conducting his research.', '(B)Harlow deprived social animals of contact and caused excessive distress, which is inhumane.', '(C)Harlow did not clearly demonstrate that his research would increase knowledge of the processes underlying development.', "(D)Deception was used in Harlow's research, and participants were not adequately debriefed.", '(E)Confidentiality was not maintained to protect the welfare of the subjects.']

(E)Carol Gilligan criticized Kohlberg for drawing conclusions about moral development for both men and women when his sample was entirely male. She felt that the highest level of moral reasoning, postconventional, reflected a male bias with the emphasis on justice in making moral decisions. Gilligan felt that women are socialized to be compassionate and caring, traits that are reflected in the second stage of moral development, conventional reasoning. The potential problems described in choices A, B, C, and D were not emphasized by Gilligan in her critiques of Kolhberg’s research.

Erik Erikson believed that the ego develops over a lifetime through a series of psychosocial crises. He suggested that social and environmental factors in a person's life exert a powerful influence over how the ego develops. Erikson's focus on the ego suggests that he identified as a

['(A)humanistic psychologist.', '(B)cognitive psychologist.', '(C)psychodynamic psychologist.', '(D)sociocultural psychologist.', '(E)biological psychologist.']

(C)In a correlational study, researchers look for associations among naturally occurring variables. When researchers find a correlation, they must consider that a third variable might exist that is the source of the relationship. For example, a genetic predisposition shared by parents and children for social competence might be the third variable that produces the correlation between parenting style and social competence. Thus, choice A is incorrect as correlations do show the relationship between two variables. Choices B, D, and E are all concerns related to using experimentation.

John Bowlby suggested that infants were biologically preprogrammed to form attachments with others because doing so helps infants survive. Bowlby's beliefs best illustrate which of the following perspectives in psychology?

['(A)Behavioral', '(B)Cognitive', '(C)Humanistic', '(D)Sociocultural', '(E)Evolutionary']

(B)Longitudinal studies retest the same variable in the same group of people over time. It is an important tool in investigating developmental changes across the life span. A case study, choice A, studies a single case in depth. An experiment, choice C, investigates the impact of an experimental variable across randomly assigned groups to investigate causal relationships. A cross-sectional study, choice D, tests different people of varying ages at a single point in time. A naturalistic observation, choice E, involves studying subjects in their natural environments.

Albert Bandura believed that children learn to be aggressive by observing and imitating an adult modeling such behaviors. Bandura would most likely be associated with which of the following perspectives?

['(A)Psychodynamic', '(B)Humanistic', '(C)Biological', '(D)Evolutionary', '(E)Social-cognitive']

(A)Habituation occurs when responsiveness to a stimulus decreases with repeated presentations. This is a simple form of learning that is used to study cognition in infants. When a stimulus, like a red circle, is first presented, infants will spend a long time looking. However, this response will grow weaker over time. When a new stimulus is presented, the green square, time spent looking will increase. Choice B is a test for object permanence. Choice C is used primarily by physicians to detect developmental delay. Choice D describes the strange situation test used to study infant attachment. Choice E is a test for self-concept.

Which of the following explanations for the development of moral reasoning reflects the biological perspective?

['(A)Moral reasoning develops as we are challenged by moral problems and must think through our positions of right and wrong.', '(B)Authority figures, such as parents and teachers, model appropriate moral behaviors in teaching children what is right and wrong.', "(C)A higher level of moral reasoning is associated with increased activity in the brain's reward system.", '(D)The superego develops as a result of conflict in the Oedipal stage of psychosexual development.', '(E)Cultural rules and expectations establish what is considered moral in any society.']

(C)Replication involves repeating a study using the same methods but different subjects and researchers. Replicating the results of a study is vital in order to build confidence in the validity in and reliability of the results. The description of the 2018 research in the question does not include the research elements mentioned in choices A, B, D, and E.

The observation notes below were used as part of a naturalistic observation study of a group of middle school students. All names are pseudonyms. Context: •During the 10 minutes of this observation, this group of four middle school students worked to complete a project assigned by their English teacher. •The four students were seated around a table, which was covered with construction paper, scissors, glue sticks, and their open textbooks. •The students' task was to make a creative display that communicates their feelings about the end of the school year. •All observation entries are time stamped, student comments are in quotation marks, and student actions are in brackets. Student Time Quotation Carter 12:06 "I hope you all don't screw around like last time. I want to get a good grade on this thing." Ava 12:06 "Fine, Carter, got it. You always just want to get a good grade. Sheesh." (The group works in silence for about 4 minutes.) Guy 12:10 "Ava, that looks pretty cool. Nice." Ava 12:11 "Thanks. Yeah, it's turning out OK. I really like this kind of project. I just want it to look nice and turn out good." Guy 12:11 "Way better than mine [sighs]. I keep screwing this thing up; I think I'm too nervous. I do OK sometimes when I'm just a bit nervous, but I'm way too stressed right now, so I don't think I can do this right." Danny 12:12 "We are totally getting this done! Good job, everybody. I feel like I'm getting this now. By the time we're done with this thing, I feel like I'll have this DOWN. I will be the master of construction paper and glue!" Look at the information from the naturalistic observation notes about Carter. What kind of motivation does Carter seem to be influenced by, based solely on the information you find in these observation notes?

