source_sentence,target_sentence
"Lillian Diana Gish (October 14, 1893 – February 27, 1993) was an American actress, director and screenwriter.","lilyan dyana gic (14 kṭubṛ, 1893 - 27 bṛayṛ, 1993) tkattin tga tasmdayt, d tamssufɣt d tanasrayt n usinaryu tamirikanit."
"Gish was a prominent film star from 1912 into the 1920s, being particularly associated with the films of director D. W. Griffith.","gic tkkatin tga titrit bahra imqqurn sg 1912 ar isggasn n 1920, liɣ tkkatin tssur g laflam n usffug d. w. grifit."
"She also did considerable television work from the early 1950s into the 1980s, and closed her career playing opposite Bette Davis in the 1987 film The Whales of August.","tskr dag yat lxdmt istawhmman g sizwar n isggwasn n 1950 ar isggwasn n 1980, d tqqn taɣarast nns lliɣ tmttl d bitti diyfis g lfilm da waylz uf ugust n 1987."
The first several generations of Gishes were Dunkard ministers.,mnnaw iɣrfn zwarnin n ait gic kanttin gan irgazn n ddin amasiḥi.
"Their mother opened the Majestic Candy Kitchen, and the girls helped sell popcorn and candy to patrons of the old Majestic Theater, located next door.","trzem innasnt majistik kandy kitcen d tfrxin ɛawnnt ɣuzznz n tirufin d lfanid i idbu lmsraḥ majestik, tama nnsn."
"The seventeen-year-old Lillian traveled to Shawnee, Oklahoma, where James's brother Alfred Grant Gish and his wife, Maude, lived.","liɣ dars sa d mraw lilyan tmmudda s cawni uklahoma lliɣ n izdɣ gmas n jims alfrid grant gic d, mud, tamɣart nns."
"Her father died in Norman, Oklahoma, in 1912, but she had returned to Ohio a few months before this.","immut ibbas g nurman, uklahoma, g 1912, mac turrid s uhayu mnnaw iyyurn sizwar."
"When Lillian and Dorothy were old enough they joined the theatre, often traveling separately in different productions.","lliɣ tmqqur lilyan d duruti kcmnt s umzgun, mmuddunt zlint ḥina g usffuɣn zlinin."
"Gish continued to perform on the stage, and in 1913, during a run of A Good Little Devil, she collapsed from anemia.","gic tmḍfar tawwuri nns g umzgun ar 1913, liɣ illa a gud littl difil, tusxi s faqr ddam."
Her performance in these frigid conditions gave her lasting nerve damage in several fingers.,tawwurnis ɣ dduruf ad hrcnin fanas aquccḥ ɣ iḍuḍan.
"He utilized her expressive talents to the fullest, developing her into a suffering yet strong heroine.",issmrs lmawahib nns ar uzzur nnsn d isbuɣlat s yat tabḥleyt tasḥusit mac tamakayt.
"She directed her sister Dorothy in one film, Remodeling Her Husband (1920), when D. W. Griffith took his unit on location.","tskr usufɣd ultmas duruti ɣ yan lfilm, remudlin hir hazband (1920), liɣ yusi d. w. grifit taggaytns s udɣar."
"She turned down the money, requesting a more modest wage and a percentage so that the studio could use the funds to increase the quality of her films — hiring the best actors, screenwriters, etc.",tugi iqariḍn mac tssutr s yan ṣṣalir ittnkcufn d yat tigmiḍi i studyu bac ad ssuɣlin taɣara n laflamns — itssxdm amafay n ismdayn d inasrayn n usinaryu.
"Many of the silent era's leading ladies, such as Gish and Pickford, had been wholesome and innocent, but by the early 1930s (after the full adoption of sound and before the Motion Picture Production Code was enforced) these roles were perceived as outdated.","tuggt n tilallatin n lḥiqbt iḥissin, zund gic d bikfurd, dusnt d gant tizzidga, mac ɣ usggwasn zwarnin n 1930 (ḍaṛt assgm n umsli d dat azzgir n uzrf n tasyafut n laflam) tilalatin kantik gant iwssarn."
"""Louis Mayer wanted to stage a scandal (""""knock her off her pedestal"""") to garner public sympathy for Gish, but Lillian didn't want to act both on screen and off, and returned to her first love, the theater.""","""ira luis mayr aissuds ya udacaf (""""nuk her uff her bedestll"""") bac aysmun taɣusi i gic, mac lilyan tugi atlɛb ɣ ssinima d bṛṛans, d turrid s tayrins izwarn, amzgun."
"Returning to movies, Gish was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress in 1946 for Duel in the Sun.","lliɣ turrid s laflam, tsmma gic i tasmɣurt ntkadimit l tasmdayt tamafayt ɣ 1946 i dul in da ṣṣan."
"She was considered for various roles in Gone with the Wind ranging from Ellen O'Hara, Scarlett's mother (which went to Barbara O'Neil), to prostitute Belle Watling (which went to Ona Munson).","tswingm ɣ mnnaw n tilalin ɣ gun wid da wind g illin ohara, innas n skarlit (lli iftan s barbara onil), ar tamggant bill walting (lli iftan s una munsun)."
She appeared as Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna in the short-lived 1965 Broadway musical Anya.,tuggwi am maria fyudurufna tagldit n dowager ɣ tamzgult n uzawan idrusn ɣ brudway n 1965 anya.
She was interviewed in the television documentary series Hollywood: A Celebration of the American Silent Film (1980).,tmsqsa ɣ usddi untim n tilifizyun huliwud: a silibricn uf da amirikan saylnt film (1980).
She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1720 Vine Street.,tars yat titrit ɣ walk of fim ɣ huliwud ɣ 1720 fayn strit.
"At the Cannes festival, Gish won a 10-minute standing ovation from the audience.","ɣ ulmuggar n kan, gic trbḥ asbid n 10-ntusdidin dar ugdud."
"""The episode """"Marry for Murder"""" was broadcast on September 9, 1943.""","""tzussr tindrt """"mari fur murdr"""" ɣ 9 cutanbir, 1943."""
"She was awarded an Academy Honorary Award in 1971, and in 1984 she received an AFI Life Achievement Award.","uccnas tasmɣurt tasllummt n tkadimit ɣ 1971, ɣ 1984 uccnas tasmɣurt n afi layf atcifmnt."
The University awarded Gish the honorary degree of Doctor of Performing Arts the next day.,tasdawit tuc i gic dduktura tasllummt ɣ ass awar.
"Following Gish's 1993 death, the University raised funds to enlarge its gallery to display memorabilia received from Gish's estate.","lliɣ tmmut gic ɣ 1993, tsmun tasdawit iqaṛiḍn bac ad sxatarn tasnniɣt n ikttayn n gic."
"The association between herself and D. W. Griffith was so close that some suspected a romantic connection, an issue never acknowledged by Gish, although several of their associates were certain they were at least briefly involved.","acrak ngras d D. W. grifit iqṛb bahra ayliɣ nnan kra is gan imarayn, ɣayad ur jju gis tsawl gic, mac mnnaw lli dis iqqrbn awrn is gan emarayn."
"In the 1920s, Gish's association with Duell became something of a tabloid scandal when he sued her and made the details of their relationship public.","ɣusggwasn n 1920, acrak n gic d dull innfl s ukacaf liɣ tiḍfṛ ɣ tasnbdayt d isffuɣ efruritn n ucraknsn i wagdud."
George Jean Nathan praised Gish's acting glowingly—comparing her to Eleonora Duse.,issimɣur jurj jin natan bahra urarns —d ismyeft s ilionora dus.
"During the period of political turmoil in the US that lasted from the outbreak of World War II in Europe until the attack on Pearl Harbor, she maintained an outspoken non-interventionist stance.","lliɣ tlla tassast tasrtant ɣ mirikan lli tkka ɣ lliɣ ibda amgaru amaḍlan wiss sin ɣ lurup ar asugi n berl harber, tɣama ɣ timsri tasfnẓayt."
"Joseph Frank Keaton (October 4, 1895 – February 1, 1966), known professionally as Buster Keaton, was an American actor, comedian, film director, producer, screenwriter, and stunt performer.","juzif frank kitun (4 kṭubṛ, 1895 – 1 bṛayṛ, 1966), itussan s bustr kitn, ikkatin iga asmdy, amsufɣ n laflam, amsyafu, anasray l usinaryu amirikani."
His career declined when he signed with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and lost his artistic independence.,tdrus lxdmtns lliɣ isgmḍ d mitru-guldwyn-mayer d iɛddm tasimant tanazurtns.
"Many of Keaton's films from the 1920s remain highly regarded, such as Sherlock Jr. (1924), The General (1926), and The Cameraman (1928).","tuggt n laflam n kitun ɣ isggwasn n 1920 darsn ahamya iggutn, zug cirluk jr. (1924), da djiniral (1926), d da kifman (1928)."
"""His father was Joseph Hallie """"Joe"""" Keaton, who owned a traveling show with Harry Houdini called the Mohawk Indian Medicine Company, or the Keaton Houdini Medicine Show Company, which performed on stage and sold patent medicine on the side.""","""ibbas iga jozif halli """"ju"""" ketun, lli immuddan d harri hudini ɣ ufṛṛjnsn ismas da muhak indyan midisin kumbani, nɣd da ketun hudini midicin cu kombani, gan afṛṛj d ar ẓnzan asafar."""
"In Keaton's retelling, he was six months old when the incident occurred, and Harry Houdini gave him the nickname.","s wallas n kitun, ikkatin dars sdis iyyurn liɣ igguru amzzu, d ifayas hudini ismns."
The act was mainly a comedy sketch.,ikkatin iga skitc n lkumidia.
A suitcase handle was sewn into Keaton's clothing to aid with the constant tossing.,akaram n tasufrt igna ɣ imkraḍ n kitun bac atn iɛawn ɣ agwr n wallas.
"However, Buster was always able to show the authorities that he had no bruises or broken bones.","mac, bustr iẓḍar ayml i tinbaḍil maf dars ur llant ibrayn."
Several times I'd have been killed if I hadn't been able to land like a cat.,mnnawt twal ad nniɣ is rad mmutɣ liɣ ur ggwizɣ zud amuc.
"Noticing that this caused the audience to laugh less, he adopted his famous deadpan expression when performing.","lliɣ izra igdudn ur asul bahra dṣṣan, issgm aɛrins lliɣ ayttlɛab."
"Despite tangles with the law and a disastrous tour of music halls in the United Kingdom, Keaton was a rising star in the theater.","waxxa dars timukrisin d izrf d ljawla taɛdriq n tadala n uzawan ɣ briṭanya, kitun iga itri ɣ umzgun."
"""In February 1917, he met Roscoe """"Fatty"""" Arbuckle at the Talmadge Studios in New York City, where Arbuckle was under contract to Joseph M. Schenck.""","""ɣ brayr n 1917, immaqqaṛ d rusku """"fatti"""" arbukl ɣ studiu n talmaj ɣ tamdint n nyu yurk, liɣ tlla arbukl ɣ tamxunt d juzif m. cink."""
"Buster was such a natural in his first film, The Butcher Boy, he was hired on the spot.","bastr ikkatin iga agaman g lfilmns izwarn, da bitcr buy, ixdm nican."
Keaton later claimed that he was soon Arbuckle's second director and his entire gag department.,awrinn kitun inna is rayga anmhal wissin n arbukl d kullu tazunins.
"It was based on a successful play, The New Henrietta, which had already been filmed once, under the title The Lamb, with Douglas Fairbanks playing the lead.","itukssa g yat tamzgunt yttussan, da nyu hinriyitta, lli ittadyafusn yad yat twal, s uzwl n da lamb, d duglas firbanks iɛyyrn anaḍ."
"He made a series of two-reel comedies, including One Week (1920), The Playhouse (1921), Cops (1922), and The Electric House (1922).","iskr snat takumidiyin, gisn wan wik (1920), da plihaws (1921), kubs (1922), d da iliktrik haws (1922)."
"""Comedy director Leo McCarey, recalling the freewheeling days of making slapstick comedies, said, """"All of us tried to steal each other's gagmen.""","""amssufɣ n tkumidit lyu mkkari, lli ikttin ussan n umssufɣ n syyiḥn n takumidiyin, inna, """"kul yan didnɣ ira ayyakwr iwayyad azffals."""
"During the railroad water-tank scene in Sherlock Jr., Keaton broke his neck when a torrent of water fell on him from a water tower, but he did not realize it until years afterward.","ɣ luqt n tamuɣlit n uɣaras n alaway d ccarij ɣ cirluk, irza umggrd n kitun lliɣ fllas idr amudwu, mac ur as ittaka arkiɣ zrin isggwasn."
"Keaton's character emerged unscathed, due to a single open window.",awrik n kitun iffuɣd idus s ya ubɛij irzmn.
"Aside from Steamboat Bill, Jr. (1928), Keaton's most enduring feature-length films include Our Hospitality (1923), The Navigator (1924), Sherlock Jr. (1924), Seven Chances (1925), The Cameraman (1928), and The General (1926).","ilmm s stimbut bill jr. (1928), laflam lli kullu isulann ɣ laflam n kitun gisn awr husbitaliti (1923), da nafigatur (1924), cirluk jr. (1924), sifin tcansiz (1925), da kifman (1928), d da jiniral (1926)."
"Though it would come to be regarded as Keaton's greatest achievement, the film received mixed reviews at the time.","lfilm yumz imazam umsin, mac iga amafay ɣ iniḍi n kitun."
"His distributor, United Artists, insisted on a production manager who monitored expenses and interfered with certain story elements.","anbḍuns, yunaytid artists, isddid f ya unmhal n tasyafut lli igabln aqqarṛiḍ d imckcum ɣ karn yfrdas n taḥajit."
The actors would phonetically memorize the foreign-language scripts a few lines at a time and shoot immediately after.,ismdayn uṭṭfn imsisli n tutlayt tamzzit imik simik dat ad ssulfn.
"The director was usually Jules White, whose emphasis on slapstick and farce made most of these films resemble White's famous Three Stooges shorts.","insi juls wayt ayg umssufɣ, tuffaytns ɣ syyḥ ɣayad mafgan tugt n laflamns zud tri stujez n wait."
"However, director White's insistence on blunt, violent gags resulted in the Columbia shorts being the least inventive comedies he made.","mac aɣanen n wait s takumidit isyyḥn, d ukṛiḍn yujja laflam ikuḍaḍn n kulumbya gwilli kullu isnulfun ɣ laflamns."
"He made his last starring feature El Moderno Barba Azul (1946) in Mexico; the film was a low-budget production, and it may not have been seen in the United States until its release on VHS in the 1980s, under the title Boom in the Moon.","issufɣ lfilmns lli kullu igguṛan il mudirnu barba azul (1946) ɣ tamazirt n miksik, lfilm dars tasayafut n tamsastnt idrusn, d ur ittmzra ɣ tamazirt n marikan aylliɣ ffuɣnt tisfifin ɣ isggwasn n1980, s uzwl n bum in da mun."
"In In the Good Old Summertime, Keaton personally directed the stars Judy Garland and Van Johnson in their first scene together, where they bump into each other on the street.","ɣ lfilm n gud uld samrtaym, essugur kitun itran judi garland d fan junsun ɣ tamuɣlitnsn ezwarn, lliɣ mmiggiṛn ɣ uɣaras."
"Reaction was strong enough for a local Los Angeles station to offer Keaton his own show, also broadcast live, in 1950.","iḥmlt ugdud aylliɣ tssmnid yat tanzwayt ɣ lus anjlis i kitun asaysns, isradn, ɣ 1950."
Buster Keaton's wife Eleanor also was seen in the series (notably as Juliet to Buster's Romeo in a little-theater vignette).,ttmzra ilanur lli igan tamɣart n bastr kitun ɣ umsddi (tga julyit n rumyu n bastr ɣ yat tawrmt mẓẓin n umzgun).
Keaton's periodic television appearances during the 1950s and 1960s helped to revive interest in his silent films.,ilwi izmzan n kitun ɣ ttilifizyun ɣ isggwasn n 1950 d 1960 awsnt ayyamz unfrar i laflamns iḥissin.
"Well into his fifties, Keaton successfully recreated his old routines, including one stunt in which he propped one foot onto a table, then swung the second foot up next to it and held the awkward position in midair for a moment before crashing to the stage floor.","lliɣ ikwcm s isggwasn n sin wagnarn d mraw, isxxr kitun s uls n iṣniɛns iqburn, gisn yat syyḥ isrs gis yaw aḍaṛ ɣ iggi n tdabut, d iẓṛṛḍ aḍaṛ yaḍni tamans d ibid ɣikan ɣ uḍu dat annignugi ɣ tsfri n umzgun."
"""Keaton had prints of the features Three Ages, Sherlock Jr., Steamboat Bill, Jr., and College (missing one reel), and the shorts """"The Boat"""" and """"My Wife's Relations"""", which Keaton and Rohauer then transferred to Cellulose acetate film from deteriorating nitrate film stock.""","kantin dar kitun inzaɣn n laflam tri ijiz, cirluk jr., stimbutbill, jr. and kullij (tḥrmt yat tajṛṛaṛt), d laflam ikuḍaḍn """"da but"""" d """"may wayfs rilaycnz"""", smattint kitun d ruhawr s silluluz asitat zɣ asatim n lfilm n nitrat iɛdmn."
"In a series of silent television commercials for Simon Pure Beer made in 1962 by Jim Mohr in Buffalo, New York, Keaton revisited some of the gags from his silent film days.","ɣ usddi n usussn n tinifizyun i lbiṛṛa n saymun byur lli issofɣ jim muhr ɣ bufalu, nyu yurn, ɣ 1962, yuls kitun yuls kra n syyḥns lli ikkattin ayskar ɣ laflam iḥissins."
"""In December 1958, Keaton was a guest star in the episode """"A Very Merry Christmas"""" of The Donna Reed Show on ABC.""","""ɣ dujanbir 1958, iga kitun anuji ɣ tandrt """"a firi miri krismas"""" n usays n duna rid ɣ abc."
"In 1960, he returned to MGM for the final time, playing a lion tamer in a 1960 adaptation of Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.","ɣ 1960, yurrid s mgm s tiklit igguran, yurar aḥṛṛb n ugrzam ɣ yat takssuyt ɣ 1960 n udlis n mark twayn da adfnturz uf haklbirifin."
"""He worked with comedian Ernie Kovacs on a television pilot tentatively titled """"Medicine Man,"""" shooting scenes for it on January 12, 1962—the day before Kovacs died in a car crash. """"""","iswuri d usffan erni kufaks ɣ yat tindrt izwarn tmzwl """"midisin man"""", sulfn timuɣliyinns ɣ 12 innayr, 1962—yaw ass dat aymmut kufaks ɣ ungas."
"He traveled from one end of Canada to the other on a motorized handcar, wearing his traditional pork pie hat and performing gags similar to those in films that he made 50 years before.","immudda ɣ kullu tamaziṛt n kanada ɣ yat tasnsɣalt, ilsa acmrir mẓẓin d irar syyḥ zud ɣwilli ɣ laflam lli imssufɣ 50 isggwasn aya."
"Also in 1965, he traveled to Italy to play a role in Due Marines e un Generale, co-starring Franco Franchi and Ciccio Ingrassia.","daɣ ɣ 1965, immuda s tamaziṛt n ṭalyan bac ay irar yat tilalt ɣ du marinis i un jinirali, nttan d franku franci d tcicu ingrassya."
"One of his most biting parodies is The Frozen North (1922), a satirical take on William S. Hart's Western melodramas, like Hell's Hinges (1916) and The Narrow Trail (1917).","yat ɣ iɣrsisn ihrcn tga da fruzen nurt (1922), syyḥ n ḍḍrama taggrwt n wiliam s. hart, zud hillz hingez (1916) d da naṛṛu trayl 1917)."
Audiences of the 1920s recognized the parody and thought the film hysterically funny.,issn wagdud n isggwasn n 1920 syyḥan d idṣṣa bahra d lfilm.
The short also featured the impression of a performing monkey which was likely derived from a co-biller's act (called Peter the Great).,lfilm akuḍaḍ gis daɣ tasyaft n yaw zɛḍuḍ itthḍaṛn lli innufɣn ɣ urar (ismas biter da grit).
"""Note: Source misspells Keaton's frequent appellation as """"Great Stoneface"""".""","""amQyyd: asagm ar iskar aznzri ɣ tirra n uzwl n kitun """"drit stunfays""""."""
Keaton dated actress Dorothy Sebastian beginning in the 1920s and Kathleen Key in the early 1930s.,iddukl kitun d tasmdayt duruti sibastyan ɣ umzwaru n isggwasn n 1920 d katlin ki ɣ umzwaru n isggwasn n 1930.
He escaped a straitjacket with tricks learned from Harry Houdini.,injm ɣ yat tikbrt iqqnn s tinannasin lli isslmd ɣ dar hari hudini.
"She filed for divorce in 1935 after finding Keaton with Leah Clampitt Sewell, the wife of millionaire Barton Sewell, in a hotel in Santa Barbara.","tḍalb tabrattns ɣ 1935 lliɣ tufa kitun d liya klambit siwel, tamɣart n umillyunir bartun siwel, ɣ ya wasnsu ɣ santa barbara."
He stopped drinking for five years.,ibbi ccrab smmus isggwasn.
The marriage lasted until his death.,iɣama itihalns aylliɣ immut.
"Confined to a hospital during his final days, Keaton was restless and paced the room endlessly, desiring to return home.","innumẓ ɣ usngaf ɣ ussanns gguranin, kitun ur igiwr d ar bdda ifttu d ar idttachka ɣ uḥanu, ira as yurri s tigmmins."
"The screenplay, by Sidney Sheldon, who also directed the film, was loosely based on Keaton's life but contained many factual errors and merged his three wives into one character.","ittufra lfilm imik, n sidni cildun, lli timssufɣn, ɣ tudrt n kitun mac gis tuggt n tizglin d issrɛa timɣarinns s kraḍ ɣ ya uwrik."
"Dedicated to bringing greater public attention to Keaton's life and work, the membership includes many individuals from the television and film industry: actors, producers, authors, artists, graphic novelists, musicians, and designers, as well as those who simply admire the magic of Buster Keaton.","iltaɣ, lli illan bac atsmun tuggt n igdudn s tudrt d tawwuri n kitun, gis tuggt n middn iswwurin ɣ tilifizyun d laflam: ismdayn, imsayufa, imaran, inaẓuṛn, imaran n tisisklt, imẓawann, d imamkn, d kullu wanna titɛjabn bastr kitun."
"""Hirschfeld said that modern film stars were more difficult to depict, that silent film comedians such as Laurel and Hardy and Keaton """"looked like their caricatures"""".""","“inna hurcfild maf ismdayn n ɣaṣṣad cqqan ad tgzzun, d izffan n laflam iḥissiyin zud luril d hardi d kitun “”rwasn isfrɣnsn””.”"
"""Film critic Roger Ebert stated, """"The greatest of the silent clowns is Buster Keaton, not only because of what he did, but because of how he did it.""","""amaẓam n laflam reji ibirt inna, """"amsyyḥ aḥissi umafayn iga bastr kitn, urd mayskar, mac mani s tiskr."""
"""Filmmaker Mel Brooks has credited Buster Keaton as a major influence, saying: """"I owe (Buster) a lot on two levels: One for being such a great teacher for me as a filmmaker myself, and the other just as a human being watching this gifted person doing these amazing things.""","“amssɛfɣ n laflam mil bruks inna maf iga bastr kitun iḍiṣ imqqurn, “”dfarɣ (bastr) mnck ɣ sin iswirn: yan lliɣ iga aslmad amafayn i umssufɣ zud nkki, d wayyad lliɣ iga yan lli ddar lmawhiba d izdar ayskr tuggt n iskkinn ɛdlnin.”"
Actor and stunt performer Johnny Knoxville cites Keaton as an inspiration when coming up with ideas for Jackass projects.,asmday d asyyḥ juny nuksfil f kitun iq iga tufrayt i twangimin n instayn n jakass.
Lewis was particularly moved by the fact that Eleanor said his eyes looked like Keaton's.,iḥml lwis lliɣ as tnna ilanur maf tiwallinns rwasnt xtin nkitun.
"""In 1964, he told an interviewer that in making """"this particular pork pie"""", he """"started with a good Stetson and cut it down"""", stiffening the brim with sugar water.""","“ɣ 1964, inna i yan umsqsi is liiɣ ar ssufuɣn “”acmrirad””, ‘’’ibda s ya ucmrir n stitsun ifulkin ibbit””, issdus tamans s waman ḥlanin.”"
His paternal great-grandparents were Welsh.,ayddars n ibbas gan ɣ tamazirt n wilz.
Lloyd began collaborating with Roach who had formed his own studio in 1913.,ixdm luyd d rutc lli innurzmn sstudyuns ɣ 1913.
"In 1919, she left Lloyd to pursue her dramatic aspirations.","ɣ 1919, tfl luyd bac attḍfr imaggumns ɣ ḍḍṛama."
"Reportedly, the more Lloyd watched Davis the more he liked her.","ar ttinin, ɣunck lli s aytẓṛṛa luyd dafis ɣunck lli s artittiṛi."
"Harold Lloyd would move away from tragicomic personas, and portray an everyman with unwavering confidence and optimism.","iggwj luyd ɣ iwrikn lli ismunan trajidya d takumidit, d irar awrik s tamyamant iggutn."
"""To create his new character Lloyd donned a pair of lensless horn-rimmed glasses but wore normal clothing; previously, he had worn a fake mustache and ill-fitting clothes as the Chaplinesque """"Lonesome Luke"""". """"""","“bac ayskr awrikad issni luyd ana n tismmaqqalin mac ilsa imkṛaḍ n bdda; tizwira, ilsa aclɣum n imlẓyn d imkṛaḍ ur dis gaddan lliɣ iga da cablinisk “”lunsum luk””.””"
"""They were natural and the romance could be believable.""""""","""""gan igamann d tayrinsn ttyuman."""""
"On Sunday, August 24, 1919, while posing for some promotional still photographs in the Los Angeles Witzel Photography Studio, he picked up what he thought was a prop bomb and lit it with a cigarette.","ɣ usamas, wuss 24 ɣuct, 1919, lliɣ ikkatin ar iskar tiwlafin ɣ studyu n lus anjlis witzl n tawlaft, yusi mas inna tga yat tasbuqqit n urmidi issrɣattin s lgaṛṛu."
"Lloyd was in the act of lighting a cigarette from the fuse of the bomb when it exploded, also badly burning his face and chest and injuring his eye.","ikkatin luyd ar issadd lgarru ɣ imicc n talqqnbult lliɣ fllas tbbaqqi, tskras lɛfit ilɣuɣsn ɣ udmns d idmarns d tuggsdas allns."
"Lloyd and Roach parted ways in 1924, and Lloyd became the independent producer of his own films.","luyd d ruc mrruzzgn ɣ 1924, d isyufɣ luyd laflamns waḥdut."
"All of these films were enormously successful and profitable, and Lloyd would eventually become the highest paid film performer of the 1920s.","laflam ad kullutn mmursn d imṛwint bahra, rad ig luyd asmday lli kullu izzln g isggwasn n 1920."
"However, his go-getting screen character was out of touch with Great Depression movie audiences of the 1930s.","mac, awrikns idrramn uṛ ittuḥmal dar igdudn n lkasad amqqran n isggwasn n 1930."
"On March 23, 1937, Lloyd sold the land of his studio, Harold Lloyd Motion Picture Company, to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.","ɣ wuss 23 maṛṣ, 1937, izznza luyd akal n ustudyuns, haruld luyd mucn biktcr, i tamẓẓglut n iṛumiyn jisus krayst uf lattr day saynts."
"He returned for an additional starring appearance in The Sin of Harold Diddlebock, an ill-fated homage to Lloyd's career, directed by Preston Sturges and financed by Howard Hughes.","yurrid ɣ yat titlat yaḍnin ɣ da sin uf haruld didlbuk, asmɣr imxlin n taɣarast tazulantns, issufɣt bitrsen sturjes d ixllṣt huard hyuz."
"""Lloyd and Sturges had different conceptions of the material and fought frequently during the shoot; Lloyd was particularly concerned that while Sturges had spent three to four months on the script of the first third of the film, """"the last two-thirds of it he wrote in a week or less"""".""","“luyd d sturges mmaɣn bdda f twwuṛi lliɣ attṣwwaṛn; ixmmim luyd bahṛa f maf sturgis ikkan kṛaḍ nɣd kkuẓ iyyuṛn ɣ uskrib n tulut amzwaru n lfilm, “”yura tulutayl imggura ɣ yan imalass””.”"
"Some saw The Old Gold Comedy Theater as being a lighter version of Lux Radio Theater, and it featured some of the best-known film and radio personalities of the day, including Fred Allen, June Allyson, Lucille Ball, Ralph Bellamy, Linda Darnell, Susan Hayward, Herbert Marshall, Dick Powell, Edward G. Robinson, Jane Wyman, and Alan Young.","kran middn zṛan amzgun n da uld guld kumidi maf irwas umzgun n luks radyu, d gis iwrikn imafayn n laflam d tanzawayt n ɣakudan, zud frid allin, d jun alisun, d lusil bal, d ralf bilani, d linda darnil, d suzan hayward, d hrbrt marcal, d dik bawil, d idward g. rubinsun, d jin wiman, d alan yung."
"Many years later, acetate discs of 29 of the shows were discovered in Lloyd's home, and they now circulate among old-time radio collectors.","mnnaw isggwasn iwrinn, ttyafant tiqaṛiḍin n 29 ifrrjn ɣ tigmmi n luyd, ɣilad llant dar ɣwilli smunan iskkinn n iqdimn n tanzawayt."
"He was a Past Potentate of Al-Malaikah Shrine in Los Angeles, and was eventually selected as Imperial Potentate of the Shriners of North America for the year 1949–50.","ikkatin iga anbaḍ aqdim n umḍl n al-malayka ɣ lus anglis, d ittufran ɣ iwrinn ayg albaḍ mqquṛn ɣ imḍlan n amirika tagafayt ɣ usggwas n 1949-50."
"Lloyd was invested with the Rank and Decoration of Knight Commander Court of Honour in 1955 and coroneted an Inspector General Honorary, 33°, in 1965.","yumẓ luyd tasɣznt n adar d tamadayt n nayt kumandr kurt uf unur ɣ 1955 d tidri n insbitur jiniral, 33°, ɣ 1965."
"It said, as first step, Lloyd will write the story of his life for Simon and Schuster.","nnan, ɣ usurif amzwaru, ra yara luyd tudrtns i saymun d custr."
"He became known for his nude photographs of models, such as Bettie Page and stripper Dixie Evans, for a number of men's magazines.","ittussan s tiwlafinns ɛranin n lɛaridat, zud bitti ḥayj d diksi ifanz, i mnnaw n tisɣwan n irgazn."
"""We never intended them to be played with pianos.""""""","""ur jju nmmel atirar s ubyanu."""""""
"""They've come close to it, but they haven't come all the way up"""".""","""qrrbnas, mac ur lkmn aflla kullut""""."""
"In the early 1960s, Lloyd produced two compilation films, featuring scenes from his old comedies, Harold Lloyd's World of Comedy and The Funny Side of Life.","ɣ usggwasn zwarnin n 1960, isyafa luyd sin laflam, gisn tamuɣlit tikumidiyin iqdimn, harld luyds wurld uf kumidi d da fanni sayd uf layf."
"Time-Life released several of the feature films more or less intact, also using some of Scharf's scores which had been commissioned by Lloyd.","tsdurfi taym layf tuggt n laflam, tsmmrs azawan n carf isqqimn g luyd."
"The Brownlow and Gill documentary was shown as part of the PBS series American Masters, and created a renewed interest in Lloyd's work in the United States, but the films were largely unavailable.","ittimla untim n brawn lu d gil maf iga ugḍam n usddi n PBS amirikan mastrz, d issnkr taɣḍft i twwuri n luyd ɣ tamaziṛt n marikan, mac ur sul llan mnnaw n laflam."
"""They also adopted Gloria Freeman (1924–1986) in September 1930, whom they renamed Marjorie Elizabeth Lloyd but was known as """"Peggy"""" for most of her life.""","“ssgmn daɣ glurya friman (1924 - 1986) ɣ cutanbir 1930, smmantid marjuri ilizabit luyd mac ttussan d “”biggi”” ɣ tugt n tudrtns.”"
"Davis died from a heart attack in 1969, two years before Lloyd's death.","tmmut dafis s tassasst null ɣ 1969, sin isggwasn dat aymmt luyd."
"In 1925, at the height of his movie career, Lloyd entered into Freemasonry at the Alexander Hamilton Lodge No.","ɣ 1925, ɣ uxcac n tariditns, ikcm luyd s tamasunit ɣ aliksandr hamiltun ludj."
"In 1926, he became a 32° Scottish Rite Mason in the Valley of Los Angeles, California.","ɣ 1926, iga amasuni n skutlanda n 32° ɣ uzaɣar n lus angilis, kalifurnya."
A portion of Lloyd's personal inventory of his silent films (then estimated to be worth $2 million) was destroyed in August 1943 when his film vault caught fire.,rdrn tuggt n usatim ɣ laflam iḥissiyn (iqddrn s 2 mltun dulaṛ) ɣ ɣuct 1943 lliɣ tumz afa ɣ tazqqans.
The fire spared the main house and outbuildings.,tzzuzr afa ɣ ugns n tgmmi d awljns.
Lloyd was honored in 1960 for his contribution to motion pictures with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located at 1503 Vine Street.,ittusmɣar luyd ɣ 1960 f tabzartns i ssinima s yat titrit ɣ huliwud walk uf fiym ɣ 1503 fayn strit.
"The second citation was a snub to Chaplin, who at that point had fallen foul of McCarthyism and had his entry visa to the United States revoked.","abdar wissin iga aḍnaẓ i cablin, lli iskrn tisslt n tajmawt d kiisnas l fisa n marikan."
"Gladys Marie Smith (April 8, 1892 – May 29, 1979), known professionally as Mary Pickford, was a Canadian-American film actress and producer with a career that spanned five decades.","gladis masi smit (wiss 8 ibrir, 1892 – wiss 29 mayyu, 1979), tussn s twwurins s mari bikfurd, tga tasmdayt d tamsafayut tamarikanit takanadit g yat twwuri ikkan sin wagnarn d mraw isggwasn."
"Her father, John Charles Smith was the son of English Methodist immigrants, and worked a variety of odd jobs.","ixdm ibbas, jon carlz smit lii igan iwis n imzwagn n imitudist n ngliz, d iswuri ɣ inaḍin ittyanawn."
"To please her husband's relatives, Pickford's mother baptized her children as Methodists, the religion of their father.","bac attkr lxaṭṛ n ayddars uurgazns, tra innas n bikfurd attsnkr tarwans bac adgin imitodin, aqgd n ibbatsn."
"Gladys, her mother and two younger siblings toured the United States by rail, performing in third-rate companies and plays.","tmunzz galdis, d innas d ist mas mẓẓinint ɣ marikan s ulaway, irarnt ɣ timnsitin n umala wuss kraḍ d timzgunin."
"Gladys finally landed a supporting role in a 1907 Broadway play, The Warrens of Virginia.","tumẓ gladis tilalt iẓẓiḍṛn ɣ yat tamzgunt n 1907 ɣ brudway, da warrinz uf firginia."
"After completing the Broadway run and touring the play, however, Pickford was again out of work.","mac, ur sul tlla lkhdmt d bikfurd, lliɣ tkmm ɣ brudway d umuddu n tanzgunt."
She quickly grasped that movie acting was simpler than the stylized stage acting of the day.,trms dgya is umsday n ssinima yuf win umzgun.
"As Pickford said of her success at Biograph:I played scrubwomen and secretaries and women of all nationalities ... I decided that if I could get into as many pictures as possible, I'd become known, and there would be a demand for my work.","zud maɣ tnna bikfurd ɣ usmursns: irarɣ timarrasin d timiratin d tmɣarin g kullu timizaṛ... ɣttisɣ iɣ skrɣ mnnawt n twwurin, middn rad iyissn, d rad irin tawwurinu."
"In January 1910, Pickford traveled with a Biograph crew to Los Angeles.","ɣ innayr n 1910, tmmudda bikfurd d taggayt n byugraf s lus anjlis."
Actors were not listed in the credits in Griffith's company.,ismdayn ur ttbdirn ɣ umsnad n tamnstit n grifit.
Pickford left Biograph in December 1910.,ifl bikfurd byugraf ɣ dujanbir 1910.
She returned to Broadway in the David Belasco production of A Good Little Devil (1912).,turrid s brudway ɣ tasayafut n dafid bilasku a gud litl difil (1912).
"In 1913, she decided to work exclusively in film.","ɣ 1913, tɣtis atswuri ɣ laflam ka."
Pickford left the stage to join Zukor's roster of stars.,ifl bikfurd amzgun bac addimun d itran n zukur.
"Comedy-dramas, such as In the Bishop's Carriage (1913), Caprice (1913), and especially Hearts Adrift (1914), made her irresistible to moviegoers.","irat igdudn, lliɣ attskar laflam n takumidit d drama zud, da bicub karyaj (1913), kabric (1913), d slawan akkw harts adrift (1914)."
Tess of the Storm Country was released five weeks later.,iffuɣd tis uf da sturm kuntri awrinn s smmus imalassn.
"Only Charlie Chaplin, who slightly surpassed Pickford's popularity in 1916, had a similarly spellbinding pull with critics and the audience.","carli cablin waḥdut, lli yuggwrn bikfurd ɣ ungnan s imik ɣ 1916, ittuḥmal ulla ntan dar igdudn."
She also became vice-president of Pickford Film Corporation.,tga daɣ tamarist n inssixf n bikfurd film kurburicn.
"Due to her lack of a normal childhood, she enjoyed making these pictures.","llig dars ṭufula illugan, tḥmil attrks laflam ad."
"In August 1918, Pickford's contract expired and, when refusing Zukor's terms for a renewal, she was offered $250,000 to leave the motion picture business.","ɣ ɣuct 1918, tsqḍu tamɣunt n bikfurd, lliF ur tra tifadawin n zukur attismaynu, fan as $250,000 bac ittfl tawwuri n laflam."
"Through United Artists, Pickford continued to produce and perform in her own movies; she could also distribute them as she chose.","ɣ yunaytid aṛtists, tsuld bikfurd ɣ urar d tasayafut n laflamns; tufa daɣ asstn tbṭṭu sgilli tṛa."
"""During this period, she also made Little Annie Rooney (1925), another film in which Pickford played a child, Sparrows (1926), which blended the Dickensian with newly minted German expressionist style, and My Best Girl (1927), a romantic comedy featuring her future husband Charles """"Buddy"""" Rogers.""","“ɣ ugur ad, tsumfuɣd tsllwid litl ani runi (1925), lfilm yaḍni lliɣ turar bikfurd tabrsirt, sbarruz (1926), lli issrɛin tamamkt n dikn d win lalman, d may bist grl (1927), lfilm n takumidit tarumansit d urgazns imaln carlz “”budi”” rɛgrz.”"
"She played a reckless socialite in Coquette (1929), her first talkie, a role for which her famous ringlets were cut into a 1920s' bob.","turar yat tanuflayt taqicuḥt ɣ kukit (1929), lfilmns isawaln izwarn, tbbi ibbɛuyns ɣ titlaltad s tin 1920."
The public failed to respond to her in the more sophisticated roles.,urttira ugdud ɣ tilalin imhyarn.
Established Hollywood actors were panicked by the impending arrival of the talkies.,mnusn ismdayn n huliwud s uwaḍ n laflam isawalnin.
She retired from film acting in 1933 following three costly failures with her last film appearance being Secrets.,ttwwḥd s usmdya ɣ 1933 iwrinn krad ifaṣaln d sikrits iga lfilmns igguran.
"During World War I she promoted the sale of Liberty Bonds, making an intensive series of fund-raising speeches, beginning in Washington, D.C., where she sold bonds alongside Charlie Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks, Theda Bara, and Marie Dressler.","g amkaru amaḍlan amzwaru tskr usilliy n izuccln, lliɣ tsmun mnnaw n iqaṛiḍn g inawn, tzzwar g wacinṭun, d. s. lliɣ tzznza izuccln d carli cablin, d duglas firbanks, d tida bara, d mari drislr."
"In a single speech in Chicago, she sold an estimated five million dollars' worth of bonds.","tzznza smmus n mlyun n ddulaṛ n izuccln, g yan inaw."
"At the end of World War I, Pickford conceived of the Motion Picture Relief Fund, an organization to help financially needy actors.","lliɣ ikmml imnɣi amaḍlan amzwaru, issufɣd bikfuṛ afniq n usngdwi n twllafin i tmussun, nna igan tamaddast n yiws n tmnaḍin ittuxssan g uẓṛf."
"As a result, in 1940, the Fund was able to purchase land and build the Motion Picture Country House and Hospital, in Woodland Hills, California.","tayafut n uynnaɣ, g usggwas n 1940, iɣy ufniq ad isɣ akal iṣku asgnaf d taddart n ufilm, g wudland hill, kalifurnya."
"She demanded (and received) these powers in 1916, when she was under contract to Zukor's Famous Players in Famous Plays (later Paramount).","tettr (tamẓ) tinbaḍin asggwas n 1916, lli g tga tanmɣunt d imirarn imcnaɛ n zukuṛ g tmzgunin timcnaɛ (ɣr dat baramawnt)."
The Mary Pickford Corporation was briefly Pickford's motion-picture production company.,tga tmssurt n maṛi bikfuṛd kurburatyun g yat tizi idrusn yat tmssurt n ufars n twllafin itmussun g bikfuṛd.
Distributors (also part of the studios) arranged for company productions to be shown in the company's movie venues.,skrn inbḍa ( awd aqcuṛ g id studyu) asfsr n tyafutin n tmssurt g wansiwn ifilmn n tmssurt.
"It was solely a distribution company, offering independent film producers access to its own screens as well as the rental of temporarily unbooked cinemas owned by other companies.","tkka tga ɣas yat tmssurt n ubṭṭu, da tsmnid i imsyafutn n ifilmn isimann ad nn awḍn imiẓaṛn nns iẓlin d awd akrru n ssinima nna ur ittukran igan tin tmssurin yaḍn."
"As a co-founder, as well as the producer and star of her own films, Pickford became the most powerful woman who has ever worked in Hollywood.","s ufris nns tga timrslt yamun d tmsyafut d titrit n ifilmn nns iẓlin, taɣul bikfurd tga tamṭṭuḍt idusn nna akkw iswurin g huliwud."
She and Chaplin remained partners in the company for decades.,tqqima nttat d cablin imssurn g tmssurt isggwasn.
It is rumored she became pregnant by Moore in the early 1910s and had a miscarriage or an abortion.,ar ttinin mas da ttarw sg muṛ tizwuri n 1910 tsskr yat tarwa ur iḥlin nɣd tɣri.
The couple lived together on-and-off for several years.,ddrn islan s sin s yat talɣa ibbin kigan n isggwasn.
"Around this time, Pickford also suffered from the flu during the 1918 flu pandemic.","attayn n tizi ad, yuḍn bikfurd awd ntta g influwanza g tizi n waṭṭan n influwanza asggwas n 1918."
They went to Europe for their honeymoon; fans in London and in Paris caused riots trying to get to the famous couple.,ddan s urubba ad zzrin ayyur n tamimt; agdud n lundun d bariz ayd igan talntilt n waqqur dda g ran ann awḍn islan ittuyassann.
Pickford continued to epitomize the virtuous but fiery girl next door.,tssuda bikfuṛd g uzrk nns maca tlla m wafa ḍart tflut.
"Foreign heads of state and dignitaries who visited the White House often asked if they could also visit Pickfair, the couple's mansion in Beverly Hills.","islwayn n tmura d ixatarn n bṛṛa nna iran ad ikk taddart tamllalt da tettrn kigan ad kkn awd bikfayr, iɣrm n islan g bifirly haylz."
"Other guests included George Bernard Shaw, Albert Einstein, Elinor Glyn, Helen Keller, H. G. Wells, Lord Mountbatten, Fritz Kreisler, Amelia Earhart, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Noël Coward, Max Reinhardt, Baron Nishi, Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Austen Chamberlain, Sir Harry Lauder, and Meher Baba, among others.","sg inbgiwn yaḍn juṛj biṛnar cu, d albirt inctayn, d ilinuṛ jlin, d hilin kilṛ, d itc ji wilẓ, d luṛd mawntbatn, d fritz krislir, d amirya irihart, d if skut fitz jiṛald, d nwil kwaṛd, d maks rinhaṛtd, d baṛun nici, d fladimir nimiṛufitc dantcinku, d alsiṛ aṛtr kunan dwil, d ustn tcambṛlin , d alsir haṛi luṛd, d mahiṛ baba, sg wiyyaḍ."
"They were also constantly on display as America's unofficial ambassadors to the world, leading parades, cutting ribbons, and making speeches.","kkan awd ar ttuɣran d imsqadn arimaddadn n mirikan g umaḍl, ar nrrun tiwadiwin, ar tbbin isfifn, ar ttinin tinawin."
"They divorced January 10, 1936.",myaṛẓamn g 10 innayr 1936.
"She criticized their physical imperfections, including Ronnie's small stature and Roxanne's crooked teeth.","tuẓm ifrruɣn n tfggiwin nnsn, zund tiddi n ṛuni ilẓẓiyn d tuɣmas n ṛuksan immunḍn."
"Her siblings, Lottie and Jack, both died of alcohol-related causes in 1936 and 1933, respectively.","mmutn ayt mas,luti d jak, s tmntilin izdin s tissi g isggwasn n 1936 d 1933 immḍfaṛn."
"Pickford withdrew and gradually became a recluse, remaining almost entirely at Pickfair and allowing visits only from Lillian Gish, her stepson Douglas Fairbanks Jr., and few other people.","tsrs bikfuṛd tuɣul tddirz imik s imik, tḥḍar ad akkw tqqim g bikfayṛ, ur tudji irfazn ɣas i lilyan gic d urgaz nns duglas firbanks junyuṛ., d kra n mddn idrusn."
"She appeared in court in 1959, in a matter pertaining to her co-ownership of North Carolina TV station WSJS-TV.","tzri dat n tsnbḍayt asggwas n 1959, g yat tmntilt izdin s yili nns amssur n yan usars atilifizyuniy izlmd n kaṛulina WSJS-TV."
"""Charles """"Buddy"""" Rogers often gave guests tours of Pickfair, including views of a genuine western bar Pickford had bought for Douglas Fairbanks, and a portrait of Pickford in the drawing room.""","caṛl """"Buddy"""" ṛujiṛ da ismras bikfaiṛ i inbgawn, g llan isksiwn n yat tḥanut nna tsɣa bikfurd i duglas fayṛbanks, d yat twllaft n bikfuṛd g tdala n uklu."
"She also owned a house in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.","ɣurs awd yat taddart g tuṛuntu, untaryu, kanada."
"Her handprints and footprints are displayed at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, California.","da ttusmrasnt twggaḍ nns d latṛ n iḍarn nns g umzgun n gṛuman aṣṣin g huliwud, kalifurnya."
The Mary Pickford Theater at the James Madison Memorial Building of the Library of Congress is named in her honor.,ittwag as ism n amzgun n maṛi bikfuṛd g tuṣka jims madisun asmktay g tsdlist n ukungris xf wuddur nns.
"A first-run movie theatre in Cathedral City, California is called The Mary Pickford Theatre, which was established on May 25, 2001.","amzgun amzwaru n ssinima g katidral siti, kalifurnya ism nns amzgun maṛi bikfuṛd, nna mi ttusrs tirslt g 25 mayyu 2001."
"Among them are a rare and spectacular beaded gown she wore in the film Dorothy Vernon of Haddon Hall (1924) designed by Mitchell Leisen, her special Oscar, and a jewelry box.","sg digsn yat tkbrt idrusn iẓiln s waqqayn nna tlsa g ufilm n Dorothy Vernon of Haddon Hall (1924) nna as iɣggws mitcil lisin, d uskaṛ nns amẓlay, d ufniq n tzuzaf."
"The family home had been demolished in 1943, and many of the bricks delivered to Pickford in California.","tturdal taddart n tawja asggwas n 1943, d ttwasin kigan n wuṭṭubn s bikfurd g kalifurnya."
"In 1993, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars was dedicated to her.","g usggwas n 1993, srizzfn as titrit n tzdayt n wurɣ xf ubrid n itran balm sbring."
"From January 2011 until July 2011, the Toronto International Film Festival exhibited a collection of Mary Pickford memorabilia in the Canadian Film Gallery of the TIFF Bell LightBox building.","sg innayr 2011 ar yulyuz 2011, ismrs unmuggar amaḍlan n ssinima tuṛuntu kigan n ismktayn n maṛi bikfuṛd g usfsr akanadiy n ifilmn g tuṣka TIFF Bell LightBox."
It was donated to Keene State College and is currently undergoing restoration by the Library of Congress for exhibition.,ittufka i tsdawit n kin stayt ar as ittuga dɣi usmaynu sg ɣur tsdlist n ukungris afad ad t fsrn.
"The Google Doodle of April 8, 2017 commemorated Mary Pickford's 125th birthday.",isfugla uklu n tmatart n gugl tanuzaft g 8 ibrir 2017 s wass n tlalit n maṛi bikfuṛd wiss 125.
"Gloria Josephine May Swanson (March 27, 1899 – April 4, 1983) was an American actress, producer, and businesswoman.",tga glurya jizifin may swansun ( 27 maṛṣ 1899 - 4 ibrir 1983) yat tsmdayt d tmsyafut d lal n twuriwin.
Her schoolgirl crush on Essanay Studios actor Francis X. Bushman led to her aunt taking her to tour the actor's Chicago studio.,tmzi tnlmadt nns g ustudyu issanay yan usmday fṛansis X. yuwi bucman ɛtti nns ad ids tmun s yan wutuy g ustudyu n usmday g cikagu.
"Her sound film debut performance in the 1929 The Trespasser, earned her a second Academy Award nomination.",yuwi ufilm nns ilimsli amzwaru g The Trespasser g 1929 nna g ttustay s tsmɣurt n uskaṛ tis snat.
"Her father was a Swedish American and her mother was of German, French, and Polish ancestry.",iga bba nns amirikiy aswidiy tg mma nns sg uẓuṛ almaniy d ufransis d ubulandiy.
"In either version, she was soon hired as an extra.","g tiẓṛigin nns s snat, fisaɣ ayd tt igan d tnuflayt."
"Her first role was a brief walk-on with actress Gerda Holmes, that paid an enormous (in those days) $3.25.","tilalt nns tamzwarut tga yan ussara amzzan d tsmdayt jirda hulmz, nna ifran yan unallam (ussan nnaɣ) “3.25 nid dulaṛ."
"In 1915, she co-starred in Sweedie Goes to College with her future first husband Wallace Beery.","asggwas n 1915, tssar tabrza g uswidiy iddan s tsdawit nttat d wanna rad ig argaz nns walaṣ biri."
Vernon and Swanson projected a great screen chemistry that proved popular with audiences.,ismrs firun d swansun yan umiẓaṛ acimiy istawhmman nna issusmn agdud.
Badger was sufficiently impressed by Swanson to recommend her to the director Jack Conway for Her Decision and You Can't Believe Everything in 1918.,swansun tssusm badjir isɣlf ɣifs amssufɣ jak kunway xf tɣtast nns d ur tnnid ad tsglud kulci asggwas n 1918.
"1920), Something to Think About (1920), and The Affairs of Anatol (1921) soon followed.","(1920), kra g ixssa uswingm (1920), fisaɛ ayd t id dfaṛn iskkin n anaṭul (1921)."
"He had become a star in 1921 for his appearance in The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, but Swanson had known him since his days as an aspiring actor getting small parts, with no seeming hope for his professional future.","yaɣul iga itri asggwas n 1921 s wufuɣ nns g kkuẓ n imnayn g umuddu n twargit, maca swansun issn t sg wussan g iga asmday ittamẓn iqcran imẓẓyann, g ur illi unaruz g imal nns azzulan."
Filming was allowed for the first time at many of the historic sites relating to Napoleon.,udjan asulf tikklt izwarn g kigan n wansiwn imzrayn nna izdin s nabulyun.
"At the time, Swanson was considered the most bankable star of her era.","g tizi nnaɣ, tga swansun titrit nna iɣin ad ittusẓṛf g uzmz nns."
"The production was a disaster, with Parker being indecisive and the actors not experienced enough to deliver the performances she wanted.","iga ufars tawaɣit, idɣ trkek baṛkr d ismdayn ur ssinn kigan afad smrsn isfsrn nna tra."
"The members took further steps by registering their discontent with Will H. Hays, Chairman of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America.",sskrn igmamn tisurifin yaḍn iddɣ zmmemn taɣuffit nnsn sg will H. hays aslway n imsyafutn d inbḍa n twllafin ittmussun g mirikan.
"Hays was enthusiastic about the basic story, but did have specific issues that were dealt with before the film's release.","iṣṣub hays s tullist tadslant, maca ɣurs imukrisn imẓlay nna ittufsayn urta d iffiɣ ufilm."
He proposed to personally bankroll her next picture and conducted a thorough examination of her financial records.,issumr ad issẓṛf tawllaft nns timḍfṛt d isskr yan uzzray aɣzuran iwarratn nns iẓṛfann.
"Kennedy, however, advised her to hire Erich von Stroheim to direct another silent film, The Swamp, subsequently retitled Queen Kelly.","imil, issfaw tt kinidi s usmrs n irik fun stṛuhaym ad tswala yan ufilm yaḍn ifstan, alma, nna mi ittug ḍaṛt uynnaɣ ism n tagllidt kili."
Stroheim worked for several months on writing the basic script.,iswuri stṛuhaym kigan n wayyurn xf tirra n usinaṛyu adslan.
"Shooting was shut down in January, and Stroheim fired, after complaints by Swanson about him and about the general direction the film was taking.","ittusbdd usulf g innayr, iṛẓm stṛuhaym i wafa, ḍaṛt tnurzin n swansun ɣifs d umnid amatay nna yumẓ ufilm."
"The Trespasser in 1929 was a sound production, and garnered Swanson her second Oscar nomination.","iga ufilm The Trespasser yan ufars iɣudan asggwas n 1929, ittustay dar swansun ad yamẓ tasmɣurt n uskaṛ tis snat tikkal."
"The world premiere was held in London, the first American sound production to do so.","ittuga usfsr amaḍlan amzwaru g lundun, iga tayafut tagṛḍant tamirikaniyt tamzwarut isskrn aynnaɣ."
"Perfect Understanding, a 1933 sound production comedy, was the only film produced by this company.","armas s tfilawt, tamsḍṣit d tayafut tagṛḍant asggwas n 1933, iga afilm amyiwn nna tsyafu tmssurt ad."
She began appearing in stage productions and starred in The Gloria Swanson Hour on WPIX-TV in 1948.,tssnti ufuɣ g ufars n umzgun turar tanaḍt tasragt n glurya wansun g WPIX-TV asggwas n 1948.
"The storyline of the film follows a faded silent movie actress Norma Desmond (Swanson), in love with a failed screenwriter Joe Gillis (William Holden).","da tsawal tullist n ufilm ad xf yat tsmdayt n ssinima ifstan tamskkft nuṛma dismund (swansun), imyaran d umiray n usinaryu anaguf ju gilis (wilyam huldn)."
"""Norma plays a card game of bridge with a group of actors also known as """"the Waxworks"""".""","nuṛma ar ttirir yat tirart n tkaṛḍa n tlggwit nttat d trabbut n ismdayn itwassn s yism n """"tiwuriwin n udqqis""""."""
"Norma dreams of a comeback are subverted, and when Gillis tries to break up with her, she threatens to kill herself, but instead kills him.","uckant twirga n udwal n nuṛma, d ig tra gilis ad ids tbḍu, da tt tsdiddiy ad tnɣ iɣf nns, maca ntta ayd tnqqa."
"Although Swanson had objected to enduring a screen test for the film, she had been glad to be making much more money than she had been in television and on stage.","mqqar yugi swansun ad iẓẓiḍṛ i uzzray n umiẓaṛ i ufilm, maca tmdz kigan acku tuwi idrimn uggar n uynna tkka tga g tilifizyun d umzgun."
"Swanson later hosted Crown Theatre with Gloria Swanson, a television anthology series in which she occasionally acted.","tsmrs swansun g yat tizi yaḍn amzgun n kruwn nttat d glurya swansun, asddi n tmstayin n tilifizyun nna g tswuri kra n tikkal."
"""She was the """"mystery guest"""" on What's My Line.""","""nttat d """" tanbgiwt taxndallast"""" watz may layn."""
"She made a notable appearance in a 1966 episode of The Beverly Hillbillies, in which she plays herself.","tga yan wufuɣ anmɣur g yat tndrt g bufrly hilbili asggwas n 1966, g turar tilalt n iɣf nns."
"""Actor and playwright Harold J. Kennedy, who had learned the ropes at Yale and with Orson Wells' Mercury Theatre, suggested Swanson do a road tour of """"Reflected Glory"""", a comedy that had run on the Broadway stage with Tallulah Bankhead as its star.""","""asmday d umiray n umzgun haṛuld j. kinidi, nna ilmdn isdditn n tnzulin g yal d umzgun n uṛsun wil mirkuri, ittr sg swansun ad isskr yan ussutl g """"riflikt gluṛi"""", yat tkumidiyt nna ittusmrsn g tmuɣlit n bṛudway d titrit nns talula bankhid. """
"After her success with Sunset Boulevard, she starred on Broadway in a revival of Twentieth Century with José Ferrer, and in Nina with David Niven.","ḍaṛt umurs nns d sunsit bulifar, tga tanaḍt g bruwdway g ussidr n tasut tiss simraw d juzi firrir, awd g nina nttat d daɣid nifn."
As a Republican she supported the 1940 and 1944 campaigns for president of Wendell Willkie and the 1964 presidential campaign of Barry Goldwater.,"d tagdudant, tuws imzizziln n 1940 d 1944 n uslway n winḍl winki d umzizzl n uslway barri guldwatr asggwas n 1964."
"Taking medication given to her by Beery, purported to be for morning sickness, she aborted the fetus and was taken unconscious to the hospital.","isy n usafar nna as tfka biri, nna s ttinin iga win trarit n tifawt, iɣri as urba tsxf ttyasi ɣr usgnaf."
"In 1923, she adopted 1-year-old Sonny Smith, whom she renamed Joseph Patrick Swanson after her father.","asggwas n 1923, tusi ṣuni smit ɣr illa 1 usggwas, tsnfl as ism s juzif batrik swansun xf ism n babas."
"She had conceived a child with him before her divorce from Somborn was final, a situation that would have led to a public scandal and possible end of her film career.","tusi sg digs yan urba urta ismid uṛẓẓum nns d sumburn, asurs ad ikka ira ad yawi s yan uzwar amatay nɣd akkw tigira n tɣarast nns g ssinima."
"Following a four-month recuperation from her abortion, they returned to the United States as European nobility.","ḍaṛt kkuẓ n wayyurn n tujit nns sg uɣri nns, aɣuln s iwunak imunn d imṭṛṛḥn n uṛubba."
He became a film executive representing Pathé (USA) in France.,yaɣul iga anmhal amzzgar n ufilm n bati (USA) g franṣa.
"""Swanson described herself as a """"mental vampire"""", someone with a searching curiosity about how things worked, and who pursued the possibilities of turning those ideas into reality.""","""tglm swansun iɣf nns is tga """"tamssummt n idammn tungimt"""", afgan ɣr tlla tdwwayt g urzzu xf tmamkt s swurin iskkinn, ar irzzu is iẓḍaṛa n ad irar tanayin dɣ ad gnt tidtt."
They met by chance in Paris when Swanson was being fitted by Coco Chanel for her 1931 film Tonight or Never.,mlalan s usama g bariz g tlsa swansun kuku canil g usujd n ufilm nns iḍ a nɣ djun asggwas n 1931.
"Her friends, some of whom openly disliked him, thought she was making a mistake.","ɣaln imddukkal nns, nna d iffɣn is t ur ḥmiln, is tga azggal."
"Swanson had initially thought she was going to be able to retire from acting, but the marriage was troubled by Davey's alcoholism from the start.","tɣal swansun tizwuri is qad tiɣiy i tanaft sg usmdi, maca iwl irwi s tissi n dafi sg tizwuri."
"He was the co-author (ghostwriter) of Billie Holiday's autobiography Lady Sings the Blues, the author of Sugar Blues, a 1975 best-selling health book still in print, and the author of the English version of Georges Ohsawa's You Are All Sanpaku.","iga yan umssufɣ amssur (amssufɣmarur) n tridrt n bili hulidays laydi singz du bluz, amssufɣ n udlis cugar bluz, adlis n udwas inzan kigan g 1975 isul ar itffɣ, d umssufɣ n tunɣilt tangliziyt sg udlis yu ar al sanbaku n juṛj usawa."
Swanson and her husband first got to know John Lennon and Yoko Ono because they were fans of Dufty's work.,tmyassan swansun d urgaz nns tikklt izwarn xf jun linun d yuku unu acku gan sg imarayn n twuri n dufti.
"She was cremated and her ashes interred at the Episcopal Church of the Heavenly Rest on Fifth Avenue in New York City, attended by only a small circle of family.","sɣusn amttin nns adrn as i yiɣd nns g lkanisa takhhant i usgunfu n ignna g usuk wis smmus g nyuyuṛk siti, s yili n yat tmtettayt tamẓẓyant g tawja nns."
"In 1974, Swanson was one of the honorees of the first Telluride Film Festival.","g usggwas n 1974, iga swansun yan sg winna ittusmɣrn g unmuggar amzwaru tiluṛayd n ssinima."
"Due to the erotic nature of her performances, Nielsen's films were censored in the United States, and her work remained relatively obscure to American audiences.","s tmntilt n ugama issrɛabn g taggayt nns, ttusbddan ifilmn n nislnn g iwankn imunn, tqqim twuri nns tg tuffirt n ugdud amirikaniy."
Nielsen's family moved several times during her childhood while her father sought employment.,tmmutti tawja n nilsnn kigan n tikkal g tmẓi nns g tizi nna g irzzu babas tawuri.
Nielsen's father died when she was fourteen years old.,immut babas n nilsnn ddag ɣurs kkuẓ d mraw n usggwas.
"In 1901, 21-year-old Nielsen became pregnant and gave birth to a daughter, Jesta.","g usggwas n 1901, tusi nilsnn ɣr tlla 21 n usggwas adis taru tarbat, jista."
Nielsen graduated from the Theater school in 1902.,tumẓ nilsnn aslkin g tinml n umzgun asggwas n 1902.
Nielsen's minimalist acting style was evidenced in her successful portrayal of a naive young woman lured into a tragic life.,tbayn tmamkt tafrart n usmdi n nilsnn g uswlf nns imursn i yat tmṭṭuḍt taɛrrimt tabujadiyt ittusḍmɛn g yat tudrt n uxub.
"Nielsen and Gad married, then made four more films together.","tmyawal nilsnn d gad, ssufɣn d akkw kkuẓ n ifilmn yaḍn."
I realised that the age of short film was past.,ssnɣ mas d izri uzmz n ufilm agzzal.
It was international film sales that provided Union with eight Nielsen films per year.,mnziwt n ufilm agraɣlan ayd ismrsn tarabbut n tam n ufilm n nilsnn i usggwas.
"""I used every available means – and devised many new ones – in order to bring the Asta Nielsen films to the world.""""""","""ssmrsɣ isggurn nna illan – d snflɣ kigan n isggurn imaynutn – afad ad awiɣ ifilmn n nilsnn i umaḍal."""""""
"In a Russian popularity poll of 1911, Nielsen was voted the world's top female movie star, behind Linder and ahead of her Danish compatriot Valdemar Psilander.","g yan usɣl n tannayt tamatayt g rusya asggwas n 1911, ttustay nilsnn d titrit n ssinima tamufayt g umaḍal, ḍaṛt lindr d dat n tnamurt nns tadanimarkiyt faldimar bsilandr."
"In 1921, Nielsen, through her own film distribution company of Asta Films, appeared in the Svend Gade and Heinz Schall directed Hamlet.","g usggwas n 1921, nilsnn, s tngrant n tmssurt nns n ubṭṭu n ifilmn asṭa filmz, tffɣd g sifn grad d haynz cal tssdru hamlt."
"However, scholarly works such as the authoritative filmography published by Filmarchiv Austria in 2010 make no mention of such a film.","imil, tiwuriwin timassanin zund afilm n ssinima nna tfsr tmssurt filmarcif ustriya g 2010 ur da tbddr zund afilm ad."
She worked in German films until the start of sound movies.,tswura g ifilmn ilmaniyn ar tizwuri n ifilmn igṛḍann.
"Thereafter, Nielsen acted only on stage.","ḍaṛt uynnaɣ, nilsnn tsmdi ɣas g umzgun."
"Understanding the implications, Nielsen declined and left Germany in 1936.","g trms tusurt n ḍaṛt uynnaɣ, tugi nilsnn yffɣ almanya asggwas n 1936."
They were divorced by 1919 when Nielsen married the Swedish shipbuilder Freddy Windgårdh.,myaṛẓamn asggwas n 1919 lli g ttahl nilsnn aswidiy ittṣkun iɣṛṛabutn fridi windgaṛd.
They began a long-term common-law marriage that lasted from 1923 until the late 1930s.,ssntan iwl iɣzzifn sg 1923 ar tigira n isggwasn 1930.
"Fred Astaire (born Frederick Austerlitz; May 10, 1899 – June 22, 1987) was an American dancer, actor, singer, choreographer, and television presenter.","frid astir (ilul fridirik ustirlitz; 10 mayyu 1899 – 22 yunyu 1987) iga amṛkaḍ amirikaniy, askbaṛ, amɣnaj, akuṛigraf, d amsmnid n tilifizyun."
"He starred in more than 10 Broadway and West End musicals, made 31 musical films, four television specials, and numerous recordings.","yurar g wuggar n 10 n tmzgunin n uẓawan g bṛudway d wist ind, isskr 31 n ufilm n uẓawan, kkuẓ n isaysn imẓlay n tilifizyun, d kigan n izmmimn."
Astaire's mother was born in the US to Lutheran German immigrants from East Prussia and Alsace.,tlula immas n astir g US sg lutran jirman imzza sg unqar n brusya d alzaṣ.
"Fritz was seeking work in the brewing trade and moved to Omaha, Nebraska, where he was employed by the Storz Brewing Company.","irza fritz tawuri g tsbbabt n usmtn d immatti s umaha, nibraska, g iswuri d tmssurt n stuṛz briwin."
"""Johanna planned a """"brother and sister act"""", common in vaudeville at the time, for her two children.""","""tsɣiws jwana i """"ugma d ultma"""", ittwassn g fudfil g uzmz nnaɣ, xf sin warraw nns."
They began training at the Alviene Master School of the Theatre and Academy of Cultural Arts.,ssntin asmuttg g tinml alfin mastṛ n umzgun d tkadimiyt n tẓuriwin tidlsanin.
"They were taught dance, speaking, and singing in preparation for developing an act.",sslmdn asn arkks d wawal d uɣnnj afad sbuɣlun askbṛ.
"In an interview, Astaire's daughter, Ava Astaire McKenzie, observed that they often put Fred in a top hat to make him look taller.","g yan usqsay, tarbat n astirz, afa astir mkinzi, tɣḍf is da tggan i frid yat tcact afad iɣzif."
"As a result of their father's salesmanship, Fred and Adele landed a major contract and played the Orpheum Circuit in the Midwest, Western and some Southern cities in the US.","acku issn babasn ad izznz, yumẓ frid d adil yat tmɣunt tamqqrant ukan urarn g usara n uṛfum g midwist, wistirn d kra n tmdinin g US."
"In 1912, Fred became an Episcopalian.","g usggwas n 1912, iga frid abiskubalan."
"From vaudeville dancer Aurelio Coccia, they learned the tango, waltz, and other ballroom dances popularized by Vernon and Irene Castle.","sg uṛkkaḍ n fudfil uṛilyu kukiya, lmdn iṛkaḍn n ttangu, d iṛkaḍn yaḍn nna s ttwassn firnun d irin kastl."
"He first met George Gershwin, who was working as a song plugger for Jerome H. Remick's music publishing company, in 1916.","imlala tikklt izwarn d juṛj gircwin, nna ittawsn g uɣnnj g tmssurt n ufsar n uẓawan igan tin jiṛum H. rimiks, asggwas n 1916."
"""Of their work in The Passing Show of 1918, Heywood Broun wrote: """"In an evening in which there was an abundance of good dancing, Fred Astaire stood out ... He and his partner, Adele Astaire, made the show pause early in the evening with a beautiful loose-limbed dance.""""""","sg twuri nnsn g du bassin cuw asggwas n 1918, yura hiywud bṛun: """"yan yiḍ g iggut uṛkkḍ iɣudan, ibaynd frid astir ... ntta d tmssurt nns, adil astir, sbddan afsar zikk talggwat s yan uṛkkḍ ilelli iɣudan."
"But by this time, Astaire's dancing skill was beginning to outshine his sister's.","maca g tizi ad, astirs yaɣul ar ittaf ultmas g uṛkkḍ."
Astaire's tap dancing was recognized by then as among the best.,qrran is iga uṛkkḍ n astirs g uzmz nnaɣ yan sg imafayn.
"After the close of Funny Face, the Astaires went to Hollywood for a screen test (now lost) at Paramount Pictures, but Paramount deemed them unsuitable for films.","lli g iqqn fani fays, ayt astir ddan s huliwud ad sskrn irim amiẓaṛ (ijla dɣi) g baramunt biktcur, maca igatn baramunt is ur d usin i ifilmn."
The end of the partnership was traumatic for Astaire but stimulated him to expand his range.,ur tḥli tgira n tussurt i astir maca tssikmt ad ittwassn kigan.
They lent him for a few days to MGM in 1933 for his significant Hollywood debut in the successful musical film Dancing Lady.,kran t idsn wussan i MGM g usggwas n 1933 xf wufuɣ nns g huliwud g ufilm n uẓawan imursn dansin laydi.
"""He wrote his agent, """"I don't mind making another picture with her, but as for this 'team' idea, it's 'out!'""","yura umskar ntwuriwin nns, """"ur igiyɣ ad asiɣ tawlaft yaḍn dids, imma g twngimt n 'tarabbut', tga 'ufuɣ!'"""
"The partnership, and the choreography of Astaire and Hermes Pan, helped make dancing an important element of the Hollywood film musical.","tuws tmssurt d usɣiws n iṛkaḍn astir d hirms ban, g uswrri n uṛkaḍ d afrdis istawhmman g ufilm n huliwud n uẓawan."
Six out of the nine Astaire–Rogers musicals became the biggest moneymakers for RKO; all of the films brought a certain prestige and artistry that all studios coveted at the time.,gant ṣḍiṣ sg tẓa n tmzgunin n uẓawan n astir–ṛujir asagm amqqran n idrimn i RKO; uwind ifilmn kullutn yan wuddur g tẓuṛi nna ɣmsn istudyunt kullu g uzmz nnaɣ.
This gave the illusion of an almost stationary camera filming an entire dance in a single shot.,ifka mayad yan udmu is tlla lkamiṛa timntit ar tswlaf aṛkaḍ ismdn g yan umiẓaṛ.
Astaire's style of dance sequences allowed the viewer to follow the dancers and choreography in their entirety.,tamamkt n usnsl n uṛkaḍ n astil yudja imẓri ad iḍfuṛ imṛkaḍn d usɣiws n tmṛkaḍin kullu.
Astaire's second innovation involved the context of the dance; he was adamant that all song and dance routines be integral to the plotlines of the film.,isllwu wis sin n astir digs amnaḍ n urkaḍ; isddid ad gn iɣnnijn iṛutiniyn d win uṛkaḍ tuṭṭut yamun g ifilan n ufilm.
"""One would be a solo performance by Astaire, which he termed his """"sock solo.""""""","""yan digsn qad ig askar amẓlay n astir, mi iga s wassaɣ """"suk sulu."""""""
I think Ginger Rogers was.,ɛniɣ jinjr ṛujir iga ɣikann.
She faked it an awful lot.,trwi tt thyya aṛkaḍ.
"In 1976, British talk-show host Sir Michael Parkinson asked Astaire who his favorite dancing partner was on Parkinson.","g usggwas n 1976, amsmnid n iɣawasn imsawaln ibṛitaniyn mass maykl baṛknsun isqqsa astir xf umssur ɣurs yufn g uṛkkḍ g baṛknsun."
"Despite their success, Astaire was unwilling to have his career tied exclusively to any partnership.","mqqar mursn, ur iri astir ad izdi tudrt nns tazzulant s uẓlay d awt yat tassurt."
"Throughout this period, Astaire continued to value the input of choreographic collaborators.","g tizi ad, issuda astil g usutg n iḍiṣ n imyawasn ikurigrafiyn."
"""They starred in Broadway Melody of 1940, in which they performed a celebrated extended dance routine to Cole Porter's """"Begin the Beguine.""""""","""urarn g bṛudway miludi g usggwas n 1940, g smdyan aṛutin n uṛkaḍ ittwassnn n kul burtrz g """"bigan du bigin."""""""
He played alongside Bing Crosby in Holiday Inn (1942) and later Blue Skies (1946).,yurar tasga n bing krusbi g huliday g (1942) d ḍaṛ as blu skis (1946).
"""The latter film featured """"Puttin' On the Ritz"""", an innovative song-and-dance routine indelibly associated with him.""","afsar n ufilm amggaru """"butin un du raytz"""", iga aṛutin ittusllwan i iɣnnijn d uṛkaḍ nna digs islɣn abda."
"The first film, You'll Never Get Rich (1941), catapulted Hayworth to stardom.","afilm amzwaru, ur sar tgid amglu abda (1941), yuɣul hayurt d itri."
"""It featured a duet to Kern's """"I'm Old Fashioned,"""" which became the centerpiece of Jerome Robbins's 1983 New York City Ballet tribute to Astaire.""","yuls i tzlit n kirn """"am uldfacyunid,"""" nna igan asgum n usmɣr n jiṛum ṛubinz g nyu yuṛk sity bali i astir asggwas n 1983."
Astaire choreographed this film alone and achieved modest box office success.,isɣiws astir ɣas ntta afilm ad nna imursn kigan g usira n tnfulin.
The fantasy Yolanda and the Thief (1945) featured an avant-garde surrealistic ballet.,ittwassn ufilm amarur yulanda d umxxar (1945) ismnadn yan ubali asuryaliy n tzzugra.
"Always insecure and believing his career was beginning to falter, Astaire surprised his audiences by announcing his retirement during the production of his next film Blue Skies (1946).","abda ur yumin g iɣf nns yiɣil is da ttmdu tazzult nns, astir issrɛb aydud nns g ibrrḥ s tanaft nns g ufars n ufilm nns blu skis (1946)."
Both of these films revived Astaire's popularity and in 1950 he starred in two musicals.,ruran d ifilmn s sin tamdnant n astir d usggwas n 1950 yarir g snat tmzgunin tiẓawanin.
"While Three Little Words did quite well at the box office, Let's Dance was a financial disappointment.","zziɣ g d trura kṛaḍt tguriwin igzzuln kigan g usira n tnfulin, maca lits dans tga tagawit taẓṛfant."
"But because of its high cost, it failed to make a profit on its first release.","s tmntilt n tɣli nns, ur tẓḍaṛ ad d trar walu g wufuɣ nns amzwaru."
"Then, his wife Phyllis became ill and suddenly died of lung cancer.",imikk taḍn tmṭṭuḍt nns filis s nit tmmut s lkunsir n turin.
Daddy Long Legs only did moderately well at the box office.,tɣuda cwiy tfri n iḍaṛn n baba iɣzzafn g usira n tnfulin.
"Similarly, Astaire's next project – his final musical at MGM, Silk Stockings (1957), in which he co-starred with Cyd Charisse, also lost money at the box office.","ula, asnti yaḍn n astir – igan afilm n uẓawan nns amggarug MGM, silk stuking (1957), nna g yamu ntta d kyd caris, iṛẓa awd g kigan n idrimn g usira n tnfulin."
"""The first of these programs, 1958's An Evening with Fred Astaire, won nine Emmy Awards, including """"Best Single Performance by an Actor"""" and """"Most Outstanding Single Program of the Year.""""""","amzwaru g iɣawasn ad, yan yiḍ d frid astir g 1958, yuwi tẓa n tsmɣurin n immi, g illa """"uswuri amufay n usmday amẓlay"""" d """"uɣawas amufay amẓlay n usggwas ad."""""
"""The choice had a controversial backlash because many believed his dancing in the special was not the type of """"acting"""" for which the award was designed.""","""astay ad ɣurs tmrarut tukṛiḍt issrɛabn acku kigan iɣal mas d aṛkkḍ nns g umiẓaṛ amẓlay ur igi sg wanaw n usmdya nna xf ttusɣaws tsmɣurt."""
"They restored the original videotape, transferring its contents to a modern format and filling in gaps where the tape had deteriorated with kinescope footage.","rurand aɣraw n ufidyu aẓɣuran, ismutti tumayin nns s yat talɣa tatrart iqqn as tiṛẓiwin nna g ur iḥli uɣraw s twlafin g uɣraw n ssinima."
Astaire appeared in non-dancing roles in three other films and several television series from 1957 to 1969.,iffɣd astir g tmlalin ur igin tiṛkkaḍin g kṛaḍ ifilmn yaḍn d kigan n imsdditn n tilifizyun sg usggwas n 1957 ar asggwas n 1969.
"Astaire's dance partner was Petula Clark, who played his character's skeptical daughter.","amssur n astir g uṛkaḍ tga tt bitula klark, nna yurarn awrik nns tarbat tamckakt."
Astaire continued to act in the 1970s.,issuda astir g twuri g 1970s.
"In the second compilation, aged seventy-six, he performed brief dance linking sequences with Kelly, his last dance performances in a musical film.","g trabbut tis snat, ɣurs samraw d ṣḍiṣ n usggwas, ismrs aṛkaḍ igzzuln ntta d kili, afsar nns n uṛkaḍ amggaru g yan ufilm n uẓawan."
"In 1978, he co-starred with Helen Hayes in a well received television film A Family Upside Down in which they played an elderly couple coping with failing health.","g usggwas n 1978, idra tilalt tamqqrant d hilin hays g yan ufilm atilifizyuniy nna issusmn kigan a famili ubsayd dawn nna g aurarn sin iwssarn yuwln ar ttnaɣn d yan waddad adusan ur iḥlin."
Astaire asked his agent to obtain a role for him on Galactica because of his grandchildren's interest in the series and the producers were delighted at the opportunity to create an entire episode to feature him.,ittr astir sg umskar nns ad yamẓ yat tilalt g galaktika acku ran wayyawn nns asddi d imsyafutn mdzn s uzmz n usnulfu n yat tndrt ismdn ad t syussnn.
"""Long after the photography for the solo dance number """"I Want to Be a Dancin' Man"""" was completed for the 1952 feature The Belle of New York, it was decided that Astaire's humble costume and the threadbare stage set were inadequate and the entire sequence was reshot.""","""ḍaṛt yan uzmz iɣzzifn n usmad n uswlf n umḍan n uṛkkḍ amyiwn """"riɣ ad gɣ argaz amṛkaḍ"""" ittusmadn i ufilm aɣzzaf g 1952 timḥlit n nyuyuṛk, ittuɣts mas d timlsa n astir timanuzin d trabbut n umzgun tamuḥult d ad alsn i uswlf n usnsl kullu."""
"Frame for frame, the two performances are identical, down to the subtlest gesture.","asati i usati, ifsarn s sin aksuln, ar tifras timẓẓyanin."
His was a uniquely recognizable dance style that greatly influenced the American Smooth style of ballroom dance and set standards against which subsequent film dance musicals would be judged.,tamamkt nns g uṛkaḍ ttxzsszn s uẓlay d tṭṭaṣ tamamkt tamirikaniyt smut i uṛkaḍ n tdala isrs isbdadn nna xf rad ttunbaḍnt tmzgunin tiẓawanin n uṛkaḍ n ifilmn d iddan.
He notes Astaire's dance style was consistent in subsequent films made with or without the assistance of Pan.,isskn mas d tamamkt n uṛkaḍ n astir tqqima g ifilmn ittufarsn nna d iḍfaṛn s umyawas n bannɣ bla nns.
"""However, this was almost always confined to the area of extended fantasy sequences, or """"dream ballets"""".""","""imil, iqqima uynnaɣ abda ingr isnsln imarurn, nɣ d """"bali drim""""."""
"""Later in life, he admitted, """"I had to do most of it myself.""""""","""g yan uzmz amḍfṛ g tudrt nns, iqrra, amata diksnt """"""ixss ad tnt sskrɣ i iɣf inu."""""""
"""Many dance routines were built around a """"gimmick,"""" like dancing on the walls in Royal Wedding or dancing with his shadows in Swing Time.""","""ttuṣkan kigan n imiẓaṛ n uṛkkḍ xf """"gimmik,"""" zund aṛkkḍ xf igudar g tmɣra n ugllid nɣd aṛkaḍ g s imula nns g tizi n ujɛlull."""
They would work with a rehearsal pianist (often the composer Hal Borne) who in turn would communicate modifications to the musical orchestrators.,ar swurin d amɣnnj n ubyanu anaram (s umata amsnay hal buṛn) nna ittawin isnfln i imzdayn n uẓawan.
"With all the preparation completed, the actual shooting would go quickly, conserving costs.","ig smdn ismuttugn, da ssntayn asulf n tidtt fisaɛ, ayann ad issdrusn atign."
"""He will not even go to see his rushes... He always thinks he is no good.""""""","""ur inni ad iddu ar d iẓṛ affafn nns... da ittiɣil abda is ur iḥli."""""""
"Michael Kidd, Astaire's co-choreographer on the 1953 film The Band Wagon, found that his own concern about the emotional motivation behind the dance was not shared by Astaire.","yufa maykl kid, amsɣiws n iṛkaḍn yamun g astir g ufilm n tuldit n trabbut asggwas n 1953, mas d amnus nns tfras ḍaṛt uṛkaḍ ur t dids idri astir."
"""Let's add the looks later.' """"""","""adjat aɣ tifrisin ard ukan.' """""""
"""Irving Berlin considered Astaire the equal of any male interpreter of his songs—""""as good as Jolson, Crosby or Sinatra, not necessarily because of his voice, but for his conception of projecting a song.""","""isaksul irfing birlin astir d kran umsuɣl awtman n iɣnnijn nns—""""s tṛwi n julsun, kṛusbi nɣd sinatra, ur id s tmntilt n ugṛḍ nns, maca s tannayt nns i ufsar n uɣnnij."""
"In his heyday, Astaire was referenced in lyrics of songwriters Cole Porter, Lorenz Hart and Eric Maschwitz and continues to inspire modern songwriters.","g uswir nns anaflla, sawln xf astir g iwalisn n imyura d imsnayn kul burtr, luṛnz haṛt d irik macwitz isul da yakka ulman i imyura n iɣnnijn itrarn."
"During 1952, Astaire recorded The Astaire Story, a four-volume album with a quintet led by Oscar Peterson.","g 1952, izmmem astir tullist n astir,yan walbum n kkuẓ n tfulin d yat tsmmust iswads uskaṛ ḥitirsun."
"Bogart began acting in Broadway shows, beginning his career in motion pictures with Up the River (1930) for Fox and appeared in supporting roles for the next decade, sometimes portraying gangsters.","issnti bugart g usmdya g imiẓaṛ n bṛudway, issnti tudrt nns tazzulant g iwlafn ittmussun d asif amatuy (1930) i fuks d issnti tilal n tnalit g mraw n isggwasn d iddan, ar iswlaf kra n tikkal imrttaln."
"Bogart's private detectives, Sam Spade (in The Maltese Falcon) and Phillip Marlowe (in 1946's The Big Sleep), became the models for detectives in other noir films.","gan imrza imlay n bugarts, sam sbbid (g ufilm lbaz amaltiy) d filib maluw (iḍs axatar g 1946), d imdyatn n imrza g ifilmn n nuyṛ yaḍn."
"Soon after the principal photography for The Big Sleep (1946, their second film together), he filed for divorce from his third wife and married Bacall.","yan uzmz idrusn ḍaṛt uswlf adslan n iḍs axatar (afilm nnsn s sin, 1946), issutr sg tmṭṭuḍt nns tis kṛaḍt yawl bakal."
"He reprised those unsettled, unstable characters as a World War II naval-vessel commander in The Caine Mutiny (1954), which was a critical and commercial hit and earned him another Best Actor nomination.","yuls asmdya i iwrikn ur inẓiẓn d amuzr n uɣrrabu g imnɣi amaḍlan II g aɣwwɣ n kiyn (1954), nna ilan amurs ansbab d uẓṛfan nna mi ittifka ustay yaḍn n usmdya amufay."
"""The name """"Bogart"""" derives from the Dutch surname, """"Bogaert"""".""","""ism """"bugart"""" d anafuɣ n tnqqubt tahulandiyt """"bugart""""."""
"Maud was an Episcopalian of English heritage, and a descendant of Mayflower passenger John Howland.",iga waz yan ukhhan sg wayda angliziy sg mayflɛwir basanjir jun huwland.
"""Clifford McCarty wrote that Warner Bros. publicity department had altered it to January 23, 1900 """"to foster the view that a man born on Christmas Day couldn't really be as villainous as he appeared to be on screen"""".""","yaru klifuṛd makarti mas d tazuni n usussn g tmssurt n waṛnr bṛus. ittusnfl ɣr 23 innayr, 1900 """"ad yaws amnad nna ittinin is d argaz iluln g wass n tlalit n ɛisa ur inni ad ig yan ur iḥlin mki nna ismnid umiẓaṛ""""."""
"Lauren Bacall wrote in her autobiography that Bogart's birthday was always celebrated on Christmas Day, saying that he joked about being cheated out of a present every year.","taru lurin bakal g tridirt nns tanimant mas da ittusfuglu s wass n tlalit n bugart g wass n tlalit n ɛisa, tnna mas da ittḍṣa xf tukknda nns g trzzift n ku asggwas."
"Maud was a commercial illustrator who received her art training in New York and France, including study with James Abbott McNeill Whistler.","tga mud tanfrist tansbabt ittusmuttgn g nyuyuṛk d fṛansa, awd tiɣri d jims abbut mknil wistlṛ."
"She earned over $50,000 a year at the peak of her career – a very large sum of money at the time, and considerably more than her husband's $20,000.","tuwi uggar n $50,000 i usggwas g ixf n tudrt nns tazzulant – d amḍan axatar n idrimn g uzmz nnaɣ, uggar n $20,000 n irgaz nns."
"""He had two younger sisters: Frances (""""Pat"""") and Catherine Elizabeth (""""Kay"""").""","""llant ɣurs snat tawmatin timẓẓyanin: fṛansis (""""bat"""") d katrin ilizabit (""""kay"""")."""
"A kiss, in our family, was an event.","timitt, g tawja nnɣ, tstawhmma."
"He inherited a tendency to needle, a fondness for fishing, a lifelong love of boating, and an attraction to strong-willed women from his father.","ikkus sg babas aḥaṛs s tissmi, immut xf ugmar n islman, tayri n tnaka n iɣrruba abda, d ulday n twtmin id m tirat idusn."
"Bogart later attended Phillips Academy, a boarding school to which he was admitted based on family connections.","ḍaṛt uynnaɣ yudf bugart s tkadimiyt n filibs, igan tinml tagwnsant g t usin s imyassatn n tawjiwin."
"Several reasons have been given; according to one, he was expelled for throwing the headmaster (or a groundskeeper) into Rabbit Pond on campus.","ttufkant kigan n tmntilin; nil yat digsnt, ẓẓɛn t iddɣ igr anmhal n tinml (nɣd anḍaf) s aglmam n iqninn g tsdawit."
"He then volunteered for the Coast Guard Temporary Reserve in 1944, patrolling the California coastline in his yacht, the Santana.","imik imxs i inḍafn n yill ikudann asggwas n 1944, isskr kra n tmtettayin g yill n kalifuṛnya s uɣrrabu nns, samanṭa."
"In one, his lip was cut by shrapnel when his ship (the ) was shelled.","g yat digsnt, ittuḍaṣ wancuc nns s ifṭṭiwj lli g ittwat uɣṛṛabu nns."
"While changing trains in Boston, the handcuffed prisoner reportedly asked Bogart for a cigarette.","g tizi n usnfl n ilawayn g busṭun, ittr as unḥbas mi ttukrafn ifassn agiṛṛu i bugart."
"By the time Bogart was treated by a doctor, a scar had formed.","g tizi nna g issuji umsgnaf bugart, ittuskar digs uzmul."
"""Instead of stitching it up, he screwed it up.""""""","""g udɣar n wad t ignu, isxsr t."""""""
"His character and values developed separately from his family during his navy days, and he began to rebel.","ibuɣla uwrik nns d wazaln nns g ittuẓlay xf tawja nns g wussan nna izzri g tylant, d issnti aɣwwɣ."
"Bogart resumed his friendship with Bill Brady Jr. (whose father had show-business connections), and obtained an office job with William A. Brady's new World Films company.","issuda bugart g tiddukla nns g bil bṛadi junyuṛ (nna mi ila babas izdayn insbabn imiẓaṛn), yamẓ yat twuri tasirant g tmssurt n ifilmn imaḍlann imaynutn ɣr wilyam A. bṛadis."
"He made his stage debut a few months later as a Japanese butler in Alice's 1921 play Drifting (nervously delivering one line of dialogue), and appeared in several of her subsequent plays.","ḍaṛt idsn wayyurn iffɣ d tikklt tamzwarut g umzgun d axddam ayabaniy g tmzgunt alis driftin asggwas n 1921 (ittwanna yan uzrirg g umawal s zzɛaf), tffɣd g kigan n tmzgunin nns d iddan."
"A barroom brawl at this time was also a purported cause of Bogart's lip damage, dovetailing with Louise Brooks' account.","iga awd imnɣi g lbar g tizi nnaɣ tamntilt isxsrn ancuc n bugart, imki nna inna lwis bruks."
"""Bogart disliked his trivial, effeminate early-career parts, calling them """"White Pants Willie"""" roles.""","""ur iḥmil bugart tilal nns n iɣijban, igan ḥtta g tizwuri n tudrt nns tazzulant, gant ɣurs am tilal n """"wayt bant wili."""""""
"Menken said in her divorce filing that Bogart valued his career more than marriage, citing neglect and abuse.","lli g tra minkin ad tnnaṛẓm tnna mas d bugart ifka uddur i twuri nns tazzulant uggar n yiwl, tsskn s uwnul d usslku."
"There he met Spencer Tracy, a Broadway actor whom Bogart liked and admired, and they became close friends and drinking companions.","dinnaɣ ag imlala d sbansr traysi, asmdya g brudway nna ira bugart iḥlu ɣurs, gn imdduukkal d ismunn n tssi."
"Tracy received top billing, but Bogart appeared on the film's posters.","tumẓ traysi kigan n tfaturin, maca bugart iffɣ d g tsmmalin n ufilm."
"A quarter of a century later, the two men planned to make The Desperate Hours together.","ḍaṛt rrbɛ n tusut, sɣawsn irgazn s sin ad smunn tizi n uxub."
"Bogart shuttled back and forth between Hollywood and the New York stage from 1930 to 1935, out of work for long periods.","ar ittddu bugart ar d ittuɣul ingr huliwud d nyuyuṛk sg usggwas n 1930 ar 1935, bla tawuri kigan n tizi."
"""Although Leslie Howard was the star, The New York Times critic Brooks Atkinson said that the play was """"a peach ... a roaring Western melodrama ... Humphrey Bogart does the best work of his career as an actor.""""""","mqqar tga lizli hɛward titrit, inna umaẓam g uɣmis n nyuyuṛk siti mas d tamzgunt tga """"axux ... amiludrama n uɣlay isɣuyyun ... g iga humfri bugart amsdya ayd isskr tawuri tamufayt g tudrt nns tazzulant."
Warner Bros. bought the screen rights to The Petrified Forest in 1935.,tsɣa waṛnr bṛus izrfan n umiẓaṛ n tagant iqqurn asggwas n 1935.
"Howard, who held the production rights, made it clear that he wanted Bogart to star with him.","issfra haward, nna mi gan izrfan n ufars winns, mas ira ad yurar d bugart."
"When Warner Bros. saw that Howard would not budge, they gave in and cast Bogart.","llig iẓṛa waṛnr bṛudrz is islɣ haward, rrizn grn bugart."
"""According to Variety, """"Bogart's menace leaves nothing wanting"""".""","""nil faryiti, """"asdiddi n bugart ur da ittadja awd iri""""."""
"There must be something in my tone of voice, or this arrogant face—something that antagonizes everybody.","ixss ad yili kra g ugṛḍ inu, nɣd udm ad amẓẓngṛ—kra igan mgal kullu."
"In spite of his success, Warner Bros. had no interest in raising Bogart's profile.","mqqar imurs, warnr bṛudrz ur ɣurs asmkl g wasay n twlaft n bugart."
"Bogart used these years to begin developing his film persona: a wounded, stoical, cynical, charming, vulnerable, self-mocking loner with a code of honor.","ussmrd bugart isggasn ad isbuɣlu awrik nns g ufilm: amagus, ariwaqiy, amṭnaẓ, agzzan, amudrus, iṭṭnaẓ g iɣf nns, d inign n wuddur."
His disputes with Warner Bros. over roles and money were similar to those waged by the studio with more established and less malleable stars such as Bette Davis and James Cagney.,gan imzarayn nns d waṛnr brudrz xf tilal d idrimn am winna izzri ustudyu d kigan n itran ittwassn d icqqan am bitt dafid d jims kagni.
"His only leading role during this period was in Dead End (1937, on loan to Samuel Goldwyn), as a gangster modeled after Baby Face Nelson.","g tizi ad tilalt nns tasdlant g diyd ind (1937, ttuḍfṛ i samwil guldwin), am urgaz n trbiɛt zund baybi fays nilsun."
"""In Black Legion (1937), a movie Graham Greene described as """"intelligent and exciting, if rather earnest"""", he played a good man who was caught up with (and destroyed by) a racist organization.""","afilm blak ligyun (1937), nna isnumml graham grin s """"amiɣis d unbdar, ig cwiy amaglay"""", yarir tilalt n yan urgaz iɣudan ittyamẓn (itturmd s) yat trabbut tamssaẓuṛt."
"""The trouble was they were drinking mine and I was making this stinking movie.""""""","amukris d nitni ar ssan sg digi ar swlafɣ afilm ad amijju."""""""
"On August 21, 1938, Bogart entered a turbulent third marriage to actress Mayo Methot, a lively, friendly woman when sober but paranoid and aggressive when drunk.","g 21 ɣuct 1938, ikcm bugart iwl wis kṛaḍ immrgagin sg tsmdyat mayu mitut, yat tmṭṭuḍt imarɣn tḥnuna adday tṛzn, maca d tamadutt d tazzrt adday tswa."
"She set their house afire, stabbed him with a knife, and slashed her wrists several times.","tssaɣ afa g taddart nnsn, tutt s lmuss, tbbi afus nns kigan n tikklt."
"""According to their friend, Julius Epstein, """"The Bogart-Methot marriage was the sequel to the Civil War"""".""","nil uynna inna umddakkl nnsn, julyus ibstin, ""iga yiwl n bugart d mitut asmad n imnɣi uɣrim""""."""
"Methot's influence was increasingly destructive, however, and Bogart also continued to drink.","kud itddu yiḍiṣ n mitut ittɛawad ixllu, maca bugart issuda g tissi."
"When he thought an actor, director or studio had done something shoddy, he spoke up publicly about it.","llig iɣal kra n usmdya, amssufɣ nɣd astudyu is sskrn kra ur iḥlin, isawl ɣifs i umata."
"Paul Muni, George Raft, Cagney and Robinson turned down the lead role, giving Bogart the opportunity to play a character with some depth.","ur iri bul muni, jurj ṛaft, kagni d ṛubinsun tilalt tadslant, ittufka uzmz i bugart ad yurar tilalt s usgunfu."
"He worked well with Ida Lupino, sparking jealousy from Mayo Methot.","isɣuda tawuri nns d ida lubinu, issuki akayaḍ n mayu mitut."
"He could quote Plato, Pope, Ralph Waldo Emerson and over a thousand lines of Shakespeare, and subscribed to the Harvard Law Review.","iɣy ad issmrs iwaliwn n aflaṭun, bub, ṛalf waldu imirsun d uggar n tmiḍi n uzririg n ciksbir, d yamu g tsɣunt n uzrf harfard."
"Based on the Dashiell Hammett novel, it was first serialized in the pulp magazine Black Mask in 1929 and was the basis of two earlier film versions; the second was Satan Met a Lady (1936), starring Bette Davis.","assnd s ungal dacyil hammt, nna iffɣn tikklt izwarn g tsɣunt blak mask g 1929 d tga tirslt n snat tunɣilin n ifilmn izrin; wis sin iga ccitan imlala massa (1936), d unbraz bitt dafid."
Huston then eagerly accepted Bogart as his Sam Spade.,yuɣul hastun ira bugart s uddraf ig sam smid.
"The film, directed by Michael Curtiz and produced by Hal Wallis, featured Ingrid Bergman, Claude Rains, Sydney Greenstreet, Paul Henreid, Conrad Veidt, Peter Lorre and Dooley Wilson.","afilm sg ussufɣ n maykl kirts d ufars n hal walis, iffɣ d digs ingrid birgman, d klud riyns, sidni grinstrit, bul hinrid, kunrad fidt, bitr luṛi d duli wilsun."
"Bogart is reported to have been responsible for the notion that Rick Blaine should be portrayed as a chess player, a metaphor for the relationships he maintained with friends, enemies, and allies.","iga bugart amassay n tannayt n uswlf n rik blin amirar n ccṭṛanj, yan ulwa i izdayn nna iqqil d imddukkal d icnga d imssurn."
"Bogart was nominated for Best Actor in a Leading Role, but lost to Paul Lukas for his performance in Watch on the Rhine.","ittustay bugart d amsdya amufay g tilalt tanarayt, maca irnat bul lukas s uswuddu nns g yan umiẓaṛ xf wasif n ṛayn."
"Bogart went on United Service Organizations and War Bond tours with Methot in 1943 and 1944, making arduous trips to Italy and North Africa (including Casablanca).","idda bugart g wutuyn n tmaddast n twuri imun d wutuyn waṛ bund ntta d mitut g 1943 d 1944, skrn tinyuddutin icqqan s italya n iẓlmḍ n ifṛiqya (g tamu kazablanka)."
"""When they met, Bacall was 19 and Bogart 44; he nicknamed her """"Baby.""""""","llig mlalan, bakal ɣurs 19 n usggwas d bugart 44; isslɣ as """"baybi."""""""
"""We'll have a lot of fun together"""".""","""qnna ad nṛcq kullu aɣ""""."""
"By Myself and Then Some, HarperCollins, New York, 2005.","s ixf inu ɛad sum, haṛbṛkulins, nyuyuṛk, 2005."
"He considered himself Bacall's protector and mentor, and Bogart was usurping that role.","iga ixf nns d unḍaf d uslmad n bakal, bugart isxsr tilalt ad."
"""Also, he has a sense of humor that contains that grating undertone of contempt.""""""","d awd, tlla digs tqbbaḍt nna g illa uḥqqr isgrurusn."
"The dialogue, especially in the added scenes supplied by Hawks, was full of sexual innuendo, and Bogart is convincing as private detective Philip Marlowe.","illa g umsawal, s uẓlay g imiẓaṛn nna isskr huks, iskann n tuqqut, d bugart issnẓa d amssided amẓlay filib marluw."
"The marriage was a happy one, with tensions due to their differences.","imdz yiwl, d kra n taẓitt acku mzarayn ingr asn."
"""According to Bogart's biographer, Stefan Kanfer, it was """"a production line film noir with no particular distinction"""".""","nil umira n tridirt n bugart, stifan kanfr, """"abrid n ufars n ufilm nuyṛ ur digs imxalafn imẓlay""""."""
"Lacking a love interest or a happy ending, it was considered a risky project.","acku ur ɣurs asmkl s tayri nɣd tigira imdzn, as iga asɣnu imizi."
"""James Agee wrote, """"Bogart does a wonderful job with this character ... miles ahead of the very good work he has done before.""""""","yura jims aji, """"isskr bugart tawuri iɣudan s uwrik ad ... s dat kigan n twuri iɣudan nna isskr sg lli."""""""
"Bogart appeared in his final films for Warners, Chain Lightning (1950) and The Enforcer (1951).","iffɣ d bugart g ifilmn nns imggura xf waṛnrz, cayn laytning (1950) d infuṛsr (1951)."
Santana also made two films without him: And Baby Makes Three (1949) and The Family Secret (1951).,ifars santana sin ifilmn bla t: baybi mayks tri (1949) d du family sukrit (1951).
"Several Bogart biographers, and actress-writer Louise Brooks, have felt that this role is closest to the real Bogart.","ufrayn kigan n imiratn n tridirt n bugart, d tsmdyat d tmirayt lwiz bruks, mas d tilalt dɣ ad inmalan bugart."
"A parody of sorts of The Maltese Falcon, Beat the Devil was the final film for Bogart and John Huston.","afilm n biyt du dufil ayd igan amggaru n bugart d jun hustun, iga amṭnaẓ zund anaw n lbaz amalṭiy."
"Huston's love of adventure, his deep, longstanding friendship (and success) with Bogart, and the chance to work with Hepburn convinced the actor to leave Hollywood for a difficult shoot on location in the Belgian Congo.","tayri n histun i tmsksalt, d tiddukkla nns iɛubn iɣzzifn (d umurs nns) d bugart, d wannaz n twuri d hibburn ayd inẓan asmdya ad ifl huliwud xf yan uswlf icqqan g lkungu tabljikiyt."
"Bacall came for the over-four-month duration, leaving their young son in Los Angeles.","iddad bakal yat tizi uggar n kkuẓ n wayyurn, ifl nn memmis g lus anjlus."
"""She Luxed my undies in darkest Africa.""""""","""tkks isgbas nns g tallst n ifṛiqya."""""""
"Hepburn (a teetotaler) fared worse in the difficult conditions, losing weight and at one point becoming very ill.","hibbuṛn (tanaẓumt) tkrfs tili g waddadn ur iḥlin, acku tdda as taẓiyt nns taḍn kigan g yat tfrkt."
"Despite the discomfort of jumping from the boat into swamps, rivers and marshes, The African Queen apparently rekindled Bogart's early love of boats; when he returned to California, he bought a classic mahogany Hacker-Craft runabout which he kept until his death.","mqqar illa ugrurs g unḍaw sg uɣṛṛabu s isaffn d ilmatn, tssukid tgllidt n ifriqya tayri n bugart i iɣṛṛabutn; lli g yaɣul s kalifuṛnya, isɣa yat tsurart taklasikiyt n ukccuḍ amahujiniy hakṛ-kraft iḥḍu tt allig immut."
"""When Bogart won, however, he said: """"It's a long way from the Belgian Congo to the stage of this theatre.""","""maca, lli g imurs bugart inna: """"iɛrqq ubrid sg lkungu tabljikiyt s tmẓṛit n umzgun."""
"As in tennis, you need a good opponent or partner to bring out the best in you.","zund ttinis, ixssak unḍlib nɣd amssur iɣudan afad d tssufɣd aynna digk illan."
"Though he retained some of his old bitterness about having to do so, he delivered a strong performance in the lead; he received his final Oscar nomination and was the subject of a June 7, 1954 Time magazine cover story.","mqqar iḥḍa kra g taṛẓgt nns tazaykut n wad isskar aya, maca isnkd yan waggay anaflla; yamẓ aẓlay nns amggaru i tsmɣurt n uskaṛ ig imrsi g tullist n tsɣunt taym g 7 mayyu 1954."
He is the type of director I don't like to work with ... the picture is a crock of crap.,iga anaw n umssufɣ nna s ur riɣ ad ids swuriɣ ... tawlaft tga aqcuṛ sg uskstf.
"""Despite the acrimony, the film was successful; according to a review in The New York Times, Bogart was """"incredibly adroit ... the skill with which this old rock-ribbed actor blends the gags and such duplicities with a manly manner of melting is one of the incalculable joys of the show"""".""","""mqqar tlla tuẓẓirt, imurs ufilm; nil uzzray n uɣmis nyuyuṛk taymz, iga bugart """"amddnki ur ittudmi ... afuks nna g itssur usmdya ingr umsamma ar tn ismun s tmamkt izɛmn afssay iga sg imdazn n umiẓaṛ iggutn""""."""
"He was uneasy with Ava Gardner in the female lead; she had just broken up with his Rat Pack buddy Frank Sinatra, and Bogart was annoyed by her inexperienced performance.","ur iswanfa ntta d afa haṛdnr g tilalt tasdlant ntmṭṭuḍt; bḥṛa tnnuṛẓm sg umddakkl nns fṛank sinatra, igrurs bugart sg taggayt nns g ur tlli tmuẓayt."
"When Bacall found them together, she extracted an expensive shopping spree from her husband; the three traveled together after the shooting.","lli g tn inn tufa bakal s sin, tkks d g urgaz nns yat tsutlt n msiɣt iɣlan; mmuddun s kṛaḍ ḍaṛt wafa."
"He also appeared on The Jack Benny Show, where a surviving kinescope of the live telecast captures him in his only TV sketch-comedy performance (October 25, 1953).","iffɣd awd g uɣawas n du jak bini cuw, nna g tid yumẓ yan umiẓaṛ n ssinima sg ufsar tilifizyun usrid g waggay nns amsḍṣi amyiwn (25 ktubr 1953)."
Stephen became an author and biographer and hosted a television special about his father on Turner Classic Movies.,yaɣul stifn d amgay d umira n tridrt isnbgi yan uɣawas atilifizyuniy iẓlin s babas g turnr klasik mufi.
"In the wake of Santana, Bogart had formed a new company and had plans for a film (Melville Goodwin, U.S.A.) in which he would play a general and Bacall a press magnate.","g wattayn n santana, iskr bugart yat tmssurt tamaynut ar isɣawas i ufilm (milfil gudwin, U.S.A.) yurar digs tilalt n ujiniral d bakal tga taɣmist."
He did not talk about his health and visited a doctor in January 1956 after considerable persuasion from Bacall.,ur isawl xf udwas nns ikk d ɣur umssasfr g innayr 1956 g t tssnẓi bakal.
"He had additional surgery in November 1956, when the cancer had metastasized.","ittskar as wayḍ uflay g nuwanbir 1956, lli g digs yaɣ ukunsiṛ."
"""On it was inscribed, """"If you want anything, just whistle.""""""","""g as ittugzay, """"ig trid kra n tɣawsa, ɣas ṣinṣg."""""""
"Having studied with Stella Adler in the 1940s, he is credited with being one of the first actors to bring the Stanislavski system of acting and method acting, derived from the Stanislavski system, to mainstream audiences.","ḍaṛt tɣuri nns d stilla adlir g 1940, iga sg ismdyatn imzwura d yuwin angraw d tmamkt n usmdya stanislafski, anafuɣ n ungraw stanislafski, s ugdud amqqran."
"He directed and starred in the cult western One-Eyed Jacks, a critical and commercial flop, after which he delivered a series of notable box-office failures, beginning with Mutiny on the Bounty (1962).","issufɣ d yurar g kult wistirn wan iyd jaks, ur imuris g uzɣan d usbbeb, issmrs yat tugt n iṛẓan ibaynn g usira n tnfulin, sg ufilm n munity un du bunti (1962)."
He refused the award due to alleged mistreatment and misportrayal of Native Americans by Hollywood.,ur iri tasmɣurt s tmntilt n usmkl ur iḥlin nna inna d gar aswlf n inṣliyn n mirikan sg huliwud.
"According to the Guinness Book of World Records, Brando was paid a record $3.7 million ($ million in inflation-adjusted dollars) and 11.75% of the gross profits for 13 days' work on Superman.","nil udlis n giniz i imḍann inafllatn, yumẓ bṛandu atig n 3.7 mlyun dulaṛ (mlyun dulaṛ n id dulaṛ nil ubzzug) d 11.75% sg ibɣurn kullu xf 13 n wass n twuri n subirman."
"His ancestry was mostly German, Dutch, English, and Irish.","tga ttaṣilt nnas talmaniyt, tahulandiyt, tangliziyt, d tirlandiyt."
Brando was raised a Christian Scientist.,ixatrd bṛandu d amassan amasiḥiy.
"However, she was an alcoholic and often had to be brought home from bars in Chicago by her husband.","mqqar d aynn, ttubla s tssi ar itxssu urgaz nns ad tt irar s taddart sg id lbaṛ g cikagu."
"""Brando harbored far more enmity for his father, stating, """"I was his namesake, but nothing I did ever pleased or even interested him.""","""ur iḥmil bṛandu babas kigan, acku inna """"usiɣ ism nns, maca ur djin yusiy lhmm ula antay s uynna sskrɣ."""
"Around 1930, Brando's parents moved to Evanston, Illinois, when his father's work took him to Chicago, but separated in 1935 when Brando was 11 years old.","attayn n 1930, mmuttin imarawn n bṛandu s ifanstun, ilinwis, lli g t tuwi twuri n babas s cikagu, maca nnuṛẓmn g usggwas 1935 lli g illa 11 n usggwas ɣur bṛandu."
"""Brando, whose childhood nickname was """"Bud"""", was a mimic from his youth.""","""brandu mi ttinin g tmẓi """"bud"""", iga amḍfṛ sg tɛurrma nns."""
"In the 2007 TCM biopic Brando: The Documentary, childhood friend George Englund recalls Brando's earliest acting as imitating the cows and horses on the family farm as a way to distract his mother from drinking.","g ufilm untim brandu: xf tridrt i TCM asggwas n 2007, ar ismktay umddakkl n tmẓi juṛj inglud tawuri tamzwarut n brandu lli g da itgga am tfunasin d iyysan g tuẓut n tawja afad isslhu immas ad ur tssa."
Brando's sister Frances left college in California to study art in New York.,tzri fṛansis ultmas n brandu tasdawit g kalifuṛnya afad tɣr taẓuṛi g nyuyuṛk.
Brando excelled at theater and did well in the school.,imurs brandu g umzgun isskr aggay iɣudan g tinml.
"The faculty voted to expel him, though he was supported by the students, who thought expulsion was too harsh.","tsti tsdawit ad t thṛḍ, mqqar t uwsn imzrawn, nna ittinin mas d aṭṭay icqqa kigan."
"""In a 1988 documentary, Marlon Brando: The Wild One, Brando's sister Jocelyn remembered, """"He was in a school play and enjoyed it ... So he decided he would go to New York and study acting because that was the only thing he had enjoyed.""","g yan ufilm untim g 1988, maṛlun brandu: du wayld wan, tsmmkti jusilin ultmas n brandu, """"illa g yat tmzgunt tanmlant tssusm t ... aynnaɣ axf idda s nyuyuṛk ad iɣr asmdya acku iga yat tɣawsa nna t issusmn."""
"For a time he lived with Roy Somlyo, who later became a four time Emmy winning Broadway producer.","iddr imik n tizi d ṛuy sumlyu, nna yaɣuln iga amssfrs n brudway nna yuwin tasmɣurt n immi kkuz n tikkal."
Brando's remarkable insight and sense of realism were evident early on.,tannayt n brandu iɣudan d ufray nns anilaw gan anilawn sg zikk.
"According to Dustin Hoffman in his online Masterclass, Brando would often talk to camera men and fellow actors about their weekend even after the director would call action.","nil dustin hufman g tmsirin nns tidslanin g wntirnit, da isawal brandu kigan i imswlafn d imddukkal nns ismdyatn xf tnuṛẓmt n tgira n imalas qqar ta ur iɣri umssufɣ s tigawt."
"His behavior had him kicked out of the cast of the New School's production in Sayville, but he was soon afterwards discovered in a locally produced play there.","iẓẓl t uṣniɛ nns g trabbut n imsdyatn isfarsn tinml tamaynut g sayfil, maca ufan t ḍaṛt yan uzmz idrusn g ufars n yat tmdgunt tadɣrant."
Cornell also cast him as the Messenger in her production of Jean Anouilh's Antigone that same year.,isti t kurnil d amazan g ufars nns n antigun n jun anwilḥ g usggwas nnaɣ.
"Bankhead had turned down the role of Blanche Dubois in A Streetcar Named Desire, which Williams had written for her, to tour the play for the 1946–1947 season.","ur iri bankhid tilalt n blanc dubwa g ufilm tamssudut ism nns yiri, nna as tura wilyamz, afad tsskr asutl n tmzgunt g wannaz n 1946–1947."
"""Wilson was largely tolerant of Brando's behavior, but he reached his limit when Brando mumbled through a dress rehearsal shortly before the November 28, 1946, opening. """"""","""iga wilsun amssuruf kigan d uṣniɛ n brandu, maca yuwḍ nn awttu nns g itmtm brandu g yan uɛawd amatay imik dat uṛẓẓum n 28 nuwanbir 1946."""""""
"""It was marvelous,"""" a cast member recalled. """"""","""da d iktti yan g igmamn n trabbut n usmdya, """"iẓil. """""""
"Critics were not as kind, however.",maca imzɣan ur gin am wanaw ad iẓiln.
"""He received better reviews at subsequent tour stops, but what his colleagues recalled was only occasional indications of the talent he would later demonstrate. """"""","""yumẓ isttgn iɣudan g tiram d iddan, maca aynna bdrn imddukkal nns iga timatarin timzwura n tẓuṛi nna rad issufɣ ɣr dat."""""""
Brando displayed his apathy for the production by demonstrating some shocking onstage manners.,issufɣ d brandu warkkul xf ufars s ussufɣ n tmamkin issbhaḍn g tmẓṛit.
"After several weeks on the road, they reached Boston, by which time Bankhead was ready to dismiss him.","dat kigan n imalasn g ubrid, iwḍn bustun, g tizi nnaɣ issujd bankhid ukus nns."
"""Pierpont writes that John Garfield was first choice for the role, but """"made impossible demands.""""""","""yura birbunt mas iga jun garfild astay amzwaru i tilalt ad, maca """"ifka issuturn yagumn."""""""
"""It humanizes the character of Stanley in that it becomes the brutality and callousness of youth rather than a vicious old man ... A new value came out of Brando's reading which was by far the best reading I have ever heard.""""""","""isnufgn awrik n stanli g unamk g itgga uẓẓiṛ d uwɛaṛ n iɛrrimn g udɣar n urgaz awssar amflls ... iffɣ d yan wuddur amaynu n tɣri n brandu nna igan sglli tiɣri tamufayt mi sllaɣ akkw."""""""
"""He said, """"The curtain went up and on the stage is that son of a bitch from the gym, and he's playing me.""""""","""inna, """"ittwakks usntl yili memmis n tmggant n tdala n ljim g tmẓṛit, ar didi itturar."""""""
Brando's first screen role was a bitter paraplegic veteran in The Men (1950).,tga tilalt tamzwarut n brandu g umiẓaṛ amḥrka azayku yaɣ ukkucm iḥṛṛan g du min (1950).
"By Brando's own account, it may have been because of this film that his draft status was changed from 4-F to 1-A. He had had surgery on his trick knee, and it was no longer physically debilitating enough to incur exclusion from the draft.","sg umiḍan n brandu amẓlay, iɣy id s tmntilt n ufilm ad immutti waddad nns sg 4-F ɣr 1-A. ttuga as yat tkccumt n uflay g ufud ittuknadn, ur yad igi amaḥul g tfgga nns afad ittwakks g tnfult."
"Coincidentally, the psychiatrist knew a doctor friend of Brando.","s usama, issn ubsikyatr yan umsgnaf amddakkl n brandu."
The role is regarded as one of Brando's greatest.,tilalt tga yan sg imqqrann n brandu.
The film was directed by Elia Kazan and co-starred Anthony Quinn.,iliya kazan ayd issufɣn afilm d anṭuni kwin ayd igan anaḍ nns.
"During our scenes together, I sensed a bitterness toward me, and if I suggested a drink after work, he either turned me down or else was sullen and said little.","g imiẓaṛn nnɣ s sin, frkɣ s taṛẓgt siwala inu, d mk riɣ ad nsu kra ḍaṛt twuri, ur da ittiri nɣd isug idris as wawal."
"After achieving the desired effect, Kazan never told Quinn that he had misled him.","adday yawḍ iḍiṣ nna ira, ur akkw inni kazan i kwin is t izla."
"Gielgud was so impressed that he offered Brando a full season at the Hammersmith Theatre, an offer he declined.","ittususm gilgud kigan allig isumr xf brandu annaz ikmmln g umzgun hamrsmit, d assumr yugi."
It was like a furnace door opening—the heat came off the screen.,iga zun tṛẓmd tiflut n ufṛṛan—iffɣ d unrɣi g umiẓaṛ.
"""By all accounts, Brando was upset by his mentor's decision, but he worked with him again in On The Waterfront. """"""","""s tmsɣalin kullu, ittunkkd brandu g tɣtast n uslmad nns, maca iswura ids tikklt yaḍn g du watrfrunt."""""""
"Triumph's importers were ambivalent at the exposure, as the subject matter was rowdy motorcycle gangs taking over a small town.","gan imkcimn n triyumfz imɣnnen d ufsar, acku iga imrsi xf trubba n imuṭuṛn yumẓn yan iɣrm amẓẓyan."
"When initially offered the role, Brando—still stung by Kazan's testimony to HUAC—demurred and the part of Terry Malloy nearly went to Frank Sinatra.","lli g ttufsar tilalt tizwuri, brandu—isuln ittuḍaṣ s wawal n kazan dat HUAC—yugi d druɣ idda yan uqcur n tirri malwi s ɣur fṛank sinatra."
Brando won the Oscar for his role as Irish-American stevedore Terry Malloy in On the Waterfront.,yuwi brandu tasmɣurt n uskar xf tilalt n umssartu irlandiy-amirikaniy tirri malwi g ufilm un du watrfrunt.
"""In his July 29, 1954, review, The New York Times critic A. H. Weiler praised the film, calling it """"an uncommonly powerful, exciting, and imaginative use of the screen by gifted professionals.""""""","g uzɣan nns g 29 yulyuz 1954, yulɣ umzɣan n nyuyuṛk taymz A. H. wilir afilm, isnumml t """"assmrs uslid idusn, anbdar, amarur n umiẓaṛ s izzulann."""""""
He portrayed Napoleon in the 1954 film Désirée.,iswlf nabulyun g ufilm nna ira g 1954.
Brando was especially contemptuous of director Henry Koster.,brandu da itḥqqar s uẓlay amssufɣ henri kustr.
"""Relations between Brando and costar Frank Sinatra were also frosty, with Stefan Kanfer observing: """"The two men were diametrical opposites: Marlon required multiple takes; Frank detested repeating himself.""""""","""izdayn ingr brandu d kustar fṛank sinatra qrfn, yukz stifan kanfr: """"irgazn s sin mxalafn nnik: marlun da ittiri ad yals kigan n tikklt; fṛank ur da ittiḥmil ad yals i ixf nns."""""""
"""Frank Sinatra called Brando """"the world's most overrated actor"""", and referred to him as """"mumbles"""".""","""inna fṛank sinatra xf brandu """"sufn t uggar n ismdyatn numaḍal"""", d isslɣ as """"mumblz""""."""
"""Pauline Kael was not particularly impressed by the movie, but noted """"Marlon Brando starved himself to play the pixie interpreter Sakini, and he looks as if he's enjoying the stunt—talking with a mad accent, grinning boyishly, bending forward, and doing tricky movements with his legs.""","""ur ttuḍaṣ bulin kayl s ufilm s uẓlay, maca tukz """"tslluẓ maṛlun brandu ixf nns afad turar tilalt n umssuɣl sakini, d ɛniɣ issusmt umḍfṛ—awal s ugṛḍ anafal, d taḍṣa s tmamkt n imẓẓyann, ar iknnu s dat, ar ismussu ifaddn nns s ttawil."""
"""Newsweek found the film a """"dull tale of the meeting of the twain"""", but it was nevertheless a box-office success.""","""tufa nyuzwik afilm """"tullist tamsilawt n umlala n ikniwn"""", maca tmurs mqqar g usira n tnfulin."""
The film went on to win four Academy Awards.,yuwi ufilm kkuẓ n tsmɣurin n uskaṛ.
"""By all accounts, Brando was devastated by her death, with biographer Peter Manso telling A&E's Biography, """"She was the one who could give him approval like no one else could and, after his mother died, it seems that Marlon stops caring.""""""","""s tmsɣalin kullu, iftts brandu s tmttant nns, idɣ ina umira n tridrt bitr mansu tiridrt n A&E's, """"nttat ayd iɣin ad as ifk amsasa imki nna ur iɣiy kra yaḍn, ḍaṛt tmttant n immas, ɛniɣ maṛlun tsbdd anhlla."""""""
The Young Lions also features Brando's only appearance in a film with friend and rival Montgomery Clift (although they shared no scenes together).,iga du yung lyuns ufuɣ n brandu amyiwn g ufilm ntta d umddakkl d rifal muntgumri klift (mqqar ur amun g awd yan umiẓaṛ s sin).
"""Brando portrays the lead character Rio, and Karl Malden plays his partner """"Dad"""" Longworth.""","""iswlf brandu awrik adslan riyu, d kaṛl maldn yurar tilalt n umssur nns """"dad"""" lungwuṛt."""
Brando's inexperience as an editor also delayed postproduction and Paramount eventually took control of the film.,aririm n brandu g usnay ayd ismaṭln tifrkt n ḍaṛt ufars allig ibaḍ baramunt tigira g ufilm.
"""By then, I was bored with the whole project and walked away from it.""""""","""g tizi ad, qnḍɣ sg usɣnu kullut fkɣ as s ttisaɛ."""""""
"Brando's revulsion with the film industry reportedly boiled over on the set of his next film, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's remake of Mutiny on the Bounty, which was filmed in Tahiti.","agrurs n brandu g tmguri n ufilm ayd issngin asnay n ufilm nns yaḍn, mitru-mayṛz taẓṛigt tamaynut sg muniti un du bunti, nna ittuswlfn g tahiti."
"""Mutiny director Lewis Milestone claimed that the executives """"deserve what they get when they give a ham actor, a petulant child, complete control over an expensive picture.""""""","""amssufɣ n muniti lwis milistun isnalaw mas d imskarn """"uklaln aynna ttamẓn tizi g akkan aksum n uḥlluf i usmdya, arba ur iḥlin, tanbaḍt tamuttrt xf yat twlaft iɣlan."""""""
The Ugly American (1963) was the first of these films.,amirikaniy ur iḥlin (1963) ayd igan amzwaru g ifilmn ad.
"All of Brando's other Universal films during this period, including Bedtime Story (1964), The Appaloosa (1966), A Countess from Hong Kong (1967) and The Night of the Following Day (1969), were also critical and commercial flops.","kullu ifilmn imaḍlann n brundu g tizi ad, g illa tullisn n tizi n yiḍs (1964), du abbaluuza (1966), kuntissa sg hun kung (1967) d iḍ n wass d iddan (1969), llan infaln imzɣann d insbabn."
"Brando had also appeared in the spy thriller Morituri in 1965; that, too, failed to attract an audience.",iffɣ d brandu awd g tiɣli murituri asggas n 1965; nna; d ur ildiyn awd nttat agdud.
"Candy was especially appalling for many; a 1968 sex farce film directed by Christian Marquand and based on the 1958 novel by Terry Southern, the film satirizes pornographic stories through the adventures of its naive heroine, Candy, played by Ewa Aulin.","imqqt kigan kandi; afilm amṣḍṣi n tuqqut asggwas n 1968 nna issufɣ kristyan maṛkwand yutgn s yat tullist nna yaru tirri sadrn g 1958, da ittḍṣa ufilm g tullisin n tuqqut, sg tmsksalin n tanaḍt n ufilm ifllsn, kandi, nna yurarn tilalt n iwa ulayn."
"""In the March 1966 issue of The Atlantic, Pauline Kael wrote that in his rebellious days, Brando """"was antisocial because he knew society was crap; he was a hero to youth because he was strong enough not to take the crap"""", but now Brando and others like him had become """"buffoons, shamelessly, pathetically mocking their public reputations.""""""","""g umḍan n maṛs 1966 n tsɣunt aṭlantik, tura bulin kayl mas d g wussan nns imɣwwɣn, brandu """"ur iḥmil amun acku issn is iga umun iskstufn; iga anaḍ i iɛrrimn acku idus kigan afad ur yiḥmil iskstufn"""", maca dɣi yaɣul brandu d am ntta gan """"ihyyaḍn, bla lḥya, ar ttḍṣan g wuddur nnsn allig da ssnɣan tasa."""""""
"""I was very convincing in my pose of indifference, but I was very sensitive and it hurt a lot.""""""","""nẓiɣ kigan s wansa inu n aramziray, maca ḥnunaɣ d uya iɛrrmi kigan."""""""
The film overall received mixed reviews.,s umata yumẓ ufilm tannayin imzarayn.
"Brando dedicated a full chapter to the film in his memoir, stating that the director, Gillo Pontecorvo, was the best director he had ever worked with next to Kazan and Bernardo Bertolucci.","yudja brandu yan imir kullu i ufilm g tmsktitin nns, yini mas d amssufɣ, gilu buntikurfu, d amssufɣ amufay nna d iswuri akkw ntta d kazan d birnaṛdu birtulutci."
"In 1971, Michael Winner directed him in the British horror film The Nightcomers with Stephanie Beacham, Thora Hird, Harry Andrews and Anna Palk.","g usggwas n 1971, issufɣ t id maykl winir g ufilm n tawda abṛitaniydu niytkumrz d stifani bitcam, tuṛa hayrd, harri andruz d anna balk."
He bested Brando at the 1972 New York Film Critics Circle Awards.),irna brandu g tfugla n ubṭṭu n tsmɣurin g nyuyuṛk filmkritik sayrkl asggwas n 1972.)
"Brando also had One-Eyed Jacks working against him, a troubled production that lost money for Paramount when it was released in 1961.","illa awd ɣur brandu wan-ayd jaks iswurin mgal nns, afars yussan mi ddan idrimn i baramunt lli g tid tssufɣ asggwas n 1961."
"""Coppola convinced Brando to a videotaped """"make-up"""" test, in which Brando did his own makeup (he used cotton balls to simulate the character's puffed cheeks).""","""kubbula tnẓa brandu ad izzri irim """"lɛnayt"""" ittuswlafng ufidyu, isskr brandu lɛnayt iẓlin ẓaṛs (issmrs kra n tkurin n ufduɣ ad isskr aggayn n uwrik innuṛẓmn)."""
"""Brando had doubts himself, stating in his autobiography, """"I had never played an Italian before, and I didn't think I could do it successfully.""""""","""brandu ickka g ixf nns, acku inna g tridirt nns, """"ur djun urarɣ tilalt taṭalyaniyt, ur djun nniɣ is ɣiyɣ ad sskrɣ aynnaɣ s umurs."""""""
"Brando was signed for a low fee of $50,000, but in his contract, he was given a percentage of the gross on a sliding scale: 1% of the gross for each $10 million over a $10 million threshold, up to 5% if the picture exceeded $60 million.","isnya brandu mgal n warratn iggzn anct $50,000, maca tamɣunt nns, yumẓ tigmiḍi sg usmmun xf tsqqult ittalin: 1% sg usmmun iku 10 n id mlyun dulaṛ xf ubadu n 10 n id mlyun dulaṛ, ar 5% ig tzri twlaft 60 n id mlyun dulaṛ."
"""In a 1994 interview that can be found on the Academy of Achievement website, Coppola insisted, """"The Godfather was a very unappreciated movie when we were making it.""","""g yan umsawal g usggwas n 1994 nna nɣy ad naf g uslkin n tkadimiyt n uḥṭṭu, isddid kubbula, """"du gudfadr iga afilm nna ur ittustaln lli g dat nsskar."""
They didn't like the way I was shooting it.,ur ḥmiln taɣarast massa ssufɣɣ.
"In a 2010 television interview with Larry King, Al Pacino also talked about how Brando's support helped him keep the role of Michael Corleone in the movie—despite the fact Coppola wanted to fire him.","g yan umsawal alifizyuniy d lari king asggwas n 2010, isawl awd al batcinu xf mamk t tuws tnalit n brandu g uḥṭṭu n tilalt n maykl kuṛlyuni g ufilm—mqqar ira kubbula ad t iẓẓl."
"""He broke the ice by toasting the group with a glass of wine."""" '""","“ibbi usbat s lkas lli yusi f ugdud."""" '"""
"""Caan adds, 'The first day we met Brando everybody was in awe.'""""""","""yrnu asd kaan, 'ass amzwaru g nmlala d brandu kulci ittsayya.'"""""""
"""Also, because he had so much power and unquestioned authority, I thought it would be an interesting contrast to play him as a gentle man, unlike Al Capone, who beat up people with baseball bats.""""""","awd, iddɣ ɣurs tlla kigan n tdusi d tnbaḍt nna xf ur illi umxalaf, ɣalɣ is qad yili umzaray issrɛabn ig yurar tilalt n urgaz iɣudan, mgal al kabun, nna ikkatn mddn s imɛṛaḍn n lbizbul."""""""
There was really no beginning.,zziɣ ur akkw lli usnti.
"He boycotted the award ceremony, instead sending indigenous American rights activist Sacheen Littlefeather, who appeared in full Apache attire, to state Brando's reasons, which were based on his objection to the depiction of indigenous Americans by Hollywood and television.","ur iddi s tfugla n ubṭṭu n tsmɣurin, g wansa nns yuzn amɣnas azrfan amirikaniy igan sg imzaɣ inṣliyn sacin litlfaydr, nna d iffɣn s tmlsa n abatci kullu, timntilin n brandu, nna isnndn xf is ur tri huliwud d tilifizyun n mirikan ad swlfn imirikaniyn inḍliyn."
"As with previous films, Brando refused to memorize his lines for many scenes; instead, he wrote his lines on cue cards and posted them around the set for easy reference, leaving Bertolucci with the problem of keeping them out of the picture frame.","am ifilmn izrin, ur iri brandu ad imsu izrirign nns g kigan n imiẓaṛn; g wansa n uynnaɣ, yura izrirign nns g tkaṛḍtin ismmktayn ifsrtnt g trabbut afad yiwhin ad ẓaṛs nt yuɣul, yadj birtulutci d umukris n wad tnt iṭṭf brra n uswlf."
His gross participation deal earned him $3 million.,tamɣunt nns n wumu tsskcm as 3 n id mlyun dulaṛ.
"""Pauline Kael, in The New Yorker review, wrote """"The movie breakthrough has finally come.""","""tura bulin kayk, g tsɣunt n nyuyuṛkr, """"g tgira iddad usnfl n ufilm."""
"In 1973, Brando was devastated by the death of his childhood best friend Wally Cox.","g usggwas n 1973, iɛrrm brandu s tmttant n umddakkl n tmẓi nns wali kuks."
"Absent for the first hour of the movie, Clayton enters on horseback, dangling upside down, caparisoned in white buckskin, Littlefeather-style.","iɛṭṭr nn tasragt tamzwarut n ufilm, ikcm nn klaytun s wayyis, irar ixf s izdar, ils abṭṭan amllal n tmlalt,tamamkt-litldaydr."
"""Penn, who believed in letting actors do their thing, indulged Marlon all the way.""""""","""bnn, nna ittamnn s uqqil n ismdyatn ad gn tawuri nnsn, ar isḥinnib marlun g ubrid."""""""
"In 1978, Brando narrated the English version of Raoni, a French-Belgian documentary film directed by Jean-Pierre Dutilleux and Luiz Carlos Saldanha that focused on the life of Raoni Metuktire and issues surrounding the survival of the indigenous Indian tribes of north central Brazil.","g usggwas n 1978, iqqis brandu tanuɣilt tanglizit n ufilm rawni, d ufilm untim afṛansiy-abljikiyb nna d issufɣ jan-byir dutulyu d lwiz karlus saldanha nna ismntin tudrt rawni mituktir d tmntilin izdin s iɣimi n tqbilin tihindiyin tinṣliyin g iẓlmḍ n wammas n lbrazil."
"In 1979, he made a rare television appearance in the miniseries Roots: The Next Generations, portraying George Lincoln Rockwell; he won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie for his performance.","g usggwas n 1979, iffɣ d yan wufuɣ atilifizyuniy idrusn g usnsl agzzal iẓuṛan: tisutiwin d iddan, nna iswllf juṛj linkuln ṛukwil; yuwi tasmɣurt n brimitim immi i umsdya amawas amufay g usnsl agzzal nɣ d afilm xf taggayt nns."
Brando was paid $1 million a week for 3 weeks work.,yumẓ brandu 1 n id mlyun dular i imalas xf 3 imalasn n twuri.
"In the documentary, Coppola talks about how astonished he was when an overweight Brando turned up for his scenes and, feeling desperate, decided to portray Kurtz, who appears emaciated in the original story, as a man who had indulged every aspect of himself.","g ufilm untim, da isawal kubula xf uṛɛab nns llig d iffɣ brandu bu ustal izaydn afad ad t iẓṛ, iɣyyr, yiri ad iswlf ku!rtz, nna isdidn g tullist tanṣliyt, d argaz ikcmn ku tsga n tsggin n ixf ns."
"However, he returned in 1989 in A Dry White Season, based on André Brink's 1979 anti-apartheid novel.","imil, yaɣul d asggwas n 1989 g tizi imlluln tzwu, s yitg n s tullist n andri brink asggwas n 1979 mgal-abartayd."
"Brando received praise for his performance, earning an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor and winning the Best Actor Award at the Tokyo Film Festival.","uttwalɣ brandu xf taggayt nns, yamẓ astay s tsmɣurt n uskaṛ i usmdya amawas amufay yawy tasmɣurt n usmdya amufay g unmuggar n tukyu n ssinima."
"""Variety also praised Brando's performance as Sabatini and noted, """"Marlon Brando's sublime comedy performance elevates The Freshman from screwball comedy to a quirky niche in film history.""""""","""tulɣ awd farayti taggayt n brandu zund sabatiny takz mas d """"taggayt takumidiyt iɣudan n marlun brandu da tssiliy imsntayn g tkumidiyt s yan watig amqqran g umzruy n ifilmn."""""""
"The Island of Dr. Moreau screenwriter Ron Hutchinson would later say in his memoir, Clinging to the Iceberg: Writing for a Living on the Stage and in Hollywood (2017), that Brando sabotaged the film's production by feuding and refusing to cooperate with his colleagues and the film crew.","inna umssufɣ n tgzirt n duktuṛ muṛu, run hutcinsun, g tmsktiyin nns, amaẓ s adrar n ugris: tirra xf tudrt g umzgun g huliwud (2017), mas d isxsr brandu afars n ufilm s umadu d yigi n umyawas d imddukkal nns d trabbut n ufilm."
This was his last role and his only role as a female character.,wad ayd igan tilalt nns tamyiwnt d tmggarut d awrik n tmṭṭuḍt.
"""The actor's son, Miko, was Jackson's bodyguard and assistant for several years, and was a friend of the singer. """"""","""memmis n usmdya, miku, igan amḥḍay d umawas n jaksun budigard kigan n isggwasn, d iga amddakkl n umɣnnj. """""""
"Dad had a hard time breathing in his final days, and he was on oxygen much of the time.","ikṛfs baba g wunfus g wussan nns imggura, ittug as wuksijin wahli n tizi."
So Michael got Dad a golf cart with a portable oxygen tank so he could go around and enjoy Neverland.,aynnaɣ a xf yumẓ maykl yat tmssudut n lgulf d wuksijin amasay i baba afad issutul ar issbɣar s nifrland.
He also suffered from diabetes and liver cancer.,yuḍn awd g sskṛ d ukunṣir n tasa.
His single recorded line was included within the final game as a tribute to the actor.,ittuskcm izririg nns amyiwn g tirart tamggarut d uddur i usmdya.
A distressed Brando told Malden he kept falling over.,inna brandu i maldn mas d isul da iṭṭaṛ.
"Shortly before his death, he had apparently refused permission for tubes carrying oxygen to be inserted into his lungs, which, he was told, was the only way to prolong his life.","dat n tmttant nns s imik, ur iri ad iskcm ijɛba ittawin uksijin s turin nns, nna s as nnan hat tamamkt tamyiwnt afad iɣzif usmmud nns."
"""In 1976, he told a French journalist, """"Homosexuality is so much in fashion, it no longer makes news.""","""g usggwas n 1976, inna as i yan unɣmas afṛansis, """"iga uzunris muḍa kigan, ur da iskar inɣmisn."""
"He also claimed numerous other romances, although he did not discuss his marriages, his wives, or his children in his autobiography.","yuws awd kigan n tṛumansiyin yaḍn, mqqar ur isawl xf twtmin nns nɣd icirran nns g tridirt nns."
"Brando met actress Rita Moreno in 1954, and they began a love affair.","imlala brandu d tmsdyat rita murinu asggas n 1954, tsnti ingrasn tullist n tayri."
"Years after they broke up, Moreno played his love interest in the film The Night of the Following Day.","isggwasn ḍaṛt bṭṭu nnsn, turar murinu xf tayri nns g ufilm n iḍ n wass d iddan."
"She is said to have been the daughter of a Welsh steel worker of Irish descent, William O'Callaghan, who had been superintendent on the Indian State railways.","ittuna mas d tga illis n umwuri g wuzzal awilẓiy sg iẓuṛan iṛlandiyn, wilyam ukalajan, nna yumẓn ibrdan n wuzzal g lhind."
"Brando and Kashfi had a son, Christian Brando, on May 11, 1958; they divorced in 1959.","yuru brandu d kacfi yan urba, kristyan brandu, g 11 mayyu 1958; mṛẓamn g 1959."
They had two children together: Miko Castaneda Brando (born 1961) and Rebecca Brando (born 1966).,ɣursn sin icirran: miku kastanida brandu (iluln g 1961) d ribikka brandu (iluln g 1966).
"Because Teriipaia was a native French speaker, Brando became fluent in the language and gave numerous interviews in French.","iddɣ tga tribaya tutlayt tafṛansist tansliyt, yaɣul brandu issn as isskr kigan n imsawaln ẓaṛs."
Brando and Teriipaia divorced in July 1972.,imyaṛẓam brandu d tiribaya g yulyuz 1972.
"Brando had a long-term relationship with his housekeeper Maria Cristina Ruiz, with whom he had three children: Ninna Priscilla Brando (born May 13, 1989), Myles Jonathan Brando (born January 16, 1992), and Timothy Gahan Brando (born January 6, 1994).","iddukkl bandu tamswuddut n taddart nns mariya kristina ṛuyz kigan ntizi, yaru dids kṛaḍ icirran: ninna briskilla brandu (iluln g 13 mayyu 1989), milis junatan brandu (iluln g 16 innayr 1992), d timuti gahan brandu (iluln g 6 innayr 1994)."
"His numerous grandchildren also include Prudence Brando and Shane Brando, children of Miko C. Brando; the children of Rebecca Brando; and the three children of Teihotu Brando among others.","sg wayyawn nns iggutn brudns brandu d cayn brandu, icirran n miku C. brandu; icirran n ribika brandu; d kṛaḍ icirran tihutu brandu sg wiyaḍ."
His behavior during the filming of Mutiny on the Bounty (1962) seemed to bolster his reputation as a difficult star.,iga umskar nns g tizi n uswlf nufilm n muniti un du bunti (1962) da ittaws uddur nns d itri icqqan.
"Galella had followed Brando, who was accompanied by talk show host Dick Cavett, after a taping of The Dick Cavett Show in New York City.","galilla tḍfaṛ brandu, nna isnbga uɣawas n umawal dik kafitt, ḍaṛt uzmmem n uɣawas n dik dafitt g nyuyuṛk siti."
"The filming of Mutiny on the Bounty affected Brando's life in a profound way, as he fell in love with Tahiti and its people.","aswlf n ufilm muniti un du bunti iṭṭas tudrt n brandu kigan, acku iḍṛ g tayri n tahiti d ayt uxam nns."
The 1983 hurricane destroyed many of the structures including his resort.,tzllɛ tazzɣrblt n 1983 kigan n tuṣkiwin nna g tamu tsaɣult nns.
He was listed in the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) records as Martin Brandeaux to preserve his privacy.,skcmn t g warratn n tsqqamut n imyawaḍn ifidiraliyn (FCC) s yism n maṛtan branḍu ad ḥḍun tudrt nns tusligt.
He attended some fundraisers for John F. Kennedy in the 1960 presidential election.,isnbga imsmunn n ifṛṛutn i jun F. kinidi g tfrnin tislwayin n 1960.
"In autumn of 1967, Brando visited Helsinki, Finland at a charity party organized by UNICEF at the Helsinki City Theatre.","g umwan n usggwas 1967, ikka brandu hilsinkui, finlanda g yat tfugla n ufulki nna tssuds lyunissif g umzgun g tmdint n hilsinky."
He spoke in favor of children’s rights and development aid in developing countries.,isawl xf izrfan n urba d twisi tasgmant g tmura tingmanin.
"""I felt I'd better go find out where it is; what it is to be black in this country; what this rage is all about,"""" Brando said on the late-night ABC-TV talk show Joey Bishop Show.""","inna brandu g uɣawas n umsawal juw bicub cuw xf usaru ABC-TV: ""frkɣ mas d yuf ad dduɣ ad rzuɣ mani g illa, mayd igan aḥbcan g tmurt ad, matta zzɛaf ad kullu""""."
"""It was one of the most incredible acts of courage I ever saw, and it meant a lot and did a lot.""""""","""tga yat sg twuriwin tizulanin iẓiln nna ẓṛiɣ g tudrt inu, tga kigan tsskr kigan."""""""
"""In 1964 Brando was arrested at a """"fish-in"""" held to protest a broken treaty that had promised Native Americans fishing rights in Puget Sound.""","""g usggwas n 1964, ittwamẓ brandu g """"fic-in"""" xf iɣuyyan mgal tmɣunt imxalafn tkka tka awal i imirikaniyn inṣliyn ad gmrn g bujit sawnd."""
"""Brando ended his financial support for the group over his perception of its increasing radicalization, specifically a passage in a Panther pamphlet put out by Eldridge Cleaver advocating indiscriminate violence, """"for the Revolution.""""""","""isbdda brandu annal nns i trabbut s tmntilt n uɣwwɣ nns, s uẓlay yat tsddart g udlis n uɣilas nna issyfɣ ildridj klifr nna g ittaws akṛaḍ aramssuds """"afad tili tgrawla."""""""
Sacheen Littlefeather represented him at the ceremony.,issnkd t sacn littlfaydr g yat tfugla.
The event grabbed the attention of the US and the world media.,yuwy umzzu ad asnɣms amirikaniy n umaḍlan.
He was also an activist against apartheid.,iga awd amɣnas mgal aṭṭi amssẓuṛan.
He is listed by the American Film Institute as the fourth greatest male star whose screen debut occurred before or during 1950 (it occurred in 1950).,iskcm t usiag n ufilm amirikaniy acku iga itri amay amufay wis kkuẓ d iffɣn g umiẓaṛ dat d iwnan n usggwas 1950 (ijṛan g 1950).
"""Retrieved August 19, 2009.Encyclopedia Britannica describes him as """"the most celebrated of the method actors, and his slurred, mumbling delivery marked his rejection of classical dramatic training.""","""yaɣul d g 19 ɣuct 2009, tsnummlt tẓayṛt n tussniwin tabṛiṭaniyt """"is ittwassan kigan ingr ismdyatn, d wawal nns ittɣmɣimn d tamatart n yigy nns i usmuttg g udrama aklasikiy."""
He was a development from the gangster leader and the outlaw.,iga abuɣlu n unmɣur n iqttaɛn d unafuɣ xf uzrf.
"His portrayal of the gang leader Johnny Strabler in The Wild One has become an iconic image, used both as a symbol of rebelliousness and a fashion accessory that includes a Perfecto style motorcycle jacket, a tilted cap, jeans and sunglasses.","yaɣul uswlf nns i unmɣur n iqttaɛn junistrablir g du wild wan iga tawlaft tasnflult, ittusmrasn g tmatart n uɣwwɣ d lɛnayt n tmlsa g tlla tkbrt n usudf anaw n birfiktu, d tacact ifrɣn, d ikrbayn n jins d tsmaqqalin n tafukt."
"""The """"I coulda been a contender"""" scene from On the Waterfront, according to the author of Brooklyn Boomer, Martin H. Levinson, is """"one of the most famous scenes in motion picture history, and the line itself has become part of America's cultural lexicon.""""""","""amiẓaṛ n """"ɣiyɣ ad gɣ anmzizwr"""" sg watrfrunt, nil umiray n bṛuuklin buumr, martan H. lifinsun, iga yan sg imiẓaṛn ittwassnn g umzruy n twlafin ittmussun, d yaɣul ubrid ad iga sg umawal adlsan amirikaniy."""""""
"""You have to make 'em believe that you are dying ... Try to think of the most intimate moment you've ever had in your life.""""""","""ixss ad tn tadjd ad iɣiln is da ttmtatd ... arm ad tswingmd g tizi n tayri nna tzzrid g tudrt nnk."""""""
In 1999 the American Film Institute ranked him eighth among its list of greatest male stars of the Golden Age of Hollywood.,g usggwas n 1999 isti t usinag n ufilm amirikaniy g tskwflt tis tamt g tlgamt nns d itri amay amqqran g uzmz n wurɣ n huliwud.
"He spent several years in vaudeville as a dancer and comedian, until he got his first major acting part in 1925.","izzri kigan n isggwasn g fudifil d amṛkaḍ d amṣḍṣay,allig yumẓ tilalt nns adslant tamzwarut asggwas n 1925."
"After rave reviews, Warner Bros. signed him for an initial $400-a-week, three-week contract; when the executives at the studio saw the first dailies for the film, Cagney's contract was immediately extended.","ḍaṛt imiẓaṛn imṣṣabn, tsnya as tmssurt n waṛnr brudrz tamɣunt tasntayt s watig n 400 dulaṛ i imalas, g tizi n kṛaḍ imalasn; llig ẓṛan imassayn imskarn g ustudyu aɣmis awassan amzwaru n ufilm, sɣzifn tamɣunt g wansa."
He was nominated a third time in 1955 for Love Me or Leave Me with Doris Day.,ittustay tis kṛaḍt tikkal asggwas n 1955 g iriyi nɣd adji g wass n duris.
"Cagney walked out on Warner Bros. several times over the course of his career, each time returning on much improved personal and artistic terms.","iffɣ kagni sg warnr bṛudrz kigan n tikkal iwnan n twuri nns tazzulant, ku tikklt da d ittuɣul s tfidiwin tinimanin d tẓuṛanin iɣudan."
"He worked for an independent film company for a year while the suit was being settled, establishing his own production company, Cagney Productions, in 1942 before returning to Warner seven years later.","iswura asggwas g tmssurt istin n ifilmn g tizi n usmsasa n lxḍiyt, isskr tamssurt n ussufɣ nns, kagniy i ussufɣ, g usggas n 1942 ur ta yaɣul s waṛnr ḍaṛt sa n isggwasn."
"Cagney was the second of seven children, two of whom died within months of their births.","tga kagniy tis snat sg sa n icirran, mmtn sin g kra n wayyurn xf tlalit nnsn."
"The family moved twice while he was still young, first to East 79th Street, and then to East 96th Street.","tmmutti tawja snat tikkal lli g isul imẓẓiy, tizwuri s unqqar n tsukt 79, s unqqar n tsukt 96."
I feel sorry for the kid who has too cushy a time of it.,issqnḍi urba nna ɣur kigan n tizi iwhnn.
"He was a good street fighter, defending his older brother Harry, a medical student, when necessary.","iga amnnaɣ iɣudan g isukn, da ittrara xf umas amqqran haṛi, amzraw n usgnf, g usuɣn."
"He became involved in amateur dramatics, starting as a scenery boy for a Chinese pantomime at Lenox Hill Neighborhood House (one of the first settlement houses in the nation) where his brother Harry performed and Florence James directed.","ikcm s amzgun d yan umnzu, issnti tawuri s ussunɣ g yan ufilm aṣiniy g linuks hill niɣburhud haws (yat sg tiddarin n tmrsal timzwura g tmurt) nna g yurar ugmas haṛi d fluṛans jayms amssufɣ."
The show began Cagney's 10-year association with vaudeville and Broadway.,issnti umiẓaṛ asmun n 10 n isggwasn n kagni d fudfil d brudway.
"Eventually, they borrowed some money and headed back to New York via Chicago and Milwaukee, enduring failure along the way when they attempted to make money on the stage.","g tgira, ṛḍln kra n idrimn uɣuln s nyuyuṛk slin cikagu d milwuki, ẓẓiḍṛn i uxssur g ubrid lli g ran ad awin idrimn xf umzgun."
"As with Pitter Patter, Cagney went to the audition with little confidence he would get the part.","zund bittr battr, tdda kagni s yirim s tɣlift tamudrust is qad tawi tafult."
This was a devastating turn of events for Cagney; apart from the logistical difficulties this presented—the couple's luggage was in the hold of the ship and they had given up their apartment.,iga uyad yan usnfl izllɛn timsarin ɣur kagni; ig nttu imikrisn ilujistikn nna iga uyad—iḥruyn d imassn n imyiwln llan g ugwns n uɣṛṛabu zrin taddart nnsn.
"""He made up his mind that he would get a job doing something else.""""""","""iɣts is qad yaf tawuri afad isskar kra yaḍn."""""""
"Cagney also established a dance school for professionals, and then landed a part in the play Women Go On Forever, directed by John Cromwell, which ran for four months.","tsskr kagni awd tinml tazzulant n uṛkaḍ, tamẓ tilalt g tmzgunt n tamṭṭuḍt iddan abda, nna d issufɣ jun krumwil, nna izdin tizi n kkuẓ n wayyurn."
The show received rave reviews and was followed by Grand Street Follies of 1929.,yuwi umiẓaṛ kigan n issutugn iɣudan ḍfuṛn t grand striit fuli asggwas n 1929.
"Retitled Sinners' Holiday, the film was released in 1930.","ittusnfl yism n ufilm sinnir hulday, iffɣ ufilm g 1930."
"However, the contract allowed Warners to drop him at the end of any 40-week period, effectively guaranteeing him only 40 weeks’ income at a time.","imil, tudja tmɣunt waṛnr ad t tsḍṛ g tgira n ku tizi 40 n imalas, s man aya da as d iskcam 40 n imalass g yat tikklt."
"Due to the strong reviews he had received in his short film career, Cagney was cast as nice-guy Matt Doyle, opposite Edward Woods as Tom Powers.","ttustay kagni d argaz iẓiln matt duyl, acku ttufkan ɣifs izzrayn idusn iɣudan g tudrt nns tazzulant g ifilmn igzzaln, mgal idward wudz g tilalt n tum bawrz."
"Producer Darryl Zanuck claimed he thought of it in a script conference; Wellman said the idea came to him when he saw the grapefruit on the table during the shoot; and writers Glasmon and Bright claimed it was based on the real life of gangster Hymie Weiss, who threw an omelette into his girlfriend's face.","inna umssufɣ darril zanuk g yan ugraw amiray mas d iswingm g tɣawsa; inna willman mas d tawngimt tdda asd lli g iẓṛa abanmblumus aflla n tdabut g tizi n uswlf; d nnan imirayn glasmɛn d brayt is isnnd xf tudrt tadettant n iqṭṭaɛn haymi ways, nna igrn tglayt iqlan xf wudm n tmddaklt nns."
I never dreamed it would be shown in the movie.,ur djun wargɣ is qad ittufsar g ufilm.
"""He saw the film repeatedly just to see that scene, and was often shushed by angry patrons when his delighted laughter got too loud.""""""","""iẓṛa afilm kigan n tikklt afad day iẓṛ amiẓaṛ, ar t sfstan kigan imawazn izɛfn llig zaydnt taḍṣiwin nns kigan."""""""
Warner Bros. was quick to team its two rising gangster stars—Edward G. Robinson and Cagney—for the 1931 film Smart Money.,tsddrf tmssurt n waṛnr bṛudrz ad tsmuttg yat trabbut n sin itran n iqṭṭaɛn nna d yulin—idward G. ṛubinsu d kagni—xf ufilm smaṛt muni asggwas n 1931.
"As he completed filming, The Public Enemy was filling cinemas with all-night showings.","lli g ismd aswlf, du bublik inmi itkwar id ssinima s imiẓaṛn mayd lan yiḍan."
"The studio heads also insisted that Cagney continue promoting their films, even ones he was not in, which he opposed.","ran nnik inmɣurn n id ustudyu ad issudu kagni g usussn n ifilmn nns, awd winna g ur illi, aynnaɣ ayd yugi."
The success of The Public Enemy and Blonde Crazy forced Warner Bros.' hand.,amurs n du bublik inmi d blund krayzi izuccl waṛnr bṛudrz afus.
The film was swiftly followed by The Crowd Roars and Winner Take All.,ittuḍfaṛ ufilm fisaɛ sg du kruwd ruads d winnr tak all.
"Historians also debate the nature of history as an end in itself, as well as its usefulness to give perspective on the problems of the present.","sgdln imrza awd anamk n umzruy d awttas, d ubɣur nns g tikki n tannayt xf imukrisn n dɣi."
"However, ancient cultural influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today.","mqqar, hat uwsn yiḍisn idlsann izaykutn g ufars n ussfru imzarayn i unamk n umzruy nna ibuɣlan g tasutin d tsul ar ttnfal assa."
"""Herodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian, is often considered the """"father of history"""" in the Western tradition, although he has also been criticized as the """"father of lies"""".""","""hirudut, amrzu ayunaniy sg tasut 5 dat tlalit n ɛisa, iga s umata, """"babas n umzruy"""" g tmyurin n uɣlay, mqqar ittuzɣan awd ntta gin t d """"babas n tkrkas""""."""
"""In Middle English, the meaning of history was """"story"""" in general.""","g tutlayt tangliziyt n wammas, inamk n umzruy igat """"tullist"""" s umata."
"""In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are solidly synthetic and highly inflected, the same word is still used to mean both """"history"""" and """"story"""".""","g tutlayt talmaniyt tatrart, d tfransist, d umata g tutlayin tijirmanin d tṛumansiyyin, tinna ittwaskarn s taɣart ar ttḍiṣ kigan, tsulyat tguri da ttusmras g unamk n """"amzruy"""" d """"tullist""""."""
"""In the words of Benedetto Croce, """"All history is contemporary history"""".""","""nil uwnni n binidittu kṛus, """"amzruy kullu d amzruy atrar""""."""
"""Therefore, the constitution of the historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent the """"true past"""").""","s manaya, asskr n tmḥḍit n umrzu iga tayafut n ustay n yat tmḥḍit tamatayt s tbridt n usbdd n usmrs n kra n iḍṛiṣn d warratn ( s tbridt n usnfl n iwaliwn nnsn ad ssmrsn """"amzruy n tidtt"""")."""
The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and at other times as part of the social sciences.,ttustay tɣuri n umzruy kra n tikkal d uqcur n tussniwin tinafganin d tizi yaḍn d uqcur g tussniwin tinamunin.
"In the 20th century, French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines as economics, anthropology, and geography in the study of global history.","g tasut tis 20, isskr umrzu afransawiy firnand brudil tagrawla g tɣuri n umzruy, s usmrs n tmẓlayin sg bṛṛa zund tadmsa d tussnafgan d tjigrafiyt g tɣuri n umzruy."
"In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three.","s umata, iɣy ad ttubḍun iɣbula n tussna n umzruy s kṛaḍt trubba: mayd ittwaran, mayd ittwanan, d uynna ittuḥḍan s tfgga, da tn ttcawaṛn imrza kigan s kṛaḍ."
"Archaeological finds rarely stand alone, with narrative sources complementing its discoveries.","idrus mag tbddant tnazufin tudrzanin s ixfawn nnsnt, acku da smmdnt isugam imiwann."
"""For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of historical Annapolis, Maryland, USA, has sought to understand the contradiction between textual documents idealizing """"liberty"""" and the material record, demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth made apparent by the study of the total historical environment.""","""s umdya, ira maṛk lyun, amɣaz d umssuɣl amzruyan n anabulyus, mariland, USA, ad irms amzaray ingr warratn imirayn nna ittadjan """"tidtt"""" d tamsmadt d ususr akmam, nna isbayan aḍaf n ismxan d tarangaddayt g trusi, man aya ittwassan sg uzzray n twnnaḍt n umzruy g tsdawit."""
"It is possible for historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the modern trend has been toward specialization.","iɣy ad swurin imrza g umẓlay d umatay, mqqar d abrid atrar idda s tẓlayt."
"Thirdly, it may refer to why history is produced: the philosophy of history.","tiss kṛaḍt, tɣy ad tsnɣt s tmntilt n ufars n umzruy: tafilusuft n umzruy."
By whom was it produced (authorship)?,ntta ayd tt isfarsn (assufɣ)?
What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)?,mayd igan atig alawan n tumayin nns (tidtt)?
The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history.,tamamkt tamzruyant digs titiqniyin d umlan nna s smrasn imrza isugam imzwura d wanẓatn yaḍn i urzzu d tirra n umzruy.
"Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, regarded history as being the product of the choices and actions of human beings, and looked at cause and effect, rather than as the result of divine intervention (though Herodotus was not wholly committed to this idea himself).","mgal hirudut, iga tusididis amzruy d istayn n uynna imskarn n middn, ar iẓṛṛa tamntild d tyafut, maci tayafut n twuri n ṛbbi (mqqar ur isuɣin kullu hirudut s ixf nns i tannayt ad)."
There were historical traditions and sophisticated use of historical method in ancient and medieval China.,kkant digs tmyurin timzrayanin d usmrs ibuɣlan i umamk amzruyan g ṣṣin tazaykut d izmzn inammasn.
"Chinese historians of subsequent dynastic periods in China used his Shiji as the official format for historical texts, as well as for biographical literature.","smrsn imrza iṣiniyn g izmzn n tsutiwin d iddan g ṣṣin adlis nns ciji zund tasqqult tamaddudt i iḍṛiṣn imzruyann, awd i tskla n tridrt."
"Around 1800, German philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a more secular approach in historical study.","attayn n usggwas 1800, issnkd ufilusuf almaniyjuṛj wilhlm fridirik higl tafilusuft d yan ubrid aɛilmaniy uggar g tɣuri n umzruy."
"The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of the past.","taẓɣuṛt n bnu xaldun ayd ifkan mas d amzaray adlsan g yan uzmz yaḍn ixss ad innbḍ g usutg n tmtta n umzruy ẓars izdin, fad ad ttuẓlayn imnzay xf ira ad ittuṣku usitg, s tgira afray s wassar n tmuzayt, d imnẓay imnllitn, afad ttusutg tdlsa izrin."
"""His historical method also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history,H. Mowlana (2001). """"""","""awd tamamkt nns tamzruyant tsrs tasila n uḥṭṭu n tilalt n uwank, d imyawaḍn, d usnɣms, d artudmawin g tmamkt n urzzu,H. muwlana (2001). """""""
"""Dr. S.W. Akhtar (1997). """"""","""duktur S.W. axtar (1997). """""""
"For Ranke, historical data should be collected carefully, examined objectively and put together with critical rigor.","tannayt n ṛanki, ilaq ad munn inɣmisn imzruyann s unhlla ttufsun s umsɣaru ttusmunn s umnɣud axatar."
"In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on epic nationalistic narratives, which often tended to glorify the nation or great men, to more objective and complex analyses of social and intellectual forces.","g tusut tiss 20, uddan imrza ikadimiyn cwiy xf tullisin tinamunin tiḍaluṣin, nna itddun s tsga n ussidr n ugdud nɣd irgazn imqqrann, ddun s isfsayn imsɣarutn kigan d immurksn i taggalin tinamunin d twngimin."
Many of the advocates of history as a social science were or are noted for their multi-disciplinary approach.,amata g winna itdun d umzruy d tussna tanamunt ttwassn s tmamkt nnsn m kigan n tẓlayin.
So far only one theory of history came from the pen of a professional Historian.,ar dɣi tddad yat tiẓiṛt day g umzruy s uɣanib n umrzu azzulan.
"Intellectual historians such as Herbert Butterfield, Ernst Nolte and George Mosse have argued for the significance of ideas in history.","msawaln imrza imswingmn zund harbrt buttrfild, irnist nilt d juṛj muss xf ubɣur n twngimin g umzruy."
"Scholars such as Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw and Detlev Peukert sought to examine what everyday life was like for ordinary people in 20th-century Germany, especially in the Nazi period.","ran imassan zund martn bṛuzat, iyan kircu d ditlif bukrt ad ɣrn tawila n tudrt takuyast n middn unziln g almanya g tusut tiss 20, s uẓlay g tizi tanaziyt."
"Feminist historians such as Joan Wallach Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, and Lynn Hunt have argued for the importance of studying the experience of women in the past.","msawaln imrza iwtmann zund jun wallac skutt, cudya kuunz, natali zmum dafis, cila ruwbutham, gisla buk, girda lirnr, ilizabit fuks-jinufs, d linn hunt xf ubɣur n tɣuri n irim n tutmin g uzmz izrin."
"Another defence of history from post-modernist criticism was the Australian historian Keith Windschuttle's 1994 book, The Killing of History.","amzaɣ yaḍn xf umzruy sg uzɣan n dat atrar iga t udlis n umrzu awstraliy kit windcttls asggwas n 1994, mnɣiwt n umzruy."
Historical omissions can occur in many ways and can have a profound effect on historical records.,ɣint ad ilint tuttutin timzruyanin skigan n tbridin d iɣy ad asnt yili yiḍiṣ iɛubn xf warratn imzruyan.
Ancient history: the study from the beginning of human history until the Early Middle Ages.,amzruy aqbur: taɣuri sg tizwuri n umzruy n ufgan ar tizwuri n izmzn inammasn.
Comparative history: historical analysis of social and cultural entities not confined to national boundaries.,amzruy asmzazzal: assfsi amzruyan i trubba tinamunin d tdlsanin nna ur iṭṭifn ɣas tilisa tinamunin.
Cultural history: the study of culture in the past.,amzruy adlsan: taɣuri n tdlsa g uzmz izrin.
Intellectual history: the study of ideas in the context of the cultures that produced them and their development over time.,amzruy awngimtaɣuri n twngimin g umnaḍ n tdlsatin nna t ifarsn d ubuɣlu nns d tizi.
"Modern history: the study of the Modern Times, the era after the Middle Ages.","amzruy atrar: taɣuri n uzmz atrar, akud n dat izmzn inammasn."
Palaeography: study of ancient texts.,tussna n tɣuziwin: taɣuri n iḍṛiṣn izaykutn.
Psychohistory: study of the psychological motivations of historical events.,amzruy anyiman: taɣuri n tmntilin tinyimanin ḍaṛt imzzutn imzruyann.
Women's history: the history of female human beings.,amzruy n tmṭṭuḍt: amzruy n tizwuri n ufgan.
Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the dating system used.,da ittusmras kigan tasut d mraw n isggwasn ar tsnnad tizi nna smnidn xf unagraw n umzruy nna ittusmrasn.
"To do this, historians often turn to geography.","afad gn aya, da smrasn imrza kigan tjuɣrafit."
"For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt is essential.","s umdya, afad nssfru tamntilt n ubuɣlu n tɣrma imursn ɣur imiṣṛiyn, tga tɣuri n tjuɣrafit n miṣṛ asɣun."
"History of the Americas is the collective history of North and South America, including Central America and the Caribbean.","amzruy n tmirikatin s snat iga amzruy amgru n mirikan n iffus d tin iẓlmḍ, sg digsn mirikan n wammas d tmnaḍt n yill akaṛayib."
"History of the Caribbean begins with the oldest evidence where 7,000-year-old remains have been found.",issnta umzruy n tmnaḍt n yill n kaṛayib s yan unẓa aqbur iddɣ ttyafan igulaz asmmud nnsn 7000 n usggwas.
"History of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe of Central Asia and Eastern Europe.","iga umzruy n urasya amzruy amgru n kigan n tmnaḍin tiɣaranin timtettayin ixulfn: anqqar anammas d iẓlmḍ n asya d iffus n asya d iffus n unqqar n asya d uṛubba, nna izdin d izuɣar n ugwns n urasya g asya tanammast d uṛubba n unqqar."
History of East Asia is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in East Asia.,amzruy n uqqar n asya iga taɣuri n uynna izrin nna ittmuttuys sg tsuta s tsuta g unqqar n asya.
History of Southeast Asia has been characterized as interaction between regional players and foreign powers.,iẓli umzruy n iẓlmḍ n unqqar n asya s umyaɣ ingr imirarn isgawann d taggalin n bṛṛ.
"""The """"old"""" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that were """"social"""" in the sense of being outside the elite system.""","""iga mzruy anamun """"azayku"""" dat 1960 arkis n imrsitn bla imrsi adslan, kigan da digs ttilin imussutn isrtann, zund tagdudant, gan """"inamunn"""" acku llan bṛṛa n ungraw n tufrint."""
"It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people.",da izzray xf warratn d isnummal imallasn n tussna d tmyurin d tẓuriwin izrin i trabbut n middn.
This type of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or across state boundaries over time.,anaw ad n umzruy asrtan iga taɣuri n tikli n imyassatn imaḍlann ingr tmura nɣd sg iwtta n tmura s uzray n tizi.
"It gained popularity in the United States, Japan and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds.",tla tagdudant g iwunak imunn d lyaban d tmura yaḍn ḍaṛt 1980 n tasut izrin d ufrak n imzrawn s wassar n wad isinn amaḍal s ubaraw nil tsmaḍlant.
"Despite being a relatively new field, gender history has had a significant effect on the general study of history.","mqqar iga cwiy yan igr amaynu, iṭṭaṣ umzruy anawan kigan taɣuri tamatutt n umzruy."
"At Oxford and Cambridge, scholarship was downplayed.","g uksfuṛd d kambridj, suggzn g watig n tuggaz g tɣuri."
The tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World War.,umẓn islmadn amḍakaṛ awd ḍaṛt n imnɣi amaḍlan wis sin.
"In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe.","ḍaṛt imnɣi amaḍlan wis sin g iwunak imun, iffɣ d yan umussu idusn g tsddawit issɣran tiwaliwin n tɣrma n uɣlay, afad ittufka i imzrawn yan wayda iccarn d uṛubba."
Many view the field from both perspectives.,da isuggur kigan s igr ad sg imnidn s sin.
"In the United States, textbooks published by the same company often differ in content from state to state.","g iwunak imun, da ttmzzarayn kra n tikkal idlisn inmlann nna tfssr yat tmssurt g tumayt sg tmnadt s tayḍ."
"Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks, sometimes with success.","kra n tikkal da ttnaɣn imrza ikadimiyn mgal n usrtn n idlisn inmlann, kra n tikkal s umurs."
"A civilization (or civilisation) is a complex society that is characterized by urban development, social stratification, a form of government, and symbolic systems of communication (such as writing).",tga tɣrma (nɣd taɣrma) yan ugdud immurksn iẓlin s ubuɣlu aɣrman d trubba tinamunin d talɣa sg talɣiwin n tnbaḍt d ingrawn n umyawaḍ iniglann (zund tirra).
"In this broad sense, a civilization contrasts with non-centralized tribal societies, including the cultures of nomadic pastoralists, Neolithic societies or hunter-gatherers; however, sometimes it also contrasts with the cultures found within civilizations themselves.","g unalk ad abaraw, tga tɣrma mgal igdudn n tqbilin ar tinnumsa, g tlla tdlsa n imksawn ittmuddun d igdudn n uzmz n uẓṛu atrar nɣd ingmarn; mqqar, kra n tikkal da itgga mgal n tdlsatin illan agwns n tɣrmiwin s ixfawn nnsnt."
"The fundamental treatise is Norbert Elias's The Civilizing Process (1939), which traces social mores from medieval courtly society to the Early Modern period.","tannayt tadslant d tsiɣt n tɣrma n nuṛbrt ilyas (1939), nna iḍffuṛn izrfan inamunn sg ugdud n tgadirt g izmzn inammasn ar uzmz atrar n zikk."
"""Related words like """"civility"""" developed in the mid-16th century.""","""tiguriwin ẓaṛs izdin zund """"aɣɣurmu"""" tbuɣla g uzgn n tasut tis 16."""
"""In the late 1700s and early 1800s, during the French Revolution, """"civilization"""" was used in the singular, never in the plural, and meant the progress of humanity as a whole.""","g tgira n tasut 1700 d tizwuri n 1800, iwnan n tgrawla tafṛansist, ttusmrs tguri n """"tɣrma"""" gtsqqult n usuf, maci g tsqqult n usugt, nna mi iga unamk alay n ufgan kullu."""
"""Only in this generalized sense does it become possible to speak of a """"medieval civilization"""", which in Elias's sense would have been an oxymoron.""","""s unamk ad amatay day izḍaṛ ad nsiwl xf """"tɣrma n izmzn inammasn"""", nna iẓḍaṛn ad ig amzagal asnawal g umnid n ilyas."""
"""Here, civilization, being more rational and socially driven, is not fully in accord with human nature, and """"human wholeness is achievable only through the recovery of or approximation to an original discursive or prerational natural unity"""" (see noble savage).""","""ɣid, taɣrma, d tamnllit d tndaht tanamunt, ur tmsasa d ugama anafgan, d """"ur nenni ad nawḍ asmad anafgan ɣas s tbridt n wuɣul nɣd asnmila n ugzzum agaman amnɣud nɣd dat agaman"""" (ẓṛ nubl sufaj)."""
"Civilizations have been distinguished by their means of subsistence, types of livelihood, settlement patterns, forms of government, social stratification, economic systems, literacy and other cultural traits.","ttwassnt tɣrmiwin s imassn n tudrt nnsnt, d wanawn n tmamkin n tudrt, d wanawn n uzduɣ, d talɣatin n unbaḍ, d trubba tinamunin, d ingrawn idmsann, d uṣfaḍ n tarussna, d tmitar tidlsanin yaḍn."
"All civilizations have depended on agriculture for subsistence, with the possible exception of some early civilizations in Peru which may have depended upon maritime resources.","snndnt tɣrmiwin kullu xf tkrza afad ddrn, nɣi ad nkks kra n tɣrmiwin n zikk g bbiru nna isnndn xf islman."
Grain surpluses have been especially important because grain can be stored for a long time.,ila ucayḍ n imndi atig amẓlay acku iɣy ad ttuḥḍun imndi yat tizi iɣzzifn.
"However, in some places hunter-gatherers have had access to food surpluses, such as among some of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest and perhaps during the Mesolithic Natufian culture.","mqqar, g kra n wansiwn, ɣin ingmarn-imsmunn ann lkmn acayḍ n wuttci, imki nna iga waddad ɣur kran igdudn inṣliyn g izlmdn uɣlay n yill iṛsan d iɣy idd iwnan n tdlsa n uzmz n uẓru anammas natufyan."
"""The word """"civilization"""" is sometimes simply defined as """"'living in cities'"""".""","""kra n tikkal da ttusnkad tguri n """"tɣrma"""" s tfri mas tga '""""tudrt g tmdinin'""""."""
State societies are more stratified than other societies; there is a greater difference among the social classes.,imunn n uwank gan insmiln uggar n imunn yaḍn; illa umzaray iggutn ingr ismiln inamunn.
"Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.","tiɣrmiwin, d isnsln izamugn inamunn immurksn, d tnbaḍin timrsalin ituusudns."
"Some people also acquire landed property, or private ownership of the land.","da ttagmn kra n ifgann awd nitni tilit n wakal, nɣd tilit tamẓlayt n wakal."
"By the early Iron Age, contemporary civilizations developed money as a medium of exchange for increasingly complex transactions.","g tizwuri n uzmz n wuzzal, sbuɣlant tɣrmiwin titrarin idrimn d ammak i unnfka n tasiɣin immurksn ar ittɛawad."
These people may not be personally acquainted with one another and their needs may not occur all at the same time.,ɣin ad ur myussann ifgann ad ingr asn d ɣin t ad ur jṛun wassarn nnsn g yat tizi.
The transition from simpler to more complex economies does not necessarily mean an improvement in the living standards of the populace.,ammutti sg tdmsatin tifrarin ɣr tdmsatin immurksn kigan ur igi s usuɣn abuɣlu g iswirn n tudrt n imzdaɣ.
"The average stature of a population is a good measurement of the adequacy of its access to necessities, especially food.","tga tsɣlt n wuddur n imzdaɣ tamsɣalt iɣudan n taẓḍṛt nnsn an awḍn isuɣan, utci s uẓlay."
"Like money, the writing was necessitated by the size of the population of a city and the complexity of its commerce among people who are not all personally acquainted with each other.","zund idrimn, tga tirra asuɣn s tmntilt n uksay n imzdaɣ n tmdint d ummurks n tsbbabt nns ingr ifgann nna ur imyassan kigan ingrasn."
"These include organized religion, development in the arts, and countless new advances in science and technology.","digsnt asɣan ittusudn, d ubuɣlu g tẓuṛiwin, d ibuɣlutn imaynutn nna iggutn g tussniwin d ttiknulujiyt."
"""These cultures are called by some """"primitive"""", a term that is regarded by others as pejorative. """"""","""da asnt ittini kra i tdlsatin ad """"tiqqburin"""", taguri ad tga dar kra yaḍn aḥqqr. """""""
"""Anthropologists today use the term """"non-literate"""" to describe these peoples.""","""assa da smrasn imassan n wanṭṛubulujya taguri n """"id wariqubbaniyn"""" afad snummln igdudn ad."""
"But civilization is also spread by the technical, material and social dominance that civilization engenders.",maca da ttufsar tɣrma awd s tbridt n tnbbaḍt tatiqniyt d tẓṛfant d tnamunt nna d tikki tɣrma.
"Civilizations tend to develop intricate cultures, including a state-based decision making apparatus, a literature, professional art, architecture, organized religion and complex customs of education, coercion and control associated with maintaining the elite.","da ttirint tɣrmiwin ad sbuɣlunt tidlsatin immurksn, g illa ungmam yakkan taɣtast xf tsila n uwank, d tskla, d tẓuṛi tazzulant, d tmsdagt, d usɣan ittusudsn d tmyurin immurksn n usslmd, d unmri d tnbaḍt izdin s uḥṭṭu n tufrint."
The civilization in which someone lives is that person's broadest cultural identity.,taɣrma nna g izdɣ ufgan nttat ayd igan tamagit tadlsant tabarawt n ufgan nnaɣ.
"The aim is to preserve the cultural heritage of humanity and also the cultural identity, especially in the case of war and armed conflict.","awttas igat uḥṭṭu n wayda adlsan n ufgan d awd tamagit tadldant, s uẓlay g waddad n imnɣi d taẓit talafant."
"""Early twentieth-century philosopher Oswald Spengler,Spengler, Oswald, Decline of the West: Perspectives of World History (1919) uses the German word Kultur, """"culture"""", for what many call a """"civilization"""".""","""g tizwuri n tasut tis simraw afilusuf uswald cbnglr, cbnglr, uswald, timmuzdrt n uɣlay: imnidn n umzruy amaḍlan (1919) da ismras taguri talmaniyt kulutur, """"tadlsa"""", i uynna mi ittini kigan """"taɣrma""""."""
"""Spengler states civilization is the beginning of the decline of a culture as """"the most external and artificial states of which a species of developed humanity is capable"""".""","""da ittini cbnglr mas d taɣrma tga tizwuri n ummuzdr n tdlsa acku """"tga sg kigan n waddadn ibṛṛaniyn ittusakwnn nna s iɣi yan wanaw n ufgan yulin ad t isskr""""."""
"""Civilizations generally declined and fell, according to Toynbee, because of the failure of a """"creative minority"""", through moral or religious decline, to meet some important challenge, rather than mere economic or environmental causes.""","s umata aɣulnt tɣrmiwin ḍaṛt d ḍṛnt, nil twimbi, s tmntilt n unngzu n """"imsnfluln imudrusn"""", acku icwwṛ uwngim g usɣan, g tnnalit n tnẓaṛin istawhmman, ur id ɣas timntilin tidmsanin nɣd tiwnnaḍin."
"For example, trade networks were, until the nineteenth century, much larger than either cultural spheres or political spheres.","s umdya, kkant tradsiwin n tsbbabt, ar tasut tis tẓa d mraw, uggar n igran idlsan d igran isrtann."
"During the Uruk period, Guillermo Algaze has argued that trade relations connected Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran and Afghanistan.","g tizi n uṛuk, imɣnnan giyyirmu algaz xf imyassatn isbbabn zdint ingr miṣṛ d tmazirt ngr sin isaffn d iṛan d afɣanistan."
"Different civilizations and societies all over the globe are economically, politically, and even culturally interdependent in many ways.",tuɣrmiwin d imunn imzarayn g umaḍal kullu mmzdaynt g tdmsa d tsrtit d awd tadlsa g kigan n tnila.
"Central Civilization later expanded to include the entire Middle East and Europe, and then expanded to a global scale with European colonization, integrating the Americas, Australia, China and Japan by the nineteenth century.","tnnɣl tɣrma tanammast ḍaṛt uynnaɣ bac ad tamẓ anqqar anammas kullu d uṛubba, imikk tnnɣl g umaḍal g tizi n usddurri n uṛubba, ismun id mirikan s snat d ustralya d ṣṣin d lyaban llig d tlkm tasut tis tẓa d mraw."
"This encouraged a secondary products revolution in which people used domesticated animals not just for meat, but also for milk, wool, manure and pulling ploughs and carts – a development that spread through the Eurasian Oecumene.","issrqb manaya xf tgrawla g iyafutn isinann nna g smrsn middn imudar inmyarn maci ɣas aksum, maca awd akffay d taḍuṭṭ d lɣbar d uzzuɣṛṛ n iwullutn d tulditin – nna igan abuɣlu ittufsarn sg ikumiyn iwṛasiyn."
"""This area has been identified as having """"inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops and the development of the cursive script"""".""","""ttustay tsga ad mas tga """"tamsfrayt n kran ibuɣlutn istawhmman g umzruy n ufgan g illa usnulfu n ṛwiḍa, d tkrza n lɣllat timzwura d usbuɣlu n tirra s tarayt izdin""""."""
"This climate change shifted the cost-benefit ratio of endemic violence between communities, which saw the abandonment of unwalled village communities and the appearance of walled cities, associated with the first civilizations.","asnfl ad n unzwi isitti asɣl n atig-abɣur n ukṛad illan ingr imunn, nna isnfln sg imunn n iɣrman war igidar s usufɣ n tmdinin mi ttin igidar, izdin s tɣrmiwin yaḍn."
"The civilized urban revolution in turn was dependent upon the development of sedentism, the domestication of grains and animals, the permanence of settlements and development of lifestyles that facilitated economies of scale and accumulation of surplus production by certain social sectors.","tsnnd tgrawla taɣrmant iɣɣurman awd nttat xf ubuɣlu n uṣṣṛṣu, alqqm n imndi d imudar, assudu n tmrsal d ubuɣlu n wanawn n tudrt nna issuhnn asdmsa n uksay d usgudi n ucayḍ n ufars sg kra n yigran inamunn."
"Some focus on historical examples, and others on general theory.","kra da ittadd xf imdyatn imzruyann, d kra yaḍn xf tiẓiṛt tamatayt."
"""For Gibbon, """"The decline of Rome was the natural and inevitable effect of immoderate greatness.""","""ɣur jibun, """"ammuzdr n ruma ayd igan iṭṭiṣ agaman d asuɣnan i timɣrt issufan."""
"""Theodor Mommsen in his History of Rome suggested Rome collapsed with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE and he also tended towards a biological analogy of """"genesis"""", """"growth"""", """"senescence"""", """"collapse"""" and """"decay"""".""","isumr tyuduṛ musmn g udlis nns amzruy n ruma mas d tḍṛ ṛuma g tizi n tḍuṛi n tgldit taṛumaniyt n uɣlay asggwas n 476 g tlalit, ar itddu awd d usmzazzal abyulujy n """"usmuttg"""", """"tamrniwt"""", """"tawsrt"""", """"taḍuṛi"""", """"anɣubu""""."""
"Arnold J. Toynbee in his A Study of History suggested that there had been a much larger number of civilizations, including a small number of arrested civilizations, and that all civilizations tended to go through the cycle identified by Mommsen.","isumr aṛnuld J. tuynbi g tɣuri nns n umzruy mas d illa yan umnaḍ ixatrn uggar n tɣrmiwin, nna g illa yan umḍan idrusn n tɣrmiwin ibddan, mas d kullu tiɣrmiwin ɣint ad zrint xf usara nna isrs mummsn."
"During the intermediate phase, the increasing population growth leads to the decrease of per capita production and consumption levels, it becomes more and more difficult to collect taxes, and state revenues stop growing, whereas the state expenditures grow due to the growth of the population controlled by the state.","iwnan ntfrkt tanammast, da ttawi tmrniwt n imzdaɣ ittalin s wuguz n iswirn n ufars d usmur n ufrid, ar itcqqu uggar wammaẓ n irgayn, ar tbddant tnudaf xf tmrniwt, g tizi g ttalint tmqṛaḍ n uwank s tmntilt n tmrniwt n imzdaɣ ittunbaḍn sg uwank."
Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends.,tisutal tiɛlmaniyin d imnidn inifḍn.
"The fact that Rome needed to generate ever greater revenues to equip and re-equip armies that were for the first time repeatedly defeated in the field, led to the dismemberment of the Empire.","tidtt n unmri n ṛuma ad tsskr tinudaf uggar n kra n tizi izrin ad tqwwm n isrdasn tikklt tamzwarut nna ittyarran kigan n tikkal g ubaraz, ɣr ucrrg n tgldit."
He argues that the collapse of the Maya has lessons for civilization today.,ar ittmɣnnan mas d ammuzdr n lmaya ila timsirin g tɣrma assa.
The energy expended to energy yield ratio is central to limiting the survival of civilizations.,iga usɣl n tzmrt ittusxsrn s tzmrt tararut taɣawsa tadslant g tudrt n tglditin.
"Koneczny claimed that civilizations cannot be mixed into hybrids, an inferior civilization when given equal rights within a highly developed civilization will overcome it.","iɣal kunikzi mas d ur iẓḍar ad nccur tiɣrmiwin g yat tcrdant, acku ig ttufkan i tɣrma tamazdart izrfan yaksuln agwns n yat tɣrma ibuɣlan kigan hat qad tt trnu."
"Cultural Historian Morris Berman suggests in Dark Ages America: the End of Empire that in the corporate consumerist United States, the very factors that once propelled it to greatness―extreme individualism, territorial and economic expansion, and the pursuit of material wealth―have pushed the United States across a critical threshold where collapse is inevitable.","aisumr umrzu g tdlsa birmas g izmzn illasn n mirikan: tigira n tgldit am iwunak imun asmur i tmssurin, timntilin nna tt yuwin s tmɣrt―tafrdiyt tamṭṭaṛfut, d inɣal admsan asgawan, d uḍfaṛ n ugla amattiw―tuwy iwunak imunn s yan ubadu g ur illi mani kkant i tḍuṛi."
"The corrosion of these pillars, Jacobs argues, is linked to societal ills such as environmental crisis, racism and the growing gulf between rich and poor.",imɣnnan jakubs mas d amyatca n tsila ad izdi d tmaḍunin tinamunin zund tassast tawnḍant d tssaẓuṛt d tgmi n umziray ingr imẓlad d imṭṛṛḥn.
"This need for civilizations to import ever more resources, he argues, stems from their over-exploitation and diminution of their own local resources.",ar ittini mas d assar ad i tɣrmiwin afad nskcm wiyaḍ isugam nna d ittfɣn sg usyafa nns kigan d ussdrus n isugam nns idɣrann.
"""In the graphic, Ma means """"million years ago"""".)""","""g twnɣa, Ma tga """"mlyun n usggwas izrin"""".)"""
Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies which led to extreme volcanism.,tfsi yat tfult taxatart sg wakal s tmntilt n ungas imsnagarn d tazzitin yaḍn aynnaɣ ayd isskrn amussu n ibuṛkann idusn.
"Recognizable humans emerged at most 2 million years ago, a vanishingly small period on the geological scale.","iffɣd ufgan ittwassn dat 2 imlyunn n isggwasn, nttat d tizi tamẓẓyant ittackan g tskala tajyulujit."
"It is estimated that 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, over five billion, have gone extinct.","da ittini uqddr mas d 99 sg tmiḍi n wanawn kullu nna iddrn xf wakal, uggar n smmus n id mlyaṛ, ur sulnt."
"The Earth's crust has constantly changed since its formation, as has life since its first appearance.","infl uqcbal n wakal sg mayd ttwaskar, mkinna tnnfl tudrt sg mayd tffɣ tikklt izwarn."
The Moon is formed around this time probably due to a protoplanet's collision into Earth.,iɣy is da ittwaskar wayyur g tizi ad s tmntilt n umlaqqay n itran imzwura d wakal.
The atmosphere is composed of volcanic and greenhouse gases.,ittusnay waṭmuṣfir sg igazn n iburkann d igazn inrɣann.
"Bacteria begin producing oxygen, shaping the third and current of Earth's atmospheres.","da tssntay tbaktirt afars n uksijin, d usskar n tɣarift tamaḍut tis kṛaḍt n dɣi i wakal."
"The early continents of Columbia, Rodinia and Pannotia, in that order, may have existed in this eon.","iɣy is kkan imnẓawn n zikk n kulumbya d ṛudinya d banutya, g ussuds ad, llant g usmmud ad."
"""Gradually, life expands to land and familiar forms of plants, animals and fungi begin appearing, including annelids, insects and reptiles, hence the eon's name, which means """"visible life"""".""","""imik s imik, ar ttlkam tudrt taɣart ar ssntayn wanawn ittumyurn sg imɣayn d imudar d igwrsln g ufuɣ, g llan imḥrurdn d ibuxxa, sg da agd idda ism n usmmud, nna igan """"tudrt tamannayt""""."""
It was composed of hydrogen and helium created shortly after the Big Bang 13.8 Ga (billion years ago) and heavier elements ejected by supernovae.,ikka ittusnay sg uhidṛujin d uhilyum nna ittuskarf ḍart yat tizi idrusn n uṭṭiqs amqqran 13.8 Ga (sg mlyar n usggwas) d ifrdisn iẓẓayn igrtn d uṭṭiqs n itran.
"As the cloud began to accelerate, its angular momentum, gravity, and inertia flattened it into a protoplanetary disk perpendicular to its axis of rotation.","llig tssnti tsignut g uzizzl, da ittawy uwtuy nns d unzbi nns i umussu s usmsasa nns ɣr yat tqaṛiḍt tatrit tamzwarut innaln xf ugjdi n wutuy nns."
"After more contraction, a T Tauri star ignited and evolved into the Sun.","ḍaṛt unkumms itturnan, yaɣ itri n T ṭuṛi ibuɣlu allig iga tafukt."
Earth formed in this manner about 4.54 billion years ago (with an uncertainty of 1%) and was largely completed within 10–20 million years.,ittusulɣ wakal s tmamkt ad sg wattayn n 4.54 mlyaṛ n isggwasn (g illa cck 1%) d ttusmad g tizi n 10–20 n id mlyun n usggas.
"The proto-Earth grew by accretion until its interior was hot enough to melt the heavy, siderophile metals.",igma wakal aqqbur s tbridt n usmun allig irɣa ugns nns s tskwflt nna isfsayn imɣazn iẓẓayn d ukaṛbun nwuzzal.
"From crater counts on other celestial bodies, it is inferred that a period of intense meteorite impacts, called the Late Heavy Bombardment, began about 4.1 Ga, and concluded around 3.8 Ga, at the end of the Hadean.","sg iḥssutn xf ixba n itran yadn, ittunẓa mas d yat tizi n yiḍiṣn n iẓṛan n yignna idusn, ism nns titi tamstalt iggran, tssnti g wattayn n 4.1 Ga, tsmd g wattayn n 3.8 Ga, g tgira n hadyan."
"By the beginning of the Archean, the Earth had cooled significantly.","lli gd yuwḍ g tizwuri uzmz arkyani, iqṛf wakal s talɣa ittwanẓan."
"New evidence suggests the Moon formed even later, 4.48 ± 0.02 Ga, or 70–110 million years after the start of the Solar System.","da snɛatn wanẓiwn imaynutn mas d ayyur ittuskar g yat tizi d iddan 4.48 ± 0.02 Ga, nɣd 70–110 n id mlyun n usggwas ḍaṛt ussnti n ungraw n tafukt."
The collision released about 100 million times more energy than the more recent Chicxulub impact that is believed to have caused the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs.,iṛẓm umlaqqay i yat tzmrt yugrn s 100n id mlyun n tikklt tazmrt n umlaqqay n cicxulub nna igan amntil n ymttant n idaynaṣuṛn ur ittaylaln.
"The giant impact hypothesis predicts that the Moon was depleted of metallic material, explaining its abnormal composition.","da tsnimal turda n umlaqqay axatar s ussmur n tmtta tamaɣuzt n wayyur, ar tssfru assulɣt nns ar agaman."
"The initial crust, formed when the Earth's surface first solidified, totally disappeared from a combination of this fast Hadean plate tectonics and the intense impacts of the Late Heavy Bombardment.","ittuskar uqcbal amzwaru llig iga uzur n wakal agris tikklt tamzwarut, tacck kullu sg usrks n tfilin titiktunin iddrfn sg hadyan d yiḍiṣn idusn i titi iẓẓayn amggaru."
These pieces of late Hadean and early Archean crust form the cores around which today's continents grew.,igzzumn ad n uqcban n hadyan d imzwura n arcyan gan iɣyayn nna xf gman imnẓawn n wassa.
Cratons consist primarily of two alternating types of terranes.,ttusnayn ikṛatunn s talɣa tadslant sg sin wanawn immdfaṛn n idmkaln.
"For this reason, greenstones are sometimes seen as evidence for subduction during the Archean.","s manaya, da ttuẓṛan iẓṛan izgzawn d anẓa n wuẓu iwnan n uzmz aṛkiy."
Now it is considered likely that many of the volatiles were delivered during accretion by a process known as impact degassing in which incoming bodies vaporize on impact.,iẓḍaṛ dɣi kigan n imtta ittaylaln ttufkan g tizi n usmun s tbridt n yat tsiɣt ittwassn s yism n wukus n ugaz s unggs acku da sruggutn ibddurn d ikcmn g tizi n umlaqqay.
"Planetesimals at a distance of 1 astronomical unit (AU), the distance of the Earth from the Sun, probably did not contribute any water to the Earth because the solar nebula was too hot for ice to form and the hydration of rocks by water vapor would have taken too long.","ikut inn is llan itran imẓẓyan xf uzaru n 1 ufrdis aṣṭṛunumik (AU), nttat aygan azaru ingr wakal d tafukt, ur d kin amya n waman i wakal acku ablalaɣ n tafuyt irɣa kigan xf uskar n ugris, d usslwiɣ n iẓṛan s irugga n waman ittca kigan n tizi."
"Recent evidence suggests the oceans may have begun forming as early as 4.4 Ga. By the start of the Archean eon, they already covered much of the Earth.","da ttinin wanẓatn itrarn mas d illn snntan asmuttg nnsn zikk n 4.4 Ga. llig yiwḍ uzmz arkyuni, tɣms i yat tfult taxatart g wakal."
"Thus, the Sun has become 30% brighter in the last 4.5 billion years.","s manaya, tafukt tssudda uggar s usɣl n 30% g 4.5 mlyaṛ n usggwas izrin."
"There are many models, but little consensus, on how life emerged from non-living chemicals; chemical systems created in the laboratory fall well short of the minimum complexity for a living organism.","llan kigan n imdyatn, maca idrus mayd imunn, xf tmamkt s tlla tudrt sg tmttitin ticimin ur iddirn; ingrawn icimiyn nna ittuskarn g usarm drusn kigan xf trafrart tamudrust n umudr."
"Although atmospheric composition was probably different from that used by Miller and Urey, later experiments with more realistic compositions also managed to synthesize organic molecules.","mqqar ixulf usnay n waṭmusfir xf unna ittusmrsn ɣur millr d uṛi, irimn t id iḍfaṛn d isnayn inilawn uggar nna iẓḍaṛn ad isskr tiqcrin tigmamin."
"RNA would later have been replaced by DNA, which is more stable and therefore can build longer genomes, expanding the range of capabilities a single organism can have.","ittusnfal RNA g yat tizi tid iḍfaṛn s wadiyin, nna igan imnti uggar s iɣy ad iṣku ijinumn iɣzzifn, s manaya da tnɣalnt tzmmar nna rad yili ɣr yan umudr."
A difficulty with the metabolism-first scenario is finding a way for organisms to evolve.,tanmart tamzwarut illan g usinaṛyu n usmdya n wutci iga tt wafay n tmamkt n ubuɣlu n imudar.
"""Research in 2003 reported that montmorillonite could also accelerate the conversion of fatty acids into """"bubbles"""", and that the bubbles could encapsulate RNA attached to the clay.""","""nnan irzzutn nna ittugan asggwas n 2003 mas d lmuntmuṛilɛnit iɣy ad isddrf asnfl n ismmamn iḍṛẓann s """"iluffn"""", ɣin iluffn ad gn taɣarift RNA izdin s adqqi."""
This LUA cell is the ancestor of all life on Earth today.,taɣrast n LUA ayd igan tizwuri n talɣatin n tudrt xf wakal assa.
The change to an oxygen-rich atmosphere was a crucial development.,asnfl s yan uṭmusfir iglan s uksijin iga yan ubuɣlu amɣtas.
"They used fermentation, the breakdown of more complex compounds into less complex compounds with less energy, and used the energy so liberated to grow and reproduce.","smrsn amtan, d uzllɛ n imsnayn immurksn kigan s imsnayn ur immurkisn d tzmrt idrusn, smrsn tazmrt tilellit i umɣay d usyafu."
Most of the life that covers the surface of the Earth depends directly or indirectly on photosynthesis.,da itsnnad umata g tudrt aflla n wakals unamk usrid nɣd arusrid xf usmdya asiddan.
"To supply the electrons in the circuit, hydrogen is stripped from water, leaving oxygen as a waste product.","afad tturnun iliktṛunn g tẓayrt, da ittwakkas uhidrujin sg waman, iqqim uksijin ig afars n warruḍ."
"The simpler anoxygenic form arose about 3.8 Ga, not long after the appearance of life.","tgma talɣa tar uksijin afrar attayn n 3.8 Ga, ḍaṛt yat tizi ur iɣzzifn n wufuɣ n tudrt."
"At first, the released oxygen was bound up with limestone, iron, and other minerals.","g tizwuri, uksijin innuṛẓmn izdi s uẓṛu n ungmirs d wuzzal d iqddaḥ yaḍn."
"Though each cell only produced a minute amount of oxygen, the combined metabolism of many cells over a vast time transformed Earth's atmosphere to its current state.","mqqar da tsfaras ku taɣrst tasmkta idrusn day n uksijin, maca asmdya n wutci iccarn n kigan n ttɣrasin g iwnan n yan uzmz iɣzzifn g waṭmusfiṛn wakal s waddad nns n dɣi."
"The ozone layer absorbed, and still absorbs, a significant amount of the ultraviolet radiation that once had passed through the atmosphere.","da tssumum tisi n uẓun, tsul ar tssumum, yat tsmkta taxatart sg iẓnẓaṛn nnig imkẓayn nna izrin g wamusfiṛ."
"As a result, the Earth began to receive more heat from the Sun in the Proterozoic eon.","s manaya, issnti wakal ar ittamẓ kigan n unrɣi sg tafukt g uzmz n bṛutizwik."
"Glacial deposits found in South Africa date back to 2.2 Ga, at which time, based on paleomagnetic evidence, they must have been located near the equator.","amzruy n isttayn n isaffn n ugris nna illan g iffus n iqya yaɣul s 2.2 Ga, g tizi nnaɣ, g usnnd xf wanẓatn izaykutn, ixssa ad ilint g ṭṭṛf n inbḍi n wakal."
"The Huronian ice age might have been caused by the increased oxygen concentration in the atmosphere, which caused the decrease of methane (CH4) in the atmosphere.","iɣy ad ig uzmz ahuruniy amssufɣ n tawna n uksijin g waṭmusfiṛ, nna ismntln g usuggz n lmitan (CH4) g waṭmusfiṛ."
"However, the term Snowball Earth is more commonly used to describe later extreme ice ages during the Cryogenian period.","mqqar d aya, taguri snuwbal irt da ttusmras s yat talɣa itwassn g usnumml n izmzn n ugris iṭṭuṛṛfn d iḍfaṛn g tizi n kṛujinyan."
"Carbon dioxide combines with rain to weather rocks to form carbonic acid, which is then washed out to sea, thus extracting the greenhouse gas from the atmosphere.","da ittmun ukaṛbun bu sin wuksijin d unẓaṛ afad zzwun iẓṛan sskrn asmmam akarbunik, nna itturidn ɣr dat g ill, s manaya ar d ttfɣɣn igazn ittḥṣaṛn anrɣi g waṭmusfiṛ."
"The Bacteria domain probably first split off from the other forms of life (sometimes called Neomura), but this supposition is controversial.","iɣy is ibḍa yign n tbaktirt d talɣatin yaḍn n tudrt (nna mi ittwana nyumuṛa), maca admu ad iga aɣnnan."
"The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some 2.4 ago; these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis.","idsnt tɣuziwin tiqqburin ɣur llant tmitar iẓlin n igwrsln da ttuɣulnt s azmz n lbalyubrutiruzwik, sg wattayn n 2.4; imudar ad isilann agaɣras mi tlla tɣssa n ifilan iẓḍaṛn i usanastumus."
Perhaps the large cell attempted to digest the smaller one but failed (possibly due to the evolution of prey defenses).,ɛniɣ tra tɣrast tamqqrant ad tettc tamẓẓyant maca ur tẓḍaṛ (ɛniɣ s tmntilt n ubuɣlu n imzaɣn n umngmr).
"Using oxygen, it metabolized the larger cell's waste products and derived more energy.","s usmrs n uksijin, da isnfal aṛṛuḍ n tɣrasin timqqranin issufɣd sul tazmrt."
"Soon, a stable symbiosis developed between the large cell and the smaller cells inside it.",imik ibiɣlu umyawas iggign ingr taɣrst tamqqrant d tɣrasin n ugns nns timẓyanin.
A similar event occurred with photosynthetic cyanobacteria entering large heterotrophic cells and becoming chloroplasts.,ijra yan umzzu imiwi s ukccum n tbaktirt tanilit tasiddant s tɣrasin timqqranin itettan ɣur kra yaḍn gnt iblastidn izgzawn.
"Besides the well-established endosymbiotic theory of the cellular origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts, there are theories that cells led to peroxisomes, spirochetes led to cilia and flagella, and that perhaps a DNA virus led to the cell nucleus, though none of them are widely accepted.","tama n tiẓiṛt n undusimbyutik n uẓur aɣrasan n umitukundri d iblastidn izgzawn, llant tiẓirin mas d tiɣrasin ifkan ibiruksimn, isbirucitn da akkan abliwn d waddil, d iɣy ad yawi ufirus n wadiyin s aɣyay n tɣrast, tra mqqar ur ittufsar awd yan diksn."
"Around 1.1 Ga, the supercontinent Rodinia was assembling.","attayn n 1.1 Ga, amnẓaw axatar ṛudinya ar ttmun."
"Although the division between a colony with specialized cells and a multicellular organism is not always clear, around 1 billion years ago, the first multicellular plants emerged, probably green algae.","mqqar ubṭṭu ingr tdurruyt m tɣrast tamẓlayt d umudr agaɣras ur igi anafaw abda, sg wattayn n 1 mlyaṛ n usggwas, iffɣ d umzwaru g imɣayn agraɣras, ɛniɣ adaln izgzawn."
"Paleomagnetic poles are supplemented by geologic evidence such as orogenic belts, which mark the edges of ancient plates, and past distributions of flora and fauna.","da ttusmadn igjda ibalyumanyitikn s wanẓatn ijyulujiyn zund assasn urujinikn, nna isttin irawn n tfilin tizaykutin, d ibṭṭutn izrin n imudar d imɣayn."
"About 1000 to 830 Ma, most continental mass was united in the supercontinent Rodinia.","attayn n 1000ar 830 mlyun n isggasn, amata g ugudi n umnẓaw imun g umnẓaw axatar rudinya."
The hypothetical supercontinent is sometimes referred to as Pannotia or Vendia.,da as ittwana i umnẓaw axatar amrdu ism n bannutya nɣd findya.
The intensity and mechanism of both glaciations are still under investigation and harder to explain than the early Proterozoic Snowball Earth.,tsul tuẓẓiṛt d tmamkt n sin igudiyn n ugris g tɣuri d icqqa ussfru nns g usmzazzal d takurt n udfl tazaykut n zikk.
"Because CO2 is an important greenhouse gas, climates cooled globally.","acku CO2 sg igazn istawhmman irɣan, ar ittusqraf unzwi g umaḍal."
Increased volcanic activity resulted from the break-up of Rodinia at about the same time.,ittufars umussu n ubuṛkan ittalin sg ubṭṭu n ṛudinya g wattayn n yat tizi.
"The new forms of life, called Ediacara biota, were larger and more diverse than ever.","gan t talɣatin timaynutin n tudrt, s wassaɣ idyakaṛa byuta, tibarawin d tsmyanawin uggar n kra n tizi yaḍn."
"It consists of three eras: The Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, and is the time when multi-cellular life greatly diversified into almost all the organisms known today.","ittusnay sg kṛaḍ izmzn: azmz n tudrt taqqburt, azmz n tudrt tanammast, azmz n tudrt tatrart, igan tizi g tmyanaw kigan tudrt tagraɣrast g kullu imudar ittwassan assa s wadas."
This causes the sea level to rise.,manaya da ittawi s yily n uzur n ill.
Traces of glaciation from this period are only found on former Gondwana.,ttyafant tmitar n ugris g tizi ad day g gundwana izrin.
"The continents Laurentia and Baltica collided between 450 and 400 Ma, during the Caledonian Orogeny, to form Laurussia (also known as Euramerica).","mlaqayn sin imnẓawn luṛuntya d baltika ingr 450 d 400 Ma, g iwnan n usmuttg n idurar n kalidunyan, afad snin luṛusya (ittwassn awd s yism n uṛamirika)."
"The collision of Siberia with Laurussia caused the Uralian Orogeny, the collision of Gondwana with Laurussia is called the Variscan or Hercynian Orogeny in Europe or the Alleghenian Orogeny in North America.","ttuskarn idurar n uṛal s tmntilt n umlaqay n sibirya d lurusya, amlaqay n gundwana d lurusya ism nns faṛiskan nɣd hursinyan uṛujin g uṛubba nɣd asmuttg n idurar n aliginya g mirikan n iẓlmḍ."
"Whereas the Ediacaran life forms appear yet primitive and not easy to put in any modern group, at the end of the Cambrian most modern phyla were already present.","g tizi g gant talɣatin n tudrt tidyakarit tiqqburin maca ur iwhin ad ttusrasnt g kra n trabbut tatrart, g tigira n uzmz agmbari illa umata g tzuniwin titrarin."
Some of these Cambrian groups appear complex but are seemingly quite different from modern life; examples are Anomalocaris and Haikouichthys.,"gant trubba ad n ugambari zun mmurksnt maca mzaraynt kullu xf tudrt tatrart, s umdya anumalukaris d haykwictis."
"A creature that could have been the ancestor of the fishes, or was probably closely related to it, was Pikaia.","amudr nna iɣin ad ig sg imzwura n islman, nɣd izdi didsn yan uzday idusn, iga t bikaya."
"Fish, the earliest vertebrates, evolved in the oceans around 530 Ma.","islman, sg m isnsuln iqqburn, buɣlan g yill attayn n 530 Ma."
"The oldest fossils of land fungi and plants date to 480–460 Ma, though molecular evidence suggests the fungi may have colonized the land as early as 1000 Ma and the plants 700 Ma.","aɣulnt tɣuziwin tizaykutin n igwsln d imɣayn n wakal s 480–460 mlyun n usggwas, mqqar da ttinin wanẓiwn usdidn mas sdurrin igwrsln akal sg 1000 mlyun n usggwas d imɣayn 700 mlyun n usggwas."
Fins evolved to become limbs that the first tetrapods used to lift their heads out of the water to breathe air.,buɣrlant tmsccfin allig gant igmamn nna smrsnt id m kkuẓt n iḍaṛn timzwura afad asint ixfawn nnsnt s aflla n waman ad asint unfus.
"Eventually, some of them became so well adapted to terrestrial life that they spent their adult lives on land, although they hatched in the water and returned to lay their eggs.","g tgira, imcackad kra diksn d tudrt tabɛlit allig zzrin tudrt nnsn xf wakal, mqqar lulan g waman uɣuln ẓaṛs ad ṣḍṛn tiglay."
"Plants evolved seeds, which dramatically accelerated their spread on land, around this time (by approximately 360 Ma).","sbuɣlan imɣayn ifsan, s manaya ttufsarn g wakal fisaɛ g tizi ad (s wattayn n 360 n id mlyun)."
Another 30 million years (310 Ma) saw the divergence of the synapsids (including mammals) from the sauropsids (including birds and reptiles).,30 mlyun n usggwas yaḍn (310 mlyun n usggwas) g illa umɛraq n isinabsidn (g llant timẓẓagin) sg iṣuṛubsidn (g llan igḍaḍ d imḥrurdn).
"The Triassic–Jurassic extinction event at 200 Ma spared many of the dinosaurs, and they soon became dominant among the vertebrates.","ijṛa uxssuy atriyasik–ajurasik g 200mlyun n usggwas iqqil kigan n idinaṣuṛn, fisaɛ ayd nnbḍnt ingr id m usnsl."
60% of marine invertebrates became extinct and 25% of all families.,60% sg id war asnsul ur suln d 25% g iklaln kullu.
"The third mass extinction was the Permian-Triassic, or the Great Dying, event was possibly caused by some combination of the Siberian Traps volcanic event, an asteroid impact, methane hydrate gasification, sea level fluctuations, and a major anoxic event.","axssuy amgru wis kṛaḍ igat uzmz abirmi-atriyasi, nɣd tamttant tamqqrant, ɛniɣ tamntilt nns tarkkust n tamsart taburkanit n sibirya tabs, iḍiṣ n watri amẓẓyan, akccum n ugaz s hidrat n umiṭan, d isnfln n uzur n yill, d tmsart n uksijin idrusn."
"This was by far the deadliest extinction ever, with about 57% of all families and 83% of all genera killed.","iga wad axssuy akkw asnidam kigan, acku immut wattay n 57% sg kullu tawjiwin d 83% sg wanawn kullu."
"By the early Paleocene the earth recovered from the extinction, and mammalian diversity increased.","g tizwuri n uzmz abalyusiniy, ijji wakal sg uxssuy n imudar, yaly umyanaw g tmẓẓagin."
"Grassless savanna began to predominate much of the landscape, and mammals such as Andrewsarchus rose up to become the largest known terrestrial predatory mammal ever, and early whales like Basilosaurus took control of the seas.","tssnti ssafana g ur tlli tuga anbbḍ xf kigan n imiẓaṛn igamann, alint tmẓẓagin zund andriwsarcus afad ad tg amudr axatar amẓẓag wamnsdda abɛli akkw ittwassn, nbḍnt tzmkin n zikk zund abasilusarus xf illn."
Giant ungulates like Paraceratherium and Deinotherium evolved to rule the grasslands.,buɣlant id m ifnza ixatarn zund barasiratiryum d dinutiryum afad taẓ igwdaln.
The Tethys Sea was closed off by the collision of Africa and Europe.,ittwargal yill n titis s tmntilt n umlaqay n ifriqya d urubba.
"The land bridge allowed the isolated creatures of South America to migrate over to North America, and vice versa.","tudja tlggwit tanakalt imudar ittuẓlayn g mirikan n iffus ad mmuddun s mirikan n iẓlmḍ, d umgal."
The ice ages led to the evolution of modern man in Saharan Africa and expansion.,izmzn n ugris ayd yuwn s abuɣlu n ufgan atrar g tniri n ifriqya d ubuɣlu nns.
"It is believed by many that a huge migration took place along Beringia which is why, today, there are camels (which evolved and became extinct in North America), horses (which evolved and became extinct in North America), and Native Americans.","iɣal kigan is ijṛa yan umuddu axatar xf birinjiya ayann axf llan ilɣman assa (nna ibuɣlan txsi g mirikan n iẓlmḍ), d iyysan (nna ibuɣlan txsi g mirikan n iẓlmḍ), d imirikaniyn inṣliyn."
"Brain size increased rapidly, and by 2 Ma, the first animals classified in the genus Homo had appeared.","izayd uksay n wallaɣ fisaɛ, g tuwd 2 mlyun, iffɣd umudr amzwaru ittustayn g wanaw n ufgan."
"The ability to control fire probably began in Homo erectus (or Homo ergaster), probably at least 790,000 years ago but perhaps as early as 1.5 Ma.","iẓḍaṛ is tssnti tazmrt n unbḍ g wafa sg ufgan ibddan (nɣd humu irgastr), iɣy id sg 790,000 n usggwas, maca iɣy id sg zikk ar 1.5 mlyun n usggwas."
It is more difficult to establish the origin of language; it is unclear whether Homo erectus could speak or if that capability had not begun until Homo sapiens.,"icqqa ad ittuẓlay uzuṛ n tutlayt, ur ittusfaw is iẓḍaṛ ufgan ibddan ad isawal, nɣd tazmrt ad ur tssnti ar afgan humusabyan."
"Social skills became more complex, language became more sophisticated, and tools became more elaborate.","mmurksnt tzmmar tinamunin uggar, tmmurks tutlayt kigan, mmurksn imassn uggar."
"The first humans to show signs of spirituality are the Neanderthals (usually classified as a separate species with no surviving descendants); they buried their dead, often with no sign of food or tools.","afgan amzwaru nna d issufɣn timitar tinimanin igat ufgan nyardrtal (kra n tikkal da ittustay is iga anaw iẓlin ur ɣurs ayyawn iddrn); udrn i imttin nnsn, g wahli n tikkal bla awd yat tmatart n imassn nɣd uttci."
"As language became more complex, the ability to remember and communicate information resulted, according to a theory proposed by Richard Dawkins, in a new replicator: the meme.","lli g tga tmmurks tutlayt uggar, tga tazmrt n usmkti n inɣmisn d usslkm nnsn, nil yat tannayt nna isrs ritcard dawkinz, s umyalas amaynu: du mim."
"Between 8500 and 7000 BC, humans in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East began the systematic husbandry of plants and animals: agriculture.","ingr 8500 d 7000 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ, issnti ufgan g tsga n du firtil krissnt g unqqar anammas g ussgmi anbrid n imudar d imɣayn: takrza."
"However, among those civilizations that did adopt agriculture, the relative stability and increased productivity provided by farming allowed the population to expand.","imil, sg tɣrmiwin nna ikrrzn, yudja urggig aslɣan d tyafut ittalin nna tsskar tkrza imzdaɣ ad buɣlun."
"This led to Earth's first civilization at Sumer in the Middle East, between 4000 and 3000 BC.","yuwi uya s wufuɣ n tɣrma tamzwarut n wakal g sumr g unqqar anammas, ingr 4000 d 3000 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ."
"Humans no longer had to spend all their time working for survival, enabling the first specialized occupations (e.g. craftsmen, merchants, priests, etc.).","ur yad illi xf ufgan ad izzri tizi nns kullu g twuri afad iddr, uḍuf n tazzulin timẓlayin timzwura (zund imzzuln, isbbabn, ikhhann, ar tigira.)."
"By around 500 BC, there were advanced civilizations in the Middle East, Iran, India, China, and Greece, at times expanding, at times entering into decline.","g yuwḍ usggwas n 500 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ, llant tɣrmiwin ibuɣlan g unqqar anammas d iṛan d mhind d ṣṣin d lyunan, d kra n tikkal kcmnt g waddad n ummuzdr."
"This civilization developed in warfare, arts, science, mathematics and in architect.",tbuɣla tɣrma g imnɣan d tẓuṛiwin d tmassanin d tmsdagt.
The Roman Empire was Christianized by Emperor Constantine in the early 4th century and declined by the end of the 5th.,ttumssḥ tgldit taṛumaniyt xf ufus n imbṛaṭuṛ qsṭanṭin g tizwuri n tasut tis 4 d tggz g tgira n tasut tis 5.
"The House of Wisdom was established in Abbasid-era Baghdad, Iraq.","ttuskar taddart tnẓeẓt g uzmz n aɛbbasi bɣdad, lɛiṛaq."
"In the 14th century, the Renaissance began in Italy with advances in religion, art, and science.","g tasut tis 14, ittusnta uzmz n ubuɣlu g ṭṭalyan s isnfln g usɣan d tẓuṛi d tmassanin."
"European civilization began to change beginning in 1500, leading to the scientific and industrial revolutions.","tssnti tɣrma n urubba asnfl sg tizwuri n usggas n 1500, ifka d tiglawliwin timassanin d tmguranin."
"From 1914 to 1918 and 1939 to 1945, nations around the world were embroiled in world wars.","sg usggwas n 1914 ar 1918 d sg usggwas n 1939 ar 1945, buɣlant tmura g umaḍal g imnɣan imaḍlann."
"After the war, many new states were formed, declaring or being granted independence in a period of decolonization.","ḍaṛt imnɣi, ttuskarnt tmura timaynutin, abrrḥ nɣd tikki n tsimant g tizi n ussmur n usddurry."
"Technological developments include nuclear weapons, computers, genetic engineering, and nanotechnology.",ibuɣlutn itiknulujiyn digsn tilafin timɣyayin d wallaln n imssudsn d utwal n tukksi d ttiknulujit n unanu.
"Major concerns and problems such as disease, war, poverty, violent radicalism, and recently, human-caused climate change have risen as the world population increases.","ulint tkṣṣaḍ d imukrisn idslann zund tamadunt d imnɣi d uẓlaḍ d uɣwwɣ ukṣiḍ, d tgira, asnfl n unzwi nna iskar ufgan ig yuli umḍan n imzdaɣ g umaḍal."
"Human history, or recorded history, is the narrative of humanity's past.","amzruy anafgan, nɣd amzruy ittuzmmemn, iga allas i uynna izrin xf ufgan."
"The Neolithic saw the Agricultural Revolution begin, between 10,000 and 5000 BCE, in the Near East's Fertile Crescent.","tssnti tgrawla n tkrza g uzmz n uẓṛu atrar, ingr 10,000 d 5000 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ, g tsga firtil krissnt g unqqar amazdar."
"As farming developed, grain agriculture became more sophisticated and prompted a division of labour to store food between growing seasons.","d ubuɣlu n tkrza, tmmurks kigan tkrza n imndi tawi ɣr ubṭṭu n twuri afad ittuḥḍu wutci ingr inmuggarn n tkrza."
Hinduism developed in the late Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent.,tbuɣla thindusiyt g tgira n uzmz abṛunziy g umyaɣ amnẓaw n lhind.
"""Post-classical history (the """"Middle Ages,"""" c. 500–1500 CE,) witnessed the rise of Christianity, the Islamic Golden Age (c. 750 CE – c. 1258 CE), and the Timurid and Italian Renaissances (from around 1300 CE).""","""iẓṛa umzruy n ḍaṛt tklasikiyt (""""izmzn inammasn,"""" attayn n 500–1500) ufuɣ n tmasiḥiyt, d uzmz n wurɣ anslm (750–1258), d tnkra taymuriyt d tṭalyaniyt (sg wattayn n 1300 )."""
"By the 18th century, the accumulation of knowledge and technology had reached a critical mass that brought about the Industrial Revolution and began the late modern period, which started around 1800 and has continued through the present.","g tlkm tasut tiss 18, yuwḍ ugudi n tussna d ttiknulujit s tzduzt icqqan nna isskrn tagrawla tamgurant nna isstin g tigira n uzmz atrar, nna issntin g wattayn n 1800 issudu ar tizi ad."
"Anatomically modern humans arose in Africa about 300,000 years ago, and achieved behavioral modernity about 50,000 years ago.","igma ufgan atrat anaṭumik g ifriqya sg wattayn n 300,000 n usggwas, isskr tamtrart ntikli sg wattayn n 50,000."
"Perhaps as early as 1.8 million years ago, but certainly by 500,000 years ago, humans began to use fire for heat and cooking.","iɣy id sg 1.8 mlyunn usggwas, maca bla cck dat 500,000 n usggwas issnti ufgan asmrs n wafa i unrɣi d usnwi."
"Paleolithic humans lived as hunter-gatherers, and were generally nomadic.","iddr ufgan sg uzmz n uẓṛu am ingmarn imsmunn, gan s umata sg ifarann ittmuddun."
The rapid expansion of humankind to North America and Oceania took place at the climax of the most recent ice age.,ijṛa yan unɣal iddrfn i ufgan s mirikan n iẓlmḍ d uqyanusya g uflla n uzmz atrar n ugris.
"The Yellow River valley in China cultivated millet and other cereal crops by about 7000 BCE; the Yangtze valley domesticated rice earlier, by at least 8000 BCE.","da ittukraz uzaɣar n wasif awraɣ d ṣṣin s illan d imndi yaḍn sg wattayn n 7000 dat tlalit; d ulqqm n ṛṛuz g uzaɣar n yangatzi g yat tizi izrin, attayn n 8000."
"Metalworking, was first used in the creation of copper tools and ornaments around 6000 BCE.",ittusmras uswuri n iqddaḥ tikklt izwarn g tmguri n imassn d wunuɣn n nnḥas sg 6000 n usggwas dat tlalit.
"Cities were centres of trade, manufacturing and political power.",gant tmdinin ammasn n tsbbabt d tmguri d udabu asrtan.
The development of cities was synonymous with the rise of civilization.,iga ubuɣlu n tmdinin amyaɣ n wufuɣ n tɣrma.
"These cultures variously invented the wheel, mathematics, bronze-working, sailing boats, the potter's wheel, woven cloth, construction of monumental buildings, and writing.","snulfant tdlsatin ad ṛwiḍa, d tusnakt, d tmgurin nnnḥas, d iɣrrabutn n uzwu, d rwiḍa n wunuɣ, d tifst iẓḍan, d uṣku n iɣrman ixatarn, d tirra."
Typical of the Neolithic was a tendency to worship anthropomorphic deities.,iga umdya n uzmz n uẓṛu atrar uɣul s uɛbad n id ṛbbi ittuɛdaln.
"These settlements were concentrated in fertile river valleys: the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia, the Nile in Egypt, the Indus in the Indian subcontinent, and the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers in China.","umẓnt tmrsal ad izaɣarn n isaffn itirsn: isaffn n dijla d lfurat g tmazirt n ingr sin isaffn, asif n nnil g miṣṛ, d wasif n ssnd g umyaɣ amnẓaw ahindiy, d wasif n yangtzi d wasif awraɣ g ṣṣin."
"Cuneiform writing began as a system of pictographs, whose pictorial representations eventually became simplified and more abstract.","ssntint tirra s umsmaṛ d anagraw n tfrisin timssfrayin, nna mi gan ismdyatn nns iswllafn s tgira ifrarn d awngim uggar."
Transport was facilitated by waterways—by rivers and seas.,isswhn usmutti sg ibrdan n waman—s tmamkt n isaffn d illn.
These developments led to the rise of territorial states and empires.,uwin ibuɣlutn ad s ufuɣ n tmura d tglditin tisgawanin.
In Crete the Minoan civilization had entered the Bronze Age by 2700 BCE and is regarded as the first civilization in Europe.,"tkcm tɣrma n minwan g tgzirt n krit, azmz n nnḥas g usggas n 2700 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ tga taɣrma izwarn g urubba."
"Over the following millennia, civilizations developed across the world.","iwnan n ifḍiwn n isggwasn d iḍfarn, buɣlant tɣrmiwin g wansatn kullu n umaḍal."
"In India, this era was the Vedic period (1750-600 BCE), which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 6th century BCE.","g lhind, iga uzmz ad tizi n fidik (1750-600 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ), nna isrsn tisila n thindusiyt, d tggwin tidlsanin yaḍn n umun a hiniy n zik, tsmur g tasut tis 6 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ."
"During the formative stage in Mesoamerica (about 1500 BCE to 500 CE), more complex and centralized civilizations began to develop, mostly in what is now Mexico, Central America, and Peru.","g tfrkt n usmuttg g mirikan tanammast (attayn n 1500 dat tlalit ar 500 sg tlalit), ssntint tɣrmiwin timnammasin immurksn uggar g ubuɣlu, amata g lmiksik d mirikan n wammas d lbbiru."
"Karl Jaspers' Axial-Age theory also includes Persian Zoroastrianism, but other scholars dispute his timeline for Zoroastrianism.)","tannayt n uzmz asguman n kaṛl jasbrz digs awd taẓaṛaditciyt tafarisiyt, maca imassan yaḍn gan cck g tsnakudt nns i tẓaṛaditciyt.)"
"These were Taoism, Legalism, and Confucianism.","tid aygan tawizm, ligalizm, d kunfucyanism."
The great empires depended on military annexation of territory and on the formation of defended settlements to become agricultural centres.,snndnt tglditin timqranin xf wasay asrdas i wakaln d usnay n tmrsal ittuḥḍan afad gnt ammasn n tkrza.
There were a number of regional empires during this period.,llant kigan n tglditin tisgawanin iwnan n tizi ad.
"The Median Empire gave way to successive Iranian empires, including the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE), the Parthian Empire (247 BCE–224 CE), and the Sasanian Empire (224–651 CE).","tṛẓm tgldit tanammast abrid dat tglditin nna ikkan iṛan, g tlla tgldit taxmint (550–330 dat tlalit), d tgldit tabartiyt (247 dat tlalit–224 g tlalit), d tgldit tasasaniyt (224–651 g tlalit)."
"Later, Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE), of Macedon, founded an empire of conquest, extending from present-day Greece to present-day India.","g yat tizi d iddan, isskr uskandar amaqduniy (356–323 dat tlalit), tagldit i alik tumẓ sg lyunan n dɣi ar lhind n dɣi."
"From the 3rd century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's Golden Age.","sg tasut tis 3 g tlalit, inbḍ iɣss n jubta g tizi ittusmulan g s yism n uzmz n wurɣ n lhind tazaykut."
The ensuing stability contributed to heralding in the golden age of Hindu culture in the 4th and 5th centuries.,yuws urggig nna t id iḍfaṛn g usslɣu s uzmz n wurɣ n tdlsa tahindusiyt g tasutin 4 d 5.
"By the time of Augustus (63 BCE – 14 CE), the first Roman Emperor, Rome had already established dominion over most of the Mediterranean.","llig tuwḍ tizi n ɣuct (63 dat tlalit – 14 g tlalit), agllid aṛumaniy amzwaru, tzuccl ṛuma tanbaḍt nns xf umata g yill umlil anammas."
"The Western empire would fall, in 476 CE, to German influence under Odoacer.","tḍṛ tgldit n uɣlay, asggwas n 476g tlalit, g ufus n yiḍiṣ almaniy ddaw tnbaḍt n udakr."
The Han dynasty was comparable in power and influence to the Roman Empire that lay at the other end of the Silk Road.,iga iɣss n han imiwi g taggalt d yiḍiṣ i tgldit taṛumaniyt nna illan g tsga yaḍn n ubrid n lhrir.
"As with other empires during the Classical Period, Han China advanced significantly in the areas of government, education, mathematics, astronomy, technology, and many others.","imki nna iga waddad d tglditin yaḍn iwnan n tizi taklasikiyt, ṣṣin n han tssuda g igran n tnbaḍt d usslmd d tusnakt d tussna n yignna d ttiknulujit d kigan yaḍn."
"Successful regional empires were also established in the Americas, arising from cultures established as early as 2500 BCE.","ttuskarnt awd tglditin imursn g id mirikan s snat, nna ittuskarn sg tdlsatin nna ittuskarn sg 2500 dat tlalit."
"The great Mayan city-states slowly rose in number and prominence, and Maya culture spread throughout the Yucatán and surrounding areas.","ulint tmdinin-timura n lmaya g tsga n umḍan d tizi, ttufsar tdlsa n lmaya g kullu ansatn n yukatan d tmnaḍin nna as ittin"
"There were, however, in some regions, periods of rapid technological progress.","imil, tlla tizi n ubuɣlu atiknulujiy iddrfn g kra n tmnaḍin."
"China's Han dynasty fell into civil war in 220 CE, beginning the Three Kingdoms period, while its Roman counterpart became increasingly decentralized and divided about the same time in what is known as the Crisis of the Third Century.","iḍṛ iɣss n han aṣiniy g imnɣi uɣrim asggwas n 220 g tlalit, tizwuri n tglditin s kṛaḍt, maca tikni nns taṛumaniyt ar tssudu g taranammast d awd tbḍa g uskkin ittwassn s tassast n tasut."
The development of the stirrup and the breeding of horses strong enough to carry a fully armed archer made the nomads a constant threat to the more settled civilizations.,abuɣlu n unrkb d ussgmi n iysan idusn iɣin ad yasi amagar n tafalin alafay kullu yudja ifarann ad ssuwudn abda tiɣrmiwin illan g talwit.
"The remaining part of the Roman Empire, in the eastern Mediterranean, continued as what came to be called the Byzantine Empire.",tssuda tfult nna d iqqiman g tgldit taṛumaniyt g unqqar n yill umlil anammas nna mi ttinin tagldit tabizanṭiyt.
"The era is commonly dated from the 5th-century fall of the Western Roman Empire, which fragmented into many separate kingdoms, some of which would later be confederated under the Holy Roman Empire.","s umata yaɣul umzruy n uzmz ddɣ s tḍuṛi n tgldit taṛumaniyt n uɣlay g tasut tiss 5, nna ibḍan xf kigan n tglditin iẓlin, kra diksnt iḍṛ s dat ddaw tnbaḍt n tgldit taṛumaniyt tagrramt."
"South Asia saw a series of middle kingdoms of India, followed by the establishment of Islamic empires in India.","izri g asya n iffus yan usnsl n tglditin tinammasin g lhind, ḍaṛ as ttuskarnt tglditin tinslmin g lhind."
"This allowed Africa to join the Southeast Asia trading system, bringing it contact with Asia; this, along with Muslim culture, resulted in the Swahili culture.","aya yudja ifriqya ad tamu g ungraw n tsbbabt g iffus n unqqar n asya, allig tmsawaḍ d asya, yuwi uyad, d tdlsa tanslmt, ɣr wufuɣ n tdlsa taɣarant."
"This was also a cultural battle, with the Byzantine Hellenistic and Christian culture competing against the Persian Iranian traditions and Zoroastrian religion.","tga awd tad imnɣi adlsan, iddɣ tmzizwr tdlsa tabizanṭiyt tahilnistiyt d tmasiḥiyt mgal n tmyurin n iṛan tifarisiyin d usɣan azaraditciy."
"From their centre on the Arabian Peninsula, Muslims began their expansion during the early Postclassical Era.","sg wammas nnsn g umyaɣ n tgzirt n waɛrabn, ssntin inslmn anɣal nnsn g tizwuri n uzmz n ḍart tklasikiyt."
Much of this learning and development can be linked to geography.,iẓḍaṛ ad nzdi kigan sg ulmmud d ubuɣlu ad s tjiɣṛafiyt.
The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous.,iḍiṣ n isbbabn inslmn xf ibrdan n tsbbabt tifriqt-taɛrabt d tɛrabt-tasyawit iga aqqran.
"Motivated by religion and dreams of conquest, European leaders launched a number of Crusades to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the Holy Land.","s usmctg n usɣan d twirga n usik, ṛẓmn inmɣurn n uṛubba kigan n imnɣan iṣalibiyn mar is ur nqqan taggalt tanslmt rarn d ikaln n lquds."
"Arab domination of the region ended in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq Turks, migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia.","tsmar tnbaḍt n waɛrabn xf tmnaḍt g uzgn n tasut tis 11 llig d lkmn isljuqiyn iturkiyn, nna immuddan s iffus n tmura n tuṛkya g asya tanammast."
The region will later be called the Barbary Coast and will host pirates and privateers who will use several North African ports for their raids against the coastal towns of several European countries in search of slaves to be sold in North African markets as part of the Barbary slave trade.,"qad as ttinin i tmnaḍt s dat ism n taɣart tabrbriyt d qad tsnbgi imrtaln nna rad issmrs iftasn n iẓlmd n ifriqya i imnɣan nnsn mgal timdinin n taɣart g kigan n tmura n uṛubba g urzzu xf ismxan nna rad ittunza g igadazn n iẓlmḍ n ifriqya zund tafult n ismxan ibrbriyn, tasbbabt."
"In the 8th century, Islam began to penetrate the region and soon became the sole faith of most of the population, though Buddhism remained strong in the east.","g tasut tis 8, issnti lislam ar ikccm tamnaḍt fisaɛ ayd iga asɣan n umata g imzdaɣ, mqqar tsul tbudiyt tdus g unqqar."
"After Genghis Khan died in 1227, most of Central Asia continued to be dominated by a successor state, Chagatai Khanate.","ḍaṛt tmttant n jinkiz xan asggwas n 1227, tssuda tnbaḍt xf umata g asya sg uwank imḍfṛn, cagatay xanat."
The region then became divided into a series of smaller khanates that were created by the Uzbeks.,tbḍa tmnaḍt xf yan usnsl n id xanat imẓẓyann nna isskr uzbik.
The barbarian invaders formed their own new kingdoms in the remains of the Western Roman Empire.,smuttgn imkcamn ibrbriyn tiglditin nnsn g uynna d iqqiman g tgldit tarumaniyt n uɣlay.
"Christianity expanded in western Europe, and monasteries were founded.","tnnɣl tmasiḥiyt g uṛubba n uɣlay, d ttusmrsl tmunastirt."
"Manorialism, the organization of peasants into villages that owed rents and labour service to nobles, and feudalism, a political structure whereby knights and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rents from lands and manors, were two of the ways of organizing medieval society that developed during the High Middle Ages.","manuṛalya, yan ussuds n ifllaḥn g iɣrman nna iḍfaṛn akrru d twuri i ymṭṛṛḥn, d ufyudalizm, nna igan yat tɣssa tasrtant nna g ḍffuṛn imnayn d imṭṛṛḥn ayt tskwflt tamazdart s twuri tasrdast i id mass nnsn mgal azrf n ukrru n ikaln d iɣrman, i tmamkin n ussuds n umun n tasutin tinammasin nna ibuɣlan iwnan n izmzn inammasn inafllatn."
Italian merchants imported slaves to work in households or in sugar processing.,uwin d isbbabn iṭalyaniyn ismxan ad swurin d taddrwin nɣd tamguri n sskṛ.
"Famine, plague, and war devastated the population of western Europe.","izllɛ buhyyuf, d ṭṭaɛun, d imnɣi imzdaɣ n uṛubba n uɣlay."
They eventually gave way to the Zagwe dynasty who are famed for their rock cut architecture at Lalibela.,ṛẓmn abrid g tgira i iɣss n ẓagwi ittwassn s tmsdagt nns iṛcmn g uẓṛu g lalibila.
"They controlled the trans-Saharan trade in gold, ivory, salt and slaves.","nbḍn g tsbbabt n wurɣ, lɛaj, tisnt d ismxn sg tiniri."
"Central Africa saw the birth of several states, including the Kingdom of Kongo.","lulant d kigan n tmura g ifriqya tanammast, sg digsnt tagldit n kungu."
"They built large defensive stone structures without mortar such as Great Zimbabwe, capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, Khami, capital of Kingdom of Butua, and Danangombe (Dhlo-Dhlo), capital of the Rozvi Empire.","sskrn kra n wuṣkiwn imzɣann imqqran s uẓru bla tafrdut zund zimbabwi tamqqrant, tamaẓunt n tgldit n zimbabwi, d xami, tamaẓunt n tgldit n butuwa, d danangumbi (dlu-dlu), tamaẓunt n tgldit n ṛuzfi."
"The ninth century saw a Tripartite Struggle for control of northern India, among the Pratihara Empire, the Pala Empire, and the Rashtrakuta Empire.","g tasut tis tẓa illa umɣnnan amkṛaḍ xf tnbaḍt n iẓlmḍ n lhind, ingr tgldit n bṛatihaṛa, d tgldit n bala, d tgldit n ṛactrakuta."
"""The Tang dynasty eventually splintered, however, and after half a century of turmoil the Song dynasty reunified China, when it was, according to William McNeill, the """"richest, most skilled, and most populous country on earth"""".""","g tgira ibḍa iɣss n tang, d ḍaṛt uzgn n tasut n imukrisn, tsmun twja n sung ṣṣin, lli g tga, g tannayt n wilyam maknil, """"tamurt tamṭṛṛḥt d tnna ifuksn d g ggutn imzdaɣ kigan aflla n wakal""""."""
"After about a century of Mongol Yuan dynasty rule, the ethnic Chinese reasserted control with the founding of the Ming dynasty (1368).","ḍaṛt wattayn n yat tasut n tnbaḍt n iɣss n mangul yuwan, ruran d iṣiniyn iẓuṛann tanbaḍt nnsn s usmrsl n iɣss n ming (1368)."
The Nara period of the 8th century marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state and is often portrayed as a golden age.,g tizi n naṛa g tasut tis 8 tffɣ d yat tmurt idusn nna snummln kigan is tga azmz n wurɣ.
"The feudal period of Japanese history, dominated by powerful regional lords (daimyos) and the military rule of warlords (shoguns) such as the Ashikaga shogunate and Tokugawa shogunate, stretched from 1185 to 1868.","tkka tizi tafyudaliyt g umzruy ajabbuniy, nna g nnbḍn id llurd isgawann idusn (daymyus) d unbḍ asrdas n iglann n imnɣi (cuguns) zund acikaga cugunat d tukugawa cugunat, sg 1185 ar 1868."
"Silla conquered Baekje in 660, and Goguryeo in 668, marking the beginning of the Northern and Southern States period (남북국시대), with Unified Silla in the south and Balhae, a successor state to Goguryeo, in the north.","cilla tkcm baykji g 660, d gujuryu g 668, tsslɣu assnti n tizi n iwunak n iẓlmḍ d iffus (남북국시대), d calla imun g iffus d balhay, tga awank d iḍfaṛn jujuṛyu, g iẓlmḍ."
"Starting in the 9th century, the Bagan Kingdom rose to prominence in modern Myanmar.","sg tasut tis 9, tffɣd tgldit n bagan g minamaṛ tatrart."
"The Ancestral Puebloans and their predecessors (9th – 13th centuries) built extensive permanent settlements, including stone structures that would remain the largest buildings in North America until the 19th century.","ṣkan imzwura n bibluwans d imzwura nnsn, (tasutin 9 d tis 13) timrsal n wabda tibarawin, g llan tuṣkiwin n uzṛu nna rad iqqim d timqqranin g mirikan n iẓlmd ar tasut tiss 19."
"In South America, the 14th and 15th centuries saw the rise of the Inca.","g mirikan n iffus, tulid inka g tasutin tis 14 d tis 15."
"The Scientific Revolution received impetus from Johannes Gutenberg's introduction to Europe of printing, using movable type, and from the invention of the telescope and microscope.","tuḍf tgrawla tamassant yan ugudi sg tzwart n yuhans gutnburg ar uṛubba i usiggz, d usnulfu n utiliskub d umikṛuskub."
"The late modern period continues either to the end of World War II, in 1945, or to the present.","tssuda tizi tatrart imatln ar tigira n imnɣi amaḍlan wis sin, g usggwas n 1945, nɣd ar azmz amilan."
"The early Modern period was characterized by the rise of science, and by increasingly rapid technological progress, secularized civic politics, and the nation state.","ttwassn tizi tatrart n zikk s wufuɣ n tmassant, d walay atiknulujiy iddrfn kigan, d tsrtit tuɣrimt taɛilmaniyt, d tmurt tamttit."
"During the early modern period, Europe was able to regain its dominance; historians still debate the causes.","iwnan n tizi tatrart n zikk, tẓḍaṛ uṛubba ad trar tanbaḍt nns, suln imrza ar snubbucn g tmntilin."
It had developed an advanced monetary economy by 1000 CE.,tsbuɣla yat tdmsa tazṛfant yulin s ulkam n usggwas 1000 g tlalit.
"It enjoyed a technological advantage and had a monopoly in cast iron production, piston bellows, suspension bridge construction, printing, and the compass.","ɣurs tifrist tatiknulujit d ukwac n ufars n wuzzal ifssin, amswuf n ubustun, aṣku n tlggwitin yugln, asiggz, tamsnilt."
One theory of Europe's rise holds that Europe's geography played an important role in its success.,da ttini yat tannayt g walay n uṛubba mas d tajuɣrafit ayd yurarn tilalt istawhmman g umurs nns.
This gave Europe some degree of protection from the peril of Central Asian invaders.,mayad ifka i uṛubba yat tskwflt n uḥṭṭu sg imizi n inkcamn n asya.
The Golden Age of Islam was ended by the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258.,ismar uzmz n wurɣ anslm llig ukrn imaɣuliyn bɣdad asggas n 1258.
Geography contributed to important geopolitical differences.,tamu tjuɣrafiyt g imzarayn ijuɣrasrtann istawhmman.
"By contrast, Europe was almost always divided into a number of warring states.","mgal n mayan, uṛubba abda tbḍa xf yan umḍan n tmura ittmnɣan."
Nearly all the agricultural civilizations have been heavily constrained by their environments.,druɣ zdint tɣrmiwin n tkrza kullu s twnnaḍin nnsnt.
Technological advance and the wealth generated by trade gradually brought about a widening of possibilities.,yuwi yily atiknulujiy d ugla ayafu n tsbbabt imik s imik s unɣal n iɛinitn.
"Europe's maritime expansion unsurprisingly—given the continent's geography—was largely the work of its Atlantic states: Portugal, Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands.","ur igi asrɛb unɣal aylan g uṛubba—ig nẓṛa tajɣṛafiyt n umnẓaw—iga s lawan akkw tawuri n iwunak nns iṭlantikn: bṛṭqiz, sbanya, nngliz, fṛansa, d hulanda."
"In North Africa, the Saadi Sultanate remained as an independent Berber state until 1659.","g iẓlmḍ n ifriqya, tqqima tnbaḍt n ssɛdi tamurt tamaziɣt tilellit ar asggwas n 1659."
The Swahili coast declined after coming under the Portuguese Empire and later the Omani Empire.,tcwwṛ taɣart n sawaḥili llig t tumẓ tgldit tabṛtqizt dffir as tagldit taɛmmaniyt.
"The South African Kingdom of Zimbabwe gave way to smaller kingdoms such as Mutapa, Butua, and Rozvi.",tṛẓm tgldit n zimbabwi g iffus n ifriqya abrid i tglditin timẓẓyanin zund mutaba d butuwa d ṛuzfi.
Other civilizations in Africa advanced during this period.,ulint tɣrmiwin yaḍn g ifriqya iwnan n tizi ad.
"Japan experienced its Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1603), followed by the Edo period (1603–1868).","tzri g lyaban tizi n azutci–mumuyama (1568–1603), dffir as tizi n idu (1603–1868)."
"The Johor Sultanate, centred on the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, became the dominant trading power in the region.","tga tslṭant n juhuṛ, isnammsn g ixf n iffus n umyaɣ n tgzirt n malay, taggalt tasbbabt ibaḍn g tsga."
"Russia made incursions onto the northwest coast of North America, with a first colony in present-day Alaska in 1784, and the outpost of Fort Ross in present-day California in 1812.","tsskr rusya isugitn xf taɣart n iẓlmḍ n uɣlay n mirikan n izlmḍ, s yili n tmsdurrit tamzwarut g alaska n dɣi asggwas n 1784, d tsmssit n ugadir arusiy g kalifurnya n dɣi asggwas 1812."
"The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and used new modes of production—the factory, mass production, and mechanization—to manufacture a wide array of goods faster and using less labour than previously required.","tssnti tgrawla tamgurant g bṛiṭanya tamqqrant nna ismrsn anawn imaynutn n ufars—asakwn, d ufars axatar d tmikanikiyt—afad sskarn kigan n iyafutn fisaɛ ar ssmrasn imwuritn idrusn xf lliɣ zwar."
"After Europeans had achieved influence and control over the Americas, imperial activities turned to the lands of Asia and Oceania.","llig umẓn wuṛubbiyn nbḍn g tmirikanin s snat, mmuttint imussutn n tgldit s wakaln n asya d uqyanusya."
"The British also colonized Australia, New Zealand and South Africa with large numbers of British colonists emigrating to these colonies.",sddurrin ibṛiṭaniyn awd ustṛalya d nyuzilanda d iẓlmḍ n ifriqya g tizi g ttmuddun kigan n imsdurruyn ibṛiṭaniyn s tmdurruyin ad.
"Within Europe, economic and military challenges created a system of nation states, and ethno-linguistic groupings began to identify themselves as distinctive nations with aspirations for cultural and political autonomy.","g uṛubba, sskrn imɣnnan idmsann d isrdasn angraw n tmura timtta, ssntint trubba tiẓuṛnin ar snkadnt ixfan nnsnt d tmura iẓlin iran tasimant tadlsant d tsrtant."
"Meanwhile, industrial pollution and environmental damage, present since the discovery of fire and the beginning of civilization, accelerated drastically.","g tizi nnaɣ, tuly tmrkit tamgurant d imaladn iwnnaḍn, nna illan sg twafit n wafa d ussnti n tɣrma."
Much of the rest of the world was influenced by heavily Europeanized nations: the United States and Japan.,ttuḍas kigan yat tfult taxatart sg uynna d iqqiman g umaḍal s tmura n uṛubba: iwunakimunn d lyaban.
"World War I led to the collapse of four empires – Austria-Hungary, the German Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Russian Empire – and weakened the United Kingdom and France.","yuwi imnɣi amaḍlan amzwaru s tḍuri n kkuẓ n tglditin – ustṛalya-hangarya, d tgldit talmaniyt, d tgldit taɛutmaniyt, d tgldit tarusiyt – d tssḥfu tagldit imun d fṛansa."
"Ongoing national rivalries, exacerbated by the economic turmoil of the Great Depression, helped precipitate World War II.","uwsn imɣnnann inamurn izdin, nna iggudin s tmntilt i imukrisn idmsann n wuguz axatar, g usddrf n imnɣi amaḍlan wis sin."
"The Cold War ended peacefully in 1991 after the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent fall of the Iron Curtain and the Berlin Wall, and the collapse of the Eastern Bloc and the Warsaw Pact.","ismd imnɣi iqrfn s talwit asggwas n 1991, ḍart tnyuddut n kullu uṛubba, d tḍuṛi n usntl n wuzzal d ugadir n birlin, d uwṭṭu n ugudi n unqqar d tamunt n waṛsu."
"In the early postwar decades, the colonies in Asia and Africa of the Belgian, British, Dutch, French, and other west European empires won their formal independence.","isggasn ḍaṛt imnɣi, umẓnt tmsdurruyin n tglditin tabljikit d tbṛiṭaniyt d thulandiyt d tfransist d tglditin yaḍn tasimant nnsnt tamaddudt g asya d ifriqya."
"The European Union's effectiveness was handicapped by the immaturity of its common economic and political institutions, somewhat comparable to the inadequacy of United States institutions under the Articles of Confederation prior to the adoption of the Constitution of the United States that came into force in 1789.","tiṛwi n umun n uṛubba tnbuttl s tmntilt n wartamassayt n tmrsalin nns tidmsanin d tsrtanin iccarn, ayad iẓḍaṛ ad t nsmzazal d war tazmrt n tmrsal n iwunak imunn nil izrfan n umun dat uswuri s tmnḍawt n iwunak imunn nna ittuẓẓggrn g usggas n 1789."
"In the decades after World War II, these advances led to jet travel, artificial satellites with innumerable applications including the Global Positioning System (GPS), and the Internet.","g isggwasn nna d iḍfṛn imnɣi amaḍlan wis sin, uwin ibuɣlutn ad ɣr umuddu s tylalt, d isatiln id busins iggutd nna g illa ungraw n u!zlay n wansatn (GPS), d wantirnit."
"Worldwide competition for natural resources has risen due to growing populations and industrialization, especially in India, China, and Brazil.","yuly umɣnnan amaḍlan xf isugam igamann s tmntilt n tmrniwt n imzdaɣ d tmguri, s uẓlay g lhind d ṣṣin d lbrazil."
An archive is an accumulation of historical records – in any media – or the physical facility in which they are located.,timḥḍit d asmun n warratn n umzruy – g matta usnɣms – nɣd asrus amattiw nna g llan.
"""They have been metaphorically defined as """"the secretions of an organism"""", and are distinguished from documents that have been consciously written or created to communicate a particular message to posterity.""","ttusnkadnt s ulwa mas gant """"ifuɣn n umudr"""", ar ttustyn xf warratn nna ittyaran s ufrak nɣ ttwaskar ad tssiwḍ tabrat i tsutiwin d iddan."
"This means that archives are quite distinct from libraries with regard to their functions and organization, although archival collections can often be found within library buildings.","s man aya tilalt timḥḍitin txulf xf tsdlisin g tzzult nnsnt d ussuds nnsnt, mqqar d iẓḍaṛ ad ttyafan trubba n tmḥḍitin g tuṣka n tsdlist."
"Archaeologists have discovered archives of hundreds (and sometime thousands) of clay tablets going back to the third and second millennia BC in sites like Ebla, Mari, Amarna, Hattusas, Ugarit, and Pylos.","ufan imassan n tmitar timḥḍitin n tmiḍitin (nɣd ifḍiwn) n tfilin n waluḍ igan tin kṛaḍ yifdn nɣd sin yifḍn dat tlalit g wansatn zund ibla, maṛi, amarna, hatusas, ugarti, d bilus."
"However, they have been lost, since documents written on materials like papyrus and paper deteriorated at a faster pace, unlike their stone tablet counterparts.","imil, ucckant, acku arratn ittyaran xf imtta zund afrkuk n ubrda d twriqin ggznt fisaɛ, mgal imyaɣ nnsn g tfilin n uẓṛu."
England after 1066 developed archives and archival research methods.,ḍaṛt 1066 tsbuɣla nngliz timḥḍitin d tmamkin n urzzu n tmḥḍitin.
"While there are many kinds of archives, the most recent census of archivists in the United States identifies five major types: academic, business (for profit), government, non-profit, and other.","g tizi nna g llant kigan n tmḥḍitin, aḥssu atrar n imḥḍawn g iwunak imunn da istti smmus n wanawn idslann: tikadimiyin, tisbbabin (abɣur), adabu, tnna ur irin abɣur, d tiyyaḍ."
Access to the collections in these archives is usually by prior appointment only; some have posted hours for making inquiries.,"iwḍ s trubba illan g tmḥditin ad iga s tbridt n umlala day, kra ifsr tisragin afad gin asutr n wumlitn."
"Examples of prominent business archives in the United States include Coca-Cola (which also owns the separate museum World of Coca-Cola), Procter and Gamble, Motorola Heritage Services and Archives, and Levi Strauss & Co. These corporate archives maintain historic documents and items related to the history and administration of their companies.","imdyatn n tmḥḍitin tisbbabin istawhmman g iwunak imunn kuka-kula (nna ilan awd asfsr izlin wuṛld uf kuka-kula), bṛutiktr and arcifs, muṭuṛula hiritaj sirfis and arcifs, d lifi stṛus & Co. timḥḍitin ad digsnt arratn n umzruy d imnnitn izdin s umzruy nnsn d uswuddu n tmssurin nnsn."
"Workers in these types of archives may have any combination of training and degrees, from either a history or library background.","iẓḍaṛ ad amẓn imwurin g wanawn ad n tmḥḍitin xf kran n trubba n ismuttugn d tskwfal timassanin, sg umzruy nɣd tasdlist."
"In the United States, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) maintains central archival facilities in the District of Columbia and College Park, Maryland, with regional facilities distributed throughout the United States.","g iwunak imun, da tḥbbu tmhla n tmḥḍitin d warratn inamurn (NARA) g wammasn imḥditn g wansa n kulumbya d kullij baṛk, mariland, d tnafutin tisgawanin ibḍan g tmnaḍin n iwunak imunn."
"In the UK, the National Archives (formerly known as the Public Record Office) is the government archive for England and Wales.","g tgldit imun, timḥḍit tanamurt (ittwassn zwar s usira n warra amatay) ayd igan timḥḍit n tnbaḍt n nngliz d wilẓ."
"Put together, the total volume of archives under the supervision of the French Archives Administration is the largest in the world.","s ummuttr, aksay n kullu timḥḍtin illan ddaw n tmhla tafransist ayd igan axatar g umaḍal."
"Archdioceses, dioceses, and parishes also have archives in the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches.","lan iṛcidyusn, idyusn, d ibaricn awd nitni timḥḍitin g id lkanisa tiṛumaniyin tikatulikitin d tnjlikanin."
Often these institutions rely on grant funding from the government as well as the private funds.,iggut mag tsnnadnt tmrsal xf taggazin tiẓṛfanin sg tnbaḍt d awd tfniqin iẓlin.
Many museums keep archives in order to prove the provenance of their pieces.,ḥḍant kigan n tsnniɣin timḥḍitin afad tfrrz asagm nnsnt.
This was a separate figure from the 1.3% that identified themselves as self-employed.,iga wad amḍan istin xf 1.3% nna ittusnkdn d imwuritn isimann.
"The archive's mission is to gather stories from women who want to express themselves, and want their stories heard.","tga tsmiglt n tmḥdit asmuttr n tullisin sg tutmin nna iran ad yinixf ixfawn nnsnt, irint ad asnt ittusfld."
"The archives of an organization (such as a corporation or government) tend to contain other types of records, such as administrative files, business records, memos, official correspondence, and meeting minutes.","da ttirint tmḥḍitin n tmrslt (zund tamssurt nɣd tanbaḍt) tawit n wanawn yaḍn n warratn, zund isdawn imhlann d warratn n twuriwin d tmsktitin d ismraratn imaddudn d tanaḍin n igrawn."
"Many of these donations have yet to be cataloged, but are currently in the process of being digitally preserved and made available to the public online.","ar dɣi urta ttusgbirnt kigan n tikkitin, maca dɣi da ttuḥḍunt s umuṭṭun ilint g uswar n ugdud g wantirnit."
International partners for archives are UNESCO and Blue Shield International in accordance with the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property from 1954 and its 2nd Protocol from 1999.,imssurn igraɣlan gantn lyunisku d blu tcanil antirnacyunal nil tmyaqqant n lahay i ufrag n wayda adlsan i usggwas n 1954 d ubrutukul nns wis 2 i usggwas n 1999.
"""Page, Morgan M. """"One from the Vaults: Gossip, Access, and Trans History-Telling.""""""","""tasna, muṛgan M. """"yan g fniqn: adida, asadf s umzruy n winna izrin."""""""
"An example of this is Morgan M. Page’s description of disseminating transgender history directly to trans people through various social media and networking platforms like tumblr, Twitter, and Instagram, as well as via podcast.","amdya n uya iga t usnumml n muṛgan M. tasna n ufsar n umzruy n tṛans usrid i middn infln g wanaw s tbridt n isnɣmsn inamunn d tdabutin n tradsatin zund tumblr, twittr, d anstagram, awd s budkast."
"""With the options available through counter-archiving, there is the potential to """"challenge traditional conceptions of history"""" as they are perceived within contemporary archives, which creates space for narratives that are often not present in many archival materials.""","""d istayn illan sg mgal-aḥṭṭu, tlla taẓḍṛt n """"tanẓṛt n irmmusn ibldiyn n umzruy"""" imkinna s ttuyannayn g tmḥḍitin tifrarin, aya da ittgga ansa i ungaln nna ur illin g kigan n warratn n tmḥḍitin."""
"A biography, or simply bio, is a detailed description of a person's life.","tiridrt, nɣd s ufrar tiridrt, tga asnumml afruri i tudrt n ufgan."
"Biographical works are usually non-fiction, but fiction can also be used to portray a person's life.","s tnnumi ur da tggant twuriwin n tridrt timarurin, maca iɣy ad tsmrsd amarur g usnimml n tudrt n ufgan."
"""Another well-known collection of ancient biographies is De vita Caesarum (""""On the Lives of the Caesars"""") by Suetonius, written about AD 121 in the time of the emperor Hadrian.""","""yat trabbut yaḍn ittwassn n tridirin tizaykutin tgat du fita kaysrum (""""g tudrt n ikasarz"""") yuratnt syutunyus, attayn n 121 ḍaṛt tlalit g uzmz n imbṛaṭur hadryan."""
"Hermits, monks, and priests used this historic period to write biographies.","smrsn ihirmitn, imunksn, d ikhhann tizi ad g umzruy afad urun tiridirin."
One significant secular example of a biography from this period is the life of Charlemagne by his courtier Einhard.,yan sg imdyatn istawhmman g tridirin n uzmz ad iga t tudrt n carlman s unbbaḍ nns aynhard.
They contained more social data for a large segment of the population than other works of that period.,digs tinmmalin tinamunin n kigan n imzdaɣ uggar n twuriwin yaḍn g tizi nnaɣ.
"By the late Middle Ages, biographies became less church-oriented in Europe as biographies of kings, knights, and tyrants began to appear.","g tlkm tgira n izmzn inammasn, ur tswala tridirt kigan s lkanisa g uṛubba iddɣ dad tffɣnt tridirin n igllidn d imnayn d idagazn."
"Following Malory, the new emphasis on humanism during the Renaissance promoted a focus on secular subjects, such as artists and poets, and encouraged writing in the vernacular.","ḍart maluri, isdus usntu amaynu xf tiffugna iwnan n uzmz n tnkra asntu xf imrsitn n tɛilmaniyt, zund inaẓurn d imdyazn, d usrqb n tirra s tmurant."
Two other developments are noteworthy: the development of the printing press in the 15th century and the gradual increase in literacy.,llan sin ibuɣlutn yaḍn uklaln asnumml: abuɣlu n tsiggzt g tasut tis 15 d yily g usidlf.
"Influential in shaping popular conceptions of pirates, A General History of the Pyrates (1724), by Charles Johnson, is the prime source for the biographies of many well-known pirates.","yamu g usnay n irmmusn n igdudann n ibiṛatn, amzruy amatay xf ubirat (1724), s tirra n carls junsun, ntta d asagm adslan n tridirin i kigan n ibiratn ittwassn."
Carlyle asserted that the lives of great human beings were essential to understanding society and its institutions.,isddid karliyl mas d tudrt n ifgann imqqrann tga tuccilt g urmas numun d tmrsal nns.
"Boswell's work was unique in its level of research, which involved archival study, eye-witness accounts and interviews, its robust and attractive narrative, and its honest depiction of all aspects of Johnson's life and character – a formula which serves as the basis of biographical literature to this day.","tẓli twuri n buswil s uswir n urzzu, nna g tlla yat tɣuri timḥḍit, d imiḍann n imannayn d imsawaln, d wallas nns idusn almammay, d uswlf nns adttan i tsggwin kullu n tudrt d uwrik n junsun – nttat d tnfalit igan tasila n tskla n tridirt s assa."
"However, the number of biographies in print experienced a rapid growth, thanks to an expanding reading public.","mqqar, amḍan n tridirin ittusuggzn yuli fisaɛ, s watig n ugdud n imɣritn yulin."
Periodicals began publishing a sequence of biographical sketches.,ssntin izmzan g ufsar n yan usnsl n twnaɣin n tridirin.
"""Sociological"""" biographies conceived of their subjects' actions as the result of the environment, and tended to downplay individuality.""","""da ttinniynt tridirin """"tinamunin"""" timgga n imrsitn nns zund tayafut n twnnaḍt d irint ad ssdrusnt tufridt."""
The conventional concept of heroes and narratives of success disappeared in the obsession with psychological explorations of personality.,yuccka urmmus abldi n inbrazn d tullisin n umurs g umnḥur imnign inyimann n uwrik.
"""Up until this point, as Strachey remarked in the preface, Victorian biographies had been """"as familiar as the cortège of the undertaker"""", and wore the same air of """"slow, funereal barbarism.""""""","ar tanqqiḍt ad, imkinna isnila stṛaci g tzwart, tiridirin tifikturin """"ttumyurnt am uḥarraf n yidrmttin"""", ar tlssa am waḍu """"taramyart n yidr iẓẓayn."""""""
"The book achieved worldwide fame due to its irreverent and witty style, its concise and factually accurate nature, and its artistic prose.","yuwḍn udlis yat tmsusnt tamaḍlant s tmamkt nns ur izrikn d tiɣist, d ugama nns isunfn amnɣud i ljṛiyat, d triwant nns tanaẓuṛt."
"""Robert Graves (I, Claudius, 1934) stood out among those following Strachey's model of """"debunking biographies.""""""","iffɣd ṛubrt grifz (nk, kludyus, 1934) sg winna iḍfaṛn anaw n stṛacis g """"ufḍaḥ n tridirin."""""""
"By World War I, cheap hard-cover reprints had become popular.","lli g yuwḍ imnɣi amaḍlan amzwaru, tunɣilin idm uɣamus iqqurn gant timdnanin."
"Along with documentary biographical films, Hollywood produced numerous commercial films based on the lives of famous people.","g tsga n ifilmn n tridirt tuntimt, tsyafu huliwud kigan n ifilmn n tsbbabt isnndn xf tudrt n winna itwwassn."
"Unlike books and films, they often do not tell a chronological narrative: instead they are archives of many discrete media elements related to an individual person, including video clips, photographs, and text articles.","mgal idlisn d ifilmn, ur da ttals kigan allas akudan: g udɣar n uya gant timḥḍitin n kigan n ifrdisn n tangrin iẓlin igan win uwrik ufrid, g amun ifidyutn d iwlafn d imagṛaḍn."
"""General """"life writing"""" techniques are a subject of scholarly study.""","titiqniyin n """"tirra n tudrt"""" tamatayt tga imrsi n tɣuri tamassant."""
"""The information can come from """"oral history, personal narrative, biography and autobiography” or """"diaries, letters, memoranda and other materials"""".""","ɣin ad ddun inɣmisn sg """"umzruy amiwan d wallas animas, d tridirt” nɣd """"tikuyassin, tibratin, timsktitin d tmttitin yaḍn""""."""
"European-style castles originated in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the Carolingian Empire resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes.","ttuṣkant tɣrmatin s tmamkt tawṛubbiyt g tasutin tis 9 d tis 10, ḍaṛt tḍuṛi n tgldit takaṛulnjit, aynnaɣ ayd ifkan abṭṭu n ikaln nns ingr igldunn d igldun ufridn."
"Urban castles were used to control the local populace and important travel routes, and rural castles were often situated near features that were integral to life in the community, such as mills, fertile land, or a water source.","ttusmrasnt tɣrmatin tiɣrmanin g unnbḍ xf imzdaɣ idɣrann d ibrdan n umuddu istawhmman, ar ttilint kigan n tɣrmatin tirifiyin g tama n ifrdisn nna igan tafult ur ibṭṭun d tudrt g umun, zund tisirin nɣd ikaln iblsn nɣd asagm n waman."
"In the late 12th and early 13th centuries, a scientific approach to castle defence emerged.","g tgira n tasut tis 12 d tizwuri n tis 13, iffɣd tmyadast tamassant ittmzaɣn xf tɣrmt."
"These changes in defence have been attributed to a mixture of castle technology from the Crusades, such as concentric fortification, and inspiration from earlier defences, such as Roman forts.","isnfln ad g umzaɣ aɣulnt s ttiknulujit n tɣrmatin sg imnɣan iṣalibiyn, asgudr amsdikn, d tufrayt sg imzaɣn izrin, zund igudar iṛumaniyn."
"Although gunpowder was introduced to Europe in the 14th century, it did not significantly affect castle building until the 15th century, when artillery became powerful enough to break through stone walls.","mqqar ikcm lbaṛuḍ s uṛubba g tasut tis 14, maca ur iṭṭaṣ kigan aṣku n tɣrmt ar tasut tis 15, lli g idus uṭbji ar iṛẓẓa igidar n uẓṛu."
"Feudalism was the link between a lord and his vassal where, in return for military service and the expectation of loyalty, the lord would grant the vassal land.","tga tafyudalit tazdayt ingr lluṛd d imḍfṛn nns, s tugdut n tnafut tasrdast d ugani n tulluɣt, ar yakka ṛbbi akal amḍfṛ."
"Castles served a range of purposes, the most important of which were military, administrative, and domestic.","snufant tɣrmatin kigan n iskkin, winna istawhmman gan isrdasn d imhlann d idɣrann."
"As William the Conqueror advanced through England, he fortified key positions to secure the land he had taken.","d ussudu n umṛẓum wilyam g ngliz, ifrg addadn idslan afad isfls akal nna yuwi."
A castle could act as a stronghold and prison but was also a place where a knight or lord could entertain his peers.,"tɣy ad tg tɣrmt afrag d ubniq, maca tga awd ansa g iɣy umnay nɣ lluṛd ad isurar xf imddukkal nns."
"In different areas of the world, analogous structures shared features of fortification and other defining characteristics associated with the concept of a castle, though they originated in different periods and circumstances and experienced differing evolutions and influences.","g kigan n tmnaḍin g umaḍal, da tssurnt tuṣkiwin tifras n ufrag d inamaẓn imẓlayn yaḍn izdin s urmmus n tɣrmt, mqqar ttuṣka g izmzn d tmsutal imzarayn d tzri g ibuɣlutn d yiḍisn iggutn."
"By the 16th century, when Japanese and European cultures met, fortification in Europe had moved beyond castles and relied on innovations such as the Italian trace italienne and star forts.","g tuwḍ tasut tis 16, g mlalant tdlsatin n lyaban n uṛubba, immutti ufrag g uṛubba s dffir n tɣrmatin isnnd xf isnulfutn zund ifragn iṭalyaniyn tidrzanin d tɣrmatin titranin."
"The excavation of earth to make the mound left a ditch around the motte, called a moat (which could be either wet or dry).","udjant tɣuziwin n wakal afad ittuskar uɛrur yan uxbu ɣur ubddur, ism nns adrras, (nna iɣin ad ilwiɣ nɣ tzwa)."
"It was a common feature of castles, and most had at least one.","tafrst tamssurt n tɣrmatin, tili yat bɛda ɣur umata digsnt."
Water was supplied by a well or cistern.,dad ttawin aman sg wanu nɣd ccarij.
"Although often associated with the motte-and-bailey type of castle, baileys could also be found as independent defensive structures.","mqqar izdi kigan s anaw n tɣrmt mutt-d-bili, iɣy awd ad ttyafan ibaylisn nna igan tuṣkiwin iẓlin."
"""Keep"""" was not a term used in the medieval period – the term was applied from the 16th century onwards – instead """"donjon"""" was used to refer to great towers, or turris in Latin.""","ur igi ""ḥdu"""" irm ittusmrasn g tizi n izmzn inammasn – ittusnas yirm sg tasut tis 16 s aflla – g wansa nns ittusmras """"dunjun"""" i tmuli s lbruj imqqran, nɣd turris g tlatiniyt."""
"Although often the strongest part of a castle and a last place of refuge if the outer defences fell, the keep was not left empty in case of attack but was used as a residence by the lord who owned the castle, or his guests or representatives.","mqqar da tgga tafult idusn g tɣrmt d lḥṛma tamggarut ig ḍṛn imzaɣn n bṛṛa, maca ur iqqim ixwa g waddad n usugi maca ittusmrs am uzduɣ n lluṛd bu tɣrmt nɣd inbgiwn nns nɣd ignsesn nns."
"Walkways along the tops of the curtain walls allowed defenders to rain missiles on enemies below, and battlements gave them further protection.","isakatn n waflla n igidar ifrgn da ttadjan inmzaɣn ad grn afa xf icnga s izdar, sskrn asn igidar kigan n ufrag."
"The front of the gateway was a blind spot and to overcome this, projecting towers were added on each side of the gate in a style similar to that developed by the Romans.","iga wudm n tflut am unqqiḍ immutn, afad itturnu uynnaɣ, ttuṣkan lbṛuj g tsggwin n tflut s yat tmamkt igan am tnna sbuɣlan ṛṛuman."
The passage through the gatehouse was lengthened to increase the amount of time an assailant had to spend under fire in a confined space and unable to retaliate.,sɣzifn asaka izrin g tflut n uḥṭṭu afad tzayd tizi itkka umsugi ddaw wafa g yan wansa inyaman g ur iɣiy ad irar.
"They were most likely used to drop objects on attackers, or to allow water to be poured on fires to extinguish them.","iɣy is da ttusmras afad tsḍaṛ iskkin xf imsugitn, nɣd anɣal n waman xf wafa afad tn sxsin."
A smaller horizontal opening could be added to give an archer a better view for aiming.,iɣy ad rnun yat txbut tamẓẓyant s taflit nna yakkan i umgar n tfalatin tannayt iɣudan i usuɣd.
"The earliest fortifications originated in the Fertile Crescent, the Indus Valley, Egypt, and China where settlements were protected by large walls.","ttuṣkan ifragn imzwura g du firtil krissnt, d uzaɣar n ssnd d miṣṛ d ṣṣin nna g llant tmrsal ittufragn s igidar ixatarn."
"Many earthworks survive today, along with evidence of palisades to accompany the ditches.","mursnt kigan n twuriwin n tɣuzi assa, d wanẓatn is illa iginann ittmunn d idrrasn."
"Although primitive, they were often effective, and were only overcome by the extensive use of siege engines and other siege warfare techniques, such as at the Battle of Alesia.","mqqar tga tizwuri, maca tṛwa g kigan n tikkal, ur tturna ɣas s usmrs amagut n imussutn n tfrgi d tiqniyt n imnɣi n tfrgi yaḍn, zund imnɣi n alisya."
"Discussions have typically attributed the rise of the castle to a reaction to attacks by Magyars, Muslims, and Vikings and a need for private defence.",ruran imraratn n wawal ufuɣ n tɣrmt s tmrarut xf isugay n imajariyn d unslmn d ifaykiyn d wassar n umzaɣ amẓlay.
"Some high concentrations of castles occur in secure places, while some border regions had relatively few castles.","da ttjṛunt kra n tawniwin yattuyn i tɣrmatin g wansatn infrayn, maca kra n idɣarn iwttann g illa umḍan idrusn cwiy n tɣrmatin."
Building the hall in stone did not necessarily make it immune to fire as it still had windows and a wooden door.,aṣku n tdala s uẓṛu ur igi afrgan mgal n wafa acku sulnt digs talkiwin d tflut n ukccuḍ.
Castles were not just defensive sites but also enhanced a lord's control over his lands.,"ur gint tɣrmatin ansatn n umzaɣ day, maca tuws tanbaḍt n lluṛd xf ikaln nns."
"In 864 the King of West Francia, Charles the Bald, prohibited the construction of castella without his permission and ordered them all to be destroyed.","g usggwas n 864 isgdl ugllid n uɣlay n fṛansa, tcaṛlz amjjuḍ, aṣku n kastilla bla awal nns d wanaḍ nns g uxllu nnsnt kullu."
"Switzerland is an extreme case of there being no state control over who built castles, and as a result there were 4,000 in the country.","swisṛa addad amṭṭaṛfu acku ur tlli tnbaḍt n uwank xf wanna iṣkan tiɣrmatin, s manaya llant 4,000 g tmazirt."
"In 950 Provence was home to 12 castles, by 1000 this figure had risen to 30, and by 1030 it was over 100.","g 950 iga bṛufans ansa n 12 n tɣrmt, yuly umḍan ad s 30 g usggas n 1000, llig yiwḍ usggwas n 1030 iga uggar n 100."
"In the early 11th century, the motte and keep – an artificial mound with a palisade and tower on top – was the most common form of castle in Europe, everywhere except Scandinavia.","g tizwuri n tasut tis 11, iga mutt d kib – ttuskar twrirt g illa uginan d lbṛj aflla nns – talɣa n tɣrmt ittwassn kigan g uṛubba, g wansatn kullu ɣas timura tiskindinafin."
"Although stone construction would later become common elsewhere, from the 11th century onwards it was the primary building material for Christian castles in Spain, while at the same time timber was still the dominant building material in north-west Europe.","mqqar ittwassn uṣku s uẓṛu g yat tizi yaḍn d udɣar yaḍn, maca sg tasut tis 11 s aflla iga tamtta tadslant n uṣku n tɣrmatin timasiḥin g sbanya, maca akccuḍ g tizi nnaɣ isul iga tamtta inbḍn g izlmḍ n uɣlay n uṛubba."
Before the 12th century castles were as uncommon in Denmark as they had been in England before the Norman Conquest.,"dat tasut tiss 12, ur ttwassannt tɣrmatin g udanimaṛk imki nna gant g nngliz dat uṛẓẓum anuṛmandiy."
"Their decoration emulated Romanesque architecture, and sometimes incorporated double windows similar to those found in church bell towers.","irwas udqqi nnsn tuṣka taṛumaniyt, d kra n tikkal digs talkiwin tiyuganin igan zund tinna illan g lbrj n ininatn n tmẓẓulla n iṛumin."
"Although superseded by their stone successors, timber and earthwork castles were by no means useless.","mqqar d imkkusatn nnsn g uẓṛu ḍṛn ansa nnsn, maca tiɣrmatin n ukccuḍ d waluḍ ur gint id tar abɣur g waddadn kullu."
"Until the late 12th century castles generally had few towers; a gateway with few defensive features such as arrowslits or a portcullis; a great keep or donjon, usually square and without arrowslits; and the shape would have been dictated by the lay of the land (the result was often irregular or curvilinear structures).","ar tigira n tasut tis 12, s umata drusn lbṛuj i tɣrmatin, d tflwin ilan tifrisin timzɣanin idrusn zund tixba n tfalatin nɣd buṛtcullis; aqrbuz axatar nɣd dunjun, ittumyur ad ig amkkuz bla tixba n tfalatin; tga talɣa nns ttusfta nil waddad n wakal (da tgga tyafut g kigan n tikkal tuṣkiwin ur ittusudsn mi frɣn izrirign)."
The towers would have protruded from the walls and featured arrowslits on each level to allow archers to target anyone nearing or at the curtain wall.,dad ttfɣn lbṛuj xf igidar ar ttuẓlay s yili n txba n tfalatin g ku aswir afad adjnt imgarn ad kkatn wanna d inmalan agadir anfrag nɣd ad tid inmili.
"Where keeps did exist, they were no longer square but polygonal or cylindrical.","g wansatn g llant tsgitin, ur sul gint timkkuzin maca gant id m kigan n tama nɣd awrerray."
"Probably developed in the 12th century, the towers provided flanking fire.","iɣy is sbuɣlan lbṛuj g tasut tis 12, g asn ssutin afa."
It seemed that the Crusaders had learned much about fortification from their conflicts with the Saracens and exposure to Byzantine architecture.,ɛniɣ lmdn iṣalibiyn kigan xf usfrg sg imnɣan nnsn d inslmn d mgal tuṣka tabizanṭiyt.
"Legends were discredited, and in the case of James of Saint George it was proven that he came from Saint-Georges-d'Espéranche, in France.","idda asn wuddur i ummiyn, g waddad n jims sant juṛj, ittufrrz is d idda sg sant juṛj disbirantc, g fṛansa."
"""The castle builders of Western Europe were aware of and influenced by Roman design; late Roman coastal forts on the English """"Saxon Shore"""" were reused and in Spain the wall around the city of Ávila imitated Roman architecture when it was built in 1091.""","""imskiwn n tɣrmy g uṛubba ssn amamk aṛumaniy ttuḍaṣn iss; ttusmrsn diɣ ifragn n taɣarin tiṛumaniyin timggura xf """"uftas asaksuniy"""" angliziy d g sbanya iga ugadir ittin i tmdint a afila am uẓkka aṛumaniy llig ittuṣka asggwas n 1091."""
An example of this approach is Kerak.,amdya xf tmyadast ad igat kiṛak.
The castles they founded to secure their acquisitions were designed mostly by Syrian master-masons.,tiɣrmatin nna smrsln xf usfls n imɛann nnsn ttuɣawsnt sg imṣka isuriyn.
"While castles were used to hold a site and control movement of armies, in the Holy Land some key strategic positions were left unfortified.","llig ttusmrasnt tɣrmatin i wammaẓ n wansatn d inbbḍ g umussu n tsrdasin, g wakal iɛzzan, udjan kra n wansatn istratijiyn idslann ur sgunfan."
"Design varied not just between orders, but between individual castles, though it was common for those founded in this period to have concentric defences.","amyanaw g umamk ur id ɣas ingr isuturn, maca ingr tɣrmatin tufridin, mqqar ttwassnt tɣrmatin ittuṣkan g tizi ad s imzaɣn mi imun wammas."
If assailants made it past the first line of defence they would be caught in the killing ground between the inner and outer walls and have to assault the second wall.,"ig zrin imsugitn izririg n umzaɣ amzwaru, qad ttyamẓn g usarag n mnɣiwt ingr igidarn ugwns d win bṛṛa d ixssatn ad msugin agadir wis sin."
"For instance, it was common in Crusader castles to have the main gate in the side of a tower and for there to be two turns in the passageway, lengthening the time it took for someone to reach the outer enclosure.","s umdya, ttwassant tɣrmatin tiṣalibiyin s tflut illan ṭṭṛf n lbṛj ilin sin ifrruɣn g usaka, aynnaɣ ayd isɣzifn tizi xf wanna iran ad nn yawḍ afrag n bṛṛa."
"Although there were hundreds of wooden castles in Prussia and Livonia, the use of bricks and mortar was unknown in the region before the Crusaders.","mqqar llant tmiḍitin n tɣrmatin n ukccuḍ g brusya d lifunya, maca asmrs n wuṭṭub d tmgarin n lhawn ur ittwassn g tmnaḍt dat iṣalibiyn."
"Arrowslits did not compromise the wall's strength, but it was not until Edward I's programme of castle building that they were widely adopted in Europe.","ur ṭṭasnt tafalin n unmgar taggalt n ugadir, maca ur ttyasi g uṛubba kullut ar aɣawas n idward amzwaru g tuṣka n tɣrmt."
"Although machicolations performed the same purpose as the wooden galleries, they were probably an Eastern invention rather than an evolution of the wooden form.","mqqar da sskarnt lmacinat tawuri n isfsrn n ukccuḍ, maca tga ɛniɣ asnulfu n unqqar ur id abuɣlu n talɣa n ukccuḍ."
"Conflict and interaction between the two groups led to an exchange of architectural ideas, and Spanish Christians adopted the use of detached towers.","yuwi amnzaɣ d umyaɣ ingr snat trubba ɣr usnfl n twngimin n tuṣku, asin imasiḥiyn isblyuniyn asmrs n lbṛuj imzarayn."
"""French historian François Gebelin wrote: """"The great revival in military architecture was led, as one would naturally expect, by the powerful kings and princes of the time; by the sons of William the Conqueror and their descendants, the Plantagenets, when they became dukes of Normandy.""","""yaru umrzu afṛansis fṛanswa jiblin: """"asmaynu amqqran g tuṣka s tnara n igllidn d igldunn idusn g tizi nnaɣ, imki nna ittiɣil ufgan; d tarwa n fatiḥ amṛẓum d wayyawn nnsn, blantajnts, lli g gan adduqn inurmandiyn."""
"The new castles were generally of a lighter build than earlier structures and presented few innovations, although strong sites were still created such as that of Raglan in Wales.","lant tɣrmatin timaynutin tuṣkiwt ifssusn xf tuṣkiwin izrin tfk isnilfutn idrusn, mqqar suln wansatn idusn ar ttuṣkan zund ansa n ṛajlan g wilẓ."
"These guns were too heavy for a man to carry and fire, but if he supported the butt end and rested the muzzle on the edge of the gun port he could fire the weapon.","ẓẓaynt tilaf kigan ur iɣiy urgaz ad atnt yasi ar issnt ikkat, maka ig as yutg i tgira ig takmamt g tizwuri n talaft, qad yibiy ad iṛẓm i wafa."
"This adaptation is found across Europe, and although the timber rarely survives, there is an intact example at Castle Doornenburg in the Netherlands.","ittyafa yisy ad g kullu ansiwn n uṛubba, mqqar idrus mag ttɣiman ikccaḍ xf tudrt, illa yan umdya iɣudan g tɣrmt n ḍurnenburg g hulanda."
"Other types of port, though less common, were horizontal slits – allowing only lateral movement – and large square openings, which allowed greater movement.","gan wanawn yaḍn n talkiwin, mqqar ur ttwassnnt, tixba xf taflit – da ttadja amussu xf tsga day – d txba timkkuẓin tixatarin, ittadjan kigan n amussu."
"Ham is an example of the trend for new castles to dispense with earlier features such as machicolations, tall towers, and crenellations.","ham iga amnid s tɣrmatin timaynutin afad ttwattutn tfrisin izrin zund isttiɣn, lbṛuj yattuyn, d tmsilɣin."
"In an effort to make them more effective, guns were made ever bigger, although this hampered their ability to reach remote castles.","g tasiɣt n wad tt ig d timṛwit, ttusmɣrnt jjwijat uggar n zwar, mqqar ur zmirnt ann awḍnt tiɣrmatin yaggugn."
"While this sufficed for new castles, pre-existing structures had to find a way to cope with being battered by cannon.","g tizi nna g iwda i tɣrmatin timaynutin, ixss ad afnt tuṣkiwin illan ad afnt tabridt mgal titiwat n uṭbji."
A solution to this was to pull down the top of a tower and to fill the lower part with the rubble to provide a surface for the guns to fire from.,afssay n uya igan uxllu n tfult tanafllat n lbṛj d utkur n tfult tamazdart s ugrur afad yili uzur i uṛẓẓum n utbji.
"From this evolved star forts, also known as trace italienne.",sg tɣrmin nyitr ddɣ nna mi ttinin tras iṭalan.
The second choice proved to be more popular as it became apparent that there was little point in trying to make the site genuinely defensible in the face of cannon.,astay wis sin ayd ituyisn bzzaf iddɣ imrar ur islaḥ ad rarin adɣar imnɛ xf lmdafiɛ.
Some true castles were built in the Americas by the Spanish and French colonies.,ka n tɣrmatin bnan tnt sblyun d fṛansa g mirikan.
"Among other defensive structures (including forts and citadels), castles were also built in New France towards the end of the 17th century.",ar tubnunt tiɣrmin gw fransa tujdit ɣr tiyira n tasuṭ 17 dawd iwudar diɣrman.
"The manor house and stables were within a fortified bailey, with a tall round turret in each corner.",taddart taxatart d uḥanu n lbhaym da tilin agwnsu nl bayli ilin id turit iɣzafn g lqnat.
"Although castle construction faded towards the end of the 16th century, castles did not necessarily all fall out of use.",waxxa ur yad da tubnun tiɣrmin g tiyira n tasuta 16 sul mqqar sul lant tawuri.
In other cases they still had a role in defence.,tsul ɣɛrsn tawuri taxatart g iriri.
"In later conflicts, such as the English Civil War (1641–1651), many castles were refortified, although subsequently slighted to prevent them from being used again.",gw imnɣan didan am win ayt ngwliz (1641-1651) zaydn sḥan tiɣrmin aynaɣ iruratn ɛr min tawuri cigwan.
"Revival or mock castles became popular as a manifestation of a Romantic interest in the Middle Ages and chivalry, and as part of the broader Gothic Revival in architecture.","tiɣrmatin n uẓṛu aɣulnt gant yan umdya ilan atig g tṛumansit d uɛggadi g uzmz anammas, d yan uzgn sg tguṭit taxatart g tsgda."
This was because to be faithful to medieval design would have left the houses cold and dark by contemporary standards.,aya s umntil n uḥṭṭu n wahil n tsutiwin tinammasin aynna ittajjan tigumma qqṛfnt llisnt s tfiras titrarin.
"Follies were similar, although they differed from artificial ruins in that they were not part of a planned landscape, but rather seemed to have no reason for being built.","timmiɛdṛt d yat, waxxa tga yan wanaw n uxrbic amguran, acku ur tgi tagamant, aynnaɣ as ur illi imntil n usku nns."
"A castle with earthen ramparts, a motte, timber defences and buildings could have been constructed by an unskilled workforce.","tiɣrmt n ttabut, akal, arayn n ukccuḍ d tydrin druɣ ttuskant s ifassn ur wala ilmidn kigan."
The cost of building a castle varied according to factors such as their complexity and transport costs for material.,ar sttint tɣrad n usku n tɣrmt s umyanaw n talɣa nns d usgulu n tmttiwin nns.
"In the middle were castles such as Orford, which was built in the late 12th century for UK£1,400, and at the upper end were those such as Dover, which cost about UK£7,000 between 1181 and 1191.","g wammas kkant tɣrmatin zun d uṛfuṛd, ittuskan g tgara n twisi tis 12 s 1,400 £ n tgldit imunn, g uzgn amajjyal gant tɣrmatin am dufṛ, tid ccanin attay n 7,000 £ n tgldit imunn ingr usggwas n 1181 d 1191."
"The cost of a large castle built over this time (anywhere from UK£1,000 to UK£10,000) would take the income from several manors, severely impacting a lord's finances.","usint tɣrad n usku n tbrɣrmt xf tirut n uzmz (g akw matta ansa sg 1,000 £ ar 10,000 £ n tgldit imunn) sg iqariḍn n kigan n iɣrman, aynna ismrratn imɣarn."
"Medieval machines and inventions, such as the treadwheel crane, became indispensable during construction, and techniques of building wooden scaffolding were improved upon from Antiquity.","allaln d isllwitn n uzmz anammas, zun d tamssilit tawrerrayt, labdda nnsnt g usku, imkinnaɣ awd i isyan n ukccuḍ ittusɣudan xf win uzmz aqbur."
"Many countries had both timber and stone castles, however Denmark had few quarries and as a result most of its castles are earth and timber affairs, or later on built from brick.","ikka tt nn ɣur kigan n tmizar tiɣrmatin n ukccuḍ d uẓṛu, ɣas ddanimaṛk ɣurs imik n wansatn n uẓṛu aynnaɣ as ttuskant tɣrmatin nnsn s ukccuḍ d iskkinn yaḍn, ar wayḍ uzmz ayd ttuskant s wuṭṭub."
"For example, when Tattershall Castle was built between 1430 and 1450, there was plenty of stone available nearby, but the owner, Lord Cromwell, chose to use brick.","s umdya, aynna ttuska tɣrmt n tatrcal ingr usggwas n 1430 d 1450, ikka tt nn kigan n iẓṛan tama n wansa nns, maka bu tɣrmt, lluṛd kṛumwill, isty ad tt isku s wuṭṭub."
"He relied on the support of those below him, as without the support of his more powerful tenants a lord could expect his power to be undermined.","aynna s yuws winna ikkan ddawas, lluṛd iffɣ g umukris n tnbaḍt."
"This especially applied to royalty, who sometimes owned land in different countries.","imkinnaɣ awd i izmaz, ittyamaẓn kigan n tikkal g tmizar."
"Royal households took essentially the same form as baronial households, although on a much larger scale and the positions were more prestigious.","gant twacunin tigllidin am twacunin tibaṛunin, waxxa d xf yan wakal axatar d idɣarn n tnbaḍt imajjyaln."
As social centres castles were important places for display.,gant tɣrmatin ansa adslan i isuyas inamunn.
"Castles have been compared with cathedrals as objects of architectural pride, and some castles incorporated gardens as ornamental features.","ttusmzazlnt tɣrmatin d tkadiṛalin g tsga n tsgda iẓiln, d ka n tɣrmatin stint s usɣudu n turtitin."
Courtly love was the eroticisation of love between the nobility.,tkka tayri tafssast tga anaw n ulday azufan ingr inubln.
The legend of Tristan and Iseult is one example of stories of courtly love told in the Middle Ages.,iga umiy n tristan d izult yan umdya n tnfusin n tayri ittyalasn g uzmz anammas.
The purpose of marriage between the medieval elites was to secure land.,ikka tt nn iswi n yiwl ingr ikswatn n tdɣrt g uzmz anammas ḥṭṭu n wakal.
"This derives from the image of the castle as a martial institution, but most castles in England, France, Ireland, and Scotland were never involved in conflicts or sieges, so the domestic life is a neglected facet.","iffɣ d uya g wudm n tɣrmt nwis tga timrslt tasrdast, maka kigan n tɣmatin g nngliz, fṛansa, irlanda, d skutlanda ur amunt g imnɣan nɣ tirnawin, aynna d yakkan yat tudrt tanmyart ur ilin atig."
"For instance many castles are located near Roman roads, which remained important transport routes in the Middle Ages, or could lead to the alteration or creation of new road systems in the area.","s umdya n tɣmatin illan g yir n ubrid n iṛumaniyn, igan yan ubrid ilan atig g uzmz anammas, aɣy ad d ifk asnfl nɣ asnulfu n wahil n ibrdan g wansa."
"Urban castles were particularly important in controlling centres of population and production, especially with an invading force, for instance in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest of England in the 11th century the majority of royal castles were built in or near towns.","ikka ɣur tɣrmatin yan watig axatar lumn g yimẓ n wammasn n imzdaɣ d ufrs altu, kigan s tdusi n umddurri, s umdya g tizi n umddurri anuṛmadi sg inglatiṛṛa g twisi tis 11 g ttuskant tɣrmatin g nɣ tama n tmdinin."
"Rural castles were often associated with mills and field systems due to their role in managing the lord's estate, which gave them greater influence over resources.","kigan n tikkal ayd nn nttafa tiɣrmatin zdint d tisirin d igrratn n tmdinin iddɣ da tswuddu ikaln n iluṛdn, aynna s ittgidiy ufus n tnbaḍt nns g isugam."
"Not only were they practical in that they ensured a water supply and fresh fish, but they were a status symbol as they were expensive to build and maintain.","ur gint ɣar tamggi dayy iddɣ da ttakka aman d islman imaynutn, maca gant yan uzmul anammas acku ccant kigan g usku d uzizdg."
The benefits of castle building on settlements was not confined to Europe.,ur d ɣas uṛubba ayd istafdn g usku n tɣrmatin.
"Settlements could also grow naturally around a castle, rather than being planned, due to the benefits of proximity to an economic centre in a rural landscape and the safety given by the defences.","iɣy altu ad bɣurnt tmzduɣin g tsggwin n tɣrmt, s ma ayd rant anmila n wammas admsan g wansa afaran d ufra as akkan imɣazn nnsnt."
"They were usually located near any existing town defences, such as Roman walls, although this sometimes resulted in the demolition of structures occupying the desired site.","g myurt ar tnt nttafa g tsggwin n imɣazn ittuskan g tmurt, zun d iɣrabn iṛumanitn, waxxa da d yakka tardla n wansiwn ittyatarn."
"When the Normans invaded Ireland, Scotland, and Wales in the 11th and 12th centuries, settlement in those countries was predominantly non-urban, and the foundation of towns was often linked with the creation of a castle.","aynna ɣzan inuṛmanitn iṛlanda, skutlanda, d wilz g twusa 11 d 12, ikka tt nn uzduɣ g tmizar nna ur igi aɣrman, ar nn nttafa asku n tmdint iẓly s usku n tɣrmt."
"This signified a close relationship between feudal lords and the Church, one of the most important institutions of medieval society.","aya da isskan nwis illa uzday ingr iluṛdn ifyudalitn d tkanisatin, tad iga yat g tmrsal tinamunin n tsutiwin tinammasin."
"Another example is that of the 14th-century Bodiam Castle, also in England; although it appears to be a state of the art, advanced castle it is in a site of little strategic importance, and the moat was shallow and more likely intended to make the site appear impressive than as a defence against mining.","yan umdya yaḍn iga t tiɣrmt n budyam g tsuta tis 14, g inglatiṛṛa altu, s tmitar tzddig tẓuṛi nns, maka tla yat tɣrmt iḥlan illan g yan wansa war tastṛatijt ilan atig, acbar nns ur ili tawuri n waray anct ila tawuri n waẓly."
Garrisons were expensive and as a result often small unless the castle was important.,ccan wansiwn n trubba n isrdasn kigan n iqariḍn aynnaɣ as ur li ɣrmt kigan n watig.
"In 1403, a force of 37 archers successfully defended Caernarfon Castle against two assaults by Owain Glyndŵr's allies during a long siege, demonstrating that a small force could be effective.","g usggwas n 1403, trura s umurs trabbut n 37 n imgarn xf tɣrmt n kyaṛnaṛfun mgal n sin iɣwwɣn imddukal n uwayn glyndwrz g yan ufrag aɣzzaf, aynna d isskann nwis d yat tdusi tamẓẓant tla imuca nns."
Under him would have been knights who by benefit of their military training would have acted as a type of officer class.,"ddaw tnbaḍt nns, kkan tt nn ɣurs imnayn, s usmuttg nnsn asran, iɣin ad ig imɣarn n isrdasn."
"It was more efficient to starve the garrison out than to assault it, particularly for the most heavily defended sites.","iɣy ad yajj s laẓ tirubba n isrdasn ugar n wad tnt inɣ, lumn tinna idusn digsnt."
"A long siege could slow down the army, allowing help to come or for the enemy to prepare a larger force for later.","yat tfrgi taɣzzaft izmrn ad tssulwu isrdasn, d yijj n twisi ad tzri nɣ yujja acngu ad ismuttr yat n tdusi i yan uzmz yaḍn."
"If forced to assault a castle, there were many options available to the attackers.","ar mk icil ad ɣlin xf tɣrmt, ad yili kigan n istayn i imakwayn."
"The trebuchet, which probably evolved from the petraria in the 13th century, was the most effective siege weapon before the development of cannons.","amrig n tribucit, iɣin is isnulfa sg birarya g tsuta tis 13, ikka tt nn iga axatar n imrign dat n usnfl n imrign n titi."
Ballistas or springalds were siege engines that worked on the same principles as crossbows.,imrign n titi s iẓṛan d twsmin zun d ballista d sbringald gan win ugaly skan s tɣarast n krussbuw.
They were more commonly used against the garrison rather than the buildings of a castle.,ikka tt nn ar tettuswuri mgal isrdasn ugar n titi n tuskiwin n tɣrmatin.
"A mine leading to the wall would be dug and once the target had been reached, the wooden supports preventing the tunnel from collapsing would be burned.","taɣuzi n yan ifri ɣr uɣrab tikklt a tmurs, maca ɣas da nn tettawḍ tɣuzi tigira da ittusɣus ukccuḍ irrdl ifri."
"A counter-mine could be dug towards the besiegers' tunnel; assuming the two converged, this would result in underground hand-to-hand combat.","iɣy ad ittuɣz yan ifri g tnila tanmgalt ɣr tsga n inffurag, mk ttnaɣ ad mnalan ifran s sin, ad yaɣ yan imnɣi ddaw wakal."
"They were used to force open the castle gates, although they were sometimes used against walls with less effect.","kkant ar ttuswurint i yinf n iflwan n tɣrmt, waxxa kkant da iss rddln iɣrabn maka s tdusi idrusn."
"A safer option for those assaulting a castle was to use a siege tower, sometimes called a belfry.","yan ustay ar t ḍffuṛn g illa ufra ugar tga t tɣrmt n uḥuz, ar as ittyini altu bilfri."
"The estates of the realm, or three estates, were the broad orders of social hierarchy used in Christendom (Christian Europe) from the Middle Ages to early modern Europe.","gan ikaln n tgldit, nɣ kṛaḍ ikaln, anaḍn n usrraru anamun ittuswurin g kristndum (uṛubba tamasiḥit) sg izmzn inammasn ar uṛubba tatrart n zik."
"The monarchy included the king and the queen, while the system was made up of clergy (the First Estate), nobles (Second Estate), peasants and bourgeoisie (Third Estate).","isman ugrra agldan agllid d tgllidt, yili g ugrra ayt usɣan (taskkiwt tamzwarut), inubln (taskkiwt tis snat), d imkraz d ibuṛjwazin (taskkiwt tis kṛaḍt)."
"""In England, a two-estate system evolved that combined nobility and clergy into one lordly estate with """"commons"""" as the second estate.""","“g nngliz, isnfl ugrra sg snat tfrkiwin ar ismun ingr inubln d ayt usɣan ɣr yat tfrkt g ““usqqim amatu”” g yat n tfrkt.”"
"""In Scotland, the Three Estates were the Clergy (First Estate), Nobility (Second Estate), and Shire Commissioners, or """"burghers"""" (Third Estate), representing the bourgeois, middle class, and lower class.""","“g skutlanda, llant kṛaḍt tfrkiwin g llanayt uxɣan (tifrkt tamzwarut), inubln (ifrkt tis snat), d iḍffuṛn cayr, """"iburgrn"""" (tifrkt tis kṛaḍt), igan tifrkt tabuṛjwazit, d tfrkt tanammast, d tfrkt tamazdart.”"
"Since clergy could not marry, such mobility was theoretically limited to one generation.","s wacku ur da ttawln ayt usɣan, amussu ad isty s tiẓiṛt ɣr yat tsuta."
"Huizinga The Waning of the Middle Ages (1919, 1924:47).","hyuzinga tamudrust n uzmz anammas (1919, 1924:47)."
Commoners were universally considered the lowest order.,stin mddn yaḍnn umaḍal g tfrkt tamazdart akkw.
In many regions and realms there also existed population groups born outside these specifically defined resident estates.,g kigan n wansiwn llant trubba n imzdaɣ ilulan bṛṛa n tfrkiwin ad xf nsawl.
"The economic and political transformation of the countryside in the period were filled by a large growth in population, agricultural production, technological innovations and urban centers; movements of reform and renewal attempted to sharpen the distinction between clerical and lay status, and power, recognized by the Church also had their effect.","iktar wakal n iɣrman kigan s imzdaɣ acku tgma damsa d tsrtit d ufars n tkrza, d tifitin tiknujitin d wammasn iɣrmann; imkinna urmn imussutn n usɣudu d usmaynu n bṭṭu n gr waddad amiray d waddad n tilawt, yili altu ɣur tkinisa wuḍus nns awd nttat."
"The second order, those who fight, was the rank of the politically powerful, ambitious, and dangerous.","agrra wis sin, g winna ittnaɣn, iga ayt uswir ikrdn g srtit, ilan ililan d tdusi."
"In addition, the First and Second Estates relied on the labour of the Third, which made the latter's inferior status all the more glaring.","rnu as, skuttan tfrkiwin tamzwarut d tis snat xf twuri n tfrkt tis kṛaḍt, aynna d isskann muḥul n tfrk tiss snat."
Most were born within this group and also died as a part of it.,ilula umata digsn g trabbut ad immt altu digs.
"In May 1776, finance minister Turgot was dismissed, after failing to enact reforms.","g mayyu 1776, kksn aslway n udrim turgut, ffir gar amurs nns g tigawt n isɣudutn."
"When he could not persuade them to rubber-stamp his 'ideal program', Louis XVI sought to dissolve the Estates-General, but the Third Estate held out for their right to representation.","allig ur tn iqniɛ ad as snyan ‘ahil nns ismdn’ yanf lwis wis XVI tifrkiwin imatutin, maka tugy tfrkt tis kṛaḍt ad tsamḥ g uzrf nns."
"Because the Parliament of Scotland was unicameral, all members sat in the same chamber, as opposed to the separate English House of Lords and House of Commons.","igmamn kullu da ttɣjdmn g yat n tmṣṛiyt, acku iga ubṛlaman n skutlanda yan, mgal n usqqim n iluṛdn inglizitn ibḍan d usqqim n wamun amatu."
"""As in England, the Parliament of Ireland evolved out of the Magnum Concilium """"great council"""" summoned by the chief governor of Ireland, attended by the council (curia regis), magnates (feudal lords), and prelates (bishops and abbots).""","“imkinna ayd iga waddad g inglaiṛṛa, iffɣ d ubṛlaman n irlanda sg magnim kunsilyum """"asqqim amqran"""" nna mi d iɣra uxatar n inbbaḍn n irlanda, yili as nn usqqim (kurya rijis), d imɣnaṭn (iluṛdn ifyudalitn), d imawusn (ikswatn d inmhaln n tgwmma).”"
"In 1297, counties were first represented by elected knights of the shire (sheriffs had previously represented them).","g usggwas n 1297, kcmnt tsnbaṭin tikklt tamzwarut s imnayn n cir infrann (nna ikka umɣar n islwayn da nn ittili g udɣar nnsn)."
"Each were free men, and had specific rights and responsibilities, and the right to send representatives to the Riksdag of the Estates.","ku yan digsn d afgan ilelli, ɣusn izrfan d iḍfuṛn imẓlay, d uzrf n yizn n imaṭṭafn n wawal nnsn ɣr ubṛlaman."
"Prior to the 18th century, the King had the right to cast a deciding vote if the Estates were split evenly.","dat n twisi tis 18, ikka tt nn ɣur ugllid azrf n wad yini awal amggaru g waddad n ungiddi n bṭṭu n twilayatin."
"However, after the Diet of Porvoo, the Diet of Finland was reconvened only in 1863.","waxxa d ay a, ffir asqqim n burfu, iffɣ d usqqim n finfalda g usggwas n 1863."
"Around 1400, letters patent were introduced, in 1561 the ranks of Count and Baron were added, and in 1625 the House of Nobility was codified as the First Estate of the land.","attay n usggwas n 1400, kcmnt d tbratin s uzrf n tkbabt, g usggwas n 1561 tturnant tazult n kunt d baṛun, d usggwas n 1625 zmmemn tigmmi n inbln nwis tga tifrkt tamzwarut n wakal."
Heads of the noble houses were hereditary members of the assembly of nobles.,imɣarn n tgwmma n inubln gan igmamn n tmsmunt n inubln.
This resulted in great political influence for the higher nobility.,ifka d uya ammctg axatar asrtan i imɣarn n inubln.
"In later centuries, the estate included teachers of universities and certain state schools.","g tsutiwin yaḍn iḍfaṛn, kcmn islmadn n tsdawitin d kra n tinmal n tnbaḍt tarabbut a."
"Trade was allowed only in the cities when the mercantilistic ideology had got the upper hand, and the burghers had the exclusive right to conduct commerce within the framework of guilds.","ur tettilli tsbbabt ɣas g tmdinin addag tla tdyulujit n tsbbabt amsasa n ufus axatar n tnbaḍt, imswuritn ɣursn azrf nwad swuddun tasbbabt g inmula."
"In order for a settlement to become a city, a royal charter granting market right was required, and foreign trade required royally chartered staple port rights.","taf ad tg yat trabbut n imzdaɣ tamdint, icil as ad tamẓ asidd azgzaw ɣur ugllid bar ad as digs yili ugadaz, ar tssutur tsbbabt tabṛṛant izrfan n iftasn idslann ittukran."
"Since most of the population were independent farmer families until the 19th century, not serfs nor villeins, there is a remarkable difference in tradition compared to other European countries.","iddɣ iga umata n imzdaɣ tiwacunin timkraz tilellitin awd g tsuta tis 19, bla ismxan ula ixmmasn, illa yan bṭṭu axatar g wayda ingrasn d tmizar yaḍn n urubba."
Their representatives to the Diet were elected indirectly: each municipality sent electors to elect the representative of an electoral district.,"kkan ignsasn nnsn g ubṛlaman da ttyastayn s tɣarast taruridt, ar ttazn ku tagrawt taɣrmant imstayn ad stin agnsas n ku tasutlt n tfrnin."
They had no political rights and could not vote.,ur ɣursn izrfan isrtann ula ad umun g tfrnin.
"In Sweden, the Riksdag of the Estates existed until it was replaced with a bicameral Riksdag in 1866, which gave political rights to anyone with a certain income or property.","g sswid, rriksdag n tfrkiwin llant allig ttusnfnt s rriksdag n sin isqqimn g usggwas n 1866, ifkan izrfan isrtann i ku yan d ka n tɣrad nɣ d ayda."
"In Finland, this legal division existed until 1906, still drawing on the Swedish constitution of 1772.","g finlanda, illa ubṭṭu ya azrfan ar asggwas n 1906, isal illa g tmnḍawt n sswid n usggwas n 1772."
"Furthermore, the industrial workers living in the city were not represented by the four-estate system.","rnu as, nwis ur illi ɣur imswuritn imgurann ukrwas g ugrra n tfrkiwin s kkuẓt."
Later in the 15th and 16th centuries Brussels became the place where the States General assembled.,g wayḍ uzmz g twisi tis 15 d tis 16 bruksil tga ansa n ugraw amatu n twilayatin.
"As a consequence of the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and the events that followed afterwards, the States General declared that they no longer obeyed King Philip II of Spain, who was also overlord of the Netherlands.","s tyafut n wamun n utrixt g usggwas n 1579 d yiggitn t iḍfaṛn, usin iwankn imatutn awal n wufuɣ ddaw tnbaḍt n filibb wis sin agllid n ṣṣblyun, ilan tanbaḍt awd n hulanḍa."
It was the level of government where all things were dealt with that were of concern to all the seven provinces that became part of the Republic of the United Netherlands.,syifint tsggwin kullutnt s sat s uswir n tnbaḍt d tɣarast s tsujji imukrisn kcmt g tgduda n hulanḍa imunn.
"In the Southern Netherlands, the last meetings of the States General loyal to the Habsburgs took place in the Estates General of 1600 and the Estates General of 1632.","g iffus n hulanḍa, ttugan igrawn n twilayatin timatutin iḍfaṛn i habsburg g tfrkt tamatut n 1600 d tin 1632."
"It no longer consisted of representatives of the States, let alone the Estates: all men were considered equal under the 1798 Constitution.","ur yad tbḍi xf ignsasn n twilayatin, ugar n uya : gan akkw mddn yan g tmnḍawt n usggwas n 1798."
"In 1815, when the Netherlands were united with Belgium and Luxemburg, the States General were divided into two chambers: the First Chamber and the Second Chamber.","g usggwas n 1815, aynna tmun hulanḍa d bljika d luksumburg, tbḍa tnbaḍt xf sin isqqamutn: tasutlt tamzwarut d tsutlt tis snat."
"From 1848 on, the Dutch Constitution provides that members of the Second Chamber be elected by the people (at first only by a limited portion of the male population; universal male and female suffrage exists since 1919), while the members of the First Chamber are chosen by the members of the States Provincial.","sg usggwas n 1848 ɣr dat, tusy tmnḍawt tahulanḍit astay n igmamn n tmṣṛiyt tis snat ad ig win wamun (g tizwiri kra n iwtman idrusn; uma astayn g llan iwtman d twtmin inta g usggwas n 1919), ar sttin igmamn n tgrawin tiɣmanin igmamn n tsutlt tamzwarut g twilayatin."
"The clergy was represented by the independent prince-bishops, prince-archbishops and prince-abbots of the many monasteries.",gin ignsas n tfrkt n ayt usɣan igldunn n isqqufn d igldunn n islwayn nnsn d igldunn n ddir n kigan n tgwmma n imasiḥitn.
"Many peoples whose territories within the Holy Roman Empire had been independent for centuries had no representatives in the Imperial Diet, and this included the Imperial Knights and independent villages.","kigan n iɣrfan ɣur mi llan ikalln agnsu n tmbṛtuṛt taṛumanit ilan azarug kigan n tsutiwin ur ɣursn ignsasn agnsu n ugrra asuccan n tmbṛaṭuṛit, g amun awd imnayn n tmbṛaṭuṛit d iɣrman ilan azarug."
"The four major estates were: nobility (dvoryanstvo), clergy, rural dwellers, and urban dwellers, with a more detailed stratification therein.","gant tfrkiwin tidslanin kkuẓt : inubln, ayt usɣan, d imzdaɣ n iɣrman,, d imzdaɣ n tmdinin, s kigan n tfiras n tfrkiwin."
"The bourgeoisie in its original sense is intimately linked to the existence of cities, recognized as such by their urban charters (e.g., municipal charters, town privileges, German town law), so there was no bourgeoisie apart from the citizenry of the cities.","tman tbuṛjwazit s unamk nns aẓuṛan d tilawt n tmdinin, ttyassn s wudm aɣrman d warratn iɣrmann (s umdya, arratn n tgrawt taɣrmant, tibɣurin n tmdint, aslgn n tmdint n lalman), allig ur nɣi ad nsiwl ɣr tbṛjwazit min imzdaɣ n tmdinin."
"""Historically, the medieval French word bourgeois denoted the inhabitants of the bourgs (walled market-towns), the craftsmen, artisans, merchants, and others, who constituted """"the bourgeoisie"""".""","“g umzruy, tuwy tguri tafṛansist tabuṛjwazit g uzmz anammas ɣr imzdaɣ iburjwazitn (timdinin n ugadaz bu uɣrab), d ayt tazzulin, d isbbabn, d wiyyaḍ, wid iskan ““tabuṛjwazit””.”"
"Guilds arose when individual businessmen (such as craftsmen, artisans and merchants) conflicted with their rent-seeking feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed.",ffɣn d inmulla iddɣ bḍan id bab n twuri (zun d inadn d imgurann d isbbabn) d ifyudaln nn iran lkri ittrn lkri ugar n uynna xf msasan.
They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations.,illa ɣursn yiky nwad ilin g ka n twacunin tibuṛjwaziyin sg kṛaḍt tsutiwin nɣ ugar.
"The names of these families are generally known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors have often contributed to the region's history.","assaɣn n twacunin ad ttyassnent kigan g tmdint g zdɣn, kigan n tikkal ayd amun imzwura nnsn g usku n umzruy n tmazirt."
"These people nevertheless live lavishly, enjoying the company of the great artists of the time.","mddn a waxxa d am a da ttidirn s usnubg, ar ttagmn taḍfi s amunt n inaẓuṛn ixatarn g wakud ann."
"In the French language, the term bourgeoisie almost designates a caste by itself, even though social mobility into this socio-economic group is possible.","g tutlayt tafṛansist, iẓly druɣ d wassaɣ n tbuṛjwazit s yat taggayt i wul nns, waxxa illa umussu anamun ammas n taggayt ad tanamunt tadmsant."
"Hitler distrusted capitalism for being unreliable due to its egotism, and he preferred a state-directed economy that is subordinated to the interests of the Volk.","ur da ittamn hitlir g tdgart acku ur tli awal tktur s tmrixft, ar ittiri tadamsa iddan ɣr uwank ar ikkat xf tnafut n fulk."
"""Hitler also said that the business bourgeoisie """"know nothing except their profit. '""",“inna hitlr altu nwis tga tbuṛjwazit n tsbbabt””ur tssin kra abla arraz.””
The utility of these things was inherent in their practical functions.,iẓly ubɣur n iskkinn a g iswuritn nns ilan adɣar nnsn.
"Belle de Jour (Beauty of the day, 1967) tells the story of a bourgeois wife who is bored with her marriage and decides to prostitute herself.","ar ttals bil du jur (taḥli n wass, 1967) tullist n yat tmɣart taburjwazit iɣufan s yiwl nns ar tkkat tummiẓt."
"In Europe, the title of Emperor has been used since the Middle Ages, considered in those times equal or almost equal in dignity to that of Pope due to the latter's position as visible head of the Church and spiritual leader of the Catholic part of Western Europe.","g uṛubba, ittuswuri wassaɣ n umbṛaṭuṛ sg uzmz anammas, ila anamk nɣ d attay n ubaba acku iga amɣar n tkanisa d ukswat animan n tuṭṭut takatulikt n uṛubba n uɣlluy."