['(A)Achievement motivation', '(B)Extrinsic motivation', '(C)Mastery motivation', '(D)Intrinsic motivation', '(E)Instrumental motivation']

(B)Critics argue that monkeys are social creatures and to isolate them for a lengthy period of time, knowing that doing so would cause excessive distress, violates the current American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines. Informed consent (choice A), lack of scientific value (choice C), debriefing (choice D), and confidentiality (choice E) are included in the APA ethical guidelines. However, these guidelines concern human subjects, not nonhuman subjects. Harlow did have a clear scientific purpose in investigating processes underlying development (choice C). However, the extreme negative impact of social deprivation on his subjects calls into question his design.

The observation notes below were used as part of a naturalistic observation study of a group of middle school students. All names are pseudonyms. Context: •During the 10 minutes of this observation, this group of four middle school students worked to complete a project assigned by their English teacher. •The four students were seated around a table, which was covered with construction paper, scissors, glue sticks, and their open textbooks. •The students' task was to make a creative display that communicates their feelings about the end of the school year. •All observation entries are time stamped, student comments are in quotation marks, and student actions are in brackets. Student Time Quotation Carter 12:06 "I hope you all don't screw around like last time. I want to get a good grade on this thing." Ava 12:06 "Fine, Carter, got it. You always just want to get a good grade. Sheesh." (The group works in silence for about 4 minutes.) Guy 12:10 "Ava, that looks pretty cool. Nice." Ava 12:11 "Thanks. Yeah, it's turning out OK. I really like this kind of project. I just want it to look nice and turn out good." Guy 12:11 "Way better than mine [sighs]. I keep screwing this thing up; I think I'm too nervous. I do OK sometimes when I'm just a bit nervous, but I'm way too stressed right now, so I don't think I can do this right." Danny 12:12 "We are totally getting this done! Good job, everybody. I feel like I'm getting this now. By the time we're done with this thing, I feel like I'll have this DOWN. I will be the master of construction paper and glue!" Look at the information from the naturalistic observation notes about Carter. What kind of motivation does Ava seem to be influenced by, based solely on the information you find in these observation notes?

['(A)Achievement motivation', '(B)Extrinsic motivation', '(C)Mastery motivation', '(D)Intrinsic motivation', '(E)Instrumental motivation']

(C)Psychodynamic psychology has its roots in the Freudian tradition. Erik Erikson trained as a psychoanalyst and believed in the basic teachings of Sigmund Freud. Erickson differed from Freud in that Erickson focused on the development of the ego throughout the life span and downplayed sexual crises as the bases of personality development. Erikson’s work did not reflect the psychological perspectives listed in choices A, B, D, or E.

The observation notes below were used as part of a naturalistic observation study of a group of middle school students. All names are pseudonyms. Context: •During the 10 minutes of this observation, this group of four middle school students worked to complete a project assigned by their English teacher. •The four students were seated around a table, which was covered with construction paper, scissors, glue sticks, and their open textbooks. •The students' task was to make a creative display that communicates their feelings about the end of the school year. •All observation entries are time stamped, student comments are in quotation marks, and student actions are in brackets. Student Time Quotation Carter 12:06 "I hope you all don't screw around like last time. I want to get a good grade on this thing." Ava 12:06 "Fine, Carter, got it. You always just want to get a good grade. Sheesh." (The group works in silence for about 4 minutes.) Guy 12:10 "Ava, that looks pretty cool. Nice." Ava 12:11 "Thanks. Yeah, it's turning out OK. I really like this kind of project. I just want it to look nice and turn out good." Guy 12:11 "Way better than mine [sighs]. I keep screwing this thing up; I think I'm too nervous. I do OK sometimes when I'm just a bit nervous, but I'm way too stressed right now, so I don't think I can do this right." Danny 12:12 "We are totally getting this done! Good job, everybody. I feel like I'm getting this now. By the time we're done with this thing, I feel like I'll have this DOWN. I will be the master of construction paper and glue!" Look at the information from the naturalistic observation notes about Carter. What kind of motivation does Danny seem to be influenced by, based solely on the information you find in these observation notes?