"In as much as there is a strict definition of emperor, it is that an emperor has no relations implying the superiority of any other ruler and typically rules over more than one nation.",ila umbṛaṭuṛ asml nwis ur ɣurs izdayn d inabaḍn yḍn yili tanbaḍt xf wigar n wamun.
"Their status was officially recognised by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1514, although not officially used by the Russian monarchs until 1547.","ittusqrra waddad nnsn s imi n umbṛaṭuṛ aṛumani bu waddur g usggwas n 1514, waxxa s talɣa tamaddudt ur iss swurin igllidn n rusya ar asggwas n 1547."
"Such pre-Roman titles as Great King or King of Kings, used by the Kings of Persia and others, are often considered as the equivalent.","am wassaɣn n dat ṛuma zun d agllid amqran nɣ d agllid n igllidn, ittuswurin g tmizar n faris d wiyyaḍ, gan attay n kkif."
Empire became identified instead with vast territorial holdings rather than the title of its ruler by the mid-18th century.,taɣul tnbṛaṭuṛt tla wahli n ikalln g wahli n tsgs s yism n unbbaḍ nns g wammas n twisi tis 18.
"""Ancient Romans abhorred the name Rex (""""king""""), and it was critical to the political order to maintain the forms and pretenses of republican rule.""","“iṛumanitn iqburn smuzdrn assaɣ n riks (“”agllid””), yili tawuri ugrra asrtan n uḥṭṭu n talɣiwin d yinitn n tnbaḍt tagdudant.”"
"Augustus, considered the first Roman emperor, established his hegemony by collecting on himself offices, titles, and honours of Republican Rome that had traditionally been distributed to different people, concentrating what had been distributed power in one man.","ugustus, igan ambṛaṭuṛ amzwaru n ṛuma, isars afus xf tnbaḍt s usmuttr n isira xf ixf nns, assaɣn n waddur, d kigan n ismɣurn tettgga tgduda n ṛuma ar tbṭṭu xf kigan n mddn, ar ttraran aynna ittubḍun xf tnbaḍt i yan urgaz."
"""However, it was the informal descriptive of Imperator (""""commander"""") that became the title increasingly favored by his successors.""","“waxxa d aya, ikka tt nn ufaris aramaddud i umbṛaṭuṛ (““amaway””) stin t s tayri inaḍfaṛn nns.”"
This is one of the most enduring titles: Caesar and its transliterations appeared in every year from the time of Caesar Augustus to Tsar Simeon II of Bulgaria's removal from the throne in 1946.,ig yan sg wassaɣn izdin kigan: iffɣ d uqayṣaṛ d isuɣal nns ku asggwas sg tizi n uqayṣaṛ ugustus ar aqayṣaṛ simyun wis sin sg tḍuṛi n tgldit n blɣaṛya asggwas n 1946.
"Exceptions include the title of the Augustan History, a semi-historical collection of Emperors' biographies of the 2nd and 3rd century.","yili g islidn uzwl n umzruy n ugustan, yat trabbut n tazgnmzruyt n tmddurin n ikswatn n tsuta tis 2 d tis 3."
"Few were however granted the title, and it was certainly not a rule that all wives of reigning Emperors would receive it.","maka ka n yids ayd ifkan assaɣ a, ur igi aslgn ad t ilint tmɣarin n ikswatn inbbaḍn kull."
"In the late Republic, as in the early years of the new monarchy, Imperator was a title granted to Roman generals by their troops and the Roman Senate after a great victory, roughly comparable to field marshal (head or commander of the entire army).","g isggwasn imggura n tgduda, imkinna ikkan g isggwasn imzwura n ugrra agldan amaynu, fkant trubba n isrdasn d usqqim n imɣarn iṛumanitn assaɣ n umbṛaṭuṛ i ijiniṛaln iṛumanitn ffir tarnawt nnsn tamqṛant, attay n umaṛcal (aslway nɣ amaway n isrdasn kullutn)."
"The succeeding Nervan-Antonian Dynasty, ruling for most of the 2nd century, stabilised the Empire.","ffir as tumẓ tmbṛaṭuṛt twacunt n nirfan anṭunyan, tili tanbaḍt amata n tsuta tis 2."
"Three short lived secessionist attempts had their own emperors: the Gallic Empire, the Britannic Empire, and the Palmyrene Empire though the latter used rex more regularly.","ikka tt nn ɣur kṛaḍt tirimin n ustay tigzlanin alɣuɣn nns: tambṛaṭuṛt taɣalit, tambṛaṭuṛt tabṛiṭanit, d tambṛaṭuṛt tabalmirinit, waxxa tkka ar tswuri riks kigan n tikkal."
"At one point, there were as many as five sharers of the imperium (see: Tetrarchy).","g yat n tikklt, ikka tt nn wattay n smmust n ixatarn n imbiryalitn (ẓṛ: titrarci)."
The city is more commonly called Constantinople and is today named Istanbul).,tg tmdint ad taxatart isṭambul assaɣ nns dɣi isṭanbul).
"""These Later Roman """"Byzantine"""" Emperors completed the transition from the idea of the Emperor as a semi-republican official to the Emperor as an absolute monarch.""",“iṛumanitn ad imggura “” ibizanṭitn”” smdn ammuty sg tkti n umbṛaṭuṛ igan amɣar azgnagdudan ɣr ambṛaṭuṛ igan agllid ismdn.”
"""Byzantine period emperors also used the Greek word """"autokrator"""", meaning """"one who rules himself"""", or """"monarch"""", which was traditionally used by Greek writers to translate the Latin dictator.""","“imkinna swurin imbṛaṭuṛn ibizanṭitn taguri tayunanit ““uduktatut””, ɣur anamk n ““afgan innbḍn g ixf nns”” nɣ d ““agllid””, swuran s tɣarst taqburt imarutn iyunanitn g usuɣl n udiktatur alatini.”"
"In fact, none of these (and other) additional epithets and titles had ever been completely discarded.",g tilawt assɣn ad ula assaɣn yaḍn (d wiyyaḍ) ur ttuzriyn g yat tikklt s abda.
"""Following the tragedy of the horrific sacking of the city, the conquerors declared a new """"Empire of Romania"""", known to historians as the Latin Empire of Constantinople, installing Baldwin IX, Count of Flanders, as Emperor.""","“g wakud n uqdds iccayḍn n tmdint, ssafɣn d imsdurritn alɣu ““tambraturit taṛumanit”” tamaynut, ittwassnn ɣur inmzruyn s wassaɣ n tambraturit talatinit n tquṣṭanṭint, yumẓ baldwin wis tẓa. kunt n flandrz, d ambṛaṭuṛ.”"
"From the time of Otto the Great onward, much of the former Carolingian kingdom of Eastern Francia became the Holy Roman Empire.","sg wakud n uttu amqran s ma ay d ikkan ffi as, yaɣul umata n tgldit fṛansya n unqqr takaṛulijit n zik iga win tmbṭuṛit taṛumanit mm waddur."
This junior King then bore the title of Roman King (King of the Romans).,illig ila ugllid amaynu assaɣ n ugllid aṛumani (agllid n iṛumin).
The Holy Roman Emperor was considered the first among those in power.,iga umbṛaṭuṛ aṛumani bu tibar amzwaru ing ayt tnbaḍt maṛṛa.
Geography is often defined in terms of two branches: human geography and physical geography.,ar as tettufka tsnumlt i tjɣrafit s sin wanawn: tajɣrafit tanfgant d tjɣrafit takmamt.
"Traditionally, geography has been associated with cartography and place names.","s wayda, tzdy tjɣrafit s wunuɣn d wassɣn n idɣarn."
"Because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, climate, plants and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary.","iddɣ da issnfal usayrar d udɣar kigan n isntal, zun d tadamsa d tdusi d unzwi d imɣayn d imudar, aya as tga tjɣṛaft tagtiẓli kigan."
"The former largely focuses on the built environment and how humans create, view, manage, and influence space.","amzwaru iskutta kigan xf ugama ittskan d mamk illa ifgan, asksw, tanbaḍt, d wuḍusn n usayrar."
"It requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography, like the ways that human societies conceptualize the environment.","ar ittettr armas i tsggwin tiqburin i tjɣraft tamttat d tjɣraft tanfgant, zun d ibrdan s ttggant trubba tinfganin ikz n tgama."
The study of systems larger than the Earth itself usually forms part of Astronomy or Cosmology.,tga tzrawt n imagawn n wakal anaw n tsṭṛunumit nɣ d n tkusmulujit.
"Regional science: In the 1950s, the regional science movement led by Walter Isard arose to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the descriptive tendencies of traditional geography programs.","tussniwin t tsggwin: g isggwasn ismmumrawn 1950, tussniwin t tsggwin s yiwy n waltṛ izaṛd i usmri ugar n tsila tamamkt d tsfsayt i isqsitn ijɣrafitn, mgal n tnilatin tisnummal i wahil anjɣraf aqbur."
Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science.,igma wunuɣ n iɣawasn sg yat tsḍma n tɣarasin n wunuɣ ar yat tussna n dɣi.
"In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems.","ilaq i imẓlay n ugrra n tussna n tjɣraft ad rmsn tussniwin n umssuds d ugrra n tsila n isfka, imkinnaɣ awd i iẓlayn iflufn yaḍn n tjɣraft."
"Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields, including hydrology, geology, petroleum exploration, weather analysis, urban planning, logistics, and epidemiology.","ar tettuswuri tjɣraft n usiḍn g kigan n yigran, g tamu thidṛulujt, d tjyulujt, d yinig n ubitṛul, afssay n unzwi, aɣawas aɣrman, lujisytik, d tussna n waṭṭann."
"""The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria, Urartu, and several cities, in turn surrounded by a """"bitter river"""" (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star.""","“takaṛṭa imkinna s as yuls asku ikhaṛd ungr da tsskan babil xf ufrat tetty as yat txft tawrerrayt isskann asirya, urartu, d tmdinin yaḍn, mi itty ““wasif amṛẓag”” (usyanus), d sat n tgzirin ilan anmila nns ar sskarnt titrit mm sat n tnqqaḍ.”"
"In contrast to the Imago Mundi, an earlier Babylonian world map dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent.","mgal n imagu mundi, yaɣul uzmz n tkaṛḍa tamaḍlant tababilit n zwar ɣr tsuta tis 9 dat n tlalit ar digs sirisn babil g iẓẓlmḍ xf wammas n umaḍal, waxxa urss mami iɣy wammas a ad t ig."
Thales is also credited with the prediction of eclipses.,tals ayd ilan addur n uswngm g tifi n tɣamut n wayyur.
"There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the Earth is spherical in shape, with the credit going either to Parmenides or Pythagoras.","illa waddur ɣur ufgan amzwaru innan nwis iga yitri n wakal bu talɣa n tcamma, ar ittyini yan sg sin a ayd yusin addur ad ya baṛminids nɣ d fitaɣurs."
One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by Eratosthenes.,yan sg isutgn imzwaura n iẓinẓṛ n wakal iga t win iṛatustinis.
"The meridians were sub-divided into 360°, with each degree further subdivided into 60 (minutes).","bḍan izgigitn n taɣzi xf 360°, ku tafsna s 60 (tusdidin)."
"He extended the work of Hipparchus, using a grid system on his maps and adopting a length of 56.5 miles for a degree.","isɣuda tawuri n hibbaṛcus, s uswuri n ugrra n tratsa n xf tkaṛḍiwin nns d uswuri n taɣzi n 56.5 mil i tskwflt."
"During the Middle Ages, the fall of the Roman empire led to a shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the Islamic world.","g uzmz anammas, tuwy d tḍuṛi n tmbṛatiṛit taṛumanit asnfl n tjɣṛaft sg uṛubba ɣr umaḍal amunslm."
"Further, Islamic scholars translated and interpreted the earlier works of the Romans and the Greeks and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for this purpose.",ssuɣln imusnawn inslmn ssfrun tiwuriwin timzwura n iṛumanitn d iyunanitn skun tigmmi n tussna g bɣdad xf twuri ad.
Abu Rayhan Biruni (976–1048) first described a polar equi-azimuthal equidistant projection of the celestial sphere.,isnuml abu riḥan biṛuni (976–1048) tikklt tamzwarut taḍuri isawan takurt n yignna.
"He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of mountains, depths of the valleys, and expanse of the horizon.","imkinna isbuɣla tiɣarasin n ussiḍn n taɣzi n idurar, d taɛumt n isaffn, d tirut n umnid."
The problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location.,amukris ttafan imrzutn d ijɣrafitn iga tifi n uzgig n tirut d uzgig n taɣzi i yan unsa ajɣrafi.
"The 18th and the 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete academic discipline, and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin).","gant tsutiwin tis 18 d tis 19 akud g as ittufka i tjɣraft ad tsty tg yan ugrra akadimi istin, tg altu yan ugzzum n tɣarast n usslmd asdawan g uṛubba (lumn g baris d birlin)."
"Over the past two centuries, the advancements in technology with computers have led to the development of geomatics and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography's portfolio of tools.","xf snat tsutiwin izrin, ifka d ubuɣlu n tetiknulujit s uswuri n imssudsn d usbuɣlu n tjyumatikt d twuriwin timaynutin zun d ḥṭṭu n imdrawn d usidf n tjyustatistikt g usuɣad n tjɣraft."
"Arnold Henry Guyot (1807–1884) – noted the structure of glaciers and advanced understanding in glacier motion, especially in fast ice flow.","iẓṛa aṛnuld hinri guyut (1807–1884) – tuskiwin n isaffn n ugris d umussu nnsn, lumn ufuɣ asddraf n ugris."
William Morris Davis (1850–1934) – father of American geography and developer of the cycle of erosion.,wilyam muṛis difis (1850–1934) – bab n tjɣṛaft tamirikanit d umsnfl n tsutlt n uttyicc.
Ellen Churchill Semple (1863–1932) – first female president of the Association of American Geographers.,ilin tcircil simbl (1863–1932) – d tamɣart tamzwarut igan taslwayt n tzlɣa n ijɣrafitn imirikanitn.
Walter Christaller (1893–1969) – human geographer and inventor of Central place theory.,waktṛ kristalr (1893–1969) – amassan n tjyulujt talsant d umsllwu n tiẓiṛt n udɣar anammas.
"David Harvey (born 1935) – Marxist geographer and author of theories on spatial and urban geography, winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize.","difid haṛfi (ilula g 1935) – amassan n tjyulujt tamarksit d umssufɣ n tiẓiṛin xf tjuɣraft tadɣarant d tɣrmant, yawy tasmɣurt n futrin lud."
"In some cases, a distinction is made between the official (constitutional) capital and the seat of government, which is in another place.","g kra n tikkal, illa bṭṭu gr udgar amaddud (n tmnḍawt) d wansa n tnbaḍt, illan g wayḍ wansa."
"Examples are ancient Babylon, Abbasid Baghdad, ancient Athens, Rome, Bratislava, Budapest, Constantinople, Chang'an, ancient Cusco, Kyiv, Madrid, Paris, Podgorica, London, Beijing, Prague, Tallinn, Tokyo, Lisbon, Riga, Vilnius, and Warsaw.","sg imdyatn, babil taqburt, ɛbasid bɣdad, atina taqburt, ṛuma, bṛatislafa, budabst, taqusṭanṭint, tcangan, kusku taqburt, kyif, madrid, baris, budguritsa, lundun, bikkin, brag, tallinn, ṭukyu, licbuna, riga, filnyus, d warsaw."
"In some countries, the capital has been changed for geopolitical reasons; Finland's first city, Turku, which had served as the country's capital since the Middle Ages under the Swedish rule, lost its right during the Grand Duchy of Finland in 1812, when Helsinki was made the current capital of Finland by the Russian Empire.","g kra n tmizar, ittusnfl udgar s umntil n tjɣraft tasrtant; tamdint tamzwarut g finlanda, tuṛku, ikkan igan zun d tamanɣt n uwank sg uzmz anammas ddaw tnbaḍt taswidit, idda as uzrf g duqya tamqrant n finlanda asggwas n 1812, kudnna tga hilsinki tamanɣt n finlanda n wasa s ufus n tbṛaṭuṛt n rusya."
"In Canada, there is a federal capital, while the ten provinces and three territories each have capital cities.","g kanada, tlla tmanɣt tafidiralt, uma tisggwin yaḍn s mrawt d tmnaḍin s kṛaḍt ɣurdnt timanɣin nnsnt."
"""In Australia, the term """"capital cities"""" is regularly used to refer to those six state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra, and Darwin, the capital of the Northern Territory.""","“ g usṭṛalya, da ittuswuri yirim ““timanɣin”” ad ttusknent tmanɣin n twilayatin s sḍiṣt d tmanɣt tafidṛalt kanbṛa, d ḍaṛwin, tamanɣt n tsga taẓlmaḍt.”"
"Unlike in federations, there is usually not a separate national capital, but rather the capital city of one constituent nation will also be the capital of the state overall, such as London, which is the capital of England and of the United Kingdom.","mgal n tfidiṛalin, ur da tettili tmanɣt tanamurt tustiyt, maka da tettili tmanɣt n uwank ittggan tin twilayat, zun d lunḍun, igan tamanɣt n inglatiṛṛa d tgldit imunn."
The national capitals of Germany and Russia (the Stadtstaat of Berlin and the federal city of Moscow) are also constituent states of both countries in their own right.,imkinna gant tmanɣin tinamurin n lmanya d rusya (stadstat n birlin d tmdint tafidiṛalt n musku) gint timdinin awd nitni.
"Frankfort, Kentucky, midway between Louisville and Lexington.","fṛankfuṛt, kinṭaki, g mawwas n ubrid ingr lwisfil d liksingtun."
"Tallahassee, Florida, chosen as the midpoint between Pensacola and St. Augustine, Florida – then the two largest cities in Florida.","talahassi, fluṛiḍa, ttustint g wammas n binsakula d sant ugustin, fluṛiḍa – gint altu snat tmdinit tixatarin g fluṛiḍa."
Changes in a nation's political regime sometimes result in the designation of a new capital.,ar d akkan isnulfutn n yigawn isrtann ka n tikkal yiyafutin n astay n tmanɣt tamaynut.
"When the Canary Islands became an autonomous community in 1982, Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria were both given capital status.","aynna gant tgzirin n uknari amun animan g usggwas n 1982, gant santa kruz n tnirifi d las ḥalmas n uknari akswat ammas n udgar."
Estonia: the Supreme Court and the Ministry of Education and Research are located in Tartu.,istunya : tlla tnbaḍt tamajjgalt d tmawast n usslmd d urzzu g tartu.
"In case of emergency, the seat of the constitutional powers can be transferred to another town, in order for the Houses of Parliament to sit in the same location as the President and Cabinet.","g waddad n umukris, iɣy ad ittusitty wansa n tnbaḍin tidusturitin ɣr tayḍ tmazirt, taf ad ttɣiman isqqumn n ubṛlaman g yan udɣar d uslway d usqqim n imawasn."
The entire state machinery shifts from one city to another every six months.,ar ttusmuttuyn wallaln n uwank maṛṛa sg tmdint ɣr tayḍ ku ṣḍiṣt n wayyurn.
"Dharamshala, which is also the headquarters of the Central Tibetan Administration, is the second winter capital of the state.","ḍaṛamcala, tga ansa n tmhla n ttibit tanammast, tg tamanɣt tis snat n twilayat g tgrst."
The city itself is administered as a Union territory.,ar tssudu tmdint ixf nns d tasga iḍfaṛn i wamun anamur.
"Uttarakhand: Dehradun is the administrative and legislative capital, while the high court is located in Nainital.","utaṛaxand: tga dihṛadun tmanɣt tanmhalt d tslgant, tili tsbḍayt tamajjgalt g naynital."
Its construction started in 1960 and was completed in 1966.,issnta usku nns g usggwas n 1960 ismd g usggwas n 1966.
The presidential palace (Malacanang Palace) and the Supreme Court are located within the capital city but the two houses of Congress are located in separate suburbs.,"tlla tɣrmt taslwayt (tiɣrmt n malakanang) d tsbḍayt tamajjgalt agnsu n tmanɣt, maka isqqimn n ukungris llan g sin wansiwn ibḍan."
"""Sri Lanka: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte is designated the administrative capital and the location of the parliament, while the former capital, Colombo, is now designated as the """"commercial capital"""".""","“srilanka: tga sri jayawardinibura kut tamanɣt tanmhalt d wansa n ubṛlaman, maka tga tmanɣt taqburt kulumbu taɣul tga ““tamanɣt n tsbbabt””.”"
"South Africa: The administrative capital is Pretoria, the legislative capital is Cape Town, and the judicial capital is Bloemfontein.","ifridya n iffus: tamanɣt tanmhalt tga briṭurya, d tmanɣt taslgant tga tt kib tawn, d tmanɣt tanzraft tga tt blumfuntin."
Switzerland: Bern is the Federal City of Switzerland and functions as de facto capital.,swisṛa: tga burn tamdint tafidiṛalt n swisṛa tg altu tamanɣt tunṣibt nns.
"Also similar to Illinois and New York State, most statewide elected officials and officers who are based in Southeast Pennsylvania (City of Philadelphia, Bucks County, Montgomery County, Delaware County, and Chester County) prefer working mostly in Philadelphia.","am silinuy d nyuyurk, da ttirin tawuri umata n inbbaḍn imstayn d ikswatn n isrdasn illan g wammas n iffus n unqqr n bnsilfanya(tamdint n filadilfya, tagrawt n buks, tagrawt n muntgumri, tagrawt n dilawir, d tgrawt n tcistr) ar ttirin tawuri g filadlifya"
Israel and Palestine: Both the Government of Israel and the Palestinian Authority claim Jerusalem as their capital.,isṛyil d dilisṭin: lant tnbaḍin nnsnt s snat yat tmaɣt igan lquds.
A symbolic relocation of a capital city to a geographically or demographically peripheral location may be for either economic or strategic reasons (sometimes known as a forward capital or spearhead capital).,iɣy ad ig usmutty amataran i tmanɣt ɣr kra n wansa ittussitmn g tjɣraft nɣ g tdimuɣraft s imntiln idamsann nɣ istṛatijitn (ar ttuyassan s mata s wassaɣ n udgar uzwir nɣ ixf n udgar).
The Ming emperors moved their capital to Beijing from the more central Nanjing to help supervise the border with the Mongols.,smattin imbṛaṭuṛn n ming tamanɣt nnsn ɣr bikin sg nanjing ikkan g wammas tbdd xf imran n grasn d imaɣuln.
"Delhi finally became the colonial capital after the Coronation Durbar of King-Emperor George V in 1911, continuing as independent India's capital from 1947.","tdwl dilhi tamanɣt tamsddurrit ffir taguri n usni n duṛbaṛ agllid ambṛaṭuṛ i juṛj wis smmus zsggwas n 1911, tqqim tga tamanɣt n hind tasimant sg usggwas n 1947."
"Sometimes, the location of a new capital city was chosen to terminate actual or potential squabbling between various entities, such as in the cases of Canberra, Ottawa, Washington, Wellington and Managua.","g kra n tikkal, da tettustay tmanɣt tamaynut taf ad ifukku imnɣi nɣ tiẓit illan nɣ iɣin ad yili ingr igzzumn, imkinna itugan g kanbiṛa d utawa d wacinṭun d wilingtun d managuwa."
"In the Three Kingdoms period, both Shu and Wu fell when their respective capitals of Chengdu and Jianye fell.","g tizi n tglditin s kṛaḍt, iḍṛa cu d wu iddɣ ḍṛant tmanɣin nnsn tcingdu d jyani."
"After the Qing dynasty's collapse, decentralization of authority and improved transportation and communication technologies allowed both the Chinese Nationalists and Chinese Communists to rapidly relocate capitals and keep their leadership structures intact during the great crisis of Japanese invasion.","ffir taḍuṛi n twacunt tcing, tsamḥ tarammas n tnbaḍt d usɣudu n tetiqnitin n usmuddu d umyawaḍ i inamunn iṣinitn d injmawn iṣinitn ad smuttin timanɣin zik d wad ḥḍun ifṛḍiṣn n tnbaḍin nnsn imkinna gant g tassast taxatart n usdurri ayabani."
It can be defined as a permanent and densely settled place with administratively defined boundaries whose members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks.,nɣy ad as nfk asnuml n wis iga yan wansa iqqiman izdin s iwtta idblann g swurin igmamn nns g twuriwin ur igin tin tkrza.
"Historically, city-dwellers have been a small proportion of humanity overall, but following two centuries of unprecedented and rapid urbanization, more than half of the world population now lives in cities, which has had profound consequences for global sustainability.","g umzruy, kkan imzdaɣ n tmdinin drusn s umata, maka ffir snat tsutiwin n usɣrm asddrfan jjin ur ikkin, da ttidirn wugar n uzgn n umaḍal dɣi g tmdinin, aynna ɣur ttilint tyafutin ur iɣudin xf tsulant tamaḍlant."
"This increased influence means that cities also have significant influences on global issues, such as sustainable development, global warming and global health.","iḍiṛ a ittzayadn da d yakka i tmdinin iḍiṛiṛn ixatarn xf tmntilin timaḍlanin, zun d tanfalit tasulant d iɣimi anrɣan d tdusi tamaḍlant."
"Therefore, compact cities are often referred to as a crucial element of fighting climate change.","s uya, da ittyini nwis d timdinin ayd ibaḍn g usnfl n unzwi."
"For example, country capitals such as Beijing, London, Mexico City, Moscow, Nairobi, New Delhi, Paris, Rome, Athens, Seoul, Tokyo, and Washington, D.C. reflect the identity and apex of their respective nations.","s umdya, timanɣin am bikin, lundun, miksiku siti, musku, nayrubi, nyudilhi, baris, ṛuma, atina, syul, ṭukyu, wacinṭun, tamanɣt da tsskan tamagit n ku awank."
"The city may be looked on as a story, a pattern of relations between human groups, a production and distribution space, a field of physical force, a set of linked decisions, or an arena of conflict.","iɣy ad tettusksw tmdint nwis tga tallast, nɣ d yan wanya n izdayn n gr tgrawin tinfganin, nɣ d yat tasna n ufars d ubṭṭu, nɣ d igr n tzmrt takmamt, nɣ yat n trabbut n yinitn imunn, nɣ asrar n tiẓit."
"National censuses use a variety of definitions - invoking factors such as population, population density, number of dwellings, economic function, and infrastructure - to classify populations as urban.",da swurin isiḍinn inamurn yat trabbut n isnmal - g d ttubdarn imwuritn zun d imzdɣ d tnẓẓi n imzdaɣ d umḍan n imzdaɣ d twuri tadamsant d tiski tanadawt - i bṭṭu n imzdaɣ n wis gan iɣrmann.
"The mutual interdependence of town and country has one consequence so obvious that it is easily overlooked: at the global scale, cities are generally confined to areas capable of supporting a permanent agricultural population.","illa ɣur tsɣunt n gr tmdint d tgama yat n tyafut ibaynn mi nbaḍ ad tt nssitm zikk: g uswir amaḍlan, da ttilint tmdinin g wansiwn ibaḍn g wannal n imzdaɣ imkraz aha."
"As cities grew in complexity, the major civic institutions, from seats of government to religious buildings, would also come to dominate these points of convergence.","s urnu n urbbj n tmdinin, aɣuln hrfnt tmrsal tidslanin n tmdint xf izdayn sg isgiwar n tnbaḍt ar tuskiwin n usɣan."
Physical environment generally constrains the form in which a city is built.,da ikrrf usku n tmdint ku tikklt tagama.
And it may be set up for optimal defense given the surrounding landscape.,iɣy ad ittug win waray iddɣ as ttin imuɣlitn iɣaratn.
"This form could evolve from successive growth over a long time, with concentric traces of town walls and citadels marking older city boundaries.","iɣy ad tbuɣlu talɣa ad sg ubuɣlu azdayan xf tizi taxatart, s yili n iḍṛiẓn munnin d ufrag n tmdint d tɣrmatin igan iwtta n tmdint taqburt."
"In cities such as Moscow, this pattern is still clearly visible.","g yids n tmdinin zun d musku, isul waddad ittyinniy imkinna iga."
"Excavations in these areas have found the ruins of cities geared variously towards trade, politics, or religion.",ttyafant txntffutin g wansiwn n tmdinin g tla tsbbabt d tsrtit d usɣan.
China's planned cities were constructed according to sacred principles to act as celestial microcosms.,ttuskant tmdinin tiṣinitin tisɣiwas xf trsal tifuẓarin ad gin imdyan imẓyann n yignna.
"These sites appear planned in a highly regimented and stratified fashion, with a minimalistic grid of rooms for the workers and increasingly more elaborate housing available for higher classes.","ar ttyinniyn wansiwn ad s usɣiws nnsn n is dusn kigan, g llantkra n tmṣiyin timdhac n imswuritn, d tzduɣin fulkinin i tfrkiwin tinafllatin."
"In the following centuries, independent city-states of Greece, especially Athens, developed the polis, an association of male landowning citizens who collectively constituted the city.","g tsutiwin timḍfaṛ, gant twilayatin tisimanin g uyunan, lumn atina, yan usbuɣlu n tmsulta, igan yat n tzlɣa n wamun awtman ilan akal isskrn tamdint s tamunt nnsn."
"Under the authority of its empire, Rome transformed and founded many cities (coloniae), and with them brought its principles of urban architecture, design, and society.","ddaw tnbaḍt tambṛaṭuṛt nns, tsnfl ṛuma tssuds cigan n tmdinin (kulunya), g tsskr tasgda taɣrmant, d usɣiws d wamun."
The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru.,tskcm tɣrma nuṛt ciku attay n 30 wammas amzdaɣ adslan illan dɣi g wansa n nuṛt ciku g iẓẓlmḍ n wammas n biru n uftas.
"The locus of power in the West shifted to Constantinople and to the ascendant Islamic civilization with its major cities Baghdad, Cairo, and Córdoba.",idwl wansa n tdusi g iffus ɣr tquṭanṭint d tɣrma tanslmt s tmdinin nns tidslanin g bɣdad d qahiṛa d quṛṭuba.
"By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, some cities become powerful states, taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires.","g tsuwtiwin tis kṛaḍt d mraw d kkuẓt d mraw, dwlnt ka n tmdinin tiwankin dusnin, usint wansiwn illan ddaw tnbaḍt nnsnt nɣ skant timbṛaṭuṛin n yill tixatarin."
Western Europe's larger capitals (London and Paris) benefited from the growth of commerce following the emergence of an Atlantic trade.,ssbɣrnt tmanɣin n uṛubba n uɣlluy timqranin (lunḍun d baris) sg tnfalit n tsbbabt g tiski n tsbbabt n wantlantiṭ.
England led the way as London became the capital of a world empire and cities across the country grew in locations strategic for manufacturing.,tusy tanbaḍt n ubrid inglatiṛṛa sg ma ayd tga lunḍun tamanɣt tambṛaṭuṛt tmaḍlant buɣlunt tmdinin g tmazirt kullu g wansiwn istṛatijitn n tmguri.
"Entrepreneurial leadership became manifest through growth coalitions made up of builders, realtors, developers, the media, government actors such as mayors, and dominant corporations.","tdwl tnbaḍt g yigr n ussuds n isɣnutn sg tfidalitin tigmanin g llan imska d ismsaṛn, d imsnfaln, d ayt tɣmsa, d tsggwin tinbbaḍin zun d amaway d tmṣiṛin tixatarin."
"""The results were efforts at downtown revitalization; inner-city gentrification; the transformation of the CBD to advanced service employment; entertainment, museums, and cultural venues; the construction of sports stadiums and sport complexes; and waterfront development.""""""",““tiyafutin d tzmmar ttuganin i ussidr n wammas n tmdint; d uslwiɣ n ugnsu n tmdint; d usnfl n umssasa n wanaw abyuluji ɣr twuri tazwurant g yigr n twuriwin; d wurar d usalay d wansiwn idlsann; d tuski n inurir n tunnunt d igrawn n tunnunt; d usbuɣlu n udm n waman.””
"Until the 18th century, an equilibrium existed between the rural agricultural population and towns featuring markets and small-scale manufacturing.","awd tasuta tis 18, ikka tt nn umtawa gr imzdaɣ imkraz n tgama d tmdinin g llan igadazn d imgurann isnufal imẓẓyann."
The cultural appeal of cities also plays a role in attracting residents.,ar d ilddy kigan imzdaɣ altu uɣuri adlsan n tmdinin.
"Batam, Indonesia, Mogadishu, Somalia, Xiamen, China and Niamey, Niger, are considered among the world's fastest-growing cities, with annual growth rates of 5–8%.","tga batam, d indunisya, d mugadicu, d ssumal, d cyamn, d ṣṣin, d niyami, d nnijr, sg tmdinin ibuɣln zikk, ar nn ittawḍ watig n ubuɣu asggwsan digs sg 5–8%."
"The UN predicts an additional 2.5 billion citydwellers (and 300 million fewer countrydwellers) worldwide by 2050, with 90% of urban population expansion occurring in Asia and Africa.","dmant tmtta munnin ili n 2.5 mlyaṛ n ufgan ad irnu g imzdaɣ n tmdinin (d 300 mlyun n ufgan iffɣn imzdaɣ n tgama) g cigan n tsggwin n umaḍal g yiwḍ n 2050, s 90% n tixxitrt n tmdinin g asya d ifriqya."
"A deep gulf divides rich and poor in these cities, with usually contain a super-wealthy elite living in gated communities and large masses of people living in substandard housing with inadequate infrastructure and otherwise poor conditions.","ar bṭṭun imzdaɣ imyiwan d imzdaɣ imẓlaḍ g tmdinin ad, ar digs ttilint trubba timyiwanin cigan ar tettilint g wansiwn istin d trubba ggudinin n imzdaɣ ittidirn g tzduɣin dhcnin ar ɣursnt ittili usku anadaw idhcn d ukuyass amazdar."
"""Yet municipalities routinely enact sweeping by-laws directed at open ended (and ill-defined) offences such as loitering and obstruction, requiring permits for protests or requiring residents and homeowners to remove snow from the city's sidewalks.""""""","“waxxa da d ssufuɣnt tgrawin tiɣrmanin s yat n talɣa takuyasst izrfan ignsann i ibkkaḍn (mi ur llin iwtta n usnml) zun d atamallayt d urftil, nɣ d asutr n ibdditn nɣ d asutr sg imzad ukus n udf xf taddrwin d g yirawn n ubrid n tmdint.”””"
"These are provided more or less routinely, in a more or less equal fashion.","ar ttusnili s yan yimk akuyass, d tɣarasin imyaɣn ɛlayn."
"""These production oriented criteria often give rise to """"service deliver rules"""", regularized procedures for the delivery of services, which are attempts to codify the productivity goals of urban service bureaucracies.""","“ar d akkant tiyafutin ittawin s afars n ““ilgamn n tukki n twuriwin””, d yiggitn imadusn i tukki n twuriwin, d tirmitin i uzmmem n isuɣad n ufars i tburuqraṭit n twuriwin tiɣrmanin.”"
"""""""Robert L. Lineberry, """"Mandating Urban Equality: The Distribution of Municipal Public Services""""; in Hahn & Levine (1980).""","“““ṛubiṛt l. linibirri, ““tuggi n ungidda aɣrman: bṭṭu n twuriwin timatutin n tgrawt taɣrmant””, g han and lifin (1980).”"
"However, financing municipal services, as well as urban renewal and other development projects, is a perennial problem, which cities address through appeals to higher governments, arrangements with the private sector, and techniques such as privatization (selling services into the private sector), corporatization (formation of quasi-private municipally-owned corporations), and financialization (packaging city assets into tradable financial instruments and derivatives).","mɣar tlla tikki n iqariḍn i twuriwin n tgrawt taɣrmant, d isɣnutn n usmaynu aɣrman d isɣnutn yaḍn n tigmi, gan amukris asulan, ar ids ttnaɣnt tmdinin s isuturn i tnbaḍt tanafllat, d uswuddu d yigr amẓlay, d tetiqnitin zun d asẓly (azznz n twuriwin i yir amẓlay), d umsasa d tmṣiṛin (tuski n tmṣiṛin tazgnuẓlayin yakkan aqaṛiḍn i tgrawin tiɣrmanin), d ussẓṛf (aktur n tmdinin s wallaln d ma ay ittaɣn g iqariḍn iɣin ad ittusɣa ar ittuznza)."
"""The impact of globalization and the role of multinational corporations in local governments worldwide, has led to a shift in perspective on urban governance, away from the """"urban regime theory"""" in which a coalition of local interests functionally govern, toward a theory of outside economic control, widely associated in academics with the philosophy of neoliberalism.""","yuwi d usyafa s tmaḍlant d twuri n tmṣiṛin tigɣlanin g tnbaḍt tadɣrant g umaḍal kullu ɣr usnfl n usksw adblan aɣrman, s wuggug i ““tiẓiṛt n ugrra aɣrman”” g tbaḍ tfidiṛalit n tɣḍaf tidɣranin, ɣr tẓiṛt n tnbaḍt tadmsant tabṛṛant, izdin cigan g ikadimitn s tflsaft talibiṛalit tamaynut.””"
"Planning tools, beyond the original design of the city itself, include public capital investment in infrastructure and land-use controls such as zoning.","illa g wallaln n usɣiws, d isɣiws n tmdint s ixf nns, asnyuddu n udgar g iɣsan idslann d islgnn n uswuri n ikaln zun d bṭṭu n tmnaḍin."
"""Also available to cities in their implementation of planning objectives are municipal powers of zoning, subdivision control and the regulation of building, housing and sanitation principles.""""""","“imkinna ittukfa i tndinin f tigawt n isuɣad n usɣiws tinbaḍin n tgrawt taɣrmant i bṭṭu n wansiwn, d ḥṭṭu n wansiwn yaḍn, d ussuds n tuski d uzduɣ d wufiɣ adusan.”””"
"People living relatively close together may live, work, and play, in separate areas, and associate with different people, forming ethnic or lifestyle enclaves or, in areas of concentrated poverty, ghettoes.","da ttidirn mddn imsnmalan g wansiwn imsnmalan, ar swurin ar tturarn g wansiwn ibḍan, zdin d mddn yaḍn, ar d akkan titniyin g ukuyass n tudrt d wansiwn n uẓlaḍ."
"""Suburbs in the west, and, increasingly, gated communities and other forms of """"privatopia"""" around the world, allow local elites to self-segregate into secure and exclusive neighborhoods.""","“tisggwin n uɣlluy, ku tikklt ar ttxitirnt, tgrawin tidɣranin ifsrn d tlɣiwin yaḍn ““timẓlay”” g wansiwn n umaḍal kullu, ar ittufka i trubba tidɣranin uzrf n bṭṭu xf iɣrman n ufra.”"
"This outcast proletariat—perhaps 1.5 billion people today, 2.5 billion by 2030—is the fastest-growing and most novel social class on the planet.","tabṛuliṭarit ad tamẓluḍt—tɣy is d 1.5 mlyaṛ n ufgan ass ad, 2.5 mlyaṛ g 2030— tga tafrkt tanamunt ittarwn kigan ar tsnilfu xf yitri n wakal."
It is ontologically both similar and dissimilar to the historical agency described in the Communist Manifesto.,g tunṭulujit yaɣ nɣ ur yaɣ g tsnuuryt tamzruyant n usml anjmaw.
As hubs of trade cities have long been home to retail commerce and consumption through the interface of shopping.,sg ma ay d gan wammasn n tmdinin n tsbbabt gant awd sg zikk adɣar n tsbbabt d bṭṭu d tsmurt sg wudm n msɣiwt.
A thicker labor market allows for better skill matching between firms and individuals.,agadaz n twuri yiriwn da yakka i tmṣiṛin d ibaylaln ad fkin amyuf n ma ay d ɣursn.
"Cultural elites tend to live in cities, bound together by shared cultural capital, and themselves playing some role in governance.","zlɣnt trubba tidlsanin g tudrt n tmdint, izdin d ugrra adlsan imunn, ittggan altu s ixf nns anbbaḍ."
"""Greg Kerr & Jessica Oliver, """"Rethinking Place Identities"""", in Kavaratzis, Warnaby, & Ashworth (2015).""","“grig kir d djissika ulifr, ““talasa n uswngm g tmagitin n wansiwn””, g kafaratzis, warnabi, d acwurt (2015).”"
"Patriotic tourists visit Agra to see the Taj Mahal, or New York City to visit the World Trade Center.","da ttaggan imallayn inamurn agra ad inniyn taj maḥal, nɣ d tamdint n nyuyuṛk ad nn aggin xf wammas n tsbbabt tamaḍlant."
"Why do anonymous people—the poor, the underprivileged, the unconnected—frequently prefer life under miserable conditions in tenements to the healthy order and tranquility of small towns or the sanitary subdivisions of semirural developments?",maɣ allig da ttirin mddn id war ism —imẓlaḍ d imɣufa d id war azday—tudrt g wussan ad ixxxan d izdun xf ugrra adusan d ifsti g tmdinin timẓẓanin nɣ d ifṛḍiṣn i ibuɣlutn azgngamatn?
Those who came to live in them did so in order to participate and compete on any attainable level.,wi d iddan s tudrt digs sskrn aya xf wumu d uɣnas xf ugulu n uswir akkw matta ntta.
Sports also play a major role in city branding and local identity formation.,imkinna tla tunnunt yan udɣar adslan g usrrus n tmatarin n tsbbabt xf tmdinin d tigawt n tmagit tadɣrant.
"More importantly, there is also huge long term potential for both tourism and investment (Kasimati, 2003).","illa altu ma yufn d azizzl n tamallayt d ma ay mi tɣi (kasimati, 2003)."
"""War brought concentration of social leadership and political power in the hands of a weapons-bearing minority, abetted by a priesthood exercising sacred powers and possessing secret but valuable scientific and magical knowledge.""""""","“yuwi d imnɣi ili n tnbaḍt tanamunt d tnbaḍt tasrtant g ifassn n tdrsi ɣur llan imrign, tssbɣas tnbaḍt n ayt usɣan ilan tussna d tḥrga ɣur illa watig.”””"
"During World War II, national governments on occasion declared certain cities open, effectively surrendering them to an advancing enemy in order to avoid damage and bloodshed.","g unɣi amaḍlan wis sin, laɣant tnbaḍin tinamurin g ka n tikkal nwis unfnt kra n tmdinin, ttufkant i usngu far ard sbddin tanɣla n idammn."
"Such warfare, known as counterinsurgency, involves techniques of surveillance and psychological warfare as well as close combat, functionally extends modern urban crime prevention, which already uses concepts such as defensible space.","imnɣi ad, ittwassnn d wassaɣ n mgal n uɣwwɣ, digs tiɣarasin n uḥṭṭu d imnɣi uklisn d imnɣi s ummrig, ar digs ittugdal unɣa aɣrman amaynu, iswwurin irmmusn zun d asayrar d iriri ɣifs."
"Because of the higher barriers to entry, these networks have been classified as natural monopolies, meaning that economic logic favors control of each network by a single organization, public or private.","s umntil n tixxitrt n iwtta dat n ukccl, ttustaynt tratsiwin ad nwis gant akwacn igamann, aynna d yakkan nwis tra tdamsa yat n tmsmunt xf tratsa tamatut nɣ tuẓliyt."
"""Kath Wellman & Frederik Pretorius, """"Urban Infrastructure: Productivity, Project Evaluation, and Finance""""; in Wellman & Spiller (2012).""","“kat wilman d fridirik brituryus, ““tuski tanadawt taɣrmant: tafarst, d ussig n isɣnutn, d ussẓṛf””; g wilyam d sbilr (2012).”"
"Sanitation, necessary for good health in crowded conditions, requires water supply and waste management as well as individual hygiene.","ar ssuturnt tɣmrin tidusanin, ixssan i tdusi, tukki n waman d uswuddu n ifṛaṭn d tazdgi n ku yan."
"Modern urban life relies heavily on the energy transmitted through electricity for the operation of electric machines (from household appliances to industrial machines to now-ubiquitous electronic systems used in communications, business, and government) and for traffic lights, streetlights and indoor lighting.",ar tskuttu tudrt taɣrmant tatrart cigan xf tdusi izrrin s umẓẓaṛuṛ g uswuri n wallaln imẓẓaṛuṛn (sg wallaln n tgwmma ar allaln imgurann ar igrra imẓẓaṛuṛn ittuswurin wasa g ku ansa g amyawaḍ d twuruwun d tnbaḍt) d usillf abrdan d uidd n isakatn d usidd agnsan.
"""Tom Hart, """"Transport and the City""""; in Paddison (2001).""","“tum hart, ““ay d tmdint””; g baddisun (2001).”"
"Many big American cities still operate conventional public transit by rail, as exemplified by the ever-popular New York City Subway system.","kigan n tmdinin timirikanitin tixatarin sulnt da swurint s wassay amatu aqbur s ubrid n wuzzal, imkinna iga g mitṛu d uxbu n tmdint n nyuyuṛk ttirin mddn kigan aha."
"Anthropogenic buildings and waste, as well as cultivation in gardens, create physical and chemical environments which have no equivalents in wilderness, in some cases enabling exceptional biodiversity.","d tkrza g wurtan, d tigawt n tgama tafizikt d tkimawit ɣur ur illi umyaɣ, aynna d yakkan amyanaw abyuluji ustiy."
"From one perspective, cities are not ecologically sustainable due to their resource needs.","g yat tannayt, ur da ttilint tmdinin yan uzday akuluji s umntil n isuturn tt inngzan."
"Modern cities are known for creating their own microclimates, due to concrete, asphalt, and other artificial surfaces, which heat up in sunlight and channel rainwater into underground ducts.","ttuyassnent tmdinin titrarin s tigawt n unzwi adɣran ustiy, s umntil n wuzzal d ssima d tduliwin timguranin yaḍn, irqqan g usidd n tafuyt ar tettawy aman n unẓaṛ ɣr tbrdin n ddaw wakal."
Aerial particulates increase rainfall by 5–10%.,da ttrnunt tgmamin n yignna g tikki n unẓaṛ s 5–10%.
"For example, within the urban microclimate, less-vegetated poor neighborhoods bear more of the heat (but have fewer means of coping with it).","s umdya, g unzwi adɣran aɣrman, da ẓẓiḍiṛnt tmɣayin timẓlaḍ ittmɣayn s tdrsi kigan n unrɣi (maca ur ɣurs allaln s ttnaɣ ids)."
"Generally they are called Urban open space (although this word does not always mean green space), Green space, Urban greening.","s umata, da asn nttini tijumma timanafin tiɣmanin (waxxa ur tstiy tguri ad ɣr tjumma tizgzawin), d tjumma tizgzawin, d uzzgzw aɣrman."
"The study used data from almost 20,000 people in the UK.","tswuri tzrawt timufka n wattay n 20,000 n ufgan g tgldit imunn."
People who did not get at least two hours — even if they surpassed an hour per week — did not get the benefits.,iwrikn mi ɣur ur llint snat tzragin dayy — waxxa zrin tasragt g imalass — ur ttamẓn tiɣrad.
"""The study didn't count time spent in a person's own yard or garden as time in nature, but the majority of nature visits in the study took place within two miles from home. """"""","“ur tssiḍn tzrawt akud nna ittkka uwrik g usarag d wurti is iga akud n tgama, maka amata n tzrfin tigamatin g tzrawt ttugant g tuggut n sin id mil xf tgmmi.”””"
"""Saskia Sassen used the term """"global city"""" in her 1991 work, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo to refer to a city's power, status, and cosmopolitanism, rather than to its size.""","“saskya sassin tswuri taguri “tamdint tamaḍlant” g twuri nns asggwas n 1991, tamdint tamaḍlant: nyuyuṛk, lunḍun, ṭukyu taf ad tfk tamatart n tdusi n tmdint d udɣar nns d tmaḍlant nns, g udɣar n uksay nns.”"
"3 (1982): 319 Global cities form the capstone of the global hierarchy, exerting command and control through their economic and political influence.","3 (1982): 319 tmdinin timaḍlanin gant azrur akṛkuṛ amaḍlan, ar ttggant tanbaḍt sg yili admsan d usrtan nnsnt."
Critics of the notion point to the different realms of power and interchange.,da ttraran imzɣann n tidmi s yigran n tdusi d umrara amyanaw.
Multinational corporations and banks make their headquarters in global cities and conduct much of their business within this context.,da ttggant tmṣiṛin d id bank igdawmanitn ansa nnsn g tmdinin timaḍlanin ar swuddunt tiwuriwin nnsnt g tbrudt ad.
"""Nancy Duxbury & Sharon Jeannotte, """"Global Cultural Governance Policy""""; Chapter 21 in The Ashgate Research Companion to Planning and Culture; London: Ashgate, 2013.""","“nansi duksburi d caṛun jinut, ““tasrtit tanbbaḍt tadlsant amaḍlant””; abṭṭu 21 g irzzutn n acgat i usɣiws d tdlsa; lunḍun:cgat, 2013.”"
"""The Habitat I conference in 1976 adopted the """"Vancouver Declaration on Human Settlements"""" which identifies urban management as a fundamental aspect of development and establishes various principles for maintaining urban habitats.""",iskutt usqqim amzwaru g usggwas n 1976 ““alaɣi fankufr g usntl n tzduɣin tinfganin” yakkan tadblt taɣrmant iddɣ tga yat tsga n tsggwin n tigmi ar yakka aḥṭṭu n izduɣn iɣrmann.”
"In January 2002 the UN Commission on Human Settlements became an umbrella agency called the United Nations Human Settlements Programme or UN-Habitat, a member of the United Nations Development Group.","g yanayr 2002, tga tsqqamut n imzdaɣ tanfgant iḍfaṛn i tmtta munnin d tasnurayt tasdawit ilan assaɣ n wahil n tmtta munnin i imzdaɣ infgann nɣ d tazduɣt n tmtta munnin, tg agmam g ugraw n tmtta munnin n tgmi."
The Bank's policies have tended to focus on bolstering real estate markets through credit and technical assistance.,ddant tstanin n id bank s uṛmaḍ n tiṭṭ ɣr igadazn n ikaln s uṛṭṭal d yiws aẓuṛan.
"Cities figure prominently in traditional Western culture, appearing in the Bible in both evil and holy forms, symbolized by Babylon and Jerusalem.","lant tmdinin yan udɣar axatar g tdlsa n uɣlluy aqbur, ar ittyakaz uya sg udlis n yuc d wanawn akkw, ar yakka tamatart n babil d uṛcalim."
"Cities can be perceived in terms of extremes or opposites: at once liberating and oppressive, wealthy and poor, organized and chaotic.","iɣy ad nals asksw ɣr tmdinin sg usniɣs n tama: tilellitin d mgal g yat n tikklt, ijjiwnn d iẓlḍn, idusn d irbbjn."
This and other political ideologies strongly influence narratives and themes in discourse about cities.,tidyulujin adtisrtanin lant yan yiḍṛ s tdusi n wallasn d isntal g yinitn xf tmdinin.
Classical and medieval literature includes a genre of descriptiones which treat of city features and history.,tusy tskla taklasikit d uzmz anammas anaw n ifarisn isujjuyn amnad n tmdint d umzruy nns.
Other early cinematic representations of cities in the twentieth century generally depicted them as technologically efficient spaces with smoothly functioning systems of automobile transport.,fkan twlafin tisnimatin n zikk i tmdinin n tsuta tis simraw s umata n is gant yat tasniwin ilan tigawt g tetiknulujit d igrratn iswurin s wassay n thiritin.
A country is a distinct territorial body or political entity (i.e. a nation).,awank d agrra asgawan nɣ d tagzzumt tasrtant istin (igan tamtta).
It is not inherently sovereign.,tla tanbaḍt xf tgama nns.
"The largest country in the world by geographical area is Russia, while the most populous is China, followed by India, the United States, Indonesia, Pakistan and Brazil.","awank axatar g umaḍal g tasna tajɣraft tga rusya, maka ṣṣin ay d igan taxatart g umḍan n imzdaɣ, tḍfur tt hind d tmtta munnin d indunisya d bakistan d bṛazil."
"In many European countries the words are used for sub-divisions of the national territory, as in the German Bundesländer, as well as a less formal term for a sovereign state.","g kigan n tmizar tiṛubbiyin, da ttuswurint tguriwin i bṭṭu n ikaln inamurn, am ɣur bundslandr almani, d tguri tar tunṣibt i uwank ur ilin tanbaḍt kigan."
"""There is no universal agreement on the number of """"countries"""" in the world since a number of states have disputed sovereignty status.""",“ur illi umsasa amaḍlan xf umḍan n ““iwankn”” g umaḍal acku llan kigan n iwankn xf llan imnɣan d umukris n tnbaḍt.”
The degree of autonomy of non-sovereign countries varies widely.,tbḍa tskwflt n uzarug n tmura s umata.
The report classifies country development based on per capita gross national income (GNI).,ar istty unqqis tigmi n uwank xf umur n ku awrik g ukccum amatu n twank.
"The 2019 report recognizes only developed countries in North America, Europe, and Asia and the Pacific.",anqqis n 2019 da yakka asissn i iwankn ibuɣlan g amrika n iẓẓlmḍ d uṛubba d asya d uftas n ifsti.
"The World Bank defines its regions as East Asia and Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, Middle East and North Africa, North America, South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa.","issn ubank agraɣlan ansiwn nns nwis gan anqqr n asya d uftas n ifsti, d uṛubba d asya tanammast, d amtika talatinit d tmnaḍt n yilel akaraybi, d unqqr anammas d iẓẓlmḍ n ifriqya, d amrika n iẓẓlmḍ, d iffus n asya d afriqya n iffus n tniri."
"Exploration is the act of searching for the purpose of discovery of information or resources, especially in the context of geography or space, rather than research and development that is usually not centred on earth sciences or astronomy.","ifi iga yat tmggit n urzzu xf tifi n inɣmisn d isugam, lumn g tjɣraft d usayrar, g udɣar n urzzu d usbuɣlu ur ittilin g tussniwin n wakal d tin tṣṭṛunumt."
Only the one done by emperor Nero seemed to be a preparative for the conquest of Ethiopia or Nubia: in 62 AD two legionaries explored the sources of the Nile river.,"ay nna iga umbṛaṭuṛ niṛun dayy iga am is d assujd i usddurry n ityubya d nubya: g usggwas n 62 ffir n tlalit, ufan sin n irubba azurz n wasif n nil."
"The Romans also organized several explorations into Northern Europe, and explored as far as China in Asia.","ssudsn ṛṛuman altu kigan n yifitn g iẓẓlmḍ n uṛubba, afin ṣṣin g asya."
100 AD-166 AD Romano-Chinese relations begin.,100 - 166 ffir n tlalit sntant tzdayin tiṛimanitin d tṣinitin.
"The key invention to their exploration was the outrigger canoe, which provided a swift and stable platform for carrying goods and people.",iga uɣrrabu tasarut n tifi nnsn ntta d allal adslan asn yakkan asddrf d wansa n yidy n talzazin d mddn.
2011 studies at Wairau Bar in New Zealand show a high probability that one origin was Ruahine Island in the Society Islands.,da ittusniɣis g tzrawin n 2011 g wayru baṛ g nyuzilanda nwis illa yan yiɣiy is gan izuṛan n ayt tgzirt n rwahin g tgzirin tinamunin.
There are cultural and language similarities between Cook Islanders and New Zealand Maori.,llan wudmawn ittmyaɣn idlsann d isnilsn ing izdaɣ n tgzirin kuk d nyuzilanda mawri.
"During 1328–1333, he sailed along the South China Sea and visited many places in Southeast Asia and reached as far as South Asia, landing in Sri Lanka and India, and he even went to Australia.","ingr usggwas n 1328 d 1333, immudda xf taɣzi n yilel n ṣṣin n iffus yagg wahli n wansiwn g iffus n unqqr n asya igulu nn awd iffus n asya, iggz g irilanka d hind, iddu awd ɣr ustṛalya."
"Portugal and Spain dominated the first stages of exploration, while other European nations followed, such as England, Netherlands, and France.","tsstwa burtuɣal d isbanya xf tfrkiwin timzwura n twafitin, ḍfṛn tnt iwankn iṛubbitn yaḍn zun d inglatiṛṛa d hulanḍa d fṛansa."
The extreme conditions in the deep sea require elaborate methods and technologies to endure them.,da ssuturnt tfadiwin qsḥnin n taɛumt n yilel d tɣarasin qsḥnin i iriri nnsnt.
"An administrative subdivision, instead, is understood to be a division of a state proper.","bṭṭu adblan, g udɣar nns, da ittyakaz s bṭṭu n uwank s tɣarast tamddadt."
The dependent territories that currently remain in the world today generally maintain a very high degree of political autonomy.,timnaḍin iḍfaṛn isuln awd dɣi g umaḍal ɣur illa wan uskwfl anaflla n uzarug asrtan.
"Cook Islands' status is considered to be equivalent to independence for international law purposes, and the country exercises full sovereignty over its internal and external affairs.","iga waddad n tgzirin n kuk am uzarug i iswitn n usaḍuf agraɣlan, ar ittbaḍ uwank g tɣawsiwin nns n ugnsu ula tin bṛṛa."
"Under the terms of the free association agreement, however, New Zealand retains some responsibility for the foreign relations and defence of Niue.","s tfadiwin n umsasa n uzday ilelli, tṭṭf nyuzilanda s imik n tnbaḍt d izdayn ibṛrann d urar xf niwi."
"This list is generally limited to entities that are either subject to an international treaty on their status, uninhabited, or have a unique level of autonomy and are largely self-governing in matters other than international affairs.","iqqima wumuɣ ad day g tzduɣin iḍfaṛn i imsasatn igraɣlann, nɣ ɣurs kra n uzarug animan d tnbaḍt tasimant ar yids n tɣawsiwin yaḍn zun d tinbaḍin tigraɣlanin."
"They are independently administrated jurisdictions, although the British Government is solely responsible for defense and international representation and has ultimate responsibility for ensuring good government.","d tinbaḍin tiṣaḍufin ittettin s talɣa tanimant, waxxa tbaḍ tnbaḍt tabṛiṭanit g uḥuz d uxfawal agraɣlan tbaḍ altu g uḥṭṭu n tnbaḍt tuɣdimt."
No crown dependency has representation in the U.K. Parliament.,ur illi ugnses n uḍfuṛ n usni g ubṛlaman n tgldit inunn.
New Zealand and its dependencies share the same governor-general and constitute one monarchic realm.,tmun nyuzilanda d inḍfuṛn nns g yan unbbaḍ amatu tg yat n tgldit.
The mutually negotiated Covenant to Establish a Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) in Political Union with the United States was approved in 1976.,ittumsasa xf warra i tskrawt n kumunwiltn tgzirin n maryana (CNMI) g tamunt tasrtant g twilayatin munnin g usggwas n 1976.
"This is a constant source of ambiguity and confusion when trying to define, understand, and explain Puerto Rico's political relationship with the United States.",aya d azuzr n urbbj g yirm n usnml d urmas d ussfru n uzday asrtan n gr burturuku d twulayatin munnin.
"""However, the status of its """"constituent countries"""" in the Caribbean (Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten) can be considered akin to dependencies or """"associated non-independent states.""""""","“mɣar, nɣy ad nini ““iwankn digs illan”” g tmnaḍt n ilel n kaṛaybi (uṛubba, d kuṛasaw, d sant martin) nmalan ɣr imḍfuṛn nɣ ““iwankn id war azarug izdin.”””"
"Borders are geographic boundaries, imposed either by geographic features such as oceans, or by arbitrary groupings of political entities such as governments, sovereign states, federated states, and other subnational entities.",iwtta d iwtta ijɣṛfn ittugan s tmitar tijɣrafitin zun d igarawn nɣ d igrwn isrtann d tnbaḍin d iwankn id bu tnbaḍin d iwankn ifidiṛalitn d irubba id war tanamurt yaḍn.
"Most external borders are partially or fully controlled, and may be crossed legally only at designated border checkpoints and border zones may be controlled.","da ittubaḍ g umata n iwtta ibṛṛann s umata nɣ s tdrsi, ar digs ittili uzrruy s talɣa taẓṛfant nɣ ansiwn n usnubbc n iwtta ar ittubaḍ g wansiwn n iwtta."
"Most countries have some form of border control to regulate or limit the movement of people, animals, and goods into and out of the country.",lant kigan n iwankn yat talɣa n ḥṭṭu n iwtta i ussuds d ukraf n umussu n mddn d imudar agnsu d bṛṛa n tmazirt.
To stay or work within a country's borders aliens (foreign persons) may need special immigration documents or permits; but possession of such documents does not guarantee that the person should be allowed to cross the border.,"i iɣimi nɣ uswuri agnsu n iwtta n uwank, iɣy ad ittr ubṛṛan (mddn ayt bṛṛa) tintamin nɣ arratn imẓlay s tzwagt; maka ili n tntamin ad ur da as takka i ufgan azray g iwtta."
Most countries prohibit carrying illegal drugs or endangered animals across their borders.,ittwagdl g umata n iwankn yisy n isduhdutn igdl uṣaḍuf nɣ imudar ikkan attay i ufukku g iwtta nnsn.
"In places where smuggling, migration, and infiltration are a problem, many countries fortify borders with fences and barriers, and institute formal border control procedures.","g idɣarn g illa kigan usmutty d tzwagt da ttggan iwalkn afrag n iwtta s isliwn nɣ s wuzzal, ar digs ttilint kigan n tfrkiwin tunṣibin i ḥṭṭu n iwtta."
This is common in countries within the European Schengen Area and on rural sections of the Canada–United States border.,askkin ad iggudy g tmizar n ugnsu cingn n uṛubba d g igzzumn n tgama n iwtta n gr kanada d twilayatin munnin.
Rivers: some political borders have been formalized along natural borders formed by rivers.,isaffn: ittufka wudm unṣib i kra n iwtta isrtann xf taɣzi n tgama sskrn isaffn.
"In the Hebrew Bible, Moses defined the middle of the river Arnon as the border between Moab and the Israelite tribes settling east of the Jordan.","g udlis n wudayn, iga musa asif n aṛnun d iwtta n gr muwab d tqbilin tisrayilin izdɣn g unqqr n wasif n urdun."
"Examples are Lake Tanganyika, with the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia on its west shore and Tanzania and Burundi on the east; and the Great Lakes which form a substantial part of the border between Canada and the United States.","s imdyatn aglmam tanganyika, d tgduda kungu tadimuqraṭit d zambya d uftas nns n uɣlluy d tanzanya d buṛundi d yan ugzzum axatar n iwtta n gr kanada d twilayatin munnin."
"Mountain ranges: Many nations have their political borders defined along mountain ranges, often along a drainage divide.","asrraru n idurar: ɣur kigan n iwankn iwtta isrtann xf taɣzi n usrraru n idurar, s umata xf taɣzi n dinna s uwin idurar aman."
One example is the defensive forest created by China's Song Dynasty in the eleventh century.,yan umdya xf uya iga t n is tga tgama n waray tska twacunt n sung taṣinit g tsuta tis simraw d yan.
"For instance, the boundary between East and West Germany is no longer an international boundary, but it can still be seen because of historical markers on the landscape, and it is still a cultural and economic division in Germany.","s umdya, ur yad gin iwtta n gr almanya n unqqr d almanya d uɣlluy awtta agraɣlan, maca isul iɣy ad t ninny s umntil n tmatarin tinmzruyin g wudm n tgama, tsal tbḍa g tdlsa d tdamsa g almanya."
"Maritime borders exist in the context of territorial waters, contiguous zones, and exclusive economic zones; however, the terminology does not encompass lake or river boundaries, which are considered within the context of land boundaries.","llan iwtta n yilel g waman inmnaḍn d wansiwn idamsann; waxxa ur kcimn digs irmmusn n iwtta n uglmam d isaffn, nna illan g iwtta n wakal."
Airspace extends 12 nautical miles from the coast of a country and it holds responsibility for protecting its own airspace unless under NATO peacetime protection.,g yigr n usyrar digs 12 mil g yilel g uftas n uwank ɣifs aḥṭṭu n usayrar nns mk ur illi ddaw ḥṭṭu n nnatu g wakud n ufra.
"However, there is a general agreement of vertical airspace ending at the point of the Kármán line.",illa umsasa amatu xf usayrar ibddan ar ittfukku g tnqqiḍt n uzgigi n karman.
Overall border regulations are placed by national and local governments and can vary depending on nation and current political or economic conditions.,da ttugan wumuɣn n iwtta imatutn s ufus n tnbaḍin tinamurin d tdɣarin ɣint ad bḍunt xf uwank d tinditin tisrtanin nɣ d tidamsatin.
Working across borders – Harnessing the potential of cross-border activities to improve livelihood security in the Horn of Africa drylands .,tawuri xf iwtta – tikki n tilal xf iwtta i usɣudu n tudrt g ikaln n taɣart g yisk n ifriqya.
Human economic traffic across borders (apart from kidnapping) may involve mass commuting between workplaces and residential settlements.,iɣy ad yili umussu n tsbbabt tadmsant tanfgant xf iwtta (ur igin aɣbbr) g umuddu amatu ingr wansiwn n twuri d tzduɣin.
"It can enable and stop movement, across as well as along borders.",tlla tzmrt ad ittyajj nɣ ittusbdd umussu g iwtta nɣ ɣifsn.
Many cross-border regions are also active in encouraging intercultural communication and dialogue as well as cross-border economic development strategies.,da swurin kigan n tmnaḍin izrrin g iwtta g usbɣs n umyawaḍ ingr tdlsiwin d umsawal d tstṛatijitin n tigmi tadamsant xf iwtta.
"Since its conception in the mid-80's, this artistic practice has assisted in the development of questions surrounding homeland, borders, surveillance, identity, race, ethnicity, and national origin(s).","sg wufuɣ nns g uzgn n isggwasn 80 itamrawn, uwsnt tɣarsin tinaẓuṛin g usbuɣlu n isqsitn istin s wamur, d iwtta, d uḥṭṭu, d tmagit, d uẓuṛ, d tetniyt, d uẓuṛ nɣ iẓuṛan inamurn."
"Borders can include but are not limited to language, culture, social and economic class, religion, and national identity.","tkcm g iwtta, s umdya, tutlayt d tdlsa d tfrkt tanamunt d tdamsant d usɣan d tmagit tanamurt."
"""These artists are often """"border crossers"""" themselves.""",“inaẓuṛn ad kigan n tikkal ayd gan ““inabbayn n iwtta”” s ixfawn nnsn.”
"In general, a rural area or a countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities.","s talɣa tamatut, tamnaḍt n tgama nɣ tagama tga yat n tmnaḍt tanjɣraft illan bṛṛa n tgrawin tiɣrmanin d tmdinin."
Typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements.,timnaḍin n tgama timdyatin mi ɣur tanẓẓi n imzdaɣ idrusn d tzduɣin timẓẓyanin.
Predominantly urban regions have less than 15 percent of their population living in a rural community.,timnaḍin ittyassnn s talɣa taɣrmant da digs ttidirn wattay n 15 g tmiḍi n imzdaɣ nns g tgama.
"Rural northern regions are predominantly rural census divisions that are found either entirely or mostly above the following lines of parallel in each province: Newfoundland and Labrador, 50th; Quebec 54th; Ontario, 54th; Manitoba, 53rd; Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia, 54th.","timnaḍin n tgama n iẓẓlmḍ gant tigzzumin n tgama kullu nɣ s umata llant xf izgign n tmnaḍin n : nyufawnland d labradur, tis 50; kibik tis 54; untaryu, tis 54; manituba, tis 53; saskatciwan, albirta d kulumbya tabṛiṭanit, tis 54."
"The U.S. Census Bureau, the USDA's Economic Research Service, and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) have come together to help define rural areas.","imun usira n usiḍn amirikani, d uswuri n irzzutn idamsann g tmawast n tkrza tamirikanit, d usira n tdblt d iqaṛiḍn (OMB) maṛṛa i yiws xf yifi n tmnaḍin n tgama."
"The 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107–171, Sec.","tafaturt n umkraz i usggwas n 2002 (P.L. 107–171, Sec."
"""According to the handbook, Definitions of Rural: A Handbook for Health Policy Makers and Researchers, """"Residents of metropolitan counties are generally thought to have easy access to the relatively concentrated health services of the county's central areas.""","s tumayt n tdlist, isnmal n tgama: tadlist n imgtn n tsrtitin tidusanin d imrzutn, ““imzdaɣ n tgrawin tiɣrmanin ɣursn s umata tazmrt n yiwḍ ɣr twuriwin tidusanin iggudin g tmnaḍin tinammasin n tgrawt.”"
"""This became the Goldsmith Modification definition of rural. """"""",“iga usnml ad ffir asnfl n guldsmit i urmmus n tgama.”””
"""President Emmanuel Macron government launched an action plan in 2019 in favour for rural areas named """"Agenda Rural"""".""",“tfka tnbaḍt n unssixf imanwil makṛun asɣiws n twuri g usggwas n 2019 i tmnaḍin n tgama mi ittufka wassaɣ n ““ajinda n tgama””.”
In Scotland a different definition of rural is used.,"g skutlanda, da ittuswuri usnml yaḍn i tgama."
"RBI defines rural areas as those areas with a population of less than 49,000 (tier -3 to tier-6 cities).",ifka RBI asnml i tmnaḍin n tgama is gant timnaḍin g izdɣ ddaw n 49000 (sg uswir n -3 ar timdinin n uswir wis 6).
Rural areas in Pakistan that are near cities are considered as suburban areas or suburbs.,gant tmnaḍin n tgama g bakistan tid inmalan timdinin tidawɣrmanin nɣ d tidawɣrm.
"Suburbs might have their own political or legal jurisdiction, especially in the United States, but this is not always the case, especially in the United Kingdom where most suburbs are located within the administrative boundaries of cities.","iɣy ad yili ɣur twnnaḍ watig nnsnt asrtan nɣ d azrfan, lumn g twilayatin munnin, maka ur imk i aha, lumn g tgldit imunn g llant twnnaḍ agnsu n iwtta idblann i tmdinin."
"In others, such as Morocco, France, and much of the United States, many suburbs remain separate municipalities or are governed locally as part of a larger metropolitan area such as a county, district or borough.","g tiyyaḍ zun d amuṛakuc d fṛansa d yan wussif axatar g twilayatin munnin, gant kigan n twnnaḍ tigrawin tiɣrmanin istin as ssudunt agnsu n tmnaḍt taɣrmant zun d tagrawt."
"The terms inner suburb and outer suburb are used to differentiate between the higher-density areas in proximity to the city centre (which would not be referred to as 'suburbs' in most other countries), and the lower-density suburbs on the outskirts of the urban area.","da nswuri irmmusn tawnnaḍt n ugnsu d twnnaḍt n bṛṛa i wad nbḍu gr tmnaḍin g tlla tanẓẓi taxatart tama n wammas n tmdint (mi ɣur assaɣ n “tawnnaḍt” g kigan n tmizar yaḍn), d twnnaḍ mi ɣur tanẓẓi idrusn g twnnaḍ n wansa aɣrman."
"In New Zealand, most suburbs are not legally defined, which can lead to confusion as to where they may begin and end.","g nyuzilanda, ur ttusnmln kigan n wansiwn n twnnaḍt s talɣa tazrfant, aynna d yakkan arbbj g wansa g tssnu d wansa g tettfukku."
The word suburbani was first employed by the Roman statesman Cicero in reference to the large villas and estates built by the wealthy patricians of Rome on the city's outskirts.,ittuswura yirm adawɣrman tikklt tamzwarut s yils n urgaz n uwank aṛumani cicṛun g usskn n tfillatin d ikaln ixatarn skan iristuqṛaṭitn ijjiwnn g ṛuma tama n tmdint.
"By the mid-19th century, the first major suburban areas were springing up around London as the city (then the largest in the world) became more overcrowded and unsanitary.","g yuwḍ n wammas n tsuta tis 19, ffɣnt d tmnaḍin n twnnaḍt tidslanin ttint i lundun allig tga tmdint (tamzwarut g tixxitrt kud ann) tktar ula tga tadusant."
The line reached Harrow in 1880.,igula nn uzgigi ɣr harruw g usggwas n 1880.
"""The Met's marketing department coined the term """"Metro-land"""" in 1915 when the Guide to the Extension Line became the Metro-land guide, priced at 1d.""","iska ugzzum n usgdz g mit armmus n ““mitruland”” g usggwas n 1915 aynna yaɣul unmmal n uzgig n usssiwḍ iga t mitruland, s 1 wass.”"
"""In part, this was a response to the shocking lack of fitness amongst many recruits during World War One, attributed to poor living conditions; a belief summed up in a housing poster of the period """"you cannot expect to get an A1 population out of C3 homes"""" – referring to military fitness classifications of the period.""","ig uya tamrarut xf unngzu axatar g tdusi illan g isrdasn g imnɣi amaḍlan amzwaru, s umntil n waddad n tudrt nnsn, ittyagl s uzgzl g wusliɣ n imzdaɣ g tizi ““ur ttdmud ufuɣ n imzdaɣ sg tfrkt A1 sg taddurin C3”” –s wuɣul ɣr bṭṭu n tdusi n isrdasn n tizi ann.”"
"The Report also legislated on the required, minimum standards necessary for further suburban construction; this included regulation on the maximum housing density and their arrangement and it even made recommendations on the ideal number of bedrooms and other rooms per house.","imkinna d iffɣ unqqis kigan n islgan isawaln xf tmitar ixssan iciln i urnu n tiski n tmnaḍin; g illa usuds umudrus n tnẓẓi n imzdaɣ d usuds nnsn, ifk altu inaḍn xf umḍan n tmṣiṛin n unuddm d tmṣiṛin yaḍn n ku tigmmi."
Within just a decade suburbs dramatically increased in size.,"g mrawt n isggwasn g uzmz day, trna s talɣa taxatart twnnaḍt g tasna."
Levittown developed as a major prototype of mass-produced housing.,ittusbuɣla lifitawn ad ig amdya amzwaru adslan i tzduɣt ittufarsn s tmamkt taxatart.
"Shopping for different goods and services in one central location without having to travel to multiple locations, helped to keep shopping centers a component of these newly designed suburbs which were booming in population.","yuws asgdz g yili n ma ay d ittusɣan d twuriwin s wanawn nnsnt g yan wansa anammas bla amuddu ɣr wansiwn iggudin, ad gin wammasn n usgdz yan sg ifrdisn n tmnaḍin mi imk day llanin tid g ggudin imzdaɣ."
"The Highway Act of 1956 helped to fund the building of 64,000 kilometers across the nation by having $26 thousand-million to use, which helped to link many more to these shopping centers with ease.","yuws i uslgn n ubrid asddraf g usggwas n 1956 g tikki n iqariḍn i tiski n 64,000 n ikilumitṛn xf tmazirt s uswurii n 26 n yifḍn n id mlyun dulaṛ, aynna d yuwsn i uzday akd wammasn n usgdz ad tsddrf."
Some suburbs had developed around large cities where there was rail transportation to the jobs downtown.,yits n tmnaḍin ittin i tmdinin tixatarin illa ɣursnt wassay n ubrid n wuzzal ar swurin imzdaɣ nnsnt g wammas n tmdint.
The product was a great housing boom.,iga ufars yat tsufɣt n tzduɣt taxatrt.
"With 16 million eligible veterans, the opportunity to buy a house was suddenly at hand.","s yili n 16 mlyun n isrdasn iqburn, tga msɣiwt n tgmmi yat tɣawsa irxan cigan."
"Developers purchased empty land just outside the city, installed tract houses based on a handful of designs, and provided streets and utilities, or local public officials race to build schools.","sɣan insbuɣla akal yuran bṛṛa n tmdint, ssudsn digs tigwmma iskan xf imik n wahiln, sskrn isuka d tɣmrin nns, ar ttnaɣn d tiski n tinmal."
Veterans could get one with a much lower down payment.,ɣin isrdasn iqburn ad ilin yat g yat tikklt.
"The growth of the suburbs was facilitated by the development of zoning laws, redlining and numerous innovations in transport.","ittushwn ubuɣlu n tmnaḍin ittin i tmdint s usbuɣlu n islgan ibṭṭun ansiwn, ar ttalsn i usɣiws n kigan n twafitin g yigr n wassay."
African-Americans and other people of color largely remained concentrated within decaying cores of urban poverty.,qqiman imirikanitn n ifriqya d wiyyaḍ ikwlan s umata g wansiwn iktarn s uẓlaḍ aɣrman.
"After World War II, availability of FHA loans stimulated a housing boom in American suburbs.","ffir imnɣi amaḍlan wis sin, iḥuz uṛṭṭal n tdblt n uuzduɣ tafidiṛalit yat tiggidit n taddrwin g tmiwa timirikanitin."
Economic growth in the United States encouraged the suburbanization of American cities that required massive investments for the new infrastructure and homes.,isbɣs ubuɣlu adamsan g twilayatin munnin tigawt n tmiwa n tmdinin issuturn azizzl axatar d usku udmkal amaynu n taddrwin.
"""An alternative strategy is the deliberate design of """"new towns"""" and the protection of green belts around cities.""",“tastṛatijit tamaynut tga tt asmhhl n ““tmdinin timaynutin”” d ḥṭṭu n tstawin tizgzawin ittin i tmdinin.”
Federal subsidies for suburban development accelerated this process as did the practice of redlining by banks and other lending institutions.,yuwi d wannal afidiṛali i tigmi n tmiwa asddrf n tmggit imkinna tsskr tlusi n usɣiws n id bank d tmrsal n uṛṭṭal yaḍn.
"Virginia Beach is now the largest city in all of Virginia, having long since exceeded the population of its neighboring primary city, Norfolk.","tga firjinya bitc tamdint taxatart akkw g twilayat n firjinya kullutt, allig tzri tamdint illan tama nns nurfulk g umḍan n imzdaɣ."
"A greater percentage of whites (both non-Hispanic and, in some areas, Hispanic) and lesser percentage of citizens of other ethnic groups than in urban areas.","yan umḍan g tmiḍi n imllaln (ur igin isbanitn, d kra n wansiwn sg uẓuṛ asbani) d yan umḍan g tmiḍi n imzdaɣ n trubba sg iẓuṛan yaḍn s usmzazal d wansiwn iɣrmann."
"Compared to rural areas, suburbs usually have greater population density, higher standards of living, more complex road systems, more franchised stores and restaurants, and less farmland and wildlife.","s umzazal d wansiwn n tgama, s umata da tettili tanẓẓi taxatart n imzdaɣ g tmiwa n tmdint, d iswirn n tudrt inafllatn, d igrratn n ibrdan iggudin, d wansiwn n tsbbabt d isuccn yufn, d ikaln n tkrza d tudrt n tgama idrusn."
"""However, of this metropolitan population, in 2001 nearly half lived in low-density neighborhoods, with only one in five living in a typical """"urban"""" neighborhood.""","“ mɣar, sg imzdaɣ ad iɣrmann, g usggwas n 2001, ddrn wuga n uzgn digsn g iɣaramn g tdrus tnẓẓi, yan day sg smmus ayd ittidirn g ““uɣaram””anawan.”"
"Throughout Canada, there are comprehensive plans in place to curb sprawl.","g tsggwin maṛṛa n kanada, llant tɣarasin n usbdd n usgidy n tzduɣin."
"The majority of recent population growth in Canada's three largest metropolitan areas (Greater Toronto, Greater Montréal, and Greater Vancouver) has occurred in non-core municipalities.",iṣṛa umata n ubuɣlu n imzdaɣ amggaru g kṛaḍ wansiwn iɣrmann g kanada (turuntu taxatart d muntiryal taxatart d fankufr taxatart) g tgrawin tiɣrmanin ur igin tidslanin.
This is due to annexation and large geographic footprint within the city borders.,aya s umntil n ukccum ajɣrafi axatar g iwtta n ugnsu n tmdint.
"In the 2016 census, the City of Calgary had a population of 1,239,220, whereas the Calgary Metropolitan Area had a population of 1,392,609, indicating the vast majority of people in the Calgary CMA lived within the city limits.","g usiḍn n 2016, ilkm nn umḍan n imzdaɣ nn tmdint kalgari 1,239,220 n umzdaɣ, ilin g wansa aɣman nns 1,392,609 n umzdaɣ, aynna d yakkan nwis zdɣn mddn n kalgari CMA s umata g ugnsu n iwtta n tmdint."
"In the UK, the government is seeking to impose minimum densities on newly approved housing schemes in parts of South East England.","g tgldit imunn, da ttnaɣ tnbaḍt ad tajj awttu n tnẓẓi n imzdaɣ g isɣiwas n uzdduɣ atrar g igzzumn n iffus n unqqr n inglatiṛṛa."
"Suburbs can be found in Guadalajara, Mexico City, Monterrey, and most major cities.","tzmr tifi n twnnaḍin g gudalaxara, d miksiku siti, d muntirri, d kigan n tmdinin tixatarin."
"""As the growth of middle-class and upper-class suburbs increased, low-class squatter areas have increased, most notably """"lost cities"""" in Mexico, campamentos in Chile, barriadas in Peru, villa miserias in Argentina, asentamientos in Guatemala and favelas of Brazil.""","“s tigmi n tmiwa n tfrkt tanammast d tnafllat, zaydnt tmnaṭin n urbbj g tfrkt tamazdart, lumn “timdinin zlanin” g miksik, d kambamintus g tcili, d baryada g biru, tfillatin timẓlaḍ g aṛjuntin, d asintamyintus g gwatimalaya d iɣaramn imẓlaḍ g bṛazil.”"
"In an illustrative case of South Africa, RDP housing has been built.","g waddad n assfraw i ifriqya n iffus, ittuska kigan n tzduɣin RDP."
"In certain areas such as Klang, Subang Jaya and Petaling Jaya, suburbs form the core of these places.","g tmnaḍin zun d klang d subang jaya d ḥetalin jaya, gant tidawɣrmanin ammas n tmnaḍin ad."
"In the suburban system, most trips from one component to another component requires that cars enter a collector road, no matter how short or long the distance is.","g ugrra n tmiwa, da issutur umata n imuddutn ad kcmt thiritin abrid n usmun, swa imẓẓiy ubrid nɣ iɣzzif."
"If a traffic crash occurs on a collector road, or if road construction inhibits the flow, then the entire road system may be rendered useless until the blockage is cleared.","g waddad n ungas g ubrid angraw, nɣ ig da ittusɣudu ubrid, da ittuɣul ugrra n ubrid war tawuri ard ittyikks wuɣun."
This encourages car trips even for distances as low as several hundreds of yards or meters (which may have become up to several miles or kilometers due to the road network).,da isbɣas uya xf tigawt n imuddutn s thirit g ustum n wattay n tmiḍi n yaṛdat nɣ id mitṛ (iɣin ad nn igulu awd yids n id mil nɣ id kilumitṛ s umntil n uẓṭṭa n ibrdan).
"Taken together, these two groups of taxpayers represent a largely untapped source of potential revenue that cities may begin to target more aggressively, particularly if they're struggling.","g munent, gant snat trubba ad n winna yakkan izmaz yan uɣbalu ur ittuswurin s yat tɣarast g lan tayri mi tɣy tmdint ad tt tg d awttas nns, numal ig ɣnsnt."
"French songs like La Zone by Fréhel (1933), Aux quatre coins de la banlieue by Damia (1936), Ma banlieue by Reda Caire (1937), or Banlieue by Robert Lamoureux (1953), evoke the suburbs of Paris explicitly since the 1930s.","izlan ifṛansisn zun d adɣar n fṛihl (1933), g kkuẓ n idɣarn n tgama n damya (1936), tagama inu n ṛiḍa kayr (1937), nɣ tagama n lṛubiṛt lamuṛyu (1953),da ttubdarnt g tsggwin n baris kigan sg isggwasn ikṛamrawn 1930."
"French cinema was although soon interested in urban changes in the suburbs, with such movies as Mon oncle by Jacques Tati (1958), L'Amour existe by Maurice Pialat (1961) or Two or Three Things I Know About Her by Jean-Luc Godard (1967).","tffulls ssinima tafṛansist s isnfaln iɣrman ittaɣn g tmiwa, g ifilmn zun d ɛmmi n jak tati (1958), tlla tayri n muris byalat (1961) nɣ sin nɣ kṛaḍ iskkinn ɣifs ssnɣ n jun luk gudar (1967)."
"""The 1962 song """"Little Boxes"""" by Malvina Reynolds lampoons the development of suburbia and its perceived bourgeois and conformist values, while the 1982 song Subdivisions by the Canadian band Rush also discusses suburbia, as does Rockin' the Suburbs by Ben Folds.""","“tizlit n usggwas n 1962 ““timkuẓin timẓẓyanin”” n malfina rinaldz da ttḍṣa gubuɣlu n tmnaḍin n tmdinin d watig n tbuṛjwazit, ar tsmrara awal tzlit n usggwas n 1982 tga trabbut takanadit ṛac, imkinnaɣ awd i ṛukin n tmiwa n tmdint iga bin fuldz.”"
Over the Hedge is a syndicated comic strip written and drawn by Michael Fry and T. Lewis.,ɣf yir iga yan iniẓṛi isḍṣan amgraw yara issunɣ maykl fray d t. lwis.
"British television series such as The Good Life, Butterflies and The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin have depicted suburbia as well-manicured but relentlessly boring, and its residents as either overly conforming or prone to going stir crazy.","isdditn n tinẓṛi tabṛiṭanit zun d tudrt iɣudan d ibrbissitn d taḍuṛi d ily n rijinald biran ttuswlfnt g tmiwa n tmdint nwis zddign ntta ẓẓayn ɣf wulawn, imzdaɣ nnsn msasan kigan nɣ tn isly ka."
"A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet but smaller than a town (although the word is often used to describe both hamlets and smaller towns), with a population typically ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand.","tagama tga yat n tzduɣt tanfgant imunn nɣ n uɣrf, yugrn iɣrm tmẓiy ɣf tgrawt taɣrmant (waxxa tsman tguri gr unamk n iɣman d tmdinin timẓyanin), ar ikkat umḍan n imzdaɣ nns gr kra n tmidiwin d kra n yifḍn."
"This also enabled specialization of labor and crafts, and development of many trades.","yawi d uya altu asẓly g twuri d tazzulin, d usbuɣlu n kigan n tazzulin."
The size of these villages varies considerably.,addud n iɣrman ad immarks kigan.
Desa are generally located in rural areas while kelurahan are generally urban subdivisions.,tlla diza g wansiwn n tgama tili kiluṛahan s umata g ibṭṭutn ayyawn iɣrmann.
"A desa or kelurahan is the subdivision of a kecamatan (subdistrict), in turn the subdivision of a kabupaten (district) or kota (city).","diza nɣ kiluṛahan gant abṭṭu ayyaw n kikamatan (anwa ayyaw), ig awd ntta abṭṭu ayyaw n kabubatn (ansa) nɣ d kata (tamdint)."
"In Malaysia, a kampung is determined as a locality with 10,000 or fewer people.","g malizya, iga kambung yan wansa g llan 10,000 n ufgan nɣ ddawas."
"All Muslims in the Malay or Indonesian village want to be prayed for, and to receive Allah's blessings in the afterlife.","ran imunslmn akkw n wasun n malay nɣ asun n andunisya ad ẓẓallin, d wad awin imrkidn n allah ffir tamtant."
Mainland Singapore used to have many kampung villages but modern developments and rapid urbanisation works have seen them bulldozed away; Kampong Lorong Buangkok is the last surviving village on the country's mainland.,"imyar wakal adslan n sangaɣufuṛa ad digs ilin kigan n wasunn ikambungn, maca tuwi d tigmi tatrart d twuriwin n usɣrm ansddraf ɣr urdal nns; kambung lurung bankuk iga asun amggaru iqqiman ɣf wakal adslan n tmazirt."
Vietnam's village is the typical symbol of Asian agricultural production.,iga wasun n fitnam azamul amdyan n ufars n tkrza tasyawit.
"In Slovenia, the word selo is used for very small villages (fewer than 100 people) and in dialects; the Slovene word vas is used all over Slovenia.","g slufakya, da ttuswuri tguri slu i usnml n wasunn imẓẓyann kigan (ddaw n 100 n ufgan) d g tantalayin; ar ttuswuri tguri taslufinit fas g slufinya kullu."
It could be relative to a Sanskrit like Afgan word deh and Indonesian word desa.,tɣy ad tg tin tutlayt tasanskritit zun d taguri afgan taguri dih d tguri tandunisit disa.
Approximately 46% of all migrated people have changed their residence from one city to another.,attay n 46% nɣ imzwagn kullu ssnfln adɣar n uzduɣ nnsn sg tmdint ɣr tayḍ.
"The lowest administrative unit of the Russian Empire, a volost, or its Soviet or modern Russian successor, a selsoviet, was typically headquartered in a selo and embraced a few neighboring villages.","tagzzumt tadblant tamazdart n tmbṛaṭuṛt tarusit, fulst, nɣ tasufyatit nɣ tarusit tatrart tamdfuṛt, ssilsufyit, ikka tt nn wansa nns g silu tskcm ddaw tayt nns kra n wasunn as yujin idrusn."
"While peasants of central Russia lived in a village around the lord's manor, a Cossack family often lived on its own farm, called khutor.","ilin altu imkrazn g wammas n rusya da ttidirn g wasun ittin i iɣrm n lluṛd, ar ttidir twacunt n kussak g wurti nns, mi illa wassaɣ n xutur."
"There is, however, another smaller type of settlement which is designated in Ukrainian as a selysche (селище).","illa, waxxa, yan wanaw yaḍn n tzduɣin mi gan iwtta s tutlayt tukṛanit nwis tga tazduɣt (селище)."
"They represent a type of a small rural locality that might have once been a khutir, a fisherman's settlement, or a dacha.","da sgnsasn yan wanaw n wansa n tgama amẓẓyan isduyn g yids n wussan, igan tazduɣt n ingmarn, nɣ daca."
"However, ambiguity is often avoided in connection with urbanized settlements by referring to them using the three-letter abbreviation smt instead.","kigan n tikkal, da ittyikkis untal n wassaɣ n tzduɣin tiɣrmanin s uswuri n usgzl s kṛaḍ n iskkil smt."
They became really popular during the Stolypin reform in the early 20th century.,aɣuln ttyassnn g usɣudu n stulibin g tzwiri n tuta tis 20.
Larger villages can also be referred to as a Flecken or Markt depending on the region.,nɣy altu ad nsiwl xf wasunn ixatarn s wassaɣ n flikn nɣ d maṛkt illan g wansa.
"For example, in areas such as the Lincolnshire Wolds, the villages are often found along the spring line halfway down the hillsides, and originate as spring line settlements, with the original open field systems around the village.","s umdya, g wansiwn zun d linukulncayr wuldz, da ttilin wasunn xf uzgig n tfsut g wammas n ubrid ddaw n twririn, ar ttilint tzduɣin xf uzgig n tfsut, d igrratn n yigran imanafn xf wasun."
"Some villages have disappeared (for example, deserted medieval villages), sometimes leaving behind a church or manor house and sometimes nothing but bumps in the fields.","zlan ka n wusunn (s umdya, usunn n uzmz anammas ittuzrin), ajjin ffir as yat tkanisat nɣ yat taddart mm wurti d kra n tikkal ɣas igran."
"Other villages have grown and merged and often form hubs within the general mass of suburbia—such as Hampstead, London and Didsbury in Manchester.",gman wasunn yaḍn zdin d tmiwwa n tmdinin — am hambstid d lundun d didsburi g mancistr.
"Seen as being far from the bustle of modern life, it is represented as quiet and harmonious, if a little inward-looking.","acku taggug xf urbbj n tudrt tatrart, da ɣifs ittyinin nwis tfsta, waxxa tla umd n ugnsu."
"These (such as Murton, County Durham) grew from hamlets when the sinking of a colliery in the early 20th century resulted in a rapid growth in their population and the colliery owners built new housing, shops, pubs and churches.","gman wid (zun d murtun , tagrawt taɣrman durham) sg wasunn imẓẓyann kudnna iɛum ifri g imzwura n tsuta tis 20 yawi d tigmi asddraft n umḍan n imzdaɣ skun ayt ifran timzduɣin d wansiwn n tsbbabt d tḥuna d tkanisatin timaynutin."
Maltby was constructed under the auspices of the Sheepbridge Coal and Iron Company and included ample open spaces and provision for gardens.,tettuga maltbi ddaw tayt n tmssurt cibbridj kul d irun g wahli n wakal g llan wurtan.
"The typical village had a pub or inn, shops, and a blacksmith.",ila wasun uddis ansa n tsbbabt d usnsu d wansa n umzil.
"However, some civil parishes have no functioning parish, town, or city council nor a functioning parish meeting.","ur illi ɣur yids n tmdint wansa n tdblt ula iɣrm, nɣ asqqim n tmdint ula agraw adblan ilan tawuri."
"In Scotland, the equivalent is also a community council, however, despite being statutory bodies they have no executive powers.","g skutlanda, iga ungiddi nns altu asqqim agrawan, waxxa ig tiɣmrin tisaḍufin maca ur ɣur tinbaḍin timskarin."
"The district of Danniyeh consists of thirty-six small villages, which includes Almrah, Kfirchlan, Kfirhbab, Hakel al Azimah, Siir, Bakhoun, Miryata, Assoun, Sfiiri, Kharnoub, Katteen, Kfirhabou, Zghartegrein, Ein Qibil.","illa g tnbḍayt n ḍanniy sḍiṣ d kramraw n wasun amẓẓyn, g illa almraḥ, kfirclan, kfirḥbab, ḥayl laɛḍm, ṣiṛ, baxun, miryata, asun, sfiri, xaṛnub, qaṭin, kfirḥabu, zɣartigrin, ɛin qibil."
"Dinniyeh has an excellent ecological environment filled with woodlands, orchards and groves.",tla ḍiniy tuskiwt n tgama izddign iktarn s taganin d wurtan.
"Villages in the south of Syria (Hauran, Jabal al-Druze), the north-east (the Syrian island) and the Orontes River basin depend mostly on agriculture, mainly grain, vegetables, and fruits.","da skuttun wasunn n iffus n surya (ḥuṛan d udrar addruz) d iẓẓlmḍ n unqqr (tagzirt tasurit) d uglmam n wasif amxib xf tkrza s umata, lumn irdn d icakan d igumma."
"Mediterranean cities in Syria, such as Tartus and Latakia have similar types of villages.","llan wanawn n wasunn g tmdinin n yilel amllal anammas g surya, zun d ṭaṛṭus d lladiqya."
"""Every urbanization is a """"pueblo"""" unless is elevated by decree to the next category.""",“ku asɣrm iga ““bwiblu”” maḥd ur t izzriy kra n uslgn ɣr tfrkt yaḍn.”
"However, this is a generality; in many states, there are villages that are an order of magnitude larger than the smallest cities in the state.",illa s umata g kigan n twilayatin wasunn yugrn timdinin timẓẓyanin g ussuds n uksay.
"In some cases, the village may be coterminous with the town or township, in which case the two may have a consolidated government.","g kra n waddadn, da tettili tgrawt taɣrmant anct n wasun g tikklt a iɣy ad ɣursn yili yan wanaw n tnbaḍt tn ismunn."
"Hempstead, the largest village, has 55,000 residents; making it more populous than some of the state's cities.","himbstid, d asun axatar, gulan nn imzdaɣ nns 55,000 n umzdaɣ; aynna as yakkan yat tnẓẓi iɣin ad yagr yids n tmdinin n twilayat."
"The village of Arlington Heights, Illinois had 75,101 residents as of the 2010 census.","tusy wasun n arlingtun hayts g twilayat n ilinuy 75,101 n umzdaɣ g usiḍn n 2010."
Villages can incorporate land in multiple townships and even multiple counties.,ɣin wasunn ad smunn ikaln n iɣrman nɣ awd tigrawin tiɣrmanin ggudinin.
"The largest village is Menomonee Falls, which has over 32,000 residents.","asun axatar akkw iga t minumuni fulz, nn igulan ugar n 32,000 n umzdaɣ."
"""In Maryland, a locality designated """"Village of ..."""" may be either an incorporated town or a special tax district.""","“g mariland, iɣy ad ig wansa ittusmln ““asun n ...”” tamdint tuddist nɣ d ansa n izmaz uẓliyn.”"
At that time Traditional rulers used to have absolute power in their administrative regions.,g wakud ann ɣur inbbaḍn iqburn tanbaḍt tariwtta g wansiwn nnsn idblann.
Every Hausa village was reigned by Magaji (Village head) who was answerable to his Hakimi (mayor) at the town level.,innbḍ magaji (anssixf n wasun)g ku asun n wasunn n husa igan anbbaḍ dat n ḥakimi (anssixf n tgrawt taɣrmant) g uswir n tmdint.
"They have mud houses with thatched roofing though, like in most of the villages in the North, zinc roofing is becoming a common sight.","ɣursn taddrwin n waluḍ d tduliwin n ikcciḍn, am umata n wasunn n iẓẓlmḍ, yaɣul gant tduliwin n zzng askkin akuyass."
Others are lucky to have wells within a walking distance.,wiyyaḍ ɣursn annaz lan una nmilin asn waman.
An atlas is a collection of maps; it is typically a bundle of maps of Earth or a region of Earth.,aṭlas iga yat tgrawt n tkaṛḍiwin; gant yat trabbut n tkaṛḍiwin n wakal s umata nɣ d yan wansa g wakal.
"This title provides Mercator's definition of the word as a description of the creation and form of the whole universe, not simply as a collection of maps.","da isnil uzwl ad asnml n mirkatuṛ i tguri d asnumml i usufɣ n umaḍal d talɣa nns, ur d ɣar tagrawt n tkaṛḍiwin."
A desk atlas is made similar to a reference book.,illa waṭlas n umaris zun d adlis adlsumuɣ.
"""In cartography, a contour line (often just called a """"contour"""") joins points of equal elevation (height) above a given level, such as mean sea level.""","“g wunuɣ n tkaṛḍiwin, da ismun uzgig awnnaḍ (s wassaɣ n ““awnnaḍ””) tinqqaḍ ingaddan g tattayt (tattayt) xf ka n uswir, zun n aswin anammas n wudm n yilel.”"
The gradient of the function is always perpendicular to the contour lines.,da ittili uskwfl aswuran n tannalt n izgign iwnnaḍn.
"Contour lines are curved, straight or a mixture of both lines on a map describing the intersection of a real or hypothetical surface with one or more horizontal planes.",izgign iwnnaḍn ggussan nɣ uɣdn nɣ ssarn ɣf tkaṛḍa ar takka timitar n umnala n wudm adttan d aradttan akd uswir amnidan nɣ ugar.
"In 1701, Edmond Halley used such lines (isogons) on a chart of magnetic variation.","g usggwas n 1701, iswuri idmund hali zun d izgign (izuguns) g usɣiws n bṭṭu amiɣnaṭisi."
"In 1791, a map of France by J. L. Dupain-Triel used contour lines at 20-metre intervals, hachures, spot-heights and a vertical section.","g usggwas n 1791, tswuri j.l duban triyl takaṛḍa n fṛansa d izgign iwnnaḍn g istumn n 20 mitr, d umalu, d tattayt n tnqqaḍ, d ubṭṭu n umnid."
"Isobaths were not routinely used on nautical charts until those of Russia from 1834, and those of Britain from 1838.","ur ittuswuri izubats s talɣa takuyast g tkaṛdiwin tilelitin ar tin rusya g usggwas n 1834, d tin bṛiṭanya asggwas n 1838."
"As late as 1944, John K. Wright still preferred isogram, but it never attained wide usage.","g yat n tizi imaḍln g usggwas n 1944, isul jun k. ṛayt isul ira izugṛam, maca ur nn igula aswuri n wugar."
"Despite attempts to select a single standard, all of these alternatives have survived to the present.","waxxa d irimn n ustay n yan unaway, imurs ubrid ad ar akud ad n tihawt."
"Weather stations are seldom exactly positioned at a contour line (when they are, this indicates a measurement precisely equal to the value of the contour).","idrus ma g ttusirisnt tsursin n unzwi xf uzgig n uwnnaḍ (ig tga imk a, iẓly uya ɣr ungidda n watig n uwnnaḍ)."
"In meteorology, the barometric pressures shown are reduced to sea level, not the surface pressures at the map locations.","g tasnzwit, da sdrisn ibrakn ibaṛumitritn ittyakazn xf uswir n wudm n yilel, ur d ibrakn n wudm illan g wansiwn n tkaṛḍa."
Isallobars are lines joining points of equal pressure change during a specific time interval.,izgign izallubaṛ gan izgign izddin tinqqaḍ n usnfl n ubrak igaddan g yat tizi mm iwtta.
Isallobaric gradients are important components of the wind as they increase or decrease the geostrophic wind.,tiskwfal ngaddanin gant ifrdisn idslann i uzwu acku da ttrnunt ar ttdrisnt sg uzwu ajyustrufi.
An isotherm at 0 °C is called the freezing level.,iga usngadda n unrɣi g 0 °C n tskwflt g tmiḍi aswir n ugris.
"From these contours, a sense of the general terrain can be determined.",sg izgign ad awnnaḍ nɣy ad naky s wudmkal amatu.
"In cartography, the contour interval is the elevation difference between adjacent contour lines.","g wunuɣ n tkaṛḍiwin, bṭṭu awnnaḍ iga t bṭṭu n tattayt gr izgign iwnnaḍn t iwalan."
Two or more contour lines merging indicates a cliff.,da d yakka usmun sin izgign n twnnaḍt nɣ ugar ajdir.
"Usually contour intervals are consistent throughout a map, but there are exceptions.",da bṭṭunt tizza n uzgig awnnaḍ xf tsggwin n tkaṛḍa maka llan imslka.
Whether crossing an equipotential line represents ascending or descending the potential is inferred from the labels on the charges.,"ig izry yan uzgig ingaddan g tdusi s yily nɣ uguz, da ittfka wunziɣ n ku tastkurt."
Acid precipitation is indicated on maps with isoplats.,da d yakka uzrdix ansmum xf tkaṛḍiwin id mm izublats.
Contour lines are also used to display non-geographic information in economics.,da ttuswurin izgign n twnnaḍt altu g ufsar n tussniwin ur igin tin tjɣraft d g tussna n tdamsa.
Such isolines are useful for representing more than two dimensions (or quantities) on two-dimensional graphs.,isnfan ad ɣudan i ugnses n sin wudmawn (tmamkin) xf wunuɣn imskann ikṛamnadn.
"In interpreting radar images, an isodop is a line of equal Doppler velocity, and an isoecho is a line of equal radar reflectivity.","g usfru n iwlafn n uṛadaṛ, da ittili isudub d izgig ingaddan g tassast n dublr, izgig n tɣlaɣalt iga izgig imiwt ingaddan i ṛṛadaṛ."
Line color is the choice of any number of pigments that suit the display.,aklu n izgig iga astay n umḍan n iklutn imyasan d udgl.
"Line type refers to whether the basic contour line is solid, dashed, dotted or broken in some other pattern to create the desired effect.",da isskan wanaw nuzgig is iga uzgig awnnaḍ adslan imunn nɣ d ur imunn nɣ d ibbin nɣ d iṛṛẓan g wayḍ wanaw i ufars n yiḍiṛ ittusutrn.
Numerical marking is the manner of denoting the arithmetical values of contour lines.,amatr n umḍan iga taɣarast i unamk n watig n usiḍn n izgign iwnnaḍ.
"If the contour lines are not numerically labeled and adjacent lines have the same style (with the same weight, color and type), then the direction of the gradient cannot be determined from the contour lines alone.","mk ur ittugi wassaɣ i izgign iwnnaḍn s imdann ilin izgign as ittin s yan wanw (s yat tastli d yan uklu d yan wanaw), ur iɣiy ad tettyisin tanila n uskwfl n ikwlan n izgign iwnnaḍn day."
A properly labeled contour map helps the reader to quickly interpret the shape of the terrain.,da ttaws tkaṛḍa n iwnnaḍn ad yaks imɣri udmkal zikk s tɣarast tmaddadt.
Then the coordinates of other places are measured from the nearest control point through surveying.,"ffir as, da ittuga usiḍn n ismmzditn n idɣarn yaḍn g nqqiḍt inmalan ittyafan sg usfaḍ."
This phenomenon is called datum shift.,tumant ad tla assaɣ n usnfl n tannalt.
"More ambitious undertakings such as the Struve Geodetic Arc across Eastern Europe (1816-1855) and the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India (1802-1871) took much longer, but resulted in more accurate estimations of the shape of the Earth ellipsoid.","ccant tɣawsiwin g iggudy usirm zun d tiskt n struf jyudisi sg urubba n unqqr (1816-1855) d usfaḍ amkṛaḍ mqran n hid (1802-1871) akud ugar, maka tuwi ɣr tiktiwin iddan ɣr tidt nwis iga wakal aglalay."
"An approximate definition of sea level is the datum WGS 84, an ellipsoid, whereas a more accurate definition is Earth Gravitational Model 2008 (EGM2008), using at least 2,159 spherical harmonics.","asnml inmalan i uswir n wudm n yilel iga t wannal WGS 84, igan talɣa tglalayt, maka asnml yufn iga t umdya n wakal gṛafitasyunil 2008 (EGM2008), s uswuri n wattay n 2,159 ismsasatn n tcamma."
"When used without qualification, the term latitude refers to geodetic latitude.","g uswuri nnsn, iga yirm n uzgug n tirut azgig n tirut ajyudisi."
"The datum shift between two particular datums can vary from one place to another within one country or region, and can be anything from zero to hundreds of meters (or several kilometers for some remote islands).","iɣy ad isty isnfl n wannal gr snat n tmuca sg wans r wayḍ agnsu n yat n tmazirt nɣ yan wansa, iɣy ad ig sg ingr umya ar timiḍiwin n id mitr (nɣ kigan n id kilumitr i kra n tgzirin yutmn)."
"For example, in Sydney there is a 200 metres (700 feet) difference between GPS coordinates configured in GDA (based on global standard WGS 84) and AGD (used for most local maps), which is an unacceptably large error for some applications, such as surveying or site location for scuba diving.","s umdya, illa g sidni bṭṭu n 200 mitr (700 n uḍaṛ) ingr tmzdayin GPS ittugan g GDA (s uskut xf unaway amaḍlan WGS 84) d AGD (ittuswurin g umata n tkaṛḍiwin tidɣranin), d azggal ur ittuqbaln i kra n iskkirn, zun d asfaḍ nɣ d anasa n uɣbbz."
"Since reference datums can have different radii and different center points, a specific point on Earth can have substantially different coordinates depending on the datum used to make the measurement.","iddɣ iɣy ad yili i isaɣuln uzgn n wawum d tnqqaḍ tinammasin ibḍan, iɣy ad yili ɣur yat tnqqiḍt g wakaltismzdayin ibḍan s wuɣul ɣr umswuri n tigawt n usiḍn."
"The most common reference Datums in use in North America are NAD27, NAD83, and WGS 84.","isuɣal iggudin g uswuri g amrika tanafllat gan NAD27, NAD83, d WGS 84."
"""This datum, designated as NAD 83 ...is based on the adjustment of 250,000 points including 600 satellite Doppler stations which constrain the system to a geocentric origin.""""""","“asaɣul ad, s wassaɣ n NAD 83 ...iskut xf usnfl n 250,000 n tnqqiḍt g tlla 600 n itri amguran dubblr nnz ikrrfn agrra ɣr wammas n wakal.”””"
"It is the reference frame used by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) and is defined by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) (formerly the Defense Mapping Agency, then the National Imagery and Mapping Agency).","iga attuy ansaɣul twuri tmawast n umzaɣ amirikani (DoD) ar t tsnmal tsnurayt n inɣmisn injɣrafn nudɣar anamur (NGA) (zikk tasnurayt n wunuɣ n tkṛḍiwin, d tsnurayt tanamurt n iwlafn d tkaṛḍa)."
"It was used as the reference frame for broadcast GPS Ephemerides (orbits) beginning January 23, 1987.",ittuswuri d asati ansaɣul i tguri n GPS ifimirid (isatuyn) sg 23 yanayr 1987.
"It became the reference frame for broadcast orbits on June 28, 1994.",yaɣul iga usati ansaɣul n isatuyn n uzuzzr g 28 yunyu 1994.
"WGS 84 (G873) was adopted as the reference frame for broadcast orbits on January 29, 1997.",ittusɣzn WGS 84 (G873) d asati ansuɣl i uzuzzr g 29 yanayr 1997.
WGS 84 is the default standard datum for coordinates stored in recreational and commercial GPS units.,WGS 84 ay d igan asaɣul amsɣal d umrdu i tmzday iffrn g tfrdisin GPS n tsbbabt d usḍṣa.
"For example, the longitudinal difference between a point on the equator in Uganda, on the African Plate, and a point on the equator in Ecuador, on the South American Plate, increases by about 0.0014 arcseconds per year.","s umdya, yugr bṭṭu n taɣzi gr tnqqiḍt xf uzgig n ungidda g uganda, xf wudmkal afriqi, d tnqqiḍt g uzgig n ungidda g ikwadur, xf tifilt n amrika iffus, s wattay n 0.0014 tasnit n tskrt g usggwas."
"Most mapping, such as within a single country, does not span plates.","amata n tkaṛḍiwin, imkinna s iga waddad agnsu n yat n tmazirt, ur da tettffr tifilt."
"Ptolemy credited him with the full adoption of longitude and latitude, rather than measuring latitude in terms of the length of the midsummer day.","ifka baṭlimus i yixf nns addur n tsɣznt n izgign n taɣzi d win tirut, g udɣar n asɣal azgig n tirut n taɣzi n wass g wammas n unbdu."
Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes' recovery of Ptolemy's text a little before 1300; the text was translated into Latin at Florence by Jacobus Angelus around 1407.,tsḍfṛ tmggit n wunuɣ n tkaṛḍiwin tusnakin g uṛubba ffir iriri n maksimus blanuds i uḍṛiṣ n baṭlimus dat n usggwas n 1300 s imik; ittusuɣl uḍṛiṣ ɣr tlatinit g flurinsa s ufus n jakubus anjilus attay n usggwas n 1407.
"They then choose the most appropriate mapping of the spherical coordinate system onto that ellipsoid, called a terrestrial reference system or geodetic datum.","da sttin unuɣ n tkaṛḍiwin i ugrra n tmzdayin n tcamma s talɣa taglalayt, yili ugrra assaɣ n ugrra amsaɣul n wakal nɣ amskut ajyudisi."
"φ, or phi) of a point on Earth's surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through (or close to) the center of the Earth.","φ, nɣ d fi) n yat tnqqiḍt g wudm n wakal tga tiɣmrt n gr uɣawas istawan d uzgig yuɣdn izrin (nɣ ikk attay n) i wammas n wakal."
"All meridians are halves of great ellipses (often called great circles), which converge at the North and South Poles.","izgign n taɣzi kullutn gan izgnn n tẓyaṛin tixatarin (mi ittyini tbrẓyaṛin), ittmjmaɛn g tqrray n wakal n iffus d iẓẓlmḍ."
"The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E. This is not to be conflated with the International Date Line, which diverges from it in several places for political and convenience reasons, including between far eastern Russia and the far western Aleutian Islands.","azgig n uzal anmgal i tfggiwing grinitc iga 180° n uɣlluy d 180° n unqqr. ur ilaq ad issar ingr wa d izgig n umzruy amaḍlan,ɣifs ifrɣn g kigan n idɣarn imntal isrtann, sg digsn ingr tama n unqqr n rusya d tama n uɣlluy n tgzirin alucyan."
Coordinates on a map are usually in terms northing N and easting E offsets relative to a specified origin.,da ttilint tmzdayin s umata g tkaṛḍa s usilly n iẓẓlmḍ N d usilly n unqqr E g tsggwin i yat tnqqiḍt.
"In geography, latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north–south position of a point on the Earth's surface.","g tjɣṛaft, illa izgig n tirut iga tismzday tijɣrafitin d ykan adɣar ingr iẓẓlmḍ d iffus i kra n tnqqiḍt xf wudm n yilel."
Latitude is used together with longitude to specify the precise location of features on the surface of the Earth.,ittuswuri uzgig n tirut akd uzgig n taɣzi i tifi n wansa i tɣawsiwin xf wudm n wakal.
The second step is to approximate the geoid by a mathematically simpler reference surface.,tifrkt tis snat tga asnmili n jyud g wudm amsaɣul s tusnakt.
Lines of constant latitude and longitude together constitute a graticule on the reference surface.,tsskr tratsa n izgign n taɣzi d win tirut ittmrn s sin g trats xf wudm amsaɣul.
"""Since there are many different reference ellipsoids, the precise latitude of a feature on the surface is not unique: this is stressed in the ISO standard which states that """"without the full specification of the coordinate reference system, coordinates (that is latitude and longitude) are ambiguous at best and meaningless at worst"""".""","iddɣ llan kigan n talɣiwin tiglalayin ibḍan, iga izgig n tirut usdid xf wudm ur d abaylal: ssakzn asniɣs g umaway ISO ittinin nwis d ““bla ifrisn ismdn i ugrra amsaɣul n tmzdayin, ad gint tmzdayin (igan izgig n tirut d izgig n taɣzi) llusnt ula ɣursnt atig g waddad ur iɣudan””.”"
The plane through the centre of the Earth and perpendicular to the rotation axis intersects the surface at a great circle called the Equator.,imyabbay uswir g wammas n wakal d annulan xf usgum n wutuy d wudm g tsutlt taxatartigan izgig n tangidda.
The time variation is discussed more fully in the article on axial tilt.,ittumrara wawal xf bṭṭu g wakud s umata g umagrad xf usguss azgigan.
"The situation is reversed at the June solstice, when the Sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer.","da ittngwdam waddad s unngwdm n tafukt g yunyu, akud g ttili tafuyt aflla usutl n ssaṛaṭan."
"Since latitude is defined with respect to an ellipsoid, the position of a given point is different on each ellipsoid: one cannot exactly specify the latitude and longitude of a geographical feature without specifying the ellipsoid used.","iddɣ da ittufka usnml n uzgig n tirut g uynna izdin s tfgga taglalayt, ynnaɣ as iga usntl n tnqqiḍt istin g ku talɣa taglalayt: ur yufi ufgan isirs iwtta i izgig n tirut d izgig n taɣzi g tsga tajɣraft bla ad yaf iwtta n talɣa taglalayt ittuswurin."
Geographic latitude must be used with care.,ixssa uswuri n uzgig n tirut anjɣraf taɣḍft.
The evaluation of the meridian distance integral is central to many studies in geodesy and map projection.,ffir tayaduzt n ustum n uzal igan yant n tgzzumt g kigan n tzrawin g jyudisya d tḍuṛi n tkaṛḍa.
There are two methods of proceeding.,llant snat n tɣarasin i uḍffuṛ.
"When converting from isometric or conformal to geodetic, two iterations of Newton-Raphson gives double precision accuracy.","g usnfl sg ungadda n usɣal d wayyaḍ imyzɣn d jyudisi, ar yakka s tlasa nyutun rafsun yan usɣudu n tyafut."
The differences shown on the plot are in arc minutes.,bṭṭu ittyakazn g umukris iga tiskt n tusdidin.
The transformation between geodetic and Cartesian coordinates may be found in Geographic coordinate conversion.,asnfl illan gr tmzdayin tjyudisin d tdikartyin g usnfl n tmzdayin tijɣrafitin.
In general the true vertical at a point on the surface does not exactly coincide with either the normal to the reference ellipsoid or the normal to the geoid.,"s umata, ur da ittaɣ umnid adttan g tnqqiḍt xf wudm s waddad aglalay amsaɣul i jyud."
"Longitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the east–west position of a point on the Earth's surface, or the surface of a celestial body.",azgig n taɣzi iga imzdayn ajɣrafn ar iss nttafa ansa n unqqr d uɣlluy i kra n tnqqiḍt xf wudm n wakal nɣ xf wudm n tafgga g yignna.
"The prime meridian, which passes near the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, England, is defined as 0° longitude by convention.","da ittusnmal uzgig n uzal adslan, izrrin tama n uḥṭṭu agldan, grinitc, inglatiṛṛa, nwis iga izgig n taɣzi n 0°."
"Local time (for example from the position of the sun) varies with longitude, a difference of 15° longitude corresponding to a one-hour difference in local time.","bḍan isakudn idɣrann (s umdya sg udɣar n tafuyt) s bṭṭu n izgig n taɣzi, ibḍu bṭṭ n izgig n taɣzi s 15° xf bṭṭu s tsragt g usakud adɣran."
"The principle is straightforward, but in practice finding a reliable method of determining longitude took centuries and required the effort of some of the greatest scientific minds.","aynna xf iska ittyakz srid, maca g tsga tamggit, ifi n yat tɣarast s nttafa izgig n taɣzi icca tiwusa issutr yat tdusi sg yids n wannlitn imassann imqrann."
His prime meridian passed through Alexandria.,izri uzgig n taɣzi miridyan adslan g liskandarya.
"He used a prime meridian through the Canary Islands, so that all longitude values would be positive.","iswuri azgig n taɣzi miridyan adslan g tgzirin tiknariyin, aynna as yakkan atig iɣudan."
"Hindu and Muslim astronomers continued to develop these ideas, adding many new locations and often improving on Ptolemy's data.","imassan ihindiyn d imunslmn n astrunumi ar smirniwn aydɣ n tiwngimin, zaydnasnt idɣar ujdudn sxitr umlan n tulumi."
"In the later Middle Ages, interest in geography revived in the west, as travel increased, and Arab scholarship began to be known through contact with Spain and North Africa.","g tiyira n isgasn inamasn, izayd unfa g ljuɣrafiya gw tagut, idɣ izayd umuddu, zaydn tɛyisn imassan aɛrabn s wawad d sḥanya d afriqya n iẓẓlmḍ."
"Christopher Columbus made two attempts to use lunar eclipses to discover his longitude, the first in Saona Island, on 14 September 1494 (second voyage), and the second in Jamaica on 29 February 1504 (fourth voyage).","urm kulumbus snat tikal ad yisin adɣarns aday ila wayur gw umalu n wacal, tikklt tamzwarut g tagzirt n suna g 14 cutanbir 1494 (amuddu wissin), d wissin gw jamayka gw 29 bṛayṛ 1504 (amuddu wis kkuẓ)."
"Initially an observation device, developments over the next half century transformed it into an accurate measurement tool.","tizwiri iga allal n inẓi, ar igwmu g uzgn n tsuta diddan trurat alig iga allal n umsɣal amnɣud."
"On land, the period from the development of telescopes and pendulum clocks until the mid 18th-Century saw a steady increase in the number of places whose longitude had been determined with reasonable accuracy, often with errors of less than a degree, and nearly always within 2-3°.","afla n wacal, azmaz na iddan sg usbuɣlu nid tiliskub d timsrag yugln ar wammas n tasut tis 18 aɣul mrniwn idɣar naytuyisin sunɣad, s tzgalt na ur izriyn yat n tskwflt nghd tna ilan gwr 2-3°."
"Making accurate observations in an ocean swell is much harder than on land, and pendulum clocks do not work well in these conditions.","tcqqa taskwra ninẓitn inɣdn ammas nyill ugwar nwacal, d timsrag yugln urda tilint tawuri gw timsutaldɣ."
"It offered two levels of rewards, for solutions within 1° and 0.5°.","dad tikki sin iswir nudwal, nufsayn ingr 1° d 0.5°."
"This work was supported and rewarded with thousands of pounds from the Board of Longitude, but he fought to receive money up to the top reward of £20,000, finally receiving an additional payment in 1773 after the intervention of parliament.","aytx nlxdmt tiwisit usqqim nudɣar ifas ifḍan nid lbawnd, walayni ntta innaɣ bac ad yamẓ £20,000, bac ad yamẓ wayd ifri gw 1773 dart ɛyna ikwjm abrlaman."
Lunar distances came into general use after 1790.,ɛrda itusmras uzaru nwayur ar dart 1790.
It was quickly realised that the telegraph could be used to transmit a time signal for longitude determination.,fisaɛ ayd ituyisn id tiligraf da itazn azmz nluqt nas ituyisin udɣar.
"The Survey established chains of mapped locations through Central and South America, and the West Indies, and as far as Japan and China in the years 1874–90.","snɛtnaɣ isqsitn wahli nidɣar na illan gw amrika tanammast d amrika niffus, dl indiz n tagut, dawd gw jabun d xinwa giskkasn n 1874-90."
This changed when wireless telegraphy became available in the early 20th-Century.,ibdl uya kulxi aynagd tla tiligraf tar slkw gw tizwiri n tasut tis 20.
Radio navigation systems came into general use after World War II.,"ibda usmrs n radyu nusara dart im,ɣi amḍlan wissin."
"With the exception of magnetic declination, all proved practicable methods.","mx nkks ikri n dinamu, iɣarasn iḥqqan ayd gwan kulu."
Longitude at a point may be determined by calculating the time difference between that at its location and Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).,da ntisin adɣar susiḍin numzaray nukud ingwr udɣar naɣ d gw uzmz amḍlan imun.
"The word near is used because the point might not be at the centre of the time zone; also the time zones are defined politically, so their centres and boundaries often do not lie on meridians at multiples of 15°.","da nsmras tagwuri n iḥḍr axkwu urda itili udɣar ammas nudɣar nuzmz; idɣar nizmaz da tumẓlan susrti, aynaɣ asɛrda itili wamas nsn dart id 15°."
"The international standard convention (ISO 6709)—that East is positive—is consistent with a right-handed Cartesian coordinate system, with the North Pole up.","tamyaqqant tanawayt tgraɣlant (ISO 6709)—anqqr ad d amalaw—imsasa d ugrra n isrusn idikartiyn iyffasn, d usfaylu n iẓẓlmḍ."
They have since shifted to the standard approach.,sg dinaɣ bdl ɣr tamyadast tanawayt.
"The geoid is the shape that the ocean surface would take under the influence of the gravity of Earth, including gravitational attraction and Earth's rotation, if other influences such as winds and tides were absent.","jiyud iga tawila na itasi uflla nugaru aday as tussa tinnuzɣa nwacal, ikwxm digws awd unzuɣ n tinnuzgɣa dawd uttuy nwacal, mx ur illi uzwu wala tawant n yill."
It can be known only through extensive gravitational measurements and calculations.,da ittuyassan hilli s wahli n isiḍn n tinnuzɣa.
"Although the physical Earth has excursions of +8,848 m (Mount Everest) and −10,984 (Marianas Trench), the geoid's deviation from an ellipsoid ranges from +85 m (Iceland) to −106 m (southern India), less than 200 m total.","waxxa ila wakal asgunfu n +8,848 mitr (adrar n ifirist) d -10,984 (acbaṛ n maṛyanas), iga uggus n jyuyid n ilibsuydn sg +85 mitr (islanda) ar -106 mitr (iffus n hind), ddaw n 200 mitr g ugrud."
"If the continental land masses were crisscrossed by a series of tunnels or canals, the sea level in those canals would also very nearly coincide with the geoid.",mx nɣza acal s bzaf nislda afla n waman ilan ammasnsn qad igw am jiud illan gw yill.
"That means that when traveling by ship, one does not notice the undulations of the geoid; the local vertical (plumb line) is always perpendicular to the geoid and the local horizon tangential to it.","una itmuddun suɣrrabu, urda itinniy ixarimn n kiud; icaridn igwn da tmun d win jiud ikkasd umnid tasgwa."
"That is because GPS satellites, orbiting about the center of gravity of the Earth, can measure heights only relative to a geocentric reference ellipsoid.","iddɣ id sattilit n GPS, na itdur xf ammas n tinnuzɣa n wacal, iɣiy ad yisiḍn tujgwlt n takwurt nisiḍn n wacal."
"Modern GPS receivers have a grid implemented in their software by which they obtain, from the current position, the height of the geoid (e.g. the EGM-96 geoid) over the World Geodetic System (WGS) ellipsoid.","idɣar ittamzn gw GPS ujdid ɣursn taratsa agwnsu nas tamẓn, sgw udɣar nagw llan, tijgwlt n jiyud (zɛnd EGM-96 jiyud) gw ungwraw nid jiyud numaḍan (WGS)."
"If that sphere were then covered in water, the water would not be the same height everywhere.","mc tdl takwurt kwul s waman, ɛr ini ad yili ɣur wamat yɛwt tijgwlt."
This is why many handheld GPS receivers have built-in undulation lookup tables to determine the height above sea level.,wad ay igan amntil n is iga umata n wallaln n usnubg n GPS mi ɣurs tiratiwin n irzzutn bar ad iss ttafan tattayt xf uswir n wudm n yilel.
"The first products based on GOCE satellite data became available online in June 2010, through the European Space Agency (ESA)’s Earth observation user services tools.","dwln ifarsn imzwura illan i yitri amguran GOCE llan g ugratsa g yunyu 2010, s wallaln d imswuritn n uḥṭṭu n wakal iḍfaṛn i tsnurayt n usayrar n uṛubba iza (ESA)."
"The geoid is a particular equipotential surface, and is somewhat involved to compute.","jyud iga udm ingaddan g tdusi, idru g ussiḍn."
"A globe is a spherical model of Earth, of some other celestial body, or of the celestial sphere.","takwurt tgwa azurt itin n umaḍan, nɣd win can yitr."
A model globe of the celestial sphere is called a celestial globe.,takwurt nuzurt ncan yitr das ntini takwurt n yitr.
It might show nations and major cities and the network of latitude and longitude lines.,dadis ntiniy timizar d timdinin tixatarin d uẓṭṭa n icaridn nidɣar.
"Typically, it will also divide the celestial sphere into constellations.",da ibdu awd takwurt n yigwna gwr imur.
"The first known mention of a globe is from Strabo, describing the Globe of Crates from about 150 BC.","amzwaru na isiwl xf takwurt numaḍan igwa strabu, nagw da isnɣmis xf takwurt n kratis na ilan sg 150 BC."
"Many globes are made with a circumference of one metre, so they are models of the Earth at a scale of 1:40 million.","tikwurin numadal da disnt tili taɣzi n yan mitru, bach ad tuskwrnt sl lɛbar n 1:40 mlyun."
"Most modern globes are also imprinted with parallels and meridians, so that one can tell the approximate coordinates of a specific location.","tikwurin numadal tujdidin lanasnt icaridn idban dicaridn igwn, bac a niɣiy anisin adɣar nɣ sunɣad."
Early terrestrial globes depicting the entirety of the Old World were constructed in the Islamic world.,tikwurin numadal tiqdimin dad sbayannt amadan aqdim skwrtnt imunslmn.
"Behaim was a German mapmaker, navigator, and merchant.","bihaym igwa almaniy ar iskwar lkardat, ar itmuddu ar iznza."
"Before constructing the globe, Behaim had traveled extensively.",dat ad iskr bihaym takwurt numaḍan imudda cigwan.
"Another early globe, the Hunt–Lenox Globe, ca.","yat yakurt yaḍn n wakal n zik, hant-linuks glub, ka."
It may be the oldest globe to show the New World.,ɛniɣ takwurt numadan taqdimt ak nad isnɛatn amadan ujdid.
A facsimile globe showing America was made by Martin Waldseemueller in 1507.,unuɣ n takurt n wakal s faks da isskan amirika s martn faldsimulr g usggwas n 1507.
"Globus IMP, electro-mechanical devices including five-inch globes have been used in Soviet and Russian spacecraft from 1961 to 2002 as navigation instruments.","glubus imb IMP, ttuswurin wallaln ikhṛumikanikn g amunt tkurin wakal g illa usɣal n smmust inc g tuddisin n usayrar tisufyatyin d trusyin sg 1961 ar 2002 d allan n yiylel."
This method of globe making was illustrated in 1802 in an engraving in The English Encyclopedia by George Kearsley .,ittufka usfru n taɣarast s tlla takurt n wakal g usggwas n 1802 g tunsklubidit n jurj kirsli.
This is placed in a machine which molds the disk into a hemispherical shape.,da ittugar g wallal isskarn itwil s talɣa n uzgn n takurt.
These globes were “enormous” and very costly.,kkant tkurin n wakal ad “xatrnt” ccint kigan.
The latter has a Soviet bullet hole through Germany.,amggaru a illa ɣurs uxbu tgarit tasufyatit sg almanya.
"A great circle, also known as an orthodrome, of a sphere is the intersection of the sphere and a plane that passes through the center point of the sphere.","tasutlt taxatart, ittwassnn s wassaɣ n urtudrum, ɣur takurt ubuyn d uswir g izrrin g tnqqiḍt n wammas n takurt."
"This special case of a circle of a sphere is in opposition to a small circle, that is, the intersection of the sphere and a plane that does not pass through the center.","addad ad uẓliy n tsutlt n takurt ur tgi am takurt tamẓẓyant, igan amyabbay d takurt d uswir ur izrrin g wammas."
"The exception is a pair of antipodal points, for which there are infinitely many great circles.","ukus iga yat tyuga n tnqqaḍ ur myaɣnin, g illan yan umḍan mi ur tlli tgira n tsutlin tixatarin."
The length of the minor arc of a great circle is taken as the distance between two points on a surface of a sphere in Riemannian geometry where such great circles are called Riemannian circles.,da tettyasay taɣzi n yiskr amẓẓyan n tsutlt taxatart nwis d gr snat tnqqaḍ xf wudm n takurt g utwal arimani ar ittyini i tsutlin tixatarin tisutlin tirimanitin.
Another great circle is the one that divides the land and water hemispheres.,tasutlt yaḍn taxatart nttat ay d ibḍan akal xf sin izgnn.
"In cartography, a map projection is a way to flatten a globe's surface into a plane in order to make a map.","g wunuɣ n tkaṛḍiwin, da ittuga taḍuṛi n tkaṛḍa d taɣarast n usstwu n wudm n wakal itturar ɣr uswir taf ad ittug wunuɣ n tkaṛḍa."
"Depending on the purpose of the map, some distortions are acceptable and others are not; therefore, different map projections exist in order to preserve some properties of the sphere-like body at the expense of other properties.","s yiwy xf uwttas n tkaṛḍa, da ttuqbaln ka n ifrruɣn wiyyaḍ ur da ttuqbaln; aynnaɣ, as llant kigan n tḍuṛiwin n tkaṛḍiwin farad yili ḥṭṭu n yids n tmitar n tfgga ittaɣn g takurt dat n tmitar yaḍn."
"Projections are a subject of several pure mathematical fields, including differential geometry, projective geometry, and manifolds.","gant tḍuṛiwin yan usntl n kigan n yigran n tusnakt, g digsn tlla tsgda n tḍuṛi, d wuttiln."
"Rather, any mathematical function that transforms coordinates from the curved surface distinctly and smoothly to the plane is a projection.","g udɣar nns, ku tanamkt n tusnakt da tssnfal tisdɣar n wudm iggusn s talɣa ittyakzn izrurgn s uswir tga taḍuṛi."
"The Earth and other large celestial bodies are generally better modeled as oblate spheroids, whereas small objects such as asteroids often have irregular shapes.","ibḍa wakal d yitran n yignna ixatarn yaḍn s talɣa yufn nwis gan tifggiwin tikurin innfsrn, ma tifggiwin timẓẓyanin zun d titratin da ɣursnt ttilint talɣiwin ur inimn."
"Because the curved Earth's surface is not isometric to a plane, preservation of shapes inevitably leads to a variable scale and, consequently, non-proportional presentation of areas.","iddɣ ur ingadda wudm n wakal iggusn i usɣal g uswir, as illa ḥṭṭu n talɣiwin ittawin s asɣal amsnfal, g tgara, asfsr ur inimn i wansiwn."
The purpose of the map determines which projection should form the base for the map.,da ittufka uwttas n tkaṛḍa s tḍuṛi iskan tisira n tkaṛḍa.
Data sets are geographic information; their collection depends on the chosen datum (model) of the Earth.,tga tgrumma n tmuca tussniwin tijɣrafin; ar tskuttu tgrumma nnsnt xf (umdya) n wakal ittustayn.
"Like Tissot's indicatrix, the Goldberg-Gott indicatrix is based on infinitesimals, and depicts flexion and skewness (bending and lopsidedness) distortions.","zun d tissu indicatriks, ittuska usml guldbirg-gut xf id tar tagara g tmẓy, ar iswlaf aguss d ufrruɣ (aguss d war amyas) ifrruɣn."
Sometimes spherical triangles are used.,kra n tikkal da ttuswurin imkṛaḍn imkurarn.
Another way to visualize local distortion is through grayscale or color gradations whose shade represents the magnitude of the angular deformation or areal inflation.,tlla tayḍ tɣarast i tussna n ufrruɣ adɣran tga sg asskwfl amiɣd nɣ asskwfl n ikwlan mi iga umalu afrruɣ n tɣmrt nɣ uddiz n tajumma.
"Because the Earth's actual shape is irregular, information is lost in this step.","acku talɣa n wakal ur tnim, da ttuzlan inɣmisn tikklt ad."
"To compare, one cannot flatten an orange peel without tearing and warping it.)","i usmzazal, ur iɣiy awd yan ad yanf ifrki n tmandarint bla ad tt icrrg issfrɣ tt.)"
Tangent means the surface touches but does not slice through the globe; secant means the surface does slice through the globe.,ig nenna amalu ad nini uḍus n wudm maka ur da ittbbi takurt n wakal; ig nenna anabbay ad nin ubuy n wudm i takurt n wakal.
"If these lines are a parallel of latitude, as in conical projections, it is called a standard parallel.","ig wazan izgign azgig n tirut, imkinna iga waddad i tḍuṛiwin tikṛkuṛin, da as ittyini tiwazin timsɣalin."
This applies for any cylindrical or pseudocylindrical projection in normal aspect.,aya iwala ku taḍuṛi tawlullut nɣ awlullu n tkrkas g tsga tafrart.
Scale is constant along all straight lines radiating from a particular geographic location.,amsɣal iqqiman ɣf taɣzi n ku izgign uɣdimn d iffɣn sg yan wansa anjɣraf.
"Whether spherical or ellipsoidal, the principles discussed hold without loss of generality.","swa tga tamkurart nɣ taglalayt, gant trbdda xf ittumrara wawal tinna iqqiman bla mzliwt n talɣa tamattut."
The ellipsoidal model is commonly used to construct topographic maps and for other large- and medium-scale maps that need to accurately depict the land surface.,da ittuswuri umdya aglalay s talɣa tamatut i tiski n tkaṛḍiwin tiṭubbugfin d tkaṛḍiwin yaḍn tixatarin d tnammasin iran aswlf n wudmkal s urmaḍ n tiṭṭ.
"Compared to the best fitting ellipsoid, a geoidal model would change the characterization of important properties such as distance, conformality and equivalence.","s usmzazal g umyif n talɣa taglalayt inmn, iɣy umdya ajyudali ad issnfl asskan n ifrdisn idslann zun d tajumma d umsasa d ungadda."
"For irregular planetary bodies such as asteroids, however, sometimes models analogous to the geoid are used to project maps from.","g usntl n tfggiwin n yitran ur inimn zun d titratin, da ttuswurin kra n tikkal imdyatn yaɣn g jyud i usfsr n tkaṛḍiwin digs."
"The projections are described in terms of placing a gigantic surface in contact with the Earth, followed by an implied scaling operation.","da ttufkant tmitar n tḍuṛiwin sg usrrus n wudm axatar ittḍusn akal, iḍfṛ t yiggi n tukki n tmitar tignsanin."
"""Where the light source emanates along the line described in this last constraint is what yields the differences between the various """"natural"""" cylindrical projections.""",iddɣ da d ittffɣ yan uzurz n usidd xf taɣzi n uzgig aynna d yakkan afars n ibṭṭutn gr tḍuṛiwin tiwlellutin ““tingamatin”” iggudin.
"This cylinder is wrapped around the Earth, projected onto, and then unrolled.","da ittuɣmas uwlellu xf wakal, ittusḍṛ ittuɣms diɣ."
"""North-south distances neither stretched nor compressed (1): equirectangular projection or """"plate carrée"""".""",“astumn gr iẓẓlmḍ d iffus ur ttyiriwn ula ttuẓmin (1): taḍuṛi angidda n imkkuẓn nɣ d ““taflwit tamkkuẓt”.”
"Since this projection scales north-south distances by the reciprocal of east-west stretching, it preserves area at the expense of shapes.","iddɣ da tsɣal tḍuṛi n istumn gr iẓẓlmḍ d iffus s tirut tamsnfalt n gr unqqr d uɣlluy, aynnaɣ as iḥṭṭu xf tajumma n usiḍn n talɣiwin."
"Other meridians are longer than the central meridian and bow outward, away from the central meridian.",izgign n taɣzi yaḍn ɣzzifn xf uzgig n wazal anammas ar ttgussun s bṛṛa yaggugn i uzgig n wazal anammas.
"Therefore, meridians are equally spaced along a given parallel.","xf mi, da ttɛṛaqn izgign n taɣzi s usngadda xf kra n taɣzi iwazan."
"The resulting conic map has low distortion in scale, shape, and area near those standard parallels.",tla tkaṛḍa takṛkuṛt d iffɣn sg ufrruɣ yazdurn g tsɣalt d talɣa d tjumma tama n twazitin timsɣalin.
Can be constructed from a point of perspective an infinite distance from the tangent point; r(d) = c sin .,da ttuskant s ustum war tagara sg tnqqiḍt n umalu; r(d) = c sin .
"Near-sided perspective projection, which simulates the view from space at a finite distance and therefore shows less than a full hemisphere, such as used in The Blue Marble 2012).","taḍuṛi n usksw anmilan, ittilin d ufsar sg usayrar xf ustum ilan iwtta g tgara da d ittffɣ uzgn n takurt ismdn, imkinna s ittuswura g timcci taẓṛwalt 2012)."
The special point or points may get stretched into a line or curve segment when projected.,tɣy ad tmmnzaɣ yat n tnqqiḍt nɣ d tinqqaḍ tuẓlayin g uzgig nɣ ussif n uswur g tḍuṛi.
Azimuthal equidistant: Distances from the center and edge are preserved.,tamsgaddayt azimutal: da ttuḥḍun istumn n wammas d win tama.
"Thus, many projections exist to serve the many uses of maps and their vast range of scales.","g tgara, llant kigan n tḍuṛiwin i uswuri n tkaṛḍiwin d wuttuy amiriw n isɣaln."
Reference maps of the world often appear on compromise projections.,kigan n tikkal ay d ttilint tkaṛḍiwin tisaɣulin n umaḍal g tḍuṛiwin n usstwa.
The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection presented by Flemish geographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator in 1569.,taḍuṛi n markatuṛ iga taḍuṛi n tkaṛḍa tawlellut isnal unjɣraf d umkla n tkaṛḍiwin aflmanki jiṛaṛdus mirkatus g usggwas n 1569.
"As a side effect, the Mercator projection inflates the size of objects away from the equator.","d aḍṛiẓ asgawan, tla tḍuṛi n mirkatuṛ tafgga n iskkinn yaggugn i uzgig n usstwa."
"However, given the geometry of a sundial, these maps may well have been based on the similar central cylindrical projection, a limiting case of the gnomonic projection, which is the basis for a sundial.","waxxa d aya, s tsgda n tsragt n tafuyt, skuttnt taṛḍiwin xf tḍuṛi tawlellut tanammast imyaɣn, d addad ikrfn taḍuṛi tanllit, axf tsga tsragt n tafuyt."
"However, this was a simple, and common, case of misidentification.","waxxa, ittuga waddad ad afrar i tifi n tzglt."
"""Mercator titled the map : """"A new and augmented description of Earth corrected for the use of sailors"""".""",mmirkatuṛ ifka azwl i tkaṛḍa : ““asnumml amaynu d amsɣudu i wakal izzrayn i uswuri n yilel””.”
"Various hypotheses have been tendered over the years, but in any case Mercator's friendship with Pedro Nunes and his access to the loxodromic tables Nunes created likely aided his efforts.","ttufkant turdawin g izggwasn izrin, maka awal n mirkatur d bidṛu nuns d ugulu nnsn ɣr tdabutin luksudrumik iska nuns tuws as kigan."
"However, the mathematics involved were developed but never published by mathematician Thomas Harriot starting around 1589.","d uya, tettusbuɣla tusnakt maka ur tt ifsir umassan n tusnakt tumas haṛyut sg wattay n usggwas n 1589."
"Two main problems prevented its immediate application: the impossibility of determining the longitude at sea with adequate accuracy and the fact that magnetic directions, instead of geographical directions, were used in navigation.","sin imukrisn idslann ayd ibddan dat n usnsi asddraf: war ili n tifi n uzgig n taɣzi g yilel s tɣarast n tidt s tnilawin timɣnaṭisin, g udɣar n tnilawin tinjɣrafitin, ikkan da ttuswurin g ummuddu n yilel."
"However, it did not begin to dominate world maps until the 19th century, when the problem of position determination had been largely solved.","waxxa, ur inti yimẓ n tkaṛḍiwin n umaḍal ar tasuta tis 19, kudnna ittyafa ufssay i umukris n tifi n wansa s tɣarast yufn tiyaḍ."
"Due to these pressures, publishers gradually reduced their use of the projection over the course of the 20th century.","s umntil n iẓyyiṛn ad, sdrasn imẓṛag imik s imik aswuri n tḍuṛi g tsuta tis 20."
"In accomplishing this, the unavoidable east–west stretching of the map, which increases as distance away from the equator increases, is accompanied in the Mercator projection by a corresponding north–south stretching, so that at every point location the east–west scale is the same as the north–south scale, making it a conformal map projection.","g ugulu n uya, iga ustum mi ur illi mani sg unqqr ar aɣlluy n tkaṛḍa, ittzayadn s uzayd n ustum yaggugn i uzgig isstwan, da d ittmun d tḍuṛi n mirkatur s ustum innulan gr iẓzlmḍ d iffus, ig usɣal n gr unqqr d uɣlluy g ku tnaqqiḍt zun d asɣal n gr iẓẓlmḍ d iffus, aynna tt ittggan d taḍuṛi imgaddan d tin tkaṛḍa."
"At latitudes greater than 70° north or south the Mercator projection is practically unusable, because the linear scale becomes infinitely large at the poles.","g izgign n tirut izaydn s 70° n tskwflt g iẓẓlmḍ nɣ iffus, da tettili tḍuṛi n mirkatur ur tgi tin uswuri, acku asɣal n uzgig da ittuɣul ixatr s talɣa tar tagara g isfaylutn."
"Ellesmere Island on the north of Canada's Arctic archipelago looks about the same size as Australia, although Australia is over 39 times as large.","tga tgzirt ilismir illan g iẓẓlmḍ n urxibil n usfaylu n iẓẓlmḍ g kanada anct n ustṛalya, waxxa txatr tjumma n ustṛalya 39 n tikklt."
Greenland's real area is comparable to the Democratic Republic of the Congo's alone.,tajumma n grinland n tidt tɣy ad ttusmzazal d tgduda n kungu tadimuqṛaṭit i waḍu nns.
"Alaska appears to be the same size as Australia, although Australia is actually 4½ times as large.","iga uksay n alaska anct n uksay n ustṛalya, waxxa tt tugr ustṛalya g tidt s 4½ n tikkal."
Sweden appears much larger than Madagascar.,sswid txatr xf madɣacqar kigan.
"""A World Map on a Regular Icosahedron by Gnomonic Projection.""""""",“takaṛḍa n umaḍal xf tfgga inmn s tḍuṛi n gnumik.”””
"As a result of these criticisms, modern atlases no longer use the Mercator projection for world maps or for areas distant from the equator, preferring other cylindrical projections, or forms of equal-area projection.","tayafut n izɣann ad, ur aɣul da swurin iṭlasn itrarn taḍuṛi n mirkatur i tkaṛḍiwin n umaḍal nɣ d i wansiwn yaggugn xf uzgig isstwan, syifnt tiḍuṛiwin tiwlellutin yaḍn, nɣ d talɣiwiin n tḍuṛi isngaddan i tjumma."
"Arno Peters stirred controversy beginning in 1972 when he proposed what is now usually called the Gall–Peters projection to remedy the problems of the Mercator, claiming it to be his own original work without referencing prior work by cartographers such as Gall's work from 1855.","ildy d awal aṛnu bitrz g usggwas n 1972 aynna d igr assaɣ n tḍuṛi gal-bitrz i usujji n imukrisn n mirkatur, isyissn tawuri nns bla ad yuɣul s imkla n tkaṛḍiiwin zun dtawuri n gal asggwas n 1855."
"The range for a amongst the possible choices is about 35 km, but for small scale (large region) applications this variation may be ignored, and mean values of 6,371 km and 40,030 km may be taken for the radius and circumference respectively.","sg istayn illan i ustum illa wattay n 35 kilumitr, maka i iswuritn imẓẓann (ansa axatar) iɣy ad ittusitm anxilaf ad, ttyisin watign inammasn nn igulan 6,371 kilumitr d 40,030 kilumitr i uzgn n wawum d uwnnaḍ s usḍfṛ."
A cylindrical map projection is specified by formulae linking the geographic coordinates of latitude φ and longitude λ to Cartesian coordinates on the map with origin on the equator and x-axis along the equator.,da ttyafan iwtta n tḍuṛi n tkaṛḍa n uwlellu s tmuca n usdɣr anjɣraf i uzgig n tirut φ d uzgig n taɣzi  λ s usdɣr adikarti xf tkaṛḍa xf uzgig isstwan d ugjdi asini d xf taɣzi n uzgig isstwan.
"Since the cylinder is tangential to the globe at the equator, the scale factor between globe and cylinder is unity on the equator but nowhere else.","iddɣ iṭṭus iwlellu takurt n wakal g uzgig isstwan, ynnaɣ as tga tgzzumt asɣal n gr tkurt n wakal d uwlellu xf uzgig issstwan maka ur d g kra n udɣar yaḍn."
The difference (λ − λ0) is in radians.,bṭṭu (λ − λ0) s usɣal awrerray.
"Even more extreme truncations have been used: a Finnish school atlas was truncated at approximately 76°N and 56°S, an aspect ratio of 1.97.","ttuswurant tmggayin n wubuy n tama: ittyabby uṭlas n tinml tafinlandit g 76° n iẓẓlmḍ d 56° n iffus, sg tirut ar tattayt n 1.97."
"Narrower strips are better: sec 8° = 1.01, so a strip of width 16° (centred on the equator) is accurate to within 1% or 1 part in 100.","isdditn inyaman ay d yufn: sec 8° = 1.01, aynna as iga usddi nn ilkmn g tirut 16° (illa g wammas n uzgig isstwan) ar ittili min azggal s 1% nɣ d 1 ugzzum g 100."
The value of e2 is about 0.006 for all reference ellipsoids.),ilkm watig n e2 attay n 0.006 g talɣiwin tiglalayin timsuɣal.)
"For the above model 1 cm corresponds to 1,500 km at a latitude of 60°.","g usntl n umdya n uflla nns, 1 santimitr innul 1,500 kilumitr g uzgig n tirut 60°."
This chord subtends an angle at the centre equal to 2arcsin(cos φ sin ) and the great circle distance between A and B is 2a arcsin(cos φ sin ).),adinan ad innul tiɣmrt g wammas igaddan d 2arcsin(cos φ sin ) d ustu n twrerrayt taxatart gr A d B tga 2a arcsin(cos φ sin ).)
"For other bodies a fixed surface feature is usually referenced, which for Mars is the meridian passing through the crater Airy-0.","i tfggwin yaḍn, da ittsskan ɣr wudm irmskil, iga ɣur umrrix azgig n wazal izrrin xf imi n ukswar Airy-0."
"By convention for the Earth, Moon, and Sun it is expressed in degrees ranging from −180° to +180° For other bodies a range of 0° to 360° is used.","s tumayt n umsasa uẓliy s wakal d wayyur d tafuyt, da ɣifs nsawal s tskwfal illan gr −180° ar +180° i tfggiwin yadn da ttuswurint s tskwfal sg 0° ar 360°."
The scale of a map is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground.,asɣal n tkaṛḍa iga atig n ustum xf tkaṛḍa ar astum innulan akal.
The first way is the ratio of the size of the generating globe to the size of the Earth.,taɣarast tamzwarut tga atig n uksay n takurt n wakal d iffɣn ɣr uksay n wakal.
Many maps state the nominal scale and may even display a bar scale (sometimes merely called a 'scale') to represent it.,da isskan umata n tkaṛḍiwin asɣal asmawan ar tfssr asɣal n isdditn (s wassaɣ n “asɣal”) i usnil nns.
In this case 'scale' means the scale factor (= point scale = particular scale).,"g waddad ad, iga ‘usɣal’ amawy n usɣal (=tanqqiḍt n usɣal=kra n usɣal)."
The map projection becomes critical in understanding how scale varies throughout the map.,tga tḍuṛi n tkaṛḍa asskin ilaqn i urmas n tɣarast n umyalla n usɣal g tsggwin n tkaṛḍa.
This is a survey of virtually all known projections from antiquity to 1993.,wad asfaḍ n usdɣr ittyassnn attayn sg uzmz aqbur ar asggwas n 1993.
Small scale refers to world maps or maps of large regions such as continents or large nations.,da isskan usɣal amẓẓan tikaṛḍiwin n umaḍal nɣ d tikaṛḍiwin n wansiwn ixatarn zun d imnẓawn nɣ d iwankn ixatarn.
"Large-scale maps show smaller areas in more detail, such as county maps or town plans might.","da sskannt tkaṛḍiwin id mm usɣal axatar ansiwn imẓẓyann s kigan n ucammu, am tkaṛḍiwin n tgrawin tiɣrmatin nɣ d asɣiws n tmdinin."
"""However, as explained above, cartographers use the term """"large scale"""" to refer to less extensive maps – those that show a smaller area.""","“waxxa, imkinna s ittusfra aflla nns, da swurin imkla n tkaṛḍiwin irm n ““asɣal axatar”” i usskan n tkaṛḍiwin mi idrus usmmud – tinna ifssrn ansa amẓẓyan.”"
This is commonly illustrated by the impossibility of smoothing an orange peel onto a flat surface without tearing and deforming it.,ittyakz s talɣa tamatut sg wagum n usrrus n ifrka n tmandarint xf wudm isstwan bla bṭṭu nnsn d uzrbɛ nnsn.
Conversely isotropic scale factors across the map imply a conformal projection.,"s unmgal n uya, imawayn n usɣal imẓlay xf tkaṛḍa da sskann taḍuṛi imnalan."
The qualification 'small' means that at some given accuracy of measurement no change can be detected in the scale factor over the element.,"asɣrt ‘amẓẓyan’ g kra n usɣal ittufkan, ur iɣiy ad ittyaf kra n usnfl g umawy n usɣal aflla n ufrdis."
We say that these coordinates define the projection map which must be distinguished logically from the actual printed (or viewed) maps.,da nttinin nwis iga usdɣr ad amsskan n tkaṛḍa istin s talɣa tawngamt xf tkaṛḍiwin ittuklan (nɣ d ittufsrn).
Since the point scale varies with position and direction the projection of the circle on the projection will be distorted.,"iddɣ ibḍa usɣal n tnqqaḍ s bḍḍu n udɣar d tnila, ad tettusfrɣ tḍuṛi n tsutlt xf tḍuṛi."
Superimposing these distortion ellipses on the map projection conveys the way in which the point scale is changing over the map.,da ittawi usmrbib n talɣiwin tiglalayin ifrɣn xf tḍuṛi n tkaṛḍa s assay n tɣarast issnfaln asɣal n tnqqaḍ xf tkaṛḍa.
The ratio of the major axis to the minor axis is .,atig n ugjdi adslan ɣr ugjdi asinan iga.
The scale is true (k=1) on the equator so that multiplying its length on a printed map by the inverse of the RF (or principal scale) gives the actual circumference of the Earth.,asɣal idtta (k=1) xf uzgig isstwan ad nwt taɣzi nns g tkaṛḍa ittuklan s unmgal n usnagar anṛadyu RF (nɣ d asɣal adslan) yakka awnnaḍ wakal n dɣi.
The top plot shows the isotropic Mercator scale function: the scale on the parallel is the same as the scale on the meridian.,da isskan wunuɣ amssfraw anaflla yat n tmamkt tamsɣalt n mirkatur immrkasn: asɣal illan s umnila iga asɣal illan g uzgig n wazal.
"Therefore, the tangent Mercator projection is highly accurate within a strip of width 3.24 degrees centred on the equator.","aynnaɣ as, tumẓ tḍuṛi n mirkatur iṭṭusn agnsu n usddi s tirut n 3.24 n tskwflt illan g wammas n uzgig isstwan."
These observations prompted the development of the transverse Mercator projections in which a meridian is treated 'like an equator' of the projection so that we obtain an accurate map within a narrow distance of that meridian.,tḥuz tugt n isniɣisn ad ɣr tigmi n tḍuṛiwin n mirkatur ittyagln ar ittuga uzgig n wazal ‘zun d uzgig isstwan’ i tḍuṛi taf ad takaṛḍa inmn g llan istumn inmn g uzgig n wazal ad.
"The four cardinal directions, or cardinal points, are the four main compass directions: north, east, south, and west, commonly denoted by their initials N, E, S, and W respectively.","tanilawin s kkuẓt tidslanin, nɣ d tinqqaḍ tidslanin, gant tanilawin n tbuṣult s kkuẓt tidslanin: iẓẓlmḍ dunqqr d iffus d uɣlluy, ar tnt nsskan s iskkiln imzwura nnsnt N, E, S, d W s usḍfṛ."
"When travelling East or West, it is only on the Equator that one can keep East or West and be going straight (without the need to steer).","g umuddu sg unqqr nɣ aɣlluy, iɣy ad iḥḍu ufgan xf unqqr nɣ aɣlluy iddu g yn uzgig inmn (bla ad yaws s ka n wallal n tnila) ɣas g uzgig isstwan."
The north pole of the magnetic needle points towards the geographic north pole of the earth and vice versa.,da isskan usfaylu n iẓẓlmḍ i tissgnit tamiɣnaṭist ɣr usfaylu n iẓẓlmḍ anjɣraf n wakal d mgal d amddad.
"In the middle of the day, it is to the south for viewers in the Northern Hemisphere, who live north of the Tropic of Cancer, and the north for those in the Southern Hemisphere, who live south of the Tropic of Capricorn.","g wammas n wass, da tettili n iffus i imannayn g wammas n takurt n iẓẓlmḍ, ittidirn g iẓẓlmḍ n uḥbu uylal, d iẓẓlmḍ i winna illan g uzgn n takurt n iffus, winna ittidirn g iffus n uḥbu n waɣaḍ."
"In these locations, one needs first to determine whether the sun is moving from east to west through north or south by watching its movements—left to right means it is going through south while the right to left means it is going through north; or one can watch the sun's shadows.","g wansiwn ad, ixssa i ufgan g tizwiri ad yisin is tga tafuyt tanna ittmattayn sg unqqr ɣr uɣlay sg iẓẓlmḍ nɣ iffus s usksw n immctign nns —sg uzlmaḍ ɣr ayffas igan is da tettkka iffus d ig d ayffas s azlmaḍ is da tettkka iẓẓlmḍ; nɣ da ittusksiw umalu n tafuyt."
"Because of the Earth's axial tilt, no matter what the location of the viewer, there are only two days each year when the sun rises precisely due east.","s umntil n uguss n ugjdi ɣr akal, waxxa ittusatm wansa n unfsr, ur illi ɣar sin wussan g usggwas addag tnqqr tafuyt s umntil n unqqr."
"For this method to work in the southern hemisphere, the 12 is pointed toward the Sun and the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate north.","i wad tswuri tɣarat ad g uzgn n takurt n iffus, da ittusnil 12 s tafuyt ar tsskan tnqqiḍt n wammas n gr urqqas n tsragt d 12 ɣr iẓẓlmḍ."
"This axis intersects the Celestial Sphere at the North and South Celestial poles, which appear to the observer to lie directly above due North and South respectively on the horizon.","imyabbay ugjdi d takurt n yignna g isfaylutn n yignna win iẓẓlmḍ d win iffus, ar ittyannay i unḍufnis illa srid xf iẓẓlmḍ d iffu s usḍfṛ g umnid."
"The resulting photograph reveals a multitude of concentric arcs (portions of perfect circles) from which the exact center can be readily derived, and which corresponds to the Celestial pole, which lies directly above the position of the true pole (North or South) on the horizon.","da isskan uwlaf ad ittufkan s kigan n iskran munnin g wammas ussifn n tsultal smdnin) mi nɣiy ad ng tawafuɣt n wammas sg digs zik, imsasan akd usfaylu n yignna, illan srid xf wansa n ugjdi adttan (iẓẓlmḍ d iffus) xf umnid."
The exact position of the pole changes over thousands of years because of the precession of the equinoxes.,da issnfal wansa n igjdi xf wutuy n ifḍn n isggwasn s umntil n tinti n isngaddatn.
"""The asterism """"Big Dipper"""" may be used to find Polaris.""",“tɣy ad tettuswuri tmatart n tetrit ““big dribr”” i tifi n bularis.”
"Since it finds true, rather than magnetic, north, it is immune to interference by local or shipboard magnetic fields.","iddɣ ittyafa iẓẓlmḍ d amddad, ur d anmiɣnaṭis, ila afrag mgal akccum n yigran inmiɣnaṭisn idɣrann nɣ xf iɣrrabutn."
"Most maps in medieval Europe, for example, placed east (E) at the top.","ittuga umara n tkaṛḍiwin n uṛubba g uzmz anammas, s umdya, anqqr (E) g uflla."
"Topographic maps include elevation, typically via contour lines.","smanent tkaṛḍiwin tiṭubuɣrafin tattayt, s umata xf izgign iwnnaḍn."
The North point will then be the point on the limb that is closest to the North celestial pole.,ad tg tnqqiḍt n iẓẓlmḍ tanqqiḍt illan xf tama inmalan i ugjdi n yignna n iẓẓlmḍ.
"Going around the disk clockwise from the North point, one encounters in order the West point, the South point, and then the East point.","utul xf tqaṛiḍt s tnila n irqqasn n tsragt g tnqqiḍt n iẓẓlmḍ, da nn ittaɣ ufgan xf tnqqiḍt n uɣlluy s uḍfaṛ, d tnqqiḍt n iffus, d tnqqiḍt n unqqr."
"In pre-modern Europe more generally, between eight and 32 points of the compass – cardinal and intercardinal directions – were given names.","g uṛubba n dat tetrart s umata, ittuga wassaɣ n gr tamt d 32 n tnqqiḍt g tbuṣult – tanilawin tidslanin d tgnsanin–."
"Systems with five cardinal points (four directions and the center) include those from pre-modern China, as well as traditional Turkic, Tibetan and Ainu cultures.","smann igrratn n tnqqaḍ tidslanin s smmust (kkuẓt n tnilawin d wammas) tann tin ṣṣin n dat n tetrart, d tdlsiwin tiqburin tituṛkiyin d tin ttibit d tin aynu."
"""Some may also include """"above"""" and """"below"""" as directions, and therefore focus on a cosmology of seven directions.""","“iɣy ad ismun kra altu xf “uflla nns” d “izdar nns” zun d ismigiln, g tgara tawna xff tussna n umaḍal bu sat n tnalwin.”"
North is associated with the Himalayas and heaven while the south is associated with the underworld or land of the fathers (Pitr loka).,izdy iẓẓlmḍ g idurar n himalaya d yignna day izdi iffus d umaḍal amazdar nɣ d akal n id bba (bitr luka).
North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions.,iẓẓlmḍ iga yat sg tnqqaḍ n tbuṣult s kkuẓt nɣ d tanilawin tidslanin.
"""Septentrionalis is from septentriones, """"the seven plow oxen"""", a name of Ursa Major.""","“sibtuntryunalis iga sg sibtuntryun, ““awullu n izgarn s sa”, assag n uṛsa majuṛ.”"
"""For example, in Lezgian, kefer can mean both """"disbelief"""" and """"north"""", since to the north of the Muslim Lezgian homeland there are areas formerly inhabited by non-Muslim Caucasian and Turkic peoples.""","“s umdya, g lizgyan, iɣy ad tili anamk n tguri kifir s sin idsn ““arussn” d iẓẓlmḍ”, iddɣ tlla g iẓẓlmḍ n tmazirt n imunslmn lizgyan kra n wansiwn iktarn zik s iɣrfan n quqaz d iturkitn ur igin imunslmn.”"
"On any rotating astronomical object, north often denotes the side appearing to rotate counter-clockwise when viewed from afar along the axis of rotation.","g ku askkin astṛunum, da ittuskan iẓẓlmḍ ɣr tsga itturerruyn mgal n irqqasn n tsragt g usksw ɣrs sg tuggugt xf taɣzi n ugjdi n uwrerry."
"But simple generalizations on the subject should be treated as unsound, and as likely to reflect popular misconceptions about terrestrial magnetism.","maka icil uswuri s ismatutn ifrarn xf usntl ad nwis ur gint timddadin, tɣy ad digs ilint tzgalin n irmmusn xf tmɣnaṭist n wakal."
"This convention has developed from the use of a compass, which places north at the top.","tettusbuɣla tmsasat ad n uswuri n tbuṣult, ittggan iẓẓlmḍ g uflla."
"95% of the Global North has enough food and shelter, and a functioning education system.","95% n iẓẓlmḍ n takurt n wakal ɣurs aynna t isyiwinn g wucci d uzduɣ, d ugrra n usslmd iḥlan."
"""Use of the term """"South"""" may also be country-relative, particularly in cases of noticeable economic or cultural divide.""","“iɣy ad ig yirm ‘“iffus”” izdy s tmazirt altu, lumn g waddadn n bṭṭu adamdan nɣ d adlsan illan.”"
"Rarely does the meaning broaden to Bolivia, and in the most restricted sense it only covers Chile, Argentina and Uruguay.","da ittawy unamk ard isskcm awd bulifya, s unamk iṛmḍn, idl ɣas ccili d aṛjuntin d uṛugway."
"West is the direction opposite that of the Earth's rotation on its axis, and is therefore the general direction towards which the Sun appears to constantly progress and eventually set.","aɣlluy iga tanila tanmgalt n tnila n wutuy n wakal xf ugjdi nns, g tgara iga tanila g tettddu tafuyt ar tigira nns."
"In Ancient Egypt, the West was considered to be the portal to the netherworld, and is the cardinal direction regarded in connection with death, though not always with a negative connotation.","g miẓṛ taqburt, tkka tt nn tnila n uɣlluy tga tiflut ittawi s amaḍal amazdar, igan tanila tadslant mi ɣur azday d tmtant, waxxa ur izdiy abda d unamk ur iḥlin."
"In Judaism, west is seen to be toward the Shekinah (presence) of God, as in Jewish history the Tabernacle and subsequent Jerusalem Temple faced east, with God's Presence in the Holy of Holies up the steps to the west.","ɣur wudayn, da ittusksiw uɣlluy tanila n cikinah (tihawt)n allah, imkinna iga g umzruy uday, tkka tt nn taxamt d ufakan n quds ttin s unqqṛ, tili tilawt n allah g quds s uskwfl ɣr uɣlluy."
The Arctic Circle is one of the two polar circles and the most northerly of the five major circles of latitude as shown on maps of Earth.,tawrerrayt n usfaylu n iẓẓlmḍ tga yat g twrerrayin tisfaylutin illan g yir n iẓẓlmḍ sg twrerrayin s smmust tidslanin i uzgig n tirut imkinna s illa g tkaṛḍa n wakal.
A circle of latitude or line of latitude on Earth is an abstract east–west small circle connecting all locations around Earth (ignoring elevation) at a given latitude coordinate line.,tawrerrayt n uzgig n tirut nɣ d azgig n tirut xf wakal iga yat n twrerrayt tamẓẓyant ingr unqqr d uɣlluy izdin d wansiwn akkw n wutuy n wakal (s ussitm n tattayt) g uzgig n usdɣr n uzgig n tirut.
"Circles of latitude are unlike circles of longitude, which are all great circles with the centre of Earth in the middle, as the circles of latitude get smaller as the distance from the Equator increases.","tiwrerrayin n uzgig n tirut bḍant xf twrerrayin n uzgig n taɣzi, gint akkw tiwrerrayin tixatarin g wammas n wakal, ar ttmẓiynt twrerrayin n uzgig n tirut ar ittxitir ustum n grasnt d uzgig isstwan."
A circle of latitude is perpendicular to all meridians.,tnnul tsutlt n uzgig n tirut izgign n taɣzi kullutn.
The Equator is the longest circle of latitude and is the only circle of latitude which also is a great circle.,igaikwater tawrerrayt akkw iɣzzifn i izgig n tirut tg tawrerrayt tabaylalt n uzgig n tirut tg altu tawrerrayt taxatart.
"On a map, the circles of latitude may or may not be parallel, and their spacing may vary, depending on which projection is used to map the surface of the Earth onto a plane.","xf tkaṛḍa, ɣint ad gint twrerrayin n tirut imsadaɣn iɣin ad ur imsadaɣ, imkinnaɣ i umsɛraq nnsnt, s uskutt xf tḍuṛi ittugan i wunuɣ n tkaṛḍa i wudmkal xf uswir."
"For instance, on a Mercator projection the circles of latitude are more widely spaced near the poles to preserve local scales and shapes, while on a Gall–Peters projection the circles of latitude are spaced more closely near the poles so that comparisons of area will be accurate.","xf umdya, g tḍuṛi n mirkatur, gant twrerrayin n uzgig n tirut timsɛraqin d kigan tama n isfaylutn taf ad yili ḥṭṭu n usɣal d talɣiwin tidɣranin, maka g tḍuṛi n gal–bitrz, da ttilint twrerrayin n uzgig n tirut nsnmalant tama n isfaylutn ar ittili usmzazal n wansiwn iɣyyzn."
"There are many smaller terms, resulting in varying daily shifts of some metres in any direction.","llan kigan n yirman imẓẓyann, aynna d yakkan imuttuyn ikuyassn i kra n id mitr g ku tanila."
54°40'N The border between 19th century Russian territories to the north and conflicting American and British land claims in western North America.,54°40'N n iẓẓlmḍ n iwtta gr ikaln irusitn g tsuta tis 19 ar agafa d isuturn xf ikaln imirikanitn d ibṛiṭanitn g uɣlluy n amirika n iẓẓlmḍ.
"43°30'N In the US, the border between Minnesota and Iowa.","43°30'N n iẓẓlmḍ g twilayatin munnin, iwtta n gr minisuta d iyuwa."
42°N Originally the northward limit of New Spain.,42°N n iẓẓlmḍ g uẓuṛ nns awttu n iẓẓlmḍ n isbanya tamaynut.
"41°N In the US, part of the border between Wyoming and Utah, the border between Wyoming and Colorado, and part of the border between Nebraska and Colorado.","41°N n iẓẓlmḍ g twilayatin munnin, d ussif sg iwtta n gr wayuming d yutah, d iwtta n gr wayuming d kuluṛadu, d wussif n iwtta n gr nbṛaska d kuluṛadu."
"38°N The boundary between the Soviet and American occupation zones in Korea, and later between North Korea and South Korea, from 1945 until the Korean War (1950–1953).","38°N n iẓẓlmḍ tga iwtta n gr wansiwn n umsdurri asufyat d umirikan i kurya, g tgiriwin ad gr kurya n iẓẓlmḍ d kurya n iffus, sg usggwas n 1945 ar imnɣi akuri(1950–1953)."
Geographically it is a Westward extension of the border between Virginia and North Carolina and part of the border between Kentucky and Tennessee.,g tjɣraft iga anzzuɣ n iɣlluy n iwtta n gr firjinya d kaṛulina n iẓẓlmḍ d wussif g iwtta n gr kintaki d tinisi.
"Also, part of the border between North Carolina and Georgia.",d wussif n iwtta n gr kaṛulina n iẓẓlmḍ d juṛjya.
"32°N In the US, part of the border between New Mexico and Texas.","32°N n iẓẓlmḍ g twilayatin munnin, ussif n iwtta n gr nyumiksiku d tiksas."
25°N Part of the border between Mauritania and Mali.,25°N n iẓẓlmḍ ussif n gr muṛiṭanya d mali.
17°N The division between Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) and Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) during the Vietnam War.,17°N n iẓẓlmḍ d abṭṭu n gr tgduda fitnam (iffus n fitnam) d tgduda fitnam tadimuqraṭit (fitnam n iẓẓlmḍ) g imnɣi n fitnam.
8°N Part of the border between Somalia and Ethiopia.,8°N n iẓẓlmḍ d ussif n iwtta gr ṣṣumal d tyubya.
7°S A short section of the border between Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola.,7°S n iffus yan wubuy amẓẓyan n iwtta n gr tgduda n kungu tdimuqraṭit d angula.
"The arts are a very wide range of human practices of creative expression, storytelling and cultural participation.",gant tẓuṛiwin tagrumma taxatart kigan n tigawin tinfganin i usiwl afarsan d wallas n tallasin d tdrawt tadlsant.
"They can employ skill and imagination to produce objects, performances, convey insights and experiences, and construct new environments and spaces.",ɣin ad swurin tawngimt d usurd i ufars n iskkinn d isfsar d wassay n tannayin d tirmitin d tuski n tgama d tjumma timaynutin.
"They can also develop or contribute to some particular aspect of a more complex art form, as in cinematography.","ɣin altu ad sbuɣlun nɣ uwsn i tsga n talɣa taẓuṛant tuddist, imkinna iga waddad n uswlf ansinima."
The first meaning of the word art is « way of doing ».,anamk amzwaru n tguri taẓuṛi iga “taɣarast n uswuri”.
"In its most basic abstract definition, art is a documented expression of a sentient being through or on an accessible medium so that anyone can view, hear or experience it.","g usnml nns awngim adslan, tga tẓuṛi yan usiwl antam xf umudr bu tufrayin s nɣ xf umazan as isshwann alkam ɣurs ard yiɣiy ku yan ad t yinniy nɣ as issfld nɣ t yurm."
Such public rating is dependent on various subjective factors.,abṭṭu ad amat iskutt xf kigan n imawyn inxfn ggudinin.
"In Ancient Greece, all art and craft was referred to by the same word, techne.","g yunan taqbuṛt, ittusawl xf wanawn akkw n tẓuṛiwin d tazzulin s yat n tguri, tikn."
"Ancient Roman art depicted gods as idealized humans, shown with characteristic distinguishing features (e.g. Zeus' thunderbolt).","da tsskan tẓuṛi taṛumanit taqbuṛt ikucn nwis gan am ifgann ismdn, ar tettili s tmitar tt isttin (am wusm n ziyus)."
A characteristic of this style is that the local colour is often defined by an outline (a contemporary equivalent is the cartoon).,sg tmitar n wanaw ad nwis da ittuga uklu adɣran n usɣiws (angidda nns atrar iga asaru unniɣ).
"In modern academia, the arts are usually grouped with or as a subset of the humanities.","g wallaln ikadimitn itrarn, da ttusmutturnt tẓuṛiwin d nɣ am tgrumma tussift n tmassanin tinfganin."
"""The word architecture comes from the Greek arkhitekton, """"master builder, director of works,"""" from αρχι- (arkhi) """"chief"""" + τεκτων (tekton) """"builder, carpenter"""".""","“tamsdagt “arcitiktur” tdda d sg tyunanit arxitiktun, ““ axatar n imskitn, anmhal n twuriwin,”” sg αρχι-(arxi) ““amɣar”” + τεκτων (tiktun) ““imski, ansram””.”"
"In modern usage, architecture is the art and discipline of creating, or inferring an implied or apparent plan of, a complex object or system.","g uswuri atrar, tga tmsdagt yat n tẓuṛi d usnm n tiski nɣ tifi n uɣawas iffrn nɣ d iffɣn i ka n umddur nɣ agrra idusn."
"Planned architecture manipulates space, volume, texture, light, shadow, or abstract elements in order to achieve pleasing aesthetics.",da tturar tmsdagt ittusɣawsn g usayrar nɣ g uksay nɣ uḍus nɣ asidd nɣ amalu nɣ ifrdisn iwngimn bar ad tili aɣudu issmdazn.
"While some ceramic products are considered fine art, some are considered to be decorative, industrial, or applied art objects.","kra n ifarisn n idqqi gan sg tẓuṛiwin ẓilnin, maka ka digsn yamu g iskkinn n ddikuṛ nɣ amwuran nɣ tiẓuṛiwin tismssa."
"In a pottery or ceramic factory, a group of people design, manufacture, and decorate the pottery.","g usakwn n idqqi nɣ asiramik, da ittgga ugraw n mddn asɣiws d tiski d usksf n idqqi."
"It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface.","ila s talɣa tamatut tawuri n tmitar xf wudm s yikl xf wallal, nɣ asmuss n wallal xf wazur."
"The main techniques used in drawing are line drawing, hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling, and blending.","titiqnitin tidslanin ittuswurin g wunuɣ n uzgig n wunuɣ, d usfqis, d usmalu ittbbin, d usmlu amisy, d uxrbc, d unqqṭ, d wusur."
"Paintings can be naturalistic and representational (as in a still life or landscape painting), photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic (as in Symbolist art), emotive (as in Expressionism), or political in nature (as in Artivism).","ɣint ad gint tflwitin tigamanind tgnsasin (imkkinna iga waddad i wunuɣ n tudrt n imzdaɣ nɣ d imnadn igamann), nɣ d aswlf afutuɣrafi, nɣ awngim, nɣ amallas, nɣ anmatar (g tẓuṛi tanmatart), nɣ d tufrayin (g tufrayin), nɣ mm tgama tasrtant (g artifism)."
"""The noun """"literature"""" comes from the Latin word littera meaning """"an individual written character (letter).""""""",“da d ittddu wassaɣ ““taskla”” sg tguri talatinit littiṛa ilan anamk n ““askkil ittyaran abaylal (askkil).”””
"Each discipline in the performing arts is temporal in nature, meaning the product is performed over a period of time.","ku aẓlay g tẓuṛiwin ila tizi s tgama nns, aynna d yakkan icil n wakud i ku tigawt n ufaris."
"Dance is also used to describe methods of non-verbal communication (see body language) between humans or animals (e.g. bee dance, mating dance), motion in inanimate objects (e.g. the leaves danced in the wind), and certain musical forms or genres.","da ittuga urkaḍ altu i usmal n tɣarasin n umyawaḍ amimi (ẓṛ tutlayt n tfgga) gr mddn d imudar (zun d arkaḍ n tzizwit, d urkaḍ n yiwl), d umussu n iskkinn ur iddirn (am tfriwin issrkaḍ uzwu), d kra n talɣiwin nɣ d anawn n uẓawan."
"The creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context.",ibḍa ufars d wallal d tixxitrt n udɣar awd asnml n uẓawan s yili adlsan d yili anamun.
"""The composer Richard Wagner recognized the fusion of so many disciplines into a single work of opera, exemplified by his cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen (""""The Ring of the Nibelung"""").""","“yukz umnya ritcard fagnr tamunt n kigan n tẓlayin g yat n twuri n ubṛa, ttuskn g tsutlt nns dr ring di niblungn (““lftl n niblung””).”"
"Other works in the late 19th, 20th and 21st centuries have fused other disciplines in unique and creative ways, such as performance art.","sskrnt twuriwin yaḍn n tgariwin n tsuta tis 19 d tsuta tis 20 d 21 tamunt n tẓlayin yaḍn s tɣarast tamaynut tanulfut, zun d taẓuṛi n ufrru."
"John Cage is regarded by many as a performance artist rather than a composer, although he preferred the latter term.","da ttinin kigan n mddn nwis iga jun kig anaẓuṛ n ufrru ur d amnya, waxxa isty isyif irm amggaru."
"The applied arts includes fields such as industrial design, illustration, and commercial art.",smannt tẓuṛiwin tisnsa kigan n yigran zun d asɣiws amguran d usfsr d tẓuṛi n tsbbabt.
"Within social sciences, cultural economists show how video games playing is conducive to the involvement in more traditional art forms and cultural practices, which suggests the complementarity between video games and the arts.","sg tmassanin tinamunin, llan idamsann idlsann mimk ittgga uwrar n wurar n isarutn da ittwy cr idf g talɣiwin tinaẓuṛin d yiggitn idlsann iqbuṛn kigan, aynna d yakkan asfukku n gr wurarn n isarutn d tẓuṛiwin."
"""Architecture (Latin architectura, from the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton """"architect"""", from ἀρχι- """"chief"""" and τέκτων """"creator"""") is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings or other structures.""","tamsdagt (talatint arcitiktura, sg tyunank ἀρχιτέκτων arxitiktun ““arxitict””, sg ἀρχι- ““amɣar”” d τέκτων ““amsnulfu””) iga tamggayt d tyafut n usɣiws d tiski n taddrwin nɣ ka yaḍn istin s imnadn.”"
"The practice, which began in the prehistoric era, has been used as a way of expressing culture for civilizations on all seven continents.","ttuswurint tmggitin ad, intan g uzmz n dat umzruy, d taɣarast n usiwl xf tdlsa i tɣmiwin g imnẓawn s sa idsn."
"""In the 19th century, Louis Sullivan declared that """"form follows function"""". """"""","“g tsuta tis 19, ilaɣi lwis sulifan nwis “da tḍffuṛ talɣa tazzult””.”””"
"Architecture began as rural, oral vernacular architecture that developed from trial and error to successful replication.",tnta tmsdagt g tgama tamwiwant igman s tirmit d tzglt d wllas imursn.
"During the European Middle Ages, pan-European styles of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals and abbeys emerged while the Renaissance favored Classical forms implemented by architects known by name.","g uzmz anammas n uṛubban, tffɣ d twala n wanawn imatutn g uṛubba sg tkatidṛayin d tṛumanit d tquṭit maka yuf uzmz n tnkra talɣiwin tiklasikitin nna gan imtwaln d imassann s wassaɣ."
"Emphasis was put on modern techniques, materials, and simplified geometric forms, paving the way for high-rise superstructures.","tettuga tawna xf tetiqnitin titrarin d talɣiwin timsdagin tifrarin, aynna ittanfn abrid i tuskiwin tinafllatin timqranin."
A unifying or coherent form or structure.,talɣa nɣ taɣssa imunn imcbbarn.
"The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, and was based on universal, recognisable truths.","yat n tsga sg tsggwin waẓly, day, yan wussif anṣli sg uskkin, ur d askkin ittusarsn ɣas imkinnaɣ, ibddan xf tidt tamassant mi tlla tussna nnsn."
"In the 16th century, Italian Mannerist architect, painter and theorist Sebastiano Serlio wrote Tutte L’Opere D’Architettura et Prospetiva (Complete Works on Architecture and Perspective).","g tsuta tis 16, yara umtwal n tmsdagt d umklu umsksw aṭalyani sibastyanu sirlyu adlisTutte L’Opere D’Architettura et Prospetiva (tiwuriwin ismdn g tmsdagt d usksw)."
"""Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only """"true Christian form of architecture.""""""",“iɣal bujin is tkka tmsdagt taquṭit “mm talɣa ““tamasiḥit n tidt tabaylalt i tmsdagt.”””
"Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are Rationalism, Empiricism, Structuralism, Poststructuralism, Deconstruction and Phenomenology.","sg tflsafin yuwin taɣḍft i imtwaln n tmsdagt itrarn d tɣarast n usɣiws n tuskiwin, tanllit, tirmit, tiski, ffir tiskit, afrtet, d tfinuminulujit."
The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged.,tgma tmsdagt d tɣmawin tiklasikitin zun d tiyunanin d trmanin sg twngimin timdinitin g udɣar n twngimin n usɣan d tirmit ffɣn d wanawn imaynutn n tiski.
Texts on architecture have been written since ancient time.,ttyaran iḍṛiṣn istin s tmsdagt g uzmz azayku.
"Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity.","tssakz tmsdagt tabudit, lumn, yat tiggidit n wanawn isgawann."
"The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.","g tmyurt iga udɣar n umtwal n tmsdagt tiski tadslant, nɣ majistr latumurum imkinna s t farsn ka n tikkal g tntamin titrarin."
"Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio – and the cult of the individual had begun.","ttururant tuskiwin s imtwaln n tmsdagt ibaylaln – brunliski, albirti, maykl anjilu, balladyu – ssntun tussumga n ufgan."
"Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example at École des Beaux-Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility.","ittufka ulmmud n tmsdagt tunṣibt g tsuta tis 19, xf umdya tinml n tẓuṛiwin ẓilnin g fṛansa, kigan n tawna xf ufars n wunuɣn ẓilnin d umudrus n aɣudu."
"Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine-made objects.","sg ixatarn digsn dutcr wirkbund, ittuskan g usggwas n 1907 i ufars n tfggiwin timguranin s wallal iɣudan kigan."
"When modern architecture was first practised, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings.","kudnna g tettuga tmsdagt tatrart tikklt tamzwarut, tkka tt nn tga yan umussu ansdat bu tsura n tɣariwin d tflsaft d yiẓil."
"The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functional details.","iga uɣaras n imtwaln n tmsdagt itrarn asdrus n tuskiwin ɣr talɣiwin ɣudanin, d wukus n imsuɣal d idikuṛn n umzruy taf ad yili uffulls n tfiras n tazzulin."
"Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution, including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to high-rise superstructures.","tawuri n imtwal n tmsdagt zun d mis fan dir ruh d filib junsun d marsil brwir xf ufars n yiẓil s tmitar n tangiwin n tiski d tetiqnitin n tiski tatrart, d uswuri n talɣiwin tiqburin i talɣiwin n tmsdagt tafrart, d usfuglu s iskkinn d wallaln imaynutn d tfka tgrawla n tmguri, g tlla tiki n tsqqulin n wuzzal, d ifkan tigawt n tsqqulin tifllatin timajjgalin."
"The preparatory processes for the design of any large building have become increasingly complicated, and require preliminary studies of such matters as durability, sustainability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws.","dwlnt tmggitin tiɣrmanin i usɣiws n ku tiski taxatart idusn s talɣa tamzaydt, ar ssuturnt tzrawin timzwura i tɣawsiwin zun d timggitin am tdusi d tadumt d uɣudu d uqariḍ d uḍffuṛ n islgan idɣrann."
"Environmental sustainability has become a mainstream issue, with a profound effect on the architectural profession.",taɣul tadumt tangamat tamntilt tadslant mm usyafa axatar g tazzult n tmsdagt n tiski.
This major shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools to focus more on the environment.,asnfl ad axatar g tmsdagt n tiski isnfl ltu tinmal n tmsdagt s tawna taxatart xf tgama.
The U.S. Green Building Council's LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this.,ila ugrra n bṭṭu LEED (tamzwart g tdusi d usɣiws angama) iḍfaṛn i usqqim n tuskiwin tizgzawin n mirikan tilalt tadslant g tɣawsa ad.
"It can also be the initial design and plan for use, then later redesigned to accommodate a changed purpose, or a significantly revised design for adaptive reuse of the building shell.","iɣy ad ig altu asɣiws amzwaru d tɣarast n uswuri, ittyils usɣiws nns ad tmun d uwttas, nɣ asɣiws uzdig i wallas n uswuri i tsqqult n tiski."
"Preliminary design of the vessel, its detailed design, construction, trials, operation and maintenance, launching and dry-docking are the main activities involved.","iga usɣiws amzwaru n uɣrrabu, d usɣiws n icumma, d tiski, d tirmitin, d uswuri d usɣudu, d uṛẓẓum, d uglmam izwan gant tilal tidslnin."
"Conversely, sacred architecture as a locale for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely private, personal and non-public.","s unmgal nns, iga uẓkka afuẓaṛ ansa n izdayn n iḥulfan, iṭṭaṛn zik, lumn s talɣa tanẓẓit, tuẓlit ur d tamatut."
"With the rise of Christianity and Islam, religious buildings increasingly became centres of worship, prayer and meditation.","s ussnti n tmasiḥit d lislam, taɣul tiski n usɣan ar tgmma d wammasn n tissumga d tẓallit d umnad."
"India was crisscrossed by trading routes of merchants from as far away as Siraf and China as well as weathering invasions by foreigners, resulting in multiple influences of foreign elements on native styles.","tkka tt nn hind da ttmyabbay s ibrdan n tsbbabt n isbbabn sg idɣarn yaggugn zun d siraf d ṣṣin s trnawt n imsdurruyn n ibṛṛanitn, aynna d ifkan uguyn ggudinin g tmamkin tidɣranin."
An existing example is at Nalanda (Bihar).,illa umdya illan g nalanda (bihaṛ).
"In accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas (stupa halls).","s tiẓiṛt n isnfal n tmggitin n usɣan, ittuga usmun n tɣrmatin s uskfl g cayṭya grihas (tidaliwin n stuba)."
"Buddhist temples were developed rather later and outside South Asia, where Buddhism gradually declined from the early centuries CE onwards, though an early example is that of the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar.","ittuga usbuɣlu n wansiwn n tkuḍa ibiditng yn uzmz t iḍfaṛn d bṛṛa n iffus n asya, aynna taɣul ḍaṛt tbudit g tsutiwin timzwura ffir n tlalit, waxxa iga wansa n tkuḍa mahabudi g bud gaya g bihaṛ."
"In Hindu belief, the temple represents the macrocosm of the universe as well as the microcosm of inner space.","g taɣalt tahindusit, iga wansa n tukḍa amaḍal amqran d umaḍal amẓẓan n usayrar n ugnsu."
It evolved over a period of more than 2000 years.,tettugma g wugar n 2000 n usggwas.
"In addition, brick replaced stone, classical order was less strictly observed, mosaics replaced carved decoration, and complex domes were erected.","rnu as, ittusnfl islli s wuṭṭṭub, ig ugrra aklasiki war aqwwr, ttusnflnt tdikuṛin ittuklan tuddisin, ttuskint tqubba idusn."
The earliest styles in Islamic architecture produced 'Arab-plan' or hypostyle mosques during the Umayyad Dynasty.,ttufarsnt tɣarasin n zikk g uẓkka amunslm timzgidiwin ‘asɣiws aɛṛab’ nɣ d timzgidiwin n tsura g uzmz n twacunt tamawit.
"In iwan mosques, one or more iwans face a central courtyard that serves as the prayer hall.","g tmzgidiwin n iwan, illa g udɣar id iwan yan nɣ ugar g wammas ar ittuswuri am tdala n tẓallit."
"The top of the minaret is always the highest point in mosques that have one, and often the highest point in the immediate area.","da ittili wussif anaflla abda g udɣar n tɣuri aflla n tmzgida digs ɣas yat, ar tettili s umata g udɣar amajjgal g tmnaḍt yaḍn."
"Consequently, mosque architects borrowed the shape of the bell tower for their minarets, which were used for essentially the same purpose – calling the faithful to prayer.","d tyafut n uya, ṛṭln imtwaln n tmzgidiwin talɣa n tɣrmt i imɣri nnsn, ittuswurin i yan uwttas – taɣuri i imumnn ɣr tẓallit."
"Although domes normally took on the shape of a hemisphere, the Mughals in India popularized onion-shaped domes in South Asia and Persia.","waxxa gant tqubba am uzgn n tkurin, sskrn imaɣuln g hind tiqubba s talɣa n tẓalimt g iffus asya d tmurt n faris."
"Usually opposite the entrance to the prayer hall is the qibla wall, which is the visually emphasized area inside the prayer hall.","g tmyurt da ittili dat n tdala n tẓallit ugadir n lqblt, ig ansa ittyannayn kigan g tdala n tẓallit."
"In the qibla wall, usually at its center, is the mihrab, a niche or depression indicating the'qibla wall.","illa ugadir n lqblt, g tmyurt g wammas, amiḥṛab isskan agadir n lqblt."
The mihrab serves as the location where the imam leads the five daily prayers on a regular basis.,amiḥṛab iga ansa g ittili limam n tẓilla s smmust s talɣa tamsudst.
"It consists of a nave, transepts, and the altar stands at the east end (see cathedral diagram).","da ittili digs uɣzzal n tkanisat, d udɣar n tɣrsa, d wansa n tɣrsa g tsga n unqqr (ẓṛ unuɣ n tkatidṛa)."
"Most architectural historians regard Michelangelo's design of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome as a precursor to the Baroque style; this can be recognized by broader interior spaces (replacing long narrow naves), more playful attention to light and shadow, extensive ornamentation, large frescoes, focus on interior art, and frequently, a dramatic central exterior projection.","gan kigan n inmzruyn n tmsdagt asɣiws n maykl anjilu i tkatidrat n ufuẓaṛ bitrs g ṛuma zun d tazwarut n tmamkt tabaṛukit; iɣy ad ittuyassn s tjummiwin n ugnsu amiriw (asnfl n yilm inyaman iɣzzif), d uskutt ugar s usidd d umalu, d udikuṛ amiriw, kigan n tikkal, taḍuṛi tabṛṛant n wammas adṛami."
"While secular structures clearly had the greater influence on the development of modern architecture, several excellent examples of modern architecture can be found in religious buildings of the 20th century.","lant tsqqulin titrarin atig axatar g ubuɣlu n tmsdagt tatrart, ar ttyafan kigan n imdyatn ẓilnin uẓkka atrar g tuskiwin n usɣan g tsuta tis 20."
"""It has been described as a """"phalanx of fighters"""" turned on their tails and pointing heavenward.""",“ttufrsnt s ““tasḍma n isrdasn”” tnngwdm ɣif ixf nns ar tsskan ignna.”
"The Temple at Independence, Missouri was conceived by Japanese architect Gyo Obata after the concept of the chambered nautilus.",iga umtwal n tmsdagt tayabanit gyu ubata i usɣiws n wansa n tkuḍa g tsimant n twilayat n mizuri ffir armmus n tmṣṛiyt nutilus.
The Basilica of Our Lady of Licheń on the other hand is a much more traditional edifice.,"g tayḍ tsga, tga bazilika tamsiwt n litcin tiski rqburt kigan."
An architectural style is a set of characteristics and features that make a building or other structure notable or historically identifiable.,tga tmamkt tamsdagt yat tgrumma n imẓlayn d tmatarin yakkan i tiski nɣ d tasqqult yaḍn isfikkitn nɣ ttyassn g umzruy.
"Most architecture can be classified within a chronology of styles which changes over time reflecting changing fashions, beliefs and religions, or the emergence of new ideas, technology, or materials which make new styles possible.","da ibṭṭu utwal n tmsdagt g usddi akudan i tmamkin issnfaln g wakud iwad tsskn asnfl n tmuḍa d tmɣalin d isɣann, d wuntu n twmgimin d tetiqnitin nɣ d timtta timaynutin yakkan tazmrt i tmamkin timaynutin."
"At any time several styles may be fashionable, and when a style changes it usually does so gradually, as architects learn and adapt to new ideas.","g ku tizi, ɣint ad gint tmamkin titrarin, addag tsnfl tmamkt da ittuga s imik s imik, ar ttlmadn imswuritn n tmsdagt ar ttmunn d tktiyin timaynutin."
"For instance, Renaissance ideas emerged in Italy around 1425 and spread to all of Europe over the next 200 years, with the French, German, English, and Spanish Renaissances showing recognisably the same style, but with unique characteristics.","xf umdya, ffɣn d tktiyin n uzmz n tnkra g iṭalya attay n usggwas n 1425 allig taɣ tisggin akkw n uṛubba g 200 n usggwas, ssknent tnkriwib tafṛansist d talmanit d tnglizit d tṣblyunit yat n tmamkt, maka ku yat s ma s tsty."
"After an architectural style has gone out of fashion, revivals and re-interpretations may occur.","ḍaṛt wufuɣ n tmamkt n tmsdagt xf tmuḍa, iɣy ad yili ussidr d wallas n isfrutn."
"The Spanish mission style was revived 100 years later as the Mission Revival, and that soon evolved into the Spanish Colonial Revival.","tettussidr tmamkt twuri tasblyunit ffir 100 n usggwas, zik ffir assidr n umsdurri asblyuni."
An example of Mannerist architecture is the Villa Farnese at Caprarola in the rugged country side outside of Rome.,amdya n utwal n tmsdagt mannirist igan filla farns g kabrarula g tsga tangamat icqqan bṛṛa n ṛuma.
"Through Antwerp, Renaissance and Mannerist styles were widely introduced in England, Germany, and northern and eastern Europe in general.","s antwirb, ttusnalant tmamkin n uzmz n tkra d mannirist kigan g inglatiṛṛa d almanya d iẓẓlmḍ d unqqr n uṛubba maṛṛa."
The Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms.,ifka umnzay n umsasa s tfilawt g uzmz n tnkra abrid i wanyatn ilellitn d iwngamn.
"Architectural theory is the act of thinking, discussing, and writing about architecture.",tiẓiṛt tamsdagt tga igi n uswngm d umrara n wawal d tirra xf tmsdagt.
"Architectural theory is often didactic, and theorists tend to stay close to or work from within schools.","da tettili tiẓiṛt n tmsdagt tin usslmd, ar zddɣn imiẓiṛn ɣr unmila n tinmal nɣ da swurin agnsu nnsnt."
"This does not mean, however, that such works did not exist, given that many works never survived antiquity.","aya ur igi, waxxa, nwis ur llint twuriwin, s usksw ɣr kigan n twuriwin ur njimt sg uzmz aqbur."
"Probably written between 27 and 23 BC, it is the only major contemporary source on classical architecture to have survived.","ɛniɣ ittyara ingr 27 d 23 dat n tlalit, d asaɣul atrar abaylal i tmsgda taklasikt injmn."
"It also proposes the three fundamental laws that architecture must obey, in order to be so considered: firmitas, utilitas, venustas, translated in the 17th century by Sir Henry Wotton into the English slogan firmness, commodity and delight (meaning structural adequacy, functional adequacy, and beauty).","imkinna d igra altu islgan idslann s kṛaḍ mi ixssa ad iḍfṛ utwal amsdag, taf ad t asin: firmatas, ɣinustas, utilitas, issaɣl tn hinri wutun g tsuta tiss 17 ɣr tazult tanglizit astaw d tmtta d umdaz (s unamk n tzmrt n tsqqulin d tzmrt tazzulant, d waẓly)."
"Since the architectural theories were on structures, fewer of them were transcribed.","acku llant tiẓiṛin timsdagin xf tsqqulin, aynnaɣ axf ittyasy yan umḍan amudrus digsnt."
These theories anticipated the development of Functionalism in modern architecture.,dmant tiẓiṛin ad abuɣlu n taẓẓult g tmsdagt tatrart.
"This in turn formed the basis for Art Nouveau in the UK, exemplified by the work of Charles Rennie Mackintosh, and influenced the Vienna Secession.","iga uya tasarut n tẓuṛi tatrart s twala nns g tgldit imunn, d iffɣn sg twuriwin n tcarlz rini makintuc, iṭṭus altu astay n fitnam."
The generation born during the middle-third of the 19th century was largely enthralled with the opportunities presented by Semper's combination of a breathtaking historical scope and a methodological granularity.,ssitmnt tasuta d ilulan g wis kṛaḍ anammas n tsuta tis 19 kigan n twila ifka tamunt smbr n umzruy iɣudan d tɣarasin maṛṛa.
The Modern Movement rejected these thoughts and Le Corbusier energetically dismissed the work.,yugy umussu atrar tiktiyin yagy lu kurbuzyi tawuri d tdusi.
"Another influential planning theorist of this time was Ebenezer Howard, who founded the garden city movement.","sg imssiẓiṛn n usɣiws ilan atig g uzmz ann illa ibinizr huward, iskan amussu n tmdint n wurtan."
"An early use of the term modern architecture in print occurred in the title of a book by Otto Wagner, who gave examples of his own work representative of the Vienna Secession with art nouveau illustrations, and didactic teachings to his students.","inta uswuri n zikk i yirm n tmsdagt tatrart g tsaggzt n uzwl n udlis sg ufars n utu wagnr, ifkan imdyatn n twuri nns d agnsas n ustay n fyinna d wunuɣn issfrun taẓuṛi tatrart, d ismigiln n usslmd i imzrawn nns."
"Frank Lloyd Wright, while modern in rejecting historic revivalism, was idiosyncratic in his theory, which he conveyed in copious writing.","iga frank lwid rayt atrar g yigy n ussidr n umzruy, maka isty g tiẓiṛt nns, d ismatty sg tirra ggudinin."
Wright was more poetic and firmly maintained the 19th-century view of the creative artist as unique genius.,iga rayt amdyaz iḥḍu asksw n tsuta tis 19 i unaẓuṛ n ufars nwis iga anmkrra abaylal.
"This has also been the case with educators in academia like Dalibor Vesely or Alberto-Perez Gomez, and in more recent years this philosophical orientation has been reinforced through the research of a new generation of theorists (E.G. Jeffrey Kipnis or Sanford Kwinter).","iga uya am waddad n islmadn g wammasn ikadimitn zun d dalibur fisili nɣ d albirtu-biriz gumiz, g isggwasn imggura ittyaws i tnila ad tflsaft s urzzu tga tsuta n imssiẓiṛn (amdya jiffriy kibnis nɣ danfurd kwitr)."
"Others, like Beatriz Colomina and Mary McLeod, expand historical understandings of architecture to include lesser or minor discourses that have influenced the development of architectural ideas over time.","wiyyaḍ, zun d bitriz kulumina d mari imssiliyud, yunfn armas n umzruy i utwal n tmsdagt allig ismun iɣuritn iṭṭusn abuɣlu n tktiyin n tmsdagt xf taɣzi n wakud."
"In their theories, architecture is compared to a language which can be invented and re-invented every time it is used.","g tiẓiṛin nnsn, da tettuzmzazal tmsdagt s tutlayt ittufarsn ittyils as ufars ku tikklt tettuswuri."
"Since 2000, architectural theory has also had to face the rapid rise of urbanism and globalization.","sg usggwas n 2000, icil as i tiẓiṛt n tmsdagt altu ad nttal tattayt tansddraft n tmdint d tmaḍlant."
"""In the past decade, there has been the emergence of the so-called """"Digital"""" Architecture.""","“g tmrawant izrin, illa wufuɣ n utwal ““anmuṭṭun”” amsdag.”"
Architects also design organic-looking buildings in the attempt to develop a new formal language.,da sɣawan imtwaln n tmsdagt altu tuskiwin mm umnad n tɣssa taf ad gin asbuɣlu n yat tutlayt tunṣibt taamaynut.
"Since these new architectural tendencies emerged, many theorists and architects have been working on these issues, developing theories and ideas such as Patrick Schumacher's Parametricism.","sg wufuɣ n tnilawin ad n tmsdagt tamaynut, iswuri kigan n imssiẓiṛn d imtwal n tmsdagt xf tɣawsiwin ad, d usbuɣlu n tiẓiṛin d tktiyin zun d baramitrissizm n batrik cumaxr."
"Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire, or Eastern Roman Empire.","tga tmsdagt tabizanṭit atwal n tmsdagt n tmbṛaṭuṛt tabizanṭit, nɣ tambraṭuṛt taṛumanit n unqqr."
Magnificent golden mosaics with their graphic simplicity brought light and warmth into the heart of churches.,tmun d tfusysist n wurɣ iẓiln s ufrar nns n wunuɣn asidd d unrɣi i wul n tkanisatin.
Some of the columns were also made of marble.,imkinna gant yids n trsal altu sg timcci.
"Precious wood furniture, like beds, chairs, stools, tables, bookshelves and silver or golden cups with beautiful reliefs, decorated Byzantine interiors.","aṛṛuḍn n ukccuḍ iɣlan, zun d usutn d isggiwar d tdabutin d isyan n idlisn d iɣrrafn n uẓṛf nɣ d win wurɣ ayt udikur iẓiln d idikurn n ugnsu abizanṭi."
"For Classical temples, only the exterior was important, because only the priests entered the interior, where the statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated was kept.","ila wudm n bṛṛa n wansiwn n tissumga iklasikitn atig axatar ɣas ntta, acku ɣas ikahunn ayd ikccmn s agnsu, ḥḍun digs akuc xf ittuga wansa n tissumga."
"Those in the Cathedral of Saint Mark, Venice (1071) specially attracted John Ruskin's fancy.","tinna illan g tkatidrat sant mark, tldy d tayri n tbunduqt (1071) lumn jun ruskin."
"On eastern columns the eagle, the lion and the lamb are occasionally carved, but treated conventionally.","xf trsal n unqqr, da ittmsal igidr d yizm d unuguḍ ka n tikkal, maka s tɣarast taqburt."
Composite columns line the principal space of the nave.,bddant trsal iskan xf tjumma tadslant n uɣzzal.
The columns are filled with foliage in all sorts of variations.,da ttkturnt trsal s wafriwn n twriqin s wanawn d imzarayn.
"Other structures include the ruins of the Great Palace of Constantinople, the innovative walls of Constantinople (with 192 towers) and Basilica Cistern (with hundreds of recycled classical columns).","lant tsqqulin yaḍn g iḍṛiẓn n iɣrm n tqusṭanṭint axatar, d iɣrabn n tqusṭanṭint n zik (akd 192 n tɣrmt) d tkatidra n tnuḍfi (akd timiḍiwin n trsal tiklasikin mi ittuga usɣudu)."
"The Paleologan period is well represented in a dozen former churches in Istanbul, notably St Saviour at Chora and St Mary Pammakaristos.","ittyals ugnses n tizi n balyulujan s talɣa idusn g id mraw n tkanisatin tizaykutin g isṭanbul, lumn sant safyur g tcura d sant mari bamakaristus."
The Church of the Holy Apostles (Thessaloniki) is cited as an archetypal structure of the late period with its exterior walls intricately decorated with complex brickwork patterns or with glazed ceramics.,tettuga tkanisat n huli abustl (tisaluniki) d tasqqult tamdyat n tiei tamggarut s iɣrabn nns n bṛṛa idikuṛan s talɣa tuddist d tntamin tuddisin n wuṭṭub nɣ d ssiramik bu jjaj.
"At Saint Sergius, Constantinople, and San Vitale, Ravenna, churches of the central type, the space under the dome was enlarged by having apsidal additions made to the octagon.","g tkanisatin n sant sirjyus, taqusṭanṭint, d sant fitali, rafina, tettuyiriw tjumma illan izar n tqubt s urnu n trnawin nngwdmnin xf umtam."
"This unbroken area, about 260 ft (80 m) long, the larger part of which is over 100 ft (30 m) wide, is entirely covered by a system of domical surfaces.","ansa ad ur iṛṛẓin, mi nn tlkm taɣzi 260 n ubacil (80 mitr), d wussif axatar yugr 100 n ubacil (30 mitr), imdln kullu s ugrra n tduliwin tidslanin."
At the Holy Apostles (6th century) five domes were applied to a cruciform plan; the central dome was the highest.,g huli abustl (tasuta tis 6) ttugant smmust n tqubba xf uɣawas n wanca; tg tqabbut tanammast tamajjgalt digsnt.
"Sometimes the central space was square, sometimes octagonal, or at least there were eight piers supporting the dome instead of four, and the nave and transepts were narrower in proportion.","g kra n tikkal da ttili tjumma tanammast tamkuẓt, tiyyaḍ tamtamt , nɣ d mm tamt n isulay yswn i ibddi n tqabbut g udɣar n kkuẓ, imẓiy uɣzzal d isakatn."
Still in front put a square court.,isal datas usays amkkuẓ.
"Directly under the center of the dome is the ambo, from which the Scriptures were proclaimed, and beneath the ambo at floor level was the place for the choir of singers.","srid ddaw n wammas n tqabbut tlla tdabut, g ittuɣra udlis afuẓaṛ, ddaw n tdabut tlla tduli n wudmkal igan ansa n trubba n imarirn."
Rows of rising seats around the curve of the apse with the patriarch's throne at the middle eastern point formed the synthronon.,gan idrsn n isggiwar yattuyn xf twrerrayt n tduli d udabu abaṭṛiṛk g tnqqiḍt n unqqr anammas ittggan sintrunun.
The domes and vaults to the exterior were covered with lead or with tiling of the Roman variety.,ttudlant tqubba sg bṛṛa s ugari nɣ aɣmis n wanaw aṛumani.
There are considerable Byzantine influences which can be detected in the distinctive early Islamic monuments in Syria (709–715).,llan wuḍusn ibizanṭitn ixatarn mi ittubaḍ usksw g umaḍal anslm aqbur illan g surya (709–715).
"Bricks 70 cm x 35 cm x 5 cm were used, and these bricks were glued together using mortar approximately 5 cm thick.","ittuswura wuṭṭub n 70 sm x 35 sm x 5 sm, ittuslɣ wuṭṭub d wayḍ s ssima s wattay n 5 sm."
Perhaps the most definite feature of the Hagia Irene is the strict contrast between the interior and exterior design.,iɣy ad ig watig ittyaksn g hajya irin bṭṭu n usɣiws agnsan d ubṛṛan.
"This style influenced the construction of several other buildings, such as St. Peter's Basilica.","tṭṭus tmamkt ad tiski n kigan n tuskiwin yaḍn, zun d takatidrat n ufuẓuṛ bitrz."
"The construction of the final version of the Hagia Sophia, which still stands today, was overseen by Emperor Justinian.","ibdda umbṛaṭuṛ justinyan xf tiski tamqqarut n aya ṣufya, isuln ibddan awd ass ad."
"Gothic architecture (or pointed architecture) is an architectural style that was particularly popular in Europe from the late 12th century to the 16th century, during the High and Late Middle Ages, surviving into the 17th and 18th centuries in some areas.","tmsdagt taquṭit (nɣ tamsdagt tamdbbebt) tga tamamkt n tmsdagt illan kigan g uṛubba g uṛubba g tgara n tsuta tis 12 ar tis 16, g uzmz anammas amajjgal d umggaru, idus ar tasuta tis 17 d tis 18 g kra n wansiwn."
The style at the time was sometimes known as opus Francigenum (lit.,tga tmamkt g wakud ann tettyassn s wassaɣ n ubus fansijinum (lit.
The primary engineering innovation and one of the other characteristic design components is the flying buttress.,afars n tmsdagt adslan d yan sg ifrdisn n usɣiws yaḍn tga t tsnnalut ittaylaln.
"However, there is no evidence to indicate that there was a connection between Armenian architecture and the development of the Gothic style in Western Europe.","waxxa, ur illi unmmal ittawin ɣr tilawt n uzday gr tmsdagt taṛminit d ubuɣlu n tmamkt taquṭit g uṛubba n uɣlluy."
"Thus the Gothic style, being in opposition to classical architecture, from that point of view was associated with the destruction of advancement and sophistication.","aya as tga tmamkt taquṭit, tanmgalt n tmsdagt taklasikit, g tayḍ tsga tzdy d trdla n ubuɣlu d tuddist."
"The term ‘Saracen’ was still in use in the 18th century and it typically referred to all Muslim conquerors, including the Moors and Arabs.","iqqima yirm ‘sarasin’ ar ittuswuri g tsuta 18 ila anamk n imsdurritn imunslmn, imurn d waɛṛabn."
"His aversion of the style was so strong that he refused to put a Gothic roof on the new St. Paul's, despite being pressured to do so.","ikka ibrra tamamkt kigan allig yugy ad isirs yat n tduli taquṭit i tiski sant bul amaynu, waxxa ittubrk ɣifs ad t ig."
"Several authors have taken a stance against this allegation, claiming that the Gothic style had most likely filtered into Europe in other ways, for example through Spain or Sicily.","usin kigan n imsnulfa tannayt mgal awal ad, ar ttinin nwusn tkcm tmamkt taquṭit ɣr uṛubba s tɣarasin yaḍn, s umdya sg isbanya nɣ ṣiqilya."
It was also influenced by theological doctrines which called for more light and by technical improvements in vaults and buttresses that allowed much greater height and larger windows.,immkinna ttuḍas s taɣalin isawln ɣif usidd d isɣudutn itiqnitn g tqubba d trsal d tsura yakkan tattayt taxatart d isṛẓam ixatarn.
Rib-vaults were employed in some parts of the cathedral at Durham (1093–) and in Lessay Abbey in Normandy (1098).,ttuswurint tqubba timɣzdisin g kra n tuṭṭutin n tkatidrat g durham (1093–) d g lissi abbiy g nuṛmandi (1098).
"The Duchy of Normandy, part of the Angevin Empire until the 13th century, developed its own version of Gothic.","tsbuɣla duqya nuṛmandi, ikkan d ussif n tmbṛaṭuṛt anjfin ar tasuta tis 13, tunɣilt nns g tutlayt taquṭit."
One example of early Norman Gothic is Bayeux Cathedral (1060–70) where the Romanesque cathedral nave and choir were rebuilt into the Gothic style.,yan sg imdyatn n tmamkt taquṭit tanuṛmandit n zik tga t tkatidrat bayu (1060–70)cg tettyals tiski n uɣzzal n tkatidrat taṛumanit s tmamkt taquṭit.
Coutances Cathedral was remade into Gothic beginning about 1220.,tettyals tiski n tkatidrat kutuns ɣr tmamkt taquṭit g wattay n usggwas n 1220.
Suger reconstructed portions of the old Romanesque church with the rib vault in order to remove walls and to make more space for windows.,yuls sugr tiski n wussifn n tkanisat taṛumanit taqburt d tḥmmarin taf ad ikks igudar yajj adɣar i isṛẓam.
"In addition, he installed a circular rose window over the portal on the facade.","rnu as i uya, iska yan usṛẓm awrerray s talɣa n tljjigt aflla n tflut n yidf."
"Durham Cathedral was the first cathedral to employ a rib vault, built between 1093 and 1104.","tga tkatidrat durham takatidrat tamzwarut iswuran tiḥmaṛin, ttuskant gr usggwas n 1093 d 1104."
"One of the builders who is believed to have worked on Sens Cathedral, William of Sens, later travelled to England and became the architect who, between 1175 and 1180, reconstructed the choir of Canterbury Cathedral in the new Gothic style.","immudda wilyam uf sans, yan sg imska iswurin g tkatidṛat sins, ɣr inglatiṛṛa idwl ig amtwal n tmsdagt yulsn i tiski n tilalt n tktidṛat n kantrburi s tmamkt taquṭit tamaynut gr usggwas n 1175 d 1180."
"French Gothic churches were heavily influenced both by the ambulatory and side-chapels around the choir at Saint-Denis, and by the paired towers and triple doors on the western façade.","ttuslynt tkanisatin tiquṭiyin tifṛansisin kigan s tkanisatin ittmuttuyn d tkanisatin n tsggwin n tilalt g san duni, d tɣrmatin tiyugatin d kṛaḍ n iflwan g tnila n uɣlluy."
"The builders of Notre-Dame went further by introducing the flying buttress, heavy columns of support outside the walls connected by arches to the upper walls.","lkmn nn imska n nutrdam ugar n uya s usnil n tsnnalut ittaylaln, igan tirsal timastalin n tnalit bṛṛa n igudar izdin d tskrin n igudar n waflla."
His work was continued by William the Englishman who replaced his French namesake in 1178.,ismd wilyam anglizi tawuri nns s wassaɣ n afṛansis asggwas n 1178.
"Tiercerons – decorative vaulting ribs – seem first to be have been used in vaulting at Lincoln Cathedral, installed c.1200.","tiyṛsuṛuns – iɣsdisn n tḥmmaṛin– tettuwuri tizwuri g tḥmmaṛin n tkatidṛat linkuln, ittusnin g c.1200."
"The first building in the High Gothic was Chartres Cathedral, an important pilgrimage church south of Paris.","illa uẓkka amzwaru g hay gutik igan takidṛat caṛtṛ, tg takanisat n trzft g iffus n baris."
"The walls were filled with stained glass, mainly depicting the story of the Virgin Mary but also, in a small corner of each window, illustrating the crafts of the guilds who donated those windows.","tkarn iɣrabn n jjaj ikwlan, ittalsn tanfust n massa mayryam, d g ku tiɣlrt tamẓẓyant n usṛẓm, isskann tazzulin n winna isrzfn isṛẓmn ad."
"In central Europe, the High Gothic style appeared in the Holy Roman Empire, first at Toul (1220–), whose Romanesque cathedral was rebuilt in the style of Reims Cathedral; then Trier's Liebfrauenkirche parish church (1228–), and then throughout the Reich, beginning with the Elisabethkirche at Marburg (1235–) and the cathedral at Metz (c.1235–).","g wammas n uṛubba, tffɣ d tmamkt taquṭit tamajjgalt g tmbṛaṭuṛt taṛumanit tafuẓaṛt, tizwiri g tul (1220–), g tettyals tiski n tkatidṛat nns mm tmamkt taṛumanskit xf tkatidṛat rims; g wis sin g tkanisat n ismgan trir libfruynkirc (1228–), d ffir as ansiwn akkw n rayx, sg tkanisat ilizabitkirc g marburg (1235–) d tkatidṛat g mitz (c.1235–)."
Lancet windows were supplanted by multiple lights separated by geometrical bar-tracery.,ttusnfaln isṛẓam n lansit s isiddn ggutnin bḍanin s idikuṛn n tmsdagt.
"Other characteristics of the High Gothic were the development of rose windows of greater size, using bar-tracery, higher and longer flying buttresses, which could reach up to the highest windows, and walls of sculpture illustrating biblical stories filling the facade and the fronts of the transept.","kkant tfiras yaḍn n tquṭit tamajjgalt gant asbuɣlu n isṛẓam n tljjigin tixatarin, s uswuri n idikuṛn imakazn, d tsnnula yuyllan tixatarin d tmajjgalin, nn ittawḍn isṛẓam imajjgaln, d igudar itkarn s igzayn isskann tinfusin timkkusa idlan udmawn n wansa."
"The high and thin walls of French Rayonnant Gothic allowed by the flying buttresses enabled increasingly ambitious expanses of glass and decorated tracery, reinforced with ironwork.","fkan iɣrabn imajjgaln isdidn n ṛayununt gutik tafṛansist d fkant tsnnula yuyllan tijumma iẓiln kigan s jjaj d udikuṛ, ittwannaln d twuriwin n wuzzal."
Masons elaborated a series of tracery patterns for windows – from the basic geometrical to the reticulated and the curvilinear – which had superseded the lancet window.,fkan imasunitn tigmi i usddi n tmamkin n udikuṛ n isṛẓam – n talɣiwin n utwal adslan ɣr talɣiwin n tratsa d umgguss – iḍṛan adɣar n usṛẓm afrar.
"Churches with features of this style include Westminster Abbey (1245–), the cathedrals at Lichfield (after 1257–) and Exeter (1275–), Bath Abbey (1298–), and the retro choir at Wells Cathedral (c.1320–).","smanent tkanisatin id mm tfiras tustiyin i tmamkt ad addir n wistminstr (1245–), d tkatidṛatin g litcfiyild (ffir n 1257-), d ikstr (1275-), d addir n bat (1298-), d tilalt taqburt g tkatidṛat wilz (c.1320-)."
Use of ogees was especially common.,aswuri n ugiz iggudy kigan.
"Examples of French flamboyant building include the west façade of Rouen Cathedral, and especially the façades of Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes (1370s) and choir Mont-Saint-Michel's abbey church (1448).","smann imdyatn xf tuskiwin tifṛansisin issuddan tanila n uɣlluy n tkatidṛat ṛwan, lumn tinila sant cabil du finsinn (1370s) d tkanisat n waddir mun-sant-micil (1448)."
It first appeared in the cloisters and chapter-house (c. 1332) of Old St Paul's Cathedral in London by William de Ramsey.,tffɣ d tikklt tamzwarut g tadir umagrad (c. 1332) g tkatidṛat n ufuẓaṛ buls taqburt g lundun s ufus n wilyam du ramzi.
"Perpendicular is sometimes called Third Pointed and was employed over three centuries; the fan-vaulted staircase at Christ Church, Oxford built around 1640.",ila ugjdi assaɣ n tnqqiḍt tis kṛaḍt ar iswuri xf kṛaḍt tsutiwin; askwfl n tqabbut g tkanisat n umasiḥ g uksfurd ittuska attay n 1640.
"The Kings of France had first-hand knowledge of the new Italian style, because of the military campaign of Charles VIII to Naples and Milan (1494), and especially the campaigns of Louis XII and Francis I (1500–1505) to restore French control over Milan and Genoa.","lan igllidn n fṛansa tussna tusridt s tmamkt taṭalyanit tamaynut, s umntil n yisy asdas iga tcaṛlz wis tam xf nabuli d milanu (1494), lumn g yisiyn n lwis wis sin d mraw d fṛansis amzwaru (1500-1505) i trarit n tnbaḍt tafṛansist. aflla n milan d jinwa."
The Château de Blois (1515–24) introduced the Renaissance loggia and open stairway.,tzwar tɣrmt n blwa (1515–24) lujya d tsalyiwin unfnin g uzmz n tnkra.
"Under Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, England was largely isolated from architectural developments on the continent.","g uzmz n hinri wis tam d ilizabit tis tamt, tkka inglatiṛṛa ttussitm kigan g tigmi n tmsdagt g umnẓaw."
Shute published the first book in English on classical architecture in 1570.,ifsr cut adlis amzwaru s tutlayt tanglizit xf tmsdagt taklasikit g usggwas n 1570.
"The pointed arch did not originate in Gothic architecture; they had been employed for centuries in the Near East in pre-Islamic as well as Islamic architecture for arches, arcades, and ribbed vaults.",ur ittuski yisk amdebbeb g tmsdagt taquṭit; swurin t g tsutiwin g unqqr amazdar g tmsdagt n dat lislam d g tmsdagt tamunslmt i yiskawn d tiqubba mm iɣsdisn.
"They were also sometimes used for more practical purposes, such as to bring transverse vaults to the same height as diagonal vaults, as in the nave and aisles of Durham Cathedral, built in 1093.","da tettuswuri g kra n tikkal i isuɣad ilan tawuri, zun d anzzuɣ n tqubba timaldayin ɣr yat n tattayt n tqubba iggussn, am iɣzzaln d isakatn n tkatidṛat duṛham, ittuskan asggwas n 1093."
"Unlike the semi-circular barrel vault of Roman and Romanesque buildings, where the weight pressed directly downward, and required thick walls and small windows, the Gothic rib vault was made of diagonal crossing arched ribs.","mgal n tḥmmaṛin tiwlellutin tizgnwrerrayin n tuskiwin tiṛumanitin, g tettili tastli srid s izdar, ar ttettr iɣrabn izurarn d isṛẓam imẓẓynn, gant tḥmmaṛin tiquṭitin timguranin sg iɣsdisn izgnwrerrayn imyabbayn."
The outward thrust against the walls was countered by the weight of buttresses and later flying buttresses.,tettuga tnalit d trarit sg bṛṛa i iɣrabn s tastli n tsnnula d tsnnula yuyllan g wayḍ uzmz.
"They were very difficult to build, and could only cross a limited space.","iga amrar ad tettuska, ula as tzmr i uzray n tjumma."
"The alternating rows of alternating columns and piers receiving the weight of the vaults was replaced by simple pillars, each receiving the same weight.","ttunfln idrsn ittmwalan n trsal d isalitn d ittmwalan ittamẓn tastli n tqubba s trsal tifrarin, ku yat digsnt tusy yat tastli."
"The first of these new vaults had an additional rib, called a tierceron, which ran down the median of the vault.","kkant tqubba ad timaynutin lant yan iɣsdis yaḍn, ilan assaɣ n tirsrun, ittddun ddaw n wammas n tḥmmaṛ."
These vaults often copied the forms form of the elaborate tracery of the Late Gothic styles.,kigan n tikkal ayd da d ttasint tqubba ad g talɣiwin n udikuṛ n tmamkin tiquṭitin timggura.
"A second type was called a reticulated vault, which had a network of additional decorative ribs, in triangles and other geometric forms, placed between or over the traverse ribs.","anaw wis sin ila assaɣ n tḥmmaṛt mm tratsa, anaw ad ila iɣzdisn idikuṛn yaḍn, g tmkṛaḍin d talɣiwin timtwal yaḍn, illan gr nɣ d aflla n iɣzdisn innfsrn."
An example is the cloister of Gloucester Cathedral (c. 1370).,amdya n udir ann iga takatidrat n glusistr attay n (c. 1370).
"They were used later at Sens, at Notre-Dame de Paris and at Canterbury in England.","tettuswuri g wayḍ uzmz g sans, g nuṛt-dam du baris d kantirburi g inglatiṛṛa."
"In the High Gothic period, a new form was introduced, composed of a central core surrounded several attached slender columns, or colonettes, going up to the vaults.","g uzmz aquṭi amajjgal, tettsnal tlɣa tamaynut, g illa wammas mi ttint trsal idusn immzdayn, nɣ d timdurruyin, da ttalint ɣr tqubba."
"In England, the clustered columns were often ornamented with stone rings, as well as columns with carved leaves.","g inglatiṛṛa, kkant trsal n tqssulin da ttudikuṛant s twrerrayin n uẓṛu, d trsal d tfriwin timgzay."
"In place of the Corinthian capital, some columns used a stiff-leaf design.","g udɣar n tmanɣt takuṛuntit, ttuswurin yids n trsal n usɣiws bu tfriwin tiɣurarin."
"In later structures, the buttresses often had several arches, each reaching in to a different level of the structure.","g tsqqulin tinḍfaṛin, illa i trsal kigan n taskiwin, ku yat digsnt d uswir nn ttawḍ g tsqqult."
The arches had an additional practical purpose; they contained lead channels which carried rainwater off the roof; it was expelled from the mouths of stone gargoyles placed in rows on the buttresses.,ɣur taskiwin awttas amswuri yaḍn; llant digsnt taɣasin n ugari issufuɣn aman n unẓar sg tduli;tẓẓl t sg imawn n tsmuttrt n islliwn ittugan d idrsn xf tirsal.
"They also had a practical purpose; they often served as bell towers supporting belfries, whose bells told the time by announcing religious services, warned of fire or enemy attack, and celebrated special occasions like military victories and coronations.","illa ɣursn altu yan usuɣd amwuri; llan digsn isrsarn ilsɣn s tɣrmatin, isrsarn ad lan tawuri n tɣuri s twuriwin n usɣan, ar akkant taɣḍft ig tlla ka n taɣust nɣ ka n ukccum n usngu, ar sfuglun s tilal zun d tirnawin tisrdasin d usmɣr."
"Since cathedral construction usually took many years, and was extremely expensive, by the time the tower were to be built public enthusiasm waned, and tastes changed.","iddɣ tettr tiski n tkatidṛat isggwasn, tcc wahli, inngza waṣṣab issnfl umḍay g wakud g ira ad tettug tiski n tɣrmt."
Chartres would have been even more exuberant if the second plan had been followed; it called for seven towers around the transept and sanctuary.,ikka cartr ad iswuri ugar mr ḍfaṛn tabridt tis snat; icil ad sa n tɣrmatin xf yifr d udɣar n ufra.
The early and High Gothic Laon Cathedral has a square lantern tower over the crossing of the transept; two towers on the western front; and two towers on the ends of the transepts.,tla tkatidṛat lawn n zik d tmajjgalt xf tɣrmt n tfanust tamkkuẓt aflla n usaka n yifr; snat tɣrmatin xf tsga n uɣlluy. d snat tɣrmatin xf tsggwin n umṣṛiy.
"In Normandy, cathedrals and major churches often had multiple towers, built over the centuries; the Abbaye aux Hommes (begun 1066), Caen has nine towers and spires, placed on the facade, the transepts, and the centre.","g nuṛmandi, llant ɣur tkatidṛatin d tkanisatin timqranin tɣrmatin ttuskanin xf tsutiwin; g abbay uz um (Abbaye aux Hommes) (inta g 1066), tlla g kayn (Caen) tẓat n tɣrmatin, ittugan nil, d umṣṛiy, d wammas."
"A variation of the spire was the flèche, a slender, spear-like spire, which was usually placed on the transept where it crossed the nave.","illa imik n umyalla g tɣrmt n twsrmt, acku tga twsrmt idusn, ar ttugar xf yifr tbby aɣzzal."
Amiens Cathedral has a flèche.,tlla twsrmt g tkatidṛat n amyan.
"It was removed in 1786 during a program to modernise the cathedral, but was put back in a new form designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc.","tetyakks g usggwas n 1786 g usɣiws n usmaynu n tkatidṛat, maka tetturura g talɣa tamaynut iskr ujin ɣyuli-lu-duk."
"In English Gothic, the major tower was often placed at the crossing of the transept and nave, and was much higher than the other.","g tutlayt tanglizit taquṭit, da tettili kigan tɣrmt tadslant g usaka n yifr d uɣzzal n tkanisat, tili tugr tiɣrmatin yaḍn."
"A crossing tower was constructed at Canterbury Cathedral in 1493–1501 by John Wastell, who had previously worked on King's College at Cambridge.","tettuska tɣrmt n uzray g tkatidṛat kantrbri g 1493–1501 s ufus n jun wastil, iswurin g ma izrin g kigs kulij g kambridj."
An unusual double arch had to be constructed in the centre of the crossing to give the tower the extra support it needed.,tcil tiski n tiskt tayugant ur igin tafrart g wammas n usaka ad ifk i tɣrmt annal tt inngzan.
"Construction began again in 1724 to the design of Nicholas Hawksmoor, after first Christopher Wren had proposed a design in 1710, but stopped again in 1727.","ntan imskitn tayḍ tikklt asggwas n 1724 s usɣiws nikulas hawksmur, ffir aynna ibdr kristufr rin asiws tikklt tamzwarut g usggwas n 1710, maka iwdatayḍ tikklt g usggwas n 1727."
"Cologne Cathedral had been started in the 13th century, following the plan of Amiens Cathedral, but only the apse and the base of one tower were finished in the Gothic period.","tnta tkatidṛat n kulunya g tsuta tis 13, s usɣiws n katidṛat amyan, maka ismd g tsura d wusu n yat n tɣrmt day g tizi taquṭit."
"The tower of Ulm Minster has a similar history, begun in 1377, stopped in 1543, and not completed until the 19th century.","tiɣrmt n ulm minstr ɣurs amzruy digs yaɣn, inta asggwas n 1377, iwdu asggwas n 1543, ur ismid ar tasuta tis 19."
Burgos Cathedral was more inspired by Northern Europe.,tusy d tkatidṛat n burgus sg iẓẓlmḍ n uṛubba.
"Plate tracery was the first type of tracery to be developed, emerging in the later phase of Early Gothic or First Pointed.","tga tflwit idikuṛan anaw amzwaru n udikuṛa llig tettusbuɣla, ffɣnt d g tfrkt iḍfaṛn g uzmz aquṭi nɣ agzay amzwaru."
"Tracery is practical as well as decorative, because the increasingly large windows of Gothic buildings needed maximum support against the wind.","lan igzayn idikuṛn tawuri altu, acku nngzan isṛẓam icatarn n tuskiwin tiquṭiyin iws mgal n uzwu."
"""Plate tracery reached the height of its sophistication with the 12th century windows of Chartres Cathedral and in the """"Dean's Eye"""" rose window at Lincoln Cathedral.""",“tlkm tdikuṛt n iflwan aflla n tigmi nns g isṛẓam n tkatidṛat n caṛtṛ ittuskan sg tsuta tis 12 d g tsṛẓmt n iljjign ““tiṭṭ n umawy (Dean's Eye)”” g tkatidṛat n linkuln.”
"Stone bar-tracery, an important decorative element of Gothic styles, first was used at Reims Cathedral shortly after 1211, in the chevet built by Jean D'Orbais.","tettuswuri tklut n uẓṛu, igan yan wanaw n tlut ilan atig g tmamkin tiquṭitin, tikklt tamzwarut g tkatidṛa rims ffir asggwas n 1211 g yat tizi tamẓẓyant, g isyan iska jan durbis."
"Bar-tracery became common after c.1240, with increasing complexity and decreasing weight.","tettyassn tklut n izriritn ffir asggwas n 1240, tmun d tuddist d tafssi."
"Rayonnant also deployed mouldings of two different types in tracery, where earlier styles had used moulding of a single size, with different sizes of mullions.","ifsr ṛayunnunt altu tisqqulin n sin wanawn n tklut, g iswuri timamkin zrinin n yan uksay, s iksayn imzarayn n tsqqulin."
The mullions of Geometrical style typically had capitals with curved bars emerging from them.,llant ɣur tmamkin n tmsdagt sin isnitn id bu igjda iggussan digs iffɣn.
The mullions were in consequence branched into Y-shaped designs further ornamented with cusps.,"i tyafut, ttubḍant trsal s talɣa n uskkil Y ttudikuṛant s kigan n tgzzumin."
"Second Pointed (14th century) saw Intersecting tracery elaborated with ogees, creating a complex reticular (net-like) design known as Reticulated tracery.","iẓṛa umdbbeb wis sin (tasuta tis 14) tikla timyabbayin tettug asnt tigmi s uswuri n ugis (ogees), aynna d ifkan tiski n usɣiws n tratsa tuddist (yaɣn g tratsa) ittwassnen s wassaɣ n tklut n tratsa."
"These shapes are known as daggers, fish-bladders, or mouchettes.",ttwassnent talɣiwin ad d tuzzalun nɣ d tabawalt n uslm nɣ aḥmajju.
"Perpendicular strove for verticality and dispensed with the Curvilinear style's sinuous lines in favour of unbroken straight mullions from top to bottom, transected by horizontal transoms and bars.","iskutt xf unnfsr issitm izgign infrarɣn n tmamkt kurfilinir iḍfṛ tisnnula yuɣdn ur ittyabbayn sg uflla ɣr izdar, ibbin s tsnnula isstwan."
The transoms were often topped by miniature crenellations.,da ttyirnint tsnnula s ifragn imẓẓyann.
"It frequently covered the facades, and the interior walls of the nave and choir were covered with blind arcades.","ttuslant tnilawin, ttudln altu igudar n uɣzzal d udɣar n tɣrsa s taskiwin."
2 Vaults Barrel or groin Ribbed Ribbed vaults appeared in the Romanesque era and were elaborated in the Gothic era.,ffɣnt d 2 tfniqin n uzattin nɣ tiqubba n iɣzdisn g uzmz aṛumanski tettug asnt tigmi g uzmz aquṭi.
"They have a long nave making the body of the church, where the parishioners worshipped; a transverse arm called the transept and, beyond it to the east, the choir, also known as a chancel or presbytery, that was usually reserved for the clergy.","illa ɣurs uɣzzal aɣzzaf isskarn tafgga n tkanisat, g ttẓallan; afus ilan assaɣ n yifr n tkanisa, ffiras tanila ɣr unqqr, tilalt, d ittwassnn s wassaɣ n udɣar n tɣrsa, iẓlin s ayt usɣan."
A passage called the ambulatory circled the choir.,illa yan usaka ilan assaɣ n ajijji ittin i tilalt.
"The early cathedrals, like Notre-Dame, had six-part rib vaults, with alternating columns and piers, while later cathedrals had the simpler and stronger four-part vaults, with identical columns.","kkant tkatidṛatin n zik, zun d nutrdam, lant tiqubba n ṣḍiṣt n tgzzumin, d tsnnula timwalatin, ilint tkatidṛatin tnt iḍfaṛn ilan tiqubba tifrarin n kkuẓt n tgzzumin, d tsnnula imyaɣn."
"Transepts were usually short in early French Gothic architecture, but became longer and were given large rose windows in the Rayonnant period.","iga yifr n tkanisat agzlal g tizwuriwin n tmsdagt taquṭit tafṛansist, maka idwl aɣzzaf igan as kigan n isṛẓam n talɣa n tljjigt g tizi n rayunnunt."
"In England, transepts were more important, and the floor plans were usually much more complex than in French cathedrals, with the addition of attached Lady Chapels, an octagonal Chapter House, and other structures (See plans of Salisbury Cathedral and York Minster below).","g inglatiṛṛa, lan isakatn atig axatar, ilin isɣiwas n tduliwin uddisn kigan xf tkatidṛatin tifṛansisin, i trnwt n lidi tcablz inmalan, d tadala mm tamt n iɣzdisn d tsqqulin yaḍn (ẓṛ asɣiws n tkadiṛatin salizburi d yurk minstr izdar nns)."
An elevation typically had four levels.,da ittili ɣur tattayt kkuẓ n iswirn.
"Above that was a narrower gallery, called the triforium, which also helped provide additional thickness and support.","aya, illa yan usfsr inyaman, s wassaɣ n trifuryum, ifkan altu tazzrt d wannal yaḍn."
"This system was used at Noyon Cathedral, Sens Cathedral, and other early structures.",ittuswuri ugrra ad g tkatidṛat nuyun d tkatidṛat sins d tiyyaḍ id mm tsqqulin tiqburin.
"The tribune disappeared, which meant that the arcades could be higher.","tzla tadkkwant, aynna d yakkan tazmrt n is kkan isfsar ajjguln."
"A similar arrangement was adapted in England, at Salisbury Cathedral, Lincoln Cathedral, and Ely Cathedral.","ittusnfl usuds am wa g inglatiṛṛa, g tkatidṛat salizburi, d tkatidṛat linkuln, d tkatidṛat ili."
"This was made possible by the development of the flying buttress, which transferred the thrust of the weight of the roof to the supports outside the walls.","yaɣul iɣy ad yili s tigmi n tsnnalut yuyllan, ismattin tadusi n uḥuz sg tduli ɣr tsnnula bṛṛa n igudar."
Beauvais Cathedral reached the limit of what was possible with Gothic technology.,tlkm tkatidṛat bufi ɣr uwttu n tetiknulujit taquṭit.
Gothic facades were adapted from the model of the Romanesque facades.,ttusɣudan tnilawin tiquṭitin s tmamkt n tnilatin tiṛumanitin.
"The sculpture of the central tympanum was devoted to the Last Judgement, that to the left to the Virgin Mary, and that to the right to the Saints honoured at that particular cathedral.","tsty tklut n tdabut tammast i wass asnbḍay, d win uẓlmaḍ i massa maryam, d xf uyffas i usmɣr n ifuẓaṛ g tkatidṛat."
"""They followed the doctrine expressed by Saint Thomas Aquinas that beauty was a """"harmony of contrasts.""""""",“ḍfaṛn taɣalt xf isawl ufuẓaṛɣtuma akinas nwis iga waẓly ““asnya n inmgaln.”””
In England the rose window was often replaced by several lancet windows.,"g inglatiṛṛa, da ttusnfaln isṛẓam n iljjign s kigan n isṛẓm ayt izgign."
"The portals were crowned with high arched gables, composed of concentric arches filled with sculpture.",ttusnint tflwin s isnitn imajjgaln n taskiwin munnin g wammas ktarnin s tkwla.
"The towers were adorned with their own arches, often crowned with pinnacles.","ttudikuṛant tɣrmatin s taskiwin timẓlay, ittggrun s tqrray."
"While French cathedrals emphasised the height of the facade, English cathedrals, particularly in earlier Gothic, often emphasised the width.","umẓn tkatidṛatin tifṛansisin g tayyayt n tnila, amẓnt tkatidṛatin tinglizin xf tirut lumn g tquṭit tazaykut."
"He broke away from the French emphasis on height, and eliminated the column statutes and statuary in the arched entries, and covered the facade with colourful mosaics of biblical scenes (The current mosaics are of a later date).","yaggug xf tawna tafṛansist g tattayt, ikks tisfras n trsal d tsfras n tkccumin n taskiwin, idl tanila s tfusayfst ikwlan i yiẓiṛn n ttuṛat (tifusayfsin n dɣi gant tinyan uzmz iḍfaṛn)."
The sculptor Andrea Pisano made the celebrated bronze doors for Florence Baptistry (1330–1336).,ifars unmsal andriya bisanu tiflwin tibṛunzin ittwassnen i fluruns babtistri (1330–1336).
"There is usually a single or double ambulatory, or aisle, around the choir and east end, so parishioners and pilgrims could walk freely easily around east end.","g tmyurt da ittili yan usaka nɣ sin, g wutuy n tsga n unqqr, aynna asn yakkan i tarwa d imnẓaln tawada s tlelli g tsga n unqqr."
"""Abbot Suger first used the novel combination rib vaults and buttresses to replace the thick walls and replace them with stained glass, opening up that portion of the church to what he considered """"divine light"""".""","“iswuri abut sugr tikklt tamzwarut tagrumma tamaynut n tqubba n iɣzdisn d tsnnula g udɣar n igudar izurarn issnfl tn s jjaj ikwlan, aynna yunfn agzzum n tkanisat i uynna mi ittini ““asidd n wakuc””.”"
"There are three such chapels at Chartres Cathedral, seven at Notre Dame de Paris, Amiens Cathedral, Prague Cathedral and Cologne Cathedral, and nine at Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua in Italy.","llant kṛaḍt n tmẓẓilla n wanaw ad g tkatidṛat n cartr, sat g nutrdam du baris, d tkatidṛat amyan, d tkatidṛat brag, d tkatidṛat kulunya, d tẓat g bazilika n ufuẓaṛ antuni badwa g iṭalya."
"""An edict of the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 had declared: """"The composition of religious images is not to be left to the inspiration of artists; it is derived from the principles put in place by the Catholic Church and religious tradition.""",“azwil d issafɣ usqqim wis sin g niqiya asggwas n 787 g illa: ““ittwagdl ussitm n uswuri n iwlafn n usɣan i ussiky n inaẓuṛn; d anafuɣ sg tsura tfka tkanisat takatulikit d tmyurin n usɣan.”
"Gradually, as the style evolved, the sculpture became more and more prominent, taking over the columns of the portal, and gradually climbing above the portals, until statues in niches covered the entire facade, as in Wells Cathedral, to the transepts, and, as at Amiens Cathedral, even on the interior of the facade.","imik s imik, s tigmi n tmamkt, taɣul tklut da ttyissin, tuwy tirsal n tflut, allig tdl tisfras g isṛẓam n tnila kullutt, imkinnaɣ g tkatidṛat n wilz, ɣr ismḍal, d, am g tkatidṛat amyan, awd g ugzzum n ugnsu n tnila."
This set a pattern of complex iconography which was followed at other churches.,tettusars yat n tmamkt n tkunugrafin idusn ḍfaṛnt tkanisatin yaḍn.
"The tympanum over the central portal on the west façade of Notre-Dame de Paris vividly illustrates the Last Judgement, with figures of sinners being led off to hell, and good Christians taken to heaven.","da isskan umẓẓuɣ n uflla n tflut tanila n uɣlluy n nutrdam du baris ass amsbḍay, g ttyawin iwrikn izggln ɣr adɣu, yisy nimasiḥitn inmn ɣr imglel."
The torments of hell were even more vividly depicted.,ittuswlf waxub n udɣu s talɣa ittyikizn kigan.
"They were part of the visual message for the illiterate worshippers, symbols of the evil and danger that threatened those who did not follow the teachings of the church.","tga tagzzumt n tbrt ittyannayn i imẓẓilla, d tmatart n tixxit d imizi issiwidn winna ur iḍfiṛn ismgal n tkanisat."
"They were replaced with figures in the Gothic style, designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc during the 19th-century restoration.","ttusnfln s talɣiwin n tmamkt taquṭit, isɣaws ujin ɣyuli-lu-duk g usɣudu ikkan g tsuta tis 19."
"Religious teachings in the Middle Ages, particularly the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, a 6th-century mystic whose book, De Coelesti Hierarchia, was popular among monks in France, taught that all light was divine.","ismigiln n usɣan g uzmz anammas, lumn tirra n bsudu-dyunisyus de aryubajit, aṣufi n tsuta tis 6 iga udlisn, du cwilisti hirarci, ttwassnn kigan gr iruhbann g fṛansa, allig ssnen nwis d ku asidd iga win wakuc."
"The windows on the north side, frequently in the shade, had windows depicting the Old Testament.","isṛẓam illan g tsga n iẓẓlmḍ, g umalu, digs isṛẓam iswlafn azmz azayku."
"The details were painted onto the glass in vitreous enamel, then baked in a kiln to fuse the enamel on the glass.","ttukwlant tgzzummin xf jjaj sg tmina n jjaj, ttugr g ufṛṛan ad tmun tmina d jjaj."
Sainte-Chapelle became the model for other chapels across Europe.,taɣul sant-cabil amdya i tkanisatin yaḍn g tsggwin n uṛubba kulu.
"Clear glass was dipped into coloured glass, then portions of the coloured glass were ground away to give exactly the right shade.","ffir as ittugr jjaj issuddan g jjaj ikwlan, ittuẓḍ jjaj ikwlan iwaad d ifk amalu ilaqn."
"One of the most celebrated Flamboyant buildings was the Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes (1370s), with walls of glass from floor to ceiling.",illa sant cabil bins (1370 s) iga yat tuskiwt taxatart ittwassan g flabuyant s yidar n zzaj sg wakal ar taduli.
The stained glass windows were extremely complex and expensive to create.,llant talkiwin n zzaj ikwlan smurksnt bzzaf d wazal.
"The rose was a symbol of the Virgin Mary, and they were particularly used in churches dedicated to her, including Notre-Dame de Paris.","tlla tldjigt s uzmmul n mari tamsurift, da tt swurin g lkanisa tmẓlayt, nna g illa nutrdam g bariz."
"The Palais de la Cité in Paris, close to Notre-Dame de Paris, begun in 1119, which was the principal residence of the French kings until 1417.","issnti ibrgmmi balis n sitig bariz, tama n nutrdam di bariz, g usggwas n 1119, nna igan adɣar n igllidn ifṛanṣiṣn ar asggwas 1417."
"However, it was soon made obsolete by the development of artillery, and in the 15th century it was remodelled into a comfortable residential palace.","s man aya, s tfssi ad s iga aqbur s tmntilt n usbuɣlu n tsdda, g tsuta tiss 15 yuls i twala nns ad ig ibrgmmi n uzdduɣ iswanfan."
"The oldest existing example in England is probably the Mob Quad of Merton College at Oxford University, constructed between 1288 and 1378.","iɣy ad yili umdya aqbur g inglatiṛṛa s mub kwad uf lirtun kulij g tsdawit n uksfurd, ittuskan gr isggwasn n 1288 d 1378."
"A similar kind of academic cloister was created at Queen's College, Oxford in the 1140s, likely designed by Reginald Ely.","ittuska yan wanaw imyaɣn n waddirn ikadimitn g kwinz kulidj, uksfurd g isggwzsn ikkumrawn n tsuta tis yan d mraw 1140s, iɣy ad ig sg usɣiws n rijinald ili."
"Some colleges, like Balliol College, Oxford, borrowed a military style from Gothic castles, with battlements and crenolated walls.","ṛḍlnt kra n tɣiwanin, zun d taɣiwant balyul g uksfurd, tamamkt tasrdast n tɣrmatin tiquṭitin, mm ifragn d igudir ttyaglnin."
"""He wrote in 1447 that he wanted his chapel """"to proceed in large form, clean and substantial, setting apart superfluity of too great curious works of entail and busy moulding.""""""","“yara g usggwas n 1447 nwis ira ad txitr tmẓẓillit nns ““g talɣa taxatart, tizdig, ar tbṭṭu gr twuriwin icayḍn ittettrn anngwdm n twuri.”””"
"The walls had two levels of walkways on the inside, a crennellated parapet with merlons, and projecting machicolations from which missiles could be dropped on besiegers.","illa ɣur iɣrabn sin iswirn n isakatn sg ugnsu, d ufrag yumẓn, d tɣarasin ittyakzn g nbaḍ i tḍuṛi n isglam xf imssutln."
"Castles were surrounded by a deep moat, spanned by a single drawbridge.",llant tɣrmatin ttwasrasnt g uxbu axatar ittwaṭṭafn s yan uzzwr izzigizn.
"One good surviving example is the Château de Dourdan, near Nemours.",ɣan umdya iḥlan d iqqiman nna igan tiɣrmt n burdu tama nmurs.
The conversion implied compromises since Latin churches are oriented towards the East and mosques are oriented towards Mecca.,ukus iffrn n usnfl acku takanisat talatinit ittawin ɣr unqqr d tmzgida ittawin ɣr mkka.
"Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque, in Famagusta, Northern Cyprus.","timzgida lala mṣṭafa baca, g maɣusta, iẓẓlmḍ n qubṛuṣ"
"The Gothic style began to be described as outdated, ugly and even barbaric.",issnti usnuml n usiwan aquṭi acku ittwasurf ɣifs uzmz d wagar ula abarbari.
"Ireland was an island of Gothic architecture in the 17th and 18th centuries, with the construction of Derry Cathedral (completed 1633), Sligo Cathedral (c. 1730), and Down Cathedral (1790–1818) are other examples.","tga iṛlada tagumant sg uẓkka aquṭi g snat tsutiwin tiss 17 d tiss 18, ula imdyatn aḍnin tuska n uktrdal diri (ittwasmad g usggwas 1633), d uktrdal sliju ( g wattayn 1730) d uktrdan duwn (1790-1818)."
"The two western towers of Westminster Abbey were constructed between 1722 and 1745 by Nicholas Hawksmoor, opening a new period of Gothic Revival.","iska nikulas huksmur snat tɣrmatin n uɣlluy g dir wistminstr gr sin isggwasn 1722 d 1745, aynna yudjjan ad iṛẓm uzmz amaynu n tankra taquṭit."
"This period of more universal appeal, spanning 1855–1885, is known in Britain as High Victorian Gothic.","azmz ad mm tinnuzɣa tamaḍlant, yumẓn gr 1855 ar 1885, tettwassn g bṛiṭanya s yism azmz lquṭi lfikturi amaflla."
"From the second half of the 19th century onwards, it became more common in Britain for neo-Gothic to be used in the design of non-ecclesiastical and non-governmental buildings types.","sg uzgn wiss sin n tsuta tis 19, yaɣul iggut g bṛiṭanya asmrs n lquṭi amaynu g umamk n wanawn tuskiwin tar takanisit d tar tanbaḍt."
"""Landscape architects work on structures and external spaces in the landscape aspect of the design – large or small, urban, suburban and rural, and with """"hard"""" (built) and """"soft"""" (planted) materials, while integrating ecological sustainability.""","da swurin imtwaln n yiẓiṛn igamatn xf tisqqulin d tjumma tibṛṛatin g tsga n yiẓiṛn igamatn n umamk - taxatart nɣ d tamẓẓant, aɣrman, ṛunuḍ n ufara, d tmtta “ iqqurn” (ittuskan), d tlggwaɣt (ittwaẓẓan), d usmun Imuwla tawnnaḍt."
They can also review proposals to authorize and supervise contracts for the construction work.,ifukk ɣifsn diɣ ad allsn tisumar I ubarax igllayn n twuriwin tuskawin d uburz ɣifs.
The first person to write of making a landscape was Joseph Addison in 1712.,iga juzif adisun afgan amzwaru yarun xf unguri n yiẓiṛn igamatn g usggwas n 1712.
"During the latter 19th century, the term landscape architect began to be used by professional landscapes designers, and was firmly established after Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. and Beatrix Jones (later Farrand) with others founded the American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) in 1899.","g tsuta tiss 19 izrin, issnti usmrs n imamkn iẓiṛan igamat imzzuln n yirm n umtwal iẓiṛan igamatn, d ismd usbddi nns s tdusi dfir n usbddi n fridirik law ulmstid junyur d byatriks junz (iḍfuṛ frand) d wiyyaḍ n tmsmunt n marikan I imtwaln n iẓiṛan igamatn (asla) g 1899."
Their projects can range from site surveys to the ecological assessment of broad areas for planning or management purposes.,izmr ad gulun isɣnun nnsn n tzrawin n wansa ar astal awnḍan n tmnaḍin tibariwin n iswitn n usɣiws nɣ d tamnhla.
"Their work is embodied in written statements of policy and strategy, and their remit includes master planning for new developments, landscape evaluations and assessments, and preparing countryside management or policy plans.","da tettgga twuri nnsn g ismmaln ittyaran n tsrtit d tastratijit, ar tsmun imazzagn nnsn g usɣiws asilan n isbuɣla imaynutn, d usmuttg aɣiwas n tmnhla tafirant nɣ d tisrta."
In recent years the need and interest of therapeutic gardens have been increasingly rising.,"g tiyyira n isggwasn, tettwarna tɣawsa s turtatin isujjin d tawit zars s twala taxatart."
"Among these were Central Park in New York City, Prospect Park in Brooklyn, New York and Boston's Emerald Necklace park system.","g wid illa ṣunṭṛal bark g tmdint nyuyurk, d brusbt bark g bruklin, dnyuyurk, d usuds n turtit imradl g busḍn."
"She was design consultant for over a dozen universities including: Princeton in Princeton, New Jersey; Yale in New Haven, Connecticut; and the Arnold Arboretum for Harvard in Boston, Massachusetts.","tlla tnsfawt n umamk uggar n sin d mraw n tsdawit g tlla brinstun g brinstun nyujirsi, yil g nyuhafn, kunitik, d mictl arnuld i tsdawit harfard g buṣḍn mastcusts."
"Urban Planners are qualified to perform tasks independent of landscape architects, and in general, the curriculum of landscape architecture programs do not prepare students to become urban planners.","zmrn imsɣiwas iɣrman ad frun tiwuriwin tisimanin xf imtwaln n yiẓiṛn igamatn, s twala tamatayt, ur nnin iɣarasn ihiln itwaln n yiẓiṛn igamatn ad gin imzrawn imtwaln iɣrman."
Roberto Burle Marx in Brazil combined the International style and native Brazilian plants and culture for a new aesthetic.,iga rubirtu birl maṛks g lbṛaẓil asskcm asiwan agraɣlan d imaɣyn d tussna tabṛẓiliyt tasilant fad ad yaf tiẓilt.
He popularized a system of analyzing the layers of a site in order to compile a complete understanding of the qualitative attributes of a place.,iga asmata asudsan i usfsi n tskiwin tismlanin fad ad ismuttg armas amatay i tfrisin tinawin i udɣar.
"Once recognized by AILA, landscape architects use the title 'Registered Landscape Architect' across the six states and territories within Australia.","ɣir tettwassn ɣifs ayla, da swurin imtwaln n yiẓiṛn igamatn azwl "" amtwal n yiẓiṛn igamatn amssusr"" s tiwilayin d ṣḍiṣt n tmnaḍin agnsu n uṣṭṛalya."
"Within NZ, Members of NZILA when they achieve their professional standing, can use the title Registered Landscape Architect NZILA.","agnsu n nyuẓilanda, izmr i imslan nzila kudnna addur nnsn azulan g uswuri n uzwl rijistrid landskab arcitk nzila."
"ILASA's mission is to advance the profession of landscape architecture and uphold high standards of professional service to its members, and to represent the profession of landscape architecture in any matter which may affect the interests of the members of the institute.","da tsmdya twuri n ilisa g tnkra s tazzulant tatwalt n yiẓiṛn igamatn d tnalit n inawayn yattuyn g tawalt tazzulant i imslan nns, d usmdya tazzult tatwalt n yiẓiṛn igamatn g kan tɣawsa nna iḍiṣn xf tnafut n imslan n usinag."
At present there are fifteen accredited programmes in the UK.,illa dɣi smmus d mraw n uɣawas uɣzin g tgldit imunn.
"""In 2008, the LI launched a major recruitment drive entitled """"I want to be a Landscape Architect"""" to encourage the study of Landscape Architecture.""","""g usggwas n 2008, iṛẓm li i amzizzl aswuran axatar s uzwl "" riɣ ad ggɣ amtwan n yiẓiṛan igamatn"" ""i usbɣs n tzrawin titwalin n yiẓiṛan igamatn""."
Several states require passage of a state exam as well.,da ssuturnt kigan n twilayatin azzray n yirim n uwank altu.
"By the 6th century BC, the sand already covered the statues of the main temple up to their knees.","g yiwḍn tasuta tis 6 dat n tlalit, idl akkw iyidu s tsfrisin n wumuɣ asatal ar ifaddn."
"One scheme to save the temples was based on an idea by William MacQuitty to build a clear freshwater dam around the temples, with the water inside kept at the same height as the Nile.","iskuttyan sg isɣiwas n ussidr n ansiwn n tissumga xf tidmi n wilyam makkiti i tiski n wuggug n waman yaḍfutn izddign tama n wansa n tissumga, d uḥṭṭu n waman agnsu nns s tattayt n nnil."
They considered that raising the temples ignored the effect of erosion of the sandstone by desert winds.,awin tt xf tattayt n wansiwn n tissumga is da ittrara afrtet n islliwn n ulxix mgal azwu n tniri.
"Between 1964 and 1968, the entire site was carefully cut into large blocks (up to 30 tons, averaging 20 tons), dismantled, lifted and reassembled in a new location 65 metres higher and 200 metres back from the river, in one of the greatest challenges of archaeological engineering in history.","ingr usggwas n 1964 d 1968, ittyabby wansa xf ibṭṭutn ixatarn kullut (ar 30 ṭun, s unammas n 20ṭun), ttyisyn ittyals usmuttr nnsn ɣr wansa amaynu g tattayt n 65 mitr d 200 mitr sg wasif, iniln n tmsdagt n uḍṛiẓ g umzruy."
"Many visitors also arrive by plane at an airfield that was specially constructed for the temple complex, or by road from Aswan, the nearest city.","da d ttgulun kigan n imsrzaf altu g taylalt ɣr usaggwz ittugan ɣas i udɣar n wansa n tissumga, nɣ g ubrid sg aswan, tamdint t inmalan."
"The colossal statues along the left-hand wall bear the white crown of Upper Egypt, while those on the opposite side are wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt (pschent).","tisfras tixatarin xf taɣzi n ugadir aẓlmaḍ usint asni amllal n tixxitrt n miẓṛ, uma tisffras n tsga yaḍn lsan asni ayugan n miẓṛ tamajjgalt d tmazdart (pschent)."
"The most famous relief shows the king on his chariot shooting arrows against his fleeing enemies, who are being taken prisoner.",igzayn ttwassnnin digsn agllig g thirit nnsn ar ikkat isnga nns s twssimin ar rggwln ar d tn ikrf.
There are depictions of Ramesses and Nefertari with the sacred boats of Amun and Ra-Horakhty.,llant twlafin n ramsis d nfrtari d imddukkal ifuẓaṛn i amun d raḥuraxti.
"These dates are allegedly the king's birthday and coronation day, respectively.",ixatarn n umzruy illa yiswi n tlalit n ugllid d wass n tsmɣurt nns.
"In fact, according to calculations made on the basis of the heliacal rising of the star Sirius (Sothis) and inscriptions found by archaeologists, this date must have been October 22.","g tilawt, s isiḍinn ittugan xf tattyt n tafuyt i yitri siryus (sutis) d igzayn ufan imassann n taṛkyulujit, ilaq ad ig wakud ad 22 ktubṛ."
This was in fact the second time in ancient Egyptian history that a temple was dedicated to a queen.,tga g tilawt tad tikklt tis snat g umzruy amiẓṛi azayku g ittuẓlay wansa n tissumga i tgllidt.
"Traditionally, the statues of the queens stood next to those of the pharaoh, but were never taller than his knees.","s talɣa taqburt, bddant tsfras n tgllidin g tsga n frɛun, maka ur nn gulant g taɣzi afud nns."
The capitals of the pillars bear the face of the goddess Hathor; this type of column is known as Hathoric.,usint trsal isnitn n wudm n wakuc ḥatḥuṛ; ittwassn wanaw ad s trsal n id mm wassaɣ n ḥatḥuṛik.
"On the south and the north walls of this chamber there are two graceful and poetic bas-reliefs of the king and his consort presenting papyrus plants to Hathor, who is depicted as a cow on a boat sailing in a thicket of papyri.","illa g igidar n yiffus d uẓẓlmḍ i tmṣṛiyt ad snat tgzzayin iɣudan d snat tmdyazin n ugllid d tmɣart nns da as akkant imɣayn i hatur, tɣal id tafunast ittɛuml aflla n uɣrrabu g tagant mm ifrawn n lbrdi."
"None of the current buildings are believed to date from before the 17th century, but they were likely built with the same construction methods and designs as had been used for centuries before.","ur idmi kan tuskiwin n dɣi ad uɣulnt s dat n tsuta tiss 17, macan izmr ad t skun s talɣiwin tuskiwin d tmamkt nna s swurin g tsutiwin n dat."
"Other kasbahs and ksour were located all along this route, such as the nearby Tamdaght to the north.","llant tɣrmatin d ibrgmmitn aḍnin g taɣzi n ubrid, zun d tamadaɣt iltmalan i iẓẓlmḍ."
The village's buildings are grouped together within a defensive wall that includes corner towers and a gate.,da ttmunt tskiwin n yiɣrm g uɣrab amɣzan ismunn ibrjitn tiɣmrin d tawwurt.
"The village also has a number of public or community buildings such as a mosque, a caravanserai, a kasbah (castle-like fortification) and the Marabout of Sidi Ali or Amer.",tsmun tiɣrmt diɣ uggar n tskiwin timatayin nɣ d zun d timzgida wixan d tɣrmt(tskiwin aksulnt d tɣrmt) d maṛabuṭ sidi ɛli nɣ d ɛamṛ.
"It was made of compressed earth and mud, usually mixed with other materials to aid adhesion.","tettwahyya g waluḍ d wakal inɣdn, tikkal da tt nssmrkas d tmttiwin aḍnin i tawsa g wuḍuf."
"The Aswan Dam, or more specifically since the 1960s, the Aswan High Dam, is the world's largest embankment dam, which was built across the Nile in Aswan, Egypt, between 1960 and 1970.","uggug aswan, nɣ d s twala tamẓlayt sg isggwasn 1960s, uggug aswan yattuyn, iga uggug ad axatar g umaḍal, ittuska xf nnil g uswan, miṣṛ, gr isggwasn 1960 d 1970."
"Like the earlier implementation, the High Dam has had a significant effect on the economy and culture of Egypt.","zun d tiggi izrin, illa xf wuggug iṣiḍ axatar xf tdamsa d tussna g miṣṛ."
"However, this natural flooding varied, since high-water years could destroy the whole crop, while low-water years could create widespread drought and consequently famine.","s man aya, bayn isaffn imamatn, izmr ad rdln isggwasn g ggudin waman isarn s umata, macan izmr ad tili tɣurart d buhyyuf g isggwasn g drusn waman."
"Instead the Nile Valley Plan by the British hydrologist Harold Edwin Hurst was favored, which proposed to store water in Sudan and Ethiopia, where evaporation is much lower.","tḥla tabridt n wasif n nnil nna iskr umusnaw ahidurulujya abṛiṭani haruld hirst, issumr tt i usmun n waman g ssudan d itubya, acku da dis ttilin iruggwa s imikk."
"Initially, both the United States and the USSR were interested in helping development of the dam.","g tizwiri, tlla tawilayit tamunit d wamun asufyati stawhmmant s twizi g usbuɣlu n wuggug."
"At that time the U.S. feared that communism would spread to the Middle East, and it saw Nasser as a natural leader of an anticommunist procapitalist Arab League.","akud nnaɣ, kkant twilayatin munnin ggwdnt ad tzri tjmawt ɣr unqqr anammas, tẓṛ ɛbd nnaṣṛ amɣar angama n tsdawit taɛṛabt tamdgart ittnaɣn mgal tajmawt."
"After the UN criticized a raid by Israel against Egyptian forces in Gaza in 1955, Nasser realized that he could not portray himself as the leader of pan-Arab nationalism if he could not defend his country militarily against Israel.","ffir uynna zɣnent tmtta munnin taɣzut n isṛayil xf tdusiwin timiẓṛitin g ɣazza asggas n 1955, yukz naṣiṛ nwis ur iɣiy ad yini giɣ amuzr n tmtta taɛṛabt maḥd ur izmir ad irar xf tmazirt nns mgal n isṛayil."
"Nasser did not accept these conditions, and consulted the USSR for support.","yugy naṣiṛ tifadiwin ad, ittr iws i tamunt tasufyatit."
"Dulles was angered more by Nasser's diplomatic recognition of China, which was in direct conflict with Dulles's policy of containment of communism.","ijɛr dals xf ɛbd nnaṣiṛ iddɣ iqrra s tlɣa tadiblumasit s ṣṣin, ur imsasan d tsrtit n dals iran ad tg tjmawt tinns."
He was also irritated by Nasser's neutrality and attempts to play both sides of the Cold War.,ijɛr altu xf tudrt n ɛbd nnaṣiṛ d tirim nns n wurar xf tsggwin n imnɣi iqrfn s snat.
The enormous rock and clay dam was designed by the Soviet Hydroproject Institute along with some Egyptian engineers.,iga usinag asufyati hidṛubṛuji asɣiws n wuggug n islliwn d wakal axatar awsn as yids n imtwaln imiẓṛitn.
"Conversely, the dam flooded a large area, causing the relocation of over 100,000 people.","s unmgal, iktar wuggug tajumma taxatart, aynna d ifkan allas n uzdduɣ i wugar n 100,000 n ufgan."
The assessment of the costs and benefits of the dam remains controversial decades after its completion.,isul usitg n ismigiln d ibɣurn n wuggug digs amrara n wawal ḍart timrawin n isggwasn xf usmad nns.
"Not taking into account the negative environmental and social effects of the dam, its costs are thus estimated to have been recovered within only two years.","bla aswan xf tyafutin tuzdirin tingamatin d tnamunin n wuggug, iɣy ad yili watig nns ittusllwa d g sin isggwasn dayy."
Another observer disagreed and he recommended that the dam should be torn down.,ifk ismigiln nns yan unmmutr nwad itturdl wuggug.
"The dam mitigated the effects of floods, such as those in 1964, 1973, and 1988.","isdras wuggug ingyan, am winna ikkan g isggwasn n 1964 d 1973 d 1988."
"A new fishing industry has been created around Lake Nasser, though it is struggling due to its distance from any significant markets.","ittuska usukn amaynu n tgmrt g uglmam n naṣiṛ, waxxa tẓẓiḍṛ s umntil n uɛraq nns i igadazn ixatarn."
About half a million families were settled on these new lands.,izdɣ wattay n mlyun n twacunt g ikaln ad imaynutn.
"On other previously irrigated land, yields increased because water could be made available at critical low-flow periods.","g ikaln yaḍn ikkan da ittusswa, tmɣur lɣllt acku tlla tzmrt n yili n waman g tizi n tdrsi n waman."
"In Sudan, 50,000 to 70,000 Sudanese Nubians were moved from the old town of Wadi Halfa and its surrounding villages.","g ssudan, ttusmattin wattay n 50,000 ar 70,000 n inubitn isudanitn sg tmazirt n wadi ḥalfa d iɣrman yaḍn as ittin."
"The government developed an irrigation project, called the New Halfa Agricultural Development Scheme to grow cotton, grains, sugar cane and other crops.",tsbuɣla tnbaḍt asɣun n tissi ilan assaɣ n usɣiws n ḥalfa tamaynut i tigmi takrzant d tkrza n ufḍuɣ d yirdn d uɣanim n sskwṛ d wiyyaḍ.
Housing and facilities were built for 47 village units whose relationship to each other approximated that in Old Nubia.,ttuskan izduɣn d tɣmrin nnsn i 47 n iɣrm msnmilin izdayn grasn am winna ikkan g nubya taqburt.
"The nutrient value added to the land by the sediment was only 6,000 tons of potash, 7,000 tons of phosphorus pentoxide and 17,000 tons of nitrogen.","ikka watig n wucci itturnan i wakal n wusliɣn 6,000 ṭun dayy n butas d 7,000 ṭun n usimuksid n fusfuṛ d 17,000 ṭun n nitṛujin."
Soil salinity also increased because the distance between the surface and the groundwater table was small enough (1–2 m depending on soil conditions and temperature) to allow water to be pulled up by evaporation so that the relatively small concentrations of salt in the groundwater accumulated on the soil surface over the years.,"tmɣur timirɣt n wakal altu acku imẓẓiy ustum n gr wudmkal d wufuɣ n waman n ddaw wakal, (1-2 mitr s wanaw n wakal d tskwflt n unrɣi) i wad ittyijj i usufɣ n waman s irugga acku tggudi tawna n tisnt g waman n ddaw wakal xf wudmkal isggwasn xf isggwasn."
By the 1950s only a small proportion of Upper Egypt had not been converted from basin (low transmission) to perennial (high transmission) irrigation.,"s ulkam n isggwasn n 1950s n tsuta izrin, ur ittusnfl ɣas yat n tigmiḍi tamẓẓant g miẓṛ tanafllat g uglmam (amazdar n usmutty) ar tissi tamɣlalt (anaflla n usmutty)."
S. haematobium has since disappeared altogether.,sg wakud ann tzla s. himatubyum.
This means that the dead storage volume would be filled up after 300–500 years if the sediment accumulated at the same rate throughout the area of the lake.,aya ay rad d yawy aktur n uksay n uɣzan ffir n 300-500 n usggwas mk da ttmutturn islaɣn s imki g wansiwn maṛṛa n tmnaḍt n uglmam.
"After construction of the dam, aquatic weeds grew much faster in the clearer water, helped by fertilizer residues.","ffir tiski n wuggug, gman imɣayn n waman zikk kigan g waman izddagn, s yiws n uynna d iqqiman n umazir."
Mediterranean fishing and brackish water lake fishery declined after the dam was finished because nutrients that flowed down the Nile to the Mediterranean were trapped behind the dam.,tggz tgmrt g yilel amellal anamas drisn wansiwn n tgmrt g uglmam ffir afukku n wuggug acku qqiman wuccitn d ittawy wasif n nil igaly tn wuggug.
A concern before the construction of the High Dam had been the potential drop in river-bed level downstream of the Dam as the result of erosion caused by the flow of sediment-free water.,ur da yuwiy tawngimt ɣas tiski n wuggug amajjgal ɣas uguz n uswir n yizdar n wasif ɣr tnila n yiwy n waman aya s tyafut n wukus n wakal akkan waman d ur ittmun d wusliɣn.
"The red-brick construction industry, which consisted of hundreds of factories that used Nile sediment deposits along the river, has also been negatively affected.","imkinna ttuḍas tmguri n tiski s wuṭṭub azggwaɣ, digs ag llant tmiḍiwin n isugarn iswurin iɣlaɣn n nil xf taɣzi n wasif, s talɣa tuzdirt."
Because of the lower turbidity of the water sunlight penetrates deeper in the Nile water.,"s umntil n tdrsi n tskwflt n iḍṛ n waman, da ɣllin iẓnẓaṛn n tafuyt g waman n nil kigan."
"Construction work began in 1995 and, after some US$220 million had been spent, the complex was officially inaugurated on 16 October 2002.","ntant twuriwin n tiski g usggwas n 1995, ffir ucci n wattay n 220 mlyun dulaṛ amiriki, d yinf n wuddis s talɣa tunṣibt g 16 ktubṛ 2002."
"The recreation of the ancient library was not only adopted by other individuals and agencies, it garnered support from Egyptian politicians.",llan middn d tsnurayin yaḍn akd wallas n tiski n tsdlist taqburt awsn asn awd isrtann imiẓṛitn.
UNESCO's involvement beginning in 1986 created a great opportunity for the project to truly be international in focus.,tnta tdrawt n unisku (UNESCO) asggwas n 1986 g tikki n waddur axatar i usɣnu ad yili taɣḍft tagraɣlant.
This architectural team consisted of ten members representing six countries.,illa g trabbut n tmsdagt mraw n igmamn igan ignsasn n sḍis n iwankn.
"The first pledges were made for funding the project at a conference held in 1990 in Aswan: USD $65 million, mostly from the MENA states.","ttufkant iwaliwn imzwura i tikki n iqaṛiḍn n usɣnu g unmuggar ittugan g usggwas n 1990 g aswan: 65 mlyun dulaṛ amiriki, amata digsn sg iwankn n unqqr anammas d iẓẓlmḍ n ifriqya."
"In 2010, the library received a donation of 500,000 books from the National Library of France, Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF).","g usggwas n 2010, ittufka as i tsdlist watig n 500,000 n udlis sg tsdlist tanamurt n fṛansa, (BnF)."
"The main reading room stands beneath a 32-meter-high glass-panelled roof, tilted out toward the sea like a sundial, and measuring some 160 m in diameter.","tlla tdala adslant n tiɣri ddaw yat n tduli idlan s iflwan n jjaj s tattayt n 32 mitr, iggusn s tsga n yilel zun d tasazalt, g wawum nns attay n 160 mitr."
"Holding approximately 1,316 artifacts, the Antiquities Museum collection provides a glimpse into Egyptian history from the Pharaonic era to the conquest of Alexander the Great to the Roman civilizations before the advent of Islam across Egypt.","tlla g usalay n idrizn wattay n 1316 n tgzzumt, ar tsskan amzruy amiẓṛi sg uzmz afrɛuni ar umsdurri iskandar axatar ar tiɣrmiwin tiṛumanitin dat wufuɣ n lislam g tmnaḍin akkw n miẓṛ."
"Microfilm: This section includes microfilms of around 30,000 rare manuscripts and 50,000 documents, as well as a collection from The British Library of around 14,000 Arabic, Persian, and Turkish manuscripts, which is considered the largest collection in Europe.","mikṛufilm: illa g tgzzum ad wattay n 30,000 n warra idrusn d 50,000 n tntamt, d tgrawt n tsdlist tabṛiṭanit g illa wattay n 14,000 n warra aɛṛab d ufarisi d utuṛki, iga taxatart n tgzzumin g uṛubba."
"However, in 2010 the library received an additional 500,000 books from the Bibliothèque nationale de France.)","waxxa, g usggwas n 2010, tumẓ tsdlist 500,000 n udlis yaḍn sg ɣur tsdlist tanamurt n fṛansa (Bibliothèque nationale de France).)"
The Great Mosque of Djenné is a large banco or adobe building that is considered by many architects to be one of the greatest achievements of the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style.,tga tmzgida tamqrant g djini aẓkka n banku axatar ittuskan s wuṭṭub ar ɣifs ttinin imtwaln n tmsdagt nwis iga tiski tmaqṛant n tmsdgt g ssudan n yir n yilel.
"The earliest document mentioning the mosque is Abd al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan which gives the early history, presumably from the oral tradition as it existed in the mid-seventeenth century.","tantamt taqburt akkw isskann timzgida tga amzruy n ɛbd ssɛdi, amzruy n ssudan yakkan timṣaṛin tiqburin, s imkinna s t tettini tmyurt tamiwant s imkinna illan g wammas n tsuta tis sa d mrawt."
His immediate successor built the towers of the mosque while the following Sultan built the surrounding wall.,iska umkkus nns tiɣrmatin n tmzgida isku usulṭan t iḍfaṛn afrag as ittin.
This would have been the building that Caillié saw.,iɣy is d druɣ d aẓkka ad ay d ira ad iẓṛ kayli.
"The new mosque was a large, low building lacking any towers or ornamentation.",tga tmzgida tamaynut aẓkka axatar iggwzn g wakal maka ur digs tiɣrmatin ula kra n udikuṛ.
"The rebuilding was completed in 1907 using forced labour under the direction of Ismaila Traoré, head of Djenné's guild of masons.","ifukka wallas n tiski g usggwas n 1907 s uswuri n uẓṛu ddaw ibddi n ismaɛil tṛawṛi, anssixf n unmalu n imskutn g djini."
There has been debate as to what extent the design of the rebuilt mosque was subject to French influence.,ittumrara wawal xf ugrad n usɣiws n tmzgida mi ttyals tiski i wuḍus afṛansis.
He thought that the cones made the building resemble a baroque temple dedicated to the god of suppositories.,gan digs iqrawn am is iga asumɣ abaṛuki n wakuc n ikṛkuṛn.
"He also says that local people were so unhappy with the new building that they refused to clean it, only doing so when threatened with prison.","imkinna inna nwis ṛmin imzdaɣ idɣrann ur ḥmiln aẓkka amaynu allig ur ugin ad sizdign, ur t sazdgn allig tn ttusdiddin s ukurmu."
"The larger tomb to the south contains the remains of Almany Ismaïla, an important imam of the 18th century.","illa g usmḍl axatar illan g iffus udriz n almani ismaɛil, igan yan yimam axatar g tsuta tis 18."
"In some cases, the original surfaces of a mosque have even been tiled over, destroying its historical appearance and in some cases compromising the building's structural integrity.","kra n tikkal, tettyabbi tduli taqbuṛt n tmzgida s iflila, aynna as ikksn udm aqbur n uẓkka, allig ikka attayn i tḍuṛi."
"In 1996, Vogue magazine held a fashion shoot inside the mosque.","g usggwas n 1996, tga tsɣunt fug asqqim n uswlf n waṛṛuḍn agnsu n tmzgida."
"It is accessed by six sets of stairs, each decorated with pinnacles.","da nn ittyalkam s ubrid n ṣḍiṣt n trubba n tsalyiwin, ku yan digsnt ittuzyyn s tqrray."
The prayer wall or qibla of the Great Mosque faces east towards Mecca and overlooks the city marketplace.,ila ugadir n tẓallit nɣ lblt n tmzgida taxatart asksw ɣr anqqr s tnila n makka ar isiggi s agadaz n tmdint.
The cone shaped spires or pinnacles at the top of each minaret are topped with ostrich eggs.,xf tɣrmatin tiwlellutin nɣ taskiwin illan aflla n tmɣrit tiglay n tnhalt.
"The small, irregularly-positioned windows on the north and south walls allow little natural light to reach the interior of the hall.",da zzrun isṛẓam imẓẓyann ur ittusdusn g igudar n iẓẓlmḍ d iffus imik n usidd n tafuyt s agnsu n tdala.
The imam conducts the prayers from the mihrab in the larger central tower.,da ittẓalla ṭṭalb s middn g umiḥṛab n tɣrmt tanammast taxatart.
"To the right of the mihrab in the central tower is a second niche, the pulpit or minbar, from which the imam preaches his Friday sermon.","illa xf uyffas n umiḥṛab g tɣrmt tanammast wayḍ umiḥṛab, iga aminbaṛ, g yakka yimam tabrat n wass n usimwas."
The walls of the galleries facing the courtyard are punctuated by arched openings.,xf taɣzi n isakatn isfs llant taskiwin yunfn.
"Rather than a single central niche, the mihrab tower originally had a pair of large recesses echoing the form of the entrance arches in the north wall.","illa yan umiḥṛab anammas, maka tga tɣrmt nns mm sin wansiwn n uswunfu ixatarn ilan talɣa n taskiwin n ukccum n ugadir n iẓẓlmḍ."
"It requires several days to cure but needs to be periodically stirred, a task usually falling to young boys who play in the mixture, thus stirring up the contents.","tssatr tujit yids n wussan waxxa t ixssa uqllb ku tikklt, taga yat twuri ttggan irban imẓẓyann itturarn g wusur, g tgira ar smussun tumayin."
A race is held at the beginning of the festival to see who will be the first to deliver the plaster to the mosque.,da ittuga umḥizwar g tizwiri g unmuggar xf mayd nn issiwiḍn anmirs amzwaru ɣr tmzgida.
"In 1930, an inexact replica of the Djenné Mosque was built in the town of Fréjus in southern France.","g usggas n 1930, tettuska yat tunɣilt n tmzgida n djini g tmdint n frijus g iffus n fṛansa."
"The original mosque presided over one of the most important Islamic learning centers in Africa during the Middle Ages, with thousands of students coming to study the Quran in Djenné's madrassas.","innbḍ g tmzgida taẓɣrant yan sg wammasn sg ixatarn n ussslmd anslm g ifriqya g uzmz anammas, ɣrin digs ifḍawn n imzrawn tizrawin n uquran g tinmal n djini."
On 20 January 2006 the sight of a team of men hacking at the roof of the mosque sparked a riot in the town.,"g 20 yanayr 2006, turw d tdwwayt n yat trabbut n irgazn ikcmn s tkṛiḍt ɣr tduli n tmzgida g tmdint."
In the mosque the mob ripped out the ventilation fans that had been presented by the US Embassy at the time of the Iraq War and then went on a rampage through the town.,"g tmzgida, ttyakksnt tfrfarin n ukccum n waḍu nna tfka tmsqadt tamirikanit g wuzmz n imnɣi n ɛiṛaq, day grn issnt g tmdint."
"The Great Sphinx of Giza, commonly referred to as the Sphinx of Giza or just the Sphinx, is a limestone statue of a reclining sphinx, a mythical creature.","asfris n usfinks n jiza, ittyassann s asfinks n jiza nɣ ɣas asfinks, iga asfris n uẓṛu n ungmirs ig amuddr umiy."
"Furthermore, the angle and location of the south wall of the enclosure suggests the causeway connecting Khafre's Pyramid and Valley Temple already existed before the Sphinx was planned.",ar tsskan tɣmrt n ugadir n iffus n ufrag nwis ittuska uzamug xafṛaɛ d usumɣ n wasif ur ta ittugi usɣiws i usfinks.
"When the Stele was re-excavated in 1925, the lines of text referring to Khaf flaked off and were destroyed.","aynna tettyals tɣuzi i tnigit (Stele) g usggwas n 1925, bbint tzririgin n uḍṛiṣ isskann xaf gifn."
The cult of the Sphinx continued into medieval times.,tzdi tissumga n usfinks g uzmz anammas.
"Alexandria, Rosetta, Damietta, Cairo and the Giza Pyramids are described repeatedly, but not necessarily comprehensively.","ittuga usnml n aliskandirya d rusiṭa d damyaṭ d qahiṛa d izamugn n jiza kigan, maka ur d s talɣa tasmmadt."
"""Seven years after visiting Giza, André Thévet (Cosmographie de Levant, 1556) described the Sphinx as """"the head of a colossus, caused to be made by Isis, daughter of Inachus, then so beloved of Jupiter"""".""","“ ffir sa n isggwasn n urzaf n jiza, ifka andri tift (takusmuɣraft n ccam, 1556) asnuml i usfinks nwis d ““ixf n usfris axatar, tsskr izis, illis n inakus, iḥlan kigan ɣur yubitir””.”"
"Johannes Helferich's (1579) Sphinx is a pinched-face, round-breasted woman with a straight haired wig; the only edge over Thévet is that the hair suggests the flaring lappets of the headdress.","asfinks n yuhans hilfiric (1579) iga tamṭṭut mm wudm ur ismidn, mi wrerrayn idmarn d wazzaf innuṛẓmn; askkin s isti xf tifi (Thévet) llant xf wazzar nns tɣmrin isfikkitn g usnsi."
"Although certain tracts on the Stela are likely accurate, this passage is contradicted by archaeological evidence, thus considered to be Late Period historical revisionism, a purposeful fake, created by the local priests as an attempt to imbue the contemporary Isis temple with an ancient history it never had.","waxxa ɣint ad gint kra n tjumma g tflwit timddadin, maka ussif ad imzaray d isnẓay n idrizn, aynnaɣ as iga assfrɣ n umzruy n uzmz d inmalan, asfrɣ ad iga awttas n ikahunn idɣrann taf ad fkin amzruy jjin ur ikkin i usunɣ n izis atrar."
"""Recent discoveries, however, strongly show that it was really not built before the reign of Khafre, in the fourth dynasty.""""""","“tifitin timggura, waxxa, da sskanent s tdusi nwis ur ittuski dat n uzmz n xafṛaɛ, g twacunt tis kkuẓt.”””"
"""Maspero believed the Sphinx to be """"the most ancient monument in Egypt"""".""",“iɣal masbiri is ig usfinks ““asbdad aqbur g iqburn n miẓṛ””.”
"Part of its headdress had fallen off in 1926 due to erosion, which had also cut deeply into its neck.","iḍṛa ugzzum n usnsi nns g usggwas n 1926 s usurrs, ifkan altu ifxsi g ugrḍ nns."
The layer in which the head was sculpted is much harder.,tifrkit g ittukla ixf tmrar kigan.
Other tales ascribe it to being the work of Mamluks.,tinfusin yaḍn da tt ttrarant nwis iga tawuri n mamalik.
"According to al-Maqrīzī, many people living in the area believed that the increased sand covering the Giza Plateau was retribution for al-Dahr's act of defacement.","s wawal n almaqrizi, ɣaln kigan n imzdaɣ n wansa nwis tga tiɣawt n ussfrɣ n aḍḍahṛ amntil n tiggidit n ulxix issntln amrdul n jiza."
Al-Minufi stated that the Alexandrian Crusade in 1365 was divine punishment for a Sufi sheikh of the khanqah of Sa'id breaking off the nose.,inna awd alminufi nwis iga wuguz ancan n iskandiriya asggas n 1365 amutl taf ad iṛṛẓ ccix aṣufi n xanqah n ṣṣaɛid.
"The idea is considered pseudoarchaeology by academia, because no textual or archaeological evidence supports this to be the reason for the orientation of the Sphinx.","tga tikti ad tazgglt g wammasn ikadimitn, acku ur illi awd yan uḍṛiṣ n tntamt ula n udriz isawaln xf umntil n tnila n usfinks."
"There is a long history of speculation about hidden chambers beneath the Sphinx, by esoteric figures such as H. Spencer Lewis.","illa yan umzruy aɣzzaf n ikahunn n tmṣṛay n ddaw usfris n usfinks, s iwrikn imgzayn zun d h. sbinsr luwis."
It is believed to be the second most visited historical site in Egypt; only the Giza pyramid complex near Cairo receives more visits.,iga ansa axatar yugrn akkw ansiwn n miẓṛ g trzft; ɣas uddis n izamugn n jiza tama n qahiṛa ayd isnubugn ku tikklt ar ttrnun g trzaf.
"The three other parts, the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Montu, and the dismantled Temple of Amenhotep IV, are closed to the public.","ussifn s kṛaḍ yaḍn, igan ansa n mut, d wansa n muntu, d usunɣ aminḥutib wis kkuẓ ittusrin, qqnn dat n imrzaf."
"The original temple was destroyed and partially restored by Hatshepsut, although another pharaoh built around it in order to change the focus or orientation of the sacred area.","itturdl usunɣ anẓɣṛ isɣudu digs ḥatcbsut imik, isku g tsggwin nns yan ufirɛawn yaḍn taf ad issnfl tawna d tnila n wansa afuẓaṛ."
Construction of temples started in the Middle Kingdom and continued into Ptolemaic times.,inta usku n isunɣn g tgldit tanammast izdi ar azmz abuṭlumi.
The deities represented range from some of the earliest worshiped to those worshiped much later in the history of the Ancient Egyptian culture.,"iyucn ad ittuskan, kigan ayd tn igan d isunɣn g umzruy adsan n miẓṛ taqburt."
These architraves may have been lifted to these heights using levers.,iɣy is ttuswurint tsdkalin i yisy n imnarn ɣr tattayin ad.
"If stone had been used for the ramps, they would have been able to use much less material.","mr ittuswuri uẓṛu g tsurrḥin, ad swurin timtta drusnin kigan."
Final carving was executed after the drums were put in place so that it was not damaged while being placed.,ittuga uklu amggaru ffir taguri n izattinn g idɣarn nnsn ula frrɣn g usrrus nnsn.
"The city of Thebes does not appear to have been of great significance before the Eleventh Dynasty and previous temple building there would have been relatively small, with shrines being dedicated to the early deities of Thebes, the Earth goddess Mut and Montu.","ur as ittyakz i tmdint n ṭiba nwis tla atig taxatar dat twacunt tis tan d mrawt g ittuska usunɣ amzwaru imẓẓiyn, tili altu ansiwn n iyicn n zik g ṭiba, ttusmɣr digs iyucn n wakal mut d muntu."
Amun (sometimes called Amen) was long the local tutelary deity of Thebes.,ikka amun (mi ittuɣra s amin ka n tikkal) iga ayuc n urbi adɣran n ṭiba.
"Major construction work in the Precinct of Amun-Re took place during the Eighteenth Dynasty, when Thebes became the capital of the unified Ancient Egypt.","ttugant twuriwin tidslanin g wansa n tamun raɛ g uzmz n twacunt tis tam d mrawt, aynna tga ṭiba tamanɣt taqburt imunn n miẓṛ."
"Another of her projects at the site, Karnak's Red Chapel or Chapelle Rouge, was intended as a barque shrine and originally may have stood between her two obelisks.","sg isɣnutn yaḍn g wansa, takanisat n kaṛnak tazggwaɣt nɣ cabil ruj, ikka tt nn uwttas nns ad tg ansa n usrzf zun d tabarkit iɣy is tkka gr sin isbdadn (obelisks)."
"Known as the unfinished obelisk, it provides evidence of how obelisks were quarried.","tettwassn s usbdad arusmid, ar tsskan taɣarast n usukf n isbdadn."
"The last major change to the Precinct of Amun-Re's layout was the addition of the First Pylon and the massive enclosure walls that surround the whole precinct, both constructed by Nectanebo I of the Thirtieth Dynasty.","iga usnfl adslan amggaru g usɣiws n wansa n amun raɛ tarnawt n udydy amzwaru d iɣrabn ixatarn ittin i wansa kullut, s sin idsn iska tn naxt anbu amazwaru n twacunt tis kṛamrawt."
"The Karnak temple complex is first described by an unknown Venetian in 1589, although his account gives no name for the complex.","isnuml uddis n usunɣ n kṛank tikklt tmzwarut yan ufgan ittwassn g tbunduqt g usggwas n 1589, waxxa ur tfki tallast nns assaɣ n wuddis."
"Protais' writing about their travel was published by Melchisédech Thévenot (Relations de divers voyages curieux, 1670s–1696 editions) and Johann Michael Vansleb (The Present State of Egypt, 1678).","ifsr milcizidic tiɣinu tirra n brutays xf umuddu nnsn (izdayn n umuddu bu tdwwayt, 1670s–1696 tiẓṛigin) d yuhan mayk fanslb (addad n miẓṛ n dɣi, 1678)."
"Following excavation and restoration works by the Johns Hopkins University team, led by Betsy Bryan (see below) the Precinct of Mut has been opened to the public.",ffir tiwuriwin n unada d usɣudu tga trabbut n tsdawit junz hubkinz s uḥray n bitsi bryan (ẓṛ ddawas) ittyanf wansa n mut i ugdud.
"In 2006, Betsy Bryan presented her findings of one festival that included apparent intentional overindulgence in alcohol.","g usggwas n 2006, tfka bitsi bryan tiyafutin nn tlkm g yan g igrawn xf ucciyḍ n tissi n ukuḥul."
"These findings were made in the temple of Mut because when Thebes rose to greater prominence, Mut absorbed the warrior goddesses, Sekhmet and Bast, as some of her aspects.","ttufant tifitin g usunɣ n mut acku akud g yuly uttyissn n ṭiba ukzn wayucn n inmnɣitn sxmt d bast, nwis gant sg digs."
"In a later myth developed around the annual drunken Sekhmet festival, Ra, by then the sun god of Upper Egypt, created her from a fiery eye gained from his mother, to destroy mortals who conspired against him (Lower Egypt).","g wumiy anḍfuṛ, ittusnfln g usfuglu asgwsan n tissi sxmt, iga tt ṛaɛ, ayuc n tafuyt g miẓṛ anafllatakud ann, sg tiṭṭ n wafa tkkusa tt ɣur mma nns, taf ad tnɣ middn iman mgal nns. (miẓṛ tmazdart)."
The Luxor Temple is a large Ancient Egyptian temple complex located on the east bank of the Nile River in the city today known as Luxor (ancient Thebes) and was constructed approximately 1400 BCE.,iga usunɣ n aluqṣuṛ asunɣ uddis amiẓṛi aqbuṛ axatar illan g ugwmmaḍ n unqqr n wasif n nil g tmdint ittwassnn ass ad s wassaɣ n aluqṣuṛ (ṭiba taqburt) ittuskan g wattay n 1400 dat n tlalit.
"Four of the major mortuary temples visited by early travelers include the Temple of Seti I at Gurnah, the Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahri, the Temple of Ramesses II (i.e., Ramesseum), and the Temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu.","kkuẓ n isunɣn n tmtant idslann rzfn inmudda imzwura g illa usunɣ siti amzwaru g alqurna, d usunɣ n ḥatcibsut g dir nbaḥri, d usunɣ n ṛamsis wis sin (igan, ṛamsyum), d usunɣ ṛamsis wis kṛaḍ g tmdint n habu."
"To the rear of the temple are chapels built by Amenhotep III of the 18th Dynasty, and Alexander.","g ugzzum n ḍaṛt n usumɣ llan tmẓẓilla iska amnḥutb wis kṛaḍ n twacunt tis 18, d aliksandar."
This sandstone is referred to as Nubian sandstone.,ila islli ad n ulxix assaɣ n islli n ulxix anubi.
"""Alexander Badawy, """"Illusionism in Egyptian Architecture,"""" Studies in the Ancient Oriental Civilization, 35 (1969): 23.""","“aliksandar badawi, ““anmarur g tmsdagt tamiẓṛit,”” tizrawin g tɣrma n unqqr taqbuṛt, 35 (1969): 23.”"
Along the avenue the stations were set up for ceremonies such as the Feast of Opet which held significance to temple.,"xf taɣzi n ubrid, ttuskan isrsiw n usfuglu zun d ubit g ɣurs illa watig n usumɣ."
"Lalibela is a town in Lasta district of North Wollo Zone in Amhara Region, Ethiopia.","tga lalibila yat  tmazirt g tmnaḍt lasta g tmnaḍt n nutrt wulu g tmnaḍt zmhara, ityubya."
"To Christians, Lalibela is one of Ethiopia's holiest cities, second only to Axum, and a center of pilgrimage.","ɣur imasiḥitn, tga lalibila yat sg tmdinin tifuẓaṛin, tili g twala tis snat ffir n aksum, tg ansa n trzft n usɣan."
The names of several places in the modern town and the general layout of the rock-cut churches themselves are said to mimic names and patterns observed by Lalibela during the time he spent as a youth in Jerusalem and the Holy Land.,da ittwanna nwis d amata n wassaɣn n idɣarn g tmdint tatrart d usɣiws amatu n tkanisatin isnaɣs lalibila g uzmz ikka g isul iga aɛrrim g quds d ikaln ifuẓaṛn.
Christian faith inspires many features with Biblical names – even Lalibela's river is known as the River Jordan.,da yakka uɣilan amasiḥi kigan n tɣarin s wassaɣn n utuṛat - awd asif n lalibila ittwassn s wassaɣ n wasif n luṛdun.
"Portuguese priest Francisco Álvares (1465–1540), accompanied the Portuguese Ambassador on his visit to Dawit II in the 1520s.","imun uqiss aburtuɣali fṛansisku alfaris (1465–1540), d umrqad aburtuɣali g trzft nns ɣr dawit wis sin g isggwasn n 1520s."
"The next reported European visitor to Lalibela was Miguel de Castanhoso, who served as a soldier under Cristóvão da Gama and left Ethiopia in 1544.","anrzaf anuṛubbi anḍfuṛ ittyaznn ɣr lalibila iga migil di kastanhusu, iga asrdas ddaw tnbaḍt n kristufaw da gama iffɣ ityubya g usggws n 1544."
"""Its pillars were likewise cut from the mountain.""""),""","“s umyaɣ tbbi tirsal nns sf udrar.””),”"
There is some controversy as to when some of the churches were constructed.,illa umrara n walal xf mantur ttuskant yids n tkanisatin.
His report described two types of vernacular housing found in the area.,isnuml unqqis nns sin wanawn n izduɣn idɣrann illan g tmnaḍt.
"Saint Catherine's Monastery, officially Sacred Monastery of the God-Trodden Mount Sinai, is an Eastern Orthodox monastery located on the Sinai Peninsula, at the mouth of a gorge at the foot of Mount Sinai, near the town of Saint Catherine, Egypt.","addir n sant katrin, iga addir unṣib afuẓaṛ n udrar n gud-tṛudn, iga addir aṛtuduksi n unqqr illan g tzgngzirt sina, g usfi n taɣya ɣur uḍaṛ n udrar n sina, tama n tmdint sant katrin, miẓṛ."
"""The Saint Catherine monastery is located in the shadow of a group of three mountains; Ras Sufsafeh (possibly """"Mount Horeb"""" c.1 km west), Jebel Arrenziyeb and Jebel Musa, the """"Biblical Mount Sinai"""" (peak c.2 km south).""","illa waddir n tqiddist katrin g umalu n kṛaḍ n idurar; ṛas ṣṣfṣafa (iɣy “adrar n ḥurib attay n 1 kilumitr g uɣlluy), d udrar aṛnzib d udrar musa, d ““udrar sina atuṛati”” (isk g wattay n 2 km g iffus).”"
Catherine herself ordered the execution to commence.,tfka anaḍ nns katrin ad ntun g tinɣi.
"""The monastery was built by order of Emperor Justinian I (reigned 527–565), enclosing the Chapel of the Burning Bush (also known as """"Saint Helen's Chapel"""") ordered to be built by Empress Consort Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, at the site where Moses is supposed to have seen the burning bush.""","“ittuska waddir s wanaḍ n umbṛaṭuṛ justinyan amzwaru (innbḍ sg 527–565), yili digs wansa n tẓallit buc iɣusn (ittwassnn altu s wassaɣ n “takanisat sant hilin”) nna tska tmbṛaṭuṛt hilina, tamarawt n qusṭanṭin amqran, g wansa g ilaq ad yili musa yanny tagant ar ttɣus”."
"The site is sacred to Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.",ansa afuẓaṛ n tmasiḥit d islam d tudayt.
"During the seventh century, the isolated Christian anchorites of the Sinai were eliminated: only the fortified monastery remained.","g tsuta tis sat, tturdlnt ittusitmn tɣmrin timasiḥitin n sina: iqqim d ɣas waddir."
"From the time of the First Crusade, the presence of Crusaders in the Sinai until 1270 spurred the interest of European Christians and increased the number of intrepid pilgrims who visited the monastery.","sg tizwiri n wuguz ancan amzwaru, yuwi yili n incann g sina ar asggwas n 1270 taɣḍft n imasiḥitn n uṛubba ixitr umḍan n imḥijjan n jiza irzfn addir."
"The exact administrative status of the church within the Eastern Orthodox Church is ambiguous: by some, including the church itself, it is considered autocephalous, by others an autonomous church under the jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem.","addad abdlan n tkanisat agnsu n tkanisat tuṛtuduksit n unqqr ur isfaw: ɣur ka n yids, g tamu tkanisat s ixf nns, tga tkanisat tasimant, sg ɣur wayyaḍ tga takanisat tasimant ddaw tnbaḍt tkanisat tuṛtusuksit tayunanit."
But in 2003 Russian scholars discovered the donation act for the manuscript signed by the Council of Cairo Metochion and Archbishop Callistratus on 13 November 1869.,maca g usggwas n 2003 ufan imassann n rusya aslgn n twizi n warra ittugan gr usqqim mitucyun d unssixf n isqqufn kalistratus g qahira ass n 13 nuwanbir 1869.
Palimpsests are notable for having been reused one or more times over the centuries.,tettuswuri tals balimbsist yat tikklt nɣ kigan n tikkal xf tsutiwin.
Each page took approximately eight minutes to scan completely.,tcca ku tasna attay n tamt n tusdidin i usfaḍ nns kulu s usidd.
"The large icon collection begins with a few dating to the 5th (possibly) and 6th centuries, which are unique survivals; the monastery having been untouched by Byzantine iconoclasm, and never sacked.","tnta tgrawt n tayqunin tixatarin s yan umḍan amẓẓan ittugan g tsutiwin tis 5 (iɣy) d tis 6, tayqunin ad gant idrizn ibaylaln; iqqima waddir ur t rdiln ibizanṭitn."
"The conservation of its architectural structures, paintings, and books comprise much of the Foundation's purpose.",iga uḥṭṭu n tsqqulin n tmsdagt nns d tflwitin d idlisn nns sg isuɣad n tmrslt.
Its size reflects the relative prosperity of the time.,da isskan uksay nns tixxitrt nns tanslaɣt g wakud ann.
"It was built on the site of an earlier, smaller temple also dedicated to Horus, although the previous structure was oriented east-west rather than north-south as in the present site.","ittuska g wansa azayku imzziyn g uksay ittuẓlayn i ḥurus, waxxa tla tsqqult nns tqburt tanila n sg unqqr ɣr aɣlluy g udɣar n sg iẓẓlmḍ ɣr iffus imkinna iga g udɣar dɣi."
The temple of Edfu fell into disuse as a religious monument following Theodosius I's persecution of pagans and edict banning non-Christian worship within the Roman Empire in 391.,ittusitm usunɣ idfu asbdad n usɣan ffir asmrrt n tyudusyus amzwaru i iwatanitn s warra igddln tissumga b bla tamasiḥit agnsu n tmbṛaṭuṛit taṛumanit g usggwas n 391.
"Over the centuries, the temple became buried to a depth of 12 metres (39 ft) beneath drifting desert sand and layers of river silt deposited by the Nile.","xf taɣzi n tsutiwin, ittumḍl usunɣ g tɣuzi n 12 mitr (39 n ubacil) ddaw ulxix n tniri d tfrkiwin n tlaɣt n wasif isslsɣ wasif n nil."
"In 1860 Auguste Mariette, a French Egyptologist, began the work of freeing Edfu temple from the sands.","g usggwas n 1860, inta umassan n tmiẓṛin afṛansis ugust maryit tawuri xf wukus n ulxix i wansa n tissumga idfu."
Great Zimbabwe is a medieval city in the south-eastern hills of Zimbabwe near Lake Mutirikwe and the town of Masvingo.,tga zimbabwi tamqrant yat n tmdint n uzmz anammas illan g uzaɣar n iffus n unqqr n zimbabwi tama n uglmam mutirikwi d tmazirt n masfingu.
Great Zimbabwe is believed to have served as a royal palace for the local monarch.,iɣy is tkka tga zimbabwi tamqrant iɣrm agldan n ugllid adɣran.
They were constructed without mortar (dry stone).,tettuska bla iflila (islliwn izwan).
"The first confirmed visits by Europeans were in the late 19th century, with investigations of the site starting in 1871.","kkant trzaf gan imzdaɣ n uṛubba g tigariwin n tsuta tis 19, ntun irzzutn g wansa asggwas n 1871."
The Great Zimbabwe area was settled by the 4th century AD.,tettuzdɣ tmnaḍt n zimbabwi tamqrant g ukccum n tsuta tis 4 n tlalit.
"David Beach believes that the city and its state, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, flourished from 1200 to 1500, although a somewhat earlier date for its demise is implied by a description transmitted in the early 1500s to João de Barros.","da isksiw dayfid bitc nwis tbuɣla tmdint d twilayatin nns, tagldit n zimbabwi gr 1200 d 1500, waxxa da ittini umzruy izrin nwis tḍṛa g imzwura n isggwasn n 1500s ɣr jwaw di baṛus."
"They are known as the Hill Complex, the Valley Complex and the Great Enclosure.",ttwwassnn s wuddis n gil d wuddis n wasif d tgnsut taxatart.
"The Valley Complex is divided into the Upper and Lower Valley Ruins, with different periods of occupation.","ibḍa wuddis n wasif xf idrizn n wasif anaflla d wasif amazdar, s yids n tfrkiwin n umsdurri."
"The focus of power moved from the Hill Complex in the 12th century, to the Great Enclosure, the Upper Valley and finally the Lower Valley in the early 16th century.",tmmutty tawna n tdusi n wuddis hil g tsuta tis 12 ɣr tmaqqant taxatart d wasif anaflla g tgira asif mazdar g imzwura n tsuta tis 16.
"Other artefacts include soapstone figurines (one of which is in the British Museum), pottery, iron gongs, elaborately worked ivory, iron and copper wire, iron hoes, bronze spearheads, copper ingots and crucibles, and gold beads, bracelets, pendants and sheaths.","smanent tmgurin n ufus yaḍn tisfras n uẓṛu aclalf (yan digsnt illa g usalay abṛiṭani), d idqqi, d iɣzzaln n wuzzal, d uɛaj mi ttuɣyyz twuri, d ifilan n usidd d wanas, d tlgwan n wuzzal, d ixfawn n twsmin ibrunzn, d tfṭaṭṭaḥin n wanas d tnxrin, d txrsin n wurɣ, d wutuln, d tsaglin d tɣuni n imrign."
"That international commerce was in addition to the local agricultural trade, in which cattle were especially important.","tkka tsbbabt tagraɣlant d tsbbabt takrzant tadɣrant, g ikka ɣur wulli watig iẓlin digs."
"Portuguese traders heard about the remains of the medieval city in the early 16th century, and records survive of interviews and notes made by some of them, linking Great Zimbabwe to gold production and long-distance trade.","sllan isbbabn iburtuɣlitn xf isrizn n tmdint n uzmz anammas g tizwiriwin n tsuta tis 16, salnt tntamin llanin g imraratnn n wawal d isniɣisn gan idsn digsn, izdin zimbabwi taxatart d ufars n wurɣ d tsbbabt ilan imal axatar."
"He asserted that the figurine instead appeared to date to the subsequent Ptolemaic era (c. 323–30 BC), when Alexandria-based Greek merchants would export Egyptian antiquities and pseudo-antiquities to southern Africa.","isiwl inna nwis d iffɣ usfris g tizwiri g uzmz abuṭlumi anḍfuṛ ( attay n 30-323 dat n tlalit), kud nna kkan isbbabn iyunanitn izdɣn g iskandirya ad aznn idrizn imiẓṛitn n miẓṛ d idrizn n tkrkas ɣr ifriqya n iffus."
"Bent had no formal archaeological training, but had travelled very widely in Arabia, Greece and Asia Minor.","ur ili bint awd yan usmuttg unṣib g yigr n idrizn, maka immadda kigan g tazgngzirt d yunan d asya tamẓẓyant."
They have a tradition of ancient Jewish or South Arabian descent through their male line.,tlla ɣursn yat tmyurt taqburt n wudayn nɣ d sg iẓuṛan n waɛṛabn n iffus sg taggayt n iwtman.
"The Lemba claim was also reported by a William Bolts (in 1777, to the Austrian Habsburg authorities), and by an A.A. Anderson (writing about his travels north of the Limpopo River in the 19th century).","isgula nn wilyam bults d a.a. andrsun (ar ittara xf imuddutn nns sg iẓẓlmḍ asutr n limbubu g tsuta tis 19) altu (g1777, ɣr tnbaḍin n habsburg n nnamsa)."
"She had first sunk three test pits into what had been refuse heaps on the upper terraces of the hill complex, producing a mix of unremarkable pottery and ironwork.","ɣzan tizwiri kṛaḍt txba n yirm g ibduzn xf tskfal timajjgalin i wuddis n twrirt, aynna d ifkan afars n wusur ingr idqqi d wuzzal."
Caton Thompson immediately announced her Bantu origin theory to a meeting of the British Association in Johannesburg.,tfka katun ṭumsun tiẓiṛt nns xf uẓɣṛ n bantu g ugraw n tmsmunt tabriṭanit g juhannsburg.
"The radiocarbon evidence is a suite of 28 measurements, for which all but the first four, from the early days of the use of that method and now viewed as inaccurate, support the 12th-to-15th-centuries chronology.","iga unmmal n uṛadyukaṛbun tagrawt n 28 n tsɣalt, ittunalan kullutnt ɣas kkuẓt timzwura, sg wussan imzwura n uswuri n tɣarast s ittusksiw dɣi nwis ur yad tli tiyafutin zddignin, asddi n wakud sg tasuta tis 12 ar tasuta tis 15."
"The removal of gold and artefacts in amateurist diggings by early colonial antiquarians caused widespread damage, notably diggings by Richard Nicklin Hall.","ujjan d wukusn n wurɣ d ifarsn n ufus d inadatn n inramsutn n umsdurri ittinign idrizn kigan n twaɣitin, lumn g wuɣuzn isskr ritcard niklin hu."
"Preben Kaarsholm writes that both colonial and black nationalist groups invoked Great Zimbabwe's past to support their vision of the country's present, through the media of popular history and of fiction.","yara bribn krculm is d ldint tgrawin timsdurritin d tfrkit tungalt izri n zimbabwi tamqrant i tiẓṛi n umha n tmazirt, s wallaln n usnɣms d umzruy anmun d uwwingm."
Pikirayi and Kaarsholm suggest that this presentation of Great Zimbabwe was partly intended to encourage settlement and investment in the area.,igr d tannaynt nns bikirayi ntta d karculm is ittufka i zimbabwi yan usfsr bu uwttas n usbɣs n uzduɣ d uzizzl g tmnaḍt.
"In 1980 the new internationally recognised independent country was renamed for the site, and its famous soapstone bird carvings were retained from the Rhodesian flag and Coat of Arms as a national symbol and depicted in the new Zimbabwean flag.","g usggwas n 1980, ittyals as wassaɣ i uwank tasimant tamaynut ittwassnn s talɣa tagraɣlant, ttuḥḍun igzayn n igḍaḍ ittwassnn n iẓṛan iclulaf g ucnyal arudisi d tmatart n twsrmt i tmurt ittusunɣ g ucnyl n zimbabwi amaynu."
"An example of the former is Ken Mufuka's booklet, although the work has been heavily criticised.","amdya xf umzwaru tga t tdlist kin mufuka, waxxa ittufka uzɣan axatar xf twuri nns."
It was created to preserve the rich history of this country which was facing a dark future due to globalisation.,ittuska i uḥṭṭu xf umzruy axatar n tmazirt ad ittnaɣn d imal n tillas s umntil n tmaḍlant.
"The site exhibits a multitude of architectural styles, reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico and of the Puuc and Chenes styles of the Northern Maya lowlands.","da isfsar wansa kigan n tmamkin n tmsdagt, da aɣ d tssktay anawn ittyannayn g wamas n miksik d wanawn n buk (Puuc) d hins (Chenes) illan g iẓẓlmḍ n maya g ikaln yazdurn."
"The city may have had the most diverse population in the Maya world, a factor that could have contributed to the variety of architectural styles at the site.","iɣy is tusy tmdint amyanaw n imzdaɣ g umaḍal n maya, ig yan umawy iɣin ad yaws i amyanaw n tmamkin n tmsdagt g tmnaḍt."
"""One possible translation for Itza is """"enchanter (or enchantment) of the water,"""" from its (itz), """"sorcerer"""", and ha, """"water"""".""","“yat sg tsuɣlin tinzmar i itza tlla “iḥrgi” n waman, ““sg its (itz) ““iḥrgi””, d ha, ““aman””.”"
"This form preserves the phonemic distinction between chʼ and ch, since the base word chʼeʼen (which, however, is not stressed in Maya) begins with a postalveolar ejective affricate consonant.","yujja umdya ad bṭṭu n imsli illan gr chʼ d ch, acku taguri tadslant ccin chʼeʼen (nna, waxxa, ur ɣifs ibrik g maya) tnta s uskkil ntrgalt amaqqan n ffiranɣan."
"""Of these cenotes, the """"Cenote Sagrado"""" or Sacred Cenote (also variously known as the Sacred Well or Well of Sacrifice), is the most famous.""","“sg igrratn ad, ““sinut sagradu”” nɣ sinut afuẓaṛ (ittwassnn altu s wassaɣ n wanu n tfaska tafuẓaṛt), as ittwassn kigan.”"
"""Instead, the city's political organization could have been structured by a """"multepal"""" system, which is characterized as rulership through council composed of members of elite ruling lineages.""","g udɣar n uya, mr ittusuds ugrra asrtan n tmdint s ugrra n “umyanaw n inubln”, ittwassnn s tnbaḍt n usqqim g llan igmamn n twacunin n tjdduɛt innbḍn.”"
"It was, however, toward the end of the Late Classic and into the early part of the Terminal Classic that the site became a major regional capital, centralizing and dominating political, sociocultural, economic, and ideological life in the northern Maya lowlands.","waxxa, g usmmud n tgiriwin n uzmz aklassiki g ugzzum amzwaru n asrsiw aklassiki, yaɣul wansa iga tamanɣt tasgawant tdslant, ar ttbaḍ g tudrt tasrtant d tmttant n ikaln yazdurn g iẓẓlmḍ n maya."
Hunac Ceel supposedly prophesied his own rise to power.,tga turdawt ad yili hunak sil idma ily nns ɣr tnbaḍt.