['(A)Achievement motivation', '(B)Extrinsic motivation', '(C)Mastery motivation', '(D)Intrinsic motivation', '(E)Instrumental motivation']

(E)Evolutionary psychologists believe that certain innate behaviors allow us to adapt to our environment, thus promoting our ability to survive. Behavioral psychologists, choice A, believe that we learn our behaviors from our interactions with the environment. Cognitive psychologists, choice B, are primarily interested in how we process and store information. Humanistic psychologists, choice C, emphasize our potential for growth and self-fulfillment. Sociocultural psychologists, choice D, emphasize the role that society plays in shaping our development.

The observation notes below were used as part of a naturalistic observation study of a group of middle school students. All names are pseudonyms. Context: •During the 10 minutes of this observation, this group of four middle school students worked to complete a project assigned by their English teacher. •The four students were seated around a table, which was covered with construction paper, scissors, glue sticks, and their open textbooks. •The students' task was to make a creative display that communicates their feelings about the end of the school year. •All observation entries are time stamped, student comments are in quotation marks, and student actions are in brackets. Student Time Quotation Carter 12:06 "I hope you all don't screw around like last time. I want to get a good grade on this thing." Ava 12:06 "Fine, Carter, got it. You always just want to get a good grade. Sheesh." (The group works in silence for about 4 minutes.) Guy 12:10 "Ava, that looks pretty cool. Nice." Ava 12:11 "Thanks. Yeah, it's turning out OK. I really like this kind of project. I just want it to look nice and turn out good." Guy 12:11 "Way better than mine [sighs]. I keep screwing this thing up; I think I'm too nervous. I do OK sometimes when I'm just a bit nervous, but I'm way too stressed right now, so I don't think I can do this right." Danny 12:12 "We are totally getting this done! Good job, everybody. I feel like I'm getting this now. By the time we're done with this thing, I feel like I'll have this DOWN. I will be the master of construction paper and glue!" Look at the information from the naturalistic observation notes about Carter. Which of the following motivation principles seems to fit Guy's experience best, based solely on the information you find in these observation notes?

['(A)Achievement motivation', '(B)Extrinsic motivation', '(C)Yerkes-Dodson law', '(D)Intrinsic motivation', '(E)Law of effect']

(E)Albert Bandura is associated with the social-cognitive perspective. His beliefs about how we learn draws from the behavioral perspective. However, he also has cognitive roots. Bandura believes that when a child observes a model and sees the model reinforced, the child is likely to imitate the behavior, called vicarious learning. In addition, if a child is positively reinforced for a behavior he or she has imitated, the child is likely to repeat that behavior. Bandura goes beyond behavioral theory because he believes that cognition also plays an important role in learning. When a child watches a model, the child must pay attention and store the information for when he or she later is motivated to reproduce the behavior. Psychodynamic psychologists, choice A, focus on the unconscious forces that shape behavior. Humanistic psychologists, choice B, emphasize the human potential for growth. Biological psychologists, choice C, focus on the workings of the nervous and other biological systems in determining behavior. Evolutionary psychologists, choice D, investigate the role of natural selection in shaping adaptive human behaviors.

Which of the following is the most correct definition of the term instinct?

['(A)An internal motivation shared by all organisms in the same species', '(B)A basic drive related to the survival needs of hunger, shelter, and reproduction', '(C)A behavior motivated solely by biological preconditions that evolved over time to ensure the survival of the species', '(D)An impulse to seek reinforcements and avoid punishments', '(E)An unlearned, complex behavior common throughout a species and that follows a fixed pattern']

(C)Biological psychologists focus on the workings of the nervous and other body systems in determining cognition and behavior. Thus, moral reasoning is impacted by the workings of specific brain regions, such as the brain’s reward system. Choice A reflects the position of Lawrence Kohlberg. He suggested that as moral questions come up in our lives, our mental processes are stimulated. Through such cognitive challenges we develop a sense of right and wrong. Social learning psychologists would focus on the role of observational learning, choice B, on a child’s moral development. The psychodynamic perspective, choice D, illustrates the role of unconscious conflict during psychosexual development that is central to an individual’s moral reasoning. The sociocultural perspective is demonstrated in choice E.

Which term refers to an unlearned, complex behavior common throughout a species and that follows a fixed pattern?

['(A)Drive', '(B)Instinct', '(C)Autonomic', '(D)Homeostasis', '(E)Basal']

(B)Based on Carter’s and Ava’s statements, Carter seems to be motivated by grades, which are an external reward for effort. So, Carter is influenced by extrinsic motivation. Choice A, achievement motivation, best fits Danny’s statements, which indicate that he is motivated to master this specific task and become skilled at it. Mastery motivation (choice C) and instrumental motivation (choice E) are not psychological terms. Intrinsic motivation, choice D, best fits Ava’s statements. She seems motivated to do a good job on this task only because she wants the internal satisfaction of doing good work.

Which of the following concepts describes how performance can increase or decrease in effectiveness based on either stress or arousal?

['(A)Achievement motivation', '(B)Extrinsic motivation', '(C)Homeostasis', '(D)Yerkes-Dodson law', '(E)Performance anxiety']

(D)Ava’s statements indicate that she is motivated to do a good job on this task only because she wants the internal satisfaction of doing good work. So, Ava is influenced by intrinsic motivation. Choice A, achievement motivation, best fits Danny’s statements, which indicate that he is motivated to master this specific task and become skilled at it. Carter seems to be motivated by grades, which are an external reward for effort. So, Carter is influenced by extrinsic motivation, choice B. Mastery motivation (choice C) and instrumental motivation (choice E) are not psychological terms.

What type of question can the Yerkes-Dodson law help answer?

['(A)Why are some organisms motivated to help others even if there are significant costs to themselves?', '(B)What are the different impacts of internal and external motivations?', "(C)If a person is very anxious about performing a task, will that help or hurt the person's performance?", '(D)Are there specific biological reactions associated with different kinds of emotions?', '(E)Why are some people more highly motivated to achieve than others?']

(A)Danny’s statements indicate that he is motivated by achievement motivation because he seems motivated to master this specific task and become skilled at it. Carter seems to be motivated by grades, which are an external reward for effort. So, Carter is influenced by extrinsic motivation, choice B. Ava’s statements indicate that she is motivated to do a good job on this task only because she wants the internal satisfaction of doing good work. So, Ava is influenced by intrinsic motivation, choice D. (Mastery motivation (choice C) and instrumental motivation (choice E) are not psychological terms.

When working with people you do not know well, what motivations are most effective at changing behaviors quickly, for at least a short amount of time?

['(A)Achievement motivation', '(B)Extrinsic motivation', '(C)Two-factor motivation', '(D)Intrinsic motivation', '(E)Autonomic motivation']

(C)The Yerkes-Dodson law describes the relationship between stress/arousal and performance on a task. For many tasks, if stress/arousal is very low or very high, performance suffers. This seems to be what Guy is experiencing. Danny’s statements indicate that he is motivated by achievement motivation, choice A. Danny seems motivated to master this specific task and become skilled at it. Ava’s statements indicate that she is motivated to do a good job on this task only because she wants the internal satisfaction of doing good work. So, Ava is experiencing intrinsic motivation, choice D. Carter seems to be motivated by grades, which are an external reward for effort. So, Carter is experiencing extrinsic motivation, choice B. The law of effect, choice E, is a term from learning (conditioning) research. The law of effect states that an organism’s reaction to a stimulus determines whether that stimulus is a reinforcement or a punishment.

If your goal is to motivate long-term changes that persist even when people are unobserved, what kind of motivation is most useful?

['(A)Achievement motivation', '(B)Extrinsic motivation', '(C)Two-factor motivation', '(D)Intrinsic motivation', '(E)Autonomic motivation']

(E)An instinct is a complex behavior that all organisms within a species are born with (instead of acquiring later through experience). Instinctual behavior follows a fixed pattern; organisms of that species perform the complex behavior in the same way in response to the same conditions. For example, newborn humans turn toward a touch on the cheek and suck to get milk. Choice A is incomplete because it does not include the details that the behavior must be complex and follow a fixed pattern. Choice B is incorrect because many basic drives are related to survival but are not instincts. Choice C is incorrect because many behaviors evolved over time but are not instincts. Choice D is incorrect because it refers to conditioning, but instincts are unlearned.

Which motivation theory describes how physiological needs create impulses to lessen those needs in order to regain a balanced internal state?

['(A)Drive reduction theory', '(B)Instinct theory', "(C)Maslow's hierarchy of needs", '(D)Homeostasis motivation', '(E)Limbic system']

(B)An instinct is a complex behavior that all organisms within a species are born with (instead of acquiring later through experience). A drive, choice A, is a physiological need that motivates some of our behaviors. We act on drives in order to regain physiological balance. Autonomic, choice C, refers to the autonomic nervous system. Homeostasis, choice D, is physiological balance. Basal, choice E, refers to the basal metabolic rate, which is the rate at which our body uses energy at rest.

Which of the following is an accurate description of drive reduction theory?

['(A)Humans are driven to achieve mastery of their environments and to reduce their feelings of stress and anxiety through motivated behaviors.', '(B)Organisms are born with unlearned, complex behaviors that follow a fixed pattern.', '(C)Our needs are prioritized from least to most important, and this ranked list motivates our behaviors.', '(D)In order to reduce unconscious stress, we are driven to satisfy needs created earlier in life.', '(E)Physiological needs create impulses to lessen those needs in order to regain a balanced internal state.']

(D)The Yerkes-Dodson law describes how very low or very high levels of arousal (such as stress) can have a detrimental impact on performing some tasks. Achievement motivation (choice A) and extrinsic motivation (choice B) are different kinds of motivation. However, neither one is relevant to the question about the impact of stress or arousal. Homeostasis, choice C, refers to biological balance. Homeostasis is an aspect of what motivates behaviors but is not related to the impact of stress or arousal. Choice E, performance anxiety, is not a psychological term.