"While there is some archeological evidence that indicates Chichén Itzá was at one time looted and sacked, there appears to be greater evidence that it could not have been by Mayapan, at least not when Chichén Itzá was an active urban center.","ilin yids n inẓatn n idrizn isskann is ttyakr tmdint tcitcn itza g ka n tikklt, ilin inẓatn yugrn wi is tkka ad ur tili mayaban g wakud g tga tcitcn itza ammas aɣrman ismussan."
"After Chichén Itzá elite activities ceased, the city may not have been abandoned.","ffir asbdd n tilal n tjdduɛt g tcitcn itza, ɛniɣ ur tettyjj tmdint."
Montejo returned to Yucatán in 1531 with reinforcements and established his main base at Campeche on the west coast.,idwl muntiju ɣr yukatan asggwas n 1531 imun nn d yiws isku taffa nns tadslant g kambitci xf uftas n uɣlluy.
"Montejo the Younger eventually arrived at Chichen Itza, which he renamed Ciudad Real.","ilkm muntiju amẓẓyan g tgira ɣr tmdint n tcitcn itza, mi ifka assaɣ n siwdad riyal."
"Months passed, but no reinforcements arrived.",zrin wayyurn maka ur tt nn kkin kra wannaln.
"By 1535, all Spanish had been driven from the Yucatán Peninsula.","g ukccum n 1535, ttuẓẓln isblyunitn kull sg tzngzirt yukatan."
"In 1860, Désiré Charnay surveyed Chichén Itzá and took numerous photographs that he published in Cités et ruines américaines (1863).","g usggwas n 1860, isfḍ dizirih tcaṛnay tcintcn itza yasy kigan n twlafin tifutugrafin ittufsrn g iɣrman d idrizn imirikann (1863)."
"""Augustus Le Plongeon called it """"Chaacmol"""" (later renamed """"Chac Mool"""", which has been the term to describe all types of this statuary found in Mesoamerica).""","“ugustun lu blunjun ittawwnn s ““cakmul”” (g tgiriwin ad s wassaɣ n ““cak mul””, igan irm n usnml n wanawn n usfris illan g amrika tanammast).”"
"In 1894 the United States Consul to Yucatán, Edward Herbert Thompson, purchased the Hacienda Chichén, which included the ruins of Chichen Itza.","g usggwas n 1894, isɣa uqunsu tiwilayatin munnin g yukatan idward harbrt ṭumsun hasyinda cicayn, g llan idrizn n tcitcn itza."
"Thompson is most famous for dredging the Cenote Sagrado (Sacred Cenote) from 1904 to 1910, where he recovered artifacts of gold, copper and carved jade, as well as the first-ever examples of what were believed to be pre-Columbian Maya cloth and wooden weapons.","ittwassn ṭumsun s ufṛaḍ n sinut sagṛadu (sinut tafuẓaṛt) sg 1904 ar 1910, g d irura tigzzumin n udriz n wurɣ d wanas d tkwla, d uxrruq n maya n dat kulumbus d imrign n ukccuḍ."
"The Mexican Revolution and the following government instability, as well as World War I, delayed the project by a decade.","tuwi d tgrawla tamiksikit d war aswunfu n tnbaḍt tanḍfuṛt, d imnɣi amaḍlan amzwaru, ɣr usmaḍl n usɣnu tamrawt n isggwasn."
"At the same time, the Mexican government excavated and restored El Castillo (Temple of Kukulcán) and the Great Ball Court.","g yan wakad, iga tnbaḍt tamiksikit s unada d usɣudu n lkastiyu (asunɣ n kukulcan) d unrar n rakurt amaḍlan."
"Thompson, who was in the United States at the time, never returned to Yucatán.","ur yaɣul ṭumsun, ikkan g twilayatin munnin g wakud ann, ɣr yukatan."
In 1944 the Mexican Supreme Court ruled that Thompson had broken no laws and returned Chichen Itza to his heirs.,"g usggwas n 1944, tffɣ tsbḍayt tamajjgakt tamiksikit nwis ur iffiɣ ṭumsun awd yan islgan irar tctcn itza ɣr imkkusa nns."
"The first was sponsored by the National Geographic, and the second by private interests.","amzwaru n tkssa n nacyunal jyugṛafik, d wis sin ddaw tkssa n taɣḍfin timẓlay."
"The city was built upon broken terrain, which was artificially levelled in order to build the major architectural groups, with the greatest effort being expended in the levelling of the areas for the Castillo pyramid, and the Las Monjas, Osario and Main Southwest groups.","tettuska tmdint xf ikaln ikkat uzunz, tettusnm taf ad digs ilint tgrumma g tmsdagt tidslanin, d tigawt n tdusi taxatart i usstw n uzamug kastilu, d tgrawin las munjas d usaryu d iffus n uɣlluy adslan."
"Many of these stone buildings were originally painted in red, green, blue and purple colors.",ittukla wahli n tuskiwin ad n uẓṛu s uklu azggwaɣ d uzgzaw d unili d unibi.
"Just like gothic cathedrals in Europe, colors provided a greater sense of completeness and contributed greatly to the symbolic impact of the buildings.","zun d tikatidṛatin tiquṭutin g uṛubba, fkan ikwlan iky s tixxitrt d usmad awsnt i taḥli n iẓkkatn."
"The Puuc-style building feature the usual mosaic-decorated upper façades characteristic of the style but differ from the architecture of the Puuc heartland in their block masonry walls, as opposed to the fine veneers of the Puuc region proper.","ila uẓkka ittusɣawsn s tmamkt n buk (Puuc) s tnilawin tinafllatin ittuklan s tfusayfst maka tsty xf utwal n tmsdagt n buk g igudar nns ittuskan s wuṭṭub, mgal n tfrkit tusdidt n wansa n buk."
At the base of the balustrades of the northeastern staircase are carved heads of a serpent.,llan g yizdar n balustṛad n tskflt n iffus n unqqr ixfawn ittuklan n tfiɣra.
"After several false starts, they discovered a staircase under the north side of the pyramid.","ffir tisntay izgln, ufan yan uskwfl izdar n iffus n uzamug."
"The Mexican government excavated a tunnel from the base of the north staircase, up the earlier pyramid's stairway to the hidden temple, and opened it to tourists.","tɣza tnbaḍt tamiksikit yan uxbrid g tsila n uskwfl n iẓẓlmḍ, s yily g uzamug ar asung iffrn, anfn t dat n imrzaf."
"In one panel, one of the players has been decapitated; the wound emits streams of blood in the form of wriggling snakes.","g yat g tflwitin, ittyabby ixf i yan g imaddaln; ar d isfiffi sg utrs umzaz n idammn s talɣa n ifaɣriwn ittmannaḍn."
"At the south end is another, much bigger temple, but in ruins.","g tsga n iffus illa wansa n tissumga yaḍn axatar kigan, maka irrdl."
"Inside there is a large mural, much destroyed, which depicts a battle scene.",illa g ugnsu yan umnad n tflwit g ugadir irrdln kigan digs aswlf n yiẓiṛ n imnɣi.
"It is built in a combination Maya and Toltec styles, with a staircase ascending each of its four sides.","ittuska s usmun n tmamkin maya d tultik, g yan uskwfl issiliyn g tsggwin ns s kkuẓ."
"In its interior archeologists discovered a collection of large cones carved out of stone, the purpose of which is unknown.","ufan imassann n taṛkyulujit g ugnsu wahli n tẓumag tixatarin ittuklan g islliwn, ur ittyassn uwttas nnsnt."
"""Its name comes from a series of altars at the top of the structure that are supported by small carved figures of men with upraised arms, called """"atlantes.""""""","“assaɣ nns illa g wumuɣ n wansiwn n uɣras g ugzzum anaflla n tqssult tama nns talɣiwin ittuklan timẓẓyanin i irgazn s iɣalln ittyasin, ilin assaɣ n ““aṭlanṭs.”””"
"This complex is analogous to Temple B at the Toltec capital of Tula, and indicates some form of cultural contact between the two regions.","da ittaɣ wuddis ad n usunɣ B g tultik tamanɣt n tula, ar isskan yan wanaw sg wanawn n umyawad adlsan ingr tmnaḍin s snat."
This temple encases or entombs a former structure called The Temple of the Chac Mool.,tlla g usunɣ ad tasuqlt taqburt s wassaɣ n usunɣ n tcak mul.
"To the south of the Group of a Thousand Columns is a group of three, smaller, interconnected buildings.","ɣr iffus n tgrawt n yifḍ n trslt, tlla yat trabbut n kraḍ iẓkkiwn immzdayn mi imẓẓiy uksay."
A section of the upper façade with a motif of x's and o's is displayed in front of the structure.,ifsr ugzzum n tnila tanafllat s igzayn n iskkiln id x d id o dat n tuskiwt.
The Temple of Xtoloc is a recently restored temple outside the Osario Platform is.,asumɣ stuluk d asumɣ mi ittuga usmaynu tigiriwin ad bṛṛa n tadkkwant usaryu.
"Between the Xtoloc temple and the Osario are several aligned structures: The Platform of Venus, which is similar in design to the structure of the same name next to Kukulkan (El Castillo), the Platform of the Tombs, and a small, round structure that is unnamed.","illa gr usunɣ n ikstuluk d usaṛyu wahli n tuskiwin tikniwin: tadkkwant n finus, ittaɣn g uɣawas asqqul yusun assaɣ tama n kukulkan (ilkastilu), d tadkwant n ismḍal, d tsqqult tamẓẓant tawrerrayt tar ism."
"""The Casa Colorada (Spanish for """"Red House"""") is one of the best preserved buildings at Chichen Itza.""",“kasa kulurada (tla anamk n tgmmi tazggwaɣt”) tg yan sg iẓkka ittuḥḍan g tcitc n itza.”
"In 2009, INAH restored a small ball court that adjoined the back wall of the Casa Colorada.","g usggwas n 2009, trura inah (INAH) yan unrar n takurt amaẓẓyan illan tama n ugasir n ḍaṛt n kasa kuluṛada."
"This building's name has been long used by the local Maya, and some authors mention that it was named after a deer painting over stucco that doesn't exist anymore.","swurin maya idɣrann assaɣ n uẓkka ad sg wahli, ar ttinin yids n iamaratn nwis ila assaɣ xf tflwit n tmlalin xf ungmirs ur yad illin sg dɣi."
"""The Spanish named this complex Las Monjas (""""The Nuns"""" or """"The Nunnery""""), but it was a governmental palace.""","“gan isblyunitn i wansa ad assaɣ n las munjas (““iṛahibn”” nɣ d ““nnunri””), maka iga iɣrm n tnbaḍt.”"
These texts frequently mention a ruler by the name of Kʼakʼupakal.,da bddrn iḍṛiṣn ad kigan yan unbbaḍ s yism n kakubakal.
It gets its name from the stone spiral staircase inside.,tla assaɣ nns sg uskwfl awlullu n islli g ugnsu.
"The long, western-facing façade has seven doorways.",i tnila taɣzzaft mm wudm n uɣlluy bu sa n iflwan.
The southern end of the building has one entrance.,tasga n iffus ɣurs yan ukccum.
"Inside one of the chambers, near the ceiling, is a painted hand print.","agnsu n yat g tmṣṛiyin, tama n tduli, tlla tmssigzt s tirayt n ufus."
The location of the cave has been well known in modern times.,ansa n ifri ittwassn kigan g uzmz atrar.
E. Wyllys Andrews IV also explored the cave in the 1930s.,yufa e. willys andrwz wis kkuẓ altu ifri g isggwasn n 1930s.
"On 15 September 1959, José Humberto Gómez, a local guide, discovered a false wall in the cave.","g 15 cutanbir 1959, yufa unmmal adɣran xussi umbirtu gumiz yan ugadir n usshwu g ifri."
"Even before the book was published, Benjamin Norman and Baron Emanuel von Friedrichsthal traveled to Chichen after meeting Stephens, and both published the results of what they found.","awd dat n ufsar n udlis, immudda binyamin nuṛman d ubaṛun imanwil fun fridricstal ɣr tcitcn ffir timnilit d stifnz, ifsr ku yan digsn tiyafutin n uynna ufan."
"In 1923, Governor Carrillo Puerto officially opened the highway to Chichen Itza.","g usggwas n 1923, yunf unbbaḍ karilu buwirtu s talɣa tunṣibt abrid abrbrid ittawin ɣr tcitcn itza."
"In 1930, the Mayaland Hotel opened, just north of the Hacienda Chichén, which had been taken over by the Carnegie Institution.","g usggwas n 1930, ittyanf usnsu mayaland, g iẓẓlmḍ n hasyind tcitcn, tumẓ tmrslt kanji."
"In 1972, Mexico enacted the Ley Federal Sobre Monumentos y Zonas Arqueológicas, Artísticas e Históricas (Federal Law over Monuments and Archeological, Artistic and Historic Sites) that put all the nation's pre-Columbian monuments, including those at Chichen Itza, under federal ownership.","g usggwas n 1972, tsskr miksik Ley Federal Sobre Monumentos y Zonas Arqueológicas, Artísticas e Históricas (aslgn imunn i idrzn d wansiwn n idrizn d inaẓuṛn d inmzruyn) nna g tga ansiwn akkw n idrizn n g tmazirt dat n kulumbus, g aamun awd winna illan g tcitcn itza, ddaw tgldit tafidiṛalit."
"Tour guides will also demonstrate a unique the acoustical effect at Chichen Itza: a handclap before the in front of the staircase the El Castillo pyramid will produce by an echo that resembles the chirp of a bird, similar to that of the quetzal as investigated by Declercq.","sskrn inmmaln n tmallayt altu as usbɣs nnsn g tmdint n tcitcn itza: s ubqqa dat n uskwfl ar zamug ilkastilu yan wanẓiẓ s tqlit yaɣn g uzqzq n igḍaḍ, zun d win kitzal s inna diklirk."
"INAH, which manages the site, has closed a number of monuments to public access.","inah (INAH) issudun ansa, tqqn kigan n wansiwn iṛkyulijitn i imallayn."
"Originally a project of real estate developer and former New York State Senator William H. Reynolds, the building was constructed by Walter Chrysler, the head of the Chrysler Corporation.","iga asunɣ n umsnalfu n tmsgda d ikkan iga agmam n usqqim n imɣarn n twilayat nyuyuṛk wilyam h. rinuldz, iska aẓkka unssixf n tmṣiṛt krayslr waltr krayslr."
"An annex was completed in 1952, and the building was sold by the Chrysler family the next year, with numerous subsequent owners.","ifukka usḍfṛ g usggwas n 1952, tzznz twacunt n krayslr aẓkka g usggwas anḍfuṛ, d kigan n imilan inḍfaṛ."
The era was characterized by profound social and technological changes.,iẓṛa uzmz isnfal inamunn d itiknulujitn idusn.
"""The following year, Chrysler was named Time magazine's """"Person of the Year"""".""","“gusggwas t iḍfaṛn, yuwy kṛayslr tasmɣurt n ““anmɣur n usggwas”” i tsɣunt taym.”"
"Following the end of World War I, European and American architects came to see simplified design as the epitome of the modern era and Art Deco skyscrapers as symbolizing progress, innovation, and modernity.","g tgara n imnɣi amaḍlan amzwaru, ddan d imtwaln n tmsdagt n uṛubba d imirikanitn ad iẓiṛn aɣawas n uzmz atrar d tnkcam n isigniw d tmamkt art diku n ubuɣlu d ysnulfu d tetrart."
"Prior to his involvement in planning the building, Reynolds was best known for developing Coney Island's Dreamland amusement park.","ittwassn rinuldz s usbuɣlu n tmdint n malahi drim land g kuni ayland, ur ta yamu g usɣiws n uẓkka."
"In 1927, after several years of delays, Reynolds hired the architect William Van Alen to design a forty-story building there.","g usggwas n 1927, ffir yids n isggwasn n umaḍl, ifka rinuldz tawuri i umtwal n tmsgda wilyam fan alin i tawuri n usɣiws n uẓkka g llant kkumraw n tduliwin."
"Van Alen and Severance complemented each other, with Van Alen being an original, imaginative architect and Severance being a shrewd businessperson who handled the firm's finances.","myawasn fan alan d sifiruns grsn, iga fan alan amtwal n tmsgdagt amsnulfu ig sifiruns argaz n twuriwin amiɣis iswurin iqariḍn n tmṣiṛt."
"The proposal was changed again two weeks later, with official plans for a 63-story building.","ittusnfl uɣawas tayḍ tikklt ffir sin imalassn, s yili n tɣarasin tunsibin n uẓkka g tlla 63 n tduliwin."
The adjacent 56-story Chanin Building was also under construction.,ar ittusku uẓkka cayn awd ntta inmalan g llan 56 n tduliwin.
These plans were approved in June 1928.,ittuga umsasa xf iɣawasn ad g yunyu 1928.
"He instead devised an alternate design for the Reynolds Building, which was published in August 1928.","g udɣar nns isnulfa d asɣiws n uẓkka n rinaldz, ittufsrn g ɣuct 1928."
"A contract was awarded on October 28, and demolition was completed on November 9.","tettufka tmaɣunt g 28 ktubṛ, tsmd trdla g 9 nuwanbir."
"From late 1928 to early 1929, modifications to the design of the dome continued.","g tgiriwin n usggwas n 1928 ar tizwiri n usggwas n 1929, zdin isɣudutn xf usɣiws n tqabbut."
"Lower down, the design was affected by Walter Chrysler's intention to make the building the Chrysler Corporation's headquarters, and as such, various architectural details were modeled after Chrysler automobile products, such as the hood ornaments of the Plymouth (see ).","g yizdar, ira waltṛ ad ittug uẓkka ansa n tmṣiṛt krislr(Chrysler Corporation), aynnaɣ as isɣaws timitar nns n tmsdagt ad aɣnt g ifarisn n thiritin n krayslr, zun d ikwlan n tsmdlt n unsmassu n thirit blimut (ẓṛ)."
"Construction of the building proper began on January 21, 1929.",issnti usku n uẓkka d yusan g 21 yanayr 1929.
"Despite a frantic steelwork construction pace of about four floors per week, no workers died during the construction of the skyscraper's steelwork.","waxxa tmrar twuri n wattay n kkuẓt n tdaliwin g imalass, ur immut awd yan g imswuritn akud n tiski n tnkcamt n isigniw."
"""40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building started competing for the distinction of """"world's tallest building"""".""",“issnta 40 wul strit d uẓkka n krayslr xf umzizwr n ““aɣzzaf n iẓkkatn g umaḍal””.”
"On October 23, 1929, one week after surpassing the Woolworth Building's height and one day before the catastrophic Wall Street Crash of 1929 started, the spire was assembled.","g 23 ktubṛ 1929, ffir yan imalass n uzray n tattyt n uẓkka wulurt d wass dat n tḍuṛi n wul strit asggwas n 1929, tettusmattr tɣrmt."
"Even the New York Herald Tribune, which had virtually continuous coverage of the tower's construction, did not report on the spire's installation until days after the spire had been raised.","awd taɣmist n nyuyurk hirald tribyun, iḍfaṛn inɣmisn n tiski n tɣrmt, ur tfki anɣmis n umuttr n tɣrmt allig zrin yids n wussan."
"""In the lobby of the building, a bronze plaque that read """"in recognition of Mr. Chrysler's contribution to civic advancement"""" was unveiled.""",“g tnammast n uẓkka tettyanf tlwit tbṛunzit xf ittyara ““i usmɣr n tdrawt n mass krayslr g uzizzl n tmdint””.”
"The Chrysler Building was appraised at $14 million, but was exempt from city taxes per an 1859 law that gave tax exemptions to sites owned by the Cooper Union.","ittufka g watig n uẓkka n krayslr 14 mlyun n dulaṛ, maka ttyakksn as izmaz n tmdint s uslgn n 1859 ikksn izmaz i wansiwn igan win tamunt kubr."
Van Alen's satisfaction at these accomplishments was likely muted by Walter Chrysler's later refusal to pay the balance of his architectural fee.,iɣ is ur iswanfa fan alan g tyafutin ad acku yuggy waltr krayslr ad as ifk tiɣrad n tmsdagt nns.
"However, the lawsuit against Chrysler markedly diminished Van Alen's reputation as an architect, which, along with the effects of the Great Depression and negative criticism, ended up ruining his career.","waxxa, tettyagy tṣṛuḍt n umtwal n tmsdagt mgal n krayslr, aynna t yujjan ad irrdl g tudrt nns tazzuulant, ildy d ɣifs kigan n iwaliwn d uzɣan isḍuṛn."
"In 1944, the corporation filed plans to build a 38-story annex to the east of the building, at 666 Third Avenue.","g usggwas n 1944, tfka tmṣiṛt aɣawas n usku n uẓkka anḍfuṛ g tlla 38 n tduliwin g unqqr n uẓkka, g 666 asuk wis kṛaḍ."
"The stone for the original building was no longer manufactured, and had to be specially replicated.","ur yad da ittufars islli n uẓkka anẓɣṛ, maka icil wallas nns."
The family sold the building in 1953 to William Zeckendorf for its assessed price of $18 million.,tzznza twacunt aẓkka g usggwas n 1953 i wilyam zikinduruf s watig n 18 mlyun dulaṛ.
"At the time, it was reported to be the largest real estate sale in New York City's history.","g wakud ann, tga tmggit ad taxatart n mnziwt g umzruy n tmdint n nyuyuṛk."
"In 1961, the building's stainless steel elements, including the needle, crown, gargoyles, and entrance doors, were polished for the first time.","g usggwas n 1961, ttusfakksnt tgzzumin n uẓkka ittuskan s waɣar anmgal n tanigt, g tamu tissgnit d isni d ugarguyl d iflwan n ukccum tikklt tmazwarut."
The company purchased the building for $35 million.,tsɣa tmṣiṛt aẓkka s 35 mlyun dulaṛ.
The spire underwent a restoration that was completed in 1995.,ittuga usɣudu i tɣrmt allig tfukka g usggwas n 1995.
The cleaning received the New York Landmarks Conservancy's Lucy G. Moses Preservation Award for 1997.,yuwi usizdg tasmɣurt n luki g. musa i uḥṭṭu n iẓkkatn n nyuyurk asggwas n 1997.
"In June 2008, it was reported that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was in negotiations to buy TMW's 75% economic interest, a 15% interest from Tishman Speyer Properties in the building, and a share of the Trylons retail structure next door for US$800 million.","g yunyu 2008, ikcm usqqim n abuḍabi i uzizzl ad isɣ yan ugzzum adamsan s tgmiḍi n 75% n tmṣiṛt TMW, d ugzzum n 15% g igratn n ticman sbiyr (Tishman Speyer Properties) g uẓkka, d tgzzumt n tiski n tziɣa triluns s 800 mlyun dulaṛ amriki."
"This resulted in a 21% decrease in the building's total energy consumption, a 64% decrease in water consumption, and an 81% rate of waste being recycled.","yujja d uya uguz s usɣl n 21% g yiwy n tdusi n uẓkka, d wuguz s usɣal n 64% g yiwy n waman, d usɣal n 81% n ifṛaḍn ittuswrerrayn."
"""The Ethics of Philosophical Practice.""""""",“tiɣariwin n tigawin tiflsafin.”””
"""""""Philosophy is rationally critical thinking, of a more or less systematic kind about the general nature of the world (metaphysics or theory of existence), the justification of belief (epistemology or theory of knowledge), and the conduct of life (ethics or theory of value).""","tga tflsaft aswngm anzɣan anllaɣ, sg wanaw n tɣarast g tgama tamatut n umaḍal (mitfiziqya nɣ tiẓiṛt n tilwat), asnẓy n taɣalt (ibistimulugya nɣ tiẓiṛt tamassant), tikli n tudrt (tiɣariwin nɣ tiẓiṛt n watig)."
Metaphysics replaces the unargued assumptions embodied in such a conception with a rational and organized body of beliefs about the world as a whole.,da ttusnfal tmitafiziqt turdawin ur inẓiyn igan zun d armmus ad s tfgga tanllaɣt tamssudst sg taɣalin n umaḍal.
"In the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize.","g tsuta tis 19, tuwi d tigmi n tsdawitin n irzzutn titrarin asẓly g tflsaft takadimit d tẓlayin."
"In Against the Logicians the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus detailed the variety of ways in which the ancient Greek philosophers had divided philosophy, noting that this three-part division was agreed to by Plato, Aristotle, Xenocrates, and the Stoics.","g tirra nns mgal n imẓlann, issfra ufaylasuf abiruni sikstus imbirikus yat tgrawt n tɣarasin s bḍan iflfufn iyunanitn iqburn taflsaft, bṭṭu ad igzmn xf kṛḍt tgzzumin imun ɣifs aflaṭun d aṛisṭu d zinuqṛaṭ d iriwaqitn."
"Other ancient philosophical traditions influenced by Socrates included Cynicism, Cyrenaicism, Stoicism, and Academic Skepticism.","sg tmyurin tiflsafin tiqburin yaḍn ilan aḍu n suqraṭ: asḍṣu, tasirinit, tariwaqit, d usurd akadimi."
"Some key Medieval thinkers include St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Boethius, Anselm and Roger Bacon.","kra n inswngimn idslann g uzmz anammas g illa ufuẓaṛ ugustin d tuma akwin, d butyus d ansilm d rujr bikun."
"Major modern philosophers include Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant.","sg ixatarn n iflsufn itrarn sbinuza, d libnz, d luk, d birkli, d hyum, d kanṭ."
Babylonian astronomy also included much philosophical speculations about cosmology which may have influenced the Ancient Greeks.,illa g tstṛunumt tababilit altu kigan n tḥrga tiflsafin xf tussna tamaḍlant izrin ɛniɣ s iyunanitn iqburn.
"Later Jewish philosophy came under strong Western intellectual influences and includes the works of Moses Mendelssohn who ushered in the Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment), Jewish existentialism, and Reform Judaism.","tugm tflsaft tudayt g tktayin dusnin n uɣlluy, smattrnt twuriwin n musa mndilsun d yuwin ḥaskala (asfiw n wudayn) d tilawt tudyt d tudayt tamsɣudut."
Islamic philosophy is the philosophical work originating in the Islamic tradition and is mostly done in Arabic.,tga tflsaft tanslmt tawuri taflsaft iskan g tmyurin tinslmin ar tettuga kigan s tutlayt taɛṛabt.
Early Islamic philosophy developed the Greek philosophical traditions in new innovative directions.,tssgma tflsaft tanslmt n zikk timyurin tiflsafin tiyunanin g tnilawin timsnulfutin timaynutin.
"The work of Aristotle was very influential among philosophers such as Al-Kindi (9th century), Avicenna (980 – June 1037) and Averroes (12th century).","ugmn ifsufn kin s twuri n aṛisṭu zun d alkindi (tasuta tis 9), d ibn sina (980- yunyu 1037), d ibn ṛucd (tasuta tis 12)."
Ibn Khaldun was an influential thinker in philosophy of history.,iga ibnxaldun amswingm g tflsaft n umzruy.
"Indian philosophical traditions share various key concepts and ideas, which are defined in different ways and accepted or rejected by the different traditions.","ssarnt tmyurin tiflsafin tihindiyin g umata n irmmusn d tktiyin tidslanin, ittugan s kigan n tɣarasin ɣf msasan nɣ ur msasan ɣifs tmyurin."
Indian philosophy is commonly grouped based on their relationship to the Vedas and the ideas contained in them.,da ttusmuttur tflsaft tahindit s uskutt xf izdayn nns d fida (Vedas) d tktiyin digs illan.
"""The schools which align themselves with the thought of the Upanishads, the so-called """"orthodox"""" or """"Hindu"""" traditions, are often classified into six darśanas or philosophies:Sānkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā and Vedānta.""","tinmal ittmunn d tkti n uncad, aynna i ittyini timyurin ““turtuduksin”” nɣ ““tihindusiyin””, da tbṭṭu xf ṣḍiṣt n darizana nɣ tflsafin: sanxya, yuja, nyaya, faycika, mimamsa, d fadanta.”"
They also reflect a tolerance for a diversity of philosophical interpretations within Hinduism while sharing the same foundation.,"imkinna digsn asurf d tgrumma timyanawin n issfrutn iflsafn agnsu n thindust, ilint tamunt g yat n tiski."
"""There are also other schools of thought which are often seen as """"Hindu"""", though not necessarily orthodox (since they may accept different scriptures as normative, such as the Shaiva Agamas and Tantras), these include different schools of Shavism such as Pashupata, Shaiva Siddhanta, non-dual tantric Shavism (i.e. Trika, Kaula, etc.).""","llant altu tinmal n tktayin yaḍn ittyinniyn am is gant “”tihindusiyin”” waxxa ur gint tiṛtuduksin (acku tmsasa d idlisn ifuẓaṛn yaḍn acku gant tinawayin, zun d cayfa agamas d tantras), smunent tinmal ad istin xf cafism zun dbacubata, cifa sidantan, cafiz tantra aryugan (zun d trika, kula, ar tigira).”"
"""The denial that a human being possesses a """"self"""" or """"soul"""" is probably the most famous Buddhist teaching.""",“iɣy is ur ili ufgan ““ixf”” nɣ ““iman”” d tussninwin tibudiyin ttwassnnin.”
"""Jain philosophy is one of the only two surviving """"unorthodox"""" traditions (along with Buddhism).""",“taflsaft n jayn tga yat sg tmyurin ““ur igin uṛtuduks”” isuln (iddrn d tbudit).”
"Jain thought holds that all existence is cyclic, eternal and uncreated.",iɣal jayn is d wanna akkw illan iga awrerray amɣlal ur ittufars.
"In these regions, Buddhist thought developed into different philosophical traditions which used various languages (like Tibetan, Chinese and Pali).","g tmnaḍin ad, igma uswngm abudi ɣr tmyurin tiflsafin iswurin tutlayin ibḍan (zun d tatibitit d tcinwit d tbalit)."
"The philosophy of the Theravada school is dominant in Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand.",tumẓ tflsaft n tinml tirafada g iwankn n iffus n unqqr n asya zun d srilanka d burma d tayland.
"After the death of the Buddha, various groups began to systematize his main teachings, eventually developing comprehensive philosophical systems termed Abhidharma.","ffir tamtant n buda, ssntant trubba g ussuds n ilmmudn nns idslann, g tgira ssgmant igrratn iflsafn smdnin mi ittyini wassaɣ n abidaṛma."
"There were numerous schools, sub-schools, and traditions of Buddhist philosophy in ancient and medieval India.",kkant kigan n tinmal d wayyawn nnsnt d tmyurin n tflsaft tabudit g hid taqburt d uzmz anammas.
"These philosophical traditions developed metaphysical, political and ethical theories such Tao, Yin and yang, Ren and Li.","ssgmant tmyurin ad tiflsafin tiẓiṛirin timitafiziqin d tsrtitin d tiɣariwin zun d taw, d yin dyang, d rin d li."
"Neo-Confucianism came to dominate the education system during the Song dynasty (960–1297), and its ideas served as the philosophical basis of the imperial exams for the scholar official class.","tnnbḍ tkunfucyusit tamaynut g ugrra n usslmd g uzmz n twacunt sung (960–1297), kkint tktitin nns zun d usu n tiski n tflsaft i yirimn n tmbṛaṭuṛit i tfrkt tunṣiibt n imassann."
"During later Chinese dynasties like the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) as well as in the Korean Joseon dynasty (1392–1897) a resurgent Neo-Confucianism led by thinkers such as Wang Yangming (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought, and was promoted by the imperial state.","g twacunin tigldanin tiṣiniyin tenḍfaṛin zun d tawacunt ming (1368–1644) d twacunt junsun takurit (1392–1897), taɣul tkunfucyusit tamaynut d iffɣn diɣ s usudu n imswngimn zun d wang yangming (1472–1529) tinml n uswngm irnan, issmɣr t uwank ambṛaṭuṛi."
"In the Modern era, Chinese thinkers incorporated ideas from Western philosophy.","g uzmz atrar, smattrn imswngimn iṣinitn tiktiyin n tflsaft n uɣlluy."
"For example, New Confucianism, led by figures such as Xiong Shili, has become quite influential.","xf umdaya, taɣul tkkunfucyusit tamaynut, s ussddu n ixtarn zun d cyung cili, tla adɣar nns."
"""Another trend in modern Japanese philosophy was the """"National Studies"""" (Kokugaku) tradition.""",tanila yaḍn n tflsaft tayabanit tatrart tga tamyurt n “tzrawin tinamurin” (kukugaku).”
"During the 17th century, Ethiopian philosophy developed a robust literary tradition as exemplified by Zera Yacob.","g tsuta tis 17, tssgma tflsaft tittyubbit tamyurt tasklant idusn s imkinna tg g ziṛa yakub (Zera Yacob)."
Another feature of the indigenous American worldviews was their extension of ethics to non-human animals and plants.,tayḍ tmyift n tannayin timirikanitin tinẓɣṛin i umaḍal gant azray n tɣariwin ɣr imudar d imɣayn wid ur igin ifgann.
The theory of Teotl can be seen as a form of Pantheism.,iɣy ad tettyisy tiẓiṛt n tyutl (Teotl) am talɣa sg talɣiwin n tilawt.
"Nevertheless, U.S. Department of Education reports from the 1990s indicate that few women ended up in philosophy, and that philosophy is one of the least gender-proportionate fields in the humanities, with women making up somewhere between 17% and 30% of philosophy faculty according to some studies.","waxxa, da sskann inqqisn n tmawast tamairikanit sg isggwasn 1990s is drusnt twtmin ikccmn igr n tflsaft, d is tga tflsaft yat sg yigran ur ingaddan gr taggayt g tmassanin tinfganin, ar nn ttawḍnt twtmin g usɣl n gr 17% d 30% n igmamn n usslmd g tflsaft s wawal n yids n tzrawin."
"""See also """"Characteristics and Attitudes of Instructional Faculty and Staff in the Humanities.""""""",“ẓṛ altu ““tifras d tnilawin n ungmam n usslmd d ismrasn n tussniwin tinfhganin.”””
Its primary investigations include how to live a good life and identifying standards of morality.,smann irzzutn imzwra tamamkt n tudrt mm waddur d usẓly n isnummal n tɣariwin.
"Epistemologists examine putative sources of knowledge, including perceptual experience, reason, memory, and testimony.","da frrnn imassann n tussna isaɣuln n turdawin n tussna, g tamu tirmit n urmas d wallaɣ d twngimt g tnigit."
"It arose early in Pre-Socratic philosophy and became formalized with Pyrrho, the founder of the earliest Western school of philosophical skepticism.","tgma d g yan wakud yaḍn g tflsaft n dat n suqraṭ issuɣl tt biru (Pyrrho) d tunṣibt, imski n tinml n uɣlluy tamzwarut i usurd aflsuf."
Empiricism places emphasis on observational evidence via sensory experience as the source of knowledge.,da tsuttuy anirmit xf inẓayn ibddan xf usniɣs s tirmit amakayt iga asaɣul n tussna.
"Rationalism is associated with a priori knowledge, which is independent of experience (such as logic and mathematics).","tzdi tnallaɣt s tussna izwarn, tasimant xf tirmit (zun d aẓlan d tusnakt)."
"Metaphysics includes cosmology, the study of the world in its entirety and ontology, the study of being.","tsmattr tmitafiziqit tussna n umaḍal, d tzrawt n umaḍal kullut, d tussna n tilawt, d tzrawt n tilawt."
"Essence is the set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its identity while accident is a property that the object has, without which the object can still retain its identity.","iga mummu tarabbut n tmatarin ittraran askkin ad ig aynna s iga g tsila nns bla t da as tṭṭaṛ tamust nns maka ashwu ku amɣnaw ila t, bla t izmr umɣnaw ad iḥḍu tamust nns."
"Because sound reasoning is an essential element of all sciences, social sciences and humanities disciplines, logic became a formal science.","acku iga uswngm amadus yan ugzzum adslan g tmassanin d tmassanin tinamunin d tẓlayin tinfganin, yaɣul uẓlan iga tussna tunṣibt."
New York: Oxford University Press.,nyuyuṛk: tamsigzt n tsdawit uksfuṛd.
"However, most students of academic philosophy later contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, politics, business, or various arts.","waxxa, yuws umata n imzrawn n tflsaft takdimit g uslgn, d usnɣms, d usɣan, d tmassanin, d twuriwin nɣ d tẓuṛiwin."
"In analytic philosophy, philosophy of language investigates the nature of language, the relations between language, language users, and the world.","g tflsaft tasfsayt, da trzzu tflsaft g tutlayt d tiski n tutlayt d izdayn n gr tutlayt d imswuritn n tutlayt d umaḍal."
"These writers were followed by Ludwig Wittgenstein (Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus), the Vienna Circle as well as the logical positivists, and Willard Van Orman Quine.","ḍfaṛn imaratn ad ludfig fitgnctayn (Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus), d tsutlt fyinnad imẓlann imalawn wilyaṛ fan uṛman kwin."
He criticized conventionalism because it led to the bizarre consequence that anything can be conventionally denominated by any name.,izɣn timyurin acku uwunt d yat n tyafut allig d ku askkin tlla tzmrt n ad ɣurs yili wassaɣ akkw matta wassaɣ.
"To do this, he pointed out that compound words and phrases have a range of correctness.","i tigawt n uya, inna is illa ɣus tguriwin d twnnitin tuddisin yan wutuy n tidt."
"However, by the end of the Cratylus, he had admitted that some social conventions were also involved, and that there were faults in the idea that phonemes had individual meanings.","waxxa, g yiwḍ n tgara n kṛatilus, iqrra nwis kcmnt tmyurin tinamunin g umukris, ilin yids n wagarn g tkti n is lan ifunimn yan unamk abaylal."
He separated all things into categories of species and genus.,ibḍa iskkinn kullu xf wanawn.
"""However, since Aristotle took these similarities to be constituted by a real commonality of form, he is more often considered a proponent of """"moderate realism"""".""","“waxxa, gan igzzumn imssarn n talɣa s wawal n aṛisṭu i uynna g myaɣn, allig t gan yids d imnnula n ““tilawt tuɣdimt””.”"
This lektón was the meaning (or sense) of every term.,ikka linktun iga anamk n ku irm.
There were several noteworthy philosophers of language in the medieval period.,ikka tt nn kigan n iflsafn n tutlayt ittwassnn g uzmz anammas.
"The scholastics of the high medieval period, such as Ockham and John Duns Scotus, considered logic to be a scientia sermocinalis (science of language).","ikka skulastis g uzmz n tsutiwin tinammasin timajjgalin, zun d ukham d jun dunis skutus, iga ɣursn unẓan tussna n tutlayt sirmusinalis (tussna n tutlayt)."
"The phenomena of vagueness and ambiguity were analyzed intensely, and this led to an increasing interest in problems related to the use of syncategorematic words such as and, or, not, if, and every.","ittuga usfsi n tumayin n ummrks d ummrks kigan, ynna d ifkan tikki n taɣḍft imukrisn iẓlin s uswuri n tguriwin am d, uhu, mk, d kull."
The suppositio of a term is the interpretation that is given of it in a specific context.,iga yisy n yirm assfru as ittufkan g kra n umnaḍ.
"Such a classification scheme is the precursor of modern distinctions between use and mention, and between language and metalanguage.","aɣawas n tuṭṭut ad iga tazwarut n usyif atrar gr uswuri d ubdar, d ingr tutlayt d txftutlayt."
"One part of the common sentence is the lexical word, which is composed of nouns, verbs, and adjectives.","yat n tgzzumt g twinst tamatut tga tt tguri tanjṛṛumt, g lan wassaɣn d imyagn d ifarisn."
Philosophical semantics tends to focus on the principle of compositionality to explain the relationship between meaningful parts and whole sentences.,ggussn isnummal iflsufn ɣr tawna xf usnay i ussfru n uzday n gr igzzumn s unamk d twinas tismmadin.
It is possible to use the concept of functions to describe more than just how lexical meanings work: they can also be used to describe the meaning of a sentence.,tlla tzmrt n uswuri n urmmus tisɣnin i usnml ugar n tɣarast n uswuri n inumak n umawal: aswuri nns g usnumml n unamk n twinst.
"""A propositional function is an operation of language that takes an entity (in this case, the horse) as an input and outputs a semantic fact (i.e., the proposition that is represented by """"The horse is red"""").""","“tazzult ittyanan tga yat tmggit n tutlayt ittawin afrdis (g waddad ad ayyis) d akccum ar d yakka tidt tanamkt (s umdya, asurd yakka ““wayyis azggwaɣ””).”"
Is language acquisition a special faculty in the mind?,is tgatutlayt taɣiwant tuẓliyt illan g twngimt?
"The first is the behaviorist perspective, which dictates that not only is the solid bulk of language learned, but it is learned via conditioning.","amzwaru sg usksw n tɣara, yakkan turdawin is ur d ɣas agzzum aɣurar n tutlayt tamasayt, maka da ttulmad s uɛafr."
Nativist models assert that there are specialized devices in the brain that are dedicated to language acquisition.,da d akkan imdyatn n tirawt is llan wallaln imẓlay g unnli illan d yisy n tutlayt.
"""Linguists Sapir and Whorf suggested that language limited the extent to which members of a """"linguistic community"""" can think about certain subjects (a hypothesis paralleled in George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four).""",“bdrn imsnilsn sabir d wurf is da takka tutlayt iwtta i mami ɣint ““tgrawin n tutayt”” ad digs swngmt d isntal g ɣin ad siwln (turdawt iddan g tnila ad tin juṛj uṛwil g wungal n yifḍ d tẓa n tmaḍ d tammraw d kkuẓ).”
"The stark opposite to the Sapir–Whorf position is the notion that thought (or, more broadly, mental content) has priority over language.",iga unmgal axatar n umnad n sabir wuṛf tikti ittinin is d aswngm (nɣ tumayt tanllaɣt s umata) iga amzwaru xf tutlayt.
Another argument is that it is difficult to explain how signs and symbols on paper can represent anything meaningful unless some sort of meaning is infused into them by the contents of the mind.,anẓa yaḍn iga is imrar usfsr n mimk zmrnt tmatarin d izmuln xf tifrt ad ilin anamk mk ur ittuskcim unamk digs s tumayin n walaɣ.
Another tradition of philosophers has attempted to show that language and thought are coextensive – that there is no way of explaining one without the other.,turm yat tmyurt yaḍn n tflsaft ad tsskn is tman tutlayt d uswngm - d ur tlli ka n tɣarast n usfsr n yan bla wayḍ.
"To an extent, the theoretical underpinnings to cognitive semantics (including the notion of semantic framing) suggest the influence of language upon thought.","ar yan uswir, da sskanent tsila n tiẓiṛin tinamkin timassanin (g yamu urmmus n ustaw anamkan) is da tettili uḍuṣ tutlayt xf uswngm."
There are studies that prove that languages shape how people understand causality.,llant tzrawin da tkka askbeb i tutlayin is d nitnti ayd yakkan armas n umntil i middn.
"""However, Spanish or Japanese speakers would be more likely to say """"the vase broke itself"""".""","“waxxa, iɣy is d ad inin imsawaln n tutlayt tasblyunit nɣ tayabanit ““tṛṛẓa tdala ixf nns””.”"
Spanish and Japanese speakers did not remember the agents of accidental events as well as did English speakers.,ur nnin imsawaln n tutlayt tasblyunit d tyabanit imntiln n tmṣiṛin am imkinna ttggan imssawaln n tutlayt tanglizit.
In one study German and Spanish speakers were asked to describe objects having opposite gender assignment in those two languages.,g yat g tzrawin” ittyattr i imsawaln n tutlayt talmanit d tsblyunit ad fkin timitar i iskkin ur imyaɣn g wanaw g tutlayin ad s snat.
"""To describe a """"bridge"""", which is feminine in German and masculine in Spanish, the German speakers said """"beautiful"""", """"elegant"""", """"fragile"""", """"peaceful"""", """"pretty"""" and """"slender"""", and the Spanish speakers said """"big"""", """"dangerous"""", """"long"""", """"strong"""", """"sturdy"""" and """"towering"""".""","“i tikki n tfiras n “tillggwit”, tawtmant g tutlayt talmanit uwtman g tutlayt tasblyunit, nnan i imsawaln ilmanitn “iɣuda”, “izddig”, “idhc”, “digs tiskwfal”, “tẓil” d “tɣuda”, ininn imsawaln isblyunitn “ixatr” d “imrar” d iɣzzif” d idus” d “azntaṛ”.”"
Whether each alien was friendly or hostile was determined by certain subtle features but participants were not told what these were.,ittuyassn digsn ma n digsn ayd igan amlwaɣ d imhrri sg tmitar maka ur ttyanant i imdrawn tmitar ad.
"For the rest, the aliens remained nameless.","ɣur wiyyaḍ, qqiman ibṛṛanitn id war ism."
It was concluded that naming objects helps us categorize and memorize them.,iffɣ nwis d tikki n wassaɣn i iskkinn ayd ittawn xf tuṭṭut d uḥṭṭu nns.
"Within this area, issues include: the nature of synonymy, the origins of meaning itself, our apprehension of meaning, and the nature of composition (the question of how meaningful units of language are composed of smaller meaningful parts, and how the meaning of the whole is derived from the meaning of its parts).","g yigr ad, llant tmntilin: tilawt n ikniwn, iẓuṛan n unamk, tawda nnɣ sg unamk, d wanaw n usmuttg (asqsi n mimk ttilint tgzzumin n tutlayt mm unamk sg inumak imẓẓann, d mimk ittili unamk n ugzzum sg tgzzumin nns)."
"The ideational theory of meaning, most commonly associated with the British empiricist John Locke, claims that meanings are mental representations provoked by signs.","tnna tiẓiṛt n unamk aswngam, izdin s umsnirm abṛiṭani jun luk, gan inumak tiggunsa tanllaɣt d akkant tmitar."
(See also Wittgenstein's picture theory of language.),(ẓṛ altu tiẓiṛt iwlafn n fitgnctayn i tutlayt.)
"Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.","kambridj, masatcusts: tamsigzt n tsdawit n haṛfuṛd."
"The reference theory of meaning, also known collectively as semantic externalism, views meaning to be equivalent to those things in the world that are actually connected to signs.","tiẓiṛt tsaɣult n unamk, ittwassnn altu s talɣa tamatut s tbṛṛant tanamkt, imnadn n usksw ingaddan d umaḍal n izmuln."
The traditional formulation of such a theory is that the meaning of a sentence is its method of verification or falsification.,talɣa taqburt n tiẓiṛt ad tga nwis d anamk n twinst iga taɣarast nns nɣ asili nɣ d tasḥsayt.
"In this version, the comprehension (and hence meaning) of a sentence consists in the hearer's ability to recognize the demonstration (mathematical, empirical or other) of the truth of the sentence.","g tunɣilt ad, illa g urmas n twinst (d unamk) tazmrt n umssfls ad yakz afssay (n tusnakt nɣ d tanirimt nɣ kra yaḍn) i tidt n twinst."
A pragmatic theory of meaning is any theory in which the meaning (or understanding) of a sentence is determined by the consequences of its application.,tiẓiṛt tabṛagmatit i unamk tga tiẓiṛt ilan iwtta n unamk (nɣ armas) n twinst g tyafutin n usmssi nns.
Gottlob Frege was an advocate of a mediated reference theory.,iga gutlub friji yan umary xf tiẓiṛt tasaɣult tanammast.
"Such a thought is abstract, universal and objective.",iga uswngm ad zun d tidmi tawngimt tamaḍlant d tin tmɣara.
Referents are the objects in the world that words pick out.,gant tsuɣal iskkinn illan g umaḍal ar ttustayn s tguriwin.
"""He viewed proper names of the sort described above as """"abbreviated definite descriptions"""" (see Theory of descriptions).""",“iẓṛa assɣn sg wanaw ittusnmln aflla nns n is gan “isnumal s iwtta isgzal”” (ẓṛ tiẓiṛt n isnummal).”
Such phrases denote in the sense that there is an object that satisfies the description.,da sskanent twnnitin anamk n is illa kra yakkan asnumml.
"On Frege's account, any referring expression has a sense as well as a referent.","g usiḍn n friji, ku asnfl asuɣal ɣurs anamk igan asuɣal."
"Despite the differences between the views of Frege and Russell, they are generally lumped together as descriptivists about proper names.",waxxa bḍant tnilawin n usksw gr friji d rusl maka munn g usnuml n wassaɣn iẓlin.
"""Consider the name Aristotle and the descriptions """"the greatest student of Plato"""", """"the founder of logic"""" and """"the teacher of Alexander"""".""","“aky s wassaɣ n aṛisṭu d tmitar nns ““anlmad n aflaṭun amqran””, ““anbdad n tungint”” d ““aslmad n iskandaṛ””.”"
He may have existed and not have become known to posterity at all or he may have died in infancy.,iɣy is illa maka ur ittusyassn i tsutiwin tinḍfaṛ nɣ immut g tmẓy nns.
But this is deeply counterintuitive.,maka askkin ad ur igi amẓlan.
Questions inevitably arise on surrounding topics.,ur illi mani i tguri n isqsitn xf isntal as ittin.
David Kellogg Lewis proposed a worthy reply to the first question by expounding the view that a convention is a rationally self-perpetuating regularity in behavior.,ifka dayfid kilug lwis tamrarut iɣidan i usqsi amzwaru s usfsr n umnad ittinin is tga tmsasat asuds idumn anllaɣ g tɣariwin.
"Noam Chomsky proposed that the study of language could be done in terms of the I-Language, or internal language of persons.","inna naɛum tcumski is tɣy tzrawt n tutlayt ad tili sg usksw n tutlayt tamzwarut, nɣ tutlayt tagnsant n ku yan."
"One fruitful source of research involves investigation into the social conditions that give rise to, or are associated with, meanings and languages.",ila yan sg isugam n urzzu ila tiyafutin anada g wutuyn inamunn ittawin s anamk d tutlayin nɣ zdint ẓiṛs.
The presumptions that prop up each theoretical view are of interest to the philosopher of language.,uwint taɣḍt i uflsaf n tutlayt turdawin ittnalan amnad n tiẓiṛt.
"Rhetoric is the study of the particular words that people use to achieve the proper emotional and rational effect in the listener, be it to persuade, provoke, endear, or teach.","tga tasnawalt tazrawt n tguriwin swurin middn ad ṭṭasn ul d wallaɣ n imssflidn, swa iga asyimn nɣ agar nɣ asyiri nɣ asslmd."
"It also has applications to the study and interpretation of law, and helps give insight to the logical concept of the domain of discourse.","tla altu tisnsa i tzrawt n uslgn d sfsr nns, ar takka asksw i urmmus n tungint g yigr n tinawt."
"""The idea of language is often related to that of logic in its Greek sense as """"logos"""", meaning discourse or dialectic.""","“tzdy tutlayt d tkti n tungint s unamk ayunani zun d ““lugus””, igan tinawt nɣ dialiktik.”"
Heidegger combines phenomenology with the hermeneutics of Wilhelm Dilthey.,da ismun haydigr gr tussna n tumanin d usfsr n filhilm dilti.
"For example, Sein (being), the word itself, is saturated with multiple meanings.","s umdya , taguri Sein (being), taguri i ixf nns tla inumak ggudinin."
"""Heidegger claims writing is only a supplement to speech, because even readers construct or contribute their own """"talk"""" while reading.""","“inna haydigr nwis ur gint tirra ɣas asmaad n wawal, acku awd imɣritn da ttumun g ““tinawt”” addag da qqarn.”"
"""In Truth and Method, Gadamer describes language as """"the medium in which substantive understanding and agreement take place between two people.""","“g tidt d tɣarast, inna gadamr nwis tga tutlayt ““anammas g ittili urmas d umsasa gr sin mddn.”"
"""Paul Ricœur, on the other hand, proposed a hermeneutics which, reconnecting with the original Greek sense of the term, emphasized the discovery of hidden meanings in the equivocal terms (or """"symbols"""") of ordinary language.""","“ bul rikur, sg tayḍ tsga, inna is iga ufasr igan, s wallas n umyawaḍ d unamk ayunani anẓɣṛ n yirm, iṭṭf g tifi n inumak uffirn g yirmawn imrkas (nɣ ““izmuln””) n tutlayt tafrart.”"
It allows them to take advantage of and effectively manipulate the external world in order to create meaning for themselves and transmit this meaning to others.,ifka asn isy g umaḍal abṛṛan d wurar iss s talɣa yakkan anamk i ixfawn nnsn d usmutty n unamk ad ɣr middn yaḍn.
"Some important figures in the history of semiotics, are Charles Sanders Peirce, Roland Barthes, and Roman Jakobson.","kra n iwrikn idslann g umzruy ansinima, zun d tcarlz sandrz birs, d ṛuland bart, d ṛuman jakubsun."
19th century romanticism emphasised human agency and free will in meaning construction.,tssakz tṛumansit g tsuta tis 19 is tayri n ufgan d tlelli nns g unamk n tiski.
Humanistic views are challenged by biological theories of language which consider languages as natural phenomena.,ttusnfl imnadn infgann s tiẓiṛin tibyulujitin n tutlayt ittinin is gant tutlayin tumatin tingamatin.
"In Neo-Darwinism, Richard Dawkins and other proponents of cultural replicator theories consider languages as populations of mind viruses.","g tdrwinit tmaynut, inna ritcard dukinz d imḥḍa n tiẓiṛin n tmyurin tidlsanin nwis gant tutlayin tigrumma n ifirusn n wallaɣ."
"""Some have said that the expression stands for some real, abstract universal out in the world called """"rocks"""".""",“nnan yids is da isskan uwnni ad amaḍal adttan d uwngim g umḍal ila assaɣ n ““iẓṛan””.”
"""The issue here can be explicated if we examine the proposition """"Socrates is a Man"""".""",“taɣawsa da nbaḍ ad as ng asfsr mk nga tazrawt ““iga suqṛaṭ argaz””.”
These two things connect in some way or overlap.,sin iskkinn ad da ttmzdayn nɣ da ttmkcamn.
"""Another perspective is to consider """"man"""" to be a property of the entity, """"Socrates"""".""","“yan usksw yaḍn iga ““argaz”” igan agzzum n yili, ““suqṛaṭ””.”"
"Some of the most prominent members of this tradition of formal semantics include Tarski, Carnap, Richard Montague and Donald Davidson.","yids n ixatarn n igmamn n umyur sg inumak unṣibn g illa tarski, karnab, ritcard muntag d dunald difidsun."
They did not believe that the social and practical dimensions of linguistic meaning could be captured by any attempts at formalization using the tools of logic.,ur ɣaln is ɣin ad ttyasin wudmawn inamunn imassann i unamk n tulayt sg tirmitin i tikki n talɣa tunṣibt s uswuri n wallaln n tungint.
"Many of its ideas have been absorbed by theorists such as Kent Bach, Robert Brandom, Paul Horwich and Stephen Neale.","ukzn imẓṛitn kigan n tktiyin nns zun d kint bax, d rubirt brandum d bul hurwitc d stifn nil."
"In Word and Object, Quine asks readers to imagine a situation in which they are confronted with a previously undocumented, group of indigenous people where they must attempt to make sense of the utterances and gestures that its members make.","g tguri d usntl (Word and Object), ittr kwayn sg imɣritn aswngm n is da ttnaɣn d yat trabbut n imzdaɣ inẓɣṛn g ixssa ad armn armas n iwaliwn d isllifn ttggan igmamn nns."
"All that can be done is to examine the utterance as a part of the overall linguistic behaviour of the individual, and then use these observations to interpret the meaning of all other utterances.","aynna mi iɣy ad ittug d taɣusi n wawal igan agzzum n tikli n tutlayt ittgga ufgan, d uswuri n isniɣisn ad i usfsr n unamk n iwaliwn yaḍn."
"For Quine, as for Wittgenstein and Austin, meaning is not something that is associated with a single word or sentence, but is rather something that, if it can be attributed at all, can only be attributed to a whole language.","ɣur kwayn, imkinna s iga waddad ɣur fitginstayn d ustin, amak ur d ka izdin s tguri nɣ yat n twinst maca ka ig iɣy ad as ittufk ad as ittufk g tutlayt kullutt."
"""The specific instances of vagueness that most interest philosophers of language are those where the existence of """"borderline cases"""" makes it seemingly impossible to say whether a predicate is true or false.""",“addadn g illa warikz ilan taɣḍft n umata n iflsafn n tutlayt gan winna ittraran ili n ““waddadn ayt iwtta”” ur yakkan tazmrt i tinawt ad ttyissn is tga tin tidt nɣ tin tkrkas.”
"The philosophy of mathematics is the branch of philosophy that studies the assumptions, foundations, and implications of mathematics.",tga tflsaft n tusnakt yat sg tflsafin ittggan tazrawt i turdawin d tsila d idrizn illan xf tusnakt.
"Today, some philosophers of mathematics aim to give accounts of this form of inquiry and its products as they stand, while others emphasize a role for themselves that goes beyond simple interpretation to critical analysis.","ass ad, lan yids n iflsafn n tusnakt asuɣd n usnil n isiḍinn i usfsr d tyafutin nns imkinna gant, uma yids yaḍn ar ttinin nwis zrin asfsr afrar ddun ɣr usfsr amzɣan."
Greek philosophy on mathematics was strongly influenced by their study of geometry.,tugm tflsaft tayunanit n tusnakt g tzrawin nnsn gan g utwal.
"""Therefore, 3, for example, represented a certain multitude of units, and was thus not """"truly"""" a number.""","xf mi, 3, xf umdya, tga yan umḍan n tgzzumin, aynnaɣ as ur tgi azwil."
These earlier Greek ideas of numbers were later upended by the discovery of the irrationality of the square root of two.,tikwtay ad tiyunanitin zrinin xf izwiln nngwdmnt g yat n tizi yaḍn s tifi n taranllaɣt i uẓuṛ amkkuẓ n sin.
"According to legend, fellow Pythagoreans were so traumatized by this discovery that they murdered Hippasus to stop him from spreading his heretical idea.","s tinawt n wumiy, duyn inḍfaṛ n fitaɣurs s tifi ad aynnaɣ as nɣan hubasus ad ur issufɣ tiktit nns tahirṭiqt."
"""It is a profound puzzle that on the one hand mathematical truths seem to have a compelling inevitability, but on the other hand the source of their """"truthfulness"""" remains elusive.""",“d taɣuni iɛubn n tiditin n tusnakt mi ittyakz nwis tla sg yat tnila “tidt” tayḍ tsga da tsskan is taggug ɣifs.”
"Three schools, formalism, intuitionism, and logicism, emerged at this time, partly in response to the increasingly widespread worry that mathematics as it stood, and analysis in particular, did not live up to the standards of certainty and rigor that had been taken for granted.","ffɣnt d kṛaḍt n tinmal, talɣant, tawngimant, tamẓlant, g wakud ad, tamrarut i umrar iggudin is tg tusnakt s imkinna s tlla d usfsi g tizwiri, ur da ttaly ad nn tlkm tidt g ittyakkas usurd."
"As the century unfolded, the initial focus of concern expanded to an open exploration of the fundamental axioms of mathematics, the axiomatic approach having been taken for granted since the time of Euclid around 300 BCE as the natural basis for mathematics.","tdda s dat tsuta,tirw tawna tamzwarut n umrrt allig issadf tifitin timanafin i tmyurin tidslanin n tusnakt, allig tcil i tɣarast takuyast ad tg tasila angama n tusnakt sg uzmz n iqlids attay n 300 dat n tlalit."
"In mathematics, as in physics, new and unexpected ideas had arisen and significant changes were coming.","g tusnakt, imkinnaɣ awd i tfiziqt, ffɣnt d tktay timaynutin ur ittudmin d illwan isnfaln idslann d ikkan abrid."
"""I do not think that the difficulties that philosophy finds with classical mathematics today are genuine difficulties; and I think that the philosophical interpretations of mathematics that we are being offered on every hand are wrong, and that """"philosophical interpretation"""" is just what mathematics doesn't need.""","ur ɣalɣ is gan imukrisn ttafa tflsaft g tusnakt taklasikit ass ad , gant timukrisin n tidt; iɣilɣ is gan ifsarn iflsufn i tusnakt nsnili g ku ttasga is tzgl, d ““usfsr aflsafi”” iga askkin ur as inngzin i tusnak."
Many working mathematicians have been mathematical realists; they see themselves as discoverers of naturally occurring objects.,kigan n imassann n tusnakt iswurin gan inilawn g tusnakt; da sksiwn ixfawn nnsn is lan asurd g ku askkin ittsṛun iwaḍu nns.
"Certain principles (e.g., for any two objects, there is a collection of objects consisting of precisely those two objects) could be directly seen to be true, but the continuum hypothesis conjecture might prove undecidable just on the basis of such principles.","iɣy ad ittyinny kra n usila (s umdya, i ku sin imilit, tlla trabbut n iskkinn g llan sin imilitn ad day) s talɣa tusridt is tga tamddadt, maka iɣy ad ur ig unqqis n uswngm g tudrawin nns ma ay d ittbddan xf iwtta imzwura."
"Both Plato's cave and Platonism have meaningful, not just superficial connections, because Plato's ideas were preceded and probably influenced by the hugely popular Pythagoreans of ancient Greece, who believed that the world was, quite literally, generated by numbers.","ila ifri n aflaṭun d tflaṭunit izdayn ayt isuɣad, maka ur d ɣas izdayn udmkaln, acku zwarnt tnt tktay n aflaṭun nɣ is digsnt tugm, lant tktay n fitaɣurs adɣar axatar gr wamun ayunani aqbur, iɣaln is iska umaḍal s tbridt n imḍann."
"This view bears resemblances to many things Husserl said about mathematics, and supports Kant's idea that mathematics is synthetic a priori.)","yaɣ umnad a g imnadn inna husrl cf tusnakt, ar ittaws i tkti n kanṭ nwis tga tusnakt tasnayt n wafrar.)"
"Full-blooded Platonism is a modern variation of Platonism, which is in reaction to the fact that different sets of mathematical entities can be proven to exist depending on the axioms and inference rules employed (for instance, the law of the excluded middle, and the axiom of choice).","tga tflaṭunit ismdn amzaray n tinawt n tflaṭunit ittraran xf tidt n tgrawin tusnakin iskan xf tfrarin d islgan n usnẓy ittuswurin (s umdya, aslgn anammas isuggugn, tafrart n ustay)."
"Set-theoretic realism (also set-theoretic Platonism) a position defended by Penelope Maddy, is the view that set theory is about a single universe of sets.","tiẓiṛt n tilawt iwrn (altu tagrawt n tiẓiṛt taflaṭunit) yan umnad xf irura binilubi maddi, ittinin is d tiẓiṛt n tgrawin ittettin xf yan umaḍal n tgrawin."
"""They attributed the paradox to """"vicious circularity"""" and built up what they called ramified type theory to deal with it.""",“rarin amyillas ““twrerrayt yuran”” skun tiẓiṛt n wanaw amagut i umrara ids.”
Even Russell said that this axiom did not really belong to logic.,awd rasl inna is ur da tamu tfrart ad g tungint.
"Frege required Basic Law V to be able to give an explicit definition of the numbers, but all the properties of numbers can be derived from Hume's principle.","ittr friji ad izmr uslgn adslan wis smmus i tikki n usnuml ittyakazn i imḍann, maka tlla tzmrt nwad ttufkinnt tmitar n izwiln s twafuɣt sg usnti n hyum."
But it does allow the working mathematician to continue in his or her work and leave such problems to the philosopher or scientist.,macan da tettadja i umusnaw n tusnakt ad iswuri s tsult g twuri nns d tadj zun d imukrisn ad i ifilusuf nɣ d amusnaw.
"""Hilbert aimed to show the consistency of mathematical systems from the assumption that the """"finitary arithmetic"""" (a subsystem of the usual arithmetic of the positive integers, chosen to be philosophically uncontroversial) was consistent.""","""isɣud hilbrt ad issuffɣ amsasa isdsan isnkan s turda "" asiḍn amggaru""(d amagaw ayyaw i usiḍn n imḍann imddadn , d stin t ad ur ig anbdar i tflsafit) iga amsasa."
"Thus, in order to show that any axiomatic system of mathematics is in fact consistent, one needs to first assume the consistency of a system of mathematics that is in a sense stronger than the system to be proven consistent.","s man aya, fad ad iffɣ umagaw abadihi i tusnaka imsasa g tilawt, ira bnadm d amzwaru ad idmu amsasa n umagaw asnukan nna idusn fad ad izga amsasa."
"Other formalists, such as Rudolf Carnap, Alfred Tarski, and Haskell Curry, considered mathematics to be the investigation of formal axiom systems.","ar ssitigɣ itsn imckwitn aḍnin zun d ṛudulf kaṛnab, d haskil kari, tusnikwin gant asaggu g imigaw ibidahitn unṣibn."
"The more games we study, the better.","kud trnun uggar n tsurarin nssɣra, yuf imki."
The main critique of formalism is that the actual mathematical ideas that occupy mathematicians are far removed from the string manipulation games mentioned above.,ismdya ufran asilan i twila g twngimin tisknawin nna swurin imusnawn n tsnakt yaggugn i tsurarin s udinan nenna yad.
"Brouwer, the founder of the movement, held that mathematical objects arise from the a priori forms of the volitions that inform the perception of empirical objects.","yannay bṛuwṛ, amrsl n umussu, tiɣawsiwin n tsnaka tettwahyya g twila izrin i tirayin nna issnn atam n tɣawsiwin tinaramin."
"The axiom of choice is also rejected in most intuitionistic set theories, though in some versions it is accepted.","yugy tabadihit tafranit g uggar n tannayin tirubba tiwngimin, ur ittssudn g itsnt tfifɣin."
"In this view, mathematics is an exercise of the human intuition, not a game played with meaningless symbols.","g tannayt inu ad, gant tsnukin timskarin i twngimin n ufgan, maci tasurart ittirirn s uzmmul ur ilin anamk."
"Likewise all the other whole numbers are defined by their places in a structure, the number line.","s umdya, da ittẓlay tuggt inmḍan aḍnin s udɣarn nnsn g uhaykali, tarayt n inmḍan."
"However, its central claim only relates to what kind of entity a mathematical object is, not to what kind of existence mathematical objects or structures have (not, in other words, to their ontology).","s man aya, tuttra nns tinnumsa tga anaw amɣnaw nna ismya t umɣnaw amaddal, maci anaw n tilit nna ilan tiɣawsiwin d tnɣa tamaddalt ( s twnnit aḍnin, s tussna n tilit taẓlayt)."
Structures are held to have a real but abstract and immaterial existence.,iɣla id tanɣiwin lant tidt macan waratig d warakmam.
Structures are held to exist inasmuch as some concrete system exemplifies them.,tanɣiwin illan anct n imagawn ixṛṣiyn.
"Like nominalism, the post rem approach denies the existence of abstract mathematical objects with properties other than their place in a relational structure.","zun d tassaɣt, inkr ammak dat n rim llan imɣnawn imaddaln iwngimn s unamaẓ yaḍnin ur illin g tuska tuqqant."
"It is held that mathematics is not universal and does not exist in any real sense, other than in human brains.","iɣal id tusnakt is ur tgi tamaḍlant d is ur tlli s unamk n tidit, s umzaray n walni n ufgan."
"However, the human mind has no special claim on reality or approaches to it built out of math.","s man aya, ur illi i walni n ufgan kan tuttra s tilawt nɣ d tamyadast nns ittuskan xf tusnakat."
"The most accessible, famous, and infamous treatment of this perspective is Where Mathematics Comes From, by George Lakoff and Rafael E. Núñez.","asujji ittwassan bzzaf i umnad ad iga t ma g d tettddu tusnakat, s uɣanib juṛj lakuf d ṛafil inuniz."
"""Franklin, James (2014), """"An Aristotelian Realist Philosophy of Mathematics"""", Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke; Franklin, James (2021), """"Mathematics as a science of non-abstract reality: Aristotelian realist philosophies of mathematics,"""" Foundations of Science 25.""","fṛankil, jimis (2014), “"" taflsaft n aṛiṣṭu tanilawt i tusnakat""”, baljrif makmilan, basinjstus, fṛanklin, jimis (2021), ““ tasnakt d tussna i tilawt ur igin waratig : tiflsafin tinaliwin taṛuṣṭuṭin,”“ timrsal n tussna 25.”"
The Euclidean arithmetic developed by John Penn Mayberry in his book The Foundations of Mathematics in the Theory of Sets also falls into the Aristotelian realist tradition.,asiḍn aqbur nna isbuɣla jun bn mayibiri g udlis nns asrs n trsal n tuskanat g tannayt n trubba illa ula g tilawt taqburt tariṣṭuṭ.
"""Edmund Husserl, in the first volume of his Logical Investigations, called """"The Prolegomena of Pure Logic"""", criticized psychologism thoroughly and sought to distance himself from it.""","ifrn ""idmund hursl"", g ufrɣs amzwaru d ufaggu nns n tidt, s uzwl "" tazwart n tilawt izddign"" tussna tuklist iran tuggugt i yiman nns""."
"That is, since physics needs to talk about electrons to say why light bulbs behave as they do, then electrons must exist.","tafiziyt tra amzzu xf iliktrunat ad tini max ad tmskr tasafut n usidd nna tskr, ifukk ad ilin iliktrunitn."
"It argues for the existence of mathematical entities as the best explanation for experience, thus stripping mathematics of being distinct from the other sciences.",illa mrara n wawal xf tilawt n imilitn n tusnakt d yakkan asfsr n tirmit g tgara ukus n ustay n tusnakt xf tmassanin yaḍnin.
This grew from the increasingly popular assertion in the late 20th century that no one foundation of mathematics could be ever proven to exist.,igma ubrak aɣrfan ittxitirn g tgiriwin n tsuta tis 20 nwis ur tli tusnakt yan usila day ula iɣy awd yan ad yini tla t.
A mathematical argument can transmit falsity from the conclusion to the premises just as well as it can transmit truth from the premises to the conclusion.,tbaḍ tnẓat n tusnakt ad tsmutty azggal sg tyafut ɣr tzwaratin imkinna tɣy ad tsmutty tidt n tzwaratin ɣr tigira.
He gave a detailed argument for this in New Directions.,ifka anẓa amgzum i uya g tnaliwin timaynutin.
"If mathematics is just as empirical as the other sciences, then this suggests that its results are just as fallible as theirs, and just as contingent.","mk tga tusnakt tanirmit am tussniwin yaḍn, aya da isskan is rad zdint tyafutin nns d tyafutin nnsn, tinmgalin."
For a philosophy of mathematics that attempts to overcome some of the shortcomings of Quine and Gödel's approaches by taking aspects of each see Penelope Maddy's Realism in Mathematics.,"i tifi n tflsaft n tusnakt ittnaɣn d inngzutn illan g tannayt n kwayn dgudl s yisy n igzzumn digsn, ẓṛ tanilawt n binilub maddi g tusnakt."
"""He started with the """"betweenness"""" of Hilbert's axioms to characterize space without coordinatizing it, and then added extra relations between points to do the work formerly done by vector fields.""","“issnta s ““tangrt”” n tfrarin n hilbrt i usfrs n usayrar min assuds, irnu as azday yaḍn n gr tnqqaḍ i twuri kkan da ttggan yigran n tnilawin zikk.”"
"By this account, there are no metaphysical or epistemological problems special to mathematics.","sg usiḍn ad, ur llin imukrisn imitafiziqn nɣ d imassann lumn s tusnakt."
"""However, while on an empiricist view the evaluation is some sort of comparison with """"reality"""", social constructivists emphasize that the direction of mathematical research is dictated by the fashions of the social group performing it or by the needs of the society financing it.""","“wɣar, iga ussitg n umnad anirim anaw n usmzazal d ““tilawt””, ar ttinin imskitn inamunn is tga tnila n urzzu n tusnakt yat akkant tmamkin n tgrawt tanamunt tt ittggan nɣ inngzutn n usdrim anamun.”"
"But social constructivists argue that mathematics is in fact grounded by much uncertainty: as mathematical practice evolves, the status of previous mathematics is cast into doubt, and is corrected to the degree it is required or desired by the current mathematical community.","mak da ttẓin imska inamunn is tga tusnakt mm tawna g tilawt xf kigan n usurd: d tigmi n tigawt n tusnakt, allig illa usurd g tusnakt taqburt, ar ttusɣti ɣr tskwflt ira wamun n tusnakt n dɣi."
The social nature of mathematics is highlighted in its subcultures.,da ttusskan tgama tanamunt n tusnakt g tdlsa nns tanadawt.
"""Social constructivists see the process of """"doing mathematics"""" as actually creating the meaning, while social realists see a deficiency either of human capacity to abstractify, or of human's cognitive bias, or of mathematicians' collective intelligence as preventing the comprehension of a real universe of mathematical objects.""","“da sksiwn imska inamunnis tga tmggit “”tigawt n tusnakt”” g tilawt da ttarw anamk, maka da sksiwn inilawn inamunn is iga ku anngzu g tzmrt tanfgant i uwngm, nɣ ku agguss awassan i ufgan, nɣ g umiɣis angraw n imassann n tusnakt da igddl armas n umaḍal adttan i iskkinn n tusnakt.”"
More recently Paul Ernest has explicitly formulated a social constructivist philosophy of mathematics.,"g tgiriwin ad, iska bul irnist tflsaft taniskit tanamunt i tusnakt."
"For example, the tools of linguistics are not generally applied to the symbol systems of mathematics, that is, mathematics is studied in a markedly different way from other languages.","xf umdya, ur da ttusnsin wallaln n tsnilst s talɣa tamatut xf izmuln n tusnakt, s unamk n is da ttuslmad tusnakt s tɣarast istin xf tutlayin yaḍn."
"However, the methods developed by Frege and Tarski for the study of mathematical language have been extended greatly by Tarski's student Richard Montague and other linguists working in formal semantics to show that the distinction between mathematical language and natural language may not be as great as it seems.","mɣar, isbuɣla ritcard muntag amzraw n tarski tiɣarasin issgma firji d taski i tzrawt n tutlayt n tusnakt d imsnilsn yaḍn iswurin xf inumak unṣibn i usskan n bṭṭu illann gr tutlayt n tusnakt d tutlayt tangamat iɣy is ur ixatr ɛniɣ."
"""The assertion that """"all"""" entities postulated in scientific theories, including numbers, should be accepted as real is justified by confirmation holism.""","“asddid xf ““maṛṛa” imilitn ittusarsn g tiẓiṛin timassanin, g amun imḍann, isil umsasa d is gan win tidt, ar as takka anẓa tɣiwant n isddid.”"
Field developed his views into fictionalism.,isbuɣla fyild imnadn nns ɣr tiwngimanin.
The argument hinges on the idea that a satisfactory naturalistic account of thought processes in terms of brain processes can be given for mathematical reasoning along with everything else.,iskutt wanẓa xf tktit is iɣy isfsr angam amaḍun i tmggitin n uswngm sg tmggitin n unli iɣy ad ittuzri ɣr uswingm n tusnakt g tsga n ku askkin yaḍn.
"Another line of defense is to maintain that abstract objects are relevant to mathematical reasoning in a way that is non-causal, and not analogous to perception.",izririg itrrar yaḍn iga t uḥṭṭu xf iskkinn iwngimn mi ɣur azday s uswngm n tusnakts tɣarast tar amntil ula taɣ g yikz.
"By way of example, they provide two proofs of the irrationality of .","s tɣarast n umdya, da akkan sin inẓatn xf taranllaɣt."
"""Paul Erdős was well known for his notion of a hypothetical """"Book"""" containing the most elegant or beautiful mathematical proofs.""",“ittyassn bul idus s urmmus nns xf ““udlis”” awngim g llan inẓatn n tusnakt izddign ẓiln.”
"By the same token, however, philosophers of mathematics have sought to characterize what makes one proof more desirable than another when both are logically sound.","g yan ubrud, ddan iflsafn n tusnakt g usnuml n uynna ittraran yan unẓa ad yaf wayḍ addag akkw dttan s sin."
Philosophy of mind is a branch of philosophy that studies the ontology and nature of the mind and its relationship with the body.,tga tflsaft n wallaɣ anaw n tflsaft isslmadn tunṭulujit d tgama n wallaɣ d uzday nns d tfgga.
"Dualism and monism are the two central schools of thought on the mind–body problem, although nuanced views have arisen that do not fit one or the other category neatly.","tayuga d tyuwnt gant tinmal tinammasin i tkti xf umukris n wallaɣ d tfgga, waxxa d ffɣn imnadn imzarayn ur igi win yat tsga n tayḍ."
"""Hart, W.D. (1996) """"Dualism"""", in Samuel Guttenplan (org) A Companion to the Philosophy of Mind, Blackwell, Oxford, 265-7.""","“hart, w.d. (1996) ““tayuga””, g samwil gittnblan (org) asmun n tflsaft n wallaɣ, blakwil, uksfurd, 265-7."""
"Pinel, J. Psychobiology, (1990) Prentice Hall, Inc. LeDoux, J. (2002) The Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are, New York:Viking Penguin.","binil, j. tabsikulujit, (1990) brintis hul, ink. ludu, j. (2002) tafgga tamratsat: ma imk ttgan wallaɣn nnɣ matta nkkwni, nyuyurk: fayking bingwin."
"""Psychological Predicates"""", in W. H. Capitan and D. D. Merrill, eds.,""","“imnnitn inimann”, g w. h. kabitan, d. d. mrril, imaran,”"
"Secondly, intentional states of consciousness do not make sense on non-reductive physicalism.","wis sin, addadn n yiky ittyaran ur ɣurs anamk g takmamt tarazgzl."
"Someone's desire for a slice of pizza, for example, will tend to cause that person to move his or her body in a specific manner and in a specific direction to obtain what he or she wants.","tayri n uwrik g yili n tfṭaṭṭaḥt n bitza, xf umdya, da ttrara awrik nna da ard yawy tafkka nns s yat n tɣarast d yat n tnila taf ad tt yamẓ."
"""Robinson, H. (1983): """"Aristotelian dualism"""", Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 1, 123–44.""","“ṛubinsun, h. (1983): ““tayugant n arisṭu””, tizrawin n uksfurd g tflsaft taqburt 1, 123–44."""
"They would almost certainly deny that the mind simply is the brain, or vice versa, finding the idea that there is just one ontological entity at play to be too mechanistic or unintelligible.","druɣ iga asddid yigy is iga wallaɣ anli, nɣ d mgal, i tifi n tkti n is illa yan imili n tilawt da iswuri ad ig amikaniki nɣ ur itturmis."
"So, for example, one can reasonably ask what a burnt finger feels like, or what a blue sky looks like, or what nice music sounds like to a person.","aynnaɣ as, xf umdya, iɣy ufgan ad isqsa s talɣa tanllaɣt xf yiky n uḍad ixusn, nɣ ma imk iga yignna anili, nɣma imk iga uẓawan iḥlan ɣur ka."
There are qualia involved in these mental events that seem particularly difficult to reduce to anything physical.,llant tzmmar tignsatin illan g timṣaṛin tinllaɣin imrarn i uzgzl ɣr kra n uskkin n tfgga.
Dualism must therefore explain how consciousness affects physical reality.,aynnaɣ as da ttusfsar tyugant ma imk s rad iṭṭas yiky tilawt takmamt.
"Knowledge, however, is apprehended by reasoning from ground to consequent.","tussna, mɣar, da ttyikiz s usnẓy sg wakal d ma ayd ids ittmunn."
"The basic idea is that one can imagine one's body, and therefore conceive the existence of one's body, without any conscious states being associated with this body.","taktit tadslant tga iky mi iɣy ufgan ad t ig i tfgga nns, ar ittakz imi n tfgga nns, bla addadn yukzn tilawt n tfgga ad."
"Others such as Dennett have argued that the notion of a philosophical zombie is an incoherent, or unlikely, concept.",nẓin wiyyaḍ zun d dinit is tga tkti n ẓumbi aflsaf yan urmmus immzdayn nɣ t ur igi.
"It is the view that mental states, such as beliefs and desires, causally interact with physical states.","d umnad ittinin nwis da ttmmfkan waddadn inallaɣn, zun d aɣaln d tayriwin, s umntil d waddadn n tfgga."
"""Descartes' argument depends on the premise that what Seth believes to be """"clear and distinct"""" ideas in his mind are necessarily true.""",“iskutt wanẓa n dikart xf turda n uynna iɣal sit is d tiktitin ““ittyakzn ɣudunt”” g twngimt nns gant timddadin.”
"Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (Bradford) For example, Joseph Agassi suggests that several scientific discoveries made since the early 20th century have undermined the idea of privileged access to one's own ideas.","kambridj, masatcusts: tamsiggzt n usinag masatcusts i tetiknlujit (bradfur) xf umdya, ar ittini juzif agsi is d kigan n tifitin timassanin ittugan g imzwura n tsuta tis 20 ifka takti n ugulu n tktitin n ufgan."
This view was most prominently defended by Gottfried Leibniz.,irura jutfrid laybiniz xf umnad ad kigan.
"These emergent properties have an independent ontological status and cannot be reduced to, or explained in terms of, the physical substrate from which they emerge.",timitar ad ittuskan ɣurs addad n tilawt tasimant ur ittuzgzaln nɣ ttusfsr g trslt tagmamt g tska.
Epiphenomenalism is a doctrine first formulated by Thomas Henry Huxley.,tibifinuminalit tga yat taɣalt iska tikklt tamzwarut tumas hinri huksli.
This view has been defended by Frank Jackson.,irar frank jaksun xf umnad ad.
"Panpsychism is the view that all matter has a mental aspect, or, alternatively, all objects have a unified center of experience or point of view.","asksw ansmuttr iga amnad ittinin is d ku agmam ɣurs yat n tsga tanallaɣt, nɣ, g udɣar nns, kull iskkinn ɣursn ammas n tirmit nɣ amnad amyuwn."
"""An example of these disparate degrees of freedom is given by Allan Wallace who notes that it is """"experientially apparent that one may be physically uncomfortable—for instance, while engaging in a strenuous physical workout—while mentally cheerful; conversely, one may be mentally distraught while experiencing physical comfort"""".""","“amdya ad n tskwfal n tlelli imzarayn ifka t alan walas innan is ““tɣarast tanirmt is ur iswanfa ufgan g tfgga - s umdya, akud g illa g yan yirim imrarn n tfgga - maka da ittmdaz g wallaɣ; d unmgal nns, ad yili uṛmay n wallaɣ d uswunfu n tfgga””.”"
Mental states can cause changes in physical states and vice versa.,iɣy ad fkin waddadn n wallaɣ isnfal g waddadn n tfgga d mgal amddad.
Experiential dualism is accepted as the conceptual framework of Madhyamaka Buddhism.,"tayugant tanirmit, tzry is tga asuty armmusan n tbudit madhyamaka."
"In denying the independent self-existence of all the phenomena that make up the world of our experience, the Madhyamaka view departs from both the substance dualism of Descartes and the substance monism—namely, physicalism—that is characteristic of modern science.","g yigy n tilawt tanimant tasimant i tumanin illan g umaḍal n tirmit nns, ifrɣ umnad n madyamaka xf tyugant n mummu ɣur dikart d xf tmyuwt n mummu -igan tagmamt- iga yat sg tmatarin n tussna tatrart."
"Indeed, physicalism, or the idea that matter is the only fundamental substance of reality, is explicitly rejected by Buddhism.","g tilawt, tagmamt, nɣ tikti n is d tagmamt ayd igan mummi adslan abaylal n tilawt, tugy tt tbudit."
"While the former commonly have mass, location, velocity, shape, size, and numerous other physical attributes, these are not generally characteristic of mental phenomena.","g udɣar, tlla ɣur tmzwarut tastli d wansa d usddrf d talɣa d uksay d kigan n tmitar n tfgga yaḍn, tid ur gint sg tmitar n tumanin tinallaɣin s talɣa tamatut."
The fundamentally disparate nature of reality has been central to forms of eastern philosophies for over two millennia.,mkta aya tga tgama tamzarayt i tilawt tadslant n talɣiwin tiflsafin n unqqr ugar n snat tmaḍ n isggwasn aya.
"Physicalistic monism asserts that the only existing substance is physical, in some sense of that term to be clarified by our best science.","ar tsddi tmyuwt tafiziqt is ur illi g tgmamin illan bla tafiziqt, s unamk n is da ittusikiz yirm ad s umyif n tussna illan."
"Although pure idealism, such as that of George Berkeley, is uncommon in contemporary Western philosophy, a more sophisticated variant called panpsychism, according to which mental experience and properties may be at the foundation of physical experience and properties, has been espoused by some philosophers such as Alfred North Whitehead and David Ray Griffin.","waxxa ur ttyassn tmyant tabaylalt, zun d tin jurj birkli g tflsaft n uɣlluy tatrat, maka illa yan usnfl ittyassnn s tabanbsikit (panpsychism), iɣin is tga tasila n tirmt d tmitar n tfiziqt, usin tt kra n iflsafn zun d albirt nurt waytihid d diayfid ray grifin."
A third possibility is to accept the existence of a basic substance that is neither physical nor mental.,tiɣit tis kṛaḍt tga amsasa n yili n tgmamt taadslant ur igin tin tfgga ula tin wallaɣ.
Introspective reports on one's own interior mental life are not subject to careful examination for accuracy and cannot be used to form predictive generalizations.,ur da ttaɣn inqqisn inilmn xf tudrt tanallaɣt tagnsant i uwdan i unada n usddid ula ɣin ad ttuswurin i tskrawt n tmatttin ninimalin.
"Parallel to these developments in psychology, a philosophical behaviorism (sometimes called logical behaviorism) was developed.","s tamunt d ibuɣlutn ad g tbsikulujt, tettuga tigmi i tikli taflsaft (ilan assaɣ n tikli tungint)."
"These philosophers reasoned that, if mental states are something material, but not behavioral, then mental states are probably identical to internal states of the brain.","syfan iflsufn ad s ig gan waddadn inallaɣn agmam, maca ur d tungint, iɣy ad gin addadn inallaɣn imunn d waddadn ignsann n unli."
"According to token identity theories, the fact that a certain brain state is connected with only one mental state of a person does not have to mean that there is an absolute correlation between types of mental state and types of brain state.","s tiẓiṛin n tamust tazmulant, tga tidt n waddad anallaɣ tamzdayt s waddad anallaɣ n yan ufgan, ur igin angidda d tilawt n gr wanawn n waddad anallaɣ d wanawn n waddad n inli."
"Finally, Wittgenstein's idea of meaning as use led to a version of functionalism as a theory of meaning, further developed by Wilfrid Sellars and Gilbert Harman.","g tgira, tuwi d tkti n fitjnctayn xf unamk igan aswuri n tunɣilt sg tazzult n tiẓiṛt n unamk, issgma wilfrid silarz d jilbrt harman."
"Hence, the question arises whether there can still be a non-reductive physicalism.","ddir as, iga usqsi yakkan ixf nns, is isul illa anddu afiziqi ur ittusgzln."
"""Davidson uses the thesis of supervenience: mental states supervene on physical states, but are not reducible to them. """"""","“iswuri dayfidsun arzzu anaflla: addadn inallaɣn rnan addadn n fiziqt, maka ur tlli tzmrt n usgzl nnsn.”””"
The brain goes on from one moment of time to another; the brain thus has identity through time.,immutty unli sg tizi ɣr tayḍ; aynna d yakkan is ila unli tamust xf wakud.
An analogy of the self or the “I” would be the flame of a candle.,asmzazal n tankkt nɣ “nkk” ad ig ablalaɣ n tburbut.
"The flame displays a type of continuity in that the candle does not go out while it is burning, but there is not really any identity of the flame from one moment to another over time.","da isskan ublalaɣ yan wanaw n tadumt g yiɣ n tburbut d wuɣus nns, maca ur tlli awd yat tamust ɣur ublalaɣ g yat tizi ɣr tayḍ xf twada n wakud."
"Similarly, it is an illusion that one is the same individual who walked into class this morning.","imkinnaɣ, ila atig ad iqqim ufgan s imkinna iga ig waddaɣ ikcmn a tdala tifawt ad."
This is analogous to physical properties of the brain giving rise to a mental state.,aya imyaɣ d tmitar n tfiziqt i uli ittawin ɣr waddad anallaɣ.
"The Churchlands often invoke the fate of other, erroneous popular theories and ontologies that have arisen in the course of history.",kigan n tikkal ayd tsmummuy twacunt n tcircland s imal n tiziṛin d tunṭulujtij tigdudatin zglnin yaḍnin skanin xf taɣzi umzruy.
Some philosophers argue that this is because there is an underlying conceptual confusion.,mraran awal kra n iflsafn xf umntil n tilawt n uxwwḍ n irmmusn idslann.
"Rather it should simply be accepted that human experience can be described in different ways—for instance, in a mental and in a biological vocabulary.","g udɣar nns, ilaq umsasa d tirmit tanfgant mi nɣy ad nfk timitar n ibrdan ibḍan - xf umdya, g tguriwin tinallaɣin d tbyulujitin."
The brain is simply the wrong context for the use of mental vocabulary—the search for mental states of the brain is therefore a category error or a sort of fallacy of reasoning.,iga unli yan wansa izgln n uswuri n tguriwin tinallaɣin - g tgira iga urzzu xf waddadn inallaɣn n unli azggal g bṭṭu nɣ anaw n izggaln g uswngm.
"And it is characteristic of a mental state that it has some experiential quality, e.g. of pain, that it hurts.","sg tmitar n waddad anallaɣ is ɣurs tamatart tanirimt, xf umdya i yiɣiq, da tssiɣiq."
"The existence of cerebral events, in and of themselves, cannot explain why they are accompanied by these corresponding qualitative experiences.",ur tlli tzmrt n usfsr n umntil tamun nns d tirmitin ad tisnnulatin i yili n tmṣiṛin n unli.
This follows from an assumption about the possibility of reductive explanations.,da d ittddu uya sg turdawin n tzmrt n isfsar isgzal.
"The 20th-century German philosopher Martin Heidegger criticized the ontological assumptions underpinning such a reductive model, and claimed that it was impossible to make sense of experience in these terms.","ifka uflsaf almani martn haydigr azɣan nns g tsuta tis 20 xf turdawin tunṭulujitin xf iska umdya ad n uzgzl, inna is ur ittuzmir urmas n tirmit g yirmawn ad."
This problem of explaining introspective first-person aspects of mental states and consciousness in general in terms of third-person quantitative neuroscience is called the explanatory gap.,tamukrist ad tla asfsr g tsggwin tinilmin i waddadn inallaɣn d yiky s talɣa tamatut sg usksw n tussna n iẓṛan tamsɣalt i uwdanwis kṛaḍ tla assaɣ n txbut tasfsart.
There are two separate categories involved and one cannot be reduced to the other.,llant snat n trubba ibḍan ula tlla tzmrt ad ttusgzl yat digsnt ɣr tayḍ.
"For Nagel, science is not yet able to explain subjective experience because it has not yet arrived at the level or kind of knowledge that is required.","ar isksiw najil, ur tzmir tussna ad tssfru tirmit tnkkint acku ur nn tlkim ɣr uswir nɣ anaw n tussna ittyattrn."
This property of mental states entails that they have contents and semantic referents and can therefore be assigned truth values.,ittettr umẓlay n waddadn inallaɣn ad ɣurs yili tumayin d isaɣuln n inumak g tgira ad tzmr ad tili tiniditin timddadin.
"But mental ideas or judgments are true or false, so how then can mental states (ideas or judgments) be natural processes?","maca tiktin nɣ d tinbaḍin tinallaɣin timddadin nɣ zgalnin, ma imk zmrn waddadn inallaɣn (tiktin d tnbaḍin) ad gin timggitin tingamtin?"
"If the fact is true, then the idea is true; otherwise, it is false.","mc tga tidt tamddadt, ula tawingm tga tamddat; bla aya, tga azgal."
"Since mental processes are intimately related to bodily processes, the descriptions that the natural sciences furnish of human beings play an important role in the philosophy of mind.","llig zdint tmggitin nn wanli ɣr tmggitin n tfgga, hat isnummal nna da tsnkad timassanin tigamanin i ywdan illa ɣars yan tmlilt taxatart g tflsaft n wanli."
"Within the field of neurobiology, there are many subdisciplines that are concerned with the relations between mental and physical states and processes: Sensory neurophysiology investigates the relation between the processes of perception and stimulation.","g yigr n tmassant, lant tẓlayin tayyawant nna da ittakan tawit i isɣunn gr waddadn d tmggitin n wanli d tfgga: da isnubbuc tamassant n tsɣnatin n isknaf n umulli xf uzday gr tmggitin n tussna d unzal."
"Lastly, evolutionary biology studies the origins and development of the human nervous system and, in as much as this is the basis of the mind, also describes the ontogenetic and phylogenetic development of mental phenomena beginning from their most primitive stages.","g umggaru, da tqqra twssntudrt tazzigzant iẓuṛan d tmrniwt n ungmam n unlli anafgan, ar issitig aynna igan agjdan n unlli, mkinna da isnummal azzigz ajiniy n d ufilujiniy n tumanin n unlli ar issntay sg tfrkiwin nns timzwura."
A simple example is multiplication.,amdya afrar iga t akfud.
This question has been propelled into the forefront of much philosophical debate because of investigations in the field of artificial intelligence (AI).,ittufka as i usqsi ad kigan n tizi g tuggt n imraratn iflsafiyn s tmntilt n isuggwa g yigr n tigzi tamgurant.
"The objective of strong AI, on the contrary, is a computer with consciousness similar to that of human beings.","g unggu n man aya, iga umssuds awttas n tmddast n usaruf agraɣlan amaɣlac nna ɣur illa yan ufrak irwasn win ufgan."
"The Turing test has received many criticisms, among which the most famous is probably the Chinese room thought experiment formulated by Searle.","ttufkan kigan n izɣan i yirim n turing, sg winna digsn ittwassan tarmit n uwingm n tmṣriyt taṣiniyt nna iṣka sirsl."
Psychology investigates the laws that bind these mental states to each other or with inputs and outputs to the human organism.,ar tsuggu tklisnt g ilugan nna izdin s waddadn n unlli ingrasn nɣ d ikccumn d tyafutin n umɣnaw n ufgan.
A law of the psychology of forms says that objects that move in the same direction are perceived as related to each other.,algan n tklisnt n wunuɣn da ittini masd tifggiwin nna ismussun s yat tsga da ttuẓṛant masd ttwazdaynt ingr asnt.
"It includes research on intelligence and behavior, especially focusing on how information is represented, processed, and transformed (in faculties such as perception, language, memory, reasoning, and emotion) within nervous systems (human or other animal) and machines (e.g. computers).","ismun urzzu g yigr n tiɣist d tikli, slawan akkw tawna xf tmamkt n usmdya n umlan d usmkl nnsn ula asɣn nnsn (g tigẓẓulin zund atam, d tutlayt, d tmktit, d ussnẓa, d ufcad.) ammas n umagaw n unlli (afgan nɣ kra nniḍn (imudar) d imassn (zund ingmamn n umssuds)."
"Nonetheless, Hegel's work differs radically from the style of Anglo-American philosophy of mind.","mqqar d man aya, tmzaray twuri n higl yan umzaray mqqurn xf tɣarast n tflsaft tanllit n anjilu tamirikaniyt."
"Phenomenology, founded by Edmund Husserl, focuses on the contents of the human mind (see noema) and how processes shape our experiences.",da sdikint tmanutin nna iskr idmund husirl xf wassayn n unlli n ufgan (ẓṛ amya) d mamk s ttusskarnt tmskarin tirimin nnɣ.
This is the case for materialistic determinists.,man aya da irwas imsswutta inakmamn.
Some take this reasoning a step further: people cannot determine by themselves what they want and what they do.,da ttasin idsn tungint ad yat tsurift yaḍn: middn ur ɣiyn ad swuttun s ixfawn nnsn aynna ran d uynna skarn.
"""Those who adopt this position suggest that the question """"Are we free?""""""",winna ɣur illa waddad ddɣ ar ttinin asqsi ad ‘’is nga imaziɣn’’.
It is not appropriate to identify freedom with indetermination.,d ur d yusi ad nswttu tilelli s warraz.
The most important compatibilist in the history of the philosophy was David Hume.,amassan amqqran n tmsmunin g umaḍal g umzruy n tflsaft iga t dafid hyum.
"These philosophers affirm the course of the world is either a) not completely determined by natural law where natural law is intercepted by physically independent agency, b) determined by indeterministic natural law only, or c) determined by indeterministic natural law in line with the subjective effort of physically non-reducible agency.","da sddidn ifaylasufn mas abrid n umaḍal ur da tswuttun islgan agaman acku da ittumgal ulgan agaman s tasnurayt takmamt (b) da t iswuttu uslgan akmam ur igin amassan day, nɣ (j) da t iswuttu ulgmam agaman gar amassan nil tmssumant nna tgga tsnurayt i ixf nns nna ur innin ad idris g ukmam."
"They argue as follows: if our will is not determined by anything, then we desire what we desire by pure chance.","ar ttukrazn s tmamkt ad : mk ur tswuttit tarayt nnɣ s kra n tɣawsa, hat qad niri aynna xf nkkat s usmma nnɣ azddag."
The idea of a self as an immutable essential nucleus derives from the idea of an immaterial soul.,tawngimt n tnkkint amm tɣyanit tagjdant tarmskilt d iddan g twngimt n yiman arakmam.
"Mantranga, the principal governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army, Chief Priest of the King.","tmun mantranɣa nna igan tnna yumẓn tanbaḍt tamqqrant n tmẓlayt, sg ugllid, d umqqran n isnbaḍn, d umuzr amatu n tsrdast, d uxatar n irhibn n ugllid."
"The Arthashastra provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler, policies for foreign affairs and wars, the system of a spy state and surveillance and economic stability of the state.","ar yakka artsastra yan wallas i tmassant n tsrtitin n umnbaḍ anflus, d tsrtitin n bṛṛa d imnɣan, d umagaw n uwank n timmuɣla d unḍaf d uzggu admsan n wunk."
"The major philosophies during the period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, each had a political aspect to their philosophical schools.","tiflsafiyin tigjdanin g uzmz nna igan akunfucyusiy, d aṣadfa, d umhusiy, d tlazhariyt ula tataṭawiyt, illa ɣur ku yat digsnt yat tsga n tsrtit g tinmal tiflsafiyin nnsnt."
Legalism advocated a highly authoritarian government based on draconian punishments and laws.,han taṣadaft da tkkat xf yat tnbaḍt mi tggut tdnka nna ibddan xf izmaz d ilugan iqsḥn.
"""By the late ancient period, however, the """"traditionalist"""" Asharite view of Islam had in general triumphed.""",‘’maca lliɣ g d tlkm tigariwin n uzmz azayku rna tannayt tacuṛiyt ‘’tazaykut’’ n yislm s umata.
"However, in Western thought, it is generally supposed that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: al-Kindi (Alkindus), al-Farabi (Abunaser), İbn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes).","maca g uwngm udrim, ɛniɣ s umata ad yili tga yan udɣar iẓlin day s tflsaft tamqqrant n yislm: lkinidi, lfaṛi, ibn sina, d ibn baja, bnu ṛucd."
"For example, the ideas of the Khawarij in the very early years of Islamic history on Khilafa and Ummah, or that of Shia Islam on the concept of Imamah are considered proofs of political thought.","sumdya, tiwndimin n lxawarij g isggwasn imzwura n umzruy n yislm xf tmnukalt d tmtti, nɣ tiwngimin n yislm acioiy xf urmmus n tizwuri gant anzatn xf wungm asrtan."
Aristotleanism flourished as the Islamic Golden Age saw rise to a continuation of the peripatetic philosophers who implemented the ideas of Aristotle in the context of the Islamic world.,tbbuɣlla triṣṭuqṛaṭiyt mkinna ijṛan g uzmz n wurɣ ayislm g tattayt d tasult n iflsafn iṭṛblusyin nna ittggan s twngimin n aṛiṣṭu g umiaḍ n umaḍal ayislm.
"""Other notable political philosophers of the time include Nizam al-Mulk, a Persian scholar and vizier of the Seljuq Empire who composed the Siyasatnama, or the """"Book of Government"""" in English.""","sg kigan n ifaylasufn istrann nna illan g tizi nnaɣ illa nizam lmulk, iga amassan afarisiy d amawas g tmbṛaṭuṛiyt n siljuq nna ittugan sg siyyasatnama, nɣ ‘’adlis n tnbaḍt” s tutlayt tangliziyt."
"Perhaps the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe was St. Thomas Aquinas who helped reintroduce Aristotle's works, which had only been transmitted to Catholic Europe through Muslim Spain, along with the commentaries of Averroes.","iga ṭumas akwinas afaylasuf nna iḍiṣn kigan g uṛubba g uzmz anammas nna yiwsn g ullus n ussnkd n twuriwin n aṛiṣṭu, nna ur ittusnɣaln s uṛubba takatuliyt xs xf ubrid n iṣbbanya tamunslmt, akd uwnnitn n afirrus."
"Others, like Nicole Oresme in his Livre de Politiques, categorically denied this right to overthrow an unjust ruler.","g tizi lliɣ g nakrn wiyyaḍ akkw, amdya n nikul urismi g tsrtit nns tasrtant, g uzrf ad n tḍuṛi n unbbaḍ igin anzzarfu."
"That work, as well as The Discourses, a rigorous analysis of classical antiquity, did much to influence modern political thought in the West.","tawuri ad, ula inawn gan yan tslṭ iɣban sg uzmz azayku aklasikiy, gan tamssumant ad iḍiṣn xf awngm asrtan amaynu g lmṛṛuk."
"At any rate, Machiavelli presents a pragmatic and somewhat consequentialist view of politics, whereby good and evil are mere means used to bring about an end—i.e., the acquisition and maintenance of absolute power.","mkinna tgga, da yakka mikyafilli yat tannayt igan tamggit tamḍfart yan imik i tsrtit, acku da ittusmras wafulgi d gar zund yan imiss ḥma ad ng awttu nɣ ad yamẓ tanbaḍt tamqqrant d uḥṭṭu nns."
"These theorists were driven by two basic questions: one, by what right or need do people form states; and two, what the best form for a state could be.","ttutkayn d imuɣla ad ssin s sin isqsitn igjann: asqsi amzwaru: mad igan taɣawsa xf ttggan iwdan timzlayin; wiss sin, mad igan amuɣli iẓiln n uwunk."
"""The term """"government"""" would refer to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state, and create the laws and ordinances by which the people, themselves included, would be bound.""","“da isskan yirm n “tnbaḍt” s yat trbiɛt n iwdan nna iswurin g tmrsal n twunkt, ar sskarn islgan d wanaḍn nna xf d iqqan i ugdud, yili gisn awd ntta, ad ẓaṛsn zuccln”."
It can also be understood as the free market idea applied to international trade.,mkinna nzmr ad tt nrms mas tga twngimt tilelli n ugadaz ittugan xf tsbbabt tamaḍlant.
"The most outspoken critic of the church in France was François Marie Arouet de Voltaire, a representative figure of the enlightenment.","iga fṛansu mari urwayt dibultir afrnan ittwassan s tidt nns i lkanisa g fṛansa, d iga awrik ismdyan i ussisfw."
"""My one regret in dying is that I cannot aid you in this noble enterprise, the finest and most respectable which the human mind can point out.""""""","“assurf inu amyiwn xf tmttant acku ur zmirɣ ad kkwn awsɣ g tmssntit ad tamaziɣt, iẓlin, bab n wuddur axatar nna s iẓḍaṛ ad iss isskn unli anafgan.”"
Locke stood to refute Sir Robert Filmer's paternally founded political theory in favor of a natural system based on nature in a particular given system.,tbdda luk ad tsffukl tiẓiṛt tasrtant n sir rubirt filmrz nna ibddan xf igjdi n imarawn i umagaw iẓlin.
"Unlike Aquinas's preponderant view on the salvation of the soul from original sin, Locke believes man's mind comes into this world as tabula rasa.","g unggu n tannayt n akwinas nna irran xf ufra n yiman sg ubkkaḍ aẓuṛan, iɣal luk masd anlli n ufgan da ittddu s umaḍal ad zund ṭabula rasa."
"Though one could be worried about restrictions on liberty by benevolent monarchs or aristocrats, the traditional worry is that when rulers are politically unaccountable to the governed they will rule in their own interests, rather than the interests of the governed.","mqqar qad isyafa ufgan s uzziwz sg iskraf nna gan kra n igldaninfalkayn nɣ aṛiṣṭurṛaṭyin i tlelli, han tawdiwin tizaykutin da ttusgzal asra g ur baḍn inbdadn g tsrtit dat n imsbaḍn han daq asn baḍn g tɣḍfin nnsn timẓlayin."
"Justice involves duties that are perfect duties—that is, duties that are correlated with rights.",da ttili tzrfi g amafllaɣn s tfilawt nna igan d imafllaɣn izdin akd uzrf.
"He uses, On Liberty to discuss gender equality in society.",ar issmras tasɣunt xf tlelli ḥma ad masasan gr inawn g wamun.
"The Liberty of the Ancients was participatory republican liberty, which gave the citizens the right to directly influence politics through debates and votes in the public assembly.","tga tlelli n izaykutn tilelli tagdudant nna ibddan xf udraw, aynna yakkan i inamurn azrf g yiḍiṣ usrid xf tsrtitin g imraratn d istayn g wamun amatu."
"Ancient Liberty was also limited to relatively small and homogenous societies, in which the people could be conveniently gathered together in one place to transact public affairs.","da tbdda tlelli tazaykut day xf imunn imẓẓyaznn nna imsarin, d winna izmrn ad gis munn middn qqaḥ g yan wansa ad suɣdun askkin amatu."
"Instead, the voters would elect representatives, who would deliberate in Parliament on behalf of the people and would save citizens from the necessity of daily political involvement.","s usnfal n uynnaɣ, qad smstin ismmstayn nna ismdayn ar ttmraran g ubṛlaman s wassaɣ n ugdud ar ssnjamn inmura sg unbraz n tumut tasrtant takuyast."
"In Leviathan, Hobbes set out his doctrine of the foundation of states and legitimate governments and creating an objective science of morality.",Iiswtta hubz tabridt nns s yan uɣrrabu amqqran g tsila n wanukn d tnbaḍin iṣaḍfn d tiggi n yat tmassant tamsɣara n tɣara.
"In that state, each person would have a right, or license, to everything in the world.","g waddad ad, ku awrik dars azrf, i matta tɣawsa illan g umaḍal."
"Published in 1762, it became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition.","ttsfrar g usggwasn 1762, tga yat sg twuriwin nna iḍisn g tflsaft tartant g tmyurin tudrimin."
"""Those who think themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they.""""""","“winna nna ittiɣln ixfawn nnsn is gan id mass n wiyyaḍ, nitni nit ad iga ismxan g tilawt uggar nnsn."
The industrial revolution produced a parallel revolution in political thought.,tagrawla tamkunant tfka d yat tgrawla imsadaɣn akd tgrawla g uwngm asrtan.
"In the mid-19th century, Marxism was developed, and socialism in general gained increasing popular support, mostly from the urban working class.","g wammas n tsuti tiss mraw d tẓa (19), tbuɣlla tmrksiyt, tamẓ talictirakiyt s umata yan usdus agdudan ittgidiyn, d kigan nnsn sg taggayt tamswurant tanrɣamt."
"Unlike Marx who believed in historical materialism, Hegel believed in the Phenomenology of Spirit.","g umnid n marks nna ifulsn s tkmamt tamzuyt, illa higl ifuls s tumanin n yiman."
"In the Anglo-American world, anti-imperialism and pluralism began gaining currency at the turn of the 20th century.","g usggwas n lanjlu amrikiy, tssnti tmnskart n libbiryaliya d tmanawt ar ttamẓ tanfalit g tsuti tiss 20."
"This was the time of Jean-Paul Sartre and Louis Althusser, and the victories of Mao Zedong in China and Fidel Castro in Cuba, as well as the events of May 1968, led to increased interest in revolutionary ideology, especially by the New Left.","tga tad tizi n jun bbul satṛtr d lwis altusir, d trnawin n mawtsi ṭung g ṣṣin s fidl kastru g kuba, d izmuzzutn n mayyu 1968, nna yiwin s tmrniwt n tɣḍft s tadyulujiyt tagrawliyt, slawan akkw dar uẓẓlmḍ amaynu."
Colonialism and racism were important issues that arose.,iga usddurru d tmssaẓuṛt snat tɣawsiwin tigjdanin tinbdarin.
"The rise of feminism, LGBT social movements and the end of colonial rule and of the political exclusion of such minorities as African Americans and sexual minorities in the developed world has led to feminist, postcolonial, and multicultural thought becoming significant.",yiwi uɣlay n umussu n tmɣarin d imussutn inamunn n id lmitlyyin d lmitliyat d winna ɣur sin iswala awsyan d winna ittusnfaln g uwsyan d tgira n unba amsddurruy d tnkda tasrtant i tdrsiwin zund mirikan d ifriqiyn d tsdrsiwin n iwsyan g umaḍal ar d ig uwngm n tmɣarin d dat n lkulunil d uwngm amyinaw axatar.
"Rawls used a thought experiment, the original position, in which representative parties choose principles of justice for the basic structure of society from behind a veil of ignorance.","issmrs rawlz yat tirmt n twngimt, nna igan addad aẓuṛan, acku da sttin ikabaṛn ismdyatn imnzayn n tnzzarfut i tuṣṣka tagjdant i wamun dffir n tbdɣit n gar assan."
"Contemporaneously with the rise of analytic ethics in Anglo-American thought, in Europe, several new lines of philosophy directed at the critique of existing societies arose between the 1950s and 1980s.","s umyakud n uɣlay n tɣariwin tisfsayin g uwngm n anjlu amrikiy, g uṛubba, ttuskarn kigan n ifalan imaynutn g tflsaft nna iskarn afran n wamunn ibddan gr usggws 1950 d 1980."
"""Along somewhat different lines, a number of other continental thinkers—still largely influenced by Marxism—put new emphases on structuralism and on a """"return to Hegel"""".""","‘‘s tsɣznt n kra n izrirign n izrirign imyallan yan imik, srsn kigan n imwngmn n imnẓawin nniḍn- nna isuln yusin tamarksiyt-yan wanct n tɣḍft s tuṣṣka n tfgga d udwal s higl’’."
"Another debate developed around the (distinct) criticisms of liberal political theory made by Michael Walzer, Michael Sandel and Charles Taylor.",ibuɣlla yan umrara nniḍn xf izɣann (ifulki) i tmagunt tasrtant talibiraliyt nna ifka maykl walzr sandl d tcalz tayluṛ.
Communitarians tend to support greater local control as well as economic and social policies which encourage the growth of social capital.,ar tkkan imwura g imunn idɣran tasga n usdus n kigan n tkiriṭṭ tamurant akd tsrtitin n tidmsanin d tnamunin nna ittawsn abuɣlu n aytli anamun.
A pair of overlapping political perspectives arising toward the end of the 20th century are republicanism (or neo- or civic-republicanism) and the capability approach.,ilin snat tannayin tirtanin immkcamn nna ittuṣkan g tgira n tsuti tiss simraw (20) nna igan timgunin (nɣ timgunin timaynutin nɣ tigdudin tuɣrimin) d wammak n tzmmar.
"To a republican the mere status as a slave, regardless of how that slave is treated, is objectionable.","s mad iẓlin s kra n imgdudanin, xs adday ittugr ismx, ur aɣ igi g tmamkt ittwasskarn d ismx ad, iga yat tɣawsa ur ittyagi."
Both the capability approach and republicanism treat choice as something which must be resourced.,ar isnmaggu ku wnna immakn tizmmar d unzzuɣ agdudan akd ustay masd iga yat tɣawsa nna s iqqan as ttufkan isugam.
"Notable for the theories that humans are social animals, and that the polis (Ancient Greek city state) existed to bring about the good life appropriate to such animals.","iqqan d ad nsniɣs timagunin nna ittinin masd afgan iga imudar inamunn, d lbulis (awank n iɣrman iyunayn izaykutn) illa ḥma ad yawi tudrt iɣudan d yusan i zund imudar ad."
Burke was one of the biggest supporters of the American Revolution.,iga burk yan sg ixatarn nna n imwwasn n tgrawla tamirikaniyt.
"Chomsky is a leading critic of U.S. foreign policy, neoliberalism and contemporary state capitalism, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and mainstream news media.","iga tcumski yan sg imafran imqqran n tsrtit n bṛṛa n mirikan, talibirayt tamaynut d usihri n uwank atrar, d iumyasay ayisrayiliy afiliṣṭiniy, d imassan n usmmal ixatarn."
"William E. Connolly: Helped introduce postmodern philosophy into political theory, and promoted new theories of Pluralism and agonistic democracy.","wilyam kunuli : yiws g ukccum n tflsaft n dffir n tatrart g tmagunt tasrtant, d issuds timgunin timaynutin n timyanawin d tdimuqṛatiyin n ufgan."
Thomas Hill Green: Modern liberal thinker and early supporter of positive freedom.,ṭumas hil grin : yan uamswingm alibiraliy aatrar nna ittawsn sg zik tilelli iɣudan.
His early work was heavily influenced by the Frankfurt School.,ttuḍiṣ twuri nns n zik s yat tmamkt tamqqrant s tinml n fṛfuṛt.
He advocated free-market capitalism in which the main role of the state is to maintain the rule of law and let spontaneous order develop.,ar iqqra s usihri ilelli n ugadaz nna igan gis tilal taxatart n uwank xf uḥṭṭu n tnbaḍt n islgan d ad adjin amagaw anmmtray ad ibuɣlu.
David Hume: Hume criticized the social contract theory of John Locke and others as resting on a myth of some actual agreement.,dafid hyum : izɣnenn hiyum tamagunt n tfilit tanamunt n jun luk d wiyya acku swanfan sg umin n kra n umsasa amyagan.
Most famous for the United States Declaration of Independence.,issuḍrer uzrug n mirikan.
Argued that an international organization was needed to preserve world peace.,inna masd nsɣawsa s yat tnmalayt tamaḍlant xf uḥṭṭu n ufra amaḍlan.
"He departed from Hobbes in that, based on the assumption of a society in which moral values are independent of governmental authority and widely shared, he argued for a government with power limited to the protection of personal property.","idda xf hubz g uynnaɣ, isnnal s yudran n wamun nna g tẓly tnditin n tɣariwin xf tnbaḍt tunbiḍt iccarn s tmamkt mqqurn, inɛr xf tnbaḍt nna iḥṭṭun ayda animan."
One of the founders of Western Marxism.,yan sg imrsal n tmarksiyt tudrimt.
Gave an account of statecraft in a realistic point of view instead of relying on idealism.,wallas i ccwiyt n twunkt g tannayt n tilawt g s usmskl n tsɣznt xf tfilawt.
"As a political theorist, he believed in separation of powers and proposed a comprehensive set of checks and balances that are necessary to protect the rights of an individual from the tyranny of the majority.","d ayddɣ iga yan amssiẓiṛ asrtan, hat ifuls s ubṭṭu gr tnbaḍin ifk kigan n tɣawsiwin d ismsasatn s d iqqan afad ad ttuḥṭun izrfan n ku yan sg udnki n tugt."
"""Introduced the concept of """"repressive desublimation"""", in which social control can operate not only by direct control, but also by manipulation of desire.""","‘‘iskcm armmus n (aranɣal n umsay) nna izmrn ad gis iswuri uslgamu anamun ur d ɣas g tbridt n tkiriṭṭ tusridt, maca awd s tbridt n wurar s tnẓeẓt’’."
Created the concept of ideology in the sense of (true or false) beliefs that shape and control social actions.,yudja d urmmus n lidyulujiyya s unamk n tmyurin (tidt nɣ tazglt) nna iṣkkun ar ttamẓ xf twuriwin tinamunin.
"Mencius: One of the most important thinkers in the Confucian school, he is the first theorist to make a coherent argument for an obligation of rulers to the ruled.","minsyun : han amyassan axatar g tinml takunfucyusiyt, iga amssiẓiṛ amzwaru iwcan afakul idusn ḥma ad isuɣn unbbaḍ xf unbaḍ."
"""Montesquieu: Analyzed protection of the people by a """"balance of powers"""" in the divisions of a state.""",‘‘muntiskyu : ṣlḍɣ aḥṭṭu n ugdud s (umyas n idwasn) g ibṭṭutn n twunkt.’’
His interpreters have debated the content of his political philosophy.,mraran imssuɣal nns assay n tflsaft nns tasrtant.
Plato: Wrote a lengthy dialog The Republic in which he laid out his political philosophy: citizens should be divided into three categories.,aflaṭun : yura yan umsawal aɣzzaf : tagdudant nna g iga tafklsaft nns tasrtant : iqqand ad nbḍu inmura xf kṛad wanawn.
Ayn Rand: Founder of Objectivism and prime mover of the Objectivist and Libertarian movements in mid-twentieth-century America.,iyn rand : amssrsl n umussu n wagi n umussu axatar n imussutn ilibiraliyn g wammas n tsuti tiss simraw g amrika.
The government was to be separated from economics the same way and for the same reasons it was separated from religion.,iqqand ad nbḍu tanbaḍt xf tdmsa s yat tmamkt zund timntilin nna s tmzaray d usgd.
"""Adam Smith: Often said to have founded modern economics; explained emergence of economic benefits from the self-interested behavior (""""the invisible hand"""") of artisans and traders.""","‘‘adam smit : kigan ad innan masd issrsl i tdmsa, d issfra ufuɣ n tyafutin tidmsanin g wawal ; timrsilin n winna tt gis ittawin s ixfawn nsn (afus ur ittuyannayn) n inadn d isbbabn’’."
"Socrates: Widely considered the founder of Western political philosophy, via his spoken influence on Athenian contemporaries; since Socrates never wrote anything, much of what we know about him and his teachings comes through his most famous student, Plato.","suqṛaṭ : iga nik yan sg imrsaln n tflsaft tasrtant tudrimt, sg iḍiṣ, ixatar xf itrarn ; ayddɣ ddjin yaru (suqṛaṭ) awd ḥaḥ, gan akkw ssin ; kigan n winna fllas nssn d idrizn nns idda d sg unlmad nns nna bahra ittwassan, aflaṭun."
Max Stirner: Important thinker within anarchism and the main representative of the anarchist current known as individualist anarchism.,maks stirnr : yan amswingm issawhmman ammas n trwayt d umsuni agjdan i umzaz n arwin ittwassan s wassaɣ n urway amdan.
"Other forms of social philosophy include political philosophy and jurisprudence, which are largely concerned with the societies of state and government and their functioning.","llant g tflsaft tanamut talɣiwin yaḍnin am tflsaft tasrtant d usgd, nna da ittakan tawit i wamunn n twwunkt d tnbaḍt d twuri nnsnt."
"Pre-Socratic philosophy, also known as early Greek philosophy, is ancient Greek philosophy before Socrates.","taflsaft n dat n ṣuqṛaṭ, ttuyasn s taflsaft tagrikiyt tamzwarut, tga dat n ṣuqṛaṭ taflsaft tagrikiyt taqburt."
Their work and writing has been almost entirely lost.,tiggitin nnsn d tirra nnsn twaḍḍṛnt.
"Pre-Socratic philosophy began in the 6th century BCE with the three Milesians: Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes.","tbda tflsaft n dat n ṣuqṛaṭ g tasut wiss 6 dat n tlalit n lmasiḥ d kṛaḍ n milisyan: ṭaliṣ, anaksimandr, d anaksiminis."
Xenophanes is known for his critique of the anthropomorphism of gods.,ittwassn ksinuban s ufran nns i ummrws n wakuc.
"The Eleatic school (Parmenides, Zeno of Elea, and Melissus) followed in the 5th century BCE.","tinml n ilyatik (baṛminids , zinu n ilya, d milisus) tḍfaṛ g tasutit wiss 5 dat n tlalit n lmasiḥ."
Anaxagoras and Empedocles offered a pluralistic account of how the universe was created.,iwca anaksaguṛaṣṛaṣ d imbidukliṣ asnumml iggudin xf tmamkt n tugi n iɣzwr.
"""It was first used by the German philosopher J.A. Eberhard as """"vorsokratische Philosophie''' in the late 18th century.""","“ issmrs t tikklt tamzwarut afiluzufi almani j. a. ibhhaṛd am ”” taflsaft n buṛṣukratic”” g umggaru n tasutit wiss 18."""
"The term comes with drawbacks, as several of the pre-Socratics were highly interested in ethics and how to live the best life.","irm ad llan ɣars wagar, kigan n imassan dat n ṣuqraṭ fkan tawit i tɣariwin d mamk as ɣa ddrn yan tudrt iḥlan."
"According to James Warren, the distinction between the pre-Socratic philosophers and philosophers of the classical era is demarcated not so much by Socrates, but by geography and what texts survived.","s uynna inna jims wayn, asmzazal gr iflsafn n dat n suqṛaṭ d iflsafn n uzmz atrar ur da ittili d unṣib kigan ɣur suqṛaṭ, maca ɣur tjuɣrafiyt d uynna illan g iḍṛiṣn."
"Scholar André Laks distinguishes two traditions of separating pre-Socratics from Socratics, dating back to the classical era and running through current times.","da ibḍḍu umrzu andri laks snat tmyurin ḥma ad ismziriy aynna igan dat asuqraṭiy d uristuqraṭy, acku da ittuɣul umzruy nns s uzmz atrar ikk ammas n izmazn n ɣila."
"Many of the works are titled Peri Physeos, or On Nature, a title probably attributed later by other authors.","kigan n twuriwin usint assaɣ n ḥiri fizyus, uṛ natuɣ, iga yan uzwl nna iɣin ad ittufka g tizi yaḍn i kra n imgayn nniḍn."
Adding more difficulty to their interpretation is the obscure language they used.,uggar n tnmart n ussfru nnsn tga tt tutlayt ur ifawn nna ssmrasn.
"Theophrastus, Aristotle's successor, wrote an encyclopedic book Opinion of the Physicists that was the standard work about the pre-Socratics in ancient times.","yura tifrastus, amkkassu n aṛisṭ, adlis n tannayt n ifizikn nna igan tawuri n tasbdadt xf dat n tsuqṛaṭiyt g izmaz izaykutn."
Scholars now use this book to reference the fragments using a coding scheme called Diels–Kranz numbering.,ar ssmrasn imassan ɣilad adlis ddɣ ad mln ifṭṭawjn s ussmrs n twnaɣt n ummatar ar as ttinin asnqḍ dilz-kranz.
"""After that is a code regarding whether the fragment is a testimonia, coded as """"A"""", or """"B"""" if is a direct quote from the philosopher.""","""dffir n uynnaɣ tlla yat tmatart iẓlin s mas gan ifṭṭawjn zund turagin, ar as nttgga tamatart n ‘’a’’ nɣ ‘’b’’ mk illa takssuyt tusridt sg ufaylasuf."""
"The pre-Socratic era lasted about two centuries, during which the expanding Persian Achaemenid Empire was stretching to the west, while the Greeks were advancing in trade and sea routes, reaching Cyprus and Syria.","ikka uzmz n dat n suqṛaṭ dar snat tsutitin, acku tkka tmnukadt tafarisiyt tacuriyt nna isxitirn nn ilkmn lmɣrib, g tizi nna g ika lyunan g tsbbabt d ibrdan n wammas n yil, ar nn tlkm qubṛuṣ d suriya."
"The Greeks revolted in 499 BCE, but ultimately were defeated in 494 BCE.","jɛrn iyunanyyin g 499 dat n tlalit, maca g tgira n tasumɣt ttwarnan g 494 dat n tlalit."
Several factors contributed to the birth of pre-Socratic philosophy in Ancient Greece.,ibzr kigan n tmntilin n tlalit n tflsaft n dat n suqṛaṭ g lyunan azayku.
"Another factor was the ease and frequency of intra-Greek travel, which led to the blending and comparison of ideas.","sg tmntilin yaḍn awhan d uzday n umuddu ammas n lyunan, nna yudjan tussurt n twngimin d usnuḥyu nnsn."
The democratic political system of independent poleis also contributed to the rise of philosophy.,mkinna yiws umagaw asrtan adimuqṛatiy i umagaw innbḍn n yimal g tgmi n tflsaft.
"The philosophers' ideas, were, to a certain extent, answers to questions that were subtly present in the work of Homer and Hesiod.","gant twngimin n ifaylasufn, yan imik, timrarutin xf isqsitn nna ittuskarn s yat tmamk icwan g twuri n humr d hisud."
They are considered predecessors of the pre-Socratics since they seek to address the origin of the world and to organize traditional folklore and legends systematically.,gan sg imizutn n dat usuqṛaṭiy acku da kkatn ad suɣdn aẓuṛ umaḍal d uḥyyl n lfulkluṛ azayku d inqqisn s yat twlaft igan tarrayt.
"The first pre-Socratic philosophers also traveled extensively to other lands, meaning that pre-Socratic thought had roots abroad as well as domestically.","sg ifaylasufn imzwura nna immuddan dat n suqṛaṭ s yan udɣar bhra imqqurn s ikaln nniḍn, nna immalan masd awngm dat n suqṛat llan as iẓṛan g bṛṛa ula g uswir amuran."
The pre-Socratic philosophers shared the intuition that there was a single explanation that could explain both the plurality and the singularity of the whole – and that explanation would not be direct actions of the gods.,amun ifaylasufn n dat suqṛaṭ tawngimt masd illa yan ussfsr nna izmrn ad issfru tamanawt d tmdant n maṛṛa- d ussfru ad ur inni ad ig iggitn usridn dar id wakucn.
"Many sought the material principle (arche) of things, and the method of their origin and disappearance.","wtn kigan gisn ad snsin n umnzay n tɣawsiwin, d tmamkt nna g ttuga d ulaḥ nns."
"In their effort to make sense of the cosmos they coined new terms and concepts such as rhythm, symmetry, analogy, deductionism, reductionism, mathematicazion of nature and others.","g tmssumant nns ad rmsn amɣrad ḥyyln irimn d irmmusn imaynutn zund anya, d umtra, d wukus, d uzgzl, d tusnakt tagamant d wiyyaḍ."
It could mean the beginning or origin with the undertone that there is an effect on the things to follow.,iɣy ad tg tzwiri nɣ uẓuṛ akd umrkul masd illa iḍiṣ xf tɣawsiwin nna ittwatfarn.
"This may have been because of a lack of instruments, or because of a tendency to view the world as a unity, undeconstructable, so it would be impossible for an external eye to observe tiny fractions of nature under experimental control.","ɛniɣ illa uynnaɣ s tmntilt n tdrsi n imassn, nɣ s tmntilt n ufrruɣ s tsga n tannayt n umaḍal mas iga yan ufrdis ur ilaqn i usmun, man aya qad as yugum i tiṭṭ n bṛṛa ad tẓṛ igzzumn imẓẓann g ugama ddaw n wuṭuf n tnaramt."
Systematic because they tried to universalize their findings.,"d anbrid, acku mmaɣn ad as wcin yat tmatart tamaḍlant."
"The pre-Socratics were not atheists; however, they minimized the extent of the gods' involvement in natural phenomena such as thunder or totally eliminated the gods from the natural world.","aynna iẓlin s dat n isuqṛaṭiyn ur gin akkw ikafrn, xs tdda allig tdrus tlkm nn yan uswir g dran ikucn g tumanin tigamanin zund aggin nɣ tkks ikucn qqaḥ sg umaḍal agaman."
"The first phase of pre-Socratic philosophy, mainly the Milesians, Xenophanes, and Heraclitus, consisted of rejecting traditional cosmogony and attempting to explain nature based on empirical observations and interpretations.","tifrkt tamzwarut g tflsaft n dat suqṛaṭ, slawan akkw lmilisiyyin, zinufans, d hiraklitus, da ttuṣṣka sg wagi aɣzuran azayku d yirim n ussfru n ugama xf uynna gan tannayin d issfrutn inaramn."
The Eleatics were also monists (believing that only one thing exists and everything else is just a transformation of it).,mkinna gan awd ilyatikyun sg imwaḥḥdn (ɣaln nitni masd xs yat tɣawsa ad illan d uynnaɣ aḍnin iga xs asnfl day).
"He is considered the first western philosopher since he was the first to use reason, to use proof, and to generalize.","iga afaylasuf udrim amzwaru sg mayd iga amzwaru nna issmrasn anlli, d ussmrs n unmmal, d usmata."
Thales may have been of Phoenician ancestry.,ɛniɣ iga ṭalis sg tdfrt n finistri.
"Thales, though, advanced geometry with his abstract deductive reasoning reaching universal generalizations.","talis, mqqar tlla tanzgit tatrart akd tungint n usflu nns amẓlay ad ilkm asmata amaḍlan."
"Thales visited Sardis, as many Greeks then, where astronomical records were kept and used astronomical observations for practical matters (oil harvesting).","irzf ṭalis iɣrm n sardis, mkinna irzf kigan n iyunayiyn g tizi nnaɣ, acku iḥḍa arratn iwngimn issmrs tannayin tiwngimin g tɣawsiwin timassanin (asmun n ufitrul)."
He attributed the origin of the world to an element instead of a divine being.,idwl uẓuṣ n umaḍal s yan ufrdis g wansa n umɣnaw akucan.
"He was a member of the elite of Miletus, wealthy and a statesman.","iga yan umslay g tdɣart n militus, lli g llan ibaɣurn d irgazn n wunkt."
"In response to Thales, he postulated as the first principle an undefined, unlimited substance without qualities (apeiron), out of which the primary opposites, hot and cold, moist and dry, became differentiated.","g tmrarut xf ṭalis, iɣal masd assnti amzwaru iga yat tmtta ur igin tamẓlayt d ur ilin awuttu d bla tifrasin, lli as igan tuzlt tagjdant, irɣan d iqrfn, ilggwaɣn izwan, ur ilin anaw."
He is also known for speculating on the origin of mankind.,ittwassan awd s uswingm nns g uẓuṛ n tfganit.
He also wrote a book on nature in prose.,yara awd ittara yan udlis xf ugama g triwant.
He was a well-traveled poet whose primary interests were theology and epistemology.,iga yan unmaddu iɣudan d tiwitin nns tixatarin gant llahut d tussnadrizn.
"He famously said that if oxen, horses, or lions could draw, they would draw their gods as oxen, horses, or lions.","inna umassan mas mk llan imassn, iysan, nɣ izmawn zmrn ad ttusunɣn, hat qad tssuɣnt id ṛbbi nnsn zund imassn, iysan, nɣ izmawn."
"Xenophanes also offered naturalistic explanations for phenomena such as the sun, the rainbow and St. Elmo's fire.",mkinna iwca zinufans issfrutn n igaman i tumanin zund tafugt d tislit n unẓaṛ d takatin n lmusfir.
"While Xenophanes was a pessimist about the capability of humans to reach knowledge, he also believed in gradual progress through critical thinking.","lliɣ g imqt zinufans awal xf tzmrt n ufgan ad ilkm tussna, illa ifuls awd s ufara imik s imik s uswingm anfaran."
Heraclitus posited that all things in nature are in a state of perpetual flux.,idma hiraklitus masd qqaḥ tiɣawsiwin g ugama llant g yan waddad n ubuɣllu n wabda.
Fire becomes water and earth and vice versa.,da ttdwal takat tga aman d wakal nɣ asmlelli nns.
"There, Heraclitus claims we can not step into the same river twice, a position summarized with the slogan ta panta rhei (everything flows).","ɣinna as ittini hiraklitus masd ur nzmir ad nkcm g yan wasif snat tikkal, d ntta ad igan asgzl n waddad s tmatart : (qqaḥ tiɣawsiwin d da tbuɣlunt)."
"Another key concept of Heraclitus is that opposites somehow mirror each other, a doctrine called unity of opposites.","yan urmmus agjdan nniḍn n hiraklitus iga t ad ttusmlallin ingr atsn s kra n tɣarast, iga tabridt s wassaɣ n tafrdist n tuzlt."
Heraclitus' doctrine on the unity of opposites suggests that unity of the world and its various parts is kept through the tension produced by the opposites.,ar tmmala tɣarast n hiraklitus s mad iẓlin s tfrdist n tuzult masd tafrdist n umaḍl d igzzumn nns yaḍn llant bddant xf gar amsasa d ikkan tuzlt.
"A fundamental idea in Heraclitus is logos, an ancient Greek word with a variety of meanings; Heraclitus might have used a different meaning of the word with each usage in his book.","tawngimt tagjdant dar hiraklitus ttusgzal g tmatarin, lli igan yat tguri tayunaniyt tazaykut yusin kigan n inamkn imyanawn ; (hiraklitus) ɛniɣ issmrs anamk yaḍn i tguri g matta ussmrs illan g udlis nns."
Some decades later he had to flee Croton and relocate to Metapontum.,dffir n kra n isggwasn iqqan d fllas ad irwl sg kartun immutti s mitaḥuntum.
"They advanced his ideas, reaching the claim that everything consists of numbers, the universe is made by numbers and everything is a reflection of analogies and geometrical relations.","hat attuyn s twngimin nns, alig lkmn ad ttinin masd maṛṛa tiɣawsiwin gant akkw uṭṭunn, amɣrad ittuga s wuṭṭun d aynna qqaḥ illan iga yan wuɣul n usɣal d tzdayin tinzgani."
"Their way of life was ascetic, restraining themselves from various pleasures and food.","tamamkt n tudrt nnsn tlla tfulki, da sbddan ixfawn nnsn sg matta ifjjijn d wuttci."
Other pre-Socratic philosophers mocked Pythagoras for his belief in reincarnation.,ṭnzn kra n ifaylasufn dat n suqṛaṭ sg bitaɣurs ayddɣ ifuls s usnɣl.
"Pythagoreanism influenced later Christian currents as Neoplatonism, and its pedagogical methods were adapted by Plato.","tḍiṣ tfitaɣurs xf imzazn g yat tizi yaḍn ayddɣ tga nyublatiniyya, isimk aflaṭun ammakn nns asagman nns."
"According to Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, Xenophanes was Parmenides' teacher, and it is debated whether Xenophanes should also be considered an Eleatic.","susulf n aṛsṭu d dyujins layrtyus, iga awd zinufans aslmad n ḥirmandis, ar isgdal is nɣy ad ig zinufans ilyatiki."
He was the first to deduce that the earth is spherical.,iga amzwaru nna isflan mas iga wakal aqlallay.
"Parmenides wrote a hard to interpret poem, named On Nature or On What-is, that substantially influenced later Greek philosophy.","yura birmands yat tmdyazt icqqa ussfru nns s uzwl n ugama nɣ aynna gis illan, d tnna iḍiṣn bahra g tflsaft tayunaniyt d iddan."
"The poem consists of three parts, the proem (i.e., preface), the Way of Truth and the Way of Opinion.","tbḍa tmdyazt xf kṛaḍ igzzumn, tizwuri, d tabridt n tidt d tbridt n tannayt."
"The Way of Truth was then, and is still today, considered of much more importance.","tga tbridt n tidt g tizi nnaɣ, d tsul s dɣi, tlla tga tagjdant bahra."
"Hence, all the things that we think to be true, even ourselves, are false representations.","sg da han aynna s nttiɣil is issaɣ, awd g iɣfawn nnɣ, iga xs ismdyatn n ɛnwa."
"The goddess teaches Kouros to use his reasoning to understand whether various claims are true or false, discarding senses as fallacious.","issn wakuc n krus ad issmrs tawngimt afad ad irms is ssaɣn iɣiln nnsn imzarayn nɣ is zgln, akd tuttut n tagayin ayddɣ ur ɣzant."
Zeno and Melissus continued Parmenides' thought on cosmology.,issnti zinu d milusiz g uswingm g tmassanin n tmɣradin.
He tried to explain why we think various non-existent objects exist.,yurm ad issfru max allig da nttiɣil is ɣinna llan kra n tɣawsiwin imzarayn ur akkw illin.
"Anaxagoras was born in Ionia, but was the first major philosopher to emigrate to Athens.","ilul anakajuras g iwnya, maca iga afaylasuf amzwaru ammqran iḥtaln s atina."
Anaxagoras was also a major influence on Socrates.,iga anakajuras awd sg iḍiṛn ixatarn xf suqṛaṭ.
Interpretations differ as to what he meant.,d mzarayn issfrutn s uynna zars iẓlin.
"All objects were mixtures of various elements, such as air, water, and others.","gant tazzitin qqaḥ urkisn sg ifrdisn imyanawn, zund azwu d waman d wiyyaḍ."
"Nous was also considered a building block of the cosmos, but it exists only in living objects.","mkinna iga ‘’nus’’ yat tirrit n tuṣṣka n umɣrad, maca ur illi xs g imidrn."
"Anaxagoras advanced Milesian thought on epistemology, striving to establish an explanation that could be valid for all natural phenomena.","ibuɣla uwngm alanxaɣuriy g tmussna, acku da ikkat ad issrsl i ussfru nna izmrn ad ilaq i tumanin tigamanin maṛṛa."
"According to Diogenes Laertius, Empedocles wrote two books in the form of poems: Peri Physeos (On nature) and the Katharmoi (Purifications).","s unmsasay d dyujins laytyus, yura imiduks sin idlisn igan tmdyazin n umarg: biri fyus (xf ugama) d wikataṛmuṛi (imṛfi n wudm)."
"""He also continues Anaxagoras' thought on the four """"roots"""" (i.e., classical elements), that by intermixing, they create all things around us.""",mkinna da ittsmad uswingm n anakajuras g ‘’iẓuṛan’’ s kkuẓ (d ifrdisn itrarn) nna ittugan sg tussurt n tɣawsiwin nna aɣ akkw ittin’’.
"These two forces are opposite and by acting upon the material of the four roots unite in harmony or tear apart the four roots, with the resulting mixture being all things that exist.","tidusiwin ad gant anggu n man aya, d sg uswuri xf tmtta sg iẓuṛan s kkuẓ da ttakz g tmsasit nɣ da ttbbi iẓuṛan s kkuẓ, mqqar iga urkis tayafut n tɣawsiwin nna akkw illan."
"They are most famous for their atomic cosmology even though their thought included many other fields of philosophy, such as ethics, mathematics, aesthetics, politics, and even embryology.","ittwassan uggar s tussniwin n umɣrad afanuz mqqar yusi uwngm nns kigan n yigran n tflsaft, zund taɣarnt, tusnakt, timḥlanin, tasrtit, d tussna n ljinat."
"Democritus and Leucippus were skeptics regarding the reliability of our senses, but they were confident that motion exists.","iga dimukrits d lusib sg imturda g unna izdin s uɣzan n isyafatn, maca fulsn is illa umussu."
"Atoms move within the void, interact with each other, and form the plurality of the world we live in, in a purely mechanical manner.","da tmussunifnuzn ammas n tarit, ar ttmrara ing asnt, ar tgga tamyinawt n umaḍal nna g nddr, s yat tmamkt igan tamikanikiyt izddign."
"Democritus concluded that since everything is atoms and void, several of our senses are not real but conventional.","iṭṭay dimukris mas d qqaḥ tiɣawsiwin gant ifnuzn d untiln, ur nnin ad gin kigan n isyafatn nnɣ tidt maca qad gin izaykutn."
"They attacked traditional thinking, from gods to morality, paving the way for further advances of philosophy and other disciplines such as drama, social sciences, mathematics, and history.","tanṭagan kigan aswingm azayku, sg id wakuc ar tiɣariwin, aynna yudjan abrid i tuggt n tsattuyt g tflsaft d tmẓlayin nniḍn zund ḍḍṛama, d tmassanin tinfganin, d tusnakt, d umzruy."
The sophists taught rhetoric and how to address issues from multiple viewpoints.,lmdn imssudsn tutlayt n uwnni d tmamkt n usuɣd n tmsarin sg tannayin imyanawn.
"Gorgias wrote a book named On Nature, in which he attacked the Eleatics' concepts of What-is and What-is-not.",yura gurjyas yan udlis s uzwl ‘’ xfagama’’ ittukya digs xf irmmusn n alyatiks s uynna as illan d uynna as ur illin.
Antiphon placed natural law against the law of the city.,isrs antifun asnagal n ugama g unggu n usnagal n iɣrm.
He attempted to explain both the variety and unity of the cosmos.,yurm ad issfru amyanaw n umɣrad d tamunt nns.
"Diogenes of Apollonia returned to Milesian monism, but with a rather more elegant thought.","idwl dyujinis abulunya s unzzuɣ amyiwn amiliziy, maca akd yat twngimt ifulkin uggar."
"While Pythagoras and Empedocles linked their self-proclaimed wisdom to their divinely inspired status, they tried to teach or urge mortals to seek the truth about the natural realm—Pythagoras by means of mathematics and geometry and Empedocles by exposure to experiences.","lliɣ izdy fitaɣurs d umidulis tinẓeẓdt nns ittuynnan s wansa nns d umlan nns n yuc, urmn ad lmdn i ufgan, nɣ ad tn ajjin ad snubbucn xf tidt g umaḍal agaman, nna igan fitaɣurs sg tusnakt d tnzgi s tbridt n umnad n tmazzayin."
"They attacked the traditional representations of gods that Homer and Hesiod had established and put Greek popular religion under scrutiny, initiating the schism between natural philosophy and theology.","ggzn xf wuḍuḍn izaykutn n id wakuc nna issrsl humirus d whisyud srsn asɣan aamdnan ayunaniy ddaw uḥṭṭu, issnti ubṭṭu gr tflsaft tagamant d llahut."
The theological thought starts with the Milesian philosophers.,da isfal uwngm alahutiy akd ifaylasufn imiliziyn.
"Xenophanes set three preconditions for God: he had to be all good, immortal and not resembling humans in appearance, which had a major impact on western religious thought.","isrs gznufan kraḍ ifadan n uzzwur n ṛbbi: iqqand ad yili aynna akkw illan iẓil, d amɣlul d ur irwas afgan g tfiras, nna dar illa yan iḍiṣ mqqurn xf uwngm n usɣan udrim."
Anaxagoras asserted that cosmic intelligence (nous) gives life to things.,"islkn anakajuras masd tigzi n iɣzwr, da yakka tudrt i tɣawsiwin."
It was Hippocrates (often hailed as the father of medicine) who separated – but not completely – the two domains.,"iga abuqraṭ ( nna mi sslɣn bab n assasfr) ntta d ismzarin gr yigran, maca ur d talɣa ismdn."
Ever-transforming nature is summarized by Heraclitus' axiom panta rhei (everything is in a state of flux).,agama nna izdin isnfiln nns da t tsgzalnt tbadihyyin n ‘’hirakliṭs banta ɣyi’’ - aynna illan illa g waddad n isnfiln izdin).
"The pre-Socratics sought to understand the various aspects of nature by means of rationalism, observations, and offering explanations that could be deemed as scientific, giving birth to what became Western rationalism.","mmaɣn dat suqraṭ ad rmsn tisggiwin amyanawn n ugama sg umnlli, d tannayin, fkin issfrutn nna izmrn ad gint imassan, nna d ittarun aynna igan amnlli udrim."
"Anaximander offered the principle of sufficient reason, a revolutionary argument that would also yield the principle that nothing comes out of nothing.","ifka anacimandr asnti n unlli yudan, nna igan inigi n tgrawla nna izmrn awd nttat ad tawi s usnti n nna igan awd ḥaḥ da d ittfɣ sg umya."
Xenophanes also advanced a critique of anthropomorphic religion by highlighting in a rational way the inconsistency of depictions of the gods in Greek popular religion.,mkinna inna zinubhanis g ufran nns i usɣan n ufgan ittmnqarn lliɣ g ẓaṛs igr asidd s yat tmamkt tamɣzant xf gar tamsarit n uswlf n id yuc g usgd ayunaniy amdnan.
"Other pre-Socratics also sought to answer the question of arche, offering various answers, but the first step towards scientific thought was already taken.","mkinna da kkatnt tnmalayin nniḍn ad rarint xf usqsi n uɣṛṛabu, wcin tirarutin imyanawn, maca ttuskar tsurift tamzwarut g ubrid n uwngm amassan."
"The philosophic thought produced by the pre-Socratics heavily influenced later philosophers, historians and playwrights.",iḍiṣuwngm aflsafiy kigan s uynna d ifrs dat n tussniwin n iwlsessn xf ifaylasufn d inmzray d ibarazn g yat tizi yaḍn.
"The naturalists impressed young Socrates and he was interested in the quest for the substance of the cosmos, but his interest waned as he became steadily more focused on epistemology, virtue, and ethics rather than the natural world.","tssḍhr tmnaṭṭ n ugama agaraz n uɛrrim suqṛaṭ yasy anzgum n ad ilkm mummu n umɣrad, maca tdrus tiwit nns akd tɣḍft nns idduhdan akd tussniwin n tnditin ttɣariwin, d tnafutin, d tɣariwin ur d amaḍal amuɣlan."
"""Cicero analyzed his views on the pre-Socratics in his Tusculanae Disputationes, as he distinguished the theoretical nature of pre-Socratic thought from previous """"sages"""" who were interested in more practical issues.""","‘’isfsi sisiru tannayin nns s mad iẓlin s dat n uwlal g udlis nns ‘’imnɣi n irmskiln’’, acku ibḍa agama n tmagunt n uwngm n dat n suqṛaṭ xf ‘’influsn’’ imzwura nn tt yiwin g tmntilin igan timassanin uggar’’."
"Aristotle discussed the pre-Socratics in the first book of Metaphysics, as an introduction to his own philosophy and the quest for arche.","imrara arisṭu dat n tussniwin niwlaln g udlis amzwaru n lmitafiziqya, zund tazwart n tflsaft nns g urzzu n uɣrrabu."
"Francis Bacon, a 16th-century philosopher known for advancing the scientific method, was probably the first philosopher of the modern era to use pre-Socratic axioms extensively in his texts.","ɛniɣ iga fransis bikun afaylasuf sg tsuti tiss mraw d ṣḍiṣ (16) nna ittwassan s ufara n tmamkt tamassant, afaylasuf amzwaru sg uzmz atrar nna issmrasn lbadihyyat n dat n tnbaḍt g yan udɣar mqqurn g iḍṛiṣn nns."
"""Friedrich Nietzsche admired the pre-Socratics deeply, calling them """"tyrants of the spirit"""" to mark their antithesis and his preference against Socrates and his successors.""","‘’ikka fridirik nitc ittussusm bahra s uynna ittubdarn g dat ssuqraṭyyin, ar asn ittini ‘’iẓaccaln n yiman’’ ḥma ad isin anmakal nnsn d usmyafa nns g unggu n suqṛaṭ d imḍfaṛn nns."
"According to his narrative, limned in many of his books, the pre-Socratic era was the glorious era of Greece, while the so-called Golden Age that followed was an age of decay, according to Nietzsche.","s uynna inna, lli illan g kigan n idlisn nns, han azmz n dat n tnbaḍt n lyunan iga yan uzmz amsɣudu, g tizi lliɣ g iga unna mi ttinin azmz n wurɣ lli iḍfuṛn g maynna azmz n tqryant, mkinna inna nitc."
"Even though this period – known in its earlier part as the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period – in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely.","mqqar tga tizi ad ittwassan g ugzzum amzwaru g unqqis s tizi n tfsut d tfsut d tizi n iwunkn ittmaɣn-tkka tga akkw g ugzzum amggaru g tizi ad xs irwayn d tmaɣitin igan idammn, d ittawassan awd s uzmz n wurɣ n tflsaft taṛiniyt, acku llant kigan n twngimin d twngimin nna ittusbuɣlla d ttusmrarant s telelli."
"Taoism (also called Daoism), a philosophy which emphasizes the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion, moderation, and humility, while Taoist thought generally focuses on nature, the relationship between humanity and the cosmos; health and longevity; and wu wei (action through inaction).","taṭawiyt (tga s wassaɣ awd taɣuri) tga yat tflsaft nna ibddan xf kṛaḍ n tɣawsiwin: afcad d uldudi d wunnuz, g tizi nna g da isikil uwgm aṭawiy s umata xf ugama d tzdayt gr tfganiyt d umɣrad; tadusi d taɣzi n usmmud;d twuri (tawuri adday ur tt tawit g twuri)."
"Agrarianism, or the School of Agrarianism, which advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism.","tagraniyt, nɣ tinml tagraniy ar tqqra i imkrazn nna iran inamun idɣrann d ilibiraliyn."
"Scholars from this school were good orators, debaters and tacticians.","gan imrza n tinml ad sg tmistin fulkinin, d tkucanin, d imazzayn n uḥyyl."
"""The School of """"Minor-talks"""", which was not a unique school of thought, but a philosophy constructed of all the thoughts which were discussed by and originated from normal people on the street.""","tinml n ‘tismnawalin timẓẓyanin’’, nna ur igi xs tinml tawlawalt, maca tga yat tflsaft nna ittuṣṣkan xf twngimin qqaḥ nna mraran iwdan unziln g wasuk nna d tffɣ’’."
"Confucianism was particularly strong during the Han Dynasty, whose greatest thinker was Dong Zhongshu, who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School and the theory of the Five Elements.","tlla tkunfucyusiyt tdus s yat tmamkt tamẓlayt g uzmz n tdfrt n han, nna g iga dung zuncu yan sg imswingmn nns imqqran, iskcm takunfucyusiyt akd twngimin n tinml zunɣcu d tmakunt n ifrdisn s smmus."
"In particular, they refuted the assumption of Confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage, but simply a human and mortal.","slawan akkw, msucḍn turda n kunfucyus amm kra n uwrik akucan gin t d anflus uggar, maca iga day xs afgan nna qad ifnu."
"Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until the Northern and Southern, Sui and Tang Dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement.","tlkm tbudiyt ṣṣin dar tsutit tamzwarut (1) n tlalit, maca ur dars atig amqqran ula tusnas n idaynaṣuṛn n ugafay d uyffus, yastwa imɣur."
This leads to the inquiry into the one being that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things.,da ittawi man aya s wazzray g tmsart nna illan dffir n wanaw n tumanin n tinaramin d uẓuṛ n tɣawsiwin.
"Seven Rishis — Atri, Bharadwaja, Gautama, Jamadagni, Kasyapa, Vasishtha, Viswamitra.","sa n id rcis-atri, bahradwaja, ɣawtama, jamdaɣni, kasyaba, fasicta, fisyumitra."
"Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC, marking the end of the Greek Dark Ages.","ttuga tflsaft tayunaniyt tazaykut g tsutit tiss 6 dat n tlalit, ankaḍ n tgira n izmaz ad iyunaniyn illasn."
"It dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including astronomy, epistemology, mathematics, political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, biology, rhetoric and aesthetics.","isawl xf kigan n isntal imyanawn, g tamu tawssnitran, d tmassadrizn, d tusnakt, d tflsaft tasrtant, d tɣariwin, d tussnamitafiziqiyt, d tungint, d tawssntudrt, d tissrqqt, d tussnafalkayin."
"Clear, unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers to Roman philosophy, Early Islamic philosophy, Medieval Scholasticism, the European Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.","ar ttawin izrirign n iḍiṣn ifawn nna ur iṛẓẓan sg ifaylasufn iyunayiyn d ihiliniyn izaykutn s tflsaft tarumaniyt, d tflsaft tayislmt n zik, d tussniwin n izmazn inammasn d uzmz n tnkra taṛubbiyt d uzmz n usfaw."
But they taught themselves to reason.,maca sslmdn i ixfawn nnsn anlli.
"""Thales inspired the Milesian school of philosophy and was followed by Anaximander, who argued that the substratum or arche could not be water or any of the classical elements but was instead something """"unlimited"""" or """"indefinite"""" (in Greek, the apeiron).""","‘’tssusm tinml n tflsaft tamilisiyt ula imḍfaṛn nns anaksimnḍṛ, nna ittinin masd tiski n yizdar nɣ aɣṛṛabu ur inni ad ig win waman nɣ kra g ifrdisn itrarn mca tga g wansa n maynna kra ‘’ur imkutti’’ nɣ ‘’ur igi amẓlay’’ (s tyunaniyt.’’"
"""Contrary to the Milesian school, which posits one stable element as the arche, Heraclitus taught that panta rhei (""""everything flows""""), the closest element to this eternal flux being fire.""","‘’s unmgal n tinml tamilisiyt, nna ywcan yan ufrdis amzdaɣ zund aɣṛṛabu, issn hiraklitus masd qqaḥ tiɣawsiwin da d tblbuṭnt, d ufrdis nna akkw ilmalan i ubblbṭ ad igat wafa."
"Being, he argued, by definition implies eternality, while only that which is can be thought; a thing which is, moreover, cannot be more or less, and so the rarefaction and condensation of the Milesians is impossible regarding Being; lastly, as movement requires that something exist apart from the thing moving (viz.","da ittini masd iga unamk nns, sg ussnkd nns, tga tasult, g tizi nna g ur nenni ad nswingm xs g man aya, iga yat tɣawsa ur innin ad yili, uggar n man aya, ad yili uggar nɣ ddaw as, s tgira nns iga uggafy n lmilisiyyin d tiggidit nnsn yat tɣawsa yagumn, g umggaru, ayddɣ da ittiri umussu ili n kra n tɣawsa nna ur igin taɣawsa lli ittmctagn."
"In support of this, Parmenides' pupil Zeno of Elea attempted to prove that the concept of motion was absurd and as such motion did not exist.","asdus n uynnaɣ, immaɣ unlmad n birminds zinu sg ilya ad isskr tilawt mas iga urmmus n umussu ansgafa, aynna yudjan tannayt ad asumr ddɣ ur illi."
Leucippus also proposed an ontological pluralism with a cosmogony based on two main elements: the vacuum and atoms.,mkinna isummr awd lyusibyus tamyinawt taṭubbulujiyt iẓlin s umɣrad ibddan xf sin ifrdisn igjdan : tarit d ifnuzn.