According to drive reduction theory, humans are motivated to reduce drives in order to regain a balanced state. What is this state called?

['(A)Autonomic', '(B)Hypothalamus', '(C)Homeostasis', '(D)Refractory period', '(E)Self-actualization']

(C)The Yerkes-Dodson law describes how very low or high levels of arousal (such as stress) can have a detrimental impact on performing some tasks. Choice A is an interesting question but is not related to the Yerkes-Dodson law. Choices B and E are related to the motivation principles of intrinsic, extrinsic, and achievement motivation. However, the Yerkes-Dodson law doesn’t relate to those concepts. Choice D is relevant to emotion research, but the Yerkes-Dodson law applies to motivation, not emotion.

In drive reduction theory, what does homeostasis refer to?

["(A)Impulses transmitted across the synaptic gap in the limbic system that reduce physiological drives (B)The drive to achieve the state of confident mastery over the environment (C)The stage just below self-actualization, which is achievable by most adults (D)A balanced internal state, free of drives produced by physiological deficits (E)The balance between internal and external motivations that result in productive, mature behaviors 387.What is the premise behind Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory?", '(A)Some needs are more important in some cultures, which causes the behavioral differences we see in different countries.', '(B)People are motivated to satisfy needs in a specific order, starting with physiological needs.', '(C)Everyone is motivated to achieve mastery over his or her environment, which is the highest-ranking need in the hierarchy.', '(D)Biological needs evolved in a specific order in humans, which impacts behaviors in predictable ways.', '(E)Each person internalizes a hierarchy of needs over time, based on past experiences.']

(B)Extrinsic motivations, like money or food treats, can be very effective at quick, short-term behavior changes, especially when working with strangers. Choice A, achievement motivation, is a different kind of motivation but is not uniquely “faster” than extrinsic motivators. Choice C, two-factor motivation, is not actually a motivation term. Instead, two-factor theory is an emotion theory. Intrinsic motivation, choice D, depends on knowing people well and would not be an effective choice for working with strangers. Choice E, autonomic motivation, is not actually a kind of motivation. Instead, the autonomic nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system.

What is the correct order of the levels in Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

['(A)Intrinsic needs, extrinsic needs, achievement needs, homeostasis, self-actualization', '(B)Physiological needs, safety needs, love and belongingness, self-esteem, self-actualization', '(C)Instinct, drive, drive reduction, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, achievement motivation', '(D)Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operations', '(E)Biological, cognitive, emotional, connectedness, spiritual']

(D)Intrinsic motivation is generally longer lasting than extrinsic motivation (choice B). When someone is motivated only because of internal satisfaction, he or she is more likely to keep performing that behavior for a long time, even when no one else is paying attention and giving the person any external rewards. Choice A, achievement motivation, is incorrect because the question doesn’t imply that anyone is working to achieve mastery of a skill or set of knowledge. Choice C, two-factor motivation, is not actually a motivation term. Instead, two-factor theory is an emotion theory. Choice E, autonomic motivation, is not actually a kind of motivation. Instead, the autonomic nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system.

Which of the following brain structures is most involved in eating motivation?

['(A)Hypothalamus', '(B)Amygdala', '(C)Thalamus', '(D)Pons', '(E)Sensorimotor cortex']

(A)Drive reduction theory describes how a drive is created when we experience a physiological deficit (like hunger). The drive reduces the need, resulting in a behavior (like eating) that helps a person regain balance. Instinct theory, choice B, is a motivation theory. However, it is much more specific than the description of the theory in this question. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, choice C, refers to physiological needs. However, it includes many more elements than described in the question, like safety needs, a sense of belonging, and so on. Homeostasis, choice D, is a balanced internal state. It is not a motivation. The limbic system, choice E, is an area of the brain.

What is one of the most important ways that the hypothalamus influences human motivation?

['(A)Intrinsically motivated actions begin in the hypothalamus.', '(B)Our memories of important, motivating events are stored in the hypothalamus.', '(C)Maslow believed that the order of the hierarchy of needs is determined by the hypothalamus.', '(D)The hypothalamus controls addiction behaviors.', '(E)The hypothalamus influences whether we feel hungry or full.']

(E)Drive reduction theory describes how a drive is created when we experience a physiological deficit (like hunger). The drive reduces the need, resulting in a behavior (like eating) that helps a person regain homeostasis, which is a balanced state. Choice A is like the theory of achievement motivation but is not a complete definition. Choice B refers to instinct theory. Choice C is similar to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Choice D is like Freud’s psychodynamic theory.

Damage to the lateral hypothalamus would result in what change in motivation?