"""While philosophy was an established pursuit prior to Socrates, Cicero credits him as """"the first who brought philosophy down from the heavens, placed it in cities, introduced it into families, and obliged it to examine into life and morals, and good and evil.""""""","g tizi lliɣ g tmṣḍfaṛ tflsaft dat n suqṛaṭ, iga t sansiru d ‘’amzwaru d isuggzn taflsaft sg ujnna, isrs tt g iɣrman, iskcm tt g tawjiwin, isslzm ɣifs asnubbc g tudrt d tɣariwin, d wafulki d gar."
"The fact that many conversations involving Socrates (as recounted by Plato and Xenophon) end without having reached a firm conclusion, or aporetically, has stimulated debate over the meaning of the Socratic method.","d tidt llan kigan n tsmnawalin nna g iṣṛ suqṛaṭ (mkinna tnt yuls aflaṭun d kzinyufu) da ttsmad s yan waṭṭay armskil, nɣ s yat tmamkt ur ittudman, tga tamntilt n ukam n umrara xf unamk n wammak asuqṛaṭiy."
"Socrates taught that no one desires what is bad, and so if anyone does something that truly is bad, it must be unwillingly or out of ignorance; consequently, all virtue is knowledge.","issn suqṛaṭ is ur iri awd yan aynna ihrcn, s man aya iga igi nna iskr uwrik illan kra iwcn nit iqqand ad ig bla turda d gar assn, aya, tanafut illan tga tussna."
"The great statesman Pericles was closely associated with this new learning and a friend of Anaxagoras, however, and his political opponents struck at him by taking advantage of a conservative reaction against the philosophers; it became a crime to investigate the things above the heavens or below the earth, subjects considered impious.","izdy urgaz n twunkt amqqran briklis yat tzdayt tamqqrant s usslmd ad amaynu d umddakwl n anaksajuras, maca inggutn nns isrtann wtnt s ussbɣr sg urar n yigi n yan umaguz mgak n tflsaft, tg anɣa n usaggu g tɣawsiwin n nnig ujnna nɣ ddaw n wakal, idsn iwrikn mi laḥ laṭṛ."
"Socrates, however, is the only subject recorded as charged under this law, convicted, and sentenced to death in 399 BCE (see Trial of Socrates).","maca suqṛaṭ ntta ad igan awrik amyiwn nna ittuzmmamn mas iga amrday s usaḍuf ad, nna s fllas nnbḍn s uslluyɣ g usggwas n 399 dat n tlalit (ẓṛ asaṛaḍ n suqṛaṭ)."
"Plato casts Socrates as the main interlocutor in his dialogues, deriving from them the basis of Platonism (and by extension, Neoplatonism).","ar isrus aflaṭun suqṛaṭ zund anmsawal axatar g imsawaln nns, ar gisn d ittasi tirsal n tflaṭuniyt (dffir as nyublatuniyya)."
Zeno of Citium in turn adapted the ethics of Cynicism to articulate Stoicism.,issusa d zinu sg siti awd ntta tiɣariwin n ṭṭnẓ ḥma ad isiwl xf tufrayin n ṭṭnẓ.
"Along with Xenophon, Plato is the primary source of information about Socrates' life and beliefs and it is not always easy to distinguish between the two.","g tama n zinufun, iga aflaṭun aɣbalu axatar n inɣmisn xf tudrt d taɣalin n suqṛaṭ d ur iwhin abda ad nsmzaray grasn s ssin."
"Although rule by a wise man would be preferable to rule by law, the wise cannot help but be judged by the unwise, and so in practice, rule by law is deemed necessary.","mqqar illa unnbḍ n yan urgaz anflus yuf annbḍ ns unnbḍ n ilugan, acku anflus ur inni ad ittuyawas g unnbḍ xs dar id gar unẓiẓn, man aya as d iqqan unnbḍ s tnbaḍt n ilugan g tmskrt tamassant."
"Plato's dialogues also have metaphysical themes, the most famous of which is his theory of forms.","imsawaln n aflaṭun ɣursn awd isntal imitafiziqiyn, tnna gisn akkw ittwassan tga tt tamagunt nns xf twidatin."
"It likens most humans to people tied up in a cave, who look only at shadows on the walls and have no other conception of reality.","ar issrwas kigan g ufgan s iwdan nna ittwakrafn g ifran, lli iẓṛṛan xs imula g igudir d ur darsn yat tannayt yaḍn i tilawt."
"If these travelers then re-entered the cave, the people inside (who are still only familiar with the shadows) would not be equipped to believe reports of this 'outside world'.","mk dwln inmudda ad s ifri tikklit yaḍn, ur nnim iwdan (winna isuln umẓn xs imula day) ur nnin ad wjdn i yimn n ‘’unqqis n bṛṛa’’."
"Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972).","birnaṛd rasl, amzruy n tflsaft tudrimt (nyuyurk : simun - wcustr, 1972)."
"""He criticizes the regimes described in Plato's Republic and Laws, and refers to the theory of forms as """"empty words and poetic metaphors.""""""","ar ifrrn imagawn nna ittugan g tgdudant n ilugan n aflaṭun, ar immal tamagunt n wunuɣn ayddɣ gan tiguriwin ixwan d ilwatn n tmdyazin.’’"
"Antisthenes was inspired by the ascetism of Socrates, and accused Plato of pride and conceit.","ddan d inmgaln sg yily n suqṛaṭ, issurda aflaṭun s wuddur d tiddist."
"It was founded by Euclides of Megara, one of the pupils of Socrates.","isrs tirsal nns yuklids sg miɣara, yan sg inlmadn n suqṛaṭ."
Pyrrhonism places the attainment of ataraxia (a state of equanimity) as the way to achieve eudaimonia.,da iittaws uwliwl ad ilkm yan waddad n umsasa ayddɣ iga taɣarst n tsistant n uritu.
"""His ethics were based on """"the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain"""".""",‘’bddant tɣariwin nns xf ‘’tḍfṛt dffir n ufjjij d iry n ungaz’’.’’
Their logical contributions still feature in contemporary propositional calculus.,tsuln ffɣn d ibzarn nnɣ g yilɣ nnɣ n tulluɣt atrar.
"This skeptical period of ancient Platonism, from Arcesilaus to Philo of Larissa, became known as the New Academy, although some ancient authors added further subdivisions, such as a Middle Academy.","g tizi ad igan turda nns g tflaṭuniyt tazaykut, sg arksilaws ar filurisa, tdwl ttwassan s wassaɣ n takadimiyt tamaynut, mqqar zaydn kra n imgayn izaykutn kigan n ibṭṭutn ayyawn, zund takadimiyt tanammast."
"While the objective of the Pyrrhonists was the attainment of ataraxia, after Arcesilaus the Academic skeptics did not hold up ataraxia as the central objective.","g tizi nna g iga uwttas n izumag ad isaggw ataraksiya, dffir n arsislyus imssurda ikadimiyn ur iqsiḥ ataraksiya zund awttas anammas."
"In the Byzantine Empire Greek ideas were preserved and studied, and not long after the first major expansion of Islam, however, the Abbasid caliphs authorized the gathering of Greek manuscripts and hired translators to increase their prestige.","g tmnukda tabizanṭiyt ḥḍan tiwngimin tiyunayin zrun tn, d ur fllasn tkki kigan n tizi dffir n usxir amqqran g lislam, mqqar d man aya, wddnen inbbaḍn iɛbbasiyn s usmun n warratn iyunaniyn frun i imssuɣal ḥma ad asin g watig nnsn."
"Medieval philosophy is the philosophy that existed through the Middle Ages, the period roughly extending from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century to the Renaissance in the 15th century.","taflsaft n tsutin inammasn, nna ikkan dar sg tḍuṛi n tmnukda trumaniyt tudrimt g tsuta tiis 5 ar azmz n tnkra g tsuta tiss 15."
"With the possible exceptions of Avicenna and Averroes, medieval thinkers did not consider themselves philosophers at all: for them, the philosophers were the ancient pagan writers such as Plato and Aristotle.",aynna ur igin afisina d ufirus : ur ddjin dmin imgayn n tsutin inammasn iɣf awn nnsn is gan ifaylasufn : ifaylasufn darsn gan tn imaratn iwataniyn izaykutn zund aflaṭun d arisṭu.
One of the most heavily debated things of the period was that of faith versus reason.,yan sg kigan n tɣawsiwin nna ittumraran bahra g tizi nna g illa ufuls g wansa n unlli.
"It is generally agreed that it begins with Augustine (354–430) who strictly belongs to the classical period, and ends with the lasting revival of learning in the late eleventh century, at the beginning of the high medieval period.","aynna xf msasan ad ssntin akd ugiṣṭin (354-430) nna yamun nik g tizi tatrart, ar ittsmad s uussidr n usslmd izdin g tgira n tsuti n mraw d yan, g tizwuri n tizi n tstin tinammasin yattuyn."
"In later periods, monks were used for training administrators and churchmen.","g tizza yaḍn, ssmrsn irhbiyn g issanun n inmhaln d irgazn n lkaisat."
Much of the work of Aristotle was unknown in the West in this period.,kigan n twuriwin n arisṭu ur ttwassant g tizi ad g udrim.
Augustine is regarded as the greatest of the Church Fathers.,iga uɣuṣṭin yan sg imqqran n id bab n lkanisa.
"For over a thousand years, there was hardly a Latin work of theology or philosophy that did not quote his writing, or invoke his authority.","uggar n ifḍ n usggwas, tlla ɣinna yat twuri talatiniyt sg llahut nɣ taflsaft nna ur d itwasayn sg idlisn nns, nɣ ad isuqqur s tnbat nns."
He became consul in 510 in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths.,iga aqunsu g 510 n tgldit g ustruɣus.
"He wrote commentaries on these works, and on the Isagoge by Porphyry (a commentary on the Categories).","yura iɣfawaln xf twuriwin ad, d xf izajuj sg waẓy n burfiri (iga iɣfawal xf tigrumma)."
"Around this period several doctrinal controversies emerged, such as the question of whether God had predestined some for salvation and some for damnation.","g tizi ad ffuɣn d kigan n imzarayn n tɣarasin, zund tamsart n mas izwar ṛbbi ka s fra d kra yan s uxlu."
Is the host the same as Christ's historical body?,is iga umsnbgi zund tafgga n umasiḥ amzray.
This period also witnessed a revival of scholarship.,tssn awd tizi ddɣ assidr n tawsiwin tinmlanin.
"Later, under St. Abbo of Fleury (abbot 988–1004), head of the reformed abbey school, Fleury enjoyed a second golden age.","g yat tizi yaḍn, g uzmz n mass abu manfaluri (baba 988-1004), axatar n tinml n ddir dffir n ma ittusɣad, ifjjij fluri s yan uzmz nniḍn wiss sin."
The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy.,tssn tzwuri n tsuti tiss 13 afa n urar n tflsaft tayunaniyt.
Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige.,qqaḥ igldan iurmaniyn idusn d irgazn n tussna sg iṭalya d wansiwn nniḍn darsn tisnbḍayin nns zund tamatart n wuddur nnsn.
"The universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the Church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life.","buɣllant tsdawitin g uṛubba g tizi ad, ssntin wanaḍn ittyaran ammas n lkanisa g yat tmaɣit xf yimẓ asrtan d ungman g wansiwn ad g tudrt n usslmd."
"The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were Albertus Magnus and (especially) Thomas Aquinas, whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy.","llan kigan n isgbarn n uwngm aduminikiy g tizi ad gisn albirtu magnus (slawan akkw) ṭumas akwinas, lli d yiwin yan uswlf iɣudan i uwnlli ayunaniy d taɣalt tamasiḥiyt g umggaru ḥma ad isnml taflsaft takatulikiyt."
"""Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the """"errors"""" of the Commentator Averroes.""",tsskn ‘’akinas’’ mkinna s izmr ad ikcm kigan g tflsaft n arisṭu bla nḍṛ g ‘’tzggal’’’ n ‘’umxfawal abirus’’.
"The problem of evil: The classical philosophers had speculated on the nature of evil, but the problem of how an all-powerful, all-knowing, loving God could create a system of things in which evil exists first arose in the medieval period.","amukris n gar: kkan ttn ifaylasufn n itrarn sḥargn s ugama n gar, maca amukris iga t manik s ittuga wakuc adusan, nna ittirin maṛṛa, amagaw n tɣawsiwin nna g illa gar, ittusrsal tiklt izwarn g tsutin tinammasin."
"However, from the fourteenth century onward, the increasing use of mathematical reasoning in natural philosophy prepared the way for the rise of science in the early modern period.","mqqar d man aya, sg tsuti tiss mraw d kku s uflla, yiwi ussmrs ittgidiyn i tungint tusnakant g tflsaft tagamant ad s ubrid istwan i yily n tmssanin g tizi tatrart zikk."
"In the earlier period, writers such as Peter Abelard wrote commentaries on the works of the Old logic (Aristotle's Categories, On interpretation, and the Isagoge of Porphyry).","g tizi izrin, ittyara udlis zund bitr abilaṛḍ ixfawaln xf twuriwin n tungimt tazaykut (tigrumma n aṛiṣṭu, g tmsart n ussfru, d izaɣuj n burfiri)."
"(The word 'intentionality' was revived by Franz Brentano, who was intending to reflect medieval usage).","(ttussidr tguri n ‘’tirslt’’ s franz birtanu, nna igan xf ad isnqlb assmrs n tisuta tinammasin)."
"""The designation """"Renaissance philosophy"""" is used by scholars of intellectual history to refer to the thought of the period running in Europe roughly between 1355 and 1650 (the dates shift forward for central and northern Europe and for areas such as Spanish America, India, Japan, and China under European influence).""",‘’da ttusmras tguri n ‘’tflsaft n uzmz n tnkra’’ day imassan n umzruy amassan ḥma ad gin tamatart i uwngm nna illan g uṛubba ɛlayn ɣur usggwas 1355 d 1650 ( da tmuttuyn isakudn s dat n uṛubba tanammast d tin iẓẓlmḍ ima mad iẓlin s wansiwn zund amrika taṣblyuniyt d lhind d lyaban d ṣṣin ddaw tnbaḍt tayuṛubbiyt).’’
"The assumption that Aristotle's works were foundational to an understanding of philosophy did not wane during the Renaissance, which saw a flourishing of new translations, commentaries, and other interpretations of his works, both in Latin and in the vernacular.","mk nenna masd tiwuriwin n aṛisṭu gant tirslt n urmmus n tflsaft nna ur ibuɣlin g uzmz n tnkra, nna issn yan ubuɣlu g yigr n usuɣl amaynu d ixfawaln d issfrutn nniḍn i twuriwin nns, swa g tutlayt talatiniyt nɣ tutlayt tanmatayt."
"The latter, similar in some ways to modern debates, examined the pros and cons of particular philosophical positions or interpretations.","tamggarut ad, nna irwasn g kra n tsggiwin nns imraratn itrarn, s tbɣurin d tuzdirin n waddadn nɣ issfrutn n kra n iflsafiyn."
"Plato, known directly only through two and a half dialogues in the Middle Ages, came to be known through numerous Latin translations in fifteenth century Italy, culminating in the hugely influential translation of his complete works by Marsilio Ficino in Florence in 1484.","aflaṭun nna ittwassan s wusrid nday sg sin d uzgn n imsawaln g izmazn inammasn, idwl ittwassan sg kigan n tmssuɣulin tilatiniyin g iṭalya g tsuti tiss mraw d smmus, tlkm aswir nns yattuyn ammas n twuriwin nns qqaḥ ismdn dar marsilyu fisinu g 1484."
"Not all Renaissance humanists followed his example in all things, but Petrarch contributed to a broadening of his time's 'canon' (pagan poetry had previously been considered frivolous and dangerous), something that happened in philosophy as well.","ur nn lmalan awd yan sg inafgann g uzmz n tnkra almila nns g tɣawsiwin, maca bitrark yiws g usxitr n wansa n ‘’tɣruct’’ g tizi nns (iga wazzar awataniy g mad izrin ukus n umya icqqu), d ntta d taɣawsa nna ijṛan awd g tflsaft."
Other movements from ancient philosophy also re-entered the mainstream.,mkinna d dwln imussutn nniḍn sg tflsaft tazaykut s umzaz nna iggutn.
"This position came under increasing strain in the Renaissance, as various thinkers claimed that Thomas's classifications were inaccurate, and that ethics were the most important part of morality.","illa waddad ad ddaw yan ussikl ittzayadn g uzmz n tnkra, ayddɣ fulsn kigan n imswingmn masd ibṭṭutn n ṭumas ur bahra gin imnɣudn, d lant tɣariwin yan ugzzun ilan atig cigan sg tɣariwin."
"As we have seen, they believed that philosophy could be brought under the wing of rhetoric.","mkinna nannay, da ttiɣiln masd taflsaft tzmr ad ttug ddaw yifr n ummslay."
"In 1416–1417, Leonardo Bruni, the pre-eminent humanist of his time and chancellor of Florence, re-translated Aristotle's Ethics into a more flowing, idiomatic and classical Latin.","g tizi n 1416-1417, yuls lyunaṛdu bṛuni, asklan anafgan nna issuddan g uzmz nns ig ansfaw n fluṛinsa, asuɣl n tɣariwin n aṛiṣṭu s tlatiniyt nna ibbuɣllan, d tiinna bahra iḥiḍn gint titrarin."
The driving conviction was that philosophy should be freed of its technical jargon so that more people would be able to read it.,afuls igan ammak iga masd iqqan i tflsaft ad ttulelli sg ulday nns atiqniy ar asra g zmrn kigan n middn ad tt ɣrin.
"Desiderius Erasmus, the great Dutch humanist, even prepared a Greek edition of Aristotle, and eventually those teaching philosophy in the universities had to at least pretend that they knew Greek.","allig iswjd disidiryus irasmus, ahulandiy amqqran anafgan, yat tazzult tayunaniyt xf aṛisṭu, s tgira iqqand xf winna iqqran taflsaft g tsdawitin ad sḍhṛn day xs snn i tyunaniyt."
"Once it had been determined, however, that Italian was a language with literary merit and that it could carry the weight of philosophical discussion, numerous efforts in this direction started to appear, particularly from the 1540s onward.","maca lliɣ g ittusɣts mas tga teṭalyaniyt yat tutlayt tasklant d tzmr ad tasi aẓaẓa n umrara aflsafiy, ssntint kigan n tzmmar g tsga ad g wufuɣ, slawan akkw sg 1540 s uflla."
"We know that debates about the freedom of the will continued to flare up (for instance, in the famous exchanges between Erasmus and Martin Luther), that Spanish thinkers were increasingly obsessed with the notion of nobility, that duelling was a practice that generated a large literature in the sixteenth century (was it permissible or not?).","nssn masd imraratn xf tlelli n tarayt tssnti g ussiɣ (s umdya, g immskaln ittwassan gr irasmus d martin lut), d masd imassan iṣblyuniyn kkan ttn ccan tnt s yat tmamkt taxatart s twngimt n tmmuzɣa, d mas tga tiɣilt yat tmskrt nna d issirun kigan n tskla g tsuti tiss mraw d ṣḍiṣṣ (is ittussurf man aya mad uhuy ?)."
"We must not forget that most philosophers of the time were at least nominal, if not devout, Christians, that the sixteenth century saw both the Protestant and the Catholic reformations, and that Renaissance philosophy culminates with the period of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648).","iqqand ad ur nttu masd tuggt n ifaylasufn g tizi nnaɣ gan day xs assaɣn, xs mk ur d ddin sg imasiḥiyn, d tssn tsutit tiss mraw d ṣḍiṣṣ cigan n isɣudutn ibṛustintaniyt d ikatulikiyn, d masd taflsaft n uzmz n tnkra tlkm aflla g tizi n ugari n kṛaḍ d mraw n usggwasn (1618-1648)."
"In conclusion, like any other moment in the history of thought Renaissance philosophy cannot be considered to have provided something entirely new nor to have continued for centuries to repeat the conclusions of its predecessors.","g umggaru, tga tflsaft n uzmz n tnkra, zund nttat zund tiziwin nniḍn g umzruy n uwngm, ur tnni ad yili tfka kra igan amaynu akkw nɣ is tzdy kigan n tsutin g wallas n isfluln n imzwura nns."
Modern philosophy is philosophy developed in the modern era and associated with modernity.,taflsaft tatrart tga yat tflsaft nna ittuskarn g uzmz atrar d tzdy s tmtrart.
"By the 17th and 18th centuries the major figures in philosophy of mind, epistemology, and metaphysics were roughly divided into two main groups.",lliɣ d lkmn tsutin tiss 17 d 18 gant iwrik igjdann g tflsaft n unlli d libbistimulujiyya (tussniwin n tussna) d lmiṭafiziqa bḍan ɛlayn xf snat trabbutin tixatarin.
"""The """"Empiricists,"""" by contrast, held that knowledge must begin with sensory experience.""","‘’g mgal n man aya, ẓṛan ‘’inaramn’’ mas iqqan d i tussna ad tssnti s tmuzayt n ifrk’’."
Other important figures in political philosophy include Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.,sg iwrikn nniḍn issawhmman g tflsaft tasrtant n ṭumas hubz d ddjun jak ṛuṣu.
"Kant sparked a storm of philosophical work in Germany in the early nineteenth century, beginning with German idealism.","issaɣ kanṭ tazwut n twuri tflsaft g almanya g tizwuri n tsutit tiss mrawtẓa, issnti s tfilawt talalmaniyt."
"Karl Marx appropriated both Hegel's philosophy of history and the empirical ethics dominant in Britain, transforming Hegel's ideas into a strictly materialist form, setting the grounds for the development of a science of society.","yumẓ kaṛl maṛks taflsaft n higl n umzruy d tɣariwin tinaramin nna illan g bṛiṭanya, isnfl tiwngimin n higl s yat tmamkt igan akkw takmamt, aynna isrsn tirsal n usbuɣlu n wamun."
"Arthur Schopenhauer took idealism to the conclusion that the world was nothing but the futile endless interplay of images and desires, and advocated atheism and pessimism.","iffɣ aṛtṛ cubbnhawṛ mas iga umaḍal xs yan umrara laḥ mani as ikka yan gr twlafin d tinẓeẓḍin, igr taɣuri nns s tcufrt d usnɣimal."
Descartes argued that many predominant Scholastic metaphysical doctrines were meaningless or false.,imɣanna dikaṛṭ masd kigan n tɣarasin timiṭafiziqyin timassanin nna illan ur darsnt awd yan unamk nɣ tin ɛnwa.
"He tries to set aside as much as he possibly can of all his beliefs, to determine what if anything he knows for certain.","immaɣ ad isrs yat tsga nna t ittadjan g qqaḥ tiflsin nns, afad ad iswuttu aynna issn slawan akkw s uslkn."
From this basis he builds his knowledge back up again.,da iṣkku tussna nns xf tmrslt ad.
"While historicism also acknowledges the role of experience, it differs from empiricism by assuming that sensory data cannot be understood without considering the historical and cultural circumstances in which observations are made.","mqqar da ittqrra umzruy awd ntta s tilalt n tirmit, da ittmziriy akd tnaramt ayddɣ iɣal is ur inni ad irms ismmaln n icramn bla ismuqql g imrnutn n umzruy nɣ idlsann nna g da ttugant tannayin."
"""As such empiricism is first and foremost characterized by the ideal to let observational data """"speak for themselves"""", while the competing views are opposed to this ideal.""","‘’s usatig n mas tẓly tnaramt ad zwar akkw s umdya anaflla nna ittdjan i warratn n imdi ‘’ad tsawal xf iɣf nns’’, g tizi nna g mgalnt tannayin ismzizwarn amdya ad anaflla’’."
"In other words: Empiricism as a concept has to be constructed along with other concepts, which together make it possible to make important discriminations between different ideals underlying contemporary science.","s tguri nniḍn : iqqand ad ttuṣka kra n tnaramt zund kra n urmmus tama n irmmusn yaḍn, taɣawsa nna qad ig sg uynna qad yili ssin usnuḥyu axatar gr umdyatn inafllatn imzarayn nna xf bddant tussniwin titrarin."
"Epistemologically, idealism manifests as a skepticism about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing.","sg tsga tamagunt, ar d tffɣ tfilawt ayddɣ tga turda g tzmrt n tussna n matta tɣawsa ibḍan d unlli."
"It describes a process where theory is extracted from practice, and applied back to practice to form what is called intelligent practice.","ar isnummal tamggit nna g d tssufuɣ tamggunt sg tmskrt, ar ttuskar diɣ s tmskrt afad ad tṣku aynna ittusmman timskrt icwan."
Brian Leiter (2006) webpage “Analytic” and “Continental” Philosophy.,bṛayn litr (2006) n tfrt g ifilan imaḍlan s uzwl n ‘’asfsi’’ d tflsaft ‘’tamnẓawiyt’’.
Contemporary philosophy is the present period in the history of Western philosophy beginning at the early 20th century with the increasing professionalization of the discipline and the rise of analytic and continental philosophy.,taflsaft tatrart ad igan tizi n ɣila g umzruy n tflsaft tudrimt nna issntin g tzwuri n tsutit tiss 20 tzayd g tzuzzlt g uɣyud d uɣlay n tflsaft isfsayn d tamnẓawiyt.
Germany was the first country to professionalize philosophy.,tga almanya tamazirt tamzwarut nna as ikan i tflsaft wudm azzulan.
"Furthermore, unlike many of the sciences for which there has come to be a healthy industry of books, magazines, and television shows meant to popularize science and communicate the technical results of a scientific field to the general populace, works by professional philosophers directed at an audience outside the profession remain rare.","uggar n man aya, d s usmgal n kigan n tmassanin nna igan ɣinna imukan idusan n idlisn d ttsɣunin d isfsarn itilifizyuniyn nna ikkatn ad tfsr tussniwin d usnɣl n tyafutin titiqniyyin g yigr amassan i iwdan maṛṛa, sulnt twuriwin nna skarn ifaylasufn ixatarn nna ittuskarn i ugdud n bṛṛa n usadur drusnt."
Each division organises a large annual conference.,ar tsnmala ku tzuni amsgraw amqqran asagwsan.
"Among its many other tasks, the association is responsible for administering many of the profession's top honors.","sg tmskirin yaḍn iggutn, ṭumẓ tsqqnt tanbaḍt n tnmahla n kigan n ixatarn nna mi ttufka tazzult."
"""This development was roughly contemporaneous with work by Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell inaugurating a new philosophical method based on the analysis of language via modern logic (hence the term """"analytic philosophy"""").""",‘’iga ubuɣllu ad atrar s twuri nna isskr ɣutlub frij d birtṛand rasl g uṛẓẓum n tɣarast taflsafiyt tamaynut ibddan xf usfsi n tutlayt sg tungint tatrart (s man aya irm n ‘’taflsaft tasfsayt’’).
"""Some philosophers, such as Richard Rorty and Simon Glendinning, argue that this """"analytic–continental"""" divide is inimical to the discipline as a whole.""","‘’kra n ifaylasufn, zund ṛitcaṛd ṛuṛti d simun ɣlindninɣ, mɣannan xf mas iga ubṭṭu ad ‘’asfsay- amnẓawiy’’ inmagal akd uɛyud qqaḥ’’."
"Afterwards, analytic and continental philosophers differ on the importance and influence of subsequent philosophers on their respective traditions.","dffir n man aya, da ttmziriyn ifaylasufn ismfsayn d imnẓwayn xf tindi n tflsaft d iddan d iḍiṣ nnsn xf tmyurin nnsn."
"Although, since analytic and continental philosophy have such starkly different views of philosophy after Kant, continental philosophy is also often understood in an extended sense to include any post-Kant philosophers or movements important to continental philosophy but not analytic philosophy.","mqqar llan ɣur tflsaft tasfsant d tmnẓwayt zund ayddɣ n tannayin imzarayn s yat tmamkt ixatrn g tflsaft n dffir n kanṭ, ar tturmas tflsaft tamnẓwayt diɣ s yan unamk ixatrn ad ṭamẓ akkw ifaylasufn nɣ imussutn n dffir n kanṭ issawhmman i tflsaft tamnẓwayt maca ur idd taflsaft tasfsant."
"Thus continental philosophy tends toward historicism, where analytic philosophy tends to treat philosophy in terms of discrete problems, capable of being analyzed apart from their historical origins.","xf man aya da ttawi tflsaft tamnẓwayt s tssakudt, g tizi nna g ttawi tflsaft tasfsayt s unuggu d tflsaft ammas n imukrisn imzarayn. nna iɣin ad sfsin mqqar ur tt niwiy g uẓuṛan n umzruy nns."
The major orthodox schools arose sometime between the start of the Common Era and the Gupta Empire.,ttugant tinmal ṭaṛtuḍuksiyin tixatarin g tizi n tzwuri n uzmz iccarn d tmnukda n ɣubta.
These religio-philosophical traditions were later grouped under the label Hinduism.,timyurin ddɣ tisɣanin ttusmattarnt g yat tizi yaḍn ddaw n wassaɣ n thindusiyt.
"Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no single founder.",ar ttannayn imassan udrimn tahindusiyt tga yan wurkis nɣ yan usnay n tdlsiwin d tmyurin tihindiyyin imyanawn. ilin ɣursn iẓuṛan imyanawn d ur ɣurs yan umssnti.
"Indian philosophers developed a system of epistemological reasoning (pramana) and logic and investigated topics such as Ontology (metaphysics, Brahman-Atman, Sunyata-Anatta), reliable means of knowledge (epistemology, Pramanas), value system (axiology) and other topics.","sbuɣllan ifaylasufn ihndiyn yan umagaw n usɣudu abbulujiy (bramana) d tungint, zzrin xf isntal zund lunṭulujiyya, d bṛaman - atman, d sunyata- anata, d imassn n tussna igan influsn, d umagaw n tnditin, d isntal yaḍn."
Later developments include the development of Tantra and Iranian-Islamic influences.,umẓnnt tizzigzin d iddan azzigz n ttantra d iḍiṣn iraniyn islmn.
"Nyāya traditionally accepts four Pramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).","nyaya tazaykut ṭumẓ kkuz n bramana zund yan imiss anflus i yimẓ n tussna, atam, asnumml, asnuḥyu d usɣan, d sabada ( taguri, d uslkin n imassan inflasn g mad izrin nɣ ɣila)."
"This philosophy held that the universe was reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), which are indestructible (anitya), indivisible, and have a special kind of dimension, called “small” (aṇu).","ar ttini tflsaft ad masd iɣy umɣrad ad innqlb xf (ifnuzn), nna ur nzmir ad tnt nzllɛ (anitya), nna ur inɛddaln ad tnt nẓli, d tinna ɣur mi ggudin wudman, ar as ttinin ‘’ṭamẓẓyant’’."
Later Vaiśeṣikas (Śrīdhara and Udayana and Śivāditya) added one more category abhava (non-existence).,"g yat tizi yaḍn, tsadf (isfrdhara widyana) yat tgrumma nniḍn (gar tilawt)."
"Because of their focus on textual study and interpretation, Mīmāṃsā also developed theories of philology and the philosophy of language which influenced other Indian schools.","ayddɣ tɣubbz mimamsa g tzrawt n iḍṛiṣn d ussfru, awd asbuɣlu n tmagunin n tssniwin n tflsaft d tflsaft n tutlayt nna iḍiṣn g tinmal nniḍn."
"The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy include a mind-body dualism, denial of a creative and omnipotent God, karma, an eternal and uncreated universe, non-violence, the theory of the multiple facets of truth, and morality based on liberation of the soul.","mun digs ifrdisn iẓlin s tflsaft n jayn asinran n unlli d tfgga, d unakṛ n wakuc amsnflul aɣzuran, d wuddur, d umɣrad n wabda ur imcuccḍn, d gar tkṛḍi, d tmagunt n tsggwin imyanawn n tidt, d tɣariwin ibddan xf ulelli n yiman."
It has also been called a model of philosophical liberalism for its insistence that truth is relative and multifaceted and for its willingness to accommodate all possible view-points of the rival philosophies.,ttusmma awd amdya alibiraliy n tflsaft ayddɣ tqqrfa g mas tga tidt tamasaɣt d tmyanaw g wudmawn nns d tzmr ad tasi qqaḥ tannayin iɣin ad yili n tflsafin tinggutin.
Cārvāka philosophers like Brihaspati were extremely critical of other schools of philosophy of the time.,kkan ifaylasufn ikrafikyiyn zund brihasbiti ar frrn cigan tinmal yaḍn g tflsaft g tizi nnaɣ.
It is the dominant philosophical tradition in Tibet and Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka and Burma.,iga aḍgwuṛ aflsafiy nna illan g ttibt d iẓẓlmḍ n ugmmaḍ n asya zund sri lanka d burma.
Later Buddhist philosophical traditions developed complex phenomenological psychologies termed 'Abhidharma'.,sbuɣlant tmyurin tibudiyin g yat tizi nniḍn idsn issurfn uklisn iḍhṛn immrksn s wassaɣ ‘’abihidharma’’.
"""This tradition contributed to what has been called an """"epistemological turn"""" in Indian philosophy.""",‘’aḍfuṛ ad yiws g mami ttinin ‘’asnfl ayibbistimulujiy’’ g tflsaft tahindiyt’’.
"Important exponents of Buddhist modernism include Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933) and the American convert Henry Steel Olcott, the Chinese modernists Taixu (1890–1947) and Yin Shun (1906–2005), Zen scholar D.T. Suzuki, and the Tibetan Gendün Chöphel (1903–1951).","sg cigan n imjjukkuṛn nna tt yiwin g tmtrart tabudiyt anjarika darmbala (1864-1933), d usnfl amrikiy hinri stil ulkut, d imtrarn iṣiniyn tayksu (1890-1947), win cun (1906-2005), d umassan d.t sufski, d umassan n tubut ɣindun cufil (1903-1951)."
"Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures and societies, in both the present and past, including past human species.","tuusniwin n ufgan iga tazrawt tamassant n tfganiyt, nna tt ittawin g tmskrt n ufgan, d twssntudrt n ufgan, d tdlsiwin n imunn, swa dɣi nɣ mad izrin, aynna g amun wanawn n ifgan izrin."
Biological or physical anthropology studies the biological development of humans.,tussnafganin abyulujiy nɣ afizik da izrru abuɣlu abyulujiy n ufgan.
Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed.,ttuskant nik tmddasin imzarayn id mm uzmz agwzzal sg imassan n lanṭṛubbulujiyya.
"When slavery was abolished in France in 1848, the Société was abandoned.","lliɣ g ittussr ukllu g fṛansa g usggwas n 1848, ttwazray tmsmunt."
"For them, the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect.","i nitni, ifs ttcaṛlz darwin xf uẓuṛ n wanawn, iga yat tska n uynna g bdan da digs tggan turda."
There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences.,illa g man aya yan untay g wansa ayddɣ t id yiwi s tmassanin tinamunin.
"""His definition now became """"the study of the human group, considered as a whole, in its details, and in relation to the rest of nature"""".""","‘’idwl iga usissn nns dɣi ‘’tazrawt n trabbut tanfgant, nna igan s umata, g ufrurin nns, d s uynna izrin s ugama’’."
"He discovered the speech center of the human brain, today called Broca's area after him.","yufa wammas n wawal g dffir n unlli n ufgan, assa s wassaɣ n ansa n bruka."
The last two volumes were published posthumously.,ttwasfsarn sin ifrɣas imggwra dffir n ma ismd ugari.
"He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation.","yussa mas d ismmaln n usmzazal iqqan d ad gin inaramn, d ad mun s yirm."
Waitz was influential among the British ethnologists.,iga witz iḍiṣ ammas n imassan n iẓuṛan ibṛiṭaniyn.
"Representatives from the French Société were present, though not Broca.","illa g ugraw imsuniyn n tsqqnt tafṛansawiyt, maca ur illi bruka."
"Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist; subsequently, an anthropologist.","g mad izrin ikka idward da ittini i ixf nns is iga amassan aẓuṛan, dffir n man aya, amassan n tusnafganin."
"One notable exception was the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory (1869) founded by Rudolph Virchow, known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists.","gsg wammas n uslidn nna illan tamsmunt n birlin n lanṭṛubbuliji, d tussnaẓuṛan, d tussniwin n dat n umzruy (1869) nna mi iga rudulf fircu tirsal nns, nna ittwassan s tnṭagin nns timarurin xf imḍfaṛn n ubuɣlu."
The major theorists belonged to these organizations.,amun imṣṣiẓiṛn ixatarn g ayddɣ n tmddasin.
"Practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene.","lkmt tmassafganin timassanin, d ussmrs n tussniwin d titiqniyyin tilanṭṛubbulujiyyin afad ad ttufukkun imukrisn ittwaẓlayn ; s umdya, qad inzl yili n wungisn ittumḍaln g ussmrs n umassan n idrizn aṣaḍfa n wallas n tuṣṣka n umuɣli amggaru."
"This has been particularly prominent in the United States, from Boas' arguments against 19th-century racial ideology, through Margaret Mead's advocacy for gender equality and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of post-colonial oppression and promotion of multiculturalism.","tlla tɣawsa ad cigan g mirikan, g umzwaru ifakuln n buwas mgal n tidyulujiyt n tsutit tiss 19 taẓuṛant, nzri s tɣuri nna tga marɣrit mid s usmsasa gr wanawn d ulelli awsyan, g tgira ifran n dɣi xf umsay n dffir n usddurri d usdus n tmyinawt tadlsant."
"In Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of social anthropology tends to dominate.","g bṛiṭanya tamqqrant d tmizar n lkumnt, da itkka wḍfuṛ abṛiṭaniy g tussnafganin tinamunin s tkiriṭṭ."
"Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people make sense of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the relationships among individuals and groups.","ussna fganin tidlsanin iga yat tzrawt n usmzazal n tbridin imyanawn nna s iktti ufgan iwdan n umaḍal nna asn ittin, g tizi g tga tussnafganin tinamunin yat tzrawt n tmzdayin gr imdan d trubba."
"There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them, and these categories overlap to a considerable degree.","d ur illi yan umẓlay issuddan gratsn ifssusn, d mmkcamnt tgumma ad cigan."
This project is often accommodated in the field of ethnography.,ar bahra tturmasn isnfarn ad g ubaraz n litnuɣṛafiya.
Participant observation is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology.,tga tannayt n imadrawn yat sg tɣarasin tigjdanin n tuusnafganin tinamunin d tdlsanin.
"The study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a human universal.","tga tzrawt n tayyawt d uusuds anamun yan ugjdi n usmssi axatar g tussnafganin tinamunin d tdlsanin, acku ta tayyawt tamaḍlant tfganiyt."
Ethnography views first-hand experience and social context as important.,ar ttannay linṭṛubbulujiyya is tga tirimt tusridt g umnaḍ anamun snat tɣawsiwin issawhmman.
"Ethnomusicology can be used in a wide variety of fields, such as teaching, politics, cultural anthropology etc.","nzmr ad nssmrs tussnaẓuṛant g yan ugudiy n yigran, zund asslmd d tsrtit d linṭṛbbulujiyya tadlsant d wiyyaḍ."
"Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange.",tsul lanṭṛubbulujiyya tadmsant da isikil kigan dis xf umrira.
"""The first of these areas was concerned with the """"pre-capitalist"""" societies that were subject to evolutionary """"tribal"""" stereotypes.""",‘iga yigr amzwaru amms n yigran ad iẓli s wamunen ‘’dat n usihri’’ nna ittugan g dat g ilbuḍn igan issunan d ubuɣlan.
Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer?,max allig wjdn widdaɣ iswurin g yigr n tmallayt ad ttun timɣritin nna akkan?
Within kinship you have two different families.,ammas n tayyawt dar snat tawjiwin imzarayn.
"Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white feminists of Europe, America, and elsewhere.","g cigan n tizza tdra lunṭṛubbulujiyya akd tuwlawin tmyurin ur igin tudrimin, nna iẓḍaṛn ad mzaraynt tannayin d tirimin nnsnt xf aynnaɣ n twtmant timllalin g uṛubba d amrika d idɣarn yaḍn."
"""Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more """"complex"""" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena.""","‘’tbuɣla tussnafganin asrtan ayddɣ iga yan umagaw tt yiwin g tsrtit g uswir amzwaru g wamunen mi laḥ iẓṛan, issnti yan ubuɣlu amaynu sg isggwasn n 1960, d isul da ittbuɣlu : ssntin imassan n lanṭṛubbulujiyya g yat tɣarast ittalin g tzrawt n tmussin tinmnaḍin nna ‘’irwin’’ kigan ayddɣ ikcm ilitn n iwunkn d tbiruqṛaṭiyin d igadazn g matta issiṭn itnuɣṛafiyn d usfsi n tumanin titimuranin.’’"
"Secondly, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions).","g wiss sin, ssntin imassan n lanṭṛubbulujiyya g taẓiyt n ubuɣlu n uzɛaf abunay akd mirikan d tmrsal nns (d gr tzdayin gr tmrsalin tisrtanin tunṣibin d gar tunṣibin)."
"It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural anthropology, and sometimes considered part of material culture.","ar ittmun idsnt tikkal d tussnafganin taidlsanin, iga awd g kra n tikkal yan agzzum sg tdlsa tarakmamt."
It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today.,mkinna tlla tzrawt n umzruy n trubba tiẓuṛanin imyanawn nɣ ur tnni ad tili.
"""Various social processes in the Western World as well as in the """"Third World"""" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of """"specialists in 'other cultures'"""" closer to their homes.""",‘’ zwint kigan n tmggitin tinamunin g umaḍal udrim ula g ‘’amaḍal wiss kṛaḍ’’ (d umggaru ad iga yan wansa n tawit myarn imassan n lanṭṛubbulujiyya) taɣḍft n ‘’imẓlayn n tdlsiwin nniḍn ‘’ilmalan i taddrwin nnsn’’.
"It is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, ethology, medicine, psychology, veterinary medicine and zoology.","iga yan yigr g myanawnt tmẓlayin nna immkcamn d cigan n imẓlay nniḍn, g tamu tussnafgant d tussnaɣariwin d ussasfr d tiklisnt d ussasfr n imudar d tusnamudar."
"It is the study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints.","tga tazrawt tazaykun n ufgan, mkinna ttuyafa g inmmaln n tɣuzi zund ixsan ittwabbayn d idrizn n iḍaṛn."
"In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the European Association of Social Anthropologists (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe.","g usggwas n 1989, tsrs yat trabbut n imsnubbac uṛubbiyn d imirakaniyn g yigr n tusnafgant tirsal n umulli uṛubbiy n imassan talunṭṛubbulujiyt n imwura g uṛubba."
"This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by another's values or viewpoints, but be examined dispassionately on their own terms.","wad ad igan armmus ittinin masd ur iḥli ad nennbḍ xf tdlsiwin sg tnditin nɣ tannayin yaḍnin, maca iqqand ad nẓṛ s udɣri xf tsilawin iẓlin."
"Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists.","yumm franz bwas s umslli adwar n mirikan g imnɣi amaḍlan amzwaru, d dffir n imnɣi ifsr d icwctr d inkḍ adwar n kigan n imassan n idrizn imirikaniyn dda g da ɣllin xf lmiksik ddaw tduli nnsn zund imassan."
"At the same time, David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies.","g tizi nnaɣ kamla, da tssnkad twuri n dabid bṛays s uynna iẓlin s tanṭṛubbulujiyt tamirikaniyt g jaj n imnɣi iqrfn ungaln ifrurin xf uṭfuṛ d tuẓẓla n kigan n imassan inṭṛbbulujiyn g tmrsin nnsn ayddɣ fcdn akd icuyuɛiyn."
Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association (AAA).,cigan n tɣtasin nna inkḍn imnɣi sg tsggiwin nns akkw ffuɣnt d s tuggt tamqqrant g igrawn asgsan i tamast tanṭṛubbulujiyt tamirikaniyt.
The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth (ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous.,tsnumml tmast n imassan n ttlanṭṛubbulujiyt tanfgant g bṛiṭanya d lkumnult kra n taggazin tinmlanin nna icqqan xf tɣariwin.
One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more holistic account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical.,yat sg tmẓlayin nns timqqranin tga yiri n tusnafgan ad issnkd isnumml uggar s usutl ɛlayn xf tumant ar awd ittiri ad ig anaram uggar.
"These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.","uynna s nɣy ad t ninniy s usmuttr n kigan n tannayin tidɣraninn tigjdanin g matta wanaw illan g lanṭṛubbulujiy, swa tga tadlsan nɣ tabyulujiyt nɣ tasnils nɣ tadrizant."
"On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs.","g tsga n ubyulujiy nɣ akmam, nzmr ad nsmuttr isɣaln n ufgan, d tussifin n ljinat, d ismmaln n wuttci d ad ttusfsarn zund imgradn d izrawin."
"Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levalloisian help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past.","ar ttawsn ibṭṭutn ayyawn idlsan nnin mkinna gan imassn, zund ‘’uldawn’’ nɣ ‘’mustariyan’’ nɣ ‘’lfalwaziyan’’ imassan n idrizn d wiyyaḍ gisn imassan n lanṭṛubbulujiyya g urmas n tbridin tigjdanin n ufgan g mad izrin."
"A cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group.","ar itthiyya ulgam tikli izrin g wamun ; iga zund asnti n anilan n tkliwin d tmlsit d tutlayt g kra n waddad, ig amm amdya n turdiwin g tgrumma tanamunt."
"These include expressive forms like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing.","smunnt talɣiwin n iwnnitn ddɣ zund taẓuṛi, aẓawan, arkaz, timyurin, asgd, d tatiknulujiyin zund assmrs n imassn, d usnwi, assrkwn, d tmlsit."
The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been used to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies.,mkinna da issmras idsnt tikkal aswir n usbuɣlu adlsan nna s ẓlinnt kra n tɣrmiwin xf wamunn nna ur bahra immurksn.
Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century.,da tmmala tdlsa tanamunt unuɣn n tdlsa n tissumra nna d iffɣn g tsuta tiss 20.
"In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions.","g tmassanin tinamunin ixatrn, da ittannay umnad imiẓiṛ i tkmamt tadsant mas tuga tdlsa tamatrant tanfgant sg idsn imsutal ikmamn n tudrt n ufgan, acku da ittgga ufgan ismtal nna igan win iɣimi akmam, d tirslt n tdlsa tlla g imskarn ibyulujiyn yattuyn."
"In this sense, multiculturalism values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet.","s unamk ad, tka as tmyinawt tadlsant i tmyidirt n ufra d uwqqr iammskal yan wuddur axatar gr kigan n tdlsiwin nna iddrn g yan utri."
"""In 1986, philosopher Edward S. Casey wrote, """"The very word culture meant 'place tilled' in Middle English, and the same word goes back to Latin colere, 'to inhabit, care for, till, worship' and cultus, 'A cult, especially a religious one.'""","g usggwas n 1986, yaru ufaylasuf idward s. kasi, ‘’tkka tga tguri n tdlsa ‘’ ansa iddjiwinn’’ g tutlayt tangliziyt tanammast, ar ttdwal tguri nnaɣ nik g tlatiniyt, xf ‘’tzdduɣt, aḥṭṭu, ar, taẓallit, tadlsa, tarbiɛt, slawan akkw tasgdant’’."
"""Thus a contrast between """"culture"""" and """"civilization"""" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such.""","asmgal nna illan gr ‘’tdlsa’’ d ‘’tɣrma’’ ar bahra ittili g jaj gr imassan ddɣ, mqqar ur t nnin s tmamkt ad’’."
"This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago and is often thought to be unique to humans.",ttuga tzmrt ad akd ubuɣlu n tmtrart n tiklit g ufgan dat n ɣur 50000 n usggwas d kigan ma s da ittiɣil is tga tamẓlayt iwaḍu nns g ufgan.
"Rein Raud, building on the work of Umberto Eco, Pierre Bourdieu and Jeffrey C. Alexander, has proposed a model of cultural change based on claims and bids, which are judged by their cognitive adequacy and endorsed or not endorsed by the symbolic authority of the cultural community in question.","ika rin rawd, xf twuri nna iskr ambiṛṭu iku d bir buṛḍyu d jifri si alkisandr, yan umdya n usnfl adlsan ittuɣuln xf issuturn d isfsrn, nna xf ttnbaḍn xf tsugrt n tussna ar as ttk tasga nɣ ur da tt ḍffuṛ tnbaḍt n tmatart n wamun adlsan anmmak."
Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.,iga wuallas n usnmala n tdlsa anamk n tuṣṣka n urmmus adlsan i wamun.
"Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action.","iɣy umyasa anamun d usbuɣlu n tetiknulujiyin ad skrn yan usnfl ammas n wamun adday snfln ddinamiyyat tinamunin d usdus n imdyatn idlsan imaynutn, d unzal nɣ tazmrt n twuri assirwan."
Environmental conditions may also enter as factors.,ɣin ad kcmn awd tmsutal n twnaḍt zund imggitn.
War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics.,iẓḍaṛ ugari ad iḍiṣ nɣ amḥizwar s iɣbula ubuɣlu atiknulujiy d ddinamiyyat tinamunin.
"""For example, Western restaurant chains and culinary brands sparked curiosity and fascination to the Chinese as China opened its economy to international trade in the late 20th-century. """"""","‘’s umdya, ssnkrnt tmzdayin n winwutcitn udrimn d tmatarin n usɣnzi n usnwi tawnaft d iḥrgi ɣur iṣiniyn liɣ g tṛẓm ṣṣin tadmsa nns dat n tsbbabt tamaḍlant g tigariwin n tsutit tiss 20.’’"
"He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently.","inna mas iga uya gar tixxitrt ur da d ittddu sg usxṣṣa s urmas, maca sg usxṣṣa ar tanggamt n uswigm s yat tmamkt iẓlin."
"""Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of Bildung: """"For Herder, Bildung was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people.""""""","uggar n man aya, ifka hirdr yan ulɣan amgraw sg wunuɣn n bildunj : ‘’i hirdr ntta, tga bidunj yan ugudiy n yirimn nna yakkan i kra ugdud yat tmagit imcabbarn d yan usyafa s umsdul issar’’."
"According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups.","g tinml n uswingm ad, ku tarabbut taẓuṛant illan dars tannayt nns tamaḍlant iẓlin ur nenni ad tt narm xf tannayin timaḍlanin n trubba yaḍn."
He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements.,issimr ad yaf usmzazal amassan gr inamun inafgan mas gant tannayin iẓlin ttuṣka sg zund ifrdisn igjdan.
"""""""a particular way of life, whether of a people, period or a group.""""""","‘’yan wammak n tudrt, swa i ugdud nɣ g yat tizi nɣ tarabbut’’."
"""In other words, the idea of """"culture"""" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies.""","‘’s uwnni yaḍn, tawngimt ‘’tadlsa’’ nna ibuɣlan g uṛubba g tsutit tiss 18 d tzwuri n tsutit tiss 19 tssufɣ d udmawn n gar amsasa ammas n imunen uṛubbiyn’’."
"According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others.","s tmamkt ad n uswingm, nzmr ad nbḍu gr tmizar d tmttiwin nna igan iɣɣurman uggar n tiyyaḍ d kra n middn mas ɣurs tadlsa uggar n wiyyaḍ."
"Other 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature.","qbln imafran yaḍn g tsutit tiss 19, g uzmz n ṛusu, asmzazal ddɣ gr tdlsa tanafllat d tdlsa tamazdart, maca ẓṛan g mas tdlsa tanafllat tqqur d tmcbbak s ibuɣllutn ur iḥlin ur igin igamamn ittffrn ar ttɛdam agama agjdan n iwdan."
In 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion.,g usggwas n 1870 izzugz umassan n lanṭṛubbulujiyya idward tayluṛ (1832-1917) tiwngimin n tdlsa tanafllat g umnid n tdlsa tamazdart ḥma ad ttufka tmagunt n tmrniwt n usgd.
"""For sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), culture referred to """"the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history.""""""","‘’aynna iẓlin s umassan n tasnamunt juṛj simil (1858-1918), tsskn tdlsa ‘’tayrza n imdan g twida n wunuɣn n bṛṛa nna ur rin g umzruy’’."
"Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made.","ar tsskan tdlsa tarakmamt s twngimin gartinakmanin nna illan ɣur imdan iẓlin s tdlsa nnsn, g amunt tnditin, d tɣalin, d ulugn, d tskla, d tutlayt, d tmaddasin, d tmrsal, g tizi nna g tga tdlsa anmmal anakmam n yili n tdlsa g tɣawsiwin d utwal n taska nna tggan nɣ gan."
"""Cultural sociology was then """"reinvented"""" in the English-speaking world as a product of the """"cultural turn"""" of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science.""","ittuga ‘’walls n usnflul’’ n tusnamunt tdlsant g umaḍal nna isawaln s tngliziyt zund tayafut n’’ wunuḍ adlsan’’ g isggwasn n 1960, nna gan tasurift izwarn i tbridt taɣrant d tin dffir n tatrant g tussniwin tinafganin’’."
"""Culture"""" has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis.""","iga urmmus n ‘’tadlsa’’ sg tizi nnaɣ yan urmmus agjdan g kigan n wayyawn n tusnamunt, nna g amun igran imassan iqqurn zund tiggayin tinamunin d ussfsi n tratsiwin tinamunin’’."
"They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production.","ẓṛan mas gan tmamkin n tsmurt g tizza n uqjdim da tn tswuttu tzdayin n usnflul, aynna tn yuddjan ad swingmn s tɣḍft g tzdayin anɣnan d usuds n tsyafut."
"It has since become strongly associated with Stuart Hall, who succeeded Hoggart as Director.","sg tizi nnaɣ ad izdy tazdayt mqqurn akd stiwart hul, nna d yuddjan hujart d anmhal."
These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television or eating out) in a given culture.,smunt tmskarin ad tibridin nna skarn iwdan s kra n tɣawsiwin (zund afrrj g ttlfaza nɣ uttci) g kra n tdlsa.
"""Watching television to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends to """"fit in"""" certainly qualifies since there is no grounded reason for one's participation in this practice.""","‘’iqqan d ad ur nsksiw g ttlifizyu ḥma ad nsmuqql g umnad antamay s yat tmsart n umzruy mas iga yat tdlsa adday ur isskn tasɣlt n ttilifizyun s ixf nns, nna ɣniɣ illa ustay nns adlsan ; mqqar d man aya, han icirran n tinmal nna ittmnadn attilifzyun dffir n tinml akd imddukkal nnsn ḥma ad ‘’yas’’ da ttusmuttugn nik acku ur tlli awd yat tmntilt taxatart ad drun g uyddɣ n tmskrt’’."
"""Culture"""" for a cultural-studies researcher not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups) and popular culture, but also everyday meanings and practices.""","tga ‘’tdlsa’’ ɣur umrzu g tzrawin tidlsanin ur gis tamu tdlsa yattuyn tazaykyt (tadlsa n tgumma yumẓn tanbaḍt) d tdlsa tamdnant day, maca ṭumz awd inamkn d tmskarin tikuyasin’’."
Scholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s.,sbuɣllan imrza g mirikan tunɣilin imzarayn imik tizrawin tidlsanin dffir n tgirawin n isggwasn n 1970.
"The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded.","mqqar man aya, ur yad ismid uẓlay gr ifalan imirikaniyn d ibṛiṭaniyn."
The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning.,ar issikil umssi agjdan n tɣarast tamarksiyt taṛḍuksiyt xf usnflul n unamk.
"Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view.","illa diɣ yan ubrid yaḍn g tzrawin tadlsanin, zund tizrawin tidlsanin n tutmin d tmrniwin timirikaniyn d iddan g yigr ddɣ, ar ttalɣ ixf nns g tsga ddɣ."
"Culture psychologists began to try to explore the relationship between emotions and culture, and answer whether the human mind is independent from culture.","n twafit n tzdayt gr isyafatn d tdlsa, d urar mas imzary unlli n ufgan xf tdlsa."
"On the other hand, some researchers try to look for differences between people's personalities across cultures.","g tsga yaḍn, nnaɣn kra n imrza ad rzun xf imzarayn gr iwrikn n iwdan g jaj n tdlsiwin."
"For example, people who are raised in a culture with an abacus are trained with distinctive reasoning style.","s umdya, ar ttuslɣman iwrikn nna d igmin g tdlsa mm inlli akd tmamkt n tungint ittumatarn."
"Basically, the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Diversity deal with the protection of culture.",ar ttini tmqqunt n lahay n uḥṭṭu n taglda tadlsan mk idda ar d inkr umsalay amemrik akd tmaqqunt n lyunisku n uḥṭṭu n umyinaw adlsan d uḥṭṭu n tdlsa.
"Under international law, the UN and UNESCO try to set up and enforce rules for this.","s umalaw n uslgan amaḍlan, tmmaɣ mirikan d iyunisku ad srsnt kra n ilgamn i man aya."
"The target of the attack is the identity of the opponent, which is why symbolic cultural assets become a main target.","awttas n unzzuɣ tga t tmagit n unmgal, s tmtilt ddɣ dwln iẓuṛn idlsan n tmatarin yan uwttas axatar."
A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect of that community and its religion or cultures.,iga unmuqqar yan uzmuzzu nna s isfuglu wamun adɣran mcta aya xf kra n tsggiwin iẓlin aynnaɣ n trabbut d usgad nns nɣ tadlsa nns.
"Next to religion and folklore, a significant origin is agricultural.","g tama n usɣan d ufulkluṛ, illa yan uẓuṛ axatar tgat tyrza."
"Festivals often serve to fulfill specific communal purposes, especially in regard to commemoration or thanking to the gods, goddesses or saints: they're called patronal festivals.","ar bahra swurin inmuqqran xf ad suggwn tiɣawsiwin n wamun iẓlin, slawan akkw aynna iẓlin s ussidr n ukttuy n id yucc nɣ ifuẓaṛn nɣ asnimmr nnsn."
"In Ancient Greece and Rome, festivals such as the Saturnalia were closely associated with social organisation and political processes as well as religion.","g lyunan tazaykut d ṛuma tazaykut !, gan inmuqqarn zund saturnya zdin yat tzdayt mqqurn akd usnmala anamun d tmskarin tisrtanin akd usgad."
"""In Middle English, a """"festival dai"""" was a religious holiday.""",‘’ g tutlayt tangliziyt tanammast ‘’anmuqqar n ‘’anmuqqar n day’’ iga tanuṛẓmt n usgad’’.
"""The term """"feast"""" is also used in common secular parlance as a synonym for any large or elaborate meal.""",ar ittusmras yirm n ‘’timucca’’ awd g ugwmmay aɛilmaniy issarn zund akniw n kra n tirmt takswat nɣ iẓlin’’.
"The most important religious festivals such as Christmas, Rosh Hashanah, Diwali, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha serve to mark out the year.","sg inmuqqrn n isɣann zund tafugla n umulli, d ṛuc hacanah, d dyuwali, d iswi, d tfaska, gan inmuqqarn nna s isfuglu usggwas."
An early example is the festival established by Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Ramesses III celebrating his victory over the Libyans.,sg imdyatn n zikk xf unmuqqar nnaɣ nna iskr ufirɛun amiṣṛiy azayku ramsis wiss kṛaḍ dda g isfuglu xf lliɣ g irna ilibiyn.
There are numerous types of festivals in the world and most countries celebrate important events or traditions with traditional cultural events and activities.,"ilin kigan n wanawn g inmuqqarn g umaḍal, ar sfuglun kigan n tmizar s izmuzzutn nɣ timyurin issawhmman n tmdliwin d tilal tidlsanin tizaykutin."
Ancient Egyptian festivals could be either religious or political.,ɣin ad gin inmuqqarn imiṣṛiyn izaykutn iisgdan nɣ isrtann.
"The Sed festival, for example, celebrated the thirtieth year of an Egyptian pharaoh's rule and then every three (or four in one case) years after that.","s umdya, isfugla s unmuqqar n mass s usggwas wiss kṛamraw n usggwas n unnbḍ n firɛun amiṣriy, imil ar isfuglu ku kṛaḍ isggwasn (nɣ kkuẓ n isggwasn g yat tikklt) dffir n maynna."
"In the Christian liturgical calendar, there are two principal feasts, properly known as the Feast of the Nativity of our Lord (Christmas) and the Feast of the Resurrection (Easter), but minor festivals in honour of local patron saints are celebrated in almost all countries influenced by Christianity.","g usmsi n tlalit n umasiḥ, llant snat tfugliwin, ittwassan kigan s wassaɣ n tafugla n tlalit d tfugla n ussfru, maca ar ttusfuglun inmuqqarn imẓẓyan s ussmɣr n igwuẓaṛ imksan idɣran g matta tmazirt illan ɛlayn g tlla tmasiḥiyt."
"Buddhist religious festivals, such as Esala Perahera are held in Sri Lanka and Thailand.","ar ttuskarn inmuqqarn n usgad abudiy, zund asala birahira g sri lanka d ttayland."
"Film festivals involve the screenings of several different films, and are usually held annually.","da ttilin isura g inmuqqarn d da ttusfsarn kigan n isura imyanawn, ar bahra ttilin ku asggwas."
"There are also specific beverage festivals, such as the famous Oktoberfest in Germany for beer.","llan awd kra n inmuqqarn iẓlin s umswi, zund ukṭubṛfist n lbirra ittwassan g almanya."
"Ancient Egyptians relied upon the seasonal inundation caused by the Nile River, a form of irrigation, which provided fertile land for crops.","da sɣzan imiṣṛiyn izaykutn angan n ku asggwas nna isskar wasif n nnil, iga yan wanaw n mswu, nna yakkan akaln iḥlan i tyafutin."
Dree Festival of the Apatanis living in Lower Subansiri District of Arunachal Pradesh is celebrated every year from July 4 to 7 by praying for a bumper crop harvest.,da ittusfuga unmuqqar n dri n labbatanin nna iddrn g tsga n subansiri tamazdart g aṛunatcal bradic ku asggwas as 4 ar 7 yunyu ar ttẓallan afad ad mgrn inbda.
"A holiday is a day set aside by custom or by law on which normal activities, especially business or work including school, are suspended or reduced.","tga tswunfut yan wass nna iswuttu umsasa nɣ aslgan nna g ittuyagalt nɣ ttwaggaznt tilal tunzilin, lumaṛ tiwiriwin n tsbbabt nɣ tiwuriwin g llant tinmal."
"The degree to which normal activities are reduced by a holiday may depend on local laws, customs, the type of job held or personal choices.",tɣy ad tbdd tskwflt n usḍaṛ n tilal tunzilin s tmntilt n tswunfut xf iugan idɣran nɣ imsasatn nɣ anaw n twuri ittwasrasn nɣ timẓlayin tinimanin.
"In most modern societies, however, holidays serve as much of a recreational function as any other weekend days or activities.",maca da skarnt tswunfutin ammas n kigan n wamunen itrarn yat tilal n uwrar zund g wussan nɣ tilal yaḍn g tgira n imalass.
"In some cases, a holiday may only be nominally observed.","g kra n waddadn, ur nenni ad nttukraf s tnnuṛẓmt xs s wassaɣ."
The modern use varies geographically.,ar ittmzaray ussmrs atrar g taraglant.
"For example, Monkey Day is celebrated on December 14, International Talk Like a Pirate Day is observed on September 19, and Blasphemy Day is held on September 30.","s umdya, da ittusfuglu s wass n uẓɛḍuḍ g 14 dujanbir, ar ittusfuglu s yan wass amaḍlan n wawal zund imritln g 19 cutanbir, ar ittili wass n yuwl ass n 30 cutanbir."
"""Jehovah's Witnesses annually commemorate """"The Memorial of Jesus Christ's Death"""", but do not celebrate other holidays with any religious significance such as Easter, Christmas or New Year's.""","‘’da sfuglun wudayn ku asggws s ukttay n ‘’amulli n tmttant n umasiḥ’’, maca ur da sfuglun s tfugliwin nniḍn nna ɣur atig n usgad zund tafugla n ufṭaḥ nɣ tafugla n tlalit nɣ tafugla n ixf n usggwas."
"Ahmadi Muslims additionally celebrate Promised Messiah Day, Promised Reformer Day, and Khilafat Day, but contrary to popular belief, neither are regarded as holidays.","mkinna sfuglun imslmn iḥmadiyn s wass n umasiḥ amiran, d wass n usɣudu amiran, d wass n tmaɣitin, maca mgal n usɣan amdnan, ur igi awd yan gissn tafugla."
"Celtic, Norse, and Neopagan holidays follow the order of the Wheel of the Year.","siltk, d nurz, d iswunfutn n nyubbagan da ṭffuṛnt tarula n isggwasn."
"Researchers in bioarchaeology combine the skill sets of human osteology, paleopathology, and archaeology, and often consider the cultural and mortuary context of the remains.","msasan imrza tussnadrizn n usidr gr trubba d tzmmar g tusaxsant n ufgan, d tusna n tɣuzi d tussnadrizn, d kigan ma dda ttannayn s umnaḍ adlsan d tsggit n tfggiwin."
Evolutionary psychology is the study of psychological structures from a modern evolutionary perspective.,tga tklisnt tamrniwt yat tzrawt n tanɣiwin tuklisin sg umnad n tzzigzt tatrart.
"Human behavioral ecology is the study of behavioral adaptations (foraging, reproduction, ontogeny) from the evolutionary and ecologic perspectives (see behavioral ecology).","tusnamnaḍt n tklint n ufgan tga imsasatn n imskirn (aggidy, d tarwa, d tetrrawt) sg imnadn tazzigzant d ukulujiy (ẓṛ tusnamnaḍt n tiggi)"
"Paleoanthropology is the study of fossil evidence for human evolution, mainly using remains from extinct hominin and other primate species to determine the morphological and behavioral changes in the human lineage, as well as the environment in which human evolution occurred.","tussniwin n tɣuzi iga yat tzrawt n inẓatn n tɣuzi n uẓẓigz n ufgan, s yat tmamkt taxatart s ussmrs n uynna d iɣaman sg n uhuminiyin ibbin d wanawn igjdan nniḍn ḥma ad lkmn isnfaln imuṛfulujiyn d tkli g iẓṛan n ufgan , ula tawnaḍt nna g ijṛa uẓẓigz n ufgan."
"The name is even relatively new, having been 'physical anthropology' for over a century, with some practitioners still applying that term.","iga yan wassaɣ amaynu, ayddɣ ttn ikka iga ‘’tussnafganin tikmamin’’ uggar n yat tsutit g tizi, d suln kra n imskarn da ttinin irm ad."
"Some editors, see below, have rooted the field even deeper than formal science.","idsn imaratn, ẓṛ izdarn iẓuṛan n yigr uggar n tɣubi n tussnawin tunṣibin."
"This became the main system through which scholars thought about nature for the next roughly 2,000 years.",idwl wad iga amagaw axatar nna s swingmn imassan g twnaḍt ɣur 2000 n usggwas d iddan.
"He also wrote about physiognomy, an idea derived from writings in the Hippocratic Corpus.","mkinna ittyara xf tussniwin n twuri n igmamn, d tga yat twngimt d iddan g warratn n kubrus abuqṛaṭ."
"In the 19th century, French physical anthropologists, led by Paul Broca (1824-1880), focused on craniometry while the German tradition, led by Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902), emphasized the influence of environment and disease upon the human body.","g tsutit tiss 19, sdkln imassan n fṛansa n lunṭṛubbulujiyya tafizikiyt, s tnara n bul bṛuka (1824-1880), asɣal n ukras g tizi nna g ilkan uḍfuṛ alalmniy, s tnara n rudulf fircu (1821-1902), xf uḍiṣ n twnnaḍt d tmaḍunt xf tfgga n ufgan."
"He changed the focus from racial typology to concentrate upon the study of human evolution, moving away from classification towards evolutionary process.","bla tawna g tsnawayt n iẓuṛan s tawna xf tzrawt n ubuɣllu n ufgan, d tuggugt xf tsnawayt s ttmggit n ubuɣllu."
A race is a grouping of humans based on shared physical or social qualities into categories generally viewed as distinct by society.,aẓuṛ iga yan ugudiy n iwdan xf tdiras n tfggiwin nɣ tinamunin iccarn g tgrumma nna s ittuẓṛan slawan akkw mayddɣ tga tamẓlayt g tannayt n wamun.
"Modern science regards race as a social construct, an identity which is assigned based on rules made by society.","ar sksiwint tussniwin titrarin s uẓuṛ mas iga tuṣṣka tanamunt, ig tamagit ittufkan xf ilugunn nna isrus wamun."
"Still others argue that, among humans, race has no taxonomic significance because all living humans belong to the same subspecies, Homo sapiens sapiens.","suln winna ittinin gr middn mas ur illi ɣur uẓuṛ awd yat tindi n ubṭṭu acku qqaḥ iwdan iddrn da ttumun g yan wanaw n wanawn ayyawn, afgan bu unlli."
"In South Africa, the Population Registration Act, 1950 recognized only White, Black, and Coloured, with Indians added later.","g iffus n ifriqyya (janub ifriqya), ur iqrra uslgun n uzmmem n imzdaɣ n usggwas 1950 xs s imllaln d usggan bu idrimn, s usadf n ihindiyn g yat tizi yaḍn."
"The United States Census Bureau proposed but then withdrew plans to add a new category to classify Middle Eastern and North African peoples in the U.S. Census 2020, over a dispute over whether this classification should be considered a white ethnicity or a separate race.","ilmala uumaris n uḥyyl n mirikan maca dffir n mayan ildi imtuln nns ḥma ad isadf aguzdi amaynu n tirra n igdudn g ugmmaḍ anammas d ugafay n afriqyya g uḥyyl n mirikan 2020, xf imnɣi n mas tga tirra ad iqqand ad ig aẓuṛ amllal nɣ kra n uẓuṛ swa mayga."
"""The establishment of racial boundaries often involves the subjugation of groups defined as racially inferior, as in the one-drop rule used in the 19th-century United States to exclude those with any amount of African ancestry from the dominant racial grouping, defined as """"white"""".""","‘’ kigan n tikkal ad igif usrrus n iwtta n izuṛan ḥma ad ttuṛẓant trubba timassanin mas drusn ifrdisn nns, mkinna iga waddad g ulgam n tḍuṛi ittusmrasn g mirikan g tsutit tiss 19 ḥma ad nn ssaggugn winna ɣuri awd imik g iẓuṛan n afriqyya ammas n wamun aẓuṛan winna gis tt yiwin, d tnna ittusnmaln is tga ‘’tamllalt’’."
"""According to geneticist David Reich, """"while race may be a social construct, differences in genetic ancestry that happen to correlate to many of today's racial constructs are real.""""""","‘’g winna inna umassan atari difid ritc, ‘’g tizi nna g iɣy uẓuṛ ad isskr tuṣṣka tanamunt, imzarayn g iẓuṛan itariyn nna izddin kigan n tskiwin tiẓuṛanin assa tga tt tidt’’."
"Other dimensions of racial groupings include shared history, traditions, and language.",tsmun awd udmawn nniḍn n wamunn iẓuṛan d umzruy d tmyurin d tutlayt iccarn.
"Socioeconomic factors, in combination with early but enduring views of race, have led to considerable suffering within disadvantaged racial groups.","iwin imggitn inamun-idmsan, imzazaln d tannayin n uẓuṛ izwarn maca izdin, s ismummuyn ixatrn ammas n tgrumma ɣur ur illi."
"Racism has led to many instances of tragedy, including slavery and genocide.","tiwi tmssaẓuṛt s kigan n waddadn n tqryant, sg gisn tissumxa d usfsay agrawan."
"Because in some societies racial groupings correspond closely with patterns of social stratification, for social scientists studying social inequality, race can be a significant variable.","ayddɣ gan wamunn iẓuṛann g kra n wamunn tmsasa s yat tmamkt takswat akd tbridin n ubṭṭu anɣan anamun, s mad iẓlin s imassan n tsnamunt nna issɣran gar amsasa anamun, izmr ad ig uẓuṛ yat umsnfal axatar."
"For example, in 2008, John Hartigan, Jr. argued for a view of race that focused primarily on culture, but which does not ignore the potential relevance of biology or genetics.","s umdya, g usggwas n 2008, jun hartiɣan, arba. imɣanna xf tannayt n mas isikl uẓuṛ xf tdlsa zwar, maca ur da tettu uddur illan ɣur tussnatudrt nɣ tussniwin n utariy."
"In this way the idea of race as we understand it today came about during the historical process of exploration and conquest which brought Europeans into contact with groups from different continents, and of the ideology of classification and typology found in the natural sciences.","s tmamkt ad ag d tdda twngimt n uẓuṛ mkinna da tt nttrmas assa g tmggit n umnig d wazzaɣ n umzruy nna yujjan uṛubbiyn ad myawaḍn akd trubba g lqaṛṛat imyanawn, s tidyulujiyt n tsnawayt n wanawn illan g tmassanin tigamanin."
"A set of folk beliefs took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to inherited intellectual, behavioral, and moral qualities.",zuzzlnt kigan iɣaln imdnan nna izdin s imzarayn n tfggiwin ittusn gr trubba s tfrdisin tingmanin d n tikki d tɣarant ittukkusan.
"The 1735 classification of Carl Linnaeus, inventor of zoological taxonomy, divided the human species Homo sapiens into continental varieties of europaeus, asiaticus, americanus, and afer, each associated with a different humour: sanguine, melancholic, choleric, and phlegmatic, respectively.","iga ubṭṭu n kaṛl linayus 1735, amggi n ubṭṭu n imudar, ibḍa wanaw n ufgan huma sabins s istayn n aqarriy sg yurubayus, d amrikanus, d dffir man aya, izdi ku wanaw s taḍṣa yaḍn imzarayn: agṛḍ, d tmilankuliyt, d tkulistiyt, d tfulujmatiyt, yat s yat."
"""Blumenbach also noted the graded transition in appearances from one group to adjacent groups and suggested that """"one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them"""".""","‘’iẓṛa blumnbach awd asnfl yuẓeẓn g imuɣla g yat trabbut s trubba iggutn ifk masd ‘’tarabbut tamyanawt g ufgan ur tzriy s yat tɣarast iḥlan s tiyyaḍ, acku ur inni ad iswuttu iwtta n ngratsn’’."
"It was further argued that some groups may be the result of mixture between formerly distinct populations, but that careful study could distinguish the ancestral races that had combined to produce admixed groups.","nnan awd mas kra n trubba zmrnt ad gint tayafut n yan urkis gr trubba n imzdaɣ iẓlin g mad izrin, maca tazrawt tusdidt tzmr ad tẓly gr wanawn n imzwura nna imann ḥma ad snfluln tirubba timrskalin."
"New studies of culture and the fledgling field of population genetics undermined the scientific standing of racial essentialism, leading race anthropologists to revise their conclusions about the sources of phenotypic variation.","sdlint tzrawin timaynutin n tdlsa n ubaraz d issilin tussna tatariyt n imzdaɣ ansa n tussniwin tigjdanin n iẓuṛan, aynna yujjan imassan n lunṭulujya taẓuṛant s n tɣusi n tyafutin s uynna iẓlin i iɣbula n usmzazal iḍhṛn."
"Studies of human genetic variation show that human populations are not geographically isolated, and their genetic differences are far smaller than those among comparable subspecies.","ar mmalnt tzrawin n usmzazal aatariy mas gan imzdaɣ n ufgan ur stiyn g tzdduɣin nnsn, d ismzazaln n ljinat nnsn drusn uggr n tinnaɣ gr wanawn n wayyawn ittmyaɣn."
Andreasen cited tree diagrams of relative genetic distances among populations published by Luigi Cavalli-Sforza as the basis for a phylogenetic tree of human races (p. 661).,ibdr andiryasn tiwnaɣin n waddagn i ustum amasaɣ gr imzdaɣ nna ifs luji kafali sfurza zund tasila n tsklut n ‘’filujinik’’ g wanawn n ifgann (tifrt 661).
"Marks, Templeton, and Cavalli-Sforza all conclude that genetics does not provide evidence of human races.",iffɣ maṛks d timblitun d kafali sfurza mas tga tussna tatariyt ur da takka anzatn xf iẓuṛan n ifgann.
"For example, with respect to skin color in Europe and Africa, Brace writes:To this day, skin color grades by imperceptible means from Europe southward around the eastern end of the Mediterranean and up the Nile into Africa.","s umdya, aynna izdin s uklu n wudm g uṛubba d afriqqya, yura brays : ar assa, da ttusqqulnt tskfal n uklu n wudm s ussmrs n kra n imassn ur innin ad ittusnsa g uṛubba s uyffus ar tasga n unqar n yill amllal d unammas tddut ar nnil s ifriqya."
"""He further argued that one could use the term race if one distinguished between """"race differences"""" and """"the race concept"""".""",‘’inna diɣ is iɣy ad ittusmras n yirm n uẓuṛ mk da ismzazal ufgan gr ‘’isnuḥyutn iẓuṛan’’ d ‘’armmus n uẓuṛ’’.
"In short, Livingstone and Dobzhansky agree that there are genetic differences among human beings; they also agree that the use of the race concept to classify people, and how the race concept is used, is a matter of social convention.","s usgzl, imsasa lifniɣstun d dubzanski mas llan ismzarayn ijiniyn gr iwdan; ran awd ad ittusmras urmmus n uẓuṛ g tsnawayt n iwrikn, d tmamkt n ussmrs n urmmus n uẓuṛ, yat tmsart nna izdin s tmqqant tanamunt."
"""As the anthropologists Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda Jackson observed, """"Discordant patterns of heterogeneity falsify any description of a population as if it were genotypically or even phenotypically homogeneous"""".""","mkinna yannay umassan n lanṭṛubbulujiyya lyunard librman d fatima linda jaksun, gan ‘’wanawn imyagaln g gar tamsarit da trzaf matta asnumml illan n imzdaɣ zund is gan imsarin sg tsga n ljinat nɣ g tsga n wudm iḍhrn’’."
"""The mid-20th-century anthropologist William C. Boyd defined race as: """"A population which differs significantly from other populations in regard to the frequency of one or more of the genes it possesses.""",issnkd umassan n lunṭṛubbulujiyya wilyam bwid g wammas n tsutit tiss 20 aẓuṛ s ‘’imzdaɣ nna imarayn yan umzaray axatar d imzdaɣn yaḍn nna izdin g yan tsga nɣ uggar g ljinat nna ɣursn illan’’.
"Moreover, the anthropologist Stephen Molnar has suggested that the discordance of clines inevitably results in a multiplication of races that renders the concept itself useless.","uggar n man aya, ifka umassan n lunṭrubbulujiyya stifn mulnaṛ masd gar awqqr n lklinat da nit ittawi s tiggidit n wanawn nna ittdjan armmus s ixf nns ad ig war tayafut."
"Joanna Mountain and Neil Risch cautioned that while genetic clusters may one day be shown to correspond to phenotypic variations between groups, such assumptions were premature as the relationship between genes and complex traits remains poorly understood.","ismzzɣ jwana mawntn d nil ric g umun n ljinat qad tfk tilawt yan wass mas tmsasa akd ismzazaln iḍhṛn gr trubba, zund ayddɣ n turdiwin zwarnt qqaḥ acku tazdayt gr ljinat d tfiras irwin sulnt ur ta tturmasnt mliḥ."
"""Any category you come up with is going to be imperfect, but that doesn't preclude you from using it or the fact that it has utility.""""""","‘’tagrumma nna qad tumut ur tnni ad tsmd, maca man aya ur inni ad tqqimt ur tt tsmmrist nɣ s tidt dars yat tyafut’’."
"This assumed three population groups separated by large geographic ranges (European, African and East Asian).","mana aya da ittiri ad ilint kṛaḍt n trubba n imzdaɣ da bḍḍunt gratsnt wahli n ibrdan (uṛubbiyya, d tafriqiyyt, d tasyawiyt n uɣlay)."
"""Anthropologists such as C. Loring Brace, the philosophers Jonathan Kaplan and Rasmus Winther, and the geneticist Joseph Graves, have argued that while there it is certainly possible to find biological and genetic variation that corresponds roughly to the groupings normally defined as """"continental races"""", this is true for almost all geographically distinct populations.""","‘’imassan n lunṭṛubbulujiyya zund luring bṛas, d ufaylasuf junatan kablan d rasmus wintr, d imassan n utari juzif jrayfz, mɣannan mas izmr ad yaf asnuḥyu abyulujiy atariy d yusan ɛlayn akd wamunn nna isnmalan kigan n tikkal mas tga ‘’anawawn imnẓawiyn’’, man aya idda yusad xf kigan n imzdaɣ imẓlayn tarakalt’’."
"Weiss and Fullerton have noted that if one sampled only Icelanders, Mayans and Maoris, three distinct clusters would form and all other populations could be described as being clinally composed of admixtures of Maori, Icelandic and Mayan genetic materials.","iẓṛa ways d fulirtun mk tusit yan imik sg laslisdin d lmawyyin day, qad ilin kṛaḍ n trubba timẓlayin d iẓḍaṛ ad isnumml imẓdaɣ n qqaḥ nniḍn mas da ttusgman g wusu sg tmtta n utari sg lmawri d laslandyyin d lmaya."
"Moreover, the genomic data underdetermines whether one wishes to see subdivisions (i.e., splitters) or a continuum (i.e., lumpers).",uggar n man aya gan warratn n ljinyum ur da tswuttu mas ira ufgan ad yannay ibṭṭutn n wayyawn (ibṭṭutn) nɣ tizdayt izdin (ifalan).
"""Alongside empirical and conceptual problems with """"race"""", following the Second World War, evolutionary and social scientists were acutely aware of how beliefs about race had been used to justify discrimination, apartheid, slavery, and genocide.""","‘’tama n imukrisn ddɣ anaram d irmmusn akd ‘’uẓuṛ’’, ammas n ugari amaḍlan wiss sin, ssn imassan n tzzigzt d tsnamunt nik mamk s swurin n isɣann xf uẓuṛ ḥma ad asnuḥyu, d wannaz amssaẓuṛ, d tissumxa, d usfsi n tgrumma’’."
Craig Venter and Francis Collins of the National Institute of Health jointly made the announcement of the mapping of the human genome in 2000.,idra kriɣ fintr d fransis kulinz g usinag anamur n tdusi g usmmal xf wunuɣ n takṛḍiwin n ljinyum g usggwas n 2000.
It's not a scientific one.,ur tgi tamassant.
"""Anthropologist Stephan Palmié has argued that race """"is not a thing but a social relation""""; or, in the words of Katya Gibel Mevorach, """"a metonym"""", """"a human invention whose criteria for differentiation are neither universal nor fixed but have always been used to manage difference.""""""","inna umassan n lanṭṛubbulujiyya stifan balmyih mas iga uẓuṛ ‘’ur igi amya mac iga tazdayt tanamunt’’, nɣ, mkinna s tnna katya jil mifurac, ‘’myutunim’’, ‘’yan usnflulu anafgan ur gin isfra nns n uẓlay amaḍlan ur igin armskil mac tlla da ttusmras abda tamskurt n umzaray’’."
"There, racial identity was not governed by rigid descent rule, such as the one-drop rule, as it was in the United States.","dinnaɣ, ur da tḍfuṛ tmagit taẓuṛant n taffa n tskwfal iqrfn, zund taffa n yat tḍuṛi, mkinna iga waddad g mirikan."
"These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and not one category stands significantly isolated from the rest.","anawn ad ttusrasn ka xf ka zund ikwlan awlaf, d ur tlli yat tgrumma iẓlin s yat tmamkt tamqqrant xf wiyyaḍ."
"New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc, 1984.","nyu jirsi: brantis hal ins,1984."
"""In European context, historical resonance of """"race"""" underscores its problematic nature.""","‘’g umnaḍ uṛubbiy, issintm unza n umzruy n ‘’uẓuṛ’’ xf tmust nns n ukrass’’."
"""The concept of racial origin relies on the notion that human beings can be separated into biologically distinct """"races"""", an idea generally rejected by the scientific community.""","‘’da isfulu urmmus n iẓuṛan xf twngimt mas izmr ad nbḍu iwdan xf ‘’wanawn’’ iẓlin s tbyulujiyt, tg yat twngimt ur iri wamun amassan s umata’’."
"In the United States most people who self-identify as African American have some European ancestors, while many people who identify as European American have some African or Amerindian ancestors.","g mirikan kigan n mddn nna da tggan ixf awn nnsn zund imirikaniyn n ifriqya ɣursn ɣur kra n imzwura uṛubbiyn, g tizi nna n mddn, g tizi nna g da tggan kigan n mddn zund imirikaniyn uṛubbiyn ɣursn kra n imzwura ifriqiyn nɣ imirikaniyn igindiyn."
The criteria for membership in these races diverged in the late 19th century.,mzarayn isbdadn igmawan g iẓuṛan g tgiriwin n tsutit tiss 19.
"""Amerindians continue to be defined by a certain percentage of """"Indian blood"""" (called blood quantum).""",‘’suln ihindiyn izggwaɣn da swuttun s kra n usɣl sg ‘’idammn ihindiyn’’ (assaɣ nns anct n idammn’’).
This rule meant that those that were mixed race but with some discernible African ancestry were defined as black.,tga tlgamt tnna mi ccarn iẓuṛan maca akd kra n izɣran ifriqiyn yat tannayt ttusnkad mas tga tungalt.
"""The term """"Hispanic"""" as an ethnonym emerged in the 20th century with the rise of migration of laborers from the Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America to the United States.""",‘’iffɣ d irm n ‘’aṣbanya’’ zund yan wassaɣ aẓuṛan g tstut tiss 20 akd yily n imswura ittzugn sg iwunkn nna isawan s tutlayt taṣblyuniyt g amrika llatiniyya ar lwilayat lmuttaḥida’’.
"Three factors, country of academic education, discipline, and age, were found to be significant in differentiating the replies.","ar tssḍhaṛ kṛaḍ imggitn, nna igan tamazirt n ussgmi d uɣyud d usmmud, nna issawhmman g usmzazal ula timrarutin."
"In 2007, Ann Morning interviewed over 40 American biologists and anthropologists and found significant disagreements over the nature of race, with no one viewpoint holding a majority among either group.","g usggwas n 2007. tskr ar murinɣ inmuqqarn akd wuggar n 40 sg imassan n tawssntudrt d imassan n tantṛubbulujiyt imirikaniyn tafn imzarayn ixatrn xf wanaw n uẓuṛ, d ulaḥ n kra n tannayt nna yusin tuggt gr akkw trubba."
"""While he can see good arguments for both sides, the complete denial of the opposing evidence """"seems to stem largely from socio-political motivation and not science at all"""".""","‘’mqqar ɣin ad annayn ifakuln iqsḥn i tsggiwin s snat, maca illa yan irdg akswat i yfakuln imgaln ‘’ɛniɣ ikka d uya sg tmntilt tanamunt nɣ tasrtant ur d tussniwin qqaḥ’’."
"In partial response to Gill's statement, Professor of Biological Anthropology C. Loring Brace argues that the reason laymen and biological anthropologists can determine the geographic ancestry of an individual can be explained by the fact that biological characteristics are clinally distributed across the planet, and that does not translate into the concept of race.","g yat tmrarut tamẓẓyant xf ulɣu n ɣil, aslmad n tussnafganin tibyulujiyin s. imɣanna akids luring brays mas tga tmntilt nna s ɣin imassan n lunṭṛubbulujiyya tabyulujiyt ad tswttu aẓuṛ ajuɣrafiy n kra n yan izmr ad ittusfsar s tidt n tfrisin tibyulujiyin nna ibḍan g wusu g qqaḥ ansiwn n utri, man aya ur da ittusuɣul s urmmus n uẓuṛ."
"Physical anthropology texts argued that biological races exist until the 1970s, when they began to argue that races do not exist.","mɣannan iḍṛiṣn n lunṭṛubbulujiyya tafizikt mas llan wanawn ibyulujiyn ar tizi n isggwasn n 1970, lliɣ g tssnti g yini mas ur llin wanawn."
"""In February 2001, the editors of Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine asked """"authors to not use race and ethnicity when there is no biological, scientific, or sociological reason for doing so.""""""","g fbṛayṛ n 2001, ssutrn imaratn n imsasfrn n icirran d iḥudriyn sg ‘’imaratn’’ ad ur ssmrasn aẓuṛ adday ur tili tmntilt tabyulujiyt nɣ tamassant nɣ tanamunt xf uynnaɣ’’."
Morning (2008) looked at high school biology textbooks during the 1952–2002 period and initially found a similar pattern with only 35% directly discussing race in the 1983–92 period from initially 92% doing so.,"izṛa ṣṣbbah (2008) idlisn n tawssntudrt g tinmal n usinan g tizi illan gr 1952-2002, yufa nn g tzwuri yat tɣarast irwasn akd usmrara 35% day s yan waddad usrid n uẓuṛ g tizi n 1983-92 sg 92% g tzwuri."
"In general, the material on race has moved from surface traits to genetics and evolutionary history.","s umata, mmuttin tngiwin n uẓuṛ sg tfiras n bṛṛa ar tussniwin n utariy d umzruy azzigzan."
"""She notes, """"At best, one can conclude that biologists and anthropologists now appear equally divided in their beliefs about the nature of race.""""""","‘’ar ttannay g tizi iḥlan, mas iɣy ufgan ad isfulu mas bḍan imassan n tussnatudrt d imassan n lunṭṛubbulujiyya s umsasa g tannayin nnsn xf wanaw n uẓuṛ."
33 health services researchers from differing geographic regions were interviewed in a 2008 study.,ttuskar yat unmuqqar akd 33 n umrzu g yigr n isnaratn n tdusi g wansiwn ijuɣrafiyn imyanawn g tzrawt nna ittugan g usggwas n 2008.
"Many sociologists focused on African Americans, called Negroes at that time, and claimed that they were inferior to whites.","sdikl kigan n imassan n tsnamunin xf imirikaniyn ifriqyyin, nna mi ttinin zzunuj g tizi nnaɣ, ar ttinin mas kkan ddaw n imllaln."
"In 1910, the Journal published an article by Ulysses G. Weatherly (1865-1940) that called for white supremacy and segregation of the races to protect racial purity.","g usggwas n 1910, ifsr uɣmis yan umgrad n ulsis j. widrli (1865-1940) iɣra gis s mrniwt n umllal d ubṭṭu gr iẓuṛan ḥma ad ḥṭun tazdgi taẓuṛant."
"In his work, he contended that social class, colonialism, and capitalism shaped ideas about race and racial categories.","g twuri nns, inna mas d ismiln inamunn, asdurri d taggart hyyan tiwngimin xf uẓuṛ d ismiln iẓuṛann."
"By 1978, William Julius Wilson (1935–) argued that race and racial classification systems were declining in significance, and that instead, social class more accurately described what sociologists had earlier understood as race.","g 1978, wilyam julyus wilsun (1935-) yukz is d aẓuṛ d ingrawn n usttf aẓuṛan ur asn yad iqqimi waddur, d is d g udɣar nns, asmil anamun da isnmal s umɣad aynna s t nn kkan isnamunn rmsn t d aẓuṛ."
"""Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Sociology professor at Duke University, remarks, """"I contend that racism is, more than anything else, a matter of group power; it is about a dominant racial group (whites) striving to maintain its systemic advantages and minorities fighting to subvert the racial status quo.""","idwardu bunilla silba, amsslmd n tsnumant g tsdawit n duk yukz “ lliɣ nkkin d wiss d tasnaẓuṛt , uggar n kra aḍnin, tga taɣawsa n unbaḍ illan ɣur trabbut taẓuṛant innbḍn ( imllaln), nna isskarn tuggaẓ nnsn afad ad asn qqimint tbɣurin tingrawin mgal n tdrsiyin ittmwatn afad ad ssnfln addad aẓuṛan yad illan."
"In clinical settings, race has sometimes been considered in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions.","g wammas asdusi , aẓuṛ da ittusutg itsnt tikkal g yikz d usujji n umaḍun."
There is an active debate among biomedical researchers about the meaning and importance of race in their research.,illa umrara n wawal d umdikar gr imrzutn ibyusnujjitn xf watig d wazal n uẓuṛ g yinign nnsn.
Members of the latter camp often base their arguments around the potential to create genome-based personalized medicine.,imdrawn n umnad ad da ssnẓayn tiwngimin nnsn s taɣiyt n uhyyu n yat tsnujjit tanimant ibddan xf ujinum.
"They argue that overemphasizing genetic contributions to health disparities carries various risks such as reinforcing stereotypes, promoting racism or ignoring the contribution of non-genetic factors to health disparities.","da snaln mas d kigan n undad d ussitg iggudin i tjinitikt g uynna iẓlin s imzirayn n tdusi, da d ittawy kigan n imizitn, zund asmmɣur d usdus n istiryutibn (tannayin tursilin), asnyuddu n tssaẓuṛt, nɣd assitm n usufr n tarkusutin g imzirayn iẓlin s tdusi."
"""IC"""" stands for """"Identification Code;"""" these items are also referred to as Phoenix classifications.""",‘IC’ iga t “inig n usmagi’;tiɣawsiwin ad ttuyassant s issudsn n funiks’’
"""In many countries, such as France, the state is legally banned from maintaining data based on race, which often makes the police issue wanted notices to the public that include labels like """"dark skin complexion"""", etc.""","g wahli n tmura amm fṛanṣa, iga ugdil i uwnak ad iḥḍu timuca tinimanin yugln s aẓuṛ. aya da ittgga iɣnan i lbulis ad fsrn alɣutn n yinig i ugdud, winna g llant tcnyalin zund: ‘’ɣurs tifrkit idnunsn ‘’ d tiyyad’’"
Many consider de facto racial profiling an example of institutional racism in law enforcement.,"kigan da sksiwn is d, s tidt, asbrufil aẓuṛan d yan umdya n tssaẓuṛt tasinagt g tiggit n uzrf."
"""Mass incarceration is also, """"the larger web of laws, rules, policies, and customs that control those labeled criminals both in and out of prison.""""""","assɣzu afaḍisan awd ntta d ‘’’’taratsa taɣzzaft n izrfan , ilugn , tisrtiyin d tmyurin nna iḥḍan winna xf twagl tmatart n umbkkiḍ agnsu nɣd brra n ubniq’’’’"
Many research findings appear to agree that the impact of victim race in the IPV arrest decision might possibly include a racial bias in favor of white victims.,"kigan n tyafutin n irzzutn zun msasan xf iḍiṣ n uẓuṛ n ungis g ‘’IPV’’ tɣatast n ussbdd, iɣy is da ttuyakkant tsnuraf amkad n iwdan niɣ ungisn imllaln."
"Some studies have reported that races can be identified with a high degree of accuracy using certain methods, such as that developed by Giles and Elliot.","idsnt tɣuriwin uwint d mas iɣy ad ittuyassan uẓuṛ n yan s unɣad s usmrs n idsnt tmamkin, imkinna issfra jilz d ilyut."
"""The study concluded that """"The apportionment of genetic diversity in skin color is atypical, and cannot be used for purposes of classification.""""""","idsnt tɣuriwin ffɣnt s mas d “ tibḍit n tmanawt tajinitikt g uklu n tfrkit iga aranawan , mas ur nẓḍaṛ ad t nsmrs g iwttasn n ussuds”."
Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans.,tasnafgant tadlsant d yan wanaw n tsnafgant nna tt ittawin g uzru n tiggidint tadlsant gr iwdan.
"In addressing this question, ethnologists in the 19th century divided into two schools of thought.","g usgdl xf isqsitn ad, imassan n tetnlujit n tswatut tiss 19 bḍan xf snat tinmal n uswingm."
"""Some of those who advocated """"independent invention"""", like Lewis Henry Morgan, additionally supposed that similarities meant that different groups had passed through the same stages of cultural evolution (See also classical social evolutionism).""","idsn g winna illan d “”””isliwwi asiman “””, zund lwiss hunri murgan urdan mas d mayd llant tmyaɣin, aya da issnẓay akkw zrint trubba tifganin g tkliwin yaksuln n tnfla tadlsant ( agg nn awd tanfla tanamunt)."
"Morgan, like other 19th century social evolutionists, believed there was a more or less orderly progression from the primitive to the civilized.","murgan, amm imusnawn inflann inamunn aḍnin n tswatut tiss 19, umnn is tt nn tkka yat tzzigzt sg twnnant ar taɣrma."
"""Although 19th-century ethnologists saw """"diffusion"""" and """"independent invention"""" as mutually exclusive and competing theories, most ethnographers quickly reached a consensus that both processes occur, and that both can plausibly account for cross-cultural similarities.""","mqqar annayn itnulujiyn n tswatut tiss 19 “asnyuddu” d “isliwwi asiman” is gant tiẓiṛin ittmayakkasn ar tmɣnnant grasnt, kigan n itnulujiyn uwḍn nn s usddrf yan umsasa n wiss da ttjṛunt snat tzzigzin, d wiss da ssfrunt s snat timyaɣin tingrdlsanin."
"""Boas first articulated the idea in 1887: """"...civilization is not something absolute, but ... is relative, and ... our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes.""""""","iska buwz tawngimt tikklt tamzwarut g 1887: “””” taɣrma ur d kra igan ankuc, macan ...amqqan , d ... tiwngimin nnɣ d irmisn nnɣ ur d imdadn xs adday tssudu tɣrma nnɣ’’’’."
Cultural relativism involves specific epistemological and methodological claims.,tankuct tadlsant tla tutriwin tibistimulujiyin d tmiṭudulujiyin iẓlin.
Cultural relativism was in part a response to Western ethnocentrism.,"tankuct tadlsant, tga g yat tsga, yat tmrarut i utnuṣuntrizm ataram."
"This understanding of culture confronts anthropologists with two problems: first, how to escape the unconscious bonds of one's own culture, which inevitably bias our perceptions of and reactions to the world, and second, how to make sense of an unfamiliar culture.","armas ad n tussna isnal isnafgann/ intṛubbulujiyn i sin imkrisn: amzwaru, mamk s nrggwl i tzdayin tarafranin nna illan gr yan d tussna nns nna as issfṛaɣn armas nns d idiɣiskrn nns akd umaḍal. wiss sin, mamk s nttzmak/ nqqra yat tussna ur nennmyar."
"One such method is that of ethnography: basically, they advocated living with people of another culture for an extended period of time, so that they could learn the local language and be enculturated, at least partially, into that culture.","yat g tbridin nna tteḍfuṛn g tetnugrafit: da ttḥbbarn tudrt d tussniwin aḍnin yan uzmz iɣzzifn, afad ad lmdn tutlayt tadɣrant lmdn tussna mqqar d ɣas imik g tussna nna."
"His approach was empirical, skeptical of overgeneralizations, and eschewed attempts to establish universal laws.","tamyadast nns tga taramant, tamijant/ tasurdant g usmata iwfan iggudin, d yugy irimn n usku n islgn iɣzurann."
"He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the natural sciences, were not possible.","yumn is d iqqan ad ittusbayn uynna s tsty ku tussna. inna mas d ismatayn ingrdlsann, zund winna ittugan g tmassanin tigamanin, ur gin izubaẓ."
"His first generation of students included Alfred Kroeber, Robert Lowie, Edward Sapir, and Ruth Benedict, who each produced richly detailed studies of indigenous North American cultures.","tasuta nns tamzwarut n imzrawn illa digs alfrid krubr, ṛubir luwi, idward sabir, d rut binidikt, ku yan digsn ifka tiɣuriwin ifrurn xf imzwura n tussniwin n tamirikt n ugafa."
The publication of Alfred Kroeber's textbook Anthropology (1923) marked a turning point in American anthropology.,taẓṛigt n alfrid kṛubṛ xf tsnafgant (1923) issnfl azzigz n tsnafgant tamirikant.
"Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists including Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up.","ttuḍiṣn s ibsikulugn ibsikanalitkn zund sigmund fruyd d rakl jung, imgayn ad rzan ad rmsn imkidda s qqazn waggaḍn idlsann d inamunn iɣzzafn tiwrikin timdanin nna iddrn rmunt digsn."
"Economic anthropology as influenced by Karl Polanyi and practiced by Marshall Sahlins and George Dalton challenged standard neoclassical economics to take account of cultural and social factors, and employed Marxian analysis into anthropological study.","tasnafgant tadmsant imkinna s tt iḍuṣ kaṛl bulanyi, d imkinna s tt ittgga maṛcal salinz d juṛj dalṭun , tugy tadmsa tanawayt tanyuklasikt, afad ad tssitg ifrdisn idlsann d inamunn, tsmrs asfsi amaṛksan g tɣuri tasnafgant."
"In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the Algerian War of Independence and opposition to the Vietnam War; Marxism became an increasingly popular theoretical approach in the discipline.","s tulut n uynna tt nn ikkan g wakudn nna, wahli g tsnafgant tkwcm s tsrtit iddɣ illa imnɣi n dzayr d tnmgla tt nn ikkan mnid n imnɣi n ubiṭnam, taɣul tmarksant d yat tmyadast taẓiṛant ittuyassn kigan g igr n tsnafgant."
"In the 1980s books like Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as Antonio Gramsci and Michel Foucault moved issues of power and hegemony into the spotlight.","g idlisn nna iffɣn g isggwasn n 1980 zund “anṭṛubuluji” d “kulunyal inkawntr’’ fkan asqsi xf tzdayt illan gr tsnafgant d tmyagarin tinamunin, iddɣ ttuyassan kigan n imssiẓṛitn zund anṭunyu gramci d micil fuku, tamdnant nnsn tssufɣ d s asidd isqsitn illan gr uwank d ubrskil."
"These interpretations must then be reflected back to its originators, and its adequacy as a translation fine-tuned in a repeated way, a process called the hermeneutic circle.","ifarsn ad ixṣṣa ad uɣuln s imgayn nnsn, ad tturmasn amm isuɣln yulsn, aya d yan uzzigz igan s wassaɣ “tawrerrayt tirmitikt”"
David Schnieder's cultural analysis of American kinship has proven equally influential.,afsi adlsan n dabid cnaydr xf umyassa amirikan ifka awd ntta iḍiṣ nns.
"The method originated in the field research of social anthropologists, especially Bronislaw Malinowski in Britain, the students of Franz Boas in the United States, and in the later urban research of the Chicago School of Sociology.","tamamkt tufa iẓuṛan nns g irzzutn n yigr nna gan isnafgan inamunn, lumaṛ bṛunislaw malinufski g bṛiṭanya, imzraw n fṛanz bwas g mirikan d , g tiyyira, g urzzu aɣrman nna tga tinml n tsnamunt n cikagu."
"Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.","walunt krik, sa: alṭa mira bṛiss."
"To establish connections that will eventually lead to a better understanding of the cultural context of a situation, an anthropologist must be open to becoming part of the group, and willing to develop meaningful relationships with its members.","afad ad isku tizdayin nna iɣin ad issiwḍn s yan urmas yufn i umnaḍ adlsan n yan usurs, ixṣṣa ad yumu usnafgan, ikwcm s ammas n trabbut, tili ɣurs tirat ad issmɣur isxitr tizdayin iggudin d igmamn n trabbut."
"Before participant observation can begin, an anthropologist must choose both a location and a focus of study.","dat ussnti n usniɣs s wumu, ixṣṣa ad isty usnafgan adɣar d uwttas n tɣuri nns g yat tikklt."
This allows the anthropologist to become better established in the community.,aya da ittadja asnafgan ad yumu yamẓ adɣar nns ammas n tgrawt.
The majority of participant observation is based on conversation.,kigan n usniɣs s wumu ibdda xf umrara n wawal.
"In some cases, ethnographers also turn to structured observation, in which an anthropologist's observations are directed by a specific set of questions he or she is trying to answer.","idsnt tikkal, da ttuɣuln itnulujiyn s usniɣs ilan tuṣkiwt, g wanaw ad , isniɣisn n usnafgan da digsn ttnbaḍn kigan n isqsitn iẓlin izdin d uynna mi ira umsnafgan ad asn ifk tamrarut."
"This helps to standardize the method of study when ethnographic data is being compared across several groups or is needed to fulfill a specific purpose, such as research for a governmental policy decision.","da ittaws g usmsasa n tbridt n tɣuri adday da ittusmzazal udata n kigan n trubba, nɣd adday ɣifs nbdd afad ad nn nawḍ yan uskkin iẓlin , zund ig nra ad ng yat tsrtit tanbaḍant iẓlin."
"Who the ethnographer is has a lot to do with what he or she will eventually write about a culture, because each researcher is influenced by his or her own perspective.","iɣy is d tamagit n utnugraf ɣurs kigan n tusurt xf uynna itturu xf tdlsa, acku ku amrzu da ittuḍiṣ s tannayt nns tanimant."
"However, these approaches have not generally been successful, and modern ethnographers often choose to include their personal experiences and possible biases in their writing instead.","macan tibridin ad ur mmurisnt s umata, itnugṛafn itrarn da frrn aṭṭaṣ ad skwcmn irimn inimann nnsn nna ddrn d tnyufutin nnsn g tirra nnsn."
"An ethnography is a piece of writing about a people, at a particular place and time.",tatnugraft d yan warra xf uan umdan g yan wansa d yan uzmz imnɣudn.
"A typical ethnography will also include information about physical geography, climate and habitat.",tatnugraft tungimt da digs ttilint tnɣmisin xf tjyugraft tafizikt d unzwi d uzduɣ.
"Boas' students such as Alfred L. Kroeber, Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead drew on his conception of culture and cultural relativism to develop cultural anthropology in the United States.","imzrawn n buz amm alfrid l.kṛubu, rut binidikt d margarit mid ugmn sg ungam nns i tdlsa d ( relativisme) adlsan afad ad sbuɣlun tasnafgant tadlsant g iwnnakn imann (mirikan)."
Today socio-cultural anthropologists attend to all these elements.,"assa, tasnafgant tasnamudlsant tuwy tt g ifrdisn ad akkw."
"""American """"cultural anthropologists"""" focused on the ways people expressed their view of themselves and their world, especially in symbolic forms, such as art and myths.""","isnafgann idlsann imirikann sdikkn xf imkinna s sawaln iwdan xf yiman nnsn d xf umaḍal, lumaṛ s imuɣna isimatarann zund taẓuṛi, umiyn d tnfusin."
"Monogamy, for example, is frequently touted as a universal human trait, yet comparative study shows that it is not.","tayniwlt s umdya, aha da ttusnkad amm is tga yat tfrst tafganant taɣzurant, macan yat tɣri tasmzazalt da tmmal amgal."
"Through this methodology, greater insight can be gained when examining the impact of world-systems on local and global communities.","s tbridt ddɣ, nɣy ad nlkm yan urmas yufn, aya s urzu n tusurt nna ttggan igrawn imaḍlann xf trbiɛin tidɣaranin d tɣzuranin."
"""For example, a multi-sited ethnography may follow a """"thing,"""" such as a particular commodity, as it is transported through the networks of global capitalism.""","“s umdya, tatnugraft tamnnawdɣarant tẓḍaṛ ad tḍfuṛ yat """"tɣawsa""""amm kra n unnaziz/ uyafu , imkinna s ittusmattay g tratsiwin n taggart tamaḍlant”."
An example of multi-sited ethnography is Nancy Scheper-Hughes' work on the international black market for the trade of human organs.,yan umdya n tetnugraft tamnnawdɣarant tga t twuri nna tsskr nansi cibr hyuz xf ugadaz abrrkan amaḍlan xf usɣnzi n isknafn infgann.
"Research in kinship studies often crosses over into different anthropological subfields including medical, feminist, and public anthropology.","irzzutn g tɣuriwin xf umyissa, da wala zrrin g kigan n wadawgrann isnafgann, lumaṛ tasnafgant tasnijjyant, tawtmant d tgdudant."
"That is the matrix into which human children are born in the great majority of cases, and their first words are often kinship terms.","aynnaɣ ayd ittggan asirw nna g ttlalan imẓẓann infgann g kigan n waddadn, d iwaliwn nnsn da tn wala tggant tguriwin izdin d umyassa."
"There are stark differences between communities in terms of marital practice and value, leaving much room for anthropological fieldwork.",llan imzarayn ixatarn gr tgrbazin g uynna iṭṭfn s tmskarin d tnditin tiwlanin. aynnaɣ a xf txṣṣa tasnafgant ammas n wansa n twuri.
"The marital practice found in most cultures, however, is monogamy, where one woman is married to one man.","timskrt tawlant tlla g waṭṭaṣ n tdlsiwin, tga tayniwlt nna g lla ttawl yat tmṭṭuḍt yan urgaz."
There are similar foundational differences where the act of procreation is concerned.,llan mnnaw n imzirayn imɣtasn imyaɣn g uynna izdin d tmskirt n yirw.
"The shift can be traced back to the 1960s, with the reassessment of kinship's basic principles offered by Edmund Leach, Rodney Neeham, David Schneider, and others.","asnfl issnty sg isggwasn n 1960, d uztg n imnzayn irsaln n umyassa nna issurm idmund lic, ṛudni niham, dabid cnaydr d wiyaḍ."
"This shift was progressed further by the emergence of second-wave feminism in the early 1970s, which introduced ideas of marital oppression, sexual autonomy, and domestic subordination.","asnfl ad ibbuɣla uggar akd ilwwi wiss sin n umussu awtman tizwuri n isggwasn n 1970, nna d yuwin tiwngimin n udagaz almssan, tasimant tazfant, d uwllj agman ( g tgmmi)."
"""At this time, there was the arrival of """"Third World feminism"""", a movement that argued kinship studies could not examine the gender relations of developing countries in isolation, and must pay respect to racial and economic nuance as well.""","“tizi ann, tiwḍ dd ‘’’’ twtmant n umaḍal wiss kṛaḍ’’’’, yan umussu nna d yuwin mas d tiɣuriwin xf umyassa, ur ɣiynt ad zrunt tisqqan n wanaw g tmizar illan g ubrid n tgmi d usbuɣlu i iɣf nsnt, macan is ixṣṣa ad rarint taɣḍft s, zrknt awd imzarayn iẓuṛann d idmsann nna illan’’"
"In Jamaica, marriage as an institution is often substituted for a series of partners, as poor women cannot rely on regular financial contributions in a climate of economic instability.","g djamayka, da wala ttuskarn kigan n imdrawn g udɣar n tmrslt n yiwl, acku ur ɣiynt twtmin timẓlaḍ ad ɛwwlnt xf inaɣuln/ inkcumn iẓṛfann g yan iswaɣ n tarwart tadmsant."
"With this technology, questions of kinship have emerged over the difference between biological and genetic relatedness, as gestational surrogates can provide a biological environment for the embryo while the genetic ties remain with a third party.","akd tetiknulujit ad, umann d isqsitn n umyisa, win umzaray gr umyasa abyulujan d ujinitik, acku llant id mma tidiskranin (tinna ikrrun adis nnsnt) nna ijujadn yan unmil abyulujan i tḍṛant, mqqar da ttɣiman isqqann ijinitikn gr tḍṛant d tayḍ tmṭṭuḍt."
"There have also been issues of reproductive tourism and bodily commodification, as individuals seek economic security through hormonal stimulation and egg harvesting, which are potentially harmful procedures.","kkan tt nn awd tmkrisin n tmallayt tamarawt d uzznz afggan, acku uggidn da rzzun tanfrut tadmsant s wanzal n ihuṛmunn d usmuttr n tglay, timhal a, iɣy is cqqant gint timɣzadin."
"One critique is that, as its inception, the framework of kinship studies was far too structured and formulaic, relying on dense language and stringent rules.","yan uzawar igat, lliɣ g lulant, asati n tɣuriwin n umyasa ittuṣka kigan yili tannayin tursilin (istiryutibn), ibdd xf yat tutlayt tanẓẓawt d islgnn udɣirn."
Much of this development can be attributed to the rise in anthropologists working outside of academia and the increasing importance of globalization in both institutions and the field of anthropology.,"kigan g usbuɣlu ad iɣy is t id tuwy tiggidit n isnafgann iswurin bṛṛa n wammas asdawan, tuwy t id awd tnfrara tamqrant n tsmaḍlt g tmrsal d yigr n tsnafgant."
The two types of institutions defined in the field of anthropology are total institutions and social institutions.,sin wanawn n tmrsal ittusnmaln g igr n tsnafgant d timrsal tiktanin d tmrsal tinamunin.
"Anthropology of institutions may analyze labor unions, businesses ranging from small enterprises to corporations, government, medical organizations, education, prisons, and financial institutions.","tasnafgant n tmrsal tɣy ad tzru inmulla, timssntay sg tmẓẓanin ar tixatarin ( timssurin), tanbaḍt timddasin tisnijjanin, asslmd d ussgmi, ibniqn d tmrsal tiẓṛfanin."
Institutional anthropologists may study the relationship between organizations or between an organization and other parts of society.,isnafgann n tmrsal ẓḍaṛn ad ɣrn tazdayt gr tmaddasin d tifulin aḍnin n wamun.
"More specifically, anthropologists may analyze specific events within an institution, perform semiotic investigations, or analyze the mechanisms by which knowledge and culture are organized and dispersed.","s wuggar n umnɣud, isnafgann ɣin ad sfsin timsar timẓlanin agnsu n yat g tmrsal, ad gin isfsayn isimyutikn i imikanizmn nna s ttusudsnt ar iss ttufttasnt tussniwin d tdlsa."
"This new era would involve many new technological developments, such as mechanical recording.","azmz ad amaynu isɣaws kigan n isbuɣlutn itiknulujann, amm uzmmem amikanik."
"Current Anthropology 43(Supplement):S5-17.Schieffelin, Bambi B. 2006.","kurnt anṭṛubbuluji 43 ( subblimnt): s5-17. cciflin, bambi b.2006."
"""Woolard, in her overview of """"code switching"""", or the systematic practice of alternating linguistic varieties within a conversation or even a single utterance, finds the underlying question anthropologists ask of the practice—Why do they do that?—reflects a dominant linguistic ideology.""","“wulaṛd, g usniɣs nns i ‘’’’kud switc”””” nɣd timskirt tangrawt n usmlulli n tsmsin tisnilsin ammas n yan umrara n wawal, nɣd ammas n yuwt tinayt, tufa asqsi intln nna ttikkin isnafgann g tmskirt — maɣ allig da ttggan aya? tadyulujit tasnilsant tanmɣart.”"
"Other linguists have carried out research in the areas of language contact, language endangerment, and 'English as a global language'.","imsnilsn aḍnin gan irzzutn g igr n umyaggay asnilsan, d win usmizi n tutlayt, d win “tanglizt d tutlayt tamaḍlant”."
"The work of Joel Kuipers develops this theme vis-a-vis the island of Sumba, Indonesia.","tawuri n jwil kwibrz da tsbuɣlu imrsi ad mnid n tgzirt n sumba, indunisya."
"He feels, in fact, that the exemplary center idea is one of linguistic anthropology's three most important findings.","da isyafa, s tidt, is d tawngimt n wammas amdyan tamu g kṛaḍt twafitin tixatarin n tsnafgant tasnilst."
"Therefore, after a couple generations these languages may no longer be spoken.","altu, awar n kigan n tswutiwin, iɣy ad yad ur ttusawalnt tutlayin ad."
"To follow best practices of documentation, these records should be clearly annotated and kept safe within an archive of some kind.","afad ad ttwaggnt tmskar timyufin n untam, ixṣṣa isuras ad twazmmamn mliḥ, ttuḥḍunn g yan wansa anfru.ammas n kra n warcif."
Language revitalization is the practice of bringing a language back into common use.,assidr tayḍ tikklt i tutlayt tgat tmskirt mɣur awttas n wad tuɣul tutlayt s asmrs akuyass.
The course aims to educate indigenous and non-indigenous students about the Lenape language and culture.,tamsirt ad ɣurs awttas n ussgmy n imzrawn iṭuktunn d iritikṭunn xf tutlayt d tdlsa talinabt.
"Encouraging those who already know the language to use it, increasing the domains of usage, and increasing the overall prestige of the language are all components of reclamation.","assbɣs n winna yad issn tutlayt afad ad tt smrasn, asgidy n yigran n usmrs nns, d uftay n ubristij aɣzuran n tutlayt ayd igan ifrdisn n ussidr."
Social anthropology is the study of patterns of behaviour in human societies and cultures.,tasnafgant tanamunt d tiɣri n wanawn n tmgiwin/ tmskar n inamunn infgann d tdlsiwin.
British and American anthropologists including Gillian Tett and Karen Ho who studied Wall Street provided an alternative explanation for the financial crisis of 2007–2010 to the technical explanations rooted in economic and political theory.,"idsn isnafgann n bṛiṭanya d mirikan, nna g yamu jilyan tit d karn haw nna iɣran wall strit, fkan yan ussfru anaray (anmully) i tassast taẓṛfant n 2007-2010. issfrutn nna, ur aksuln d isgrutn itiknikn iwtn s iẓuṛan g tmẓṛit tadmsant d tsrtant."
This development was bolstered by Franz Boas's introduction of cultural relativism arguing that cultures are based on different ideas about the world and can therefore only be properly understood in terms of their own standards and values.,"abuɣlu ad imqqur uggar llig d iskwcm franz buz arulatibism ( relativisme) admsan, inna ma as d tidlsiwin bddant xf twngimin imzarayn xf umaḍal, s manaya, ur nẓḍaṛ ad ttnt nrms s tidt ɣas g wammas n islgnn d tnditin nnsnt."
"""In 1906, Congolese pygmy Ota Benga was put by American anthropologist Madison Grant in a cage in the Bronx Zoo, labelled """"the missing link"""" between an orangutan and the """"white race"""" — Grant, a renowned eugenicist, was also the author of The Passing of the Great Race (1916).""","“ g 1906, agwzzal akunguliy uta binga igr t usnafgan amirikan madisun grant s yat txbuḍt g turtit n imudar bṛunks, isslɣ as tacnyalt ‘’’’ tasrgwlt izlan “””” gr ubaɣus n urangutan d “”ufgan amllal”” — grant, yan ujinist ittwassn, iga awd amgay n udlis “ The Passing of the Great Race, azrruy n uẓuṛ anuflay1916”."
"Anthropology grew increasingly distinct from natural history and by the end of the 19th century the discipline began to crystallize into its modern form - by 1935, for example, it was possible for T.K. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled A Hundred Years of Anthropology.","imiḥ s imiḥ, tsty tsnafgant xf umzruy agman, g tiggira n tswatut tiss 19, tssnti lla d ttagga s umɣnu atarar -sg 1935, s umdya, yufa iss t.k binniman ad yuru xf umzruy n tsnafgant g yan udlis igan s uzwl “timiḍi n isggwasn n tsnafgant”."
"""Non-European societies were thus seen as evolutionary """"living fossils"""" that could be studied in order to understand the European past.""","s manaya, inamunn ariṛumin kkan tt nn da ttusuggurn amm “iɣizann iddrn” inaflan nna s ɣyn ad tn ɣrn afad ad rmsn izry n uṛubba”."
"However, as Stocking notes, Tylor mainly concerned himself with describing and mapping the distribution of particular elements of culture, rather than with the larger function, and he generally seemed to assume a Victorian idea of progress rather than the idea of non-directional, multilineal cultural change proposed by later anthropologists.","macan imkinna inna slukin, yuwy tt tayluṛ s udslan g tmamkt n usnumml d uskaṛḍa n ubṭṭu n ifrdisn ilicann n tdlsa, uggar n tsɣnt tanaflayt, irwas s umata is ibubba tawngimt tabikṭuṛant n tnflit mgal n twngimt taranilant, tasnfl adlsan agtazyizan ssurmnt isnafgann imḍfṛn."
"His comparative studies, most influentially in the numerous editions of The Golden Bough, analyzed similarities in religious belief and symbolism globally.","tiɣuriwin nns tismzazalin, tinna ilan iḍiṣ axatar sg tẓṛigin n “ guldn buw” fsynt timyaɣin g tɣalin tisgdanin d tmatart (symbolisme) g umaḍal."
The findings of the expedition set new standards for ethnographic description.,ifitn n tmuddut ( tufuɣt) nna ssbddan islgnn imaynutn n usnumml atnugrafan.
"Other intellectual founders include W. H. R. Rivers and A. C. Haddon, whose orientation reflected the contemporary Parapsychologies of Wilhelm Wundt and Adolf Bastian, and Sir E. B. Tylor, who defined anthropology as a positivist science following Auguste Comte.","idsn imṣkutn iwngimn aḍnin g illa w.h.r ribrz d a.s.hadun, nna mɣur tannayin iṭṭfn s tbarabsikulujitin n wilhilm wund d adulf bastyn, d tin sir u.b. tayluṛ, nna isnmaln tasnafgant amm yat tmassant tumnigt s uṭfaṛ n ugust kumt."
A. R. Radcliffe-Brown also published a seminal work in 1922.,a.r. ṛadklif bṛuwn ifsr awd ntta yan udlis amṣkay g 1922.
"""This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for """"Social Anthropology"""" by teaching at universities across the British Empire and Commonwealth.""","“s udslan, imkinnaɣ awd d ṛadklif bṛuwn, nna isnyuddan aɣaws nns n """"tasnafgant tanamunt"""" s usslmd g tsdawiyin n unakad abṛiṭan”."
He believed that indigenous terms used in ethnographic data should be translated into Anglo-American legal terms for the benefit of the reader.,yukz ma as d tiguriwin tiṭuktunin ittusmrasn g tsnafgant ixṣṣa ad ttusuɣlnt s tguriwin tizrfanin n tnglizt n mirikan g uynna illan g ubɣur n imɣri.
Departments of Social Anthropology at different Universities have tended to focus on disparate aspects of the field.,tizuna n tsnafgant tanamunt n mnnaw n tsdawiyin da sdiknnt xf tsggwin imzarayn n yigr.
A people is any plurality of persons considered as a whole.,amadan d yat tuggt n iwdann akkw igan yan.
"Four states — Massachusetts, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky — refer to themselves as the Commonwealth in case captions and legal process.","kkuẓ n iwankn — masatcusits, birjinya, binslbanya, d kantuky — da smulin s iman nnsn d akamnwilṭ g uynna iẓlin s tzzigzt tazrfant."
"In some parts of the world, ethnology has developed along independent paths of investigation and pedagogical doctrine, with cultural anthropology becoming dominant especially in the United States, and social anthropology in Great Britain.","g idsnt tɣmrin n umaḍal, tatnulujit tsbuɣla tisurifin tisimanin n yinig d tɣarast tabidagujit, taɣul tsnafgant tadmsant tuwy awal g iwankn imann (mirikan), tsllb awd tsnafgant tadmsant g bṛiṭanya."
"""The 15th-century exploration of America by European explorers had an important role in formulating new notions of the Occident (the Western world), such as the notion of the """"Other"""".""","“inig nna gan iminign i amirika g tswatut tiss 15 yurar yat tmlilt tamqrant g uṣku n tissinin timaynutin n utaram ( amaḍal ataram), zund tissint n """"wayyaḍ""""."""
"""The progress of ethnology, for example with Claude Lévi-Strauss's structural anthropology, led to the criticism of conceptions of a linear progress, or the pseudo-opposition between """"societies with histories"""" and """"societies without histories"""", judged too dependent on a limited view of history as constituted by accumulative growth.""","""assfari n tetnulujit, s umdya akd tsnafgant tuṣkiwt n klud libi straws, yuwy d azɣan n ingamn iẓlin d ubuɣlu azyizan, nɣd tagarnmgla illan gr """"imdann mɣur amzruy"""" d """"imdann id war amzruy"""", nna xf ittwanna is tugl kigan s yat tannayt tagguttant"" i umzruy iddɣ ttusmattar s trsi tasgadyant."""
"However, the claims of such cultural universalism have been criticized by various 19th- and 20th-century social thinkers, including Marx, Nietzsche, Foucault, Derrida, Althusser, and Deleuze.","macan tigarlawin n tilit n tɣzurant ad tadmsant zɣan tnt kigan n imswingimn inamunn n tswatutin tiss 19 d tiss 20, winna g yamu maṛks, nitci, fuku, dirida, ultisr, d diliz."
"An ethnic group or ethnicity is a grouping of people who identify with each other on the basis of shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups such as a common set of traditions, ancestry, language, history, society, culture, nation, religion, or social treatment within their residing area.","yat trabbut taẓuṛant nɣd yan uẓuṛ tga t yat trbiɛt n iwdan nna ittmyakazn grasn s kigan n tfiras nna ssarn ar tn sstynt xf trubba aḍnin zund yat tuggt issarn n tmyurin, anaɣiz, tutlayt, amzruy, anamun, tadlsa, tamtti, asgd, nɣd amskl anamun agnsu n wansa n uzduɣ nnsn."
"Membership of an ethnic group tends to be defined by a shared cultural heritage, ancestry, origin myth, history, homeland, language, or dialect, symbolic systems such as religion, mythology and ritual, cuisine, dressing style, art, or physical appearance.","tumut g yat trabbut taẓuṛant tnnbḍ digs tusurt n taysi tadlsant, anaɣiz, umiy n usala, amzruy, tamurt, tutlayt niɣ tantala, ingrawn asimatarn amm usgd, tasnumiyt d twrglin, asmri, sstil n tmlsit, taẓuṛi, nɣd tifiras n tfgga."
"By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, individuals or groups may over time shift from one ethnic group to another.","s usnfl n tutlayt, takksdlsant, assgmi d usnfl asgdan, uggidn d trubba ẓḍaṛn ad snfln aẓuṛ nnsn sg yat trbiɛt s tayḍ d uzrruy n ugur."
"Whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis.","s tuṭṭut nɣd tusurt, ilwwi n yat tmagit taẓuṛant istyn lla as qqarn tatnujinisist."
"""In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan (in the sense of disparate """"nations"""" which did not yet participate in the Christian oikumene), as the Septuagint used ta ethne (""""the nations"""") to translate the Hebrew goyim """"the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews"""".""","""g tnglizt tatrart n zik d ar ammas n tswatut tiss 19, aẓuṛ ila anamk n: ur yumin s yan g isgdn ayankucn nɣd yumn s yan usgd idrusn ( """"timttin"""" tirawyaḍin ta ur yamung g uykmin arumy), imkinna tsmrs sibtujinit ta itn (""""timttin"""") afad ad tg asuɣl i hibru guyim """"timttain, taribrutin tarudayin""""."""
"""In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of """"peculiar to a race, people or nation"""", in a return to the original Greek meaning.""","""g tsawtut tiss 19, taguri taɣul da ttusmras s unamk n """"iẓly s yan uẓuṛ, yan umdan, yat tmtti"""", yaɣul s anamk nns aẓɣran agrikan."""
"""ethnic, a. and n."""") Depending on context, the term nationality may be used either synonymously with ethnicity or synonymously with citizenship (in a sovereign state).""","""aẓuṛ, a. d n."""") s yigl akd umnaḍ, taguri tanamurt tɣy ad ttusmrs s wakniw d tnamurt d awd akd uẓuṛ d tmuri (g uwank ilan tanay)."
Whether ethnicity qualifies as a cultural universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used.,asɣl n uẓuṛ d adlsan d aɣzuran ibdda xf usnml anican ittusmrsan.
"According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently.","inna ṭumaṣ hiland iriksn, mas d tiɣri n uẓuṛ ɣmrn tt sin imraratn n wawal ar tiggira ddɣ."
"The instrumentalist approach, on the other hand, treats ethnicity primarily as an ad hoc element of a political strategy, used as a resource for interest groups for achieving secondary goals such as, for instance, an increase in wealth, power, or status.","tamyadast tamissnt, g yat tsga aḍnin da tstal aẓuṛ amm yan ufrdis d yusan g tstratijit tasrtant, nna smrasnt trubba tiɣabirin amm yan usagm afad ad nn awḍnt iskkinn d iwttasn nnsnt isinann zund, s umdya, assmɣur n taggart, anbaḍ d tdɣart tanamunt."
"Constructivists view national and ethnic identities as the product of historical forces, often recent, even when the identities are presented as old.","imskrarn da ttiẓiṛn timagitin tinamurin d tẓuṛanin amm tyafut n waggaḍn imzruyann, wala ittggan itrarn, awd ig ttusnkadnt tmagitin ann amm is gant tiqburin."
"This is in the context of debates over multiculturalism in countries, such as the United States and Canada, which have large immigrant populations from many different cultures, and post-colonialism in the Caribbean and South Asia.","aya g umnaḍ n umrara n wawal illan xf tgtdlsant g tmizar zund iwnakn imann d kanad, nna g llan kigan n imzwagn d iddan sg tmizar ilan tidlsiwin iẓlin, d umḍfṛsdurri g ukaṛaybi d asya n iffus."
"Third, group formation resulted from the drive to monopolize power and status.","wiss kṛaḍ, asilɣ n trubba da d ittkka tirat n ukwac n unbaḍ d tdɣart tanamunt."
Barth went further than Weber in stressing the constructed nature of ethnicity.,"baṛt, isddid xf wiss iga uẓuṛ uṣkiw uggan n wibr."
"""He wanted to part with anthropological notions of cultures as bounded entities, and ethnicity as primordialist bonds, replacing it with a focus on the interface between groups. """"""","""ira ad imziry d tissinin tisnafganin ittinin mas d tidlsiwin d timassin tiwttanin,d uẓuṛ amm is gan izdayn idslann, issnfl tt s usmssi xf tmyaɣin gr trubba"""""""
"""He agrees with Joan Vincent's observation that (in Cohen's paraphrase) """"Ethnicity... can be narrowed or broadened in boundary terms in relation to the specific needs of political mobilization.""","""imsasa d usniɣs n jun bisint ma as d (tarart isskr kuhin)""""aẓuṛ iɣy ad ittusnyama nɣ ittusflay g uynna iẓlin s usɣaws n usmussu asrtan"""
Ethnic groups came to be defined as social rather than biological entities.,ttusnmalnt trbiɛin tiẓuṛanin g tiggira is gant tinamunin uggar n wiss gant timassin tibyulujin.
"Examples of various approaches are primordialism, essentialism, perennialism, constructivism, modernism, and instrumentalism.","imdyatn n kigan n tmyadasin zund tazwurant, tadslant, tasulant, takarasant, tatrarant, d timissant."
"""""""Essentialist primordialism"""" further holds that ethnicity is an a priori fact of human existence, that ethnicity precedes any human social interaction and that it is unchanged by it.""","""""""tazwurant tadslant"""" da ittatg ma as d aẓuṛ izwar d tilit n ufgan, is illa ur ta tlli awd yat tmyaɣt tanamunt tanfgant d is t ur tssnfil."
"""""""Kinship primordialism"""" holds that ethnic communities are extensions of kinship units, basically being derived by kinship or clan ties where the choices of cultural signs (language, religion, traditions) are made exactly to show this biological affinity.""","""""""tazwurant tamyasant"""" da ttatg ma as d tirubba tiẓuṛanin gant tisbarawin n ifrdisn n umyasa, sg ma ayd d ffɣnt s usilal sg tzdayin n umyasa nɣd iɣss nna g ittwagg ustay n tmitar tidlsanin (tutlayt, asgd, timyuri) afad ad iml almili abyulujan illan. """
"""""""Geertz's primordialism"""", notably espoused by anthropologist Clifford Geertz, argues that humans in general attribute an overwhelming power to primordial human """"givens"""" such as blood ties, language, territory, and cultural differences.""","""""""tazwurant n girtz"""", nna d illa usnafgan klifurd gurtz, da ttini ma as d iwdann s umata da ttikkin yat tzmrt taẓnṭaṛt i """"tmuca"""" tinfganin timzwura zund tizdayin n idammn, tutlayt, tamazirt, d imzarayn idlsann."""
"""Smith (1999) distinguishes two variants: """"continuous perennialism"""", which claims that particular nations have existed for very long periods, and """"recurrent perennialism"""", which focuses on the emergence, dissolution and reappearance of nations as a recurring aspect of human history.""","""smit(1999) da ismziriy gr sin wanawn: """"tasulant izdin"""", nna ittinin kkant tt nn tmtta iẓlin iddrn tiwula iɣzzifn, d """"tasulant yulsn"""", nna isdikkin xf unnuflu d ufsay d unnuflu tayḍ tikklt n tmtta igan yat tmatart ittuyalsn g umzruy anfgan."""
"This view holds that the concept of ethnicity is a tool used by political groups to manipulate resources such as wealth, power, territory or status in their particular groups' interests.","tannayt ad tukz ma as d tissint n uẓuṛ d yan imissi nna smrasnt trubba tisrtanin afad ad nnbḍnt g isugam zund agla, anbaḍ, tamazirt d tdɣart tanamunt g trbiɛin timẓlay nna g ɣursn iɣabirn."
"""""""Instrumentalist perennialism"""", while seeing ethnicity primarily as a versatile tool that identified different ethnics groups and limits through time, explains ethnicity as a mechanism of social stratification, meaning that ethnicity is the basis for a hierarchical arrangement of individuals.""","""""""timssant tasulant"""", mqqar da tsksiw aẓuṛ g tizwuri amm is iga yan imisi arisa nna issukzn kigan n trubba tiẓuṛanin d iwtta xf taɣzi n uzmz, da tssfru is iga uẓuṛ yan umukanizm n usnmala anamun , aynna isnumakn ma as d aẓuṛ ayd igan tasila n tnigdawit n wuggiḍn.."""
"According to Donald Noel, ethnic stratification will emerge only when specific ethnic groups are brought into contact with one another, and only when those groups are characterized by a high degree of ethnocentrism, competition, and differential power.","g uynna as yukz dunald nwil, asnmala aẓuṛan da d ittagga ɣas adday tili tmyaɣt d wawaḍ gr trubba tiẓuṛanin timẓlay, macan ɣas ig digsnt llant tfrisin n triẓuṛt d tɣnnant d umziray anbaḍan."
"Continuing with Noel's theory, some degree of differential power must be present for the emergence of ethnic stratification.","s ussudu akd tẓṛit n nwil, maxccayt ad yili kra n umziray anbaḍan afad ad ibayn usnmala aẓuṛan."
"The different ethnic groups must be competing for some common goal, such as power or influence, or a material interest, such as wealth or territory.","iqqan d ad tili tɣnnant gr trubba tiẓuṛanin imzarayn xf yan uskkin issarn, amm unbaḍ nɣd tazrirt, nɣd aɣabir angaw, zund agla niɣ tamurt."
"It holds that ethnic groups are only products of human social interaction, maintained only in so far as they are maintained as valid social constructs in societies.","tukz as ma as d tirubba tiẓuṛanin gant ɣas tayafut n tmyaɣt tanfgant tanamunt, ur da ttuyadjant ɣas ig sufrnt i wamunn."
They hold that prior to this ethnic homogeneity was not considered an ideal or necessary factor in the forging of large-scale societies.,cbbrn s ma as d dat tmsarit ad taẓuṛant ur tt nn tkki da ttuyannay amm is tga yan uktu nɣd yat tsɣlt tuccilt g tuṣka n wamunn imqran.
"Members of an ethnic group, on the whole, claim cultural continuities over time, although historians and cultural anthropologists have documented that many of the values, practices, and norms that imply continuity with the past are of relatively recent invention.","igmaman n trabbut taẓuṛant, s umata, da ttettrn tisulin tidlsanin xf taɣzi n uzmz, mqqar zmmemn inmzruyn d isnafgann ma as d kigan n izaliwn, timskrin, d tsɣal nna isɣawasn yat tzdayt tasulant d izry gant isliwwitn itrarn."
"""It is based on the notion of """"culture"""".""","""tbdda xf tissint n """"tadlsa""""."""
This view arose as a way to justify enslavement of African Americans and genocide of Native Americans in a society that was officially founded on freedom for all.,tannayt ad tbayn d afad ad tg yan imissi issnẓayn akklu n ifriqn imirikann d ussiwnɣ n imzdaɣ imzwura n amirika g yan umun ittuṣkan s wunṣib xf tlelli i ku yan.
Many of the foremost scientists of the time took up the idea of racial difference and found that white Europeans were superior.,"wahli n imassann ixatarn n wakud ann llan akd twngimt n umziray aẓuṛan, ufan nn ma as d imllaln iṛubban gan inyufn d inuflayn."
"Instead of attributing the marginalized status of people of color in the United States to their inherent biological inferiority, he attributed it to their failure to assimilate into American culture.","g udɣar n wad irar assitm g tdɣart tanamunt i iwdan arimllaln g iwankn imann s tnaddawt nnsn tabyulujant takusant, irura tt s amnkd nnsn ad amẓn umun g tdlsa tamirikant."
They argue in Racial Formation in the United States that the ethnicity theory was exclusively based on the immigration patterns of the white population and did take into account the unique experiences of non-whites in the United States.,da ttmnzaɣn g udlis n aṣku aẓuṛan g iwankn imann xf tẓṛit n uẓuṛ ibddan day xf twanaɣt n uzwag n imzdaɣ imllaln d is tt tuwy g irimn imyiwann n irimllaln g iwankn imann.
"Assimilationshedding the particular qualities of a native culture for the purpose of blending in with a host culturedid not work for some groups as a response to racism and discrimination, though it did for others.","tamsrtit n tɣariwin iẓlin s yat tdlsa taṭukṭunt afad ad tfsy ammas n tdlsa tasnubgant ur tsufir i idsnt trubba iddɣ tlla tssaẓuṛant d usnuḥyu, mqqar tsufr i idsnt aḍnin."
"""They culminated in the rise of """"nation-states"""" in which the presumptive boundaries of the nation coincided (or ideally coincided) with state boundaries.""","""uwin d tannayt n """"iwankn-timtta"""" nna g d usan iwtta n tmtti d win uwank."""
"Nation-states, however, invariably include populations who have been excluded from national life for one reason or another.","iwankn-timtta, imil, da digsn ttilin s umata imzdaɣ nna ittusitmn g tudrt tanamurt s yat tmntilt nɣ tayḍ."
"Multi-ethnic states can be the result of two opposite events, either the recent creation of state borders at variance with traditional tribal territories, or the recent immigration of ethnic minorities into a former nation-state.","izmr is gan iwankn igtẓuṛann tayafut n sin imzzutn inmgaln, swa kkan d tamttagut tamatrart n iwtta iwankann ur imsasan d iwtta iziwawann izaykutn, swa azwag atrar n tdrusin timẓuṛanin ɣr yan uwank-tamtti."
"""States such as the United Kingdom, France and Switzerland comprised distinct ethnic groups from their formation and have likewise experienced substantial immigration, resulting in what has been termed """"multicultural"""" societies, especially in large cities.""","""iwankn amm tgllidt imann, franṣa d swiṣṛa llant digsn trubba tiẓuṛanin istyn sg ma ayd llan yili ẓaṛsn awd uzwag iggudin, aynna isyafan alig gan inamunn """"igtadlsann"""", lumaṛ g tmdinin tixatarin."""
"Though these categories are usually discussed as belonging to the public, political sphere, they are upheld within the private, family sphere to a great extent.","mqqar illa umdikar xf tgwmanit n tsmilin ann s igr amatay, asrtan, ttuyadjant g yigr amẓlay d walmssan."
"Before Weber (1864–1920), race and ethnicity were primarily seen as two aspects of the same thing.","dat wibr (1864-1920), ikka tt nn uẓur d unaɣiz s udslan gan sin wudmawn n yuwn uskkin."
"According to this view, the state should not acknowledge ethnic, national or racial identity but rather instead enforce political and legal equality of all individuals.","amnad ad yukz ma as d, ixṣṣa awank ad ur issuded awd yat twngimt taẓuṛant tanamurt nɣ d tanaɣizant macan ixṣṣa ad izrk iksil asrtan d uzrfan n iwdan nns maṛṛa."
"The 19th century saw the development of the political ideology of ethnic nationalism, when the concept of race was tied to nationalism, first by German theorists including Johann Gottfried von Herder.","g tswatut tiss 19 tdyulujit n tnamurt taẓuṛant, lliɣ g tslɣ tissint n uẓuṛ s tnamurt, g tizwuri xf ufus n imssiẓiṛn alimann g illa yuhan gutfrid fun hirdr."
Each promoted the pan-ethnic idea that these governments were acquiring only lands that had always been inhabited by ethnic Germans.,ku yan digsn ismmctg tawngimt takkwẓuṛant ittinin is ixṣṣa tinbaḍin ad ur drknt ɣas ikaln g zdɣn walimann s uẓuṛ.
"The colonization of Asia was largely ended in the 20th century, with national drives for independence and self-determination across the continent.","inflal usdurri n asya s tuggt g tswatut tiss 20, akd imzmzzln inamurn n uzarug d untasmil g umnẓaw."
"A number of European countries, including France and Switzerland, do not collect information on the ethnicity of their resident population.","idsnt tmura n uṛubba, g tamu fṛanṣa d swisra, ur da smutturnt umlan xf unaɣiz aẓuṛan n imzdaɣ nnsnt."
"During European colonization, Europeans arrived in North America.","g iwnnan n usdurri aṛubban, iwḍ nn ayt uṛubba amirika n ugafay."
Digital ethnography allows for a lot more opportunities to look at different cultures and societies.,tatnugṛaft tamuṭṭunt da ttikki uggar n isulfn g uynna iẓlin s isniɣsn n tdlsiwin d wamun irimyaɣn.
Relational Ethnography articulates studying fields rather than places or processes rather than processed people.,tatnugṛaft tazdyant da tssfaw igran n tɣri uggar n wansiwn nɣd timhal uggar n iwdan d iwrikn.
The goal is to collect data in such a way that the researcher imposes a minimal amount of personal bias in the data.,awttas iga t usmuttr n umlan d tnɣmisin s yat tmamkt ittadjan amrzu ad ig unuf d tudmawin g umlan.
"Interviews are often taped and later transcribed, allowing the interview to proceed unimpaired of note-taking, but with all information available later for full analysis.","imsnalatn da wala ttusursn ukan ttuzmmamn awar, aynna ittadjan amsnala ad issudu mir tirra n izmmimn, macan da akkw ttɣiman wumlan wjdn i yan ufsi aɣzuran d iḍfaṛn."
"Despite these attempts of reflexivity, no researcher can be totally unbiased.","waxxa ttwwaggn yirimn ad n uswingm, awd yan umrzu ur iẓḍaṛ ad igg arawsan."
"These informants are typically asked to identify other informants who represent the community, often using snowball or chain sampling.","da ittuyattar i inmmaln ad ssikzn inmmaln aḍnin nna ittgzan tagrbazat, s usmrs n ussift s tcamma n utfl nɣ d s tmzdayt."
2010) examine the ontological and epistemological presuppositions underlying ethnography.,2010) da izrru turdawin tinṭulujin d tbbistimulujin igan tirsal n tetnugṛaft.
"""Critical theory researchers address """"issues of power within the researcher-researched relationships and the links between knowledge and power.""""""","imrzutn n tẓṛit tanfrant da sawaln xf """"isqsitn n udwas agnsu n tzdayin umrzu-imrzi d isɣunn illan gr tussna d udwas."""""""
"An image can be contained within the physical world through a particular individual's perspective, primarily based on that individual's past experiences.","tɣy ad tili yat twlaft g umaḍal akmam g umnad n yan wuggiḍ, nna ittuṣkan s udslan xf yirimn izrin n wuggiḍ ann."
The idea of an image relies on the imagination and has been seen to be utilized by children in a very spontaneous and natural manner.,da tbdda twngimt n yat twlaft xf twargit nna smrasn icirran s yat tmamkt tandɣart d tgmamant.
Cultural and social anthropologists today place a high value on doing ethnographic research.,isnafgann idlsan d inamunn da ssitign kigan assa arzzu atnugṛaf.
"""Ethnographies are also sometimes called """"case studies.""""""","da asn qqarn idsnt tikkal i tetnugṛafin s """"""tiɣuriwin n umdya""""""."
"The fieldwork usually involves spending a year or more in another society, living with the local people and learning about their ways of life.","tawuri n yigr da tsɣawas s umata azzruy n yan usggwas nɣ d uggar g yan unamun aḍnin, d tudrt akd imzdaɣ nns idɣarann d twafit n wammak n tudrt nnsn."
Benedict's experiences with the Southwest Zuni pueblo is to be considered the basis of her formative fieldwork.,iqqan d ma as d tirimin n binidikt akd ṣawtwist zuni bwiblu ad gint tirsal n twuri n yigr i unmmal.
"A typical ethnography attempts to be holistic and typically follows an outline to include a brief history of the culture in question, an analysis of the physical geography or terrain inhabited by the people under study, including climate, and often including what biological anthropologists call habitat.","tatnugṛaft tanawant-tamdyant da ttarm ad tg taɣzurant ar ttḍfur s umata yan uɣawas afad ad tssidf yan umzruy aggwzzal n tdlsa xf illa usqsi, yan usfsi n tjyugṛaft tafizikt nɣ d i yigr nna g zdɣn iwdann xf illa urzzu, aynna g yamu unzwi, da digs ittumu s umata uynna mi qqarn isnafgann ibyulujann tazduɣt."
"Kinship and social structure (including age grading, peer groups, gender, voluntary associations, clans, moieties, and so forth, if they exist) are typically included.","amyasa d tuṣkiwin tinamurin (g yamu usttf xf utay, tirubba yaksuln, tawsit, timsmunin timxasin, iɣsan, izgnann dwiyyaḍ, mk llan) da ttumun s umata."
"Rites, rituals, and other evidence of religion have long been an interest and are sometimes central to ethnographies, especially when conducted in public where visiting anthropologists can see them.","timyurin d tfugliwin d wanẓatn aḍnin n usgd uwin tawna sg zik gin idslann i tetnugṛafin, lumaṛ adday ttuyagnt ammas n ugdud nna g zmr imrzutn itnugṛafn ad tnt ẓṛin."
"For example, if within a group of people, winking was a communicative gesture, he sought to first determine what kinds of things a wink might mean (it might mean several things).","s umdya, mk iga unxaṣ yat tmuli n umyawaḍ ammas n yat trabbut n iwdan, da itturza zwar matta wanaw n tɣawsiwin s iɣy unxaṣ ad tnt isnumk (izmr ad yili kigan n inumak)."
"""Geertz, while still following something of a traditional ethnographic outline, moved outside that outline to talk about """"webs"""" instead of """"outlines"""" of culture.""","mqqar iḍfaṛ girtz tawnaɣt tatnugṛaft taqqburt imiḥ, iffɣ tawnaɣt ad afad ad isiwl xf """"""tratsiwin"""""" g udɣar n """""" tdsla n ikẓiẓn iẓnṭaṛn""""""."
"Writing Culture helped bring changes to both anthropology and ethnography often described in terms of being 'postmodern,' 'reflexive,' 'literary,' 'deconstructive,' or 'poststructural' in nature, in that the text helped to highlight the various epistemic and political predicaments that many practitioners saw as plaguing ethnographic representations and practices.","tirra n tdlsa uwsnt g usnfl n tsnafgant d tetnugṛaft, tamggarut ad da ttusnmal aha is tga 'tawartrart', 'taswingmant', 'tasklant', 'tarakrasant' nɣ d 'tawaruṣkiwt' g tmust nns, aynnaɣ as yuws uḍṛiṣ g wufuɣ n imɣnutn ibbistimn d tnmmarin tisrtan s asidd, tinna staln kigan n imsskarn amm is gant yan umuttl i imsdyatn d tmskarin tisnafganin."
"In regards to this last point, Writing Culture became a focal point for looking at how ethnographers could describe different cultures and societies without denying the subjectivity of those individuals and groups being studied while simultaneously doing so without laying claim to absolute knowledge and objective authority.","g uynna iẓlin s tnqqiḍt ad tamggarut, tadlsa tamarant taɣul tga tadslant g yinig n tmamkt nna s zmrn isnafgann ad snummln tidlsiwin d inamunn imzarayn mir ad ssuhun ( nkṛn) tunmast n iwddan d trubba xf illa urzzu d mir ad sḥnjifn is lan tussna d ismdn d tnbaḍt tamsɣarant."
"As the purpose of ethnography is to describe and interpret the shared and learned patterns of values, behaviors, beliefs, and language of a culture-sharing group, Harris, (1968), also Agar (1980) note that ethnography is both a process and an outcome of the research.","awttas n tetnugṛaft d aglam d ufars n irzzutn n wazal issarn ttulmadn, tikliwin, iɣaln, d tutlayt n yat trabbut issarn tadlsa, harris(1968), d agar (1980) izmmem ma as d tatnugṛaft tga azrruy d tyafut n urzzu g yat tikklt."
"""Sociologist Sam Ladner argues in her book, that understanding consumers and their desires requires a shift in """"standpoint,"""" one that only ethnography provides.""","""asnamun sam ladnir inna g udlis nns ma as d armas n inssmurn d tuggumin nnsn sɣawsnt yan usnfl n """"umnad"""" amggaru ad ur da t yikki ɣas tatnugṛaft"""
"""By assessing user experience in a """"natural"""" setting, ethnology yields insights into the practical applications of a product or service.""","""s ustal n tirimin n umsmrs g yan usati """"agaman"""", tatnulujt da tikki yan yinniy n tmskirin tisɣnan n yan uyafu nɣ d n yat tnafut."""
The Ethnographic Praxis in Industry (EPIC) conference is evidence of this.,tinawt tatnugṛaft baṛaksis (EPIC) tga anẓa n uya.
"""Jaber F. Gubrium and James A. Holstein's (1997) monograph, The New Language of Qualitative Method, discusses forms of ethnography in terms of their """"methods talk.""""""","""tamunigṛaft jaybr gubryum d jayms hulsṭaynz (1997), g ulis nns tutlayt tamaynut n tbridt taɣudant, da isgdal talɣiwin n tetnugṛaft s tguriwin n """" timamkin da sawalnt""""."""
"""Essentially, Fine maintains that researchers are typically not as ethical as they claim or assume to be — and that """"each job includes ways of doing things that would be inappropriate for others to know"""".""","""s udslan, yukz fin ma as d imrzutn ur digsn s umata tiɣariwin imkinna ttinin— d ma as d """"ku tawuri ɣurs tibridin nna s tskar tiɣawsiwin s d ur yusi ad tnt issinn wiyyaḍ""""."""
"""He maintains that """"illusions"""" are essential to maintain an occupational reputation and avoid potentially more caustic consequences.""","""yukz is d """"imarurn"""" gan idslann afad ad tqqim tizi tazzulant ttwassan tary idsnt tyafutin ɣifs immrn uggar""."
"The code of ethics notes that anthropologists are part of a wider scholarly and political network, as well as human and natural environment, which needs to be reported on respectfully.","g uslgn n tɣariwin ittwazmmam is ixṣṣa ad sskrn isnafgann yan uẓṭṭa asdawan d usrtan iɣzzifn, d yan uwnnaḍ anfgan d ugaman, nna s ixṣṣa ad ittubdar s uzrak."
Researchers take near-fictions and turn them into claims of fact.,da ttasin imrzutn tiḥḍaṛmarurin ssnfln tnt ar d gint tilawin timdadin.
"In reality, an ethnographer will always miss some aspect because of lacking omniscience.","s tidt, atnugṛaf ad ittu kra aha acku ur ɣurs tlli takkwmassant."
"Indigenous peoples, also referred to as first people, aboriginal people, native people, or autochthonous people, are culturally distinct ethnic groups who are native to a place which has been colonised and settled by another ethnic group.","imdan indijinn, nna mi awd qqarn s imdan imzwura, iburijinn, iẓɣurann, iṭukṭunn, gan tirubba tiẓuṛanin mɣur tadlsa itsyn gin ilulawn n yan wansa nna g ttwasdurrin tzdɣ kra n trabbut taẓuṛant aḍnin g udɣar nnsn."
"""Peoples are usually described as """"indigenous"""" when they maintain traditions or other aspects of an early culture that is associated with a given region.""","""imdann s umata da ttusnmaln s """"iṭukṭunn"""" ig ḥḍan timyurin nɣ d idsnt tsggwin yaḍnin n yat tdlsa tazaykut izdin d yat tmnaḍt ittwassn."""
"Indigenous peoples continue to face threats to their sovereignty, economic well-being, languages, ways of knowing, and access to the resources on which their cultures depend.","imdann imzwura suln da ttnaln isdiddiyn imqran xf tnigakt nnsn, aḍṛṛḥ nsn admsan, tutlayin nnsn, tibridin n tussna, d ulkam n isugam nna xf tbdda tdmsa nnsn."
Estimates of the total global population of Indigenous peoples usually range from 250 million to 600 million.,uṭṭunn n imzdaɣ imaḍlann n imdan iṭukṭunn llan s umata gr 250 mlyun d 600 mlyun.
"As a reference to a group of people, the term Indigenous first came into use by Europeans who used it to differentiate the Indigenous peoples of the Americas from enslaved Africans.","taguri n iṭukṭunn, nna iskann s yat trbiɛt n iwdan, smrsn tt iṛubbiyn tikklt tamzwarut afad ad smziryn gr iwdan imirikann imzwura d imirikkann nna ruran d iḥzzaṛn mɣur anaɣiz sg afrika."
"In the 1970s, the term was used as a way of linking the experiences, issues, and struggles of groups of colonized people across international borders.","g isggwasn n 1970, tkka tt nn lla ttusmras tguri ann afad ad munnt tirimin, timkwras, d tɣnsiwin n trubba n imdann ittwasdurrin gr iwtta igraɣlann."
"This situation can persist even in the case where the Indigenous population outnumbers that of the other inhabitants of the region or state; the defining notion here is one of separation from decision and regulatory processes that have some, at least titular, influence over aspects of their community and land rights.","anitid ad iɣy ad izdy awd mk ddan imzdaɣ iṭukṭunn ar d agrn imzdaɣ imsdurrin n tmnaḍt nɣ d awank; aynna igan adslan da d tibḍit n tmhal tiɣtsanin d tslganin nna iṭṭafn kra n tzrirt, mqar d ɣas s wassaɣ xf tsggwin n tgrawt d izrfan n wakal."
"A 2009 United Nations report published by the Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues stated: For centuries, since the time of their colonization, conquest or occupation, Indigenous peoples have documented histories of resistance, interface or cooperation with states, thus demonstrating their conviction and determination to survive with their distinct sovereign identities.","yan unqqis n tmtta imunn ittugan g 2009 lli tfsr tsikritarit n usgraw anzday xf tmntal tiṭukṭunin inna ma as d: tiswatutin aya, sg uzmz n usdurri, alik nɣ d iwy, zmmemn imdann iṭukṭunn tallasin n tnzbayt, n tmyaɣt, nɣ d n umyawas akd iwankn, aynna s mmaln aɛwwl nnsn ad ddrn akd tmagitin nnsn istyn."
"These people were seen by ancient writers either as the ancestors of the Greeks, or as an earlier group of people who inhabited Greece before the Greeks.","kkan tt nn imaratn iqburn da ttinin ma as gan imzwura n igrikn ( ayt lyunan n dɣi), nɣ d yat trbiɛt izrin n iwdan nna tt nn ikkan zdɣn g lyunan dat n iyunann.."
The Crusades (1096-1271) were based on this ambition of a holy war against who the church saw as infidels.,imnɣan (1096-1271) incan issndr tn unaruz n wiss gan ifuẓar mgal n winna tmmal ligliz amm is gan arisgdann.
"However, the council upheld that conquests could 'legally' occur if non-Christians refused to comply with Christianization and European natural law.","imil, asqqim yukz as is iɣy ad ttwaggn ilikn s ulgin mk ugin iriṛumin ad msasan akd tkristyaniyt d uzrf agman n uṛubba."
"In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Indigenous peoples of what are now referred to as the Canary Islands, known as Guanches (who had lived on the islands since the BCE era) became the subject of colonizers' attention.","g tswatut tiss 14 d 15, imdann iṭukṭunn n tgzirin tiknariyin mi qqarn igwancn ( zdɣn g tgzirt sg uzmz n BCE) uwin tawna d taɣḍft n imsdurrin."
"In 1402, the Spanish began efforts to invade and colonize the islands.","g 1402, tssnta ṣblyun tuggaz nns afad ad tsdurri tigzirin."
"The invaders brought destruction and diseases to the Guanche people, whose identity and culture disappeared as a result.","imsdurrin uwin d tirdliwin d waṭṭann i umdan agwanc, s tyafut n maya, tuccka tmagit d tdlsa nns."
"""As stated by Robert J. Miller, Jacinta Ruru, Larissa Behrendt, and Tracey Lindberg, the doctrine developed over time """"to justify the domination of non-Christian, non-European peoples and the confiscations of their lands and rights.""""""","""imkinna inna ṛubirṛ j. milr, jasinta ruru, larissa birindt, d traysi lindburg, ttusbuɣla tbridt xf uzrruy n wakud afad ad """" tssnẓi annbḍ g imdann ariṛumin, ariṛubbiyn d usukkf n ikaln d izrfan nsn.’’"
"Spanish King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella hired Christopher Columbus, who was dispatched in 1492, to colonize and bring new lands under the Spanish crown.","agllid aṣblyan firdinand d tgllidt izabilla sswurin krisṭuf kulumbuṣ, nna yafuḍn g 1492, afad ad isuddri yawy d ikaln imaynutn i tgllidt taṣblyunt."
"""Alexander granted Spain any lands that it discovered as long as they had not been """"previously possessed by any Christian owner.""""""","""aliksadr irura d i ṣblyun ikaln nna akkw yufa s yuwt tfada nna igan ad """"yad ur ilin g ufus n kra n uṛumy."""""
"Many conquistadors apparently feared that, if given the option, Indigenous peoples would actually accept Christianity, which would legally not permit invasion of their lands and the theft of their belongings.","irwas is ggwdn kigan n imalikn ma as d mk fkan astay i iṭukṭunn, qa ad irin takristyaniyt, aynna yad ur innin ad tn yaddj ad gin anbaz i ikaln nns akrn tilitin nnsn s ulgn."
"Being Catholic countries in 1493, England as well as France worked to 're-interpret' the Doctrine of Discovery to serve their own colonial interests.","fṛanṣa d nngliz nna igan tikatulikin g 1493, urmnt ad ssrmsnt taɣarast n tnazuft s yat tmamkt isufrn i iɣaburn nnsnt imsdurrin."
"""Land claims were made through symbolic """"rituals of discovery"""" that were performed to illustrate the colonizing nation's legal claim to the land.""","""da ttggan """"tifugliwin n tnazuft"""" adday akrn ikaln imaynutn afad ad tt ssntln fkin as yan wudm ulgin."""
"In 1774, Captain James Cook attempted to invalidate Spanish land claims to Tahiti by removing their marks of possession and then proceeding to set up English marks of possession.","g 1774, lkabbitan jayms kuk yurm ad ikks aṣadafa d usɣẓan i ikaln nna tsdurri ṣbanya s usukkf n tmnirin nna tsrs tmggarut ad, ig timnirin tinglizin n tilit g udɣar nnsnt."
This concept formalized the idea that lands which were not being used in a manner that European legal systems approved of were open for European colonization.,tissint ad tṣka tawngimt ma as d ikaln nna ur ittusmrisn ilin ddaw islgn iṛubban gan win usdurri.
"As the 'rules' of colonization became established into legal doctrine agreed upon by between European colonial powers, methods of laying claims to Indigenous lands continued to expand rapidly.","sg mad dwln ‘’ilgamn’’ n usddurry ullzn g tɣarast tanzzarfuut xf msasan imadusn uṛubbiyn gratsn, gan tbridin n tikki n issuturn n ikaln n imzdaɣ iẓuṛan ssntit g tixxitirt s yat tmamkt ittazzlan."
"Precise estimates for the total population of the world's Indigenous peoples are very difficult to compile, given the difficulties in identification and the variances and inadequacies of available census data.","icqqa bahra usmuttr n turdiwin n sdidn n umata n imzdaɣ n igdudn iẓuṛan g umaḍal, ayddɣ llan tbbayḍaṛin g uswttu n tmagit d isnuḥyutn d wudmawn n tdrsi n isfka n uḥyyl nna illan."
"This includes at least 5,000 distinct peoples in over 72 countries.",ismun man aya ddaw n 5000 n igdudn imẓlay g wuggar n 72 n tmazirt.
Some have also been assimilated by other populations or have undergone many other changes.,mkinna itturmas kra gitsnt sg dar trubba timzdaɣin nnniḍn nɣ kcmn ttn kra n isnfiln yaḍnin.
"The highly diverse and numerous ethnic groups that comprise most modern, independent African states contain within them various peoples whose situation, cultures and pastoralist or hunter-gatherer lifestyles are generally marginalized and set apart from the dominant political and economic structures of the nation.","ar nn nttafa ammas n trubba tiẓuṛanin nna bahra imyanawn nna g ttilin kigan n tmizar nna illan g ifriqya tatrart iẓlin cigan n igdudn nna isinifn s umata addadn nns d tdlsa nns d tmamkin n tudrt nns n tyssa nɣ ingmarn nna tn ismunn, ar tbḍḍu gr atsnt d gr tfggiwin tisrtanin d tdmsatin nna illan g tmurt."
"The impacts of historical and ongoing European colonization of the Americas on Indigenous communities have been in general quite severe, with many authorities estimating ranges of significant population decline primarily due to disease, land theft and violence.","gan idrizn n usddurry ayuṛubbiy n umzruy d usddurry amirikaniy xf imunn n igdudn iẓuṛan cqqan nik bhra s umata, ayddɣ dikḍnt n tnbaḍin mi mqqurn ifuɣaln sg tdrsi n imzdaɣ nna itturrayn s tmaḍunin d tukkṛḍa n ikaln d tkṛiḍt."
"In the southern states of Oaxaca (65.73%) and Yucatán (65.40%), the majority of the population is Indigenous, as reported in 2015.","g tmẓlayt n ukasa tyffust (65.73%) d tmẓlayt n yukatan (65.40%), llan imzdaɣ n tmurt ugrn imzdaɣ nniḍn, mkinna illan g unqqis n usggwas n 2015."
"""The descriptors """"Indian"""" and """"Eskimo"""" have fallen into disuse in Canada.""",‘’isnummaln ‘’ihindiyn’’ d ‘’iskimutn’’ ur yad da ttusmrasn di kanaḍa’’.
"Most notable was the change of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (AANDC) to Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) in 2015, which then split into Indigenous Services Canada and Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Development Canada in 2017.","sg isnfiln nna illan asnfl n iskkinn n imzdaɣ iẓuṛann d ussgmi n ugafay g kanaḍa (AANDC) s iskkin n imzdaɣ iẓuṛann g ugafay n kanaḍa (INAC) g usggwas n 2015, nna ibḍan dffir n man aya s tnafutin n imzdaɣ iẓuṛann n kanaḍa d tzdayin gr isni d imzdaɣ iẓuṛan d ussgmi agafay g kanaḍa g usggwas n 2017."
"First Nations peoples signed 11 numbered treaties across much of what is now known as Canada between 1871 and 1921, except in parts of British Columbia.","sgmḍn igdudn n tggayin timzwura xf 11 n tetgarin ittuṣiṭnn xf kigan g ma ittwassan ɣila g kanaḍa gr usggwas n 1871 d 1921, nna g ur llin igzzumn n kulumbya tabṛiṭaniyt."
"The autonomous territory of Greenland within the Kingdom of Denmark is also home to a recognised Indigenous and majority population of Inuit (about 85%) who settled the area in the 13th century, displacing the Indigenous Dorset people and Greenlandic Norse.","tga tsga n ɣrinland yat tsga nna dar illa unnbḍ n unmas ammas n tgldit n ddanmaṛk iga tamurt n imzdaɣ iẓuṛan d tuggt nna xf ttussikzn sg linwit (dar 85%) nna izdɣn ansa g tsutit tiss 13, aynna yudjan imzdaɣ iẓuṛan ad ttujlan g ddursit d nnurs lɣrinlandyyin."
"In Spanish or Portuguese speaking countries, one finds the use of terms such as índios, pueblos indígenas, amerindios, povos nativos, povos indígenas, and, in Peru, Comunidades Nativas (Native Communities), particularly among Amazonian societies like the Urarina and Matsés.","g tmura nna isawaln s tutlayt taṣblyuniyt nɣ taburtuɣaliyt, ssn iwdan ad issmras armmasn zun: andiyuṣ, bubluṣ, amirḍyuṣ, bṛufu natifiṣ, bufuṣ indijinas, awd g lbiṛu, kuminiḍaḍuṣ natifaṣ (imunn iẓuṛann), slawann akkw imunn n umaẓun zund luṛanina d matatiss."
"Indigenous peoples are found in the entire territory of Brazil, although the majority of them live in Indian reservations in the North and Center-Western part of the country.","llan igdudn iẓuṛan g tsga akkw n lbṛaẓil, mqqar tddr tuggt nnsn xf wuffirn ihindiyn g ugafay n wammas d uɣlay n tmazirt."
There are currently more Armenians living outside their ancestral homeland because of the Armenian genocide of 1915.,ɣinna llan kigan n laṛmn nna ittidirn bṛṛa n tamurt n imzwura nnsn s tmntilt n usfsi amagraw n laṛmn g usggas n 1915.
"The argument entered the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in the 1990s, with Palestinians claiming Indigenous status as a pre-existing population displaced by Jewish settlement, and currently constituting a minority in the State of Israel.","ikcm ufakal imnɣi iṣṛayiliy g isggwasn n 1990, lliɣ g ttrn ifiliṣṭiniyn ad srsn imzdaɣ iẓuṛann ayddɣ ttusnummaln zund imzdaɣ illan dat n crudu s tmntilt n tzdduɣt n wudayn, gan ɣila tadrsi g twunkt n isṛayil."
"""In Russia, definition of """"indigenous peoples"""" is contested largely referring to a number of population (less than 50 000 people), and neglecting self-identification, origin from indigenous populations who inhabited the country or region upon invasion, colonization or establishment of state frontiers, distinctive social, economic and cultural institutions.""","‘’g rusiya, ar kkatn g usnml n ‘’igdudn iẓuṛann’’ nna da immaln bahra uṭṭun n imzdaɣ (ddaw n 50000), d ur da tt ittawi g uswttu n tmagit tankkint, d ntta ad igan asala n imzdaɣ iẓuṛan nna izdɣn g tmazirt nɣ ansa lliɣ g wazzaɣ nɣ asddurruy nɣ tiggi n iwtta n twunkt, d tmrsalin tinamunin d tdmsatin d tdlsatin iẓlin’’."
The Tibetans are indigenous to Tibet.,itubutiyn sg imzdaɣ iẓuṛann g ttibt.
"In Hong Kong, the indigenous inhabitants of the New Territories are defined in the Sino-British Joint Declaration as people descended through the male line from a person who was in 1898, before Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory.","g hung kung, ar isnummul unnɣms iccarn aṣiniy - abṛiṭaniy imzdaɣ iẓuṛan g tsggiwin timaynutin mas d ddan sg uzririg n iwtman sg uwrik illa g usggwas 1898, dat n tmyaqqant n usɣzif g tsga n hung kung."
The Cham are the indigenous people of the former state of Champa which was conquered by Vietnam in the Cham–Vietnamese wars during Nam tiến.,ccam gan imzdaɣ iẓuṛann g tmẓlayt n ttcamba izrin nna xf izzaɣ lfitnam g imnɣitn n ccam afitnamiy g tinaym.
The Khmer Krom are the indigenous people of the Mekong Delta and Saigon which were acquired by Vietnam from Cambodian King Chey Chettha II in exchange for a Vietnamese princess.,lxmir krum gan imzdaɣ iẓuṛann g dilta lmikung d sayɣun nna ṭumẓ lfitnam sg ugllid akambudiy tci tca wiss sin g tugdut n tgllidt tafitnamiyt.
This problem is shared by many other countries in the ASEAN region.,amukris ad illa awd g kigan n tmura nniḍn g wansa izdin tasqqnt n tmttin n uyffus n uɣlay g asya.
"The indigenous peoples of Mindanao are the Lumad peoples and the Moro (Tausug, Maguindanao Maranao and others) who also live in the Sulu archipelago.",imzdaɣ iẓuṛan g mindaw gan igdudn n lumand d imzdaɣn n muru (tawsuɣ d maɣindanaw maranaw d wiyyaḍ) nna ittidirn awd g arxabil sulu.
These groups are often together spoken of as Indigenous Australians.,inkr bahra umrara xf trubba ad s snat ayddɣ gan tt sg imzdaɣ iẓuṛann usṭṛaliyn.
"During the 20th century, several of these former colonies gained independence and nation-states formed under local control.","g tsutit tiss 20, umẓnt kigan n tmsddurruyin izrin xf tsimant ttugant twunak timɣlac ddaw n tkiriṭṭ tamurant."
"The remains of at least 25 miniature humans, who lived between 1,000 and 3,000 years ago, were recently found on the islands of Palau in Micronesia.",g tgiriwin ad ttuyafa g tgzirin n balaw g mikṛunizya ifrtutuyn n uynna ikkan ddaw n 25 n ufgan amẓẓyan llan ddrn gr 1000 d 3000 n usggwas.
"According to the 2013 census, New Zealand Māori make up 14.9% of the population of New Zealand, with less than half (46.5%) of all Māori residents identifying solely as Māori.","g uynna d yuckan g ussiṭn n 2013, gan lmawri inyuzinaldiny 14.9% sg imzdaɣ n nyuzilanda, d ddaw n uzgn (46.5) sg qqaḥ imzdaɣ imawriyn nna igan day imawriyn."
"Many Māori national leaders signed a treaty with the British, the Treaty of Waitangi (1840), seen in some circles as forming the modern geo-political entity that is New Zealand.","sgmḍn kigan n imlwayn inamurn imawriyn tamyaqqnt akd ibṛiṭaniyn, tamyaqqant n waytangi (1840), nna ittuẓṛan g kra n tsunḍin mas tga wansa ajuɣṛafiy asrtan atrar nna iṣkan yuzilanḍa."
"These issues include cultural and linguistic preservation, land rights, ownership and exploitation of natural resources, political determination and autonomy, environmental degradation and incursion, poverty, health, and discrimination.","smunnt tmsarin ad aḥṭṭu n tdlsa d tutlayin, d izrfan n wakal, d uyda n isugam igaman d tsarwa, d umamk asrtan d tsimant tanixft, d udhac n twnaḍt d unmuzu, d ẓẓlḍ, d tdusi, d usnuḥyu."
"The situation can be further confused when there is a complicated or contested history of migration and population of a given region, which can give rise to disputes about primacy and ownership of the land and resources.","tzmr tmrniwt n urway gr waddad asra g illa umzruy irwin nɣ ittwat gis sg uzwag n imzdaɣ g kra n wansa, aynna iɣin ad issnkr tinaɣitin xf tizwiri n wakal s isugam d tilit nns."
"Despite the diversity of indigenous peoples, it may be noted that they share common problems and issues in dealing with the prevailing, or invading, society.","mqqar myanawn igdudn iẓuṛan, tzmrt tannayt mas da tbḍḍu timukrisin d tmntilin iccarn g umuggu g wamun illan nɣ imzzaɣn.."
"Notable exceptions are the Sakha and Komi peoples (two northern indigenous peoples of Russia), who now control their own autonomous republics within the Russian state, and the Canadian Inuit, who form a majority of the territory of Nunavut (created in 1999).","sg gr wukkisn ittuyannayn timdnanin saxa d kumi (igdudn iẓuṛann igafayn n rusya), nna iṭṭamzn ɣila tagdudant iẓlin ammas n tmẓlayt tarusiyt, d linwit akanaḍiy, nna igan tagudiyt n tsga n nunafut (nna ittugan g usggwas 1999)."
This rejection ended up recognizing that there was a pre-existing system of law practised by the Meriam people.,ismd wagi ad s uqrra n yili n amagaw ulgin ibddan sg dat n ad issmrs agdud n miryam.
Retrieved on 11 October 2011.,tturura d g 11 kṭubṛ 2011.
"Hindus and Chams have both experienced religious and ethnic persecution and restrictions on their faith under the current Vietnamese government, with the Vietnamese state confiscating Cham property and forbidding Cham from observing their religious beliefs.","ttusrfufn ihindusn d ccam yan usrfufu n usgad d uẓuṛan d ikrafn ittugan xf usɣan nnsn xf usɣad nnsn ddaw tnbaḍt tafitnamiyt n ɣila, ayddɣ tskr twunkt tafitnamiyt tukksa n wayda n ayt ccam d ttugdduln ayt ccam ad skarn ifullsn nns n usɣan."
"In 2012, Vietnamese police in Chau Giang village stormed into a Cham Mosque, stole the electric generator, and also raped Cham girls.","g usggwas n 2012, skleln lbulis ifitnamiyn g iɣrm n ttcaw jyang timzgida n ttcam, akrn amssaru n usidd, ɣṣbn tirbatin n tcam."
"In 2012, Indonesia stated that ‘The Government of Indonesia supports the promotion and protection of indigenous people worldwide ... Indonesia, however, does not recognize the application of the indigenous peoples concept ... in the country’.","d g usggwas n 2012, tsskty indunisya masd ‘’tanbaḍt n indunisya da ttaws asdus d uḥṭṭu n imzdaɣ iẓuṛann g qqaḥ tisggiwin n umaḍal... maca indunisya ur da tqrra s uskkir n urmmus n igdudn iẓuṛann g tmazirt’’."
"The Vietnamese were originally centered around the Red River Delta but engaged in conquest and seized new lands such as Champa, the Mekong Delta (from Cambodia) and the Central Highlands during Nam Tien.",llan ifitnamiyn g umzwar nnsn zdɣn ammas n dilṭa asif azggwaɣ maca kcmn g unzzuɣ amẓn ikaln imaynutn zund tcamba d dilṭa mikunj (sg kambudya) d isawnn inamasn g nam tyyin.
The tremendous scale of Vietnamese Kinh colonists flooding into the Central Highlands has significantly altered the demographics of the region.,iwin ingayn iggutn n imddurruyn ifitnamiyn g isawnn inammasn s usnfl n tsnayt n tzdduɣt g udɣar.
And no elimination of one culture by another.”,‘’ula tinɣi n tdlsa s tdlsa nniḍn’’.
"Indigenous peoples have been denoted primitives, savages or uncivilized.",gan igdudn iẓuṛan ifarann nɣ imuḍaẓ nɣ winna ur iɣɣurmi.
"""Some philosophers, such as Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), considered indigenous people to be merely """"savages"""".""","‘’kra n iflsafn, zund ṭumaṣ hubz (1679-1588), satgn imzdaɣ iẓuṛun xs ‘’ixmmag’’."
Retrieved from Internet Archive 13 December 2013.,ttururad sg tmḥḍit n lantirnit 13 n dujanbir 2013.
"The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, adopted by the General Assembly in 2007, established indigenous peoples' right to self-determination, implying several rights regarding natural resource management.","issṛṣa ulɣu n tmttin n tinamunin (lumam lmuttaḥida) iẓlin s izrfan n igdudn iẓuṛan, nna tsɣzn tmsmunt tamatut g usggwas 2007, azrf n igdudn iẓuṛan g unqqis n umsdul, aynna igan g jaj kigan n izrfan nna iẓlin s tnmahla n isugam infgann."
Oil drilling could destroy thousands of years of culture for the Gwich'in.,taɣuzi n nnfṭ iɣy ad iṛṛẓ id igwḍn n tdlsa n gwitcin.
"Development projects such as dam construction, pipelines and resource extraction have displaced large numbers of indigenous peoples, often without providing compensation.","iwin isnfarn n ussgmi, zund tuṣṣka n wuggugn, d izrirign n usldi, d ussufɣ n isugam, s uzzlɛ n kigan n igdudn iẓuṛan, bla asn ittufkaawd ḥaḥ n warraz g kigan n tikkal."
These women also become economically dependent on men when they lose their livelihoods.,ar tggant ayddɣ n twtmin gr wuɣzin n tdlsiwin ngr mddn adday ɣursn laḥ tibridin n tudrt nnsn.
For example the Munduruku people in the Amazon rainforest are opposing the building of Tapajós dam with the help of Greenpeace.,"s umdya, ar ismgal ugdud n munduruku g taganin n lamaẓunun igan unẓaṛ ṣkan uggug n tabaxus s twisi n grin bis."
"Two main scenarios are proposed, an early expansion to Central Africa, and a single origin of the dispersal radiating from there, or an early separation into an eastward and a southward wave of dispersal, with one wave moving across the Congo basin towards East Africa, and another moving south along the African coast and the Congo River system towards Angola.","fkan sin ssinaryuhat ixatarn, gan tixxitirt n zikk g wammas n afriqya, d yan uɣbalu i uzllɛ ifawn dinnaɣ, nɣ abṭṭu n zikk s waẓy n ugmmuḍ g unɣal s waẓy n iyffus, akd umutti n yat taṭṭangat g yan umda n lkungu s waẓy n asnqr n afqriqya, d waẓy yaḍn s iyyffus xf taɣzi n uftas tafriqiyt d ugrra n wasif n lkungu s tsga n angula."
"Cattle terminology in use amongst the relatively few modern Bantu pastoralist groups suggests that the acquisition of cattle may have been from Central Sudanic, Kuliak and Cushitic-speaking neighbors.",da tsskan irimn n wulli ittusmrasn gr trubba n tyssa tatrart idrusn cwiy g lbanṭu mas tga tmsuxt n wulli ɛniɣ gan sg wadjarn isudaniyn d imzdaɣ kulyak d winna isawln s tutlayt takuciyt.
"Not far from the Mutirikiwi river, the Monomatapa kings built the Great Zimbabwe complex, a civilisation ancestral to the Kalanga people.","g tuggugt n wasif n murtikiwi, bni mlluk munumataba g imunn zimbabwi taxatart, iga taɣalt n imizurn iɣrmann i ugdud n kalanɣa."
"The Swahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do the many Afro-Arab members of the Bantu Swahili people.","tsskmḍ tdlsa n iftasn nna d iɣlin g ayddɣ n umrira n kigan n iḍiṣn iɛrabn d islamiyn nna ur ddjin tẓṛi tdlsa n lbanṭu, mkinna iga uzmz i kigan n imslayn iɛrabn sg usala afriqiy g ugdud abantu n iftasn."
"""After World War II, the National Party governments adopted that usage officially, while the growing African nationalist movement and its liberal allies turned to the term """"African"""" instead, so that """"Bantu"""" became identified with the policies of apartheid.""","‘’dffir n imnɣi amaḍlan wiss sin, usinnt tnbaṭin n wamun anamur assmrs ad unṣib, k tizi nna g ttusnfaln imussutn n tɣalciwin tafriqiyt ittalin d imḍfaṛn nns ilibiṛaliyn s urmmus ‘’afriqya’’ g wansa n maya, acku iga ‘’lbaṭu’’ ittuswutta akd tsrtitin n ubṭṭu n amssaẓuṛ’’."
"""Again association with apartheid discredited the term, and the South African government shifted to the politically appealing but historically deceptive term """"ethnic homelands"""".""","‘’iga uzday tikklit yaḍn s ubṭṭu amssaẓuṛ ijla i yirm ad tiflst nns, tdwl tnbaḍt n janub afriqya s yirm ‘’timura tiẓuṛanin’’ iṭnẓn s tsrtit maca ixxndlls g umzruy."
In Swati the stem is -ntfu and the noun is buntfu.,g swati acttuḥ iga ntfu d umsmar iga t buntfu.
Not all Basques are Basque-speakers.,ur qqaḥ lbaṣk gan da akkw sawaln tabaḍkiyt.
"""modern Basque esan) and the suffix -(k)ara (""""way (of doing something)"""").""",‘’tabaṣkiyt tatrart’’ d ‘’sufiks -(k) ara (‘’tamamkt n uskar n kra’’).
He records the name of the Basque language as enusquera.,ar ittzmmam assaɣ n tutlayt n lbaṣk zund anuskira.
"Although they are genetically distinctive in some ways due to isolation, the Basques are still very typically European in terms of their Y-DNA and mtDNA sequences, and in terms of some other genetic loci.","mqqar tga tamẓlayt atari g kra n ibrdan s tmntilt n ustay, maca ibaṣkiyn suln gan uṛubbiyn s twida iɣudan g ifrrtl uḥimḍ anawawiy asibɣiy n (Y-DNA d mtDNA), d waẓy n kra n idɣarn ijiniyn yaḍn."
"However, studies of the Y-DNA haplogroups found that on their direct male lineages, the vast majority of modern Basques have a common ancestry with other Western Europeans, namely a marked predominance of Indo-European Haplogroup R1b-DF27 (70%).","maca tizrawin nna ittuskarn xf uḥimḍ anawawiy asibɣiy (Y-DNA haplogroups) ufiɣ nn masd tuggt taxatart n ibaṣkiyn itrarn, xf uynna tga tdfrt tawtman tusridt, ɣursn yan usala issarn akd wiyyaḍ igan uṛubbiyn udrimn, slawan akkw isskṛḍn n tannayt xf (R1b-DF27) n lhablu aɣlay n thindiyt tuṛubbiyt (70%)."
"""In spite of its high frequency in Basques, Y-STR internal diversity of R1b-DF27 is lower there, and results in more recent age estimates"""", implying it was brought to the region from elsewhere.""","‘’mqqar mṣaḍfaṛn kigan ammas n isawnn n lbaṣk, iga umyanaw n wagwns (R1b-DF27) g tskiwt idrusn dinnaɣ, ar yakka mkinnaɣ turdiwin n usmmudn itrar’’, inna yakkan mas iwin td s udɣar g wansiwn nniḍn’’."
The collection of mtDNA and Y-DNA haplogroups sampled there differed significantly compared to their modern frequencies.,mzarayn trubba n (mtDNA and Y-DNA) igan tigzzumin nna ittwasayn illa gisn yan usnuḥyu mqqurn g usmzazal s igluguln itrarn.
"Rather, some 4500 years ago almost all Y-DNA heritage from Iberian admixture of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers and Neolithic farmers was replaced by the R1b lineage of Indo-European herders from the steppe, and the Basque genetic distinctiveness is a result of centuries of low population size, genetic drift, and endogamy.","s dar n 4500 n usggwas izrin, isnfl qqaḥ ayda n uḥimḍ anawawiy asibɣiy (Y-DNA) sg lqsṭṛa tayibiriyt n ingmarn d usmun d imkrazn inyulityyin s n tdfrt (R1b) n imksawn ihindiyn uṛubbiyn sg imdaɣn, d usnuḥyu ajiniy n lbaṣk iga tayafut n tsutin n wuguz n uksay n imzdaɣ, d wucuḍ ajiniy, d ulaḥ."
"Mattias Jakobsson from Uppsala University in Sweden analysed genetic material from eight Stone Age human skeletons found in El Portalón Cavern in Atapuerca, northern Spain.","iskr matiryas jakubsun sg tsdawit ubsala g sswid s usfsi n tmttiwin atariy sg tam n tfggiwin n ixsan n ifgann g uzmz n uẓṛu d tlla g tgadirt n ayt burtalun g atabwirka, g ugafay n ṣbanya."
The findings were published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States.,ttusfsarnt tyafutin g wansiwnn n tkadimiyin tanamunt g mirikan.
"This admixed group was also found to be ancestral to other modern-day Iberian peoples, but while the Basques remained relatively isolated for millennia after this time, later migrations into Iberia led to distinct and additional admixture in all other Iberian groups.","iḍhṛ awd mas tga trabbut ddɣ iṛṣan imzwura n igdudn n ibirya nniḍn g uzmz atrar, maca g tizi nna g gawrn ayt lbaṣk ẓlin imik kigan n isggwasn dffir n tizi ddɣ, yiwi uzwag g tzi nniḍn g tibiriyt s wumu iḥlan d tmrnawt g qqaḥ tirubba tibiryyin nniḍn."
There is enough evidence to support the hypothesis that at that time and later they spoke old varieties of the Basque language (see: Aquitanian language).,illa awd ma yudan sg anmmal ḥma ad isnal aynna igan mas sawln g tizi nnaɣ g tizi yaḍn g wanawn izaykutn g tutlayt n lbaṣk (ẓṛ: tutlayt takwitanit).
"The Kingdom of Pamplona, a central Basque realm, later known as Navarre, underwent a process of feudalization and was subject to the influence of its much larger Aragonese, Castilian and French neighbours.","tmzzn tgldit n bambluna, tga tgaldiyt tabaskiyt n tinnumsa nna ittwassan dffir n man aya s wassaɣ anafar, n tmggit tiqtaɛiyt d imzzn i iẓubaẓ n waddjaṛn nns araɣuniyn d lkastilin d ifaṛansiyn imqqurn g uksay."
"Weakened by the Navarrese civil war, the bulk of the realm eventually fell before the onslaught of the Spanish armies (1512–1524).","lliɣ g idrus imnɣi n grasn g nafarsi, tḍṛ tzuni tamqqran g tgldit g tgira dat n unzzuɣ n udffir taṣblyunit (1512-1524)."
"Nevertheless, the Basques enjoyed a great deal of self-government until the French Revolution (1790) and the Carlist Wars (1839, 1876), when the Basques supported heir apparent Carlos V and his descendants.","mqqar d mkinnaɣ, llan ayt lbaṣk darsn s yan watig n unnbḍ anmas ar tgrawla tafaṛansiyt (1790) d imnɣitn n lkarya (1839, 1876), lliɣ g yiws lbaṣk amkkasu n tumant kaṛlus wiss smmus d tarwa nns."
"The autonomous community (a concept established in the Spanish Constitution of 1978) known as Euskal Autonomia Erkidegoa or EAE in Basque and as Comunidad Autónoma Vasca or CAV in Spanish (in English: Basque Autonomous Community or BAC), is made up of the three Spanish provinces of Álava, Biscay and Gipuzkoa.","iga wamun n unnbḍ n unmas (iga urmmus nna ittugan g udustur a yiṣbbaniy g usggwas n 1978) nna ittwassan s wassaɣ n iwskal irkidijwa nɣ irkidijwa g tsga nɣ kumunidad utunuma faska nɣ (CAV) s tutlayt taṣblyuniyt (s tngliziyt; tasga n lbars nna ɣur annbḍ ayman), nna igan timẓlayin tiṣblyunyyin s kṛaḍ g tmẓlayt n anfa."
"""It is sometimes referred to simply as """"the Basque Country"""" (or Euskadi) by writers and public agencies only considering those three western provinces, but also on occasions merely as a convenient abbreviation when this does not lead to confusion in the context.""","‘’da ttuskan kra n tikkal s mrxiwyt s wassaɣ n ‘’tamazirt n lbaṛsk’’ (iwiskadi) sg dar imaratn n tsnurayin day g usmuqql g uynnaɣ n tmẓlayin tudrimin s kṛaḍt, maca awd g kra n tikkal mas tga s usgzl adday ur da ittawi man aya g ufrac g umnid’’."
"""In particular in common usage the French term Pays Basque (""""Basque Country""""), in the absence of further qualification, refers either to the whole Basque Country (""""Euskal Herria"""" in Basque), or not infrequently to the northern (or """"French"""") Basque Country specifically.""","‘’slawan akkw g ussmrs mqqurn, da isskan yirm afaṛanṣiy n utkay n lbaṣk (tamurt n lbaṣk), g ulaḥ n kigan n tiẓiḍaṛ, swa g tmizar n lbaṣk qqaḥ (uskal hirya) g lbaṣk, nɣ s tmamkt ur igin unzil s ugafay n tmazirt n lbaṣk (nɣ fṛansa) s wudm iẓlin’’."
"""Note that in historical contexts Navarre may refer to a wider area, and that the present-day northern Basque province of Lower Navarre may also be referred to as (part of) Nafarroa, while the term """"High Navarre"""" (Nafarroa Garaia in Basque, Alta Navarra in Spanish) is also encountered as a way of referring to the territory of the present-day autonomous community.""","‘’ittuẓṛa mas d g imnaḍn n umzruy iɣy ad isskn nafar yan wansa axatar, d mas tga tsga n ugafay n lbaṣk n ɣila g nafaṛ amazdar izmr ad ittuskan awd ntta s (agzzum g) nafaṛ, maca irm n ‘’nafaṛ amaflla’’ (nafaṛ ɣarya g lbaṣk, alta nafṛa s tṣblyuniyt) tmmaɣ awd akd imiss g tsga n wamun n unnbḍ anmas illan ɣila’’."
Knowledge of Spanish is compulsory under the Spanish constitution (article no.,tawsna n tutlayt taṣblyuniyt iga ucciln illan g udustur aṣblyuniy (laḥ amagrad).
"Knowledge of Basque, after declining for many years during Franco's dictatorship owing to official persecution, is again on the rise due to favorable official language policies and popular support.","tga tussna s tutlayt tabaṣkiyt, dat n ma tḍṛ kigan n isggwasn aya ammas n tdiktaturiyt n fṛanku s tmntilt n umrwi unsib, nna yaqqlayn tiklt yaḍn s tmntilt n tsrtitin n tutlayt tunṣibt d usuds amdnan."
"Only Spanish is an official language of Navarre, and the Basque language is only co-official in the province's northern region, where most Basque-speaking Navarrese are concentrated.","xs taṣblyuniyt ad igan tutlayt tunsibt g tutlayin n nafaṛ, d tutlayt n lbaṣk tga day tunṣibt iccarn g udɣar n ugafay g tmẓlayt, ayddɣ gis munn winna isawaln s tutlayt tabaṣkiyt nfars."
"Much of this population lives in or near the Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz (BAB) urban belt on the coast (in Basque these are Baiona, Angelu and Miarritze).",ar ittidir yan umata g imzdaɣ ad g nɣ tama n uzririg n bayun anɣilt byaritz anrɣam xf uftas (g tsga n lbaṣk tlla bayuna d anjilu d miyaritz).
"Millions of Basque descendants (see Basque American and Basque Canadian) live in North America (the United States; Canada, mainly in the provinces of Newfoundland and Quebec), Latin America (in all 23 countries), South Africa, and Australia.","ddrn kigan n wayyawn n lbaṣk (ẓṛ amrika, amrika, d kanaḍan lbaṣk) g amrika tagafayt (mirikan, kanaḍa, g wansa amzwaru g tmẓlayin n nyufawndland d kibik), d amrika talatiniyt (g qqaḥ 23 timiza), d uyffus n ifriqya, d usṭṛalya."
Estimates range between 2.5 - 5 million Basque descendants live in Chile; the Basque have been a major if not the strongest influence in the country's cultural and economic development.,"llant turdiwin gr 2.5 ar 5 n id mlyum g wayyawn n lbaṣk ddrn g cili, ig lbaṣk yan uḍiṣ axatar, mk ur akkw igi amadus, g ussgmi adlsan d udmsan n tmazirt."
It consisted mostly of the area which is today the states of Chihuahua and Durango.,ittuṣka kigan gis g udɣar nna igan assa g tmẓlayin n tciwawa d durangu.
"In Guatemala, most Basques have been concentrated in Sacatepequez Department, Antigua Guatemala, Jalapa for six generations now, while some have migrated to Guatemala City.","d g ɣwitimala, da ittmun lbaṣk g tmẓlayt n skatibkz, d antigwa ɣwatimala, d jalaba dar ṣḍiṣ n tsutiwin, lliɣ g zwarn g iɣrm n ɣwatimala."
"Bambuco, a Colombian folk music, has Basque roots.","tga bambuku, yan uẓawan amdnan akulumbiy, dars iẓuṛan n lbaṣk."
"Elko, Nevada, sponsors an annual Basque festival that celebrates the dance, cuisine and cultures of the Basque peoples of Spanish, French and Mexican nationalities who have arrived in Nevada since the late 19th century.","iylku, d nifada, da ḥṭṭun anmuqqar asggwusan n lbaṣk nna isfuglun s urkaz d usnwi d tdlsiwin n igdudn n lbaṣk sg twmanitin tiṣblyuniyin d tfaṛanṣawyin d فmiksikiyin nna ilkm nifada sg tgiriwn n tsutit tiss 19."
"Some of North America's largest ranches, which were founded under these colonial land grants, can be found in this region.","iɣy ad ttuyafa yat sg tzlaɣin timqqranin g mirikan tagafayt, nna uttuskarn s tikkiwin n ikaln n usddurruy g wansa ad."
"There is a history of Basque culture in Chino, California.",illa umzruy n lbaṣk g tcinu g kalifuṛnya.
They are mostly descendants of settlers from Spain and Mexico.,d nitnni gan s tuggt ayyawn n imzdaɣn sg ṣbanya d lmiksik.
This sense of Basque identity tied to the local language does not only exist in isolation.,asyafa ad s tmagit tabaskiyt izdi aks tutlayt tadɣrant d ur iẓli i ixf nns.
"As with many European states, a regional identity, be it linguistically derived or otherwise, is not mutually exclusive with the broader national one.","mkinna iga waddad i kigan n twunak tuṛubbiyyin, tga tmagit tasgawant, swa tdda d sg tsga n tutlayt nɣ kra yaḍn, ur da tmgal akd tmagit tanamurt imqqurn."
I have friends who are involved in the political side of things but that is not for me.,llan dari kra n imddukkal da ttumun g tsga tasrtant g tɣawsiwin maca man aya ur igi fllati.
There are extremely few Basque monolingual speakers: essentially all Basque speakers are bilingual on both sides of the border.,llan kra n wid nna idrusn imik sg winna isawaln s tutlayt tabaskiyt igan tutlayt tamyiwnt: qqaḥ inmsawaln s tutlayt tabaṣkiyt gan akkw zwar is bu snat ttlayin g tamawin n iwtta.
"The Basque language is thought to be a genetic language isolate in contrast with other European languages, almost all of which belong to the broad Indo-European language family.","da ttiɣiln is tga tutlayt n lbaṣk tga tutlayt iẓlin mgal nna gant tutlayin tuṛubbiyin nniḍn, d qqaḥ nnsnt llant amunt g tawja n tutlayin tihindiyin tuṛubbiyyin id mm udɣar mqqurn."
Home in this context is synonymous with family roots.,d tigmmi g umnaḍ ad iga akniw n iẓuṛan n tawja.
"As in other cultures, the fate of other family members depended on the assets of a family: wealthy Basque families tended to provide for all children in some way, while less-affluent families may have had only one asset to provide to one child.","mkinna iga waddad g tdlsiwin nniḍn, illa ibdda umsdul n imdan n tawjiwin n wiyyaḍ xf isalatn n tawja: tawjiwin tinbɣurin g tsga n lbaṣk da ttiri ad tajj qqaḥ tarwa s tmamkt nna illan, g tizi nna g izmr ad yili dar tawjiwin mm tnbɣurt idrusn yan usala day ḥma ad ajjin yan urba day."
"Mostly after the advent of industrialisation, this system resulted in the emigration of many rural Basques to Spain, France or the Americas.",yiwi ungraw ad s uzwag n kigan n imzdaɣ n ufara ibaṣkiyn slawan akkw dffir n ma d iffɣ ussugr s ṣbanya nɣ fṛanṣa nɣ mirikan.
Some scholars and commentators have attempted to reconcile these points by assuming that patrilineal kinship represents an innovation.,mmaɣn kra n imassan d imglaln ad ssnjmn gr tqiffa ad s turda n mas iga tzdayt n imarawn da ttili sg zikk.
They emerged from the Franco regime with a revitalized language and culture.,tffuɣ d sg jaj n umagaw n franku tutlayt d tdmsa nna ittusmussun.
The region has been a source of missionaries like Francis Xavier and Michel Garicoïts.,iga udɣar yan uɣbalu n imsbriyn zund fransis gzafih d micil ɣarikutis.
Lasuén was the successor to Franciscan Padre Junípero Serra and founded 9 of the 21 extant California Missions along the coast.,illa laṣyun dffir n lfrinsiskan badri junibir sira isrs tirsal n 9 sg 21 n ukabaṛ akalifuṛniy nna illan xf taɣzi n uftas.
"By the time Henry III of Navarre converted to Catholicism in order to become king of France, Protestantism virtually disappeared from the Basque community.","lliɣ g tlkm tizi n hinri wiss kṛaḍ sg nafaṛ ittusnfal s tkatulikiyt ḥma ad ig agllid n fṛanṣa, tuccka tbṛustintaniyt g ubaraz sg trabbut n lbaṣk."
"Nowadays, according to one single opinion poll, only slightly more than 50% of Basques profess some kind of belief in God, while the rest are either agnostic or atheist.","g wussan ad nnɣ, d xf uynna illan g yat tannayt ittugan, uggar n 50% day sg ibaṣkiyn ad ikcmn yan wanaw n tflst s ṛbbi, g tizi nna g ur gin wiyyaḍ icafrn nɣ gan icafrn."
"According to one, Christianity arrived in the Basque Country during the 4th and 5th centuries but according to the other, it did not take place until the 12th and 13th centuries.","sg yan gisn,tlkm tmasiḥiyt tamazirt n lbaṣk ammas n tsutit tiss 4 d tiss 5 maca g tsutit nniḍn, ur ijṛi ar dar tsutit tiss 12 d tsutit 13."
"""In this sense, Christianity arrived """"early"""".""","s unamk ad, tlkm tmasiḥiyt g yat tizi tamẓẓyant."
"According to one tradition, she travelled every seven years between a cave on Mount Anboto and one on another mountain (the stories vary); the weather would be wet when she was in Anboto, dry when she was in Aloña, or Supelegor, or Gorbea.","g idsnt tmyurin, ar tmuddu ku sa n isggwasn ammas n yan ifri g udrar n buntu d yan ifri yaḍn g (myanawnt tullisin), anzwi qad iḥlu asra g tllit g buntu, izwa asra g tllit g alunya, g subbilijuṛ, nɣ juribya."
"It's said that when they gathered in the high caves of the sacred peaks, they engendered the storms.","da ittyunna mas lliɣ g munn g ifran yattuyn g wanfa yattuyn ifuẓaṛn, ttuyarawn d ijawan."
"Legends also speak of many and abundant genies, like jentilak (equivalent to giants), lamiak (equivalent to nymphs), mairuak (builders of the cromlechs or stone circles, literally Moors), iratxoak (imps), sorginak (witches, priestess of Mari), and so on.","ar sawaln awd inqqisn xf kigan n imdun iggutn, zund jinitilak (nna igan igrzutn), d ccirwak (lli igan igḍaḍ), d icirwakn ( lli ittṣṣkun timttayin n kṛumiliks nɣ aẓṛu, nɣ s unamk n muṛ), d lirakswak (nɣ uḍlibn), d ccirujinak (tigzzanin, d tḥrgit mari), d wiyyaḍ."
"""There is a trickster named San Martin Txiki (""""St Martin the Lesser"""").""",‘’illa ɣinna yan uxndallas ism nns martin tiksiki’’.
"The jentilak ('Giants'), on the other hand, are a legendary people which explains the disappearance of a people of Stone Age culture that used to live in the high lands and with no knowledge of iron.","g tsga yaḍn, gan ‘’ilɣuɣn’’ yan ugdud anqqis nna isfsayn iccki n ugdud sg tdlsa n uzmz n uẓṛu lli imyarn tudrt g ikaln yattuyn lli ur issin akkw uzzal."
"For more than a century, scholars have widely discussed the high status of Basque women in law codes, as well as their positions as judges, inheritors, and arbitrators through ante-Roman, medieval, and modern times.","g dar wuggar n yat tstut g tizi, mraran imassan kigan asurs amqqran nna g tlla tmɣart tabaṣkiyt g ilugan, ula tafsniwin nns zund inbḍutn d inmukkas d inbdadn g uzmz aṛumaniy anammas d utrar."
"Navarre has a separate statute of autonomy, a contentious arrangement designed during Spanish transition to democracy (the Amejoramiento, an 'upgrade' of its previous status during dictatorship).","illa yan uslgun iẓlin ɣur nafaṛ n unnbḍ unmas, iga yan usnmala isskrn taɣnnant ittuskar g tizi n usnfl aṣblyuniy s tdimuqṛatiyt (amijuṛaminṭu), iga ‘’asfalki’’ ansa lliɣ nns amzwaru g uzmz n tdiktaturiyt)."
"Questions of political, linguistic and cultural allegiance and identity are highly complex in Navarre.",ttusfirsnt tmsarin n tmnilt tasrtant d tin tutlayt d tdlsant d tin tmagit s kigan n urway g nafaṛ.
The majority of schools under the jurisdiction of the Basque education system use Basque as the primary medium of teaching.,ar ssmrasnt kigan n tinmal nna iḍfaṛn i tmẓlayt tanzzarfut i umagaw n usslmd g tsga n lbaṣk mas tga tutlayt n lbaṣk yan imiss agjdan n usslmd.
"In contrast, the desire for greater autonomy or independence is particularly common among leftist Basque nationalists.","mgal n man aya, tga tnẓezt d tuggt g unnbḍ n unmas nɣ anngmḍ nna ittwassan s yat tmamkt iẓlin gr imaɣlacn n uyffus g lbaṣk."
They regard themselves as culturally and especially linguistically distinct from their surrounding neighbours.,ar tggan ixf awn nnsn d imẓlay g tdlsa ula tutlayt slawan akkw akd wadjaṛn nnsn nna asn ittin.
Miguel de Unamuno was a noted novelist and philosopher of the late 19th and the 20th century.,iga migl di mununu yan umara n wungaln d aufaylasuf g tgariwin n tsutit tiss 19 d tsutit tiss 20.
He also founded the Chilean Trade Union Association to promote a union movement based on the social teachings of the Catholic Church.,mkinna isrs tirsal n tsqqnt n unmalu aciliy n usdus n umussu n unmalu nna ittggan timlmadin tinamunin n lkanisa takatulikiyt.
The historical presence of the San in Botswana is particularly evident in northern Botswana's Tsodilo Hills region.,iḍhṛ yili n umzruy n yils g buṭswana s yat tmamkt iẓlin g udɣar n twririn n ugafay n buṭswana.
"From the 1950s through to the 1990s, San communities switched to farming because of government-mandated modernisation programs.","sg usggwas n 1950 ar 1990, ttusnfaln kra n imunn n san tkrza s tmntilt n uɣawas n ustrar nna d tssufɣ tnbaḍt nnasn."
"""Certain San groups are one of 14 known extant """"ancestral population clusters""""; that is, """"groups of populations with common genetic ancestry, who share ethnicity and similarities in both their culture and the properties of their languages"""".""","‘’ kra n trubba ammas n ssan gant 14 n trabbut n imzdaɣn ittwassan s yili nns’’, ‘’tirbbaɛ n imzdaɣn n imzwura’’ ; gan tt tirubba n imzdaɣ mm usala ajiniy iccarn, nna issarn tayitniyn d mmrwasnt g tdlsa nnsn d tmẓlay n tutlayt nnsn."
Representatives of San peoples in 2003 stated their preference of the use of such individual group names where possible over the use of the collective term San.,bdrn ignsasn n igdudn n san g usggwas n 2003 ar ttirin assmrs n wassaɣn imdan g trubba aynna ufan ad gis ssmrsn irm amagraw n san.
"I continued to use Bushman, and I was publicly corrected several times by the righteous.","snntin assmrs n bucman, mkinna ɣifs zzrin fllas igwrramn kigan n tikkal s tuḍrart"
"""Instead, the San Council's representative was adamant that no hurt or harm was caused to them or the San community with the manner in which (Die Burger) published the word 'boesman'.""""""","‘’g wansa n maynna, iga usgbar n usqqim n san ira nit ad tn issiɣ nɣ i wamun n ssan s tmamkt nna s ttusfsar tguri n ‘’uzman’’."
"San kinship is comparable to Eskimo kinship, with the same set of terms as in European cultures, but also uses a name rule and an age rule.","irwas wallag n ssaniyya allag n liskimu, akd trabbut n irimn zund aylli illan g tdlsiwin tuṛubbiyin, maca da ssmrasn awd ilgan n wassaɣ d ulgan n usmmud."
"Children have no social duties besides playing, and leisure is very important to San of all ages.","ur lin waṛṛaḍn izuccal inamun akd turarin, d tizi n uɣjdim tga yat tizi issawhmman g san i qqaḥ ismmudn illan."
They make important family and group decisions and claim ownership of water holes and foraging areas.,ar ttasin idsn n tɣtasin iwjawan d imagrawn imqqurn ar ttettrn s tilitin d iɣisan n waman d wansiwn n usnɣl.
Droughts may last many months and waterholes may dry up.,qad zdin waddadn n taɣart kigan n wayyurn d ɣin ad zwun iɣisa n waman.
Into this hole is inserted a long hollow grass stem.,g tḥbuct ad da ttɣiman skcmn icttuḥn n tuga izwan lli iɣzzifn.
"Early spring is the hardest season: a hot dry period following the cool, dry winter.",iga imir n tfsut n zikk sg imirn icqqan: tizi n taɣart izwan iḍfaṛn imir n tgrst iqrfn izwan.
"Women gather fruit, berries, tubers, bush onions, and other plant materials for the band's consumption.","ar smunt tutmin igumma, aɣaz, d uẓalim, d baṭaṭa, d tɣawsiwin yaḍnin n tmtta n imɣayn i tussumra mqqurn."
"Depending on location, the San consume 18 to 104 species, including grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, moths, butterflies, and termites.","s ifula n udɣar, ar ismur ssan sg 18 ar 104 n wanawn, aynna g tamu tmurɣi, d laẓṛaṛ, d ifsan, d igurdan, d ifṛṭeṭṭutn, d ibxcan umlaln."
"These haplogroups are specific sub-groups of haplogroups A and B, the two earliest branches on the human Y-chromosome tree.","tirubba ddɣ gant tirubba tayyawin timẓlayin sg trubba (a) d (b), gan ayyawn imzwura g taddagt n (y) n lkrumusum n ufgan."
"The most divergent (oldest) mitochondrial haplogroup, L0d, has been identified at its highest frequencies in the southern African San groups.","ttwassant kigan n trubba n lmitukundriya imzarayn (tizaykutin), n (L0d) g ismzazatn nns yattuyn ammas n trubba n san tifriqyin n uyffus."
The San have been particularly affected by encroachment by majority peoples and non-indigenous farmers onto land traditionally occupied by San people.,ttuḍiṣn imzdaɣ n san s yat tmamkt iẓlin s udduysr n tuggt n imzdaɣ d imkrazn nna ur igin imzdaɣ iẓɣṛan xf ikaln nna umẓn imzdaɣ n san g uzmz azayku.
"Loss of land is a major contributor to the problems facing Botswana's indigenous people, including especially the San's eviction from the Central Kalahari Game Reserve.","tiws tnjlalit n ikaln kigan g imukrisn nna illan dar imzdaɣ iẓuṛann g butswana, slawan akkw aṭṭay n imzdaɣ n san sg tmḥḍit n klahari tanammast n turart."
This would award royalties to the San for the benefits of their indigenous knowledge.,iẓḍaṛ mayan ad iwc i ssan kra n isfka xf tyafutin n tussniwin tiẓuṛanin.
"Van der Post grew up in South Africa, and had a respectful lifelong fascination with native African cultures.","ttuga fan dr bbust g uyffus n ifriqya, tlla as yat tumrt n wabda g tudrt akd tdlsiwin tifriqyin tiẓuṛanin."
"""Driven by a lifelong fascination with this """"vanished tribe"""", Van der Post published a 1958 book about this expedition, entitled The Lost World of the Kalahari.""","tfsr tsɣnt n fan dr bust adlis xf tnyuddut ad g usggwas n 1958 s uzwl n ‘’amaḍal n kalahari ijlan’’, ittutkayn s yan iḥrgi izdin abda n tudrt akd ayddɣ n ‘’tawsit ittwaffarn’’."
"His early film The Hunters, released in 1957, shows a giraffe hunt.","asaru nns n ingmarn lli d iffuɣn zik, g usggwas n 1957, ar immal tagmrt n umdɣ."
"His sister Elizabeth Marshall Thomas wrote several books and numerous articles about the San, based in part on her experiences living with these people when their culture was still intact.","tura ultmas iliẓabit marcal tumas kigan n idlisn d kigan n imgradn xf ssan, tugm tn d sg trmitin nns g tudrt akd iwdan nna lliɣ g tga tdlsa nnsn tsul tɣuda."
"""This was reviewed by Lawrence Van Gelder for the New York Times, who said that the film """"constitutes an act of preservation and a requiem"""".""","‘’isfsr luṛans fan jilidr man aya g uɣmis n nyuyurk ṭaymz, nna innan mas iga usaru ‘’yan twuri sg twuriwin n uḥṭṭu d usnflul’’."
The BBC's The Life of Mammals (2003) series includes video footage of an indigenous San of the Kalahari desert undertaking a persistence hunt of a kudu through harsh desert conditions.,ismun usddi ‘’tudrt n timssuḍṭṭin’’ nna d issufɣ ungam n tnzwit tabṛiṭaniyt (2003) igzzumn n yan ufidyu n ssan aẓuṛan sg tniri n kalahari ar isskar yat ṭuẓẓla izdin i lkudu sg waddadn inzrufn icqqan.
"Because of their similarities, the San works may illustrate the reasons for ancient cave paintings.","s tmntilt n ummrws nna illan gratsn, axf mmalant twuriwin n ssan timntilin n wunuɣn n ifran izaykutn."
"The film was directed by Jamie Uys, who returned to the San a decade later with The Gods Must Be Crazy, which proved to be an international hit.","asru sg ussufɣ n jimi uys, nna iwcan i ssan diɣ dffir n yat tsutit n wakud akd usaru n ‘’iqqand ad nufln id yucc’’, nna imlan is iga yan umdya amaḍlan."
"James A. Michener's The Covenant (1980), is a work of historical fiction centered on South Africa.","ddjims micnṛ ‘’amqqun’’ (1980), iga yat twuri tanɣlant nna illan g uyffus n ifriqya."
Norman Rush's 1991 novel Mating features an encampment of Basarwa near the (imaginary) Botswana town where the main action is set.,illa g wungal n ṛuman ṛac illan g usggwas n 1991 s uzwl n ‘’iwlan’’ yan unmuqqar n lbasaru illan tama n iɣrm n butswana (tawargit) ayddɣ da swuttun timggit tagjdant.
"In 2007, David Gilman published The Devil's Breath.","g usggwas n 2007, ifsr dafid n jilman ‘’iman n butabr’’."
The fiancé of the protagonist of The No.,amsawl d anbraz ‘’uhuy’’.
The Germanic peoples were a historical group of people living in Central Europe and Scandinavia.,kkan ttin gan igdudn ijirmaniyn yat trabbut n iwdan g umzruynna iddrn g uṛubba tanammast d twnnak iskundunafiyn.
"In discussions of the Roman period, the Germanic peoples are sometimes referred to as Germani or ancient Germans, although many scholars consider the second term problematic, since it suggests identity with modern Germans.","g imraratn n uzmz arumaniy, ar ttusnummaln igdudn ijirmaniy idsnt twal s wassaɣ ajirmaniy nɣ ilalmaniyn izaykutn, mqqar da ttinin kigan n imassan mas iga yirm wiss sin yat tmukrist, acku da immala tamagit akd ilalmanmaniyn itrarn."
"In contrast, Roman authors first described Germanic peoples near the Rhine at the time the Roman Empire established its dominance in that region.","mgal n man aya, snummln imaratn g tikklt tamzwarut igdudn ijirmaniy nna illan tama n wasif n rrayn g tili lliɣ g ttuskar tmnukda taṛumaniyt amẓn adɣar nnaɣ."
"Roman efforts to integrate the large area between Rhine and Elbe ended around 16 CE, following the major Roman defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 CE.","smdnt trnawin tiṛumaniyin ḥma ad skcm adɣar nna axatar nna d yusan gr ṛṛayn d lbi dar 16 n (CE), g tizi lliɣ g tturna ṛumanya taxatart g imnɣi n tagant n tyutuburg g 9 (CE)."
"In the 3rd century the Germanic-speaking Goths dominated the Pontic Steppe, outside Germania, and launched a series of sea expeditions into the Balkans and Anatolia as far as Cyprus.","g tsutit tiss kṛaḍt (3) n tlalit umẓn lquṭ nna isawaln s tutlayt talalmanit buntik stib, bṛṛa n jiṛmanya, ṛẓmn kigan n tnyuddutin n yill s lblqan d lanaḍul ar qubṛuṣ."
Archaeology instead shows a complex society and economy throughout Germania.,ar ittḍhaṛ g tussniwin n idrizn g wansa n yan wamun d tdlsa irwin g wansiwin qqaḥ n almanya.
"Traditionally, the Germanic peoples have been seen as possessing a law dominated by the concepts of feuding and blood compensation.",ar ttusmuqquln igdudn ijiṛmaniyn s yat iẓṛi azayku mas teṭṭaf yan uslgun nna igan akkw xs irimn n unfajj d warraz xf idammn.
"The ancient Germanic-speaking peoples probably shared a common poetic tradition, alliterative verse, and later Germanic peoples also shared legends originating in the Migration Period.","ɛniɣ ccarn igdudn nna isawaln s tutlayt tajiṛmaniyt tazaykut g uḍfuṛ n umark iccurn, d wawal unzil, d g yat tizi yaḍn dran awd igdudn ijiṛmaniyn g umun nna illan g tizi n uzwag."
"Even the language from which it derives is a subject of dispute, with proposals of Germanic, Celtic, and Latin, and Illyrian origins.","awd tutlayt nna d tkka tlla g waddad n tamaɣt, akd tannayin sg iẓuṛan ijiṛmaniyn, sltik, d tlatiniyt, d tlibiriyt."
"Regardless of its language of origin, the name was transmitted to the Romans via Celtic speakers.","s aynna tga tutlayt n udɣar, ittusnɣal wassaɣ s rruman g tbridt n inmsawaln s tutlayt tasiltiyt."
"By late antiquity, only peoples near the Rhine, especially the Franks, and sometimes the Alemanni, were called Germani by Latin or Greek writers.","g tgiriwin n uzmaz izaykutn, xs igdudn nna ilmalan i wasif n ṛṛayn, slawan akkw fṛans, d idsnt twal alalmaniy, ar as ttinin jirmani dar imaratn ilatiniyn nɣ iyunaniyn."
"While Roman authors did not consistently exclude Celtic speaking-people, or treat the Germanic peoples as the name of a people, this new definition, by using Germanic language as the main criterion, understood the Germani as a people or nation with a stable group identity linked to language.","g tizi nna g gan imaratn iṛumaniyn ur ssaggugn abda iwdan nna isawaln s tutlayt tasiltiyt, nɣ da ttinin mas gan igdudn ijiṛmaniyn mas gan assaɣ n ugdud, iga usnumml ad amaynu n ussmrs n tutlayt tajiṛmaniyt yan unaway agjdan afad ad ttusrmas tjiṛmaniyt mas tga agdud nɣ tmtti mm tmagit n tgrawit iṛsan iẓlin s tutlayt."
"""Some scholars studying the Early Middle Ages now stress the question of whether the Germanic peoples saw themselves as an ethnic unity, while others point to the existence of Germanic languages as a historical fact that can be used to identify Germanic peoples, regardless of whether they saw themselves as """"Germanic"""".""","‘’ar sslkan ɣila kra n imassan nna issɣran izmaz inammasn n zik xf tmsart nna izlin s igdudn ijirmaniyn nna ittiɣiln ixf awn nnsn is gan yan wamun aẓuṛan, g tizi nna da sskan wiyyaḍ s yili n tutlayin tijiṛmaniyyin zund tidt n umzruy nzmr ad tt nssmrs ḥma ad nswttu igdudn ijiṛmaniyn, xf uẓlay n mas da smuqquln ixf nnsn is gan ‘’ijiṛmaniyn’’."
"""For such reasons, Goffart argues that the term Germanic should be avoided entirely in favor of """"barbarian"""" except in the linguistic sense, and historians such as Walter Pohl have also called for the term to be avoided or used with careful explanation.""","‘’xf tmntilin, imɣanna ɣufart mas iqqand ad ur ittusmras irm n ujirmaniy akkw g wansa n ‘’ubrbriy’’ xs g unamk n tutlayt, ar qqran id bab n umzruy zund walṭr buhl awd ntta ad ur ittusmras irm nɣ ad ittusmras s ussfru d yusan’’."
"In Caesar's account, the clearest defining characteristic of the Germani people was that they lived east of the Rhine, opposite Gaul on the west side, an observation he made with historical digressions in his writing.","g wungal n qayṣr, iga yat tfirst ifawn iẓllin ugdud ajiṛmaniy mas iddr g unqar n wasif n rrayn, mgal n ɣul g tsga n uɣlay, tga yat tannayt nna ifa akd tɣuziwin n umzruy g idlisn nns."
"Tacitus was at times unsure whether a people were Germanic or not, expressing his uncertainty about the Bastarnae, who he says looked like Sarmatians but spoke like the Germani, about the Osi and the Cotini, and about the Aesti, who were like Suebi but spoke a different language.","idsnt twal ur issin tasitus is iga agdud sg lalman mid la, ar isawal xf gar attyaqn nns xf lbasṭarnay, nna ittinin mas iga zund ssaffar matiyin maca da isawal zund ayt lalman xf ussu d lkutini, d listi nna isawaln yat tutlayt imzarayn."
The Upper Danube served as a southern border.,illa wasif n ddanub zund awttu n iyffus.
"It is unclear if these Germani spoke a Germanic language, and they may have been Celtic speakers instead.","ur ifaw is da sawaln ayddɣ n ijiṛmaniyn tutlayt tajiṛmaniynt, ɛniɣ kkan da sawaln g wansa nns tutlayt ntasiltikiyt."
"Tacitus continues to mention Germanic tribes on the west bank of the Rhine in the period of the early Empire, such as the Tungri, Nemetes, Ubii, and the Batavi.","isul tasitus da d iktti tiwsitin tilalmanyin illan xf ugmmaḍ utrim n wasif n ṛṛayn g tizi n tmnukda n zik, zund ubi, nimits, tungri, d lbatafi."
"Inspired by this, these three groups are also sometimes used in older modern linguistic terminology, attempting to describe the divisions of later Germanic languages.)","tdda d sg man aya, ar ssmrasnt uyddɣ n trubba s kṛaḍt g kra n tikkal kra n irimn n tutlayt itrarn izaykutn, ḥma ad snummln ibṭṭutn n tutlayin tilalmanyyin d yuckan."
"Herminones or Hermiones in the interior, included the Suevi, the Hermunduri, the Chatti, the Cherusci according to Pliny.","ɣaylli d yuckan ɣur lblini; sg jaj hirminuns nɣ hirrmyun, illa gis sufi krussi, d catti, d hermunduri."
"""On the other hand, Tacitus wrote in the same passage that some believe that there are other groups which are just as old as these three, including """"the Marsi, Gambrivii, Suevi, Vandilii"""".""","‘’sg tsga nniḍn, yura tasitus g ugzzum nnaɣ nit mas d kra n idsn da ttiɣiln is llant tirubba yaḍn ur ikki usmmud nnsnt ddaw tid s kṛaḍt, g llant ‘’marsi, ɣambrifi, dufi, fandili’’."
"""Strabo, who focused mainly on Germani between the Elbe and Rhine, and does not mention the sons of Mannus, also set apart the names of Germani who are not Suevian, in two other groups, similarly implying three main divisions: """"smaller German tribes, as the Cherusci, Chatti, Gamabrivi, Chattuarii, and next the ocean the Sicambri, Chaubi, Bructeri, Cimbri, Cauci, Caulci, Campsiani"""".""","‘’strabu, nna isikln s yat tmamkt mqqurn xf tutlayt talalmaniyt gr albi d ṛṛayn, d ur bdirn warraw n manus, ibḍa awd assaɣn n lalman nna ur igin ayt swifyan, g snat trubba nniḍn, nna yakkan yan unamk n kṛaḍ ibṭṭutn igjdann: tiwsitin tilalmnyin imẓẓiyn; zund cruci, catiti, ɣambrifi, catitwari, yili tama n uftas n sikambri, cubi, simbri, kawtci, kawlci, kambisyani’’."
"During the Pre-Germanic linguistic period (2500–500 BCE), the proto-language has almost certainly been influenced by linguistic substrates still noticeable in the Germanic phonology and lexicon.","g tizi n dat n tutlayt talalmanit (2500-500 BCE), tssn nit tutlayt tabrutugrafiyt yan uḍiṣ s tayyawin n tutlayin nna isuln da ittuyannay g umaḍal n tfunulujiyt d umawal alalmaniy."
"There is also a great deal of influence in vocabulary from the Celtic languages, but most of this appears to be much later, with most loanwords occurring either before or during the sound shift described by Grimm's Law.","illa awd yan uḍiṣ mqqurn sg tguriwin n tutlayin tikiltiyin, maca iḍhṛ masd kigan n man aya g yat tizi nniḍn, akd tɣawsiwin nniḍn ijṛṛun swa dat nɣ adday da ittusnfal umslli nna isnumml uslgn n grim."
"Although Proto-Germanic is reconstructed without dialects via the comparative method, it is almost certain that it never was a uniform proto-language.","mqqar ttuyallas tuṣṣka n lbṛutu-jirman bla tantalayin sg tmamkt n usmzazal, bla turda ur tmun qqaḥ tutlayt n bṛutu."
"The earliest attested runic inscriptions (Vimose comb, Øvre Stabu spearhead), initially concentrated in modern Denmark and written with the Elder Futhark system, are dated to the second half of the 2nd century CE.","iṛcamn izaykutn iruniyn ittuẓṛan (tamcḍt n fimus, ufṛ ṣtabu ixf agjdan), nna illan zwar g ddanmark tatrart d ttuyara g uzmz n fuṭark axatar, da itturray usakud nns s uzgn wiss sin sg tsutit tiss snat n(2) tlalit."
"However, the merging of unstressed Proto-Germanic vowels, attested in runic inscriptions from the 4th and 5th centuries CE, also suggests that Primitive Norse could not have been a direct predecessor of West Germanic dialects.","mqqar d man aya, iga usskcm n tɣisa n lbrutu-jirmaniya nna ur ttn akkw ikkin, d tinna g ttuyannayn iṛcamn iruniyn g tsutit tiss kkuẓ (4) d tsutit tiss smmus (5) n tlalit, ar tsskan awd mas d nnurs izaykutn zmrn ad ur gin imzwura usridn i tntalayin tilalmaniyin titaramin."
"""By the late 3rd century CE, linguistic divergences like the West Germanic loss of the final consonant -z had already occurred within the """"residual"""" Northwest dialect continuum.""","‘’k ukccum n tgariwin n tsutit tiss kṛaḍt (3) g tlalit, llan isnuḥyutn n tutlayin, zund tijli nna illan g almanya tataramt i unmcacka amggaru (z) lli nit ijran g tantala n ugafay ataram lli ‘’iɣaman’’ izdin."
"The inclusion of the Burgundian and Vandalic languages within the East Germanic group, while plausible, is still uncertain due to their scarce attestation.","akccum n tutlayin lbṛuɣindiyya d lfandaliyya ammas n trbiɛt talalmaniyt n ugmmaḍ, mqqar iga yat tɣwsa iɣzan, maca isul ur ta igi ussid s tmntilt n tdrsi n tnigit nnsn."
"A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations.","iga unamun yat tarabbut n imdan nna idran ammas n yan umrara anamun izdin, nɣ yat tkabaṛt tanamurt tamqqrant tssar yat tsga g udɣar nɣ tanamunt, kigan n tikkal da ttili ddaw n yat tnbaḍt tasrtant d turdiwin tidlsanin nna illan."
Societies construct patterns of behavior by deeming certain actions or speech as acceptable or unacceptable.,ar ṣkkun wamunn idsn tɣarasin n tmskirin sg uskar n kra n iggitn nɣ kra n tguriwin nna izrin nɣ ur tzriy.
"Insofar as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would otherwise be difficult on an individual basis; both individual and social (common) benefits can thus be distinguished, or in many cases found to overlap.","aynna s da ittmyawas wamun, da ittizḍiṛ ad yajj imslyn nns ad ssbɣrn s tmamkin nna qad icqqu mr i ku yan gisn; s man aya izmr usnuḥyu gr tyafutin timdnanin d tanamunin (ittuyassan), nɣ g kigan n waddadn nna g immkcamnt tɣawsiwin gr atsnt."
"""This was in turn from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun socius (""""comrade, friend, ally""""; adjectival form socialis) used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly, or at least civil.""","‘’yamu wad awd ntta g wamun n tguri talatiniyt, nna d iffuɣn ula ntta ammas n wamun ‘’amddakwl, asmun, taḍa’’; ar ittusmras g usnumml n tzdayt nɣ umrara gr tsggiwin timxsiwin, nɣ uɣrim day’’."
"""In the 1630s it was used in reference to """"people bound by neighborhood and intercourse aware of living together in an ordered community"""".""",g usggwas n 1630 g usskan n iwdan nna izdin s tiddjura d wamun xf tudrt n yan wansa ammas n yan wamun’’.
"These structures may have varying degrees of political power, depending on the cultural, geographical, and historical environments that these societies must contend with.","fjjijnt tanɣiwin ad s idsnt tskfal imzarayn n tdusi tasrtant, xf uynna illan g tawnaḍt tadlsant d tjɣrafiyt ula tin umzruy nna s d iqqan i wamunn ad tn naln."
Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige.,gan imunn awsitin imunn nna g llan kra n waddagn iswuttan s tskwflt tanamunt d wansa anamun.
This cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community.,ayad n ubuɣllu adlsan illa dars yan iḍiṣ mqqurn xf tmamkin n wamun.
Cities turned into city-states and nation-states.,ttusnfaln iɣrman s iɣrman d iwunkn imaɣlacn.
"Conversely, members of a society may also shun or scapegoat any members of the society who violate its norms.","g mgal n man aya, izry asn i awd imslayn ad urul sg kra n imdan g wamun nna ur iwqqirn isfarn nns nɣ ad ur wqqrn yan sg gisn g tjṛa."
Some societies bestow status on an individual or group of people when that individual or group performs an admired or desired action.,ar akkan kra n imunn atig mqqurn i kra n umdan nɣ i kra n trabbut n iwdan adday iskr umdan nnaɣ nɣ tarabbut nnaɣ kra n twuri issusumn nɣ iḥlan.
"Although humans have established many types of societies throughout history, anthropologists tend to classify different societies according to the degree to which different groups within a society have unequal access to advantages such as resources, prestige, or power.","mqqar iṣka ufgan kigan n wanawn n imunn g umzruy, ar ttirin imassan n lunṭṛubbulujiyya ad bḍun imunn iggunẓan xf tskfal mas lant trubba iggunẓan ammas n wamun isulfn ur yaksuln ḥma ad amẓn kra n tnafutin zund isugam, nɣ ansa, nɣ tanbaḍt."
"However, some hunting and gathering societies in areas with abundant resources (such as people of tlingit) lived in larger groups and formed complex hierarchical social structures such as chiefdom.",maca imunn n tgmrt d usmattr n islman g idɣarn nna g llan isugam ibuɣlan (zund imzdaɣ n ttlinjit) llan ddrn g trubba nna imqqurn bahra tskr tnɣiwin tinamunin tizamugin irwin zund inmɣɣurn n tawsitin.
"Statuses within the tribe are relatively equal, and decisions are reached through general agreement.","ddant akkw ad msasant tmẓlayin ammas n tawsit, ar ttasin tiɣtsin ilan s umcacka amatu."
"There are no political offices containing real power, and a chief is merely a person of influence, a sort of adviser; therefore, tribal consolidations for collective action are not governmental.","ur llin akkw imarisn isrtan nna ɣur tanbaḍt n tidt, s uslway iga day xs yan uwrik ɣur asugr, iga yan wanaw n insfawn; s man aya, gant tmggitin n ukccum n tawsit g twuri n umagraw ur tgi tunbiḍt."
"Because their food supply is far more reliable, pastoral societies can support larger populations.","fullsnt tnfkayin n wuttci bahra, zmrn imunn n tyssa ad awsn kigan n imzdaɣ."
"For example, some people become craftworkers, producing tools, weapons, and jewelry, among other items of value.","s umdya, kra n iwdan da tggan iḥyaḍ, ar ttfrasn imassn d imrign d tzuzaf, sg tɣawsiwin nniḍn dar mi illa watig."
These families often gain power through their increased wealth.,kigan n tikkal ad ṭṭamẓnt tawjiwin ad tanbaḍt sg usadf n ugra nns.
"The wild vegetation is cut and burned, and ashes are used as fertilizers.","ar ttwabbayn d ar ttusɣusn imɣayn n usram, ar ittusmras yiɣd zund amazir."
They may return to the original land several years later and begin the process again.,zmrn ad dwl ɣr wakal aẓuṛan dffir n kigan n isggwasn ssntin diɣ g tmggit tiklit yaḍn.
The size of a village's population depends on the amount of land available for farming; thus villages can range from as few as 30 people to as many as 2000.,"ar ffulan kigan n imzdaɣ n iɣrm xf tjumma n ikaln n tkrza nna illan, s man aya as nn nttafa kra n wid idrusn ad isuln g iɣrman zmrn ad gin dar 30 n uwrik d yan wuṭṭun nna imqquṛn qad tin ilkm g usggwas n 2000."
"Sociologists use the phrase agricultural revolution to refer to the technological changes that occurred as long as 8,500 years ago that led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals.",ar ssmrasn imassan n tsnamunt taguri n tgrawla takrzant ḥma ad sskn isnfiln itiknulujiyn nna ijṛan sg 8.500 n usggwas nna yiwsn k tyrza g unbdu d ussgmi n imudar ikrzann.
Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agrarian societies.,ffuɣn d tskwfal iggutn sg ibṭṭutn n inɣan inamunn ammas n imunn n tkrza
"However, as food stores improved and women took on lesser roles in providing food for the family, they increasingly became subordinate to men.","mqqar d mynna, ula aɣudu n igudar n wutci d isquḍeḍ n wuddur n tmɣart g ujbar n wutci i tawja, tdwl tmɣart ar bahra tḍgwur i urgaz imik s imik."
A system of rulers with high social status also appeared.,iffuɣ d awd yan wanaw n inbbaḍn id bab n wassas anamun iẓiln.
Europe's exploration of the Americas served as one impetus for the development of capitalism.,iga umnik n uṛubba i imirikaniyn zund yan umnzal i ussgmi n usihri.
This produced further dramatic increases in efficiency.,man aya iwca yat tmrniwt mqquṛn g tzmrt.
This larger surplus caused all of the changes discussed earlier in the domestication revolution to become even more pronounced.,yiwi ugwr akswat g mrniwt n ufaw n maṛṛa isnfaln nna ittumraran g yat tizi nniḍn g tgrawla n usidf.
"However, inequality became even greater than before.",maca idwl imqqur umzaray uggar n uynna ttn ikkan yad lli.
"Geographically, it covers at the very least the countries of Western Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand.","sg tsga n tjuɣrafiyt, tsmun ɣur tmizar n uṛubba tudrimt d mirikan n ugaday d uṣṭṛalya d nyuzilanda."
One of the European Union's areas of interest is the information society.,yat sg tawitin n wamun a yuṛubbiy iga t wamun n umlan.
"Some academic, professional, and scientific associations describe themselves as societies (for example, the American Mathematical Society, the American Society of Civil Engineers, or the Royal Society).","g kra n tmsmunin tikadimiyin d tizzulant d tmassant tsnumml ixf nns is gant timsmunin (s umdya, tamsmunt n tunnunt tamirikaniyt, nɣ tamsmunt tamirikaniyt n imnzag uɣrimn, nɣ tamsmunt tagldant)."
"A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as norms, religion, values, customs, or identity.","iga wamun amuran zund yat tamunt tanamunt (kigan n tɣawsiwin iddrn) nna ɣur tifiras iccan zund isfrn, nɣ asɣan, nɣ tinditin, nɣ timyurin, nɣ tamagit."
"In this sense it is synonymous with the concept of an ancient settlement - whether a hamlet, village, town, or city.",tga sg tungit ad akniw n urmmus n tzdduɣt tazaykut-- swa iga amzduɣ nɣ usun nɣ iɣrm nɣ tamdint.
Most reconstructions of social communities by archaeologists rely on the principle that social interaction in the past was conditioned by physical distance.,kiggan n tmskirin n tuṣṣka n imunn nna tggan imassan n idrizn xf usnti n umrara anamun g mad izrin iga tafada dar ustum akmam.
No group is exclusively one or the other.,d ur awd yat trabbut qqaḥ awd g umdya.
"Socialization is influenced primarily by the family, through which children first learn community norms.","ar ittḍiṣ ussgmi anamun s tawja g umzwaru, acku da ttlmadn iḥnjar zwar inawayn inamunn."
Community development practitioners must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions.,iqqand xf imskirn n ussgmi anamun ad rmsn tamamkt n twuri akd imdan d tɣarast n uḍiṣ xf wadadn inamun imuran g ustal n tmrsal tinamunin tixatarin.
At the intersection between community development and community building are a number of programs and organizations with community development tools.,"adday imgal ussgmi anamur akd tuṣṣka n wamunn imuran , llan kigan n iɣawasn d tmaddasin nna ɣur imassn n ussgmi anamur."
"Emptiness: Moves beyond the attempts to fix, heal and convert of the chaos stage, when all people become capable of acknowledging their own woundedness and brokenness, common to human beings.","maca g tilawt, ar akkw ttmussun iwdan qqaḥ s man yaggugn xf irimn ikkatn ad sɣudun, d usujji, d usnfl n waddad n urway, adday ɣin akkw mddn ad qrran s wagasn nnsn d tṛuẓiwin nnsn, d ntta iga yat tɣawsa iccarn gr ufgan."
"""The three basic types of community organizing are grassroots organizing, coalition building, and """"institution-based community organizing,"""" (also called """"broad-based community organizing,"""" an example of which is faith-based community organizing, or Congregation-based Community Organizing).""","‘’anawn isrtan s kṛaḍ n usnmala n wamun iga tn usnmala n tdasilt tamdnant, d tuṣṣka n umsasa, d ‘’usnmala n wamun nna ibddan xf tmrsal ‘’(ar as ttinin awd ‘’asnmala n wamun g yan wansa mqquṛn’’, iga yan umdya n usnmala n wamun xf tsila tafulsant, nɣ asnmala n wamun xf tsila amgraw)’’."
"Retrieved on: June 22, 2008.",tturura d g 22 yunyu 2008.
Community organizing can focus on more than just resolving specific issues.,izmr i ussuds anamun ad isikl xf wuggar n yan ufssay i tmsarin timẓlay.
Such groups facilitate and encourage consensus decision-making with a focus on the general health of the community rather than a specific interest group.,tirubba ad da ttddu ar tsrqab isy n tɣtasin akd umsasa n tannayin d usikl xf tdusi tamatut i wamun amuran g wansa n kigan n tɣḍft iẓlin.
"Identity-based Communities: range from the local clique, sub-culture, ethnic group, religious, multicultural or pluralistic civilisation, or the global community cultures of today.","gan imunn nna ibddan xf tmagit: ar ttnyuddu gr ayt udɣar, nɣ tadlsa tayyawt, nɣ tarabbut taẓuṛant, nɣ taɣrma tadnant, nɣ mm tdlsiwin imyanawn nɣ iggutn, nɣ tidlsiwin n wamun amaḍlan ass ad."
Relationships among members in a virtual community tend to focus on information exchange about specific topics.,ar tddunt tzdayin gr imslayn g wamun amrdu s usikl n umrira n umlan s mad iẓlin s isntal iswuttan.
"""Scholars in the humanities are """"humanities scholars"""" or humanists.""",‘’imassan g tmassanin tinfganin gan ‘’imassan g tmassanin tinamunin ‘’nɣ inafgann’’.
"The humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras.","ar zrrunt tmassanin tinafganin timyurin timuranin s umata, sg umzruy nns, d tskla nns, d uẓawan, d tẓuṛi, akd ussikl xf urmas n imdan nɣ izmuzzutn nɣ kra n uzmz iẓlin."
"Anthropology (like some fields of history) does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains.","tga tussnafgan (zund kra n igran n umzruy) ur irxi ad yumu g yat sg tgrumma, ar tssɣzan kigan n wayyawn imyanawn sg tussnafgan xf yan sg kigan n uyddɣ n igran."
"""The word anthropos (άνθρωπος) is from the Greek word for """"human being"""" or """"person"""".""",taguri n antṛubbulyus tga yat tguri tayunaniyt n tguri ‘’afgan’’ nɣ ‘’awrik’’.
"This means that, though anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they always keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic and cultural aspects of any problem.","man aya da immala mas mqqar ẓlin imassan n lunṭṛubbulujiyya s umata g yan yigr ayyaw day, ar bahra srusn mnid nnsn asatig n tsggiwin tibyulujiyyin d tutlayin d umzruy d tdlsiwin n matta umukris illan."
"The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological, and linguistic data alongside direct observation of contemporary customs.","arzzu xf wudduhdu da ittajja cigan n imassan n lunṭṛubbulujiyya ad zrun agdud s ucammu, s ussmrs n ismmaln ijiniyn aduran nɣ n idrizn akd tutlayt ula inẓi usrid g tama n man aya qqaḥ i tmyurin titrarin."
Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities.,nzmr ad nskcm tussnadrizn g tmassanin tinafganin d ayyaw sg wayyawn n tmassanin tinamunin.
"A good deal of twentieth-century and twenty-first-century philosophy has been devoted to the analysis of language and to the question of whether, as Wittgenstein claimed, many of our philosophical confusions derive from the vocabulary we use; literary theory has explored the rhetorical, associative, and ordering features of language; and historical linguists have studied the development of languages across time.","ittufka yan watig mqqurn sg tflsaft n tsutit tiss simraw d tsutit tiss simraw d yan ḥma as sfsin tutlayt d usqsi n mas gan kigan n imcabbarn iflsafn nna ɣurɣ illan, mkinna s inna fiɣncṭayn, ttuyasay d sg tguriwin nna nssmras, d umnig n tmagunt tadlsant i tfrisin n tsrqqt d tmaqqant d tmagund n tutlayt, d zran ayt tutlayt n umzruy tazzigznt n tutlayin g wakud."
"""It has been defined as a """"system of rules"""", as an """"interpretive concept"""" to achieve justice, as an """"authority"""" to mediate people's interests, and even as """"the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction"""".""","‘’ittusnmal mas iga ‘’amagaw n ilugam’’, d ‘’urmmus n ussfru‘’ i usaggw n tɣdmt, d ‘’tanbaḍt’’ ḥma ad ittk gr tnufa n middn, ar ‘’tnara d timmuɣra ittusdusn s isyafatn."
"Laws are politics, because politicians create them.","asaḍuf gan isrtann, acku imssrtan da tn skarn."
"""As Immanuel Kant noted, """"Ancient Greek philosophy was divided into three sciences: physics, ethics, and logic."""")""","‘’mkinna da ismuqqul imanwil kanṭ ‘’tbḍa tflsaft tayunaniyt tazaykut xf kṛaḍt tmassanin: afizik, d tɣariwin, d tmẓla’’."
"Shinto, Daoism, and other folk or natural religions do not have ethical codes.","ccantu d ddawiyya, ula ijjadn nnidn imdnan nɣ iwnnaḍn ur darsn llin ilugan n tɣariwin."
"Belief systems imply a logical model that religions do not display because of their internal contradictions, lack of evidence, and falsehoods. .","munn imagawn n taɣalin xf yan umdya usnis nna ur da tn snflulun isɣann ayddɣ mgaln sg jaj nnsn, d tadrsi n inmmaln, d ixrriqn."
They are necessary for understanding the human predicament.,tga tanbzazt ḥma i urmas n tbbayḍṛin n ufgan.
"The non-founder religions are Hinduism, Shinto, and native or folk religions.","isɣadn ur ign timrsal gisnt tahindusiyt, ccuntu, d isɣann iẓuṛann nɣ imdnan."
"When traditional religions fail to address new concerns, then new religions will emerge.","adday gifn isɣann izaykutn g usmkl n tɣawsiwin timaynutin, qad ffuɣn diɣ isɣann imaynutn."
"Performing arts are also supported by workers in related fields, such as songwriting and stagecraft.","ar awd tsdus tiẓuṛiwin n tifri i imwura g yigran lli dar tazdayt, zund tirra n iɣnnijn d tẓuṛi n uẓawan."
This is called Performance art.,man aya iga s wassaɣ taẓuṛi n tifri.
"Dance is also used to describe methods of non-verbal communication (see body language) between humans or animals (bee dance, mating dance), and motion in inanimate objects (the leaves danced in the wind).","ar awd issumras urkaz ḥma ad isnumml ammakn n umyawaḍ ur igin amiwan (ẓṛ tutlayn n tfgga) gr ufgan d imudar (arkaz n tzizwa, d urkaz n yiwlan), d umussu g tfggiwin ur ittmussun (mmctgn ifrawn g uzwu)."
"In Byzantine and Gothic art of the Middle Ages, the dominance of the church insisted on the expression of biblical and not material truths.","g tẓuṛi tabiẓantiyt d tquṭiyt g izmaz inammasn, illa ufus n lkanisa yumẓ xf uwnni n tiditin n udlis afuẓaṛ ur d akmam."
A characteristic of this style is that the local colour is often defined by an outline (a contemporary equivalent is the cartoon).,"sg tfrisin timẓlayin i wanaw, ar bahra ittusnummal ukwlu s yat twnɣa (agdazal atrar iga t ukarikatur’’."
"It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface.","s umata da ittmun xf usrrus n tmatarin g tduli s tmskrt n usiwr xf imiss, nɣ asnɣl n imiss sg tduli."
"However, when used in an artistic sense it means the use of this activity in combination with drawing, composition and other aesthetic considerations in order to manifest the expressive and conceptual intention of the practitioner.","mqqar d man aya, asra g ttusmras g unamk n tẓuṛi, mɛna assmrs n tilal ad akd wunuɣ d usmuttg nɣ s isatign n wafulki ḥma ad snfleln nniyt n uwnni n isnaramn n umssujji amskar."
"Black is associated with mourning in the West, but elsewhere white may be.","asggan iẓli s ufcad g utram, maca g wansiwn nniḍn izmr ad ig umlil."
"""The word """"red"""", for example, can cover a wide range of variations on the pure red of the spectrum.""","‘’s umdya, taguri ‘’azggwaɣ’’ tzmr ad tdl kigan n ismzarayn sg uzggwaɣ azddag d uwlaf’’."
This began with cubism and is not painting in strict sense.,issnti man aya akd tkubiyt d ur d asfirs s unamk amnɣud.
"Consequently, many spend the first few years after graduation deciding what to do next, resulting in lower incomes at the start of their career; meanwhile, graduates from career-oriented programs experience more rapid entry into the labour market.","s man aya, ar tkkan kigan gisn isggwasn imzwura idrusn dffir n usufɣ g unqqis nna s d iqqan ad t skrn dffir n man aya, taɣawsa nna ittawin s wuguz n ukccum g tizwuri n tudrt nnsn tazzulant, d g tizi nnaɣ nit, ssn imssufaɣ n iɣawasn imawayn s tudrt ttaɣlfant akccum nnsn s tazzla g ugadaz n ugadaz."
"However, the empirical evidence also shows that humanities graduates still earn notably higher incomes than workers with no postsecondary education, and have job satisfaction levels comparable to their peers from other fields.","maca, inmmaln inaramn ssḍhrn mas suln imafaɣn n tmassanin tinfganin da ṭṭmazn tiɣṛad yattuyn uggar s yat tanɣa ifawn xf tɣṛa ad n imwura nna ur akkw iɣrin dffir tfrkt n usinan, d iswirn n udgi xf twuri da ttusmzazal s iswirn n udgi n tzuyi nnsn g twuri g yigran nniḍn."
"As a percentage of the type of degrees awarded, however, the humanities seem to be declining.",maca ssntin tmassanin tinafganin g tdrsi g tgmiḍi g mad iẓlin s tskwfal ittufkan.
Federal funding represents a much smaller fraction of funding for humanities than other fields such as STEM or medicine.,iga usiẓṛf n wamun yan ugzzum idrusn bahra sg uṣiẓṛf n tmassanin tinafganin g yigran nniḍn zund (STEM) nɣ assasfr.
"This understanding, they claimed, ties like-minded people from similar cultural backgrounds together and provides a sense of cultural continuity with the philosophical past.",ar ttinin wid mas iga urmmus ad gr iwrikn immrwasn g uwngm da ttmun g tɣrdin tidlsanin immrwasn ar yakka yan usyafa n tzzigzant tadlsant akd aynna izrin g tflsaft.
"Apart from its societal application, narrative imagination is an important tool in the (re)production of understood meaning in history, culture and literature.","g tsga n usnis nns anamun, iga uwwngm amallas yan imiss issawhmman g ufars n unamk n urmmus g umzruy d tdlsa d tskla."
"Poststructuralism has problematized an approach to the humanistic study based on questions of meaning, intentionality, and authorship.","tmmntl tfrkt n dffir n tuṣṣka g ussiɣ n imukrisng g umuggu akd tzrawin tinafganin g uynna illan g tmsarin n unamk, d nniyt, d tnɣruft."
"Furthermore, critical thinking, while arguably a result of humanistic training, can be acquired in other contexts.","uggar n mayan, iga uwwngm anfrar, mqqar iga tayafut n wannan anfgan, nzmr ad ittbrqas g imnaḍn nniḍn."
Such pleasure contrasts with the increasing privatization of leisure and instant gratification characteristic of Western culture; it thus meets Jürgen Habermas' requirements for the disregard of social status and rational problematization of previously unquestioned areas necessary for an endeavor which takes place in the bourgeois public sphere.,imgal ufjjij ad akd uẓlay yaqqlayn i uqjdim d uswunfu adɣyan nna s tsfiris tdlsa tudrimt; d nttat da ttasy s tɣḍft iḥtajjatn n yurgn habrmas g uynna iẓlin s unxxl n usurs anamun d tiggidit n imukrisn imnllitn g wansiwn nna ur illin g udɣar nturda g mad izrin ittirin kigan n twuri ittazlan g yigr amatu abuṛjwaziy.
Despite many humanities based arguments against the humanities some within the exact sciences have called for their return.,mqqar llan kigan n ifakuln ibddan xf tmassanin tinfganin mgal tmassanin tinfganin n kra d imik n tmassanin isdidn iɣra s tɣuri nnsn.
It’s good to know the history of philosophy.”,tuf tussna n umzruy n tflsaft.
"""Communication (from Latin communicare, meaning """"to share""""or """"to be in relation with"""") is """"an apparent answer to the painful divisions between self and other, private and public, and inner thought and outer word.""""""","‘’amyawaḍ (sg umyawaḍ alatiniy, iga ‘’ad ndru’’ nɣ ‘’ad tilit g tzdayt akd’’) ntta d ‘’tamrarut ifawn xf ibṭṭutn iḥṛṛan gr tixsi d wiyyaḍ, iẓlin nɣ amatay, d uwwngm n wagns d tguri n bṛṛa’’."
Message composition (further internal or technical elaboration on what exactly to express).,tga tuṣṣka n tbrat (kigan n ucammu n jaj nɣ atiqniy s uynna iẓlin s uynna izmr ad gis iwnni akkw).
Noise sources such as natural forces and in some cases human activity (both intentional and accidental) begin influencing the quality of signals propagating from the sender to one or more receivers.,ar ssntayn iɣbula n uzziwz sg idusn igamann d g kra n waddadn n tilal n ufgan (s taɣzi nɣ s tflit) d g uḍiṣ xf wanaw n tmatarin nna ittufkan dar umazan s yan ungmam n usnbgi nɣ uggar.
Interpretation and making sense of the presumed original message.,asfsi n tbrat taẓuṛant nna iɣin ad yili tdwl tturmas.
"Examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating.","sg imdyatn n tnmilalin imussutn imxasn ittwaskarn zund isy n ufus nɣ asnya n tiṭṭ, ilin awd winna ur igin imxasn, zund assidy."
"Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, the spatial arrangement of words and the use of emoticons to convey emotion.","s umdya, ar ttilin kra n ifrdisn g iḍṛiṣn ittyaran ur gin imiwan zund ammak n tirra n ufus, d usnmala n udɣar n tguriwin, d ussmrs n usnɣl n tufrayin."
"Some of the functions of nonverbal communication in humans are to complement and illustrate, to reinforce and emphasize, to replace and substitute, to control and regulate, and to contradict the denotative message.","kra n tsɣanin n umyawaḍ gar awsnan gr ufgan iga asmad nɣ assfru, d usdus d usuttuy, d usmikl, d tkiṛiṭṭ d urras, d umgal akd tbrat iffrn."
"To have total communication, all non-verbal channels such as the body, face, voice, appearance, touch, distance, timing, and other environmental forces must be engaged during face-to-face interaction.","ḥma ad yili yan umyawaḍ ismdn, iqqan d ad nssdru qqaḥ tadabutin ur igin timslay zund tafgga d wudm d wawal d tmuɣli d wugur d zaru d wakud d kra n tdusiwin nniḍn n twnaḍt ammas n imggi yan mnid n wayya."
"""""""Non-verbal behaviours may form a universal language system.""""""",‘’tzmr tikli gar tamiwant ad tṣku yan umagaw n tutlayt tamaḍlant’’
Language learning normally occurs most intensively during human childhood.,kigan n tikkal ad ittili ulmmud n tutlayt s yat tmamkt iggutn g tizi n tamẓit
"Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages.","tutlayin iḍhṛn zund lisrantu, d tutlayin n usihl, d twidawin timyinawin n tunnunt ur gint akkw xs timẓlayin s tfrdisin iccarn gr tutlayin tinfganin."
The properties of language are governed by rules.,ar ttllynt tfirasin n tutlayt i ilugam.
"Contrary to popular belief, signed languages of the world (e.g., American Sign Language) are considered to be verbal communication because their sign vocabulary, grammar, and other linguistic structures abide by all the necessary classifications as spoken languages.","mgal n uwwngm illan dar kigan, gant tutlayin illan g umaḍal (s umdya, tutlayt tamatart tamirikaniyt) tga zund yan umyawaḍ amiwan acku gan irimn n tmatart d iḍṛiṣn n tutlayt, ula tanɣiwin n tutlayt nniḍn nna yusin s ibṭṭutn s d iqqan ad ilin ayddɣ gant tutlayin ittusawaln."
Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in an attempt to create shared understanding.,"s man aya, iga umyawaḍ yat tmggit xf ttugan inumak ar ttusɣaln g yan yirim ḥma ad gin yan urmas iccarn."
"A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission.",tadabut d taɣarast nna g ttusmsasant tmatarin n ussifḍ.
"A destination, where the message arrives.",tanila d tasga nna nn tlkm tbrat.
No allowance for differing purposes.,ur llin tmẓlayin n kra n tɣawsiwin imyanawn.
No allowance for situational contexts.,ur illi usnfal i imnaḍn n isursn.
"These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication.","zmrn twuriwin ad ṭṭafnt kigan n wunuɣn, g yan sg wammakn n imyawaḍ imyanawn."
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols).,tajrrumt (timẓlayin n wunuɣn n tmatarin d isdkumn).
"In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (2008) proposed a transactional model of communication.","ammas n tqiffitin gar tadusi ad, ifka barnund g (2008)yan umdya n umyawaḍ."
"This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted.","ar sikil waddad n umyawaḍ wiss sin ddɣ, bu tmatart n umdya ammsrsal nɣ tnnayt mm amsnulfu, s tmammkt n umdan ayddɣ iga imggi alɣtas g tmamkt nna s rad ttusfru tbrat."
"The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents.","qad mzarayn imnkad udmawan n umazan d tmnkadin tidmawanin n yimal s tmyurin tisgawanin imyanawn, nɣ tidlsanin, nɣ anaw nna iɣin ad isnfl anamk ittwannan g imagisn n tbrat."
"Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.","mqqar llant kra n tɣawsiwin zund idlisn nɣ timatarin illa s g dat umdya, nttat ur tlli g matta wansa g umdya, aynna yakkan kigan tbbayḍaṛin n irmmusn."
"Companies with limited resources may choose to engage in only a few of these activities, while larger organizations may employ a full spectrum of communications.","ilaq i tdrawin mm isugam iswuttan ad stint tadrawt g yan wuṭṭun idrusn day ammas n tilal ad, g tizi nna g ilaq i tmddasin tixatarin ad ssmrsnt yan ugudiy ixatarn sg imyawaḍn."
"The information environment is the aggregate of individuals, organizations, and systems that collect, process, disseminate, or act on information.",tga twnaḍt umlan n tuggt n imdan d tmddasin d imagawn nna ismunn umlan nɣ ad tn tswjd nɣ asfsr nnsnt asra g ilaq i tmddasin nɣ ad tswuri xf tsila nns.
In verbal interpersonal communication there are two types of messages being sent: a content message and a relational message.,llan sin wanawn n tbratin g umyawaḍ amiwan gr iwdan nna ittuyazann : tabrat n umagis d tbrat n tamẓlayt.
This is the study of how individuals explain what causes different events and behaviors.,tad tga tazrawt n tmamkt n ussfru n imdan i mad igan tamntilt n uzmuzzutn d tmskarin imyanawn.
Open and honest communication creates an atmosphere that allows family members to express their differences as well as love and admiration for one another.,ar isɣudu umyawaḍ izddign ifulsn g ujnna ad yajj imdan n tawjiwin ad sawln xf gar amsasatn nnsn akd tayri nna illan ngratsn d ussusm nna illan ngratsn.
Researchers develop theories to understand communication behaviors.,ar sbuɣllun imrza timagunin ḥma ad rmsn timskirin n umyawaḍ.
"""This also includes a lack of expressing """"knowledge-appropriate"""" communication, which occurs when a person uses ambiguous or complex legal words, medical jargon, or descriptions of a situation or environment that is not understood by the recipient.""","‘’ismun uynnaɣ awd gar awnni xf umyawaḍ d ‘’yusan i tussna’’, nna da ittjṛun adday da issmras ufgan tiguriwin n uslgun illasn nɣ irwin, nɣ tiguriwin n usggunfu, nɣ tifrasin n waddad nɣ n twnnaḍt nna ur ittrmas unrmas’’."
"Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly the failure of management to introduce new technology, may also cause problems.","zund mcis, qad awin imassn ur icnin nɣ izaykutn, ula amzri n tnmahla g usidf n tatiknulujiyt tamaynut, qad yawi s kigan n imukrisn."
Examples might include an organizational structure which is unclear and therefore makes it confusing to know whom to communicate with.,"qad ismun imdyatn yat tanɣa n usuds ur ifawn, s man aya da ittgga yan umzziwz sg tussna nna s d iqqan ad ids tmyawaḍ."
It is better if such words are avoided by using alternatives whenever possible.,yuf ad nbḍu akd ayddɣ n tguriwin s ussmrs n kra nniḍn adday as naf.
"However, research in communication has shown that confusion can lend legitimacy to research when persuasion fails.","mqqar d man aya, ssufɣn d isnubbucn g yigr n unyalkam mas tzmr tusurt n usaḍfa xf urzzu adday igif ulɣad."
It is when the sender is expressing a thought or a word but the receiver gives it a different meaning.,adday yiri umazan ad isawl xf kra n uwngm nɣ tguri maca ar as yakka umsflid yan unamk yaḍn.
"This has, in turn, led to a notable change in the way younger generations communicate and perceive their own self-efficacy to communicate and connect with others.",yiwi man aya ula ntta s usnfl mqqurn g tmamkt nna s tttmyawaḍnt tsutiwin tiɛrrimin ar iss tsmuqqul tiṛwi nns tanixft g umyawaḍ akd umyawaḍ d wiyya.
Fear of being criticized – This is a major factor that prevents good communication.,"tawda sg ufran, iga yan umggi agjdan nna ur ittajjan amyawaḍ iɣudan ad yili."
This will not only boost your confidence but also improve your language and vocabulary.,man aya ur inni ad isdud tanyimant nnk day maca qad yaws awd g usɣudu n tutlayt d umawal nnk.
Certain attitudes can also make communication difficult.,ɣin ca n imnadn ad ccqqun amyawaḍ.
"The act of disambiguation regards the attempt of reducing noise and wrong interpretations, when the semantic value or meaning of a sign can be subject to noise, or in presence of multiple meanings, which makes the sense-making difficult.","tẓli tiggit n tarkrsi n tirmit n ussidrus n udida d ufasr izgln, kudna tɣi tindi tasnamkant nɣ anamk n yat tmatart ad tg asntl n udida, nɣ ig llan inumak ggutnin, aylli ittajan armas n unamk imray."
"For example: words, colours and symbols have different meanings in different cultures.","s umdya: ṭṭafnt tguriwin, ikwlan d inigln inamkn ingaran g tdlsiwin ingaran."
Understanding cultural aspects of communication refers to having knowledge of different cultures in order to communicate effectively with cross culture people.,armas n iskann n tdlasa n umyawaḍ isnmaka ad tisind cigan n tdlsiwin yaḍn ingaran s umyawaḍ d bzzaf n middn g tdlsiwin ingaran.
It also includes sounds from throat and all these are greatly influenced by cultural differences across borders.,digs altu imsli n ugṛḍ d kullu aya da ittḍuṣn s cigan s ingaratn n tdlsiwin g iwtta.
This concept differs from culture to culture as the permissible space varies in different countries.,armmus ad ingara sg tdlsa ɣr tayḍ acku asayrar d yusn ingara g cigan n tmizar.
"Some issues explaining this concept are pauses, silences and response lag during an interaction.","ca sg iskkin nna immaln armmus ad, addadn n ibddi d ifsti d ttawil g tmrarut kudnna tlla tmyaɣt."
"In different countries, the same gestures and postures are used to convey different messages.","g tmizar ingaran, ar ttusmrasnt tumlitin d isbdadn g ussiwḍ n tbratin ingaran."
"Plant roots communicate with rhizome bacteria, fungi, and insects within the soil.","ar ttmyawaḍn iẓuṛan n imɣayn d lbaktiria, igursln, d ibuxxa jaj n wakal."
In parallel they produce other volatiles to attract parasites which attack these herbivores.,s umsadaɣ ar syufant timasaylin yaḍn d ittawin iṛiẓn nna ittakin xf tuga ad.
"The biochemicals trigger the fungal organism to react in a specific manner, while if the same chemical molecules are not part of biotic messages, they do not trigger the fungal organism to react.","tnigzumin timaddarin ad tnzzɣ amaddar agrsalab ad isdawn s tbridt iẓlin, macan mala ur gint tngzumin tkiawiyin sg ugzzum n tbratin inmdrn, han ur da ttawi amddar agrsal ad imyaɣ."
"Through quorum sensing, bacteria can sense the density of cells, and regulate gene expression accordingly.","s usfrk n usaḍf, tzḍaṛ tbaktiriyt ad tsyafa s usmkta n tlkak, d rad tslgn afars ajiniy dids imsasan."
"Information, in a general sense, is processed, organised and structured data.","umlitn, s unamk nnsn amatay, iga t usmkl, assuds d uṣku n ifaylutn."
Information is associated with data.,umltin gan azday akd ifaylutn.
"Information can be transmitted in time, via data storage, and space, via communication and telecommunication.","iẓḍaṛ ad yili usmutti n wumli g wakud, s uḥṭṭu n ifaylutn, d urgway, s imsawaḍn d umyawaḍ afilan d war afilan."
"Information can be encoded into various forms for transmission and interpretation (for example, information may be encoded into a sequence of signs, or transmitted via a signal).","iẓḍaṛ ad ttusmattaynt tumlitin s ugḍl ɣr cigan n talɣiwin ingarn i yizn d ussfru (s umdya, tumlit iɣy ad ttugḍl d isdditn n imlan, nɣ ttyazan d tamatart)."
Uncertainty is inversely proportional to the probability of occurrence.,war aslkn imsasa s unmgal d urnittili.
"Furthermore, Latin itself already contained the word īnfōrmātiō meaning concept or idea, but the extent to which this may have influenced the development of the word information in English is not clear.","d wuggar, talatiniyt s iɣf nns tla taguri īnfōrmātiō isnamkan armmus nɣ tawngimt, macan aynna igan uḍuṣ n tgmi n tguri tunmilt g tnglizt ur ittyakz."
In modern Greek the word Πληροφορία is still in daily use and has the same meaning as the word information in English.,g tyunaniyt tatrart tsul tguri Πληροφορία g usmrsa akuyass d tṭṭaf anamk nnik n tguri tunmilt illan g tngliziyt.
"The field was fundamentally established by the works of Harry Nyquist and Ralph Hartley in the 1920s, and Claude Shannon in the 1940s.","ittwaskr yigr s tlɣa tadslant s twurwin n hari nyikist d ralf hartli g 1920 n tlalit, d klud canun g 1940 n tlalit."
Entropy quantifies the amount of uncertainty involved in the value of a random variable or the outcome of a random process.,ar tswuttu intrubiya tasmkta n war aslkn g tindi n umsnfl anmsamma nɣ tayafut tamassant tanmsammant.
"Important sub-fields of information theory include source coding, algorithmic complexity theory, algorithmic information theory, and information-theoretic security.","g uman yigran inayyawn istawhmman n tiẓiṛt n inɣmisn asntl n usagm, tiẓiṛt n ismmrks n lxawarizmi, tiẓirt n inɣmisn n lxawarizmi, d tflst n inɣmisn imiẓiṛn."
In his book Sensory Ecology biophysicist David B. Dusenbery called these causal inputs.,g udlis nns ittusmman ikululjiya tanfrakt tabyufizikt ifka dafid duznbiri i tmntal ad ism n timsudaf.
"In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they can be functional to the organism or system.","g tmskrt tamassant, iggut mag ttusmattaynt wumlitn s imsḥuṛcn imudrusn iqqn d ad ttwafn s inagrawn infrakn imẓlayn ar ttusmɣarn s isadufn n trna dat ma ɣa gn imṛwan i imaddarn iddrn nɣ anagraw."
The sequence of nucleotides is a pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious mind.,asddiy n nnikliyutidat iga anaw ittḍuṣn xf uskar d tngmi n umaddar iddrn bla isɣawsa annli amsfrk.
"In other words, it can be said that information in this sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not created or presented for that purpose.","s wayḍ wawal, nẓḍaṛ ad nini mas nɣy ad nsksiw s inɣmisn g unamk ad is gan asmdya, waxxa ur gin ula ttuskrn i uskkin ad."
Whether the answer provides knowledge depends on the informed person.,mk da takka tmrarut tussniwin yugl s wudm ittusqsan.
This is the informational equivalent of almost 61 CD-ROM per person in 2007.,d agdazal anɣmsan n wattay n 61 n tqaṛiḍt tuddist i wudm g 2007.
Sound records management ensures that the integrity of records is preserved for as long as they are required.,ar ttḍman tmssugurt tamadust n uklas afrag i tnfrut n isdawn kudnna ttusutrn.
Beynon-Davies explains the multi-faceted concept of information in terms of signs and signal-sign systems.,ar tssfru biynun daybis armmus n inɣmisn mi ggutnt tsggwin g uswir n tmitar d inagrawn n uskan.
Pragmatics is concerned with the purpose of communication.,da ittngzam ubṛgmatiy s iwttasn n umyawaḍ.
"In other words, pragmatics link language to action.","s wayḍ wawal, da ttsmad tbṛagmatiyt tutlayt i tigawt."
Semantics is the study of the meaning of signs - the association between signs and behaviour.,tga tsnamkt yat tzrawt n usnamk n isillfn - azday ngr issilfn d tmskirin.
Syntax as an area studies the form of communication in terms of the logic and grammar of sign systems.,tasnayt igan igr da tzrru talɣa n umyawaḍ g uswir amẓlan d n tjṛṛumt n inagrawn n tmitar.
"He introduces the concept of lexicographic information costs and refers to the effort a user of a dictionary must make to first find, and then understand data so that they can generate information.","da iskcam armmus n itaggwn n unɣmis amsknawal ar ittuɣul s tuggwt lli d iaann amsmrs n yan msmun awal ad tt isskr ḥma ad yaf, d ad irms isfka ḥma ad d arun anɣmis."
In a communicative situation intentions are expressed through messages that comprise collections of inter-related signs taken from a language mutually understood by the agents involved in the communication.,"g yan usurs n umyawaḍ, da ttuyinnint tnmilal s tbratin lli yuman igrawn n itmitar imyaman ttuldint d sg tutlayt ittyarmasn ɣur imggayn lli ittumun g umyawaḍ."
"Information visualization (shortened as InfoVis) depends on the computation and digital representation of data, and assists users in pattern recognition and anomaly detection.",asugn n usnɣms (asanf nns s infubis) yugl s usiḍn d usmdya tamuṭṭunt n isfka d yiws n umssrmasn ad isinn izurat ittafan ifrruɣn.
The term is generally employed in sociology and the other social sciences as well as in philosophy and bioethics.,ar ittusmras yirm s umata g tasnamunt d tmassanin tinamunin yaḍn d awd g tflsaft d tɣariwin n tussna n imaddarn.
"In developing societies it may be mainly based on kinship and shared values while more developed societies accumulate various theories as to what contributes to a sense of solidarity, or rather, social cohesion.","g wamunn imggura, iɣy ad ibdd ungraw ad sg umzwar xf umyisa d tinditin ittwaccuṛn, macan sgudin wamunn bahra infalin tiẓṛitin ingaran g mad izdin s uynna ittawsn g usyafa s twizi, nɣd akkw, amyaqqan anamun."
Durkheim introduced the terms mechanical and organic solidarity as part of his theory of the development of societies in The Division of Labour in Society (1893).,"isnkd durkayim irm n tiwizi tamikanikit d tgmawant d agzzum n tuẓṛit nns xf tngmi n wamunn g ""abṭṭu n twuri g wamun"" (1893)."
"Collins Dictionary of Sociology, p405-6.","amawa n kulinz i tusnamunt, tasna 405-6."
Definition: it is social cohesion based upon the dependence which individuals have on each other in more advanced societies.,asnml: iga amyaqqan anamun ibddan xf tsɣznt nna isskar wudmawn xf ca sg nratsn g wamunn bahra infalin.
Early ancient philosophers such as Socrates and Aristotle discuss solidarity as a virtue ethics framework because in order to live a good life one must perform actions and behave in a way that is in solidarity with the community.,iflsafn izaykutn imzwura zun d ṣuqraṭ d aṛiṣṭu da sawaln xf twizi d asati aɣiran anafu acku ttaf ad iddr umdan tudrt iḥlan iqqan d ad isskr tiwuriwin iẓiln issudu s tbridt iswizin d wamun.
The modern practice of bioethics is significantly influenced by Immanuel Kant's concept of the Categorical Imperative.,ar ttuḍuṣnt tmskirin titrarin i tɣarawin n tussna n tanmddart s tlɣa iggutn s urmmus n imanwil kanṭ i wanaw anaḍan.
Foreign-area studies were virtually nonexistent.,timnaḍin timzzitin ikka tt ur llint durɣ dd.
"The former became area-studies advocates, the latter proponents of modernization theory.","imzwara aɣul d inmzaɣn n tizrawin n tinmnaḍin, imggura imẓṛitn n tstrart."
From 1953 to 1966 it contributed $270 million to 34 universities for area and language studies.,g uzmz n gr 1953 ar 1966 tuws s watig n 270 mlyun dulaṛ g 34 n tsdawit ḥma ad ttuzrawnt tmnaḍin d tutlayin.
Other large and important programs followed Ford's.,iɣawasn yaḍn imqqurn d istawhmman ḍfaṛn iɣawasn n furds.
"Others insisted, however, that once they were established on university campuses, area studies began to encompass a much broader and deeper intellectual agenda than the one foreseen by government agencies, thus not American centric.","ndedn wiyyaḍ xf, waxxa d aynna, ɣas ad ttwagnt g tsdawitin, ssntant tzrawin n tmnaḍin g llan tflwin n twuriwin n uswingm ibarwn idru cigan xf iɣawasn lli n rant tsnurayin tinbaḍin, ur igi ammasan amirkaniy."
"Other interdisciplinary research fields such as women's studies, gender studies, disability studies, LGBT studies and ethnic studies (including African American studies, Asian American studies, Latino studies, Chicano studies and Native American studies) are not part of area studies but are sometimes included in discussion along with it.","wiyyaḍ yigran n urzzu agrtilal amm tzrawin ɣf tmɣarin, tizrawin ɣf wanawn, tizrawin ɣf uɛḍḍṛ, tizrawin ɣf il dji bi ti d tzrawi ɣf iẓuṛan (g amunt tzrawin tifriqanin-timarikanin, tizrawin n asya d marikan, tizrawin tilatinin-timarikanin, tizrawin n tcik d tzrawin n ihindiyn izggwaɣn) ur gint xs tafult g tizrawin tinmnaḍin, maca kra n tikkal kcmt g umsawal akids."
"Demography (from prefix demo- from Ancient Greek δῆμος (dēmos) meaning 'the people', and -graphy from γράφω (graphō) meaning 'writing, description or measurement') is the statistical study of populations, especially human beings.","tadimugrafit (sg wuzwir dimu- n tgrikt tazaykut δῆμος (dimus) isnamk ""aɣrf"", d -grafi n γράφω (grafu) isnamk ""tirra, asnuml d usɣal"") d tazrawt tastatistikt n igdudn, s uẓlay ifgann."
"Patient demographics form the core of the data for any medical institution,such as patient and emergency contact information and patient medical record data.","isfka idimugrafiyn ɣf imaḍunn gan tasila n isfka n maṛṛa timrsal n ujujji, amm tansiwin n imaḍunn d iɣawaln d isdawn n ijujji n imaḍunn."
The term Demography refers to the overall study of population.,taguri tadimugrafit at tmmal tazrawt taɣzurant n ugdud.
"In the Middle ages, Christian thinkers devoted much time in refuting the Classical ideas on demography.","g uzmz anammas, fkan imswingmn imasiḥiyn kigan n wakud ad agin tiwngimin tizaykutin ɣf tdimugrafit."
"One of the earliest demographic studies in the modern period was Natural and Political Observations Made upon the Bills of Mortality (1662) by John Graunt, which contains a primitive form of life table.","yat sg tzrawin timzwura n tdimugrafit tatrart tga tt isniɣisn igamann d isrtann ittugan ɣf yiggitn n tɣariwin (1662) sɣur djun gruwant, lli yuman yat talɣa tamnzut n tflwit n tudrt."
"His work influenced Thomas Robert Malthus, who, writing at the end of the 18th century, feared that, if unchecked, population growth would tend to outstrip growth in food production, leading to ever-increasing famine and poverty (see Malthusian catastrophe).","lant twuriwin nns tasurt ɣf ṭumas rubirt maltus, lli, ittarin g tigira n tsut tiss 18, iggwd, mk ur nsskir amya, tamrniwt tadimugrafit rad trnu tamrnut n usyafu amsadur, aylli iran ad yawi s buhyyuf d uẓlaḍ ur ittbbin (ẓṛ tawaɣit tawmaltust)."
A census is the other common direct method of collecting demographic data.,iga usiḍn yat tɣarast aḍnin tusridt ittyassann n usmattr n isfka idimigrafin.
Analyses are conducted after a census to estimate how much over or undercounting took place.,ttugan isfsayn dffir n usuḍn ḥma ad ittuqddr wuṭṭun n mddn lli mi ittuga usiḍn amkṛaẓ nɣ ddrust.
"Other indirect methods in contemporary demography include asking people about siblings, parents, and children.","gr tɣarasin tarusridin n tdimugrafit tatrart, illa usqsi n watmatn d istmatn, n ibabatn d warraw."
"They include models of mortality (including the life table, Gompertz models, hazards models, Cox proportional hazards models, multiple decrement life tables, Brass relational logits), fertility (Hernes model, Coale-Trussell models, parity progression ratios), marriage (Singulate Mean at Marriage, Page model), disability (Sullivan's method, multistate life tables), population projections (Lee-Carter model, the Leslie Matrix), and population momentum (Keyfitz).","uman izurat n tmttant (g tlla tflwit n ussidr, izurat n gumbirtz, izurat n imizitn, izurat n imizitn d yusan n kuks, tiflwin n ufnaẓ iggutn, ilugitis inassaɣn n bras), ablulls (izurat n hirni, izurat n kuwal trussl, imyassatn n tzzigzt n tsngaddayt), aggwal (singulayt n min g waggwal, azurt n baydj), tarsugrt (azurt n li kartr, matriks lizli) d tdinamit tadimugrafit (kayfitz)."
"The age-specific fertility rates, the annual number of live births per 1,000 women in particular age groups (usually age 15–19, 20-24 etc.)","asɣl n ublulls i uwatay, uṭṭun asgwsan n tlalitin iddrn i 1,000 n tmṭṭuḍt g trubba n uwatay iẓlin (g tmyurt sg 15 ar 19, 20 ar 24 n usggwas, itsitira.)"
"The expectation of life (or life expectancy), the number of years that an individual at a given age could expect to live at present mortality levels.","anaruz n tidrt ( nɣ asirm n tudrt), uṭṭun n isggwasn lli s ittqql kra n yan g yan uwatay ittufkan ad tn iddr g uswir n imttant tamirant."
"A stationary population, one that is both stable and unchanging in size (the difference between crude birth rate and crude death rate is zero).","yan ugdud ur ittmussun, g ur ttnfal tilld tqqim tg timntit (amzaray gr usɣl amsari tlalitin d usɣl amsari n tmttant iga amya)."
Note that the crude death rate as defined above and applied to a whole population can give a misleading impression.,ilaq ad nzmmem is d asɣl amsari n tmttant imkinna ittusnml d ittuskr i maṛṛa yan ugdud iɣiy ad izgl.
Individuals who change their ethnic self-labels or whose ethnic classification in government statistics changes over time may be thought of as migrating or moving from one population subcategory to another.,mddn lli isnfaln tacnyalt nnsn n itniya nɣ lli g ttnfal usmyanaw itniy g usiḍ anbbaḍ akd wakud ɣiyn ad ittuqqddrn amm mddn izugn nɣ izrin sg yat trabbut n ugdud ɣr tayyaḍ.
"The figure in this section shows the latest (2004) UN projections of world population out to the year 2150 (red = high, orange = medium, green = low).","unug n wayyaw a da immal iskkitn imaḍlann n ugdud (2004) n tmaddast n wamunn imunn ar asggwas n 2150 (azggwaɣ = yuli, alccini = anammas, azgzaw = amudrus)."
"Mortality is the study of the causes, consequences, and measurement of processes affecting death to members of the population.","tamttnt d tazrawt n tmntilin, n tlkamin d usɣl n tziggzt lli ittṭṭasn lmut n igmamn n ugdud."
Migration researchers do not designate movements 'migrations' unless they are somewhat permanent.,"imrza ɣf uzwag ur da snumuln imussutn amm ""izwagn"" xs mk gan imaɣlaln."
"Demography is today widely taught in many universities across the world, attracting students with initial training in social sciences, statistics or health studies.","ttuttuslm tdimugrafit ass a bahra g kigan n tsdawitin n umaḍal imda, ar tlldi inlmadn lli isskrn asmuttg amnzu g tussniwin tinamunin, g usuḍn nɣ g tussniwin n tdusi."
"""In this respect, one can see information science as a response to technological determinism, the belief that technology """"develops by its own laws, that it realizes its own potential, limited only by the material resources available and the creativity of its developers.""","g usatal a, nɣiy ad nini is tga tussna n unɣmis amm tmrarut i ditirminizm atiknuluji, tawant is d tatiknulujit ""da tssgma islgnn nns, ar tsllwu tazmrt nns, ittuswttan ɣas n isugan inmttitn lli illan d usnulfu n imsbuɣlutn nns."
"It is concerned with that body of knowledge relating to the origination, collection, organization, storage, retrieval, interpretation, transmission, transformation, and utilization of information.","ar tt ittawi g tuggt n tussniwin iqqn ɣr tskrawt n tumlitin, s ussuds nnsnt, asmuttr nnsnt, aḥṭṭu nnsnt, asdwl nnsnt, asmatty nnsnt, asnfl nnsnt d usmrs nnsnt."
This is especially true when related to the concept developed by A. I. Mikhailov and other Soviet authors in the mid-1960s.,iṣḥa uynna s tfrist iẓlin ig yaɣul wawal xf urmmus nna isrs mass mixayluf d imskarn wiyyaḍ isufyatiyn g uzgn 1960 n tlalit.
Definitions reliant on the nature of the tools used for deriving meaningful information from data are emerging in Informatics academic programs.,ar d ittuman g iɣawasn igadimiyin n tasnmalayt isnmln ibddan xf twnnaḍt n imissn ittuswurin ttaf ad tawḍt ɣr tumlitin ɣr tlla tɣara n tsummal.
It can be used to reason about the entities within that domain and may be used to describe the domain.,iẓḍaṛ ad ittusmras g ussnẓi n imiltin illan yigr ad d iɣy ad ittusmras awd g usnml n yigr.
"Traditionally, their work has been with print materials, but these skills are being increasingly used with electronic, visual, audio, and digital materials.","g umyiran, tkka tt inn twuri nnsn iqqn ɣr tmttiwin ittusnɣaln, macan tifakkas ad da ttusmrasnt cigan d tmttiwin tilkṭṛuniyin, imẓṛi, amsli, d tmttiwin tmaṭṭunin."
"Institutionally, information science emerged in the 19th century along with many other social science disciplines.","g uswir n tmrsal, tuman d tussna n tsnmslit g tsuta tiss 19 idis n cigan n wayyawn n tmassanin tinamunin yaḍn."
"In 1731, Benjamin Franklin established the Library Company of Philadelphia, the first library owned by a group of public citizens, which quickly expanded beyond the realm of books and became a center of scientific experiment, and which hosted public exhibitions of scientific experiments.","g usggwas n 1731, isskr bnyamin fṛanklin tamsusrt n tinidlisn filadilfiya, tga tasdlist tamzwarut llan tuggt n inamurn igdudann, nna iqqurn fsaɛ ɣr iwrinni yigr n idlisn tɣul d ammas n tirmitin timassanin, nna isnmalan isfsrn igdudann n trmitin timassanin."
"In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard invented a punched card system to control operations of the cloth weaving loom in France.","g 1801, juzif mari jakward isnulfa d yan unagraw n tkaṛḍiwin igwban ḥma ad ḍufnt timskrin n tazzult n uẓṭṭa g fransa."
"By 1843 Richard Hoe developed the rotary press, and in 1844 Samuel Morse sent the first public telegraph message.","g 1843, isbuɣla rutcar hu taɣmsa ittnḍn, d g 1844, yuzn samwil murs tabrat tatiligrafit tamzwarut tagdudant."
In 1860 a congress was held at Karlsruhe Technische Hochschule to discuss the feasibility of establishing a systematic and rational nomenclature for chemistry.,"g 1860, ittuga yan ugraw g tinml tamatayt n karlsɣu ḥma ad yili wawal ɣf is iml ad ittug yan umawal asistimatik d umnlli i tkimikt."
The following year the Royal Society began publication of its Catalogue of Papers in London.,"g usggwas amḍfaṛ, tssufɣ tmdrawt tagldant talgamt n twriqin g lundun."
Many information science historians cite Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine as the fathers of information science with the founding of the International Institute of Bibliography (IIB) in 1895.,kigan n aimzarayn n tussniwin n inɣmisn da bddrn bul utlit d hunri lafuntin is gan ibabatn n tussna n inɣmisn akd tmaddast n tmrslt tagraɣlant n tbiblyugrafit (iib) g 1895.
Documentalists emphasized the utilitarian integration of technology and technique toward specific social goals.,ssidedn imssntamn ɣf usidf ubɣir n tiknulujit d tiknikt ɣr iwttasn inamunn iẓlin.
"Otlet and Lafontaine established numerous organizations dedicated to standardization, bibliography, international associations, and consequently, international cooperation.","isnulfa utli d lafuntin kigan n tmaddasin ittugan i usmsasa, i tbiblyugrafit, i tmsmunin tigraɣlanin d, s tlkamt, i umyawas agraɣlan."
This collection involved standardized paper sheets and cards filed in custom-designed cabinets according to a hierarchical index (which culled information worldwide from diverse sources) and a commercial information retrieval service (which answered written requests by copying relevant information from index cards).,tuma trbiɛt a tiwriqin d tkaṛḍiwin n lkiɣḍ imsasan ttusrsnt g iklassurn ittugan ɣf usɣl g uḍfaṛ n uskin taratubi (lli ismattrn inɣmisn d iddan sg isugam imyanawn g umaḍal imda) d tnufa n urzzu n unɣmis n tsbbabt (lli iruran ɣf isuturn ittyaran s usnɣl n inɣmisn umsisn n tifrt).
"Additionally, traditional boundaries among disciplines began to fade and many information science scholars joined with other programs.","uggar, iwtta imyurann gr iẓlan ssntan da nttln d kigan n imrza g tmassanin n unɣmis ddan s wiyyaḍ iɣawasn."
The 1980s also saw the emergence of numerous special interest groups to respond to the changes.,awd g isggwasn n 1980 ulint d kigan n trubba ilan tanafut tanamunt ḥma ad rarn n isnfln.
"Zhang, B., Semenov, A., Vos, M. and Veijlainen, J. (2014).","zhang, b., siminuf, a., bus, m, d bijlaynen, j. (2014)"
"""Sharing through social media has become so influential that publishers must """"play nice"""" if they desire to succeed.""","bṭṭu n isnɣmsn inamun yaɣul ila tasurt allig d iqqn imẓṛagn ""ad urarn n tytti"" mk ran ad mursn."
"""It is for this reason that these networks have been realized for the potential they provide. """"""",“s tmntilt a s ttusllwan iẓḍwan a i tzmrt lli yakkan.”””
What about assigning privileges and restricting access to unauthorized users?,g uynna iẓlin s tikki n limtiyazat n usfnẓ n ukccum i imssmrsn lli ur ilin turagt.
It is an emerging discipline and community of practice focused on bringing together principles of design and architecture to the digital landscape.,iga yan iẓli d ittalin d yat tgrbazt n tmskrin isgumn ɣf umyadas n imnzayn n usɣiws n tmsagda n usanay amuṭṭun.
"""Automated information retrieval systems are used to reduce what has been called """"information overload"""".""","inagrawn utumatikn n urzzu n usnɣms ttusmrsn g ufnaẓ n uynna mi nttini ""abrtkkur n usnɣms""."
An information retrieval process begins when a user enters a query into the system.,taziggzt n usgnfi n usnɣms da issntay kudnna iskcm umssrms yan urzzu g unagraw
"Instead, several objects may match the query, perhaps with different degrees of relevancy.","g udɣar n uya, kigan n iskkinn ɣiyn ad msagarn akd urzzu, ɛniɣ akd tskwfal imyanawn n tumsist."
"Depending on the application the data objects may be, for example, text documents, images, audio, mind maps or videos.","imkinna illan g tsnsi, iskkin n isfka ɣiyn, s umdya, arratn igan iḍṛiṣn, iwlafn, ifaylutn imslitn, tikaṛḍiwin tiwngimin nɣ ifidyutn."
"Information seeking is related to, but different from, information retrieval (IR).","arzzu ɣf usnɣms iqqn n urzzu n usnɣms (di), maca imzaray d wa."
Logic is used to supply formal semantics of how reasoning functions should be applied to the symbols in the KR system.,tettusmrs tmẓla ḥma ad tfk anamk alɣan i tbridt lli s d iqqn tisɣwan n usnlli ad sis ttuskrn i ikbabn g unagraw ka ir.
"It was also a common belief that natural disasters such as famine and flood were divine retributions bearing signs of Heaven's displeasure with the ruler, so there would often be revolts following major disasters as the people saw these calamities as signs that the Mandate of Heaven had been withdrawn.","iga awd aɣal iccarn is d tiwaɣitin tigamanin amm buhyyuf d ingayn gan izmaz inakucn yusin timatardain n uɣiluf n yignna akd ugllid, ihi rad aha ilint tgrawliwin ḍaṛt twaɣitin tixatarin acku da ttannyn mddn g twaɣitin a timatarin s wukus n tmlla n ignwan."
"The concept is in some ways similar to the European concept of the divine right of kings; however, unlike the European concept, it does not confer an unconditional right to rule.","irwas akw s imik urmmus armmus n uṛubba n uzrf akucan n igllidn; maca, g tnmgla n urmmus n uṛubba, ur da yakka yan uzrf war tifadiwin n unnbḍ."
"The Mandate of Heaven was often invoked by philosophers and scholars in China as a way to curtail the abuse of power by the ruler, in a system that had few other checks.",tanbaḍt n ignwan ar tettubdar kigan ɣur ifilusufn d imusnawn n ccinwa amm wallal n uswuttu n gar adabu sɣur ugllidn g unagraw lli ilan tiyyaḍ tiḍaf.
"Notably, the dynasty lasted for a considerable time during which 31 kings ruled over an extended period of 17 generations.","s lawan akw, taglda tkka yan uzmz axatar lli g innbḍ 31 n ugllid s taɣzi n 17 n tsuta."
"As time went on, however, the rulers' abuse of the other social classes led to social unrest and instability.","g taɣzi n wakud, maca, id gar n imssugurn s wiyyaḍ iklasn inamunn iwin s imrwayn inamamunn d tararggig."
They created the Mandate of Heaven to explain their right to assume rule and presumed that the only way to hold the mandate was to rule well in the eyes of Heaven.,snulfan d tanbaḍt n ignwan ḥma ad ssfrun azrf nnsn g wammaẓ n uslgn iwa ɣaln is d taɣarast tawlawalt n wuṭuf n tnbaḍt iga tt annbḍ s tiṭṭawin n yignna.
"However, in order to appease some of the citizens, they allowed some Shang beneficiaries to continue governing their small kingdoms in compliance with Zhou rules and regulations.","maca, ḥma ad hddnn kra n inmuran, ujjan idsn imnafutn n cang ad ndhn tigldawin nnsn mẓẓiynin s uwqqr n islgnn d isuḍaf n zhu."
"They also excelled in shipbuilding, which, coupled with their discovery of celestial navigation, made them excellent mariners.","ɣudan awd g uṣku aɣrban, lli, imunn d twafitin nnsn i tbḥriyt tagnwant, ayylli tn yujjan ad gn ibḥriyn imufayn."
Most of these works are commentaries on the progress and political movement of the dynasty.,amata g twuriwin gan iɣfawaln g usbuɣlu n umussu asrtan n tgldit.
"Their works primarily stressed the importance of the ruling class, respect, and their relationship with the lower class.","zrirignt twuriwin nnsn tixxitrt n uklas amssugur, awqqr, d tsqqan akd uklas amazdar."
"Within these districts were administrators who were appointed by the government, in return, they had to maintain their allegiance to the main internal government.","g wammas n tsggwin a, llan imssugurn igan inbbaḍn, lli d iqqn, g tuɣalin, ad bayɛn tanbaḍt ta!gnsant tadslant."
"Finally, when the Zhou dynasty's power decreased, it was wiped out by the State of Qin, which believed that the Zhou had become weak and their rule unjust.","g tigira, kudnna ifnẓ udabu n tgldit n zhu, ittusnɣuba sɣur uwank n kin, lli iflsn is d ayt zhu auln gan imudrusn d tnbaḍt nnsn taruɣdimt."
"During this reformation, administrative changes were made and a system of legalism was developed which stated that the law is supreme over every individual, including the rulers.","g tizi n tknnawt ad, tturnin isnfln imssugurn d ungraw n uṣaḍuf lli izmmemn mas d aṣaḍuf yuti kra iga tt umdan, g yamu awd unbbaḍ."
The establishment of the Han dynasty marked a great period in China’s history marked by significant changes in the political structure of the country.,.tga tizi n usbd n tawja n han yat tizi takswat g umruy n ccinwa ttuṛcam s isnfln ixatarn g tlɣa tasrtant n tmazirt.
A major purpose was to establish justification for the transference of the Mandate of Heaven through these five dynasties and thus to the Song dynasty.,iga uskkin adslan asrrus n inẓatn n ummatty n tmẓlayt n yignna sg smmust n tawjiwin ad d ɣr tdfrt n sung.
They also held considerably more territory than any of the other Chinese states that had existed conterminously in the south.,mcinna kkan lla ḥṭṭun ikaln cigan sg kra iga tt tamẓlayt tacinwit yaḍn lli tt inn ikkan tlla g iffus.
"The brutal behavior of Zhu Wen and the Later Liang was a source of considerable embarrassment, and thus there was pressure to exclude them from the Mandate.","tkka tt inn tmskirt taramyart sg zhu win d laṭṛ liyang tga aɣbalu n udagaẓ axatar, aynnaɣ allig tlla yat tassast n wukus nnsn g tmaẓlayt."
"However, Kublai Khan was the only indifferent ruler when he claimed the Mandate of Heaven over the Yuan Dynasty since he had a sizable military and was part of the Khitan people, as with many others from the same background since they did not have the same traditions and culture as their Chinese adversaries.","waxxa d aynna, ikka tt inn gublay xan iga anbbaḍ ka lli tt ur ywin kudna issutr tamẓlayt n yignna xf tawja n yuwan sg llig tt inn ikka ɣurs udfrir axatar ig awd agzzum sg uɣrf n lxitan, mcinna iga waddad d cigan n wiyyaḍ sg umkkus icku ur ɣarsn timyurin immrwasn wla yat n tdlsa zun d imnzaɣn nnsn icinwiyn."
It was solely politics from beginning to end and an attempt from the emperor to maintain a favorable act towards Heaven.,tuɣa tt day d tasrtit sg tizwuri ar tigira d yat tirmit n umnkad ad iṭṭf tiggi tumnigt mnidas d yignna.
The Right of Rebellion is not coded into any official law.,azrf n tɣwwaɣt ur ittyara g awdyan uslgn unṣib.
"""Since the winner is the one who determines who has obtained the Mandate of Heaven and who has lost it, some Chinese scholars consider it to be a sort of Victor's justice, best characterized in the popular Chinese saying """"The winner becomes king, the loser becomes outlaw"""" (Chinese: “成者爲王，敗者爲寇”).""","""sg ma d iga umrnaw walli iswuttan walli yumẓn tanbaḍt n yignna d walli mi tdda, idsn imusnawn icinwiyn da t ttḥasabn is iga yan wanaw n tzrft n fiktur, ittuẓlayn uggar n wanzi amdnan acnwiy ""amrnaw itttuɣal d agllid, amṛṛẓu ittuɣal d amuffɣ ɣf uzrf"" ( tacinwit: “成者爲王，敗者爲寇”)."""
"The kingdom of Silla is also said to be adopted the Mandate of Heaven, but the earliest records are from Joseon Dynasty, which made the Mandate of Heaven an enduring state ideology.","tagldit n sila ittyanna is awd tra ad tasi s tnbaḍt n yignna, maca arratn imzwura ddan d sg tgldit n djuzyun, lli isskrn g tnbaḍt n yignna tadyulujit tamɣlalt n uwank."
"The later and more centralized Vietnamese dynasties adopted Confucianism as the state ideology, which led to the creation of a Vietnamese tributary system in Southeast Asia that was modeled after the Chinese Sinocentric system in East Asia.","tigldirin n fitnam timggura d tilli bahra isnammsn usint s tkanfucit ad tg tadyulujit n uwank, aylli yiwin s usnulfu n yan unagraw n isaffn ifitaminiyn g asta nd unẓul ugmiḍ, ittuskan ɣf unagraw anammas acinwiy g asya n ugmu."
"In later times, this need was obviated because the Imperial House of Japan claimed to be descended in an unbroken line from the Japanese sun goddess, Amaterasu.","g wakudn iɛṭṭṛn, ittyakkas wassar a acku tnna taddart tambiryalt n lyaban is d tggz sg yan izririg ur ittbbin n takuct tayabaniyt n tafukt, amatirasu."
"Even after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, when the emperor was placed back in the center of the political bureaucracy, the throne itself had very little power vis-à-vis the Meiji oligarchy.","awd dffir n usmaynu n mayji g 1868, kudnna ittuga umnkad g wammas n tbirukratit tasrtant, adabu s iɣf nns ila drust n udabu mnid n uligarcya n mayji."
"Media studies is a discipline and field of study that deals with the content, history, and effects of various media; in particular, the mass media.","tga tzrawt n usnɣms yan iẓli d yan yigr n tzrawt lli ittmskaln tumayt, n umzruy d tasurt n isnɣmsn imyanawn, s uẓlay isnɣmsn n igdudn."
"Media studies in Australia was first developed as an area of study in Victorian universities in the early 1960s, and in secondary schools in the mid 1960s.","tizrawin ɣf isnɣmsn g ustralya ttusbuɣlan zwar amm igran n tzrawin g tsdawitin n fikturya g tizwuri n iggwasn 1960, d g tinmal tisinanin ammas n isggwasn n 1960."
"In secondary schools, an early film studies course first began being taught as part of the Victorian junior secondary curriculum during the mid 1960s.","g tinmal tisinanin, tssnata yat tmsirt tamzwarut n tsinimatugrafit ad ttuslmd g usati n iɣawasn n tzrawin tisinanin n imir amzwaru ammas n isggwasn n 1960."
"It has since become, and continues to be, a strong component of the VCE.","yaɣul iga, d isul da ittgga, yan ufrdis adslan n fi si i."
Media studies does not appear to be taught in the state of New South Wales at a secondary level.,tizrawin n isnɣmsn ur irwas is da ttuslmadnt g uswir asinan g uwank n gal tamaynut n unẓul.
Harold Innis and Marshall McLuhan are famous Canadian scholars for their contributions to the fields of media ecology and political economy in the 20th century.,iga haruld inis d marcal makluhan inlmadn isdawann ikanadiyn ittyassnn s umyawas nnsn g ikulijya n usnɣms d g tdamsa tasrtant g tasut tiss 20.
"Carleton University and the University of Western Ontario, 1945 and 1946 prospectively, created Journalism specific programs or schools.","tsnulfa tsdawit n karltun d tsdawit n wistirn untaryu, ku yat g 1945 d 1946, iɣawasn nɣ tinmal n usnɣms."
"Today, most universities offer undergraduate degrees in Media and Communication Studies, and many Canadian scholars actively contribute to the field, among which: Brian Massumi (philosophy, cultural studies), Kim Sawchuk (cultural studies, feminist, ageing studies), Carrie Rentschler (feminist theory), and François Cooren (organizational communication).","ass a, amata n tsdawitin da yakkant islkinn n imir amzwaru g tzrawin n usnɣms d umyawaḍ, d kigan n tsdawitin n kanada da ttumunt g yigr a, ingrasn: brayan masumi (afilusuf, tizrawin tidlsanin), kim sawcuk (tizrawin tidlsanin, tizrawin tuntitin, tizrawin ɣf tawsr), kari rintcr (tiẓiṛt tuntit) d frunswa kurin (amyawaḍ asdusan)."
A medium is anything that mediates our interaction with the world or other humans.,anammas d aynna akw isslmadn tamyaɣt nnɣ akd umaḍal d wiyyaḍ ifgann.
McLuhan says that the “technique of fragmentation that is the essence of machine technology” shaped the restructuring of human work and association and “the essence of automation technology is the opposite”.,"issided mkluhan ""tatiknulujit n usfrz n tumast n tiknulujit n tmacinin"" tsilɣ allas n usku n twuri tanfgant d tin tmsmunt d is ""tga tumast n tiknulujit n uṭumatik tanmgalt""."
The characteristic of all media means the “content” of any medium is always another medium.,"tamẓlayt n maṛṛa isnɣmsn tsnamk is d ""tumayt"" n kra akkw n takkalt tga aha tayyaḍ takkalt."
If the electric light is used for Friday night football or to light up your desk you could argue that the content of the electric light is these activities.,mg iga usid amẓẓaṛuṛ da ittusmras i twjja n uḍaṛ g yiḍ n usimwas nɣ i ussid n usira nnk tɣid ad tinid han tumayt n usidd n umẓẓaṛuṛ gan tt tilal ad.
It is not until the electric light is used to spell a brand name that it is recognized as medium.,ur d ar d ittusmras usid amẓẓaṛuṛ i ugmmay n yism n tmatart n tsbbabt lli ra ittwassn mas tga tanammast.
The effect of the medium is made strong because it is given another media “content”.,"ar ittuɣul uḍuṣ n imiss idus acku ar yakka ""amanaḍ"" yaḍn iimzdayn n usnɣms."
Hot media are low in participation and cool media are high in participation.,imassn n usnɣms irɣan agguzn g udraw d ingran n usnɣms iɣudan yutin g tdrawt.
"Communication University of China, formerly known as the Beijing Broadcasting Institute, that dates back to 1954.","tasdawit n usawaḍ g ccinw, ittwassn g mad izrin s yism n usinag n uzuzzr g bbikin, nna mi ittuɣul umzruy nnsn ɣr usggwas n 1954."
"Bourdieu's analysis is that television provides far less autonomy, or freedom, than we think.","aṣlaḍ n burdyu iga t mas d tlifizyun da yakka tasimant , nɣ tilelli, uggar n uynna n ttiɣil."
"Within the field of Film Studies, again, both Frankfurt and Berlin were dominant in the development of new perspectives on moving image media.","g yigr n tzrawin n ssinima, tikklt yaḍn, tkka tt inn g frankfurt d brlin akkw ayd issutln xf tngmi tamaynut n ungrann n usnɣms n twlaft ittmussun."
"One of the early publications in this new direction is a volume edited by Helmut Kreuzer, Literature Studies - Media Studies (Literaturwissenschaft – Medienwissenschaft), which summarizes the presentations given at the Düsseldorfer Germanistentag 1976.","yat sg tẓṛigin timzwura ittwanfln g tnila ad tamaynut iga t uksay nna yura hilmut kryuzr, tizrawin n tskla - tizrawin n usnɣms (Literaturwissenschaft – Medienwissenschaft), nns izzgzln ismnidn g tsɣnt Düsseldorfer Germanistentag g usggwas n 1976."
"The German Institute for Media and Communication Policy, founded in 2005 by media scholar Lutz Hachmeister, is one of the few independent research institutions that is dedicated to issues surrounding media and communications policies.","asinag alalmaniy i tsrtit n usnɣms d umsawaḍ, nna isskarn g 2005 umusnaw n usnɣms lutrz hacmistr, iga yan sg tmrsalin n irzzutn tisimaninidrusn illan ɣas iskkin issutln i imassn n usnɣms d tsrtitin n usawaḍ."
"Medienwissenschaften is currently one of the most popular courses of study at universities in Germany, with many applicants mistakenly assuming that studying it will automatically lead to a career in TV or other media.","tag Medienwissenschaften dɣi yat sg cigan n tsutal tizrawanin tigdudanin g tsdawtin g lalman, acku issurdan cgan n imsnakdn tazglt n mas tazrawt nns rad tawi nnican ɣr tazzult g ttilifzyun nɣ imassn n usnɣms yaḍn."
It offers a five-year integrated programme and a two-year programme in Electronic Media.,ar d ttawi asmnid n iɣawasn ismdn s tizin smmus n isggwasn d yan uhil n sin isggwasn g yigr n ingran n usnɣms ilikṭṛuniyn.
"Whereas communication sciences focuses on the way people communicate, be it mediated or unmediated, media studies tends to narrow the communication down to just mediated communication.","macan timassanin n umsawaḍ tbdda xf trna nna s ttmyawaḍn middn , swa tga tangarnt nɣ ur tt akkw tgi, tizrawin n usnɣms ar tettawi ɣr asnyumu n umsawaḍ ar d ig amsawa angar day."
"Communication sciences (or a derivative thereof) can be studied at Erasmus University Rotterdam, Radboud University, Tilburg University, University of Amsterdam, University of Groningen, University of Twente, Roosevelt Academy, University of Utrecht, VU University Amsterdam and Wageningen University and Research Centre.","iɣi ad ttug tzrawt i tmassanin n umsawaḍ (nɣ inafuɣn sg digs) g tsdawit n irasmus g ṛutrdam, tasdwit n radbud, tasdawit n tilburg, tasdawit n amstirdam, tasdawit n gruningn, tasdawit n twinti, tagadimit n ṛuzflt, tasdawit n urtixt, tasdawut n fuw g amstirdam d tsadawit n wagningn d wammas n irzzutn."
University of the Punjab Lahore is the oldest department.,tga tsdawit n bunjab lahur tẓuni tazaykut.
Media Studies is now taught all over the UK.,tazrawt n usnɣms la ttuɣra dɣi dg cigan n idɣarn g tgldit imunn
"However, the focus of such programs sometimes excludes certain media—film, book publishing, video games, etc.","waxxa d aynna, han ibddi n iɣawasn ad da issuggug ca n tikkal kra n imassn n usnɣms - ifilmn, tẓṛigt n idlisn, trurain n ifidyutn, d wuggar."
"This is partly thanks to the acquisition of Professor Siva Vaidhyanathan, a cultural historian and media scholar, as well as the Inaugural Verklin Media Policy and Ethics Conference, endowed by the CEO of Canoe Ventures and UVA alumnus David Verklin.","ar ittuɣul lfḍl n uynna yan cwi ɣr umɛan n uslamd sifa faydyanatan, igan anmzruy adlsan d umusnaw n usnɣms, awd sg unmuggar firklin n uṛẓẓum n i tsrtitin d tɣariwin g yigr n usnɣms, nna yuwca unssixf amzzgir n tmsusrt kanu finturis d unafuɣ n tsdawit n kalifurniyadafid firklin."
"A media studies major at Radford still means someone concentrating on journalism, broadcasting, advertising or Web production.)","tugt n tzrawin tinmɣasi timqqranin g radfurd tsnamk aha kra n yan lli isnammasn ɣf tɣmsa , awuwwr n unwzay, asussn nɣ asyafu wib.)"
"Bergson contrasted an open society with what he called a closed society, a closed system of law, morality or religion.","da ismnagal birgsun aun iṛẓmn akd uynna mi ittini amun iqqnn, yan unagraw iqqn n uzrf, n tɣara nɣ n usgd."
"""Soros, George, """"The Age of Fallibility,"""" Public Affairs (2006).""","""surus, jurj'''' azmz n izggaln,'''' tiɣawsiwin tizayzin (2006)."
Totalitarianism forced knowledge to become political which made critical thinking impossible and led to the destruction of knowledge in totalitarian countries.,tbzzez tṭuṭalitarit tussna ad tuɣal d tasrtit; aylli iruran tawngimt tasrtant d awzɣi yawi s uxllu n tussna g tmizar n ṭuṭaliṭarya.
"In the closed society, claims to certain knowledge and ultimate truth lead to the attempted imposition of one version of reality.","n wa,un iqqnn, ifukkal n idsnt tussniwin d i tidt tamatut ittawi s tirmit n ubzzez n yat tamzarayt n tilawt."
"Because the electorate's perception of reality can easily be manipulated, democratic political discourse does not necessarily lead to a better understanding of reality.",acku tawalit n tilawt n willi sttinin tɣiy ad ttuqddc s tlmḍi; inaw asrtan adimukrati ur da ittawi s iɣnan s urmas amufay n tilawt.
"Popper however, did not identify the open society either with democracy or with capitalism or a laissez-faire economy, but rather with a critical frame of mind on the part of the individual, in the face of communal group think of whatever kind.","maca, ur ismun bubr amun iṛẓmn akd tdimukratit nf akd tadgart nɣ yat tdamsa n ajj-sskr, maca akd yan waddad n unlli anzɣan n umur n wuggid; mnid n uswngm n trbiɛt tanamunt s kra n tbridt."
Regulatory colleges are legal entities charged with serving the public interest by regulating the practice of a profession.,tanaḍin n uslgn gant iskkinn uzrifn ittukllfn s uswuri n tnafut tazayzt s uslgn n tmskrt n kra n tazzult.
"For example, no worker in Ontario may work in a compulsory trade without membership in the Ontario College of Trades.","s umdya, awdyan umswuri g untaryu ur iɣiy ad isskr tazzult n iɣnan bla ad ig agmam g unmala n tazzulin n untaryu."
"For Weber, sociology is the study of society and behavior and must therefore look at the heart of interaction.","ɣur wibr, tga tsusyulugit tazrawt n wamun d uṣniɛ iwa iqqn tt nn ad tknu s wul n tmyaɣt."
"""The term is more practical and encompassing than Florian Znaniecki's """"social phenomena"""", since the individual performing social action is not passive, but rather active and reactive.""","''taguri tga tusnist uggar ar tsmun ''tumanin tinamunin'', sg ma d ur igi wuggid lli izzgirn tigawt tanamunt uwdir, aca umnig d wallas umnig.''"
This is also considered alternative means when secondary consequences have ended.,ittuḥasb awd uya amm kra n wallal n usnfl kudnna smdnt tlkamin tisinanin.
"If the student chooses not to do well in college, they know that it will be difficult to get into law school and ultimately achieve the goal of being a lawyer.","mk ifrn unlmad ad ur imurs g usunan n usmutttg, issn is as imray ad ikcm n tsdawit n izrfan; ad yawḍ awttas n ad ig amstan."
Value Relation is divided into the subgroups commands and demands.,amyassa n tindi ittubḍa ɣf ddaw-trubba n usutr d n tutriwin.
These demands have posed several problems even legal formalism has been put to the test.,"tutriwin a srsnt kigan n imukrisn, awd aẓṛasilɣ uzrif ikka afus."
"To the extent that there are many religious firms competing against each other, they will tend to specialize and cater to the particular needs of some segments of religious consumers.","g waddad mani ttḥizwarnt kigan n tmssntay tisgdanin, da ttuɣalnt d timẓlay ad rarnt ɣf isqsitn iẓlin n idsn icttuyn n insmurn isgdan."
"It is well known that strict churches are strong and growing in the contemporary United States, whereas liberal ones are declining.","ittyassn mliḥ is dusnt tfacgiwin tidɣriyin ar ttgidiynt g iwunak imunn itrarn, kudnna ttggwn ilelliyn."
"Affectual action (also known as emotional actions): actions which are taken due to 'one's emotions, to express personal feelings.","tigawt tanfrakt (ittwassn altu s yism n twuriwin tufrayi): iga tawuri nna ittwasayn s umntil ""tufrayin n bnadm, ttaf ad isiwl xf isyafatn nns udmawann."
In uncontrolled reaction there is no restraint and there is lack of discretion.,g trarit n tigawt ur imsasan ur illi kra n wuɣun wla kra n ussitg.
When aspirations are not fulfilled there is internal unrest.,kudnna ur ttyawḍnt tmxsa ar ttilin kra n irwayn ignsann.
A common example is behavioral and rational choice assumptions.,sg imdyatn ittyassan tudriwin n ustay uṣinɛ d inlli.
These six concepts were identified by Aristotle and are still the topic of several talks.,iẓly aṛisṭu ayad n ṣḍiṣ n irmmusn nna isuln gan asntl n cigan ismsawaln.
Micrological theories of economy consider acts of a group of individuals.,ar ttannaynt tuẓṛitin timikṛulujyin n tdamsa g imyagn n tuggt n wudmawn.
By doing this it causes providers to be competitive and therefore creates order in the economy.,d s uynna ar d ttawi ad gn imsnkdn n tnafudtin imẓiḍṛn i tɣnnant d ar tskar assuds g tdamsa.
"Rational choice theory although increasingly colonized by economist, it does differ from microeconomic conceptions.","tuẓṛit n ustay anlliy waxxa ttusdurry s tlɣa ittrnayn sg imsdmsan, macan tngara xf irmmusn n tdamsa tagzmant."
"Traditional actions: actions which are carried out due to tradition, because they are always carried out in a particular manner for certain situations.","tiggitin tiqqburin: gant tiggitin nna ittuzzgirn s tmyurin, acku gant bdda ttuzzgirnt s kra n tbdit akkw matta nttat d kra n waddadn mtta nttni."
A custom is a practice that rests among familiarity.,azrf iga tiggitin ibddan xf takatin.
A habit is a series of steps learned gradually and sometimes without conscious awareness.,tga tmyurt yan usddi n tsurifin ittumsbɣrn yuẓeẓn d kra n tikkal bla asfrk n ufrak.
The idea of Cooley's looking glass self is that our sense of self develops as we observe and reflect upon others and what they may think of our actions.,tawngimt n ntta s iman nns g jjaj n kluni tga is da ittbuɣlu ufrak nnɣ kudnna da nsniɣis ar nswingim ɣf wiyyaḍ d uylli s ɣiyn ad t swingmn ɣf tigawin nnɣ.