['(A)Achievement motivations would be drastically decreased.', '(B)Since this is where instincts are stored in the brain, survival may be affected.', '(C)The person would probably not feel hungry, even after a long period of not eating.', '(D)The refractory period would be significantly shorter, impacting sexual motivations and behaviors.', '(E)Extrinsic motivations would be more likely effective than would intrinsic motivations.']

(C)Homeostasis is an internally balanced state without physiological deficits (like hunger) that create drives. Choice A, autonomic, references the autonomic nervous system, which is part of the peripheral nervous system. Choice B, hypothalamus, refers to a part of the brain. Choice D, refractory period, is part of the sexual response cycle. Choice E, self-actualization, is part of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus would result in what change in motivation?

["(A)It may impact the order of motivations in Maslow's hierarchy of needs.", '(B)The impulse to achieve mastery over skills may be dramatically lessened.', '(C)Since the hypothalamus is the link between emotions and the rest of the brain, flat affect may occur.', '(D)The person would probably never feel full, even after eating a large meal.', '(E)The person may react to intrinsic motivations but not to extrinsic motivations.']

(D)Homeostasis is an internally balanced state without physiological deficits (like hunger) that create drives. Choice A refers to some accurate information about neural transmission in the brain but is not relevant to drive reduction theory. Choices B, C, and E each refer to some ideas related to motivation but are not relevant to drive reduction theory.

Why might a person want to influence or change his or her set point?

['(A)The set point refers to the weight our body wants to maintain, which influences our hunger and satiation feelings.', '(B)This is the point at which our balance of intrinsic and extrinsic motivators is set, which determines which motivations we react most strongly to.', '(C)In achievement motivation theory, humans have a set point of achievement they are motivated to achieve.', '(D)Drive reduction theory is based on the set point at which our drives motivate us to reduce them rather than resisting or ignoring them.', '(E)According to two-factor theory, each motivation involves at least two factors, and the balance point between them is the set point.']

(B)Maslow believed that people are motivated to satisfy needs in a specific order: physiological needs, safety needs, love and belongingness, self-esteem, and finally self-actualization. (A top level of self-transcendence is sometimes included.) Choices A, C, D, and E reference some motivation concepts but include incorrect information about Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Which of the following is the most important difference between anorexia and bulimia?

['(A)Craving', '(B)Purging', '(C)Hypothalamus', '(D)Pathway', '(E)Etiology']

(B)According to Maslow’s theory, the correct order of the levels is physiological needs, safety needs, love and belongingness, self-esteem, and self-actualization. Choices A and C include many valid motivation terms, but they are not part of Maslow’s theory. Choice D lists the stages of Piaget’s cognitive development theory. Choice E doesn’t refer to any psychological stage theory or list of needs.

The James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories both focus on which of the following questions?

['(A)Which kind of motivation is most effective at changing behavior over the long term: intrinsic, extrinsic, or achievement motivation?', "(B)Why do some people choose to sacrifice their own safety needs in order to help others, which contradicts the predictions of Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory?", '(C)How do physiological changes (like a racing heart, increased respiration, and so on) change how we interpret the actions of others?', '(D)What is the basic set of human instincts (called drives), and how do humans seek to reduce these drives in order to attain or reestablish our natural state of homeostasis?', '(E)Are we aware of an emotion first and then experience physiological changes, or do we experience physiological changes and then become aware of the emotion?']

(A)The hypothalamus regulates several physiological processes, including hunger. The lateral hypothalamus is associated with the feeling of hunger. A separate part, the ventromedial hypothalamus, is associated with the feeling of fullness. The amygdala, choice B, is involved with basic, extreme emotions. Choice C, the thalamus, receives all the sensory impulses from the rest of the body (except the sense of smell) and routes them to the correct places in the rest of the brain. Choice D, the pons, deals with several basic life support functions but not hunger/satiation. The sensorimotor cortex, choice E, involves voluntary muscle movements.

Humans experience similar physiological changes as we feel different emotions. Our heart rate goes up in response to both fearful and exciting situations. This fact supports which of the following theories?

['(A)James-Lange theory', '(B)Yerkes-Dodson theory', '(C)Two-factor theory', '(D)Drive reduction theory', '(E)Self-actualization theory']

(E)The hypothalamus regulates several physiological processes, including hunger. The lateral hypothalamus is associated with the feeling of hunger. A separate part, the ventromedial hypothalamus, is associated with the feeling of fullness. Choices A, B, C, and D are incorrect because they describe aspects of motivation that are not controlled or primarily influenced by the hypothalamus.

Molly's new baby, Levi, turns his head and makes sucking motions with his lips when Molly strokes his cheek. Molly's pediatrician explains that all humans do this because it helps the baby find the mother's nipple and get milk. Levi's behavior is an example of which of the following?