"""Social capital is """"the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively"""".""","""aytli anamun"" iga ""aẓṭṭa n tuqqniwin ngr middn nna iddrn ar swurin g yan wamun, nna as yakkan i wamun nna ad iswuri s tiṛwi""."
"In the first half of the 19th century, de Tocqueville had observations about American life that seemed to outline and define social capital.","g uzgn amzwaru n tusuta tiss19, ikka tt inn ɣur ṭukfil kra n tannayin xf tudrt tamirikaniyt nna yuman is da tswuttu takz aytli anamun."
"The community as a whole will benefit by the cooperation of all its parts, while the individual will find in his associations the advantages of the help, the sympathy, and the fellowship of his neighbours.","ar issbas waum kullut g umyawas n ikabaṛn nns kullu, macan ar nn ittafa bnadm g tzlɣiwin nns tibɣurin n twisi, taɣusi, d tiddukla sg waddjaṛn nns."
"""In the words of Stein (1960:1): """"The price for maintaining a society that encourages cultural differentiation and experimentation is unquestionably the acceptance of a certain amount of disorganization on both the individual and social level.""""""","""g wawal n stayn (1960:1): """"iga watig n uḥṭṭu n yan wamun da ssbɣasn abṭṭu d undal adlsan iga blan turda anct n war assuds xf sin iswirn amyiwn d wamun""""."
All of these reflections contributed remarkably to the development of the social capital concept in the following decades.,uwsn kullu iswingimn ad yan yiws ittuṛcamn g tngmi n udgar anamun g isggwasn ad imggura.
"Robert D. Putnam (1993) suggested that social capital would facilitate co-operation and mutually supportive relations in communities and nations and would therefore be a valuable means of combating many of the social disorders inherent in modern societies, for example crime.","iɣts ṛubirt di butnam (1993) is d adgar anamun iɣy ad issuhn g umyawas d tuqqniwin ittusmkln g wamunn d tmttiwin d rad ig yat tbridt iɣudan g usbddi n cigan n imrwayn inamunn iwtn s iẓuran g wamunn itrarn, zun d abkkaḍ."
"""Nan Lin's concept of social capital has a more individualistic approach: """"Investment in social relations with expected returns in the marketplace.""""""","""iga urmmus n nan lin i udgar anamun ittyasn s tmyadast tayant cigan:""""tasarwa g tuqqniwin tinamunin ittudman g usgdz."""""
"The term capital is used by analogy with other forms of economic capital, as social capital is argued to have similar (although less measurable) benefits.","ar ittusmras yirm n udgar s tulut d talɣiwin yaḍn n idgarn idmsasnn, acku ar ittwaɣal mas dadgar anamun ɣars tiyafutin immrwasn (waxxa ur uwḍn aswir n usɣal)."
"Robison, Schmid, and Siles (2002) reviewed various definitions of social capital and concluded that many did not satisfy the formal requirement of a definition.","ṛubisu, scmid, d silis (2002) aɣuln isnmln ingaran n udgar anamun ffɣn s blli cigan nnsnt ur digsnt smdn tfadiwin tunṣibin n usnml."
They propose that social capital be defined as sympathy: the object of another's sympathy has social capital; those who have sympathy for others provide social capital.,ɣtsn asnml n udgar anamun mas iga taɣusi: asntl n tɣusi n wiyyaḍ ila adgar anamun; ar yakka i willi isɣusin d wiyyaḍ adgar anamun.
Social capital is also distinguished from the economic theory social capitalism.,ingra altu udgar anamun xf usihri anamun tiẓṛit tadmsant.
"""It """"creates value for the people who are connected, and for bystanders as well.""""""","""""ar takka uddur i middn nna inmzdayn, d imssikln altu."""""
"""According to Robert D. Putnam, social capital refers to """"connections among individuals – social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them.""""""","""g uynna inna ṛubirt di. butnam, ar iskan udgar anamun ɣr """" izdayn ngr wudmawn - iẓṭwan inamunn d ilgamn n umuggu s umdya d umrar s tflst nna dgsn ittfɣn."""""
This is seen in lower levels of trust in government and lower levels of civic participation.,ar ittuman uya g wuguz n iswirn n tflst g tnbaḍin g wuguz n iswirn n tdrawt taɣrmant.
"Putnam also suggests that a root cause of the decline in social capital is women's entry the workforce, which could correlate with time restraints that inhibit civic organizational involvement like parent-teacher associations.","ar ittini buṭnam altu mas d yan sg imntiln iẓuṛann n wuguz n udgar anamun iga t ukccum n tmṭṭuḍt ɣr twuri taqqurart, nna iɣin ad iqqn ɣr iskrafn ikudann nna isgdaln tadrawt tamssudst taɣmant g llant tmsmunin n id baba d islmadn."
"Fukuyama suggests that while social capital is beneficial for development, it also imposes cost on non-group members with unintended consequences for general welfare.","iɣts fukayama blli wxxa ibɣr udgar anamun i tnflit, macan han ar isbzzez altu iẓaẓutn xf wid ur igin igmamn g tgrawin nna d ittawin imuttln ur ittudmin i tnuflayt tamatut."
"This dimension focuses on the advantages derived from the configuration of an actor's, either individual or collective, network.","ibdda umnid ad xf tbɣurin g d ttuslɣa ifrdisn imswutin, ya tudmawant nɣ tamgrawt, lantirnit."
This is best characterized through trust of others and their cooperation and the identification an individual has within a network.,tafris akkw iɣudan i winna tga t tflst n wiyyaḍ d umyawas nnsn d uswuttu n tmagit n wudm agnsu n lantirnit.
"Research by Sheri Berman and Dylan Riley, as well as economists Shanker Satyanath, Nico Voigtländer, and Hans-Joachim Voth, have linked civic associations to the rise of fascist movements.","izdi urzzut iga cri birman d dylan riliy, d awd win imuzzayn n tdamsa cankr satyant, niku fwijlandr, d hans -juwkaym futh, timsmunin tiɣrmanin s yily n imussutn ifaciyn."
The negative consequences of social capital are more often associated with bonding vis-à-vis bridging.,iggut mag izddin imuttln ibawn n udgar anamun ɣr izddayn g ma d iqqnn ɣr uzdduy.
"Bonding and bridging social capital can work together productively if in balance, or they may work against each other.","azday nɣ tuqqna n udgar anamun d iẓḍaṛn ad swurin s sin fkn tayafut ig myasn, nɣ iswuri yan tama n wayḍ."
The strengthening of insular ties can lead to a variety of effects such as ethnic marginalization or social isolation.,iɣy ad yawi usdus n izdayn indffrn ɣr idrizn imnawayn am usḍuṛṛf aẓuṛan nɣ awliwl anamun.
"""Germans threw themselves into their clubs, voluntary associations, and professional organizations out of frustration with the failures of the national government and political parties, thereby helping to undermine the Weimar Republic and facilitate Hitler's rise to power.""""""","""grn ilalmaniyn iɣfawn nnsn g isgrawn nnsn, timsmunin timxasin, d tmagrawin tazzulin s wammak asbnnun s isnḍṛn n tnbaḍt tanamurt d ikabaṛn isrtann, aynna ad yuwsn g usdli n tgduda n fayamaṛ tssuhn i hittlir ad yali ɣr tnbaḍt""."
They were very introverted in the Weimar Republic.,kkan tt inn sbnabkan bzzaf g tgduda n faymaṛ.
"Robert Putnam, in his later work, also suggests that social capital, and the associated growth of public trust are inhibited by immigration and rising racial diversity in communities.","ṛubirt butnam, g twuri nns tamggarut, altu iɣts blli adgar anamun, d uya izdin s tgmi n tflst tamatut da tt isbṛikkiḍ uzwag d tggidit n umnaway aẓuṛan g wamun idɣaran."
"Lack of homogeneity led to people withdrawing from even their closest groups and relationships, creating an atomized society as opposed to a cohesive community.","yuwi d war tamsarit iky n middn awd sg tgrawin yudsn d tuqqniwin grasn, ittwanfal yan wmun imyaqqan g udɣar n wmun imsarin."
"Human capital, a private resource, could be accessed through what the previous generation accumulated through social capital.","iẓaḍṛ ad ittyawḍ udgar anafgan, igan asagm uslig, sg uynna tsmun tsuta izrin sg udgar anamun."
"Even though Coleman never truly addresses Pierre Bourdieu in his discussion, this coincides with Bourdieu's argument set forth in Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture.","waxxa d gluman ur isawl s byirburdyu g umsgdal nns, imyakud uya akd tunẓit n burdyu illan g yils n usyafa g usslmd, wamun d tdlsa."
"Thus, it is the social platform, itself, that equips one with the social reality they become accustomed to.","iwa, han tabridt tanamunt s iɣf nns ayd yakkan i bnadm tilawt nns tanamunt nna xf myarn."
"To illustrate this, we assume that an individual wishes to better his place in society.","afad ad nssfru aynnaɣ, ad nssurdu blli udm ira ad isɣudu ansa nns g wamun."
Is Civil Society an Adequate Theory?,is iga wamun aɣarim tiẓṛit yudan?
"Typical examples are that criminal gangs create bonding social capital, while choirs and bowling clubs (hence the title, as Putnam lamented their decline) create bridging social capital.","sg imdyatn inmdyatn n uynna xf da swurint tfryanin n tbkkḍi xf tskriwt n udgar anamun, macan da swurin tẓugayt d isagrawn n lbuling (sya ayd d yusa wassaɣ, tsɣilf tḍuṛi nnsn butnam) snulfan adrag anamun n ummaty."
"Aldrich also applies the ideas of social capital to the fundamental principles of disaster recovery, and discusses factors that either aid or impede recovery, such as extent of damage, population density, quality of government and aid.","da issuruḥ aldric awd tiwgimin n udgar anamun ɣf imnzayn idslann n usdwl dffir n imsfḍ, ar isawal ɣf isbdadn lli ittawsn nɣ da gddln asdwl, amm tiriwt n imaladn, tiḍli n mddn, taɣara n tnbaḍt d tin twizi."
"People who live their life this way feel that these are norms of society and are able to live their lives free of worry for their credit, children, and receive charity if needed.","mddn lli ittidirn tudrt nnsn s tɣarast a da ttqddarn is dislgnn n wamun d ɣiyn ad ddrn tudrt nnsn bla ad ggwdn sg imrwasn nns, tarwa, ar ttettrn mk t gan iɣnan."
"""All forms of """"capital"""" were, for Marx, possessed only by capitalists and he emphasized the basis of labour in capitalist society, as a class constituted by individuals obliged to sell their labour power, because they lacked sufficient capital, in any sense of the word, to do otherwise.""","maṛṛa talɣiin n ''udgar'''', ɣur marks, ur tnt lin imsdgran ad izririg tasila n twuri g wamun amdgar, amm uklas ittugan sg wuggid fɣ ittubzzez ad zznzn aggaḍ n twuri nnsn, acku ur lin adgar ikfan, g maṛṛa inumak n tguri, ad sskrn kra yaḍn."
Portes mentions the donation of a scholarship to a member of the same ethnic group as an example of this.,"s umdya, da ibddr butis tikki n idrimn i yan ugmam n trabbut titnit nit."
"Bonding and bridging sub-scales are proposed, which have been adopted by over 300 scholarly articles.","ddaw tskwfal n tuqqna n tin usmyadas ttusumrnt, lli ittyasayn sɣur wuggar n 300 n umagrad amassan."
"However, there is no one quantitative way of determining the level of cohesiveness, but rather a collection of social network models that researchers have used over the decades to operationalize social capital.","maca, ur tlli kra n tbridt taɣarant lli iswuttun aswir n tmyamaẓt, maca yan usmattr n izurat n uẓṭṭa inamaunn lli ssmrasn imrza g tmrawin n sggwasn ḥma ad ittusmhl udgar anamun."
"Groups with higher membership (such as political parties) contribute more to the amount of capital than groups with lower membership, although many groups with low membership (such as communities) still add up to be significant.","tirubba lli ggudin igmamn uggar (amm ikabarn isrtan) da ttumun uggar g udgar uggar n trubba lli mi drusn igmamn, mqqar d kigan n trubba lli mi drusn igmamn (amm tgrawin) da tturnun diɣ ḥma ad gn idslann."
"How a group relates to the rest of society also affects social capital, but in a different manner.","amyassa n yat trabbut akt usagur n wamun ila tasurt awd ɣf udgar anamun, maca s tbridt imzarayn."
"Recognizing that one may not be able to influence the sympathy of others, persons seeking to belong may act to increase their own sympathy for others and the organizations or institutions they represent.",s yikiz nwis ur nɣiy ad ur nili tasurt ɣf amsmalla n wiyyaḍ; mddn lli isggiln ad umun ɣiyn ad sgidin amsmalla nnsn i tiyyaḍ tmaddasin nɣ timrsal lli ttgnsasn.
"According to such authors as Walzer (1992), Alessandrini (2002), Newtown, Stolle & Rochon, Foley & Edwards (1997), and Walters, it is through civil society, or more accurately, the third sector, that individuals are able to establish and maintain relational networks.","ɣur imyura amm walzr (1992); alissandrini (2002), nyutun, stul d rucun, fuliy d idwardz (1997), d wultra, ammas n wamun uɣrim, nɣ s uẓlay ugr wss kṛaḍ; ag ɣiyn wuggidn ad gn inzmarn ad srsn ḍufn iẓḍwan n umyassa."
"Not only has civil society been documented to produce sources of social capital, according to Lyons' Third Sector (2001), social capital does not appear in any guise under either the factors that enable or those that stimulate the growth of the third sector.","ur d ɣas is la wamun uɣrim arratn i isyafu n isugam n udgar anamun, g uynna illan gyigr wiss kṛaḍ n lyun (2001); adgar anamun ur da ittbayag kra n talɣa ddaw isbdadn lli ittajjan nɣ willi ittffrn asgmi n yigr wiss kṛaḍ."
"""The goal is to reintegrate those marginalised from the rewards of the economic system into """"the community.""""""",''awttas iga t awwas n usudf n mddn ittusimn sg warrazn n unagraw admsan g ''''tgrawt''''
"""Alessandrini agrees, saying that, """"in Australia in particular, neo-liberalism has been recast as economic rationalism and identified by several theorists and commentators as a danger to society at large because of the use to which they are putting social capital to work.""""""","''imsasa alissandri, ar ittini, '''' g ustralya s uẓlay, anyulibirali ittusilɣ diɣ allig iga amsnlli admsan ar t swuttun kigan n imiẓiṛn d imxfawaln is iga imizi ɣf wamun kull s tmntilt n usswuri nns i udgar anamun g twuri'''''."
"In international development, Ben Fine (2001) and John Harriss (2001) have been heavily critical of the inappropriate adoption of social capital as a supposed panacea (promoting civil society organisations and NGOs, for example, as agents of development) for the inequalities generated by neoliberal economic development.","g yigr n tnfalit tagraɣlant, izɣn bin fayn (2001) d djun haris (2001) tanamit ur d yusin n udgar anamun llig t gan d asafr ijjujuyn (asili n tmaddasin n wamun uɣrim d lizu in jji, s umdya, amm imggayn n tnfalit) i tarugutin lli d ittaru usbuɣlu admsan anyulibiral."
"However, higher levels of social capital led to higher support for democracy.","maca, iswirn akw yulin n udgar anamun iwn w twizi yattun n tdimukratit."
Careful evaluation of these fundamental factors often suggests that women do not vote at similar levels as men.,assitg ilan taɣḍft n isbdadb idslann da ssumurn kigan is da sttint tmɣarin ur d g amm uswir n irgazn.
Social capital offers a wealth of resources and networks that facilitate political engagement.,da yakka udgar anamun abɣur n isugam d n iẓḍwan lli isslaḍn assuɣn asrtan.
Women are more likely to organize themselves in less hierarchical ways and to focus on creating consensus.,gant tmɣarin tinzmar uggar ad sudsnt iman nnsnt tbridt ur bahra igin taratubiya d ad snammsnt ɣf usnulfu n umsasa.
"For example, a person who is sick with cancer may receive information, money, or moral support he or she needs to endure treatment and recover.","s umdya, yan wuggid yaɣ ufurray iɣiy ad yamẓ anɣmis, idrimn nɣ tanalit taɣarant lli yusr bac ad izzri icc asafar nns ijji."
"Furthermore, neighbourhood social capital may also aid in buffering health inequities amongst children and adolescents.","uggar, adgar anamun n wasun iɣiy ad yumu g isuggz n tarugdudin g uswir n tdusi ɣur imẓẓyann d imtrugn."
The relationships and networks that are maintained by an ethnic minority population in a geographical area where a high percentage of residents belong to the same ethnic group may lead to better health outcomes than would be expected based on other individual and neighbourhood characteristics.,imyassatn d iẓḍwan lli illan ingr mddn n yat tadrsi titnit g yat tsga yajyugrafit mani g yulu usɣl aiḍan n imzdaɣ lli yugln s trabbut titnit ɣiyn ad awin s tyafutin timufayin g uswir n tdusi uggar n willi iɣiyn ad yili ɣur mddn yaḍn g wiyyaḍ isunn g tbddi ɣf tmẓlay tifridin d tinnurga yaḍn.
"For example, results from a survey given to 13- to 18-year-old students in Sweden showed that low social capital and low social trust are associated with higher rates of psychosomatic symptoms, musculoskeletal pain, and depression.","s umdya, sbaynent d tyafutin n tzrawin ittugan ɣf inlmadn sg 13 ar 18 n usggwas g swid is d adgar amudrus d tflst tamudrust da ttmunn d isɣln bahra yattutn d tmitar tibsikusumatik; angaẓ n tbujjutin d lkaaba."
"In one study, informational uses of the Internet correlated positively with an individual's production of social capital, and social-recreational uses were negatively correlated (higher levels of these uses correlated with lower levels of social capital).",".g yat tzrawt, imssrmsn imnɣmisn n antirnit ttusmdn s wumnig akd usyafa n adgar anamun n wuggid, d ismrsn inamunn imsnulfuutn ugln s wuzdir (iswirn lli yattutn n ismrsn a ugln n iswirn bahra iggzn n udgar anamun)."
"This means that individuals can selectively connect with others based on ascertained interests, and backgrounds.",isnamk uya is ɣiyn wuggidn ad sskrn amyassatn istin akd wiyyaḍ s tsɣunt n tnafutin nnsn d tmzwura nnsn.
"This argument continues, although the preponderance of evidence shows a positive association between social capital and the Internet.",isul issada wanẓa a; mqqar da tmmal trnnawt n wanẓa yat tmsmunt tumnigt gr udgar anamun d antirnit.
"Recent research, conducted in 2006, also shows that Internet users often have wider networks than those who access the Internet irregularly or not at all.","irzzutn imggura, ittugan g 2006, da mmaln is d lan imantirnitn kigan iẓḍwan yiriwn uggar s tbridt tulgint nɣ ur akkw."
"Other research shows that younger people use the Internet as a supplemental medium for communication, rather than letting the Internet communication replace face-to-face contact.","wiyyad irzzutn da mmaln is da ssmrasn iɛrrimn antirnit g umyawaḍ amsnrni, uggar n ad ajjn amyawaḍ ad yili g udɣar n wawaḍ s iɣf nns."
"They criticise Coleman, who used only the number of parents present in the family, neglected the unseen effect of more discrete dimensions such as stepparents' and different types of single-parent families.","da ttzɣann kulman, lli issrmasn amḍan n imarawn illan g twacunin, issitm tasurt ibynn n tɣawsiwin lli iffrn amm iḍulan d wanawn imzarayn n twacunin mi ɣur ur illi xs yan ubabat."
Morgan and Sorensen (1999) directly challenge Coleman for his lacking of an explicit mechanism to explain why Catholic schools students perform better than public school students on standardised tests of achievement.,yugi murgan d surinsn (1999) usrid kulman g war tawmrt nns tamikanikt ibaynn ad issfru maɣ ag da ttmurusn inlmadn n tinmal tikatulikin uggar n inlmadn n tinmal tizayzin g yirimn inawayn n tarurt.
"It is found that while social capital can bring about positive effect of maintaining an encompassing functional community in norm-enforcing schools, it also brings about the negative consequence of excessive monitoring.","da nttannay is d mk iɣiy udgar anamun ad yili tasurt tumnigt ɣf wuḍuf n yat tgrawt tasɣwant ismunn g tinmal lli izzgirn iilugann, da d ittawi awd talkawt tuzdirt n uḥṭṭu iwfan."
"These schools explore a different type of social capital, such as information about opportunities in the extended social networks of parents and other adults.","da ttafant tinmal ad yan wanaw yaḍn n udgar anamun, amm unɣmis ɣf tzmrt g iẓḍwan inamunn yiriwn n imarawn d wiyyaḍ imtrugn."
The similarity of these states is that parents were more associated with their children's education.,amyarwas gr iwunak a iga t is da ttumun imarawn uggar g usgmi n tarwa nnsn.
"Without social capital in the area of education, teachers and parents who play a responsibility in a students learning, the significant impacts on their child's academic learning can rely on these factors.","bla adgar anamun g yigr n usgmi, islmadn lli ilan tamasayt g usslmd n inlmadn, tasurt tadslant ɣf usslmd anmlan n tarwa nnsn ɣiyn ad agln n isbdadn a."
"""As Tedin and Weiher (2010) state, """"one of the most important factors in promoting student success is the active involvement of parents in a child's education.""""""","''imkinna t nnan tidn d wayhr (2010); ""yan g isbdadn idslann lli ittajjan amurs n inlmadn iga t wumu n imarawn g usgmi n warraw.''''"
"Supportive networks, as a form of social capital, is necessary for activating the cultural capital the newly arrived students possessed.","iẓḍwan n tnalit, igan yan wanaw n udgar anmun, gan iɣnan ḥma ad yili udgar adlsan lli illan ɣur inlmadn lli mḥra d ilkmn."
Ethnic solidarity is especially important in the context where immigrants just arrive in the host society.,tasbdadt titnit tga s uẓlay tadslant g umaḍ nna g d ttgulun imzwag g wamun amsnubg.
Ethnic support provides impetus to academic success.,da tsḥuruc tsbdadt titnit amurs akadimiy.
His main argument for classifying social capital as a geographical concept is that the relationships of people is shaped and molded by the areas in which they live.,anẓa nns adslan g uklassi n udgar anamun igan armmus ajyugrafi ig a t is d amyassatn n mddn ttugan s tmnaḍin lli ttidirn.
"In his studies, he does not look at the individual participants of these structures, but how the structures and the social connections that stem from them are diffused over space.","g tzrawin nns, ur da isksiw imdrawn uggidn n tuskiwin a, maca mamk ttuzuzzurnt tuskiwin d iẓḍwan lli dgsnt ittffɣn g usayrar."
Another area where social capital can be seen as an area of study in geography is through the analysis of participation in volunteerism and its support of different governments.,yan yigr yaḍn g iɣiy idgar anamun ad ittuḥasb is iga igr n tzrawt g tjyugrafit iga t asfsi n udraw g tmxast d wallal nns i tnbaḍin imyanawn.
There is a significant connection between leisure and democratic social capital.,illa yan umyassa adsla gr tramsutin d udgar anamun adimukrti.
"In a later study, Kislev (2020) shows the relation between romantic relationships desire and singleness.",g yat tzrawt tuḍfiṛtn imla kislif (2020) amyassa gr uḥugz n wassaɣn n tayri d taẓṛfrdanit.
Similar results were revealed in a cross-sectional study run by Sarker in Bangladesh.,tiyawutin immrwasn ttyafant g yat tzrawt talgdist isskr tt sarkr g bangladic.
Epo did this by comparing the welfare outcomes of the entrepreneurs who both had access and no access.,isskr ibu aya ismzazal gr tyafutin n uṭṛṛḥ n imssntayn lli ilan s sin asidf d awdyan usudf.
Group cohesiveness (also called group cohesion and social cohesion) arises when bonds link members of a social group to one another and to the group as a whole.,tamyamaẓt n trabbut (tettyassn s tmyamaẓt n trabbut d tmyamaẓt tanamunt) da ttili kudnna da smunn imyassatn igmamn n yat trabbut tanamutn gratsn d akd trabbut kullu tt.
Cohesion can be more specifically defined as the tendency for a group to be in unity while working towards a goal or to satisfy the emotional needs of its members.,tɣiy ymyamaẓt ad ttusnmt s uẓlay is tga iri n yat trabbut ad tmun tswuri ɣf uwttas nɣ ɣf usyiwn n wassarn infrak n igmamn nns.
Its dynamic nature refers to how it gradually changes over time in its strength and form from the time a group is formed to when a group is disbanded.,tagama nns tadinamikt da ttuɣul s tbridt lli s ttnfal imik s imik akd wakud g tzmrt nns d talɣa nns sg imir lli g tlla trabbut ar ur tili trabbut.
This definition can be generalized to most groups characterized by the group definition discussed above.,asnml a iɣiy ad ittusmata i tugt n trubba lli iẓli usnml n trabbut lli ɣf illa wawal nnigas.
"In a study, they asked the group members to identify all their good friends and calculated the ratio of ingroup choices to outgroup choices.","g yat tzrawt, ssutrn g igmamn n trabbut ad ini maṛṛa imddukkal nnsn iɣudan iwa siṭṭnen imyassatn gr istayn n trubba n ugnsu d istayn n trubba n bṛṛa."
"Group cohesion is similar to a type of group-level attraction which, according to Hogg, is known as social attraction.","tamyamaẓt n trabbut trwas yan wanaw n ulday g uswir n trabbut lli, ɣur hug, ittyassann s yism n ulday anamun."
"Lott and Lott (1965) who refer to interpersonal attraction as group cohesiveness conducted an extensive review on the literature and found that individuals' similarities in background (e.g., race, ethnicity, occupation, age), attitudes, values and personality traits have generally positive association with group cohesiveness.","lut d lut (1965), lli isnumln alday ingrwudmawann n tmyamaẓt n trabbut, sskrn yan yirim iɣuban ɣf warratn afn nn is d uggidn lli issnkadn tirwasin g uswir n tmzwura (s umdya, aẓɣṛ, asala itni, tazzult, awatay), addadn, tinditin d tfras n tiwwurka da ttilin g umata yat tmsmunt tumnigt akd tmyamaẓt n trabbut."
"In addition, similar background makes it more likely that members share similar views on various issues, including group objectives, communication methods and the type of desired leadership.","uggar, timzwura immrwasn da sskart ad imil uggar ad ccurn igmamn n tinqqaḍ immrwasn ɣf kigan n tɣawsiwin, g amun iwttasn n trabbut, tiɣarasin n umyawaḍ d wanaw n tnssixft lli ran."
"This is often caused by social loafing, a theory that says individual members of a group will actually put in less effort, because they believe other members will make up for the slack.","ittusrg uya bahra s uṛum anamun, yat tiẓiṛt ittinin is rad sskrn igmamn n trabbut drust n tzmmar, acku da ttɣalt is rad ttkurn wiyyaḍ igmamn n trabbut tugawt a."
Most meta-analyses (studies that have summarized the results of many studies) have shown that there is a relationship between cohesion and performance.,amata n ddfir ifsayn (tizrawin lli izgziln n kigan n tzrawin) ar mmalnt is illa umyassa gr tmyamaẓt d tiggi.
"When it is defined as task commitment, it is also correlated with performance, though to a lesser degree than cohesion as attraction.","kudnna ittusml s tuqqna i tmskrt, da awd ittagl s tiggi, maca s tadrsi ɣf tmayamaẓt igan alday."
"However, some groups may have a stronger cohesion-performance relationship than others.","maca, idsnt trubba ɣiynt ad ilint imyassatn n tmyaaẓt-tiggi idusn uggar n tiyyaḍ."
There is some evidence that cohesion may be more strongly related to performance for groups that have highly interdependent roles than for groups in which members are independent.,llan wanẓatn is tɣiy tmyamaẓt ad tagl s tiggi ɣur trubba lli ilan timlalin myagalnin bahra ɣur trubba lli mi ugln igmamn nns.
"Furthermore, groups with high performance goals were extremely productive.","uggar, tirubba ilan iwttasn yattuyn n tiggi gan bahra imsyafutn."
Members in cohesive groups also are more optimistic and suffer less from social problems than those in non-cohesive groups.,igmamn t rubba imyamaẓn gan awd mutafayilin ar ttnukman drust sg imukrisn inamun uggar n trubba ur igin timyamaẓin.
It was found that the masons and carpenters were more satisfied when they worked in cohesive groups.,ittusnaɣs is d ibnnayn d insramn iwnen uggar kudnna da swurin g trabbut tanmyamaẓt.
"One study showed that cohesion as task commitment can improve group decision making when the group is under stress, more than when it is not under stress.","tmla yat tzrawt is tɣiy tmyamaẓt igan tuzzna g tmskrt ad tsɣudu isitty n tɣtst g trabbut kudnna tmmrwi trabbut, uggar n ig ur tmmrwi."
The study found that teams with low cohesion and high urgency performed worse than teams with high cohesion and high urgency.,tssfɣ d tzrawt is lant trubba lli mi tdrus tmyamaẓt ilint g uɣawl tiyafutin timudrusin ɣf trubba lli ilan tamyamaẓt yattuyn d uɣawl yattuyn.
The theory of groupthink suggests that the pressures hinder the group from critically thinking about the decisions it is making.,tiẓiṛt n uswngm n trabbut da tsumur is da igddl uẓmmi tarabbut ad tswingm s tbridt tanzɣant g tɣtas lli tettasi.
"Another reason is because people value the group and are thus, more willing to give into conformity pressures to maintain or enhance their relationships.",yat tmntilt yaḍn iga t is da ttaddarn mddn tarabbut d ḥyyln ad ruln i iẓmmitn n tulut ḥma ad sɣudun imyassatn nnsn.
The degree of member liking was presumed to indicate group cohesiveness.,taskwflt n uaddr n igmamn ikka iɣiy ad iml tamyamaẓt n trabbut.
"According to the government-commissioned, State of the English Cities thematic reports, there are five different dimensions of social cohesion: material conditions, passive relationships, active relationships, solidarity, inclusion and equality.","g uynna illan g inqqisn imsntln n tnbaḍt, addaad n tmdinin n ingliz, llan smmus n izarutn imyanawn n tmyamaẓt tanamunt: tifadiwin tuzdirin, imyassatn umnign, tiwizi, asidf d tsngaddayt."
These basic necessities of life are the foundations of a strong social fabric and important indicators of social progress.,assarn a idslann n tudrt gan tirsal n uẓṭṭa anamun d inmmaln idslann n tgmi tanamunt.
"""The third dimension refers to the positive interactions, exchanges and networks between individuals and communities, or """"active social relationships"""".""","azaru wiss kṛaḍ n tmyaɣin tumnigin, i isnfln d iẓḍwan gr wuggidn d igrawn, ""imyassatn inamun umnign''''.''"
"It also includes people's sense of belonging to a city and the strength of shared experiences, identities and values between those from different backgrounds.","ikc g uya awd usyafa s wumu n mddn s yat tmdint d tzrt n twuri, timagitin d tinditin iccarn akd willi n imnidn imyanawn."
"On a societal level Albrekt Larsen defines social cohesion 'as the belief—held by citizens in a given nation state—that they share a moral community, which enables them to trust each other'.","g uswuwir anamun, da isumul albir larsn tamyamaẓt tanamunt ''amm uɣal - illan ɣur inmura n yan uwank-agraw - lli iccarn agraw n tinditin, aylli tn ittajjan ad mmsflasn grasn."
"Social formation is a Marxist concept (synonymous with 'society') referring to the concrete, historical articulation between the capitalist mode of production, maintaining pre-capitalist modes of production, and the institutional context of the economy (disambiguation).","asuttg anamun iga armmus amarksi (akniw n ''amun"") lli ittuɣuln s twrmt takmamt g tnmzruyt gr uzurt amdgar, lli ittamẓn izurat n usyafu imadgarn, d umnaḍ arslan n tdamsa (tinmmɣrit)."
"In the social sciences, social structure is the patterned social arrangements in society that are both emergent from and determinant of the actions of individuals.","g tmassanin tinamunin, tuskiwt tanamunt tga asuds anamun ittuskan g wamn lli ugan g yat tikklt talli ittalin d talli iswuttun tigawin n wuggidn."
"""It contrasts with """"social system"""", which refers to the parent structure in which these various structures are embedded.""","''inmgal uya akd ""unagraw anamun''; lli ittuɣuln s tuskiwt taymmat lli g udfnt tuskiwin ad imyanawn.''"
It determines the norms and patterns of relations between the various institutions of the society.,da isumul ilign d izurat n imyassatn gr tmrsal imyanawn n wamun.
"It is also important in the modern study of organizations, as an organization's structure may determine its flexibility, capacity to change, etc.","iga awd adslan g tzrawt tatrart n tmaddasin, acku tuskiwt n yat tmaddast tɣiy ad tswuttu tiwri ns, tazmrt nns ad tnfl, itcitira."
"On the meso scale, it concerns the structure of social networks between individuals or organizations.","g tskwflt mizi, tẓli tuskiwt n iẓḍwan inamunn gr wuggidn nɣ timaddasin."
"""For example, John Levi Martin has theorized that certain macro-scale structures are the emergent properties of micro-scale cultural institutions (i.e., """"structure"""" resembles that used by anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss).""",s umdya; isrs djun lifi martan turda n idsnt tuskiwin id mm tskwfal mqqurnin is gant ayda ittalin n tmrsal tidlsanin s tskwflt mẓẓiyn (s wayyaḍ wawal ''tuskiwt'' trws talli ittusmrsn g tantrubulujit n lifi-straws)''.
"""Alexis de Tocqueville was supposedly the first to use the term """"social structure"""".""",''iga aliksis du tukfil amzwaru lli issmrsn taguri '' tuskiwt tanamunt''''.
"One of the earliest and most comprehensive accounts of social structure was provided by Karl Marx, who related political, cultural, and religious life to the mode of production (an underlying economic structure).","yan sg inqqisn akwimdan ɣf tuskiwt tanamunt iga t win karl marks, lli izdin tudrt tasrtant, tadlsant d tsgdant s uzurt n usyafu (yat tuskiwt tadmsant tanaddayt)."
"Émile Durkheim, drawing on the analogies between biological and social systems popularized by Herbert Spencer and others, introduced the idea that diverse social institutions and practices played a role in assuring the functional integration of society through assimilation of diverse parts into a unified and self-reproducing whole.","imil durkayim, d uskutt nns ɣf ismzazaln gr inagrawn ibyulijiyn d inamun lli isyassn hirbirt sbinsr d wiyyaḍ, iskcm tawngimt n is da tturant kigan n tmrsal imyanawn d tusnisin tinamunin yat tmlalt g uḍman n usidf ansɣn n wamun s usmrwas n kigan n tfulin g yan ugraw imunn d umanamsyafu."
Others follow Lévi-Strauss in seeking logical order in cultural structures.,ḍfaṛn wiyyaḍ lifi straws g urzzu n yan unmala amẓlan g tuskiwin tidlsanin.
The most influential attempts to combine the concept of social structure with agency are Anthony Giddens' theory of structuration and Pierre Bourdieu's practice theory.,tirmitin lli akw iḍiṣn g uzday n urmmus n tuskiwt tanamunt akd tsnurayt gant tnt tiẓiṛin n usskiw n antuni giddns d tiẓiṛt n tusnist n byir burdyu.
"Giddens's analysis, in this respect, closely parallels Jacques Derrida's deconstruction of the binaries that underlie classic sociological and anthropological reasoning (notably the universalizing tendencies of Lévi-Strauss's structuralism).","asfsi n giddns, g tsga a, inmala kigan i usfrz n jak dirida n tayugin lli ittinin amsnlli asusyulujiy d untrubuluji azayku (s lawana akw lmuyulat timaḍlanin n tuskiwt n lifi straws)."
This was studied by Jacob L. Moreno.,irza l. jakub murinu aya.
Sociobiology is a field of biology that aims to examine and explain social behavior in terms of evolution.,tga tsusyubyulujit yan yigr n tmassanin n tudrt lli ittwatasn ad ifli ifasr aṣniɛ anamun g tsga n ubuɣlu nns.
"Sociobiology investigates social behaviors such as mating patterns, territorial fights, pack hunting, and the hive society of social insects.","da trzzu tsusyubyulujit g uṣniɛ anamun amm wanawn n yiwl, imnɣan inmnaḍn, tagmrt s twrutin d wamun agwlf n ibuxxa inamunn."
It predicts that animals will act in ways that have proven to be evolutionarily successful over time.,da ittini is rad gn imudar s tbridt lli intmn is tga amurs isbuɣlun akd wakud.
Behavior is therefore seen as an effort to preserve one's genes in the population.,aṣniɛ ihi ittuẓṛa amm taggzt i ufrag n ljinat g uɣrf.
"""Altmann developed his own brand of sociobiology to study the social behavior of rhesus macaques, using statistics, and was hired as a """"sociobiologist"""" at the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center in 1965.""","isbuɣla altman tasusuyublyulujit lli ss iẓlin ḥma ad izru aṣniɛ anamun ibuɣas makak risus; s usxdm n uṣiḍn, ittusmma ''amusnaw n tmassant tabyulujit''''' g wammas anmnaḍ n irzzutn ɣf brimat n yirks g usggwas n 1965."
"""Once a specialist term, """"sociobiology"""" became widely known in 1975 when Wilson published his book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, which sparked an intense controversy.""","''tuɣa ism ẓlin, ''''tasusyubyulijit'''' yaɣul iga ism ityassann g 1975 kudnna issufɣ wilsun adlis nns asusyubyuluji: aswlf amaynu, lli issnkrn kigan n waqqur."
"However, the influence of evolution on behavior has been of interest to biologists and philosophers since soon after the discovery of evolution itself.","maca, iḍiẓ n usbuɣlu n uṣniɛ iszgm awd ibyulujiyn d iflsufn imik ḍaṛt twafit n usbɣlu s iman nns."
"""Edward H. Hagen writes in The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology that sociobiology is, despite the public controversy regarding the applications to humans, """"one of the scientific triumphs of the twentieth century."""" """"""","''yaru idward higinz g udlis n usbuɣlu absikuluji is tga tsusyulujit, waxxa illa waqqur agdudan lli iẓlin s tusnist nns i ifgann;'''' yan sg imuras imassann n tsut tiss simraw.'''' ''''''"
"""Therefore, these traits were probably """"adaptive"""" in the environment in which the species evolved.""","''s tlkamt, tifras a gant ɛniɣ ''''tisnamatin'''' i twannaḍt lli ttbuɣlun wanawn.''"
"Thus, they are often interested in instinctive, or intuitive behavior, and in explaining the similarities, rather than the differences, between cultures.","s imki, da sngzamn kigan s uṣniɛ lli s ittlala yan nɣ awngim d s ussfru n uymmi immrwasn, uggar sn imzarayn, gr idlsn."
This parental protection would increase in frequency in the population.,afrag a amarawan da issiliy g usnagar n uɣrf.
E.O. Wilson argued that evolution may also act upon groups.,i.u. wilsun isnal is d asbuɣlu iɣiy ad yili tasurt ɣf trubba.
"If altruism is genetically determined, then altruistic individuals must reproduce their own altruistic genetic traits for altruism to survive, but when altruists lavish their resources on non-altruists at the expense of their own kind, the altruists tend to die out and the others tend to increase.","mk ittuswutta ussuf g uswir ajiniti, iwa iaan nn uggidn imssufn ad syafun tifras nnsn tijinitin timssufin ḥma ad iddr ussuf, aca kudnna da akkan imssufn isugan nnsn i imssufn imaynutn ɣf uṣiṭṭn n wanawn nnsn, imssufn da ttddun g unɣubu d wiyyaḍ da ttddun g uggudi."
"Within sociobiology, a social behavior is first explained as a sociobiological hypothesis by finding an evolutionarily stable strategy that matches the observed behavior.","g wammas n tsusyubyulujit, yan uṣniɛ anamun ittufasr zwar is iga turda tasusyubyulujit ar ittafa tastratijit n usbuɣlu imnti lla imsagarn d uṣniy ittusnaɣsn."
Altruism between social insects and littermates has been explained in such a way.,ittufasr ussuf gr ibuxxa inamunn d ismunn n warras s tɣarast a.
"In general, females with more bearing opportunities may value offspring less, and may also arrange bearing opportunities to maximize the food and protection from mates.","s umata, tuntitin lli ila uggar n tsulf ad arunt ɣiynt ad fknt drust n tixxitrt i tarwa nnsnt d ɣiynt ad snmalant isulfn n ussirw ḥma ad sgidint s uyna s ufant ucci d ufrag mgal imdrawn."
"Studies of human behavior genetics have generally found behavioral traits such as creativity, extroversion, aggressiveness, and IQ have high heritability.","tizrawn ɣf jinitik n uṣniɛ anfgan ufant s umata tifras n uṣniɛ amm usnulfu, tiṛwi, ticcunga d usɣl n tytti iɣiy kigan ad ittukkusa."
"Thus, when FEV is genetically deleted from the mouse genome, male mice will instantly attack other males, whereas their wild-type counterparts take significantly longer to initiate violent behaviour.","s imki, kudnna ittyakks ffi i bbi g ujinum n uɣrday, iɣrdayn iwtman da ttsugn kra n tikkal wiyyaḍ iwtman, kudnna ttasrn ikniwn nnsn kigan n wakud dat ad sgmn aṣniɛ ukṛiḍ."
"During a 1976 meeting of the Sociobiology Study Group, as reported by Ullica Segerstråle, Chomsky argued for the importance of a sociobiologically informed notion of human nature.","g yan ugraw n trabbt n tzrawin n tsusyubyulujit g 1976, imkinna t id yiwi ulika sigirstral, inɛṛ tcumski ɣf tixxitrt n yirim asusyubyuluji n tgama tanfgant."
"Wilson has claimed that he had never meant to imply what ought to be, only what is the case.","issntm wilsn is ur jjun ira ad iskcm aylli s d iqqan ad yili, maca ɣas aylli igan amdya."
Business is the activity of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services).,tga tmssntayt tawuri lli iwatsn ad trbḥ tudrt nns nɣ ad trbḥ idrimn s usyafu nɣ s msɣiwt d mnziwt n isyafutn (amm sliɛt nɣ tinufa).
"If the business acquires debts, the creditors can go after the owner's personal possessions.","mk tbubba tmssntit imrwasn, imḍfaṛn ɣiyn ad amẓn g wagla umdawann n bab n tmssntit."
The term is also often used colloquially (but not by lawyers or by public officials) to refer to a company.,ittusmrs awd urmmus kigan ɣur mddn ifrarn (ur d ɣur imstan d imggayn izayzn) g usmmi n tmssntit.
"A privately owned, for-profit corporation is owned by its shareholders, who elect a board of directors to direct the corporation and hire its managerial staff.","yat tmdrawt tusligt mm uwttas n idrimn tẓli s icrikn, lli isttin asqqim n tmssugurt ḥma ad iswudu tamdraxwt ar iskcam agaluf n tmhla nns."
"A cooperative differs from a corporation in that it has members, not shareholders, and they share decision-making authority.","tmzaray tmyawast d tmdrawt g tsga llig tla igmamn, ur d icrikn, ar bḍḍun tazmrt n tɣtst."
"Limited liability companies (LLC), limited liability partnerships, and other specific types of business organization protect their owners or shareholders from business failure by doing business under a separate legal entity with certain legal protections.","tamssurt mm tmasayt iwttan (LLC), timssurin mm tmasayt iwttan d wiyyaḍ wanawn iẓlin n tmaddasin n tsbbabt da frrgnt n id bab nnsnt nɣ icrikn mgal iṛẓan n tsbbabt s tiggi n tɣawsiwin s tbridt tuzrift imyallan d kra n ifragn uzrifn."
"The members guarantee the payment of certain (usually nominal) amounts if the company goes into insolvent liquidation, but otherwise, they have no economic rights in relation to the company.","da ttḍmann igmamn afrru n idsn itaggwn (s umata ismawann) g umdya n umḥraray ur ilin afssay n tmssurt, maca g umdya anmgal, ur lin awdyan urzf admsan ɣf tmssurt."
"This type of company may no longer be formed in the UK, although provisions still exist in law for them to exist.","anaw a n tmssurin ur iɣiy ad yili g tgldit imunn, waxxa llant tumayin g uzrf ḥma ad ilint."
"""Note that """"Ltd after the company's name signifies limited company, and PLC (public limited company) indicates that its shares are widely held.""""""","''zmmemat is d ''''il ti di dffir yism n tmssurt isnamk tamssurt ilan tamasayt iwttan, d bi il si (tamssurt ilan tamasayt iwttan) ar tmmal is ttyamaẓnt tmgga nns s tiriwt."
"In a company limited by guarantee, this will be the guarantors.","g yat tmssurt tarism s uḍman, har imḍmann a rad ig waddad."
"Private companies do not have publicly traded shares, and often contain restrictions on transfers of shares.",timssntay tusligin ur lin timgga g tsga n laburs ar ssudunt kigan g ifnaẓn ɣg usmatti n tmgga.
Entertainment companies and mass media agencies generate profits primarily from the sale of intellectual property.,timssurin n usurar d tsnurayin n usnɣms n igdudn isskarn tinufa s umata sg mnziwt n wagla awngim.
"They include tangible goods such as cars, buses, medical devices, glass, or aircraft.","umant aglatn ikmamn amm thiritin, isnmaddutn, allaln n usujji, n jjaj nɣ taylalin."
Most stores and catalog companies are distributors or retailers.,amata g tḥuna d tmssurin s ukaṭalug gant imsbḍutn n imsfruritn.
They make their profits by selling goods and services that are sports related.,ar ttawin arrazn nnsn s uzznz n ulzaz d tnafutin izdin d tunnunt.
The modern field was established by the Italian mathematician Luca Pacioli in 1494.,g usggwas n 1494 isskr umusnaw n tusnakt aṭalyniy luka basilyu igr atrar.
Finance can also be defined as the science of money management.,iẓḍaṛ altu ad ttusnml tẓṛft mas d tga tussna n tmssugurt n idrimn.
"Owners may manage their businesses themselves, or employ managers to do so for them.","ayt uyda izry asn ad swuddun tiwuriwin nnsn s iɣfawn nnsn, nɣ swurin kra n inmhaln ttaf ad asn gn tawuri g udɣar nnsn."
Business process management (BPM) is a holistic management approach focused on aligning all aspects of an organization with the wants and needs of clients.,tga tmssugra n tirmitin n tsbbabt yat tbridt taɣzurant ibddan xf usmsasa n kra igat tanila n tmagrawt akd isaturn d isɣawsatn.
Many businesses are operated through a separate entity such as a corporation or a partnership (either formed with or without limited liability).,ar ittili uswuri n cigan n tmsusrin s yat talɣa ibdan am tmyawast nɣ tamsusrt (swa ttuṣka s tmasayt iẓlin nɣ bla n tmasayt iẓlin).
"""Generally speaking, shareholders in a corporation, limited partners in a limited partnership, and members in a limited liability company are shielded from personal liability for the debts and obligations of the entity, which is legally treated as a separate """"person"""".""","""s umata, han imawsann g tmsusrt, imdrawn iẓlin g tmsusrt iẓlin, d igmamn g tmsusrt ɣr tlla tmasayt iẓlin da ttugdaln sg tmasayt tudmawant sg iṛṭṭaln n tiggit d isuɣnn, nna iswurin iṣaḍufn immaln mas d iga """"udm"""" anbḍay."""
"The terms of a partnership are partly governed by a partnership agreement if one is created, and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located.","da ttnbaḍnt tfidiwin n tmdrawt s tfult n umsasa n tmdrawt ig ittuga, ad digs ittnbaḍ uslgn n tzrft lli g tettuga tmssurt n wuggidn."
"In some tax systems, this can give rise to so-called double taxation, because first the corporation pays tax on the profit, and then when the corporation distributes its profits to its owners, individuals have to include dividends in their income when they complete their personal tax returns, at which point a second layer of income tax is imposed.","g kra n issudsn irgayn, iɣy ad yawi uynna ɣr mad ittusmman s argay ayugan, acku ar takka tmsusrt d amzwaru argay xf warraz, d kudna tbḍa tmsusrt arrazn nns xf id babin nnsn, illa xf wudmawn ad ssidfn arrazn n tfulin g jaj nnsn kudnna smdn iɣtasn nnsn n irgayn nnsn, luɣddin ar tubzzez taggayt tiss snat sg irgayn n isadafn."
"""""""Going public"""" through a process known as an initial public offering (IPO) means that part of the business will be owned by members of the public.""","tsnamka tguri n ""uman i ugdud"" s tirmit n usmnl s yism asfsr amatu azmwaru iga ugzzum n usnfar n tsbbabt tilit n wudmawn sg ugdud."
"The Code of Hammurabi dates back to about 1772 BC for example and contains provisions that relate, among other matters, to shipping costs and dealings between merchants and brokers.","tugriwt n ḥmmuṛabi ittɛayadn ɣr usggwas n 1772 dat n tlalit, s umdya d llan digs inbaḍn iqqn ɣr uynna, d sg iskkin yaḍn, ismagln n ussktur d inmugga ngr isbbabn d ismsaṛn."
Local jurisdictions may also require special licenses and taxes just to operate a business.,iɣy ad tsɣawsa tmaẓlayt n tzzurfa tadɣarant altu tugain d irgayn iẓlin ɣas ma illa can uswuri n ca n usnfaṛ n tsbbabt.
Most countries with capital markets have at least one.,cigan n tmizar lli ɣr llan igadazn isihritn ɣrasn abɛda yan.
Other western nations have comparable regulatory bodies.,llan ɣur tmizar n uɣlluy yaḍn tinugmam timssudsin imyaɣn.
The proliferation and increasing complexity of the laws governing business have forced increasing specialization in corporate law.,yuwi d ufsar n iṣaḍufn nna inbḍn g tsbbabt uggar n umkrs g irnay n iẓlayn g iṣaḍufn n tmsusrin.
"Most businesses have names, logos, and similar branding techniques that could benefit from trademarking.","cigan n tmsusrin n tsbbabt ṭṭafnt ismawn, timatarin, d ttqniyin imyaɣn i tmatarin n tsbbabt nna iẓḍaṛn ad sbɣrnt sg tmatarin n tsbbabt."
"Economics is the social science that studies how people interact with value; in particular, the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.",tga tdamsa tussna tanamunt nna izrrun mamc ttmrarn middn d tindi; slawan akkw asyafu ilazazn d tnafutin d ubṭṭu nnsnt d tsadurt nnsnt.
"He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth: how wealth is created (production), distributed, and consumed; and how wealth can grow.","issɣzn blli imuzzayn izrin n tdamsa ar bahara tbddadn g tzrawin nnsn d uṣlaḍ n ugra: mamk ittuskar ugra (asnflul) d ubṭṭu nns d tsdurt nns, d mamk iɣi ugra ad igmi."
"If the war is not winnable or if the expected costs outweigh the benefits, the deciding actors (assuming they are rational) may never go to war (a decision) but rather explore other alternatives.","ig ur igi imnɣi i trnawt nɣ utin ismagln ittudman tibɣurin, han tinaliwin timggitin ad yaɣul uɣtas (s ussrdu gant imsmrsn n unli) is ur akkw ttddunt ɣr imnɣi (aɣtas) macan rad taf isnfaln yaḍnin."
"""Economic precepts occur throughout the writings of the Boeotian poet Hesiod and several economic historians have described Hesiod himself as the """"first economist"""".""","""imnzayn n tdamsa ttubdarn g maṛṛa idlisn n umdyaz butyan hisud d cigan n inmzruyn idamsan snummln hisud s iɣf nns is iga""amadasan amzwaru""."""
"""Two groups, who later were called """"mercantilists"""" and """"physiocrats"""", more directly influenced the subsequent development of the subject.""","""snat n tgrawin, axf nnan g tizi d iggran """"mirkantilist"""" d """"fizyukrat"""", tḍuṣ s yat tlɣa tusridt yutin xf uzzigz n usntl ad g tizi d iggran."
It held that a nation's wealth depended on its accumulation of gold and silver.,tannay blli ayda n uwnk ibdda xf usgudi n wurɣ d uẓṛf.
"Physiocrats, a group of 18th-century French thinkers and writers, developed the idea of the economy as a circular flow of income and output.","fisyukrats, gan yat trabbut n imswingmn d imaratn ifṛansisn g tsuta tiss 18, zzigzn tawngimt n tdamsa d anɣal awrerray i usaduf d ufars."
Physiocrats advocated replacing administratively costly tax collections with a single tax on income of land owners.,fisyukratn ssutrn ad ttusnfal waggasn n irgayn inɣlfn tamssugurt ɣr yan urgay xf imli n wakaln.
"Smith discusses potential benefits of specialization by division of labour, including increased labour productivity and gains from trade, whether between town and country or across countries.","ad isawal smit g ibɣurn iɣin ad yili i uẓlay s ubṭṭu n twuri, g tamu zziyada n ufars n twuri d imɛann sg tsbbabt, swa ngr tɣrmin d ngr tmizar nɣ xf tmizar."
The force of a rapidly growing population against a limited amount of land meant diminishing returns to labour.,taggalt n imzdaɣn nna mi ittzayad wuṭṭun nnsn s tazzla mgal yat tsmkta iswttan n wakalan tsnamka aguz n idwaln ɣr imswuritn.
"While Adam Smith emphasized the production of income, David Ricardo (1817) focused on the distribution of income among landowners, workers, and capitalists.","macan issɣzan adam smit xf ufars amsadaf, daɣid ṛikardu (1817) ntta ibdda xf ubṭṭu n usadf ngr imilan n wakaln d imswuriyn d imsihritn."
"Ricardo was the first to state and prove the principle of comparative advantage, according to which each country should specialize in producing and exporting goods in that it has a lower relative cost of production, rather relying only on its own production.","ṛikardu ayd igan amzwaru indrn yakz amnzay tabɣurt n tmasaɣt, nna ittinin blli ku tamazirt ad tẓli g ufars d ussifḍ n ilazazn acku atig nns amasaɣ n ufars imdrus, d wansa n ibddi ɣas xf ufars nns."
Mill pointed to a distinct difference between the market's two roles: allocation of resources and distribution of income.,mill inna mas dangara yuman ngr tilal n ugadaz: aẓlay n tngaw d ubṭṭu n usadf.
"""Smith wrote that the """"real price of every thing ... is the toil and trouble of acquiring it"""".""","""yura smit mas d"" ""atig idttan n kra iga tt tɣawsa... iga t uxnus d tkrrayin n tili nns""."
"""Say's definition has prevailed up to our time, saved by substituting the word """"wealth"""" for """"goods and services"""" meaning that wealth may include non-material objects as well.""","""ini ila asnml illan ar akud ad nnɣ, d yuwid asnfl n tguri n ""tabɣurt"" s ""alzaz d tnafutin """" isnamkan blli tabɣurt tɣy altu ad teṭṭf awd iskkin ur igin ikmamn""."
"""For Robbins, the insufficiency was solved, and his definition allows us to proclaim, with an easy conscience, education economics, safety and security economics, health economics, war economics, and of course, production, distribution and consumption economics as valid subjects of the economic science.""""""","""ṛubinz anttan, yufa afssay n war asmad, d usnml nns ar anɣ ittawi ad nini, s unugga iwhn, tidmsatin n usslmd, tadamsa n ufra d tflst, tadamsa n tdusi, tadamsa n imnɣi, d awd , tadamsa n ufars d ubṭṭu d tsadurt d isntln iɣidan i tumssanin n tdamsa""."
"Although far from unanimous, most mainstream economists would accept some version of Robbins' definition, even though many have raised serious objections to the scope and method of economics, emanating from that definition.","waxxa d cigan sg imuzayn n tdamsa g umzaz isugrn ur msasan xf yat tanayt, ar ttqbaln s tunɣilt n usnml n ṛubirz, waxxa d cigan sg digsn issukz iyyumn imizin xf umnaḍ d tbridt n tdamsa, nna d iddan sg usnml ad."
"""The term """"economics"""" was popularized by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall as a concise synonym for """"economic science"""" and a substitute for the earlier """"political economy"""".""","iksi yirm n ""tadamsa"" yat tgdudant sg imuzayn n tdamsa taklasikiyt imaynutn zun d alfrid marcal d amnad izgzln i""tmassanin n tdamsa"" d imkkisi n ""tdamsa tasratant"" izrin."
It dispensed with the labour theory of value inherited from classical economics in favour of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side.,tzgr xf tẓṛit n waddur amaḍlan ikkusn sg tdmsa taklasikiyt i tzṛit n lfayt tamḍṛft i tindi xf uɣzdis n usutr d tẓṛit tagdudant cigan i iẓazatn xf uɣzdis n ufsar.
"An immediate example of this is the consumer theory of individual demand, which isolates how prices (as costs) and income affect quantity demanded.","sg imdyatn usridn xf uyna tiẓṛit n tmsidrt i usatur ayiman, nna iẓllin tamamkt s ttḍuṣn xf watign (ar awd tḍuṣ iẓaẓatn) d usadf xf tsmkta ittwasutrn."
"Modern mainstream economics builds on neoclassical economics but with many refinements that either supplement or generalize earlier analysis, such as econometrics, game theory, analysis of market failure and imperfect competition, and the neoclassical model of economic growth for analysing long-run variables affecting national income.","tbdda tdamsa isugrn tatrart xf tdamsa taklasikiyt tamayut macan d cigan n isyifn nna ismadn nɣ smatant aṣlad izrin, zun d tadamsa tasɣlant, tiẓṛit n turart, aṣlaḍ n uguf n igadazn d tɣnnant ur ismdn, d umdya aklasikiy amaynu n tgmi tadmsant i uṣlaḍ n infaln id bu tizi iɣzzifn nna ittḍuṣn xf usadf aẓuṛan."
"There exists an economic problem, subject to study by economic science, when a decision (choice) is made by one or more resource-controlling players to attain the best possible outcome under bounded rational conditions.","tlla dinna yat tmkrist tadmsant, iqqn ɣr tzrawt nna tsskar tmassant n tdamsa, milmi ittyasay uɣtas (astay) sg yat tnila nɣ uggar n imurarn na ibaḍn g tmttiwin ttaf ad awḍn tayfut iɣudan g wadadn inlliy iẓlin."
The book focused on determinants of national income in the short run when prices are relatively inflexible.,ibdda udlis xf cigan n wammakn iẓlin i usadf aẓuṛan g yat tizi idrusn milmi ttilin watign ur ttuẓlayn druɣ dd.
Keynesian economics has two successors.,tla tdamsa n kaynizyan sin isugamn.
It is generally associated with the University of Cambridge and the work of Joan Robinson.,tqqn s umata ɣr tsdawit n kambridj d twuri n jun ṛubinṣun.
"Ben Bernanke, former Chairman of the Federal Reserve, is among the economists today generally accepting Friedman's analysis of the causes of the Great Depression.","iws n brnak, axatar izrin n ubank n uɣḍaf afidiṛaliy, iga sg imuzay n tdamsa assa s umata nna ittqbaln aṣlaḍ n fridman s imntiln n unubr imqqurn."
"When creating theories, the objective is to find ones which are at least as simple in information requirements, more precise in predictions, and more fruitful in generating additional research than prior theories.","llig ttuṣkant tẓṛitin, ar ittg uwttas tifit n tẓṛitin nna igan tifrarin g isaturn n tumlitin, d uxṛṛs g isnimaln, d tyafutin yutin g ussirw n irzzutn yaḍn sg tuẓṛitin izrin."
"Early macroeconomic models focused on modelling the relationships between aggregate variables, but as the relationships appeared to change over time macroeconomists, including new Keynesians, reformulated their models in microfoundations.","bddant imdyatn n tdamsa imatutn inzin xf usmdya n tuqqniwin ngr isnfln imsmunn, macan akd usnfl n tuqqniwin d wakud, sɛaydn d imuzayn n tdamsa amatu , g amun kinzyun imaynutn, sskrn anawn g iɣawasn imẓẓiyn."
"Sometimes an economic hypothesis is only qualitative, not quantitative.","can tikkal ar tgga turdawt tadmsant ɣas tamnawayt, ur d tasmkta"
"However, the field of experimental economics is growing, and increasing use is being made of natural experiments.","walaynni han iygr n tdamsa tanaramt issuda g tngmi, d illa urnay n usmrs n tirmitin tigamanin."
"By such means, a hypothesis may gain acceptance, although in a probabilistic, rather than certain, sense.","s imassn ad, iɣy ad ttuqbal tiẓiṛt ad, waxxa iga uya ɣas admu, ur d s unamk amddad."
"Criticisms based on professional standards and non-replicability of results serve as further checks against bias, errors, and over-generalization, although much economic research has been accused of being non-replicable, and prestigious journals have been accused of not facilitating replication through the provision of the code and data.","ar ssmrasnt ifrann illan xf isbdadn izzulann d warnili n yils tyafutin d irnay n udtta mgal asṭuṛf, tizgal, s ussugt n usmata, waxxa d warnirdi n cigan n irzzutn idmsan mas ur sar ttylasn, d warnirdi n iɣmisn ittwassn s war assuhn n yils sg uswjd n tugriwt d ismmaln."
"In applied economics, input–output models employing linear programming methods are quite common.","g tdamsa tusnist, han imdyatn n tkccumin d isafuɣn nna issmrasn ammakn n ushil azririg ittwassn nnican."
This has reduced the long-noted distinction of economics from natural sciences because it allows direct tests of what were previously taken as axioms.,isdrus uya g taranawt ittwaẓṛan yat tizi iɣzzifn ngr tdamsa d tmussniwin tigamanin acku da issuruf ad ttugn yirimn usridn i winna tt inn ikkan iga awṭḥaḥ g mad izrin.
Similar empirical testing occurs in neuroeconomics.,ar ittjṛu yirim anaram yaksuln g tdamsa taḍant.
"In perfectly competitive markets, no participants are large enough to have the market power to set the price of a homogeneous product.","g igadazn iimziɣn, ur llin mdrawn imqqurn s uynna ilaqn g tilit n tggalt n ugadaz g uswttu n watug n tyafut imsisrn."
Microeconomics studies individual markets by simplifying the economic system by assuming that activity in the market being analysed does not affect other markets.,ar tzrru tdamsa tagzmant igadazn infradn s tɣarast n usfrar n ussuds admsan s usurdu blli tilalt g ugadaz nna g issnti uṣlaḍ ur da ittḍuṣ xf igadazn yaḍn.
General-equilibrium theory studies various markets and their behaviour.,ar tzrru tẓṛit n umyas amatu cigan n igadazn d tuskirin nnsn.
Choices must be made between desirable yet mutually exclusive actions.,iqqan d ad yili ustay ngr tiggitin ilaqn lli isuggugn kra digsn xf kra.
"Part of the cost of making pretzels is that neither the flour nor the morning are available any longer, for use in some other way.","yan ugzzum sg tskrawt n irktutn iga mas d han la aggrn wla tifawn rad ilin s dat, i ussmrs s tɣarast yaḍn."
"Inputs used in the production process include such primary factors of production as labour services, capital (durable produced goods used in production, such as an existing factory), and land (including natural resources).","yamu g tmsadafin ittusmrasn g tirmit n ufars imggitin imzwura i ufars zun d tnafutin n imswuryn, adgar (ilazazn ittufarsn ittusmrasn g ufars, zun dasugar illan), d wakal (g amun isugam igamann)."
"""Efficiency is improved if more output is generated without changing inputs, or in other words, the amount of """"waste"""" is reduced.""","""da ttɣudu tzmmrt ig llan cigan n tyufa bla asnfl n tmsadafin, nɣ s wayḍ wawal, taẓit n tsmkta ""ifṛaḍn""."""
"""In the simplest case an economy can produce just two goods (say """"guns"""" and """"butter"""").""","""g waddadn ifrarn tẓḍaṛ tdamsa ad tfars ɣas sin ilzazn (am ""tibawbaw""d """"tmudit"""")."""
Scarcity is represented in the figure by people being willing but unable in the aggregate to consume beyond the PPF (such as at X) and by the negative slope of the curve.,tettugnses tadrsi g wunuɣ s imjṛi lli ittinin is da ssmurn mddn nig PPF (amm g iks) maca ur zmirn ad t skrn g tgrawt d tksart tanabawt n usḥudr.
The slope of the curve at a point on it gives the trade-off between the two goods.,aksar n umksar g tnqiḍt ɣifs ar yakka asyafa ngr sin ilazazn.
"Along the PPF, scarcity implies that choosing more of one good in the aggregate entails doing with less of the other good.","g taɣzi n PPF, tadrsi da ttini is d astay n wuggar n yat tɣawsa g tgrawt da ittawi s ustay s drus g tayyaḍ tɣawsa."
"A point inside the curve (as at A), is feasible but represents production inefficiency (wasteful use of inputs), in that output of one or both goods could increase by moving in a northeast direction to a point on the curve.","yat tnqqiḍt agnus n usḥudr ( amm g a) tb=ɣit ad tettug, maca tgnses tariṛwi n usyafu (aqṛaḍ n tnkcumin), g uswir n is iɣiy usyafu n yat nɣ snat is sliɛt ad yali s ummatti s ugafa ugmiḍ ar tanqqiḍt n usḥudr."
"It has been observed that a high volume of trade occurs among regions even with access to a similar technology and mix of factor inputs, including high-income countries.","ittwakz mas d aksay axatar sg tsbbabt d aijṛṛu ngr tmnaḍin d awd tazmrt n yili n tetknilujiyt imyaɣn d umrks sg imgga n ufars, g llant tmizar ɣr yuli usadf."
"Among each of these production systems, there may be a corresponding division of labour with different work groups specializing, or correspondingly different types of capital equipment and differentiated land uses.","gr ku yan g inagran a n usyafu, iɣiy ad yili ubṭṭu imsagarn n twuri akd trubba imzarayn n tsuwi iẓlin, nɣ g talkamt anawn imzarayn n wimattiwn d ismrsn imzaray n ikaln."
"Theory and observation set out the conditions such that market prices of outputs and productive inputs select an allocation of factor inputs by comparative advantage, so that (relatively) low-cost inputs go to producing low-cost outputs.","da sras tiẓiṛt d usniɣs tifadiwin amm itaggwn n ugadaz n tsufɣin d tnkcumin n usyafu isttin yat tikki n tnkcumin n isbdadn s ubɣur ansmzazal, s tbridt n (nisbiyan) iɣlan imik ixddmn asyafu n tnkcumin irxsn."
"In microeconomics, it applies to price and output determination for a market with perfect competition, which includes the condition of no buyers or sellers large enough to have price-setting power.","g tdamsa tamikrut, da ttusnis i uswuttu n watig i yan ugadaz g imda umzizwr, aylli yuman tafada n awdyan umsaɣ nɣ imzznzi ixatrn ḥma ad yili adabu n ad iswuttu itaggwn."
"Demand theory describes individual consumers as rationally choosing the most preferred quantity of each good, given income, prices, tastes, etc.","tiẓiṛt n usutr ittusnmln n insmurn uggidn amm ustay asnmlli n tsmkta lli akw yufn n ku asyafu, s istti n tɣrad, n itaggwn, n imḍayn, itsitira."
"The law of demand states that, in general, price and quantity demanded in a given market are inversely related.","da iṣiḍṛas uslgn n usutr s umata, atig d tɣara ittyattarn g kra n ugadaz da ttmzdayn s tnmgla."
"In addition, purchasing power from the price decline increases ability to buy (the income effect).","g tsga n uya, adabu n tmsuɣt lli d ittkkan uguz n itaggwn da issili tazmrt n tmsuɣt (tasurt n tɣra)."
Supply is the relation between the price of a good and the quantity available for sale at that price.,tga tasitit amyassa gr watig n yat tɣawsa d tɣara illan g mnziwt n watig a.
"Supply is typically represented as a function relating price and quantity, if other factors are unchanged.","ittugnses uskan g umata s tsɣnt n watig d tɣara, mk wwiman isbdadn yaḍn ur nfiln."
"Just as on the demand side, the position of the supply can shift, say from a change in the price of a productive input or a technical improvement.","amm akw g tsga n usutr, asdɣr n uskan iɣiy ad infl, ad nini sg yat tmzarayt n watig n yat tnkcumt n usyafu nɣ n usɣudu atikiniy."
"Market equilibrium occurs where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded, the intersection of the supply and demand curves in the figure above.","da ittili umyas n ugadaz kudnna taksul tɣara ittufkan akd tɣara ittyattarn, angrayyaw n isḥudurn n uskan d tutra g unuɣ a snnj."
"At a price above equilibrium, there is a surplus of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded.","s yan watig ikkan nnig umyas, illa lufa g tɣara ittufkan g usmzazal akd tɣara ittyattarn."
"The most obvious kinds of firms are corporations, partnerships and trusts.","timssntay lli akw ibaynn gan tnt tmssurin, timssurin n wuggidn d ifniqn n tflst."
"In perfectly competitive markets studied in the theory of supply and demand, there are many producers, none of which significantly influence price.","g igadazn g yattuy umzizwr lli ittuzran g tiẓiṛt uskan d usutr, llan kigan n imsyafutn, lli g ur ili awdyan digsn kra n tasurt isnamkn ɣf itaggwn."
"Common market structures studied besides perfect competition include monopolistic competition, various forms of oligopoly, and monopoly.","g tama n umzizwr yattuyn, tiskiwin iccarn n ugadaz ittuzran da ttuman amzizwr aẓṛkwac, talɣiwin imyanawn n uligubul d munubul."
"Given its different forms, there are various ways of representing uncertainty and modelling economic agents' responses to it.","s isitti n talɣiwin nns imzarayn, llant tbridin imyanawn n usmdya isurdutn d uzzurt n trarit n tigawt n imggayn idmsann mnid n ti."
"In behavioural economics, it has been used to model the strategies agents choose when interacting with others whose interests are at least partially adverse to their own.","g tdamsa taṣniɛant, ittusmrs g uqqqurt n tstratijiyin ittyafran sɣur ilggayn akd wiyyaḍ suggidn lli mi gant tnfutin nnsn s tfult tinmgalin akd tinnsn."
"It has significant applications seemingly outside of economics in such diverse subjects as formulation of nuclear strategies, ethics, political science, and evolutionary biology.","ila tisnswin tinamkanin iwrinn i tdamsa g isntln bahra imyanawn amm usilɣ n tstratijit tanukliyirt, tiɣariwin, tamassant tasrtant d tbyulujit tasbuɣlant."
"It also analyses the pricing of financial instruments, the financial structure of companies, the efficiency and fragility of financial markets, financial crises, and related government policy or regulation.","da awd isfsay assitg n wallaln inẓṛaf n tmssntay, tiṛwi d tluɣi n igadazn inẓṛaf, tassasin tinẓṛaf d tsrtitin nɣ izzrafn inbaḍn lli ẓaṛs illan."
"""Customers without knowledge of whether a car is a """"lemon"""" depress its price below what a quality second-hand car would be.""",imsaɣn lli ur ssinnin mk tga thirit yan ''''limun'''' da sugguzn atig nns ddaw uylli s rad rg thirit tazaykut ibudan.
"""Both problems may raise insurance costs and reduce efficiency by driving otherwise willing transactors from the market (""""incomplete markets"""").""",ɣiyn imukrisn s sin idsn ad ssilin g watig n tnfrut ssuggzn tiṛwi s ihṛaḍ sg ugadaz n imwuriyn lli illan (''''igadazn ur imdin'''').''
"Information asymmetries and incomplete markets may result in economic inefficiency but also a possibility of improving efficiency through market, legal, and regulatory remedies, as discussed above.","tar tarwast n usnɣms d igadazn ur imdin ɣiyn ad awin s tartiṛwi tadmsant, maca awd yat tzmrt n usɣudu n tiṛwi s tmntilt n tsuɣal tinsbabin, tuzrifin d tluganin, imkinna t nẓṛa nnigas."
Public goods are goods which are under-supplied in a typical market.,ilzazn igdudann gan ilzazn mi drusn inzdadn g igadazn imdyatn.
"For example, air pollution may generate a negative externality, and education may generate a positive externality (less crime, etc.).","s umdyan, iɣy ad d yawi wuluf n uzwu aḍuṣ ibawn sg bṛṛa, d iɣy ad d yawi usslmd aḍuṣ abṛṛani aɣaran (abkkaḍ idrusn, d wuggar.)."
"In many areas, some form of price stickiness is postulated to account for quantities, rather than prices, adjusting in the short run to changes on the demand side or the supply side.","g cigan n yigran, ilaq ad tili yat tlɣa sg talɣiwin n ucbbr g watign g ussiṭn n tsmktiwin g udɣar n watign , d umsasa tizi idrusn akd isnfln g uɣzdis n isaturn nɣ win ufsar."
Examples of such price stickiness in particular markets include wage rates in labour markets and posted prices in markets deviating from perfect competition.,sg imdyatn ɣf ussṛṣu n itaggwn n igadazn iẓlin asɣl n tɣrad g igadazn n twuri d itaggwan ittunnan g igadazn lli iffɣn ɣf umzizwr imdan.
"Such aggregates include national income and output, the unemployment rate, and price inflation and subaggregates like total consumption and investment spending and their components.","uman imgrawn a tiɣrad tinamurin n usyafu, asɣl n warwuri d taḍxxum n itaggwn d ddu imgrawn amm asmuri taɣzurant d tmqṛaḍ n ussirw d tfrdisin nnsn."
This has addressed a long-standing concern about inconsistent developments of the same subject.,da ittrara uya ɣf yan unzgum iɣzzifn g wakud nns iẓlin s usbuɣlu ur imyamaẓn g usntl ad nit.
"Keynes contended that aggregate demand for goods might be insufficient during economic downturns, leading to unnecessarily high unemployment and losses of potential output.","isnal kiyns is iɣiy usutr aɣzuran n tɣawsiwin ad ur ikfu g tfrkt n taẓit tadmsany, aylli ittawin s yan usɣl n tarwuri tar tanafut yulin d tṛẓiwin n usyafu illan."
"New classical macroeconomics, as distinct from the Keynesian view of the business cycle, posits market clearing with imperfect information.","tadmsa tamikrut taklasilt tamayut, imzarayn ɣf usksu n kiyns g tsutlt tadmsant, da tsras amyaraz n ugadaz akd inɣmisn ur imdin."
The labour force only includes workers actively looking for jobs.,ur yamu g tggalt n twuri ɣas imswuriy nna irzzun xf twuri s yat tilalt xf twuri.
Classical models of unemployment occurs when wages are too high for employers to be willing to hire more workers.,imdyatn iqqburn n warwuri da ttjṛu kudna ulint tɣṛaḍ xf wad ilin id bab n twuri gan xf wad sswurin uggarn n imswuriyn.
Large amounts of structural unemployment can occur when an economy is transitioning industries and workers find their previous set of skills are no longer in demand.,iɣy ad tili cigan n tarwuri tanɣant kudnna tettuɣul tdamsa ɣr tmurwiwin afn nn iimswuritn blli cigan sg tfukkas nnsn izrin ur sulnt da ttusutrnt.
"Money has general acceptability, relative consistency in value, divisibility, durability, portability, elasticity in supply, and longevity with mass public confidence.","lan idrimn tadugi s umata, atig ur ittnfaln, tibḍin, tasulant, tamyazant, tamlmamaḍt n uskan d taɣzi lli issumuln taflst tazayzt."
"""In the words of Francis Amasa Walker, a well-known 19th-century economist, """"Money is what money does"""" (""""Money is that money does"""" in the original).""","''s wawal n fransis amasa wulkr, yan undmas bahra ittyassnn n tsut tiss 19, ''''gan idrimn aylli sskarn idrimn'''' (""""Money is that money does"""" g usalan)''."
Its economic function can be contrasted with barter (non-monetary exchange).,tasɣnt nnas tadmsant tɣiy ad ttusmzazal akd usnfl ( asnfl s wr idrimn).
"When aggregate demand falls below the potential output of the economy, there is an output gap where some productive capacity is left unemployed.","kudnna iggz usutr aɣzuran ɣf usyafu illan n tdamsa, da ittili yan usinf n usyafu lli g ttqima yan usyafu g tarwuri."
"For example, unemployed home builders can be hired to expand highways.","s umdya, nɣiy ad nssxdm ibnnayn n taddrwin id warwuri g usxitr n ibrdan."
The effects of fiscal policy can be limited by crowding out.,ɣiynt tsurin n tsrtit tanmsastlt ad ttuwttant s tbridt n wufuɣ.
Some economists think that crowding out is always an issue while others do not think it is a major issue when output is depressed.,ar ttɣaln kra n indmasn is aha iga wufuɣ amukris kudnna ttinniyn wiyyad ir ur igi amukris axatar kudnna iɣilf usyafu.
"The latter, an aspect of public choice theory, models public-sector behaviour analogously to microeconomics, involving interactions of self-interested voters, politicians, and bureaucrats.","g tsga a tamggarut, d iga yat tsga g tsggwin n tiẓiṛt n ustay agdudan, da izzurut aṣniɛ n yigr agdudan s tbridt irwasn tadmsa tamikrut, aylli ittawin s tmyaɣt n imstayn, n isrtann d ibirikratiyn inngzmn."
It also concerns the size and distribution of gains from trade.,tẓli awd s tiddi d ubṭṭu n wammaẓn n tsbbabt.
"""It is often stated that Carlyle gave economics the nickname """"the dismal science"""" as a response to the late 18th century writings of The Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus, who grimly predicted that starvation would result, as projected population growth exceeded the rate of increase in the food supply.""","''ar aha ittyunna is ifka karlayl i tdamsa ism n ''tamassant iɣilfn'''' d tamrarut n tirra n tigira n tsut tiss 18 n lqiss tumas rubirt maltus, lli innan is rad yili buhyyuf, s tmntilt n tmrniwt tadimugrafit ittusnimln izrin asɣl n tmrniwt n lmunt tamsadurt."
"The close relation of economic theory and practice with politics is a focus of contention that may shade or distort the most unpretentious original tenets of economics, and is often confused with specific social agendas and value systems.",tasqqnt inyaman gr tiẓiṛt d tmskrt tadmsant d tsrtit tga asntl issnkarn adida lli iɣiyn ad isslis nɣ issfrɣ imnzayn akw imanuzn n tdamsa d lli ittmrwayn kigan akd iɣawasn inamunn d inagrawn n tnditin iẓlin.
Some academic economic journals have increased their efforts to gauge the consensus of economists regarding certain policy issues in hopes of effecting a more informed political environment.,idsnt tnɣan timdsanin tinsdawin bṭṭnn tiggaz ḥma ad staln amsasa s indmasn ɣf idsn isqsitn istratijiyn g usirm n usnulfu n yat twannaḍt tasrtant ifan uggar.
"Issues like central bank independence, central bank policies and rhetoric in central bank governors discourse or the premises of macroeconomic policies (monetary and fiscal policy) of the state, are focus of contention and criticism.","isqsitn amm tsimant n id lbanka tinammasin, tisrtatin n id lbanka tinammasin d lbalaɣa g yinawn n inbbaḍn n id lbanka tinammasin nɣ timzwura n tsrtitin tidmsanin timikrutin (tasrtit tanẓṛaft d tnmsastlt) n umank llan g wammas n imdiwiln d izɣann."
"The field of information economics includes both mathematical-economical research and also behavioural economics, akin to studies in behavioural psychology, and confounding factors to the neoclassical assumptions are the subject of substantial study in many areas of economics.","igr n tdamsa n inɣmisn yuma g yat tikklt arzzu n tusnakt d tdamsa d awd tadamsa n taṣniɛant, lli ittṭṭfn s tzrawin n tbsikulujit n uṣniɛ, d isbdadb n umrway n turdiwin tinyuklasiyin lli igan isntln n tzrawin iɣuban g kigan n yigran n tdamsa."
"""Joskow had a strong feeling that the important work in oligopoly was done through informal observations while formal models were """"trotted out ex post"""".""","'' ila jusku asyafa idusn is tettuga twuri tadslant g liɛtikar s isniɣisn aralɣann kudnna gan izurat ilɣann """"trotted out ex post""""."""
"Another major theme is evolution, which explains the unity and diversity of life.","yan usntl yaḍn ixatrn iga t usbuɣlu, lli issfrun tamyaɣt d tmyanawt n tudrt."
"His works such as History of Animals were especially important because they revealed his naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life.","tiwuruwin nns amm umzruy n imudar gan s uẓlay idslann acku sbaynen t is iga angama, d dffit tiwuriwin igan uggar tinrmin lli d yiwin ɣf tmntilt tabyulujit d tmyanawt n tudrt."
"Medicine was especially well studied by Islamic scholars working in Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought, especially in upholding a fixed hierarchy of life.","tettyazra tsnijjit s uẓlay ɣur imusnawn inslmn lli ixdmn ɣf tmyurin tifilusufin tigrikin, kudnna yugm umzruy agaman n uswngm n aristu, s uẓlay g ufrag i taratubya iwrn g tudrt."
Investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining.,irzzutn n jan swammrdam ldin d yat tnafut tamaynut i untumuluji ajjin anbuɣlu n tikniyin n tsila n usmmili amikruskubik d win usklu.
"Then, in 1838, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells.","imik, g 1838, issnta cladn d cwann asiliy n twngimin idan dɣi tigraɣlanin is d (1) tayant tasilant n ungmam tga t tɣrast d (2) is lant tɣrasin tufridin maṛṛa timẓlay n tudrt, waxxa gan mgal tawngimt ittinin (3) is da d ttddunt maṛṛa tɣrasin sg ubṭṭu n tiyyaḍ tɣrasin."
"Carl Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 (variations of which have been in use ever since), and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species.","issufɣ d karl linayus yan uṣnnf asilan n amaḍal agaman g 1735 (lli g ttusmrsnt tmzarayin sg wakud ann), g isggwasn n 1750 iskcm iswamn imassann i maṛṛa anawn a."
"Lamarck believed that these acquired traits could then be passed on to the animal's offspring, who would further develop and perfect them.","iɣal lamark is ɣiynt tfras a ittymaẓn ad ttufknt dffir i tara n umudrn, lli rad tnt isbuɣlu ismd tnt."
"""The basis for modern genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel, who presented his paper, """"Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (""""Experiments on Plant Hybridization""""), in 1865, which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics.""","''tasila n tjinitikt tatrart tssnta akd twuri n grigur mindil, lli issnkdn arra nns, ''''Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (tirmitin ɣf uhjjn n imɣayn''’’), g 1865, lli isnmln imnzay n tukksa tabyulujit, ig tasila n tjinitiyt tatrart.’’"
"A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics.","asnamms ɣf wanawn imayuntn n ingmamn izurat amm ifirusn d tbaktirin, ula awd tawafit n tauskiwt tayugant n hilikwayd n a di in sɣur djims watsun d fransis krik g 1953, ṛcmn ammatti s azmz n tjinitikt tamulikulirt."
"Finally, the Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 with the goal of mapping the general human genome.","g tigira, asɣnu ɣf ujinum anfgan ittugr g 1990 g uwttas n uskaṛḍa n ujinum anfgan s umata."
Life on Earth began from water and remained there for about three billions years prior to migrating onto land.,tudrt ɣf wakal tssnta sg waman tqqim digsn attay n kṛaḍ id mlyaṛ n isggwasn dat ad tzug ɣr akal.
The nucleus is made of one or more protons and a number of neutrons.,ittuga uɣrmi sg yan nɣ kigan n ibrutunn d idsn inutrunn.
"The atom of each specific element contains a unique number of protons, which is known as its atomic number, and the sum of its protons and neutrons is an atom's mass number.","afnuz n ku afrdis iẓlin yuma yan umḍan amyiwn n ibrutunn, lli ittyassnn s umḍan nns anfnuz, d taggart n ibrutunn nns d inutrunn gan amḍan n ugdud n ufnuz."
"Carbon, for example, can exist as a stable isotope (carbon-12 or carbon-13) or as a radioactive isotope (carbon-14), the latter of which can be used in radiometric dating (specifically radiocarbon dating) to determine the age of organic materials.","akarbun, s umdyan iɣiy ad yili iga izutub iwrn (akarbun 12 nɣ akarbun 13) nɣ iga izutub radyuaktif (akarbun 14), amggaru a iɣiy ad ittusmrs g tsnakudt radyumitrik (s uzlay tasnakudt radyukarbun) g uswuttu n uwatay n ymttiwin tingmamin."
"Ionic bonding involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, or between two atoms with sharply different electronegativities, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds.","amyassa ayunik ittawi alday iliktrustatik gr iyunn ittkarn s tbridt tanmgalt, nɣ sin ifnuzn akd tldayt taliktrikt bahra imzarayn, d tga tamyaɣt tamnzut lli ittilin g wuddisn iyuniyn."
"Unlike ionic bonds, a covalent bond involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.","g tmgla n imyassatn iyuniyn, da ittuɣul umyassa atakafuli ɣf ubṭṭu n tyugiwin n iliktrunn gr ifnuzn."
A ubiquitous example of a hydrogen bond is found between water molecules.,illa yan umdya g matta udɣar n umyassa ahidrujini ittyafa gr imulikuln n waman.
"Water is important to life because it is an effective solvent, capable of dissolving solutes such as sodium and chloride ions or other small molecules to form an aqueous solution.","gan waman idslann i tudrt acku gan isfsayn iṛwan, ɣiyn ad sfsin isfsayn amm iyunn n usudyum d uklurid nɣ wiyyad imulikuln imẓẓann ḥma ad skrn amḥlul n waman."
"Because the O–H bonds are polar, the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge and the two hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge.","acku gan imzdayn nns O–Hiquṭbiyn, d ila ufnuz n uksijin taktturt tuzdirt s tafssi d sin ifnuzn n uhidrujin lan takturt timnigt s tafssi."
Water is also adhesive as it is able to adhere to the surface of any polar or charged non-water molecules.,awd aman da sllɣn acku iẓdaṛ ad yili g uzaru n kra iga tt tgzzumin tasfaylutin nɣ tkarnt s uynna ur igin aman.
"The lower density of ice compared to liquid water is due to the lower number of water molecules that form the crystal lattice structure of ice, which leaves a large amount of space between water molecules.","ar ittɛayad udrus n tsmkta n ugris s uznnmzal d waman ɣr tadrsi n cigan n ttgzmin n waman nn iskarn yat tuṣka udlsis abilawṛi n ugris, nna iffal yan urgay axatar ngr tgzmin n waman."
"Thus, a large amount of energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to convert liquid water into gas (or water vapor).",d xf uya issutr waddad yat tzmrt yutin n trna ttaf ad ṛẓn izdayn ihidṛulujiyn ngr tgzmin n waman i usnfl n waman iblulun ɣr unbbaz (nɣ irggwa n waman).
"With the exception of water, nearly all the molecules that make up each organism contain carbon.","s uslag n waman, druɣ dd kullu tizgmin nna g ttuskarn ku imli amddar digs akṛbun."
"For example, a single carbon atom can form four single covalent bonds such as in methane, two double covalent bonds such as in carbon dioxide, or a triple covalent bond such as in carbon monoxide (CO).","s umdya, tẓḍaṛ tɣyayt n yan ukṛbun ad iskr kkuẓ n tnmal tmzmmrin day am tumlin n lmiṭan, nɣ tumlin tmzmrin tyuganin am wiss sin nuksid lkaṛbun, nɣ tumlin timzmmrin tikṛaḍin am tumlin ayan uksid lkaṛbun (CO)."
"A hydrocarbon backbone can be substituted by other elements such as oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), which can change the chemical behavior of that compound.","iẓdaṛ ad ittusnfl buzɛruru n uhidrukaṛbunik s ifrdisn yaḍn am luksijin(O), lhidṛujin (H), lfuṣfuṛ (P), d lkbriyt (S), nna iɣin ad isnfl timskirt takimyayit n wuddis ad."
"When two monosaccharides such as glucose and fructose are linked together, they can form a disaccharide such as sucrose.","ig ttuzdaaynt sin sg uyansakrid am lglikuẓ d lfrkṭuz s sin, han ɣin ad skrn tcukarid zun d ssukṛus."
These lipids are organic compounds that are largely nonpolar and hydrophobic.,ayad n iḍrẓn gan uddisn igmamn ur isfaylun d gan aman ar azyinn.
The glycerol and phosphate group together constitute the polar and hydrophilic (or head) region of the molecule whereas the fatty acids make up the nonpolar and hydrophobic (or tail) region.,ar tṣku tgrawt n lglisirul d lfuṣfafaṭ tamnaḍt n tasfaylut d n waman (nɣ iɣf) sg ugzzum walayni ar ttuṣka tasmmi tuḍṛiẓt tamanḍt ur isfaylun d waman (nɣ acwal).
"Proteins are the most diverse of the macromolecules, which include enzymes, transport proteins, large signaling molecules, antibodies, and structural proteins.","gant lbṛutinat timnawayin uggar n tbaktiriyt, nna g amunt lanzimat, lbṛutinat n usmatty, tigzzumin n tumlin tixatarin, tifkkiwin tinmgal, d lbṛutinat tuṣkitin."
The polarity and charge of the side chains affect the solubility of amino acids.,ar tḍuṣ tsfaylut d uktur n izddayn isgawan ittawin n tasmmiwin aminiy i ufsay.
The primary structure consists of a unique sequence of amino acids that are covalently linked together by peptide bonds.,ar ttili tuṣka tamnzzut n usddi anfrad n tamsswin timinitin nna izddin s tlɣa taɣzurant akkw s tbridt wattay ababtidi.
The folding of alpha helices and beta sheets gives a protein its three-dimensional or tertiary structure.,asmunḍ n lalfa d tflin n bayta ar yakka i lbṛutin yat tuṣkiwt tamkṛaḍt n imnadn nɣ tiss kṛaḍt.
"The purines include guanine (G) and adenine (A) whereas the pyrimidines consist of cytosine (T), uracil (U), and thymine (T).","uman iburinn igawaninn (g) d adnin (a) kudnna yuma birimidin asitusisn (t), d urasil (u), d utaymin (t)."
"A cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, including cholesterols that sit between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity at various temperatures.","tuma tfrkit t tɣrast yan ulibid abilayr, g yamu ukulistirul lli ittilin gr ufusfulibud ḥma ad iḍuf taḥrarayt nnsn g tzɣal imyanawn."
"Cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as cell adhesion, storing electrical energy, and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a cell wall, glycocalyx, and cytoskeleton.","da kccmnt tfrka n tɣrast g tziggzin imyanan n tɣrast amm ultaɣ n tɣrast, asatim n uzmar iliktrik d tsuslit n tɣrast ar ttggant taduli islɣn i kigan n ingmamn iwrinn n tɣrasin amm ugadirn tɣrast, glikukaliks d situskilitun."
"""The Alberts text discusses how the """"cellular building blocks"""" move to shape developing embryos.""","""''ar isawal uḍṛiṣ n albirts ɣf mak ttmussunt ''tuskiwin n tɣrast ''ḥma ad silɣnt arraw igmman."
"Plant cells have additional organelles that distinguish them from animal cells such as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell, chloroplasts that harvest sunlight energy to produce sugar, and vacuoles that provide storage and structural support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds.","tiɣrasin n imɣayn lant igmamn imrna lli tnt iẓllin ɣf tɣrasin n imudar amm ugadir n tɣrasin lli yakkan tanalit i tɣrast n imɣayn, d uklurublast lli iẓẓaḍn azmar n usidd n tafukt g usyafu n sskwar, d tugawin lli yakkan tanalit n usatim d ungmam ula umu g usgidi nɣ taḍuṛi n wamud n imɣayn."
"According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy is conserved, i.e., cannot be created or destroyed.","g uynna illan g uzrf amzwaru n tdinamikt n tzɣlt, da ttusitim tẓḍaṛt, s wawal yaḍn ur tɣiy ad ttuskr ula ttuxla."
"As a result, an organism requires continuous input of energy to maintain a low state of entropy.","g tyafut, yusr yan ugmam yat tnalit issadan n uzmar ḥma ad yamẓ yan usɣl amudrus n intrubya."
"Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy.","g tmyurt, da yakkan ikatabuln azmar, d anabul da ssmur azmar."
"The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, some of which are redox reactions.","tararit taɣzurant tettili g yan usddi n tfrkiwin tibyucimin, lli gant idsnt tararit n tigawt timaɣulin."
"Acetyl-Coa enters the citric acid cycle, which takes places inside the mitochondrial matrix.","da ikccm asitil-kuwa tasutlt n usmam asitrik, lli ittamẓn idɣarn agnsu n usirw amitikundral."
"Oxidative phosphorylation comprises the electron transport chain, which is a series of four protein complexes that transfer electrons from one complex to another, thereby releasing energy from NADH and FADH2 that is coupled to the pumping of protons (hydrogen ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (chemiosmosis), which generates a proton motive force.","yuma ufusfuril amaksad asaru n wassay n iliktrun, lli igan yan usddi n kkuẓ n ibrutin uddisn lli ittain iliktrunn sg yan wuddis ɣr wayyaḍ, ar slelliyn azmar n nadh d win fadh2 lli igan tayuga akd ubumbaj n ibrutinn (ayun n uhudrujin) g tfrkit tamikundrit tagwnsant (kimyusmuzis), lli ittarun azmar amdkay n ibrutinn."
"If oxygen were not present, pyruvate would not be metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation.","mk ur illi uksijin, ur rad nngdmn ibirufat s tbridt n wunfus n tɣrast maca da ɣifs ttuga tmskrt n umtan."
Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis.,amtan da ittaksad nadh s nad+ ard yiɣiy ad ittusmrs g ufsay ajikuluzis.
"In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid.","g tbujja n tɣssa, amsyafu n warrasn iga t usmmamalaktik."
"During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate.","g wakud n ufsay aglukuli war azwu, da ittusmaynu nad+ kudnna da ttmunnt tayugin n uhidrujin akd ubirufit hḥa ad silɣnt laktat."
"During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP.","g ussidr, kudnna illa uksijin, da ittagl nad+ s uhidrujin sg laktat ḥma ad isilɣ atb."
"In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product.","g umata i imdyatn, da awd ittugar uksijin am is iga arras."
This is analogous to the proton-motive force generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane in aerobic respiration.,imnaway uya akd taggzt idkkin n ubrutun ittarun g tfrkit tamikundrit tagwnsant g usunfus n uzwu.
"In autocrine signaling, the ligand affects the same cell that releases it.","g iskann n utukrin, da ttili tzlɣa tasurt ɣf tɣrast lli nit mi tṛẓẓm."
"In eukaryotes (i.e., animal, plant, fungal, and protist cells), there are two distinct types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.","g tɣrasin n ukaritus ( tiɣrasin n imudar, tin imɣayn, igwrsaln), llan sin wanawn n ubṭṭu n tɣrasin: tamituzt d tmiyuzt."
"After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle.","dffir n ubṭṭu n tɣrast, ku yan g tɣrasin tirbatin da ssntaynt g tfrkt n gr g tsutlt tamaynut."
Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle.,da ttusmrasnt snat tsutal n ubṭṭu n tɣrasin g tmskrt n usgidi n wanaw g kra n tfrkt g tsutlt n tudrt.
"Unlike the processes of mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotes, binary fission takes in prokaryotes takes place without the formation of a spindle apparatus on the cell.","g umzaray n tmskrin n tmituzt d tmyuzist n ukaryut, abṭṭu ayugan ittasi g ubrukaryus g udɣar n usilɣ n yan wallal n tmdrt n tɣrast."
"Mendelian inheritance, specifically, is the process by which genes and traits are passed on from parents to offspring.","tuksa n madilyan, s uẓlay uggar, tga taziggzt lli ttmattayn ijinn d tfras n imarawn ɣf tarwa."
"The first is that genetic characteristics, which are now called alleles, are discrete and have alternate forms (e.g., purple vs. white or tall vs. dwarf), each inherited from one of two parents.","tamzwarut iga tt is d timẓlaytttijinitin, lli ittusmman dɣi alil, gant tuffirin ilint tiyyaḍ talɣiin, (s udya, ajnjaṛi gal allal nɣ axatar mgal agwzzal), ku yan ikkusa sg yan g sin imaran."
"Mendel noted that during gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene, which is stated by his law of segregation.","izmmem mindil is d g usilɣ n ugamit, da ttmsbḍunt id alil n ku ujin grasn ard ur yasi ku agamit xs yan alil i ku ajin, aylli ittuṛcmn s uslgn nns n usnuḥyu."
"The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone.","da ttuwdayn inuklyutidn grasn g usaru n imyisatn gr sskwar n yan unuklyutid d ufusfat n wayyaḍ, ar d ittffɣ s yat twala n sskwar-afusfat g uzɛrur."
The bases are divided into two groups: pyrimidines and purines.,bḍant tsila xf snat trubba : ibirimidinn d ibyurinn.
DNA is replicated once the two strands separate.,da itgaday adiin adday bḍun sin ifilan nns.
A chromosome is an organized structure consisting of DNA and histones.,iga ukrumuẓum yat tuṣkiwt ittuslgnn g illa adiin d ihistunn.
"In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.","ɣr ibrukaryutn, da ittuḥḍu adiin g yat tizzit m wunuɣ ur ittusudsn ism nns aniklyud."
"The genetic information stored in DNA represents the genotype, whereas the phenotype results from the synthesis of proteins that control an organism's structure and development, or that act as enzymes catalyzing specific metabolic pathways.","inɣmisn n tukksa ittuḥḍan g adiin ayd igan anaw n tukksa, maka anaw udmawan da t akkan ibrutinn ibaḍn g tuṣkiwt n umudr d usɣuws nns, nɣ da swurin d wanẓimn ittakmn tiɣarasin n usnfl."
"Under the genetic code, these mRNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation, which occurs in ribosomes.","s tmatart n tukksi, da tstay tsddi ad n ayrin amazan asnsl n wassid aminu agwns n ibrutinn g yat tsiɣt ism nns tasuɣlt, nna ittjṛun agwns n iṛibuẓumn."
Sequencing and analysis of genomes can be done using high throughput DNA sequencing and bioinformatics to assemble and analyze the function and structure of entire genomes.,nɣy ad nskr asnsl n ujinum s usmrs n usnsl n wadiin isfarasn kigan d inɣmisn imaddarn afad munn fsin tawwuri d tuṣkiwt n ujinum kullu.
"The genomes of prokaryotes are small, compact, and diverse.","gan ijinumn n ibrukaryutn imẓẓyann, uddizn, gin anawn."
"There are four key processes that underlie development: Determination, differentiation, morphogenesis, and growth.","llant kkuẓ n tmhlin tidslanin dffir n usbuɣlu : aẓlay, d umzaray, d usnay, d tmrniwt."
Stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell.,tiɣrasin tifggaganin ur mzaraynt nɣ mzaraynt imikk ɣint ad bḍunt xf kigan n wanawn n tɣrasin ar tgidiynt abda afad farsnt uggar n tɣrast tafggagant.
"Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, also occurs during morphogenesis, such as the death of cells between digits in human embryonic development, which frees up individual fingers and toes.","da ittjṛu ububṭuẓ, nɣ d tamttant taɣrasant ittuɣawsn, g tizi n usnay, zund tamttant n tɣrasin ingr iḍuḍan g ubuɣlu n tslmya, nna islellin iḍuḍan n ifassn d tfdnin n iḍaṛn."
"These toolkit genes are highly conserved among phyla, meaning that they are ancient and very similar in widely separated groups of animals.","da ttuḥḍun imassn n ijinumn ad kigan ingr tzuniwin, s man aya gan izaykutn d mmrwasn kigan g trubba ibḍan n imudar."
"Hox genes determine where repeating parts, such as the many vertebrae of snakes, will grow in a developing embryo or larva.","da sttin ijinumn n huks adɣar n tmrniwt n tfulin timallasin, zund kigan n igṭṭumn n ifaɣriwn, g tslmya nɣd tawkka."
"A toolkit gene can be expressed in a different pattern, as when the beak of Darwin's large ground-finch was enlarged by the BMP gene, or when snakes lost their legs as Distal-less (Dlx) genes became under-expressed or not expressed at all in the places where other reptiles continued to form their limbs.","nɣy ad nsawl xf imasn n ujinum s tmamkt imzarayn, zund lli g ittusmɣr uɣnbu n ubaxxu n wakal taxatart n darwin s ujinum BMP, nɣd lli g zlan ifaɣriwn iḍaṛn nnsn acku aɣuln ijinumn distal-lis (Dlx) ur wala gin imssinitn nɣd ur gin imssinitn xf kull g idɣarn g ssudan imḥrurdn yaḍn g usnay n igmamn nnsn."
This perspective holds that evolution occurs when there are changes in the allele frequencies within a population of interbreeding organisms.,da ittinniy usmuqql ad mas d abuɣlu da ittjṛu adday ilin isnfln g isnagarn n iḥaliln agwns n yat trabbut n imudar ittmyawaln.
"When selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele frequencies are equally likely to drift upward or downward at each successive generation because the alleles are subject to sampling error.","adday ur ilint taggalin ittustayn nɣ uḥlnt imikk, ɣin ad frɣn isnagarn n uḥalil s aflla nɣd izdar s tngaddayt g ku tasuta imḍfaṛn acku iḥaliln da asn ittjṛu uzggal g ustay n tussifin."
Reproductive isolation also tends to increase with genetic divergence.,da ittḥaṛas uẓlay amarwan s tmrniwt ig illa umziray ajiniy.
"When a lineage divides into two, it is represented as a node (or split) on the phylogenetic tree.","adday ibḍu uẓuṛ xf sin, da ittusmdya am tsrrift (nɣd abṭṭu) xf tsklut n tukksa."
"Within a tree, any group of species designated by a name is a taxon (e.g., humans, primates, mammals, or vertebrates) and a taxon that consists of all its evolutionary descendants is a clade, otherwise known as a monophyletic taxon.","agwns n tsklut, ku tarabbut n wanawn ittustayn s yism tga tasnawayt (s umdya, afgan, tidslanin, timẓẓagin, nɣd id m usnsul) d wanaw nna ittusnayn sg kullu ayyawn nns ibuɣlan igat klayd, ittwassn awd s yism n wanawn imyiwnn."
"A species or group that is closely related to the ingroup but is phylogenetically outside of it is called the outgroup, which serves a reference point in the tree.","da as nttini i wanaw nɣ tarabbut izdin azday idusn s trabbut maca g tsga n ubuɣlu bṛṛa nns ism nns tarabbut n bṛṛa, nna isnufun yat tnqqiḍt tasaɣult g tsklut."
"Based on the principle of Parsimony (or Occam's razor), the tree that is favored is the one with the fewest evolutionary changes needed to be assumed over all traits in all groups.","ig naɣul s amnzay abarsimuniy (nɣd tafrut n ukams), tasklut tufut tga tt tsklut g llan isnfln ibuɣlutn idrusn ixssa ad tturdan xf ifrisn kullu g trubba kullu."
"Based on this system, each species is given two names, one for its genus and another for its species.","ig ndda xf unagraw ad, da ttufkan sin wassaɣn i ku anaw, yan digsn i tawsit nns d wayḍ i wanaw nns."
"Biologists regard the ubiquity of the genetic code as evidence of universal common descent for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes.","da ttinin ibyulujiyn mas d abẓẓɛ n unugl ajinitik g wansiwn kullu iga anẓa amltaɣ amaḍlan i kull ibaktiritn, id tar aɣyay, d id m uɣyay adttan."
"Later, around 1.7 billion years ago, multicellular organisms began to appear, with differentiated cells performing specialised functions.","ḍaṛt uynnaɣ, sg wattayn n 1.7 blyun n usggwas, ssntin imudar ayt kigan n tɣrasin ufuɣ s tɣrasin imzarayn isskarn tisɣan timẓlay."
Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the Late Devonian extinction event.,mursn imɣayn n wakal kigan allig ittwana is amun g unaɣiz izlan i uzmz adifuniy amggaru.
"During the recovery from this catastrophe, archosaurs became the most abundant land vertebrates; one archosaur group, the dinosaurs, dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.","g tizi n tujit sg uɛdriq ad, aɣuln waṛkuṣuṛn sg ayt iggɛbubn iggutn ; yat trabbut n waṛkuṣuṛn, nna igan idaynaṣuṛn, tnnbḍ azmz n ajuṛasik d ukṛiṭaṣi."
"Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep biosphere of the earth's crust.","tddr lbaktirya b wakal, waman, tiṭṭawin tismmamin irɣan, afraḍ asflallay d unmila amaddur g wabuḍ n wakal."
"Archaea constitute the other domain of prokaryotic cells and were initially classified as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria (in the Archaebacteria kingdom), a term that has fallen out of use.","amun warkitn g yigr yaḍn n tɣrasin tar aɣyay d ttustaynt tizwuri ɣur lbaktirya, tusy isn n lbaktirya tazaykut ( g tgldit n lbaktirya tazaykut), iga yat tguri yad ur ittusmrasn."
"Archaea and bacteria are generally similar in size and shape, although a few archaea have very different shapes, such as the flat and square cells of Haloquadratum walsbyi.","aksuln warkitn d ibaktiryn g tiddi d talɣa, mqqar lan kra n warkitn talɣatin imzarayn kigan, zund taɣrasin inmn d tmkkuẓin n halukadratum walsbyi."
"Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes: these range from organic compounds, such as sugars, to ammonia, metal ions or even hydrogen gas.","da smrasn warkitn isugam n uzmar uggar n id m uɣyay adttan : isugam ad gan uddisn isknafn, zund askkwar, s wamunya, s wayyunn n iqddaḥ nɣd akkw agaz n uhidrujin."
"The first observed archaea were extremophiles, living in extreme environments, such as hot springs and salt lakes with no other organisms.","arkitn imzwura nna ittunẓan gan tn imudar imṭṭuṛfa, nna iddrn g twnnaḍin icqqan, zund iɣbula irɣan d iglmamn n tisnt bla kan imudar yadn."
Archaea are a major part of Earth's life.,iga warkit yat tuṭṭut tamqqrant g tudrt n wakal.
"Five of these clades are also collectively known as protists, which are mostly microscopic eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, fungi, or animals.","tettwassn smmus g trubba ad s yism n ibrutistn, da tgga m uɣyay adttan ur ittyannayn s walln d ur gin imɣayn, igwrsln nɣd imudar."
"Most protists are unicellular, which are also known as microbial eukaryotes.","amata g ibrutistn gan id bu yat tɣrast, tettwassn awd s id m uɣyay adttan ur ittyannayn s walln."
Dinoflagellates are photosynthetic and can be found in the ocean where they play a role as primary producers of organic matter.,gan idinuflajiln yat tsiɣt n uṣku asiddan d nɣy ad tn naf g ill g tggan yat twuri tamqqrant g ufars n tmtta tasknaft.
Ciliates are alveolates that possess numerous hair-like structure called cilia.,tga m iḥbirran kra n iḥaglutn ilan kigan n iẓḍwan am wazzar ism nnsn iḥbirran.
The excavates are groups of protists that began to diversify approximately 1.5 billion years ago shortly after the origin of the eukaryotes.,gan imɣaz kra n trubba n ibrutistn nna issntin amziray nnsn sg wattayn n 1.5 blyun n usggwas izrin imikk n tizi ḍaṛt uẓuṛ n id m uɣyay adttan.
"Stramenopiles, most of which can be characterized by the presence of tubular hairs on the longer of their two flagella, include diatoms and brown algae.","istṛaminubils, nna g nɣi ad nsnumml amata s yuli n wazzar igan ajɛbu g twjjimin nns s snat iɣzzafn, idyatumn d wadaln idmmann."
"The rhizarians comprise three main groups: cercozoans, foraminiferans, and radiolarians.","ittusnay uṛayẓaṛyun sg kṛaḍt trubba timqqranin : asiṛkuzwan, afuṛaminifṛan, d uṛadyulaṛyan."
"Algae comprise several distinct clades such as glaucophytes, which are microscopic freshwater algae that may have resembled in form to the early unicellular ancestor of Plantae.","ttusnayn wadaln sg kigan n izduzn iẓlin zund iglukufitn, d adaln imikṛuskubiyn n waman izddagn iɣy ad trwis g talɣa nns timzwura n blanta id yan uɣyay n zikk."
Land plants (embryophytes) first appeared in terrestrial environments approximately 450 to 500 million years ago.,ffɣn d imɣayn n lxla (iḥclafn) tikklt izwarn g twnnaḍin tinakalin sg wattayn n 450 ar 500 mlyun n usggwas.
"In contrast, the other three clades are nonvascular plants as they do not have tracheids.","mgal n uynnaɣ, tirubba s kṛaḍt gant imɣayn id war iẓuṛan acku ur ɣursn iḥursitn."
They tend to be found in areas where water is readily available.,nitnti da ttyafant g wansiwn g uhnen ad ilin waman.
"Most nonvascular plants are terrestrial, with a few living in freshwater environments and none living in the oceans.","amata g imɣayn id war iẓuṛan gan inakaln, iddr imikk digsn g waman izddign d ur da ittidir g ill."
"Gymnosperms includes conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes.","id m wamud ur iɣmisn digs tiḥdrin, isikadaln, ajinku, d imɣayn initrujiyn."
They do so through a process called absorptive heterotrophy whereby they would first secrete digestive enzymes that break down large food molecules before absorbing them through their cell membranes.,da tggan ayann g s tmhlt ism nns amzaray amssumman g rẓẓmn i wanẓimn isfsayn nna ittṛẓan iqcrann wutci imqqrann urta ttusamumn s tbridt n tslixt taɣrasant.
"Fungi, along with two other lineages, choanoflagellates and animals, can be grouped as opisthokonts.","iɣy ad nsmyanaw igwrsln, ṭṭṛf n sin iɣsan yaḍn, ikwanuflajiln d imudar, mas gan ubistukunts."
"Multicellular fungi, on the other hand, have a body called mycelium, which is composed of a mass of individual tubular filaments called hyphae that allows for nutrient absorption to occur.","g tsga yaḍn, igwrsln mi ɛddant tɣrasin, ɣursn yat tfgga ism nns amisilyum, g llan kigan n ifilan igan tijɛba ifridn da asn nttini ifilan issumumn uttci."
"With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development.","d islidn idrusn, da ssmurn imudar amttu asknfan, unfus n uksijin, tzmr ad tmmussu, tzmr ad ttarw, tgmu sg yan wansa ixwan n tɣrasin, arima, iwnan n ubuɣlu arawan."
Animals can be distinguished into two groups based on their developmental characteristics.,nɣy ad nsti imudar s snat trubba ig nsnnd xf tfrisin nns tisbuɣlanin.
"In protostomes, the blastopore gives rise to the mouth, which is then followed by the formation of the anus.","g ibrutustumn, iblastuburn da sskarn talalit n imi, nna yakkan s dat asmuttg n ubɣdan."
"The bodies of most animals are symmetrical, with symmetry being either radial or bilateral.","da ttiksilnt tfggiwin n imudar, ar itgga yiksin afggagan nɣd asinran."
"Finally, animals can be distinguished based on the type and location of their appendages such as antennae for sensing the environment or claws for capturing prey.","tigira, nɣy ad nsti imudar nil wanawn d udɣar n isiḍṛn nnsn zund imzgitn xf usyafa n twnnaḍt d waxbacn i wamaẓ n usgmr."
"The majority (~97%) of animal species are invertebrates, which are animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column (commonly known as a backbone or spine), derived from the notochord.","amata g wanawn n imudar (~97%) n war asnsul, nna igan imudar ɣr ur illi usnsul ula dat tsbuɣlu (nna ittwassn s wassaɣ n tannalt n tadawt nɣd tannalt n tadawt), nna igan anafuɣ n tgatut n tadawt."
Many invertebrate taxa have a greater number and variety of species than the entire subphylum of Vertebrata.,lan kigan n wanawn arasnsul amḍan d umyanaw uggar n wanawn sg trabbut tayyawt ismdn n id m usnsul.
"More than 6,000 virus species have been described in detail.","ittusnumml uggar n 6,000 n wanaw n ufirus s ufruri."
"When not inside an infected cell or in the process of infecting a cell, viruses exist in the form of independent particles, or virions, consisting of the genetic material (DNA or RNA), a protein coat called capsid, and in some cases an outside envelope of lipids.","adday ur ilin ifirusn agwns n taɣrst yuḍnn nɣd g titi n tasiɣt, da ttilin ifirusn g talɣa n tfggiwin iẓlin, nɣd ifiryunn, ittusnayn sg tmtta n tukksi (DNA nɣd RNA), igan tissi tabṛutiniyt ism nns akabsid, d g kra n waddadn tisi n bṛṛa ittuɣrafn s uḍṛẓ."
The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids—pieces of DNA that can move between cells—while others may have evolved from bacteria.,ntln iẓuṛan n ifirusn g umzruy n ubuɣlu n tudrt : iɣy kra digs ad ibuɣulu sg iblasmidn -- iqcran sg wadiyin iɣiyn ad immutty ingr tɣrasin -- maca qad yili kra yadn ibuɣlan sg tbaktirt.
Viruses can spread in many ways.,ɣiyn ifirusn ad aɣn s kigan n tmamkin.
"Norovirus and rotavirus, common causes of viral gastroenteritis, are transmitted by the faecal–oral route, passed by hand-to-mouth contact or in food or water.","da ittmuttuy nuṛufirus d ufirus n ṛuta, nna igan sg tmntilin n uwzwz n uxdil d iṣṛman, s tbridt n imi, ar izrri s wuguy n imi nɣd uttci nɣd aman."
"The shoot system is composed of stem, leaves, and flowers.",ittusnay ungraw n cuṭ sg uɣamu d ifrawn d ijddign.
The direction of water movement across a semipermeable membrane is determined by the water potential across that membrane.,da ittwassan umnid n umussu n waman s tbridt n tiẓẓiḍṛa n waman sg yan ubṭṭan izzruyn cwiy.
"Most plant seeds are usually dormant, a condition in which the seed's normal activity is suspended.","amata g ifsan n imɣayn da iggan, d waddad nna g ittusnḍaw umussu awnḍan n ifsan."
"Imbibition is the first step in germination, whereby water is absorbed by the seed.","isswi ayd igan tasurift tamzwarut g ussmɣi, nna g ssumumn ifsan aman."
"These monomers are obtained from the hydrolysis of starch, proteins, and lipids that are stored in either the cotyledons or endosperm.",dad ttufkan imunumrn sg ufsay g waman n ugggwrn d ibrutinn d lidam nna ittuḥḍan g ikutildunn nɣd g wanḍusbirm.
"Their flowers are organs that facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs.","ijddign nnsn da ssuhann tarwa, s umata s tamunt n iblɣiwn d tglay."
Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different individual of the same species.,iga umsgzay asmutty n ttkkwaṛ sg ujddig s wayḍ xf yan ufrdiy uxulfn g yuwn wanaw.
"These changes may be affected by genetic, chemical, and physical factors.",isnfln ad ɣin ad ttuḍaṣn s tsbbuba timkkusa d tkimyatin d tfizikin.
"The photoreceptor proteins relay information such as whether it is day or night, duration of the day, intensity of light available, and the source of light.","da tggan ibrutinn n isaḍufn n usidd asmutty n inɣmisn s wass nɣd iḍ, tizi n wass, d tuẓẓiṛt n usidd illan, d usagm n usidd."
"Many flowering plants bloom at the appropriate time because of light-sensitive compounds that respond to the length of the night, a phenomenon known as photoperiodism.","da ṛẓẓmn kigan n ijddign n imɣayn g tizi d yusan s tmntilt n ifrdisn ur iɣiyn i usidd ar ttiri taɣzi n yiḍ, tumant ad ttwassn s tiṛwi tasiddant."
Animals can be classified as either regulators or conformers.,nɣy ad nsti imudar s imssudsn d winna issrwasn.
"In contrast, animals such as fishes and frogs are conformers as they adapt their internal environment (e.g., body temperature) to match their external environments.","g tsga yaḍn, imudar zund islman d igwra mmrwasn acku da d ccickin agwns nnsn ( s umdya, taskwflt n unrɣi n tfgga) bac add yas d bṛṛa nns."
"Mice, for example, are able to consume three times more food than rabbits in proportion to their weights as the basal metabolic rate per unit weight in mice is greater than in rabbits.","iɣrḍayn, s umdya, ɣin ad ttcn uggar n iwtal kṛaḍt tikkal s uynna d yusan d istaln nnsn, acku amitabulizm n ku afrdis n ustal ɣur uɣrḍa yugr win uwtul."
"However, the relationship is non-linear in animals that swim or fly.","imil, amyassa ur igi awnɣan g imudar nna ittɛumn nɣ da taylal."
"At low flight speeds, a bird must maintain a high metabolic rates to remain airborne.","g issdrifn n uylal yagguzn, ixssa ad iḥḍu ugḍiḍ xf isɣaln n tzmmaryattuyn afad ayɣama aytyasay."
"Finally, freshwater animals have body fluids that are hyperosmotic to fresh water.","tigira, imudar n waman izddagn ɣursn tafgga iḥrurin iɣin ad iddu mgal n waman izddagn."
"If an animal were to consume food that contains an excess amount of chemical energy, it will store most of that energy in the form of lipids for future use and some of that energy as glycogen for more immediate use (e.g., meeting the brain's energy needs).","ig da ismur umudr uttci g tlla tsmkta iggutn n tzmrt tacimiyt, hat qad iḥḍu amata g tzmrt ad s talɣa n uḍṛẓ afad tt issmrs ɣr dat, d kra g tzmrt ad glikujin i usmrs adɣyan (s umdya, adiwajb i issuturn izmmarn n wallaɣ)."
"In addition to their digestive tracts, vertebrate animals have accessory glands such as a liver and pancreas as part of their digestive systems.","bla asaru n wagam, lant id m usnsul tiwlsisin tiyyawin zund tasa d ibankṛyas igan tufalt sg wallaln n wagam."
"Upon leaving the stomach, food enters into the midgut, which is the first part of the intestine (or small intestine in mammals) and is the principal site of digestion and absorption.","g wufuɣ n uxdil, da ikccm wutci s iṣṛman inammasn, nna igan tafult tamzwarut sg iṣṛman, (nɣd iṣṛman usdidn g tmẓẓagin) ntta ayd igan ansa adslan n wagam d ussumm."
"Gas exchange in the lungs occurs in millions of small air sacs; in mammals and reptiles these are called alveoli, and in birds they are known as atria.","da ittili umrara n igazn g turin g imlyan n tkcculin n uzwu timẓẓyanin; g tmẓẓagin d imḥrurdn ism nnsnt icnbitn n uzwu, d g igḍaḍ ttwassn s yism n tmzgin."
"These enter the lungs where they branch into progressively narrower secondary and tertiary bronchi that branch into numerous smaller tubes, the bronchioles.","da tkccm turinad g tbṭṭu xf tḥursitin tisinanin d tmkṛaḍin inyaman imik s imik ar bṭṭunt xf kigan n ijɛba imẓẓyan, tiḥrsitin."
There are two types of circulatory systems: open and closed.,llan sin wanwn n ingrawn n unyuddu n idammn: tamṛẓumt d tmaqqunt.
Circulation in animals occur between two types of tissues: systemic tissues and breathing (or pulmonary) organs.,da ittjru unyuddu ɣur imudar ingr sin wanawn n tuẓḍiwin: tiẓḍiwin tingrawanin d igmamn n wunfus nɣd (nɣd turin).
"In birds and mammals, the systemic and pulmonary systems are connected in series.","g igḍaḍ d tmẓẓagin, da nn ssiwiḍn ingrawn ingrawann d win turin g yan usnsl."
Skeletal muscle contractions are neurogenic as they require synaptic input from motor neurons.,ikrarramn n tksumin tiɣssatin gant tinzlumin acku da ttirint ikccumn immurksn n tɣrasin tinzlumin timassitin.
"The contraction produced can be described as a twitch, summation, or tetanus, depending on the frequency of action potentials.","iẓḍaṛ ad nsnumml tayafut n ukrarram mas iga targagayt, asmun, nɣd bukrus, ig nsnnd xf umṣḍfṛ n tẓiḍṛa n uskar."
The mechanisms of contraction are similar in all three muscle tissues.,aksuln wammakn n ukrarram g kullu tuẓḍiwin n tksumin s kṛaḍt.
"Other animals such as mollusks, and nematodes, possess obliquely striated muscles, which contain bands of thick and thin filaments that are arranged helically rather than transversely, like in vertebrate skeletal or cardiac muscles.","imudar yaḍn zund iɣlaln d izrman lan tiksumin tiwnɣanin s talɣa tarusridt, nna ilan asfif n ifilan izurarn yattuyn nna ittusudsn s ummunḍ g udɣar n taflit, imkinna tga tɣssa nɣd tiksumin n wul."
They can transmit or receive information at sites of contacts called synapses.,ẓḍaṛn ad awin nɣ skcmn inɣmisn g wansatn n tmnaḍin n umsawaḍ nna mi nttini amlaqqay anzlum.
Cells such as neurons or muscle cells may be excited or inhibited upon receiving a signal from another neuron.,da ttuḥṛṛacnt nɣ ttusbddant tɣrasin tinzlumin nɣd tiɣrasin tiksmanin ig umẓnt tamuli sg tɣrast tanzlumt yaḍn.
"In vertebrates, the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves that connect the CNS to every other part of the body.","g id m usnsul, ittusnay ungi anzlum sg ungi anzlum n anammas (CNS), nna g illa unli d buxddu, d ungi anzlum aglagal (PNS), nna ittusnayn g izllumn nna izdin ingr n ungi anzlum anammas d ku tafult yaḍn g tfgga."
"The PNS is divided into three separate subsystems, the somatic, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems.","ibḍa ungi anzlum aglagal xf kṛaḍ ingrawn ayyawn ibḍan, angi anzlum afggan, artirat, angi anzlum n iṣṛman."
"The sympathetic nervous system is activated in cases of emergencies to mobilize energy, while the parasympathetic nervous system is activated when organisms are in a relaxed state.","da ittusrfu ungi anzlum asambatik ig tussa afad ttutkur tzmrt, maca ar ittusrfu ungi anzlum abaṛasimbatik g tizi g sgunfun imudar."
Nerves that exit directly from the brain are called cranial nerves while those exiting from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves.,"izllumn nna d iffɣn g unli ism nnsn izllumn ixfawann, maca izllumn d iffɣn g buxddu ism nnsn izllumn usninn."
"In humans specifically, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands.","ɣur ufgan s uẓlay, tiwlsisin tifṛṭeṭṭutin tidslanin gan tnt tawlsist talmfat d twlsisin n tgẓlin."
"Hormones can be amino acid complexes, steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, or prostaglandins.","ɣin ihuṛmunn ad gin imsmun n ismam aminiyn, istirwidn, ikusanwidn, ilukutriyn, nɣd ibṛustaglandinn."
They produce haploid gametes by meiosis.,da tsfaras iblɣiwn ayt yan ukṛumuzum s tbridt n umiyyuẓ.
"In most cases, a third germ layer, the mesoderm, also develops between them.","g kigan n waddadn, da ttbuɣlun awd yan usmil abaktiri wis kṛaḍ, asmil anammas, ingrasn."
"Gastrulation occurs, whereby morphogenetic movements convert the cell mass into a three germ layers that comprise the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.","da ittili ugastṛulasyun, nna g snfaln imussutn imuṛfulujitn agudi n tɣrast s kṛaḍ ismiln ibaktiriyn ittusnayn g iktudiṛmn, amisudirm d undudirm."
"Cellular differentiation is influenced by extracellular signals such as growth factors that are exchanged to adjacent cells, which is called juxtracrine signaling, or to neighboring cells over short distances, which is called paracrine signaling.","da ittuḍaṣ umzaray aɣrasan s tmmalin bṛṛa n tɣrast zund imskarn n tgmi nna ittumraran d tɣrasin n ṭṭṛf nns, nna mi nttini tamuli tajukstrakrint, nɣd s tɣrasin yudsn xf uzaru igzzuln, nna mi nttini tamuli n barakrin."
The adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered.,da isskar ungraw n taggaẓt takssuyt tamrarut iẓlin s ku astimilus s ubrid n tussna n ifruruyn nna igan mgal nns zwar.
Bacteria have a rudimentary immune system in the form of enzymes that protect against virus infections.,tabaktirt ɣurs yan ungraw amqqil azayku igan g talɣa n wanẓimn ifrrgn sg ifirusn.
"Jawed vertebrates, including humans, have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms, including the ability to adapt to recognize pathogens more efficiently.","id mm usnsul d iḥiwac, zund afgan, timamkin n taggaẓt immurksn kigan, zund tiẓiḍṛa n tkssuyt afad ad tisin timntilin n tmaḍunin s tmamkt izmrn uggar."
"Fixed action patterns, for instance, are genetically determined and stereotyped behaviors that occur without learning.","anawn n twuri izgan, s umdya, gant timskrin timnawayin istin g tukksi ittjṛun bla almud."
"The community of living (biotic) organisms in conjunction with the nonliving (abiotic) components (e.g., water, light, radiation, temperature, humidity, atmosphere, acidity, and soil) of their environment is called an ecosystem.","da as ttinin i umun n imudar (imssrfutn) s tsɣunt d ifrdisn ur iddirn (ar idirn) (zund aman, asidd, iznzṛ, taskwflt n unrɣi, taluɣi, aṭmusfiṛ, asmem, d wakal) g twnnaḍt nns angraw awnḍan."
"By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system.","sg wutci n imɣayn d wutci n ingr asn, da skarn imudar yat tilalt istawhmman g umussu n tmtta d tzmrt sg ungraw."
The Earth's physical environment is shaped by solar energy and topography.,ttusnay twnnaḍt tamattut n wakal sg tzmrt n tafukt d udmkal.
"Weather is the day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the long-term average of weather, typically averaged over a period of 30 years.","anzwi iga taskwflt n unrɣu akuyass d ussrfu n titi n unaṛ, maca anzway iga tizi nna itgga unzwi, d ittumyur ad itkka 30 n usggwas."
"As a result, wet environments allow for lush vegetation to grow.","s tyafut n uya, da ttadjant twnnaḍin ilggaɣn imɣayn ayt wafriwn ad gmin."
"Population growth during short-term intervals can be determined using the population growth rate equation, which takes into consideration birth, death, and immigration rates.","iẓḍaṛ ad ttustay tmrniwt n imzdaɣ iwnan n tizi igzzuln s ussmrs n tgdazalt n asɣl n tmrniwt n imzdaɣ, nna issmrasn isɣaln n tarwa d tmttant d umuddu."
A biological interaction is the effect that a pair of organisms living together in a community have on each other.,tasqqnt tabyulujit tga iḍiṣ nna sskarn sin imudar ingr asn g yan umun.
A long-term interaction is called a symbiosis.,tasqqnt mi tɣzzif tizi ism nns amyawas.
"There are different trophic levels within any food web, with the lowest level being the primary producers (or autotrophs) such as plants and algae that convert energy and inorganic material into organic compounds, which can then be used by the rest of the community.","llan iswirn n wutci imzarayn agwns n tradsa n wutci, acku da itgga uswir amazdar imsfarsn idslann (utci animan) zund imɣayn d wadaln nna isnfaln tazmrt s d tmttitin tiragmamin s tmsnayin tigmamin, nna ittusmrasn dffir n uya g umun."
And those that eat secondary consumers are tertiary consumers and so on.,d winnaɣ itettan imsmurn isinann gan imsmurn sg tskwflt tis kṛaḍt d kra yaḍn.
In some cycles there are reservoirs where a substance remains or is sequestered for a long period of time.,g kran twalatin llan tmḥḍitin g tqqima tmtta nɣ ttustay tizi iɣzzifn n uzmz.
"The largest driver of warming is the emission of greenhouse gases, of which more than 90% are carbon dioxide and methane.","tamntilt taxatart n unrɣi tga tt ufuɣ n igazn n tusurt n lɣuft, nna g ila ukaṛbun bu sin uksijin uggar n 90%."
"Biodiversity affects the functioning of ecosystems, which provide a variety of services upon which people depend.","amyanaw abyuluji da ittḍiṣ tawuri n ingrawn iwnḍann, nna iskarn yat trabbut imzarayn n tnafutin xf tsnnadn middn."
"Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress.","amamk abldi, tumẓ tussna n imɣayn awd taɣuri n igwrsln d wadaln sg imassan n igwrsln d imassan n imɣayn s umḍfṛ, d tɣuri n trubba ad s kṛaḍt n imudar d iqqiman g yigr n usmkl n ugraw amɣayan agraɣlan."
"Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance.","turtitin n ufizik g izmzninammasn, s umata nna izdin s imunastirn, digsnt imɣayn istawhmman g usgnf."
These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants.,ssuhnnt turtitin ad taɣuri takadimiyt n imɣayn.
"In the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately.","g isimrawn imggura sg tasut tis 20, ssmrsn imassan n imɣayn titiqniyin n ussfsi ajiniy afultan, sg digsn tamassant n ujinum d ibṛutumyutn d usnsl n usmem aɣyayan afad ttustayn imɣayn s talɣa ifrurin uggar."
"""Modern botany traces its roots back to Ancient Greece specifically to Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BCE), a student of Aristotle who invented and described many of its principles and is widely regarded in the scientific community as the """"Father of Botany"""".""","""aɣuln iẓuṛan n tmassant n tatrart n imɣayn s lyunan taqdimt s uẓlay tyufrastus (371-287 dat tlalit), nna igan amzraw sg aṛisṭu isnulfa isnumml kigan n imnzayn nns ig awd g umun amassan """"babas n tmassant n imɣayn""""."""
"De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years.","ttuɣra di matrika midika g kigan n wansiwn uggar n 1,500 n usggwas."
"In the mid-16th century, botanical gardens were founded in a number of Italian universities.","g uzgn n tasut tis 16, ttuskarnt turtitin n imɣayn g mnnawt n tsdawitin tiṭalyanin."
They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject.,uwsn tigmi n tmassant n imɣayn d imrsi akadimiy.
"Throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine.","g tizi ad kullu, tzdi tmassant n imɣayn d usgnf."
Bock created his own system of plant classification.,isskr buk angraw nns iẓlin s usmyanaw n imɣayn.
The choice and sequence of the characters may be artificial in keys designed purely for identification (diagnostic keys) or more closely related to the natural or phyletic order of the taxa in synoptic keys.,iẓḍaṛ ad ig ustay n iskkiln d umḍfṛ nnsn imlẓy g tsura ittwaskarn ɣas i uẓlay n tmagit (tisura nyikz) nɣ tzdi yan uzday idusn s ussuds agaman nɣd amyanaw i wanawn g tsura tisinubtikyin.
This established a standardised binomial or two-part naming scheme where the first name represented the genus and the second identified the species within the genus.,isskr mayad tawnaɣt n wassaɣ n bu sin yirawn nɣd sg snat tafulin nna g iga yism amzwaru tawsit d wissin ar iẓlli anawn agns n tawsit.
"Increasing knowledge of plant anatomy, morphology and life cycles led to the realisation that there were more natural affinities between plants than the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus.",yuwi yily g tussna s uflay n imɣayn d usnay d twaliwin n tudrt s tyafut n is llan imnmalatn igamann ingr imɣayn uggar n ungraw n twsi amskar n linayus.
The work of Katherine Esau (1898–1997) on plant anatomy is still a major foundation of modern botany.,tsul twuri n katrin ɛisu (1898–1997) g uflay n imɣayn tasila tadslant n tmassant n imɣayn tatrart.
"The concept that the composition of plant communities such as temperate broadleaf forest changes by a process of ecological succession was developed by Henry Chandler Cowles, Arthur Tansley and Frederic Clements.",armmus mas d asnay n imunn n imɣayn zund taganin mi iflayn wafriwn da ittunfal s tmamkt n tsiɣt n ummḍfṛ awnḍan nna ittusbuɣlan sg ɣur hinri tcandlṛ kawlẓ d aṛtr tansili d fridirik klimnts.
The discovery and identification of the auxin plant hormones by Kenneth V. Thimann in 1948 enabled regulation of plant growth by externally applied chemicals.,tfka tifit d ustay n ihuṛmunn n umɣay n uksijin s tbridt n kinnitt V. timan g 1948 assuds n tgmi n imɣayn s tbridt n tmttitin ticimiyin tusnisin bṛṛa.
"20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of organic chemical analysis, such as spectroscopy, chromatography and electrophoresis.","da ttuḥrayn ibuɣlutn g tcimiyt tamssrfut n imɣayn g tasut tis 20 da ttuḥrayn s ttiqniyin tirarin n ussfsi acimiy agmaman, zund asbiktṛuskubi, akrumatugrafi d iliktṛufurisis."
"These technologies enable the biotechnological use of whole plants or plant cell cultures grown in bioreactors to synthesise pesticides, antibiotics or other pharmaceuticals, as well as the practical application of genetically modified crops designed for traits such as improved yield.","da akkant ttiqniyin ad asmrs aatiknuluji n imɣayn ismdn nɣd asẓẓu n tɣrasin n imɣayn ittwaẓẓun g ibyuryakturn afad ttusnayn ibistisidn, antibyutikn nɣd iyafutn yaḍn imsasfrn, d awd tsnsi tasmhalt n trarutin ittusnfaln s tukksi ittuskarn i ifrisn zund tararut iɣudan."
Modern systematics aims to reflect and discover phylogenetic relationships between plants.,tra tmassant n taɣalit tatrart ad yaf izdayn isbuɣlutn ingr imɣayn.
"As a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere, a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration.","d amsyafu asinan i tsiɣt n usmdya asiddan, da ṛẓẓmn imɣayn i uksijin g watmusfiṛ, nna igan agaz nna ran imudar kullu afad sskarn unfus aɣrsan."
"Historically, all living things were classified as either animals or plants and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals.","g umzruy, ttustayn imaddarn kullu mas gan imudar nɣd imɣayn d tssntl tmassant n imɣayn taɣuri n imaddarn kullu nna ur igin imudar."
"""The strictest definition of """"plant"""" includes only the """"land plants"""" or embryophytes, which include seed plants (gymnosperms, including the pines, and flowering plants) and the free-sporing cryptogams including ferns, clubmosses, liverworts, hornworts and mosses.""","""usnkd ifrurin n """"umɣay"""" yumẓ """"imɣayn inakaln"""" day nɣd imɣayn n warraw, nna yumẓn imɣayn n ifsan (ijimnusbirmn, g llan iskla n idgl d imɣayn ijddigann) d ikribtugamn id war sbburin g llan ifirnsn, adaln, tuga n tasa, ihuṛnwuṛtn d imussn."""
"The sexual haploid phase of embryophytes, known as the gametophyte, nurtures the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life, even in the seed plants, where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte.","tifrkt m yan ukṛumuzum n urba, ittwassn s gamtufit, da tcttca tfrkt tabuɣit bu sin ikṛumuẓumn igmman agwns n tẓḍwin nns ɣas i yat tafult g tudrt nns bɛda, awd g imɣayn n ifsan, g cttcan tifrkt n gaitufit ixf nns s tbridt n tfrkt tabuɣit taẓuṛant."
Palaeobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the evolutionary history of plants.,da qqran imassan n imɣayn izaykutn imɣayn izaykutn g warra amɣuzan afad smunn inɣmisn xf umzruy abuɣlan n imɣayn.
This is what ecologists call the first trophic level.,ayad ami ttinin imassan n twnnaḍt aswir n wutci amzwaru.
"Botanists also study weeds, which are a considerable problem in agriculture, and the biology and control of plant pathogens in agriculture and natural ecosystems.","da qqran imassan n imɣayn awd tuga, nna igan tamukrist tamqqrant g tkrza, d g tbyulujit d uḥṭṭu n tmntilin n tmaḍunin n imɣayn g tkrza d ingrawn iwnnaḍn igamann."
The light energy captured by chlorophyll a is initially in the form of electrons (and later a proton gradient) that's used to make molecules of ATP and NADPH which temporarily store and transport energy.,tga tzmrt nna ittamẓ ukluṛufil zwar g talɣa n iliktṛunn (ɣr dat s uskwfl ibṛutunn) da ttusmras ad ttuskarnt tqcrin n ATP d NADPH nna iḥṭṭun ar tsnyuddu tazmrt.
Some of the glucose is converted to starch which is stored in the chloroplast.,da ittusnfal imikk n uglikuẓ s agwrn nna ittuḥḍun g iblastidn izgzawn.
"Unlike in animals (which lack chloroplasts), plants and their eukaryote relatives have delegated many biochemical roles to their chloroplasts, including synthesising all their fatty acids, and most amino acids.","gtugdut n imudar (tar iblastidn izgzawn), fkan imɣayn d wayyawn nnsn id m uɣyay adttan kigan n tilal tibyucimiyin i iblastidn izgzawn, g illa usnay n kullu ismamn iḍṛẓn d idsn ismamn aminiyn."
"Vascular land plants make lignin, a polymer used to strengthen the secondary cell walls of xylem tracheids and vessels to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress.","imɣayn ikalann ayt uḥaglu da sskarn, nna igan abulimṛ nna ittusmrasn ad isdus igidar n tɣrasin tisinanin sg tjɛba n wunfus d iḥaglutn afad ad ur rdlnt g tizi g issumum umɣay aman sg digsnt s uslld n waman."
"Others, such as the essential oils peppermint oil and lemon oil are useful for their aroma, as flavourings and spices (e.g., capsaicin), and in medicine as pharmaceuticals as in opium from opium poppies.","kra yaḍn, zund izatimn idslann azatim n nnɛnaɛ d uzatim n usmmam iɣudan i waḍu nns, zund imsiḍftn d isufar (am lkabsisin), d g isafarn zund afyun sg uxcxac n wafyun."
"For example, the pain killer aspirin is the acetyl ester of salicylic acid, originally isolated from the bark of willow trees, and a wide range of opiate painkillers like heroin are obtained by chemical modification of morphine obtained from the opium poppy.","s umdya, asbirin isfstan amḥḥaḍ iga istir asitil n usmem n salisilik, nna ittustayn sg iskla n uṣfṣaf, ar nn ttawḍn tugt n imsfstn n umḥḥaḍ afyuniyn zund lhirwin s tbridt n usnfl acimiy n umurfin nna ittuskarn sg uxcxac n wafyun."
Native Americans have used various plants as ways of treating illness or disease for thousands of years.,smrsn imirikaniyn inṣliyn imɣayn imzarayn g tbridin n ussgnf n tmaḍunt sg tmiḍiwin n isggwasn.
"Sugar, starch, cotton, linen, hemp, some types of rope, wood and particle boards, papyrus and paper, vegetable oils, wax, and natural rubber are examples of commercially important materials made from plant tissues or their secondary products.","sskr, agwrn, lqḍn, lkttan, lqnnb, d kra n wnawn n tguta d ukccuḍ d tflwitin n tzlɣiwin, abrdi d twriqin, d izatimn n imɣayn, ccmɛ, d lkawatcu agaman nna igan imdyatn n tmttitin istawhmman gtsbbabt ittwaskarn sg tẓḍiwin n imɣayn nɣd imyafutn nns isinann."
"Products made from cellulose include rayon and cellophane, wallpaper paste, biobutanol and gun cotton.","iyafutn ittwaskarn sg usililuz gan aṛayun d usilufan, aslɣaɣ n twriqin, abyubitanul d lqḍn."
Some ecologists even rely on empirical data from indigenous people that is gathered by ethnobotanists.,da tsnnadn kra nimassan n itwnnaḍt xf warratn inaramn sg imzdaɣ inṣliyn nna smann imassan iẓuṛan n imɣayn.
Plants depend on certain edaphic (soil) and climatic factors in their environment but can modify these factors too.,da tsnnadn imɣayn xf imwuritn isgmann d inzwayn istin g twnnaḍt nns maca iɣy ad ttusnfln imwuritn ad awd nitni.
"They interact with their neighbours at a variety of spatial scales in groups, populations and communities that collectively constitute vegetation.",da ttmyaɣn d wadjaṛn nsn g trubba timyanawin n yigran idɣarann g trubba d imzdaɣ d imunn nna isskarn asrgl amɣayan.
Gregor Mendel discovered the genetic laws of inheritance by studying inherited traits such as shape in Pisum sativum (peas).,yufa grigur mandil izrfan n tukksi nna issukusn s tbridt n tɣuri n tfrisin ittukkusn zund talɣa g bisum satifum (jlbana).
"Nevertheless, there are some distinctive genetic differences between plants and other organisms.","mqqar, llan kra imzarayn ijiniyn iẓllin ingr imɣayn d imudar yaḍn."
The many cultivated varieties of wheat are the result of multiple inter- and intra-specific crosses between wild species and their hybrids.,kigan n wanawn n imndi ittukrazn gan tayafut n ilqqimn iggutn d ugwns ingr wanawn ikalann d wanawn nns ittulqqmn.
In many land plants the male and female gametes are produced by separate individuals.,"g kigan n imɣayn ikalann, da ttufarsn iblɣiwn sg iwtmann d twtmanin sg ifridn ibḍan."
The formation of stem tubers in potato is one example.,amdya xf uya igat asnay n tiyyawin g baṭaṭa.
"Apomixis can also happen in a seed, producing a seed that contains an embryo genetically identical to the parent.","iɣy ad ijṛu ubumiksi awd g wamud, man aya da yakka amud g tlla tarwa yaksuln d umaraw g tukksi."
An allopolyploid plant may result from a hybridisation event between two different species.,iɣy ad ittufars umɣay bu mnnaw n ikṛumuẓumn sg umzzu n ulqqm ingr sin wanawn imzarayn.
"Some otherwise sterile plant polyploids can still reproduce vegetatively or by seed apomixis, forming clonal populations of identical individuals.","suln kra n ibuliblwidn n imɣayn ittuszdagn ad myarawn s umɣayan nɣd s umamk n ifsan n ubuksimis, tssulɣ tirubba tiklunalin n ifridn yaksuln."
Common dandelion is a triploid that produces viable seeds by apomictic seed.,iga abisunli bu kṛaḍ ikṛumuẓumn ar isyafa ifsan iɣin ad iddr s tbridt n ifsan n abumitik.
"The sequencing of some other relatively small genomes, of rice (Oryza sativa) and Brachypodium distachyon, has made them important model species for understanding the genetics, cellular and molecular biology of cereals, grasses and monocots generally.","asnsl n kra n ijinumn imẓẓiyn cwiy, sg ṛṛuz (uṛiza satifa) d ubṛacibudyum distacyun, iga tn d wanawn izurt istawhmman g urmas n tmassant n tukksi, tbyulujit taɣrsant tafrurayt n ifsan, d tuga d imunukustn s umata."
"Spinach, peas, soybeans and a moss Physcomitrella patens are commonly used to study plant cell biology.","ittwassn usmrs n usbinac, tajlbant, ibawn d wadaln i tɣuri tabyulujit n tɣrasin n imɣayn."
Gene expression can also be controlled by repressor proteins that attach to silencer regions of the DNA and prevent that region of the DNA code from being expressed.,iɣy awd ad nbd g uwnni ajiniy s tbridt n ibrutin imalkaln nna izdin s wansatn ifstan g usmem aɣyayan ar tgddl awnni xf wansa nnaɣ sg inigl n usmem aɣyayan.
"Some epigenetic changes have been shown to be heritable, while others are reset in the germ cells.","ittunẓay mas d kra n isnfln arajiniyn da ttukksun, maca da ittusnam kra yaḍn g tɣrasin tibaktirin."
"Unlike animals, many plant cells, particularly those of the parenchyma, do not terminally differentiate, remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant.","ur id am imudar, kigan n tɣrasin n imɣayn, s uẓlay tinna illan g ubaruncima, ur da ttmzaraynt akkw, qqimnt ẓḍaṛnt d zmrnt ad sfarsnt amɣay ufrid amaynu."
"The algae are a polyphyletic group and are placed in various divisions, some more closely related to plants than others.","gan wadaln yat trabbut id mm kigan n iɣyayn ar ttusrasn g tzuniwin imzarayn, amata diksn imzday d imɣayn uggar n wiyyaḍ."
The Charophyte class Charophyceae and the land plant sub-kingdom Embryophyta together form the monophyletic group or clade Streptophytina.,gan usmil n caṛufyt asmil n caṛufisa d tgldit tayyawt n imɣayn ikalann umbṛyufita kullu tarabbut m yan umyanaw nɣd striḥtufitina klad.
Pteridophytic vascular plants with true xylem and phloem that reproduced by spores germinating into free-living gametophytes evolved during the Silurian period and diversified into several lineages during the late Silurian and early Devonian.,buɣlan imɣayn ayt ihaglutn n idammn btiridufitik ntta d yan wanaw n ukccuḍ adttan d ufluwin nna ittgadayn sg tbaktirin ittmɣayn s imɣayn igan timattin ittidirn s tlelli iwnan n tizi tasiluṛiyt nna imyanawn s kigan n iɣsan g tgiran n uzmz asiluriy d tizwuri n uzmz adifuniy.
"Their reduced gametophytes developed from megaspores retained within the spore-producing organs (megasporangia) of the sporophyte, a condition known as endospory.","ttusbuɣla tfrkt nnsn taɣlɣiwt tamsgzlt sg isayrarn imqqran ittyaẓn agns n igmamn imsfarsn n tbaktirin (migasbuṛanjya) n umɣay abuɣi, nna igan addad ittwassn s undusburi."
The earliest known seed plants date from the latest Devonian Famennian stage.,da ittuɣul umzruy n imɣayn n ifsan ittwassn ar tifrkiwin n uzmz adifuniy titrarin.
"Chemicals obtained from the air, soil and water form the basis of all plant metabolism.","iyafutn icimiyn d ittffɣn sg uzwu, akal d waman gan tasila n umitabuliz n imɣayn."
"Heterotrophs including all animals, all fungi, all completely parasitic plants, and non-photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues.","imaddarn itettan g wiyyaḍ nna g llan kullu imudar, kullu igwrsln, kullu imɣayn ibaraẓiṭn, d tbaktirin n tillas da tettan g tgmamin tisiddanin nna sfarasnt tsiddanin ar tnt sunfusnt nɣ da tnt smrasn g uṣku n tɣrasin d taẓḍiwin."
"Subcellular transport of ions, electrons and molecules such as water and enzymes occurs across cell membranes.","da ittjṛu anyuddu aɣrsan i wayyunn, iliktṛunn d tgmamin zund aman d wanẓimn sg tɣarifin n tɣrasin."
"Examples of elements that plants need to transport are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur.","imdyatn n igmamn nna ttirin imɣayn ad tn snyuddun gan tn anitṛujin, afusfuṛ, abutasyum, akalsyum, amanɣanizyum, d usulfuṛ."
This compound mediates the tropic responses of shoots and roots towards light and gravity.,ammas n wuddis ad llant tmrarutin titṛubikin n tbwitin d iẓuṛan g umnid n usidd d tinnizɣa.
"The natural cytokinin zeatin was discovered in corn, Zea mays, and is a derivative of the purine adenine.","ittyafa usitukinin agaman g ukuṛn, zya mays, ntta d anafuɣ n ubyurin adinin."
"They are involved in the promotion of germination and dormancy-breaking in seeds, in regulation of plant height by controlling stem elongation and the control of flowering.","da ttamun g usdus n usmɣy d tṛuẓi n iɣimi g ifsan, d ussuds n walay n imɣayn s tbridt n unbbḍ g usɣzif n uɣamu d unbbḍ g ubuɣlu."
It was so named because it was originally thought to control abscission.,ittuga as yism ad acku ikka ttin ɣaln is inbbḍ g iɛayd.
"Another class of phytohormones is the jasmonates, first isolated from the oil of Jasminum grandiflorum which regulates wound responses in plants by unblocking the expression of genes required in the systemic acquired resistance response to pathogen attack.","yan usmil yaḍn n ihuṛmunn n imɣayn nna igan ijasmunatn, nna ittustayn zwar sg uzatim n jasminum gradifluṛim nna issudusn timrarutin n iɛṭṭibn g imɣayn s umamkn n uṛẓẓum n uwnni xf ijinumn ittuyattrn g tmrarut n tnzbayt tumɛint tangrawt i usugi n umsgnf."
"Non-vascular plants, the liverworts, hornworts and mosses do not produce ground-penetrating vascular roots and most of the plant participates in photosynthesis.","ur da syafun imɣayn ariḥaglutn, tuga n tasa, imɣayn izhqaṛniyn, d wadaln iẓuṛan ihaglutn nna ikccmn g wakal ar itssur d imɣayn yaḍn g tasiɣt n usmdya asiddan."
Cells in each system are capable of creating cells of the other and producing adventitious shoots or roots.,tiɣrasin g ku angraw ẓḍaṛnt ad smuttgnt tiɣrasin sg wayyaḍ d ufars n iɣddiwn nɣd iẓuṛan.
"In the event that one of the systems is lost, the other can often regrow it.","ig idda yan g ingrawn, izmr wayḍ ad tid issgm."
"In vascular plants, the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots.","g imɣayn ayt iḥaglutn, aẓṭṭa n ukccuḍ d ufluwim gan iẓṭṭatn issiwiḍn isugam ingr iɣddiwn d iẓuṛan."
Leaves gather sunlight and carry out photosynthesis.,da smunn wafriwn asidd ar sskarn tasiɣt n usmdya asiddan.
Angiosperms are seed-producing plants that produce flowers and have enclosed seeds.,timɣmas n ifsan gant imɣayn isfarasn ifsan isfarasn ijddign ilin ɣurs ifsan iqqn.
"Some plants reproduce sexually, some asexually, and some via both means.","da ttgadayn kra n imɣayn s tbridt n tuqqut, d kra yaḍn bla tuqqut, d kra yaḍn s tbridin s snat."
Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy.,amsyanaw abyuluji iga talɣa sg talɣatin n umsyanaw amassan.
"While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions along evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so.","g tizi g ur ttmsasan imassan abda xf tmamkt n umsyanaw n imaddarn, tamassant n tukksi tafulant, nna ismrasn asnsl n usmem aɣyayan d arratn nns, isrs kigan n izrayn itrarn g ibrdan n ubuɣlu d iẓḍaṛ ad issudu g uynnaɣ."
"The nomenclature of botanical organisms is codified in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and administered by the International Botanical Congress.","ittuzmmem yism n imaddarn imɣayan g tlgamt tagraɣlant i wassaɣn n wadaln, igwrsln d imɣayn (ICN) ar tt iswuddu ugraw agraɣlan n imɣayn."
"The scientific name of a plant represents its genus and its species within the genus, resulting in a single worldwide name for each organism.","da ismdya yism amassan n umɣay tawsit nns d wanawn nns agwns n twsit, aya ayd yakkan yan ism amaḍlan i ku amaudr."
The combination is the name of the species.,amun ayd igan ism n wanawn.
The evolutionary relationships and heredity of a group of organisms is called its phylogeny.,da ittili yism n imzdayn ibuɣlann d tukksi n trabbut n imaddarn s ubuɣlu nns.
"As an example, species of Pereskia are trees or bushes with prominent leaves.","s umdya, anawn biriskiya gan iskwla nɣd tisklutin id m wafriwn d iffɣn."
"Judging relationships based on shared characters requires care, since plants may resemble one another through convergent evolution in which characters have arisen independently.","da ittiri ibḍi xf imzdayn aṣku xf iwrikn nna mi iman ufrad, acku iẓḍaṛ ad myaɣn imɣayn ingr asn sg ubuɣlu imnmalan nna g gman iwrikn s talɣa istin."
"Only derived characters, such as the spine-producing areoles of cacti, provide evidence for descent from a common ancestor.","tifras tinafuɣin day, zund arizul n ukfil isyafun asnsul n tadawt, da yakka anẓa xf uẓuṛ amazar."
"The difference is that the genetic code itself is used to decide evolutionary relationships, instead of being used indirectly via the characters it gives rise to.","amzaray igat mas d inigl n ajiniy s ixf nns da ittusmras g izdayn ibuɣlutn, g udɣar n usmrs nns s umamk arusrid sg tfrisin nna d digs ittuskarn."
Genetic evidence suggests that the true evolutionary relationship of multicelled organisms is as shown in the cladogram below – fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.,da ttinin wanẓiwn ijiniyn mas d azday abuɣlan adttan n imaddarn ayt kigan n tɣrast imki nna ittusfra g twnaɣt kladugram izdar – igwrsln zdin yan uzday idusn s imudar uggar n uzday nnsn s imɣayn.
Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants.,arzzu g umamk n umzday n wanawn n imɣayn ingr asn da ittadja imassan n imɣayn ad rmsn tasiɣt n ubuɣlu g imɣayn s umamk yufn.
"Although humans have always been interested in the natural history of the animals they saw around them, and made use of this knowledge to domesticate certain species, the formal study of zoology can be said to have originated with Aristotle.","mqqar ifrar ufgan s umzruy agaman n imudar nna asn ittin, smrsn tussna ad afad lqqmn kra n wanawn, iɣy ad nini mas d taɣuri tamaddudt n tmassant n imudr tgma d sg aṛiṣṭu."
"Modern zoology has its origins during the Renaissance and early modern period, with Carl Linnaeus, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Robert Hooke, Charles Darwin, Gregor Mendel and many others.","da ttuɣuln iẓuṛan n tmassant n umudr tatrart s uzmz n tgmi d tizwuri n uzmz atrar, d kaṛl linyus, antuni fan lyuwinhuk, ṛubirt huk, caṛls darwin, juṛj mandil d kigan yaḍn."
"There are cave paintings, engravings and sculptures in France dating back 15,000 years showing bison, horses and deer in carefully rendered detail.","llant tfilin n ifran d tgzzayin d tuddisin g fṛansa nna mi yaɣul umzruy nns s 15,000 n usggwas ar tsnkad ibisunn d iysan d tmlalin s tfrisin ifrurin."
"Ancient knowledge of wildlife is illustrated by the realistic depictions of wild and domestic animals in the Near East, Mesopotamia and Egypt, including husbandry practices and techniques, hunting and fishing.","ttusumn tussna tazaykut s tudrt tanakalt s tbridt n twlafin tinilawin i imudar inakaln d inmyarn g unqqar, tmurt n gr