['(A)Yerkes-Dodson law', '(B)Instinct', '(C)Operant conditioning', '(D)Conditioned response', '(E)Reciprocal determinism']

(C)The hypothalamus regulates several physiological processes, including hunger. The lateral hypothalamus is associated with the feeling of hunger. A separate part, the ventromedial hypothalamus, is associated with the feeling of fullness. Choices A, B, and E mention motivation terminology, but these motivations are not associated with the lateral hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is involved in sexual responses, but damage to the lateral hypothalamus would not impact the refractory period. Therefore, choice D is incorrect.

Franz is working hard to finish a draft of his short story. He's been working all day. By 5:00, though, he is so hungry that he must stop working and find something to eat. After he eats a sandwich, he goes back to work and finishes the draft of the story. Which motivation theory is most applicable to this situation?

['(A)Instinct theory', '(B)Yerkes-Dodson law', '(C)Self-actualization theory', '(D)Drive reduction theory', '(E)Satiation theory']

(D)The hypothalamus regulates several physiological processes, including hunger. The lateral hypothalamus is associated with the feeling of hunger. A separate part, the ventromedial hypothalamus, is associated with the feeling of fullness. Choices A, B, and E use valid psychological terms related to motivation. However, the terms are not used accurately and are not specifically tied to the hypothalamus. Choice C is an incorrect statement about the functions of the hypothalamus.

Jim is about to participate in the finals of a speech competition. He's understandably nervous, but he has participated in many of these events before. This time, he feels like he's "just nervous enough" that he will give the best performance of the year. Jim wins the competition. Which of the following principles might explain why Jim does well in the finals?

['(A)Drive reduction theory', '(B)Yerkes-Dodson law', '(C)Autonomic nervous system', '(D)Performance anxiety', '(E)Naturalistic observation theory']

(A)Set-point theory maintains that our brains have a set point of weight that our brains interpret as the balanced point (homeostasis). If we are below this weight, set-point theory states that our brains will increase hunger motivation. If we are above the set point, the theory states that our brains will decrease hunger impulses. Set-point theory does not apply to intrinsic/extrinsic motivations (choice B), achievement motivation (choice C), drive reduction theory (choice D), or two-factor theory (choice E). In fact, two-factor theory is about emotions, not motivations.

Daniel is excited to volunteer at the library this summer. He's looking forward to talking with other people who like to read as much as he does. His grandmother decides to give him $5 every time he volunteers. He decides to tell her she doesn't need to give him money; he wants to volunteer just for fun! Daniel's grandmother is confused about the impact of what kinds of motivation?

['(A)Extrinsic and intrinsic motivations', '(B)Instincts and drives', '(C)Operant and classically conditioned responses', '(D)Preoperational and concrete operational cognitions', '(E)Retroactive and proactive thoughts']

(B)Anorexia and bulimia are both eating disorders, but they are associated with very different sets of behaviors. Anorexia causes an individual to avoid eating or to eat, infrequently, very small amounts or very low calorie foods. Bulimia is associated with a cycle of binging and purging. Individuals may eat a regular or large amount of food but then purge what they ate through vomiting, laxatives, or extreme exercise. Craving (choice A) and pathway (choice D) are not specific psychological terms and are not relevant to the differences between anorexia and bulimia. Choice C, the hypothalamus, is associated with all eating behaviors. However, this brain structure does not define the difference between anorexia and bulimia. Choice E, etiology, is a term that refers to the causes of disorders.

The day before you are to leave for college, you open the letter your grandmother sent you. In the letter, she says, "Remember, sweetie, to listen to your body: eat when you're hungry, sleep when you're tired, and stay warm. There is wisdom in your body. It wants to keep you in balance, and it will tell you how to regain that balance." What psychological principle is most like the advice your grandmother is giving in her letter?

['(A)Self-actualization', '(B)Reciprocal determinism', '(C)Social facilitation', '(D)Transduction', '(E)Homeostasis']

(E)Both the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories try to explain how humans experience emotions. The James-Lange theory states that our physiology changes first and that we experience emotions because of those changes. The Cannon-Bard theory states that we experience emotions first and then our physiology changes because of the emotions that we experience. Choices A, B, and D are questions about motivation, which are not relevant to the emotion theories of James-Lange and Cannon-Bard. Choice C is somewhat like the two-factor theory of emotion. However, that theory attempts to explain emotional experiences, not interpreting others’ reactions.

Your college roommate confides in you that he is struggling with his weight. He says, "No matter what I do, I just keep putting on the pounds. I'm not vain or anything, but it really bothers me, and I have no idea what to do. I've heard about this all cabbage soup diet. Do you think I should try it? You're majoring in psychology. What should I do?" Which of the following terms might be most useful to include in your advice to your roommate?

['(A)Instinct', '(B)Id', '(C)Set point', '(D)Refractory period', '(E)Amygdala']

(C)Two-factor theory states that our experience of emotion results from a combination of both physiological changes and how we label (think about) an experience. The statement in the question supports two-factor theory and contradicts James-Lange theory (choice A). The James-Lange theory states that our physiology changes first and then we experience emotion. The most important evidence against the James-Lange theory is that there are many emotions that involve the same physiological response. Choices B, D, and E are motivation theories, which are not relevant to this question.

You are asked to consult with a group of doctors as they try to diagnose patient "CMOT," who presents with an unusual cluster of symptoms. •He never seems to be hungry, even after a long period without food. •His anxiety seems constant. Hospital staff have to keep careful watch or he will try to run out of the hospital. When restrained, he will sometimes fight staff. •He often fights inappropriately with hospital staff or visitors. If one of the following was not functioning properly with CMOT, it might explain all these behaviors. Which one of the following could be malfunctioning?

['(A)Brainstem', '(B)Amygdala', '(C)Fungiform papillae', '(D)Hypothalamus', '(E)Transduction']

(B)Instincts are fixed patterns of behavior that organisms are born with and that happen in response to specific stimuli. Some researchers dispute whether humans have “instincts,” but Levi’s rooting and sucking behaviors seem to meet this definition. Choice A, Yerkes-Dodson law, refers to the optimal level of arousal for performing certain tasks, which is not relevant to this scenario. Operant conditioning (choice C) and conditioned response (choice D) are learning/conditioning principles. Choice E, reciprocal determinism, is Albert Bandura’s overall theory of what causes behaviors.

A group of developmental psychologists start a longitudinal study involving 120 school-age children. They plan to follow these children from kindergarten through their senior year of high school and attempt to measure several variables. The researchers want to correlate those variables with the later success (or lack of success) of the students. Which of the following variables would be most important to choose for this study and would be the most difficult to define operationally?

['(A)Grade point average', '(B)Achievement motivation', '(C)Extrinsic motivation', '(D)Attitude toward school', '(E)Psychosocial maturational stage']

(D)Drive reduction theory describes how a drive is created when we experience a physiological deficit (like hunger). The drive reduces the need and results in a behavior (like eating) that helps a person regain balance. Instinct theory, Yerkes-Dodson law, and self-actualization theory (choices A, B, and C) are motivation theories. However, they are not as applicable to this scenario as is drive reduction theory. Choice E, satiation theory, is not a psychological term.

Otto starts taking a new medication for his low blood pressure, but he's having trouble adjusting to some of the side effects. The medication causes his heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration to elevate quickly whenever he is startled or feels excited. Otto also reports to his doctor that he "feels" things more deeply. He says, "It's hard to explain, but when I'm in a happy situation, I think I feel happier, and when something stressful happens, it feels more like an emergency than it did before." Which of the following theories might help explain Otto's new emotional experiences?

['(A)Two-factor theory', '(B)James-Lange theory', '(C)Drive reduction theory', '(D)Cannon-Bard theory', '(E)Yerkes-Dodson theory']

(B)The Yerkes-Dodson law describes the relationship between stress/arousal and performance on a task. For many tasks, if stress/arousal is very low or very high, performance suffers. However, experience and practice can lead performers, like Jim, to know exactly how much stress (or arousal) will facilitate an excellent performance. Choice A, drive reduction theory, helps describe many human motivations. However, it doesn’t explain why this stress enhances Jim’s performance. The autonomic nervous system, choice C, is involved in this scenario. Stress causes the autonomic nervous system to raise blood pressure. However, this choice doesn’t explain how performance is either helped or hurt. Performance anxiety, choice D, is a term commonly used by people who experience the kind of stress that Jim experiences before the competition. However, it doesn’t relate to Jim’s success in the finals. Naturalistic observation theory, choice E, is a research methodology, not a motivation term.

In May 2018, Mamoudou Gassama saw a child hanging from a fourth-floor balcony in Paris. The child seemed about to fall, and no adult was nearby to help. Mr. Gassama proceeded to climb and leap up the outside of the building from balcony to balcony, eventually reaching the child and possibly saving the child's life. Which of the following motivation theories would have the most difficulty explaining why Mr. Gassama chose to complete this heroic act?

['(A)Intrinsic motivation', '(B)Achievement motivation', '(C)Extrinsic motivation', '(D)Altruism', "(E)Maslow's hierarchy of needs"]

(A)It is clear from the scenario that Daniel is intrinsically motivated to volunteer. His grandmother is mistaken when she thinks that an extrinsic reward, like money, will help motivate him more. Choice B lists motivation principles, but they don’t specifically apply to this scenario. Choice C is not relevant because no conditioning is taking place in this scenario. Choice D lists two stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. The terms in choice E are like the cognitive concepts of retroactive and proactive interference, which are also not relevant to this scenario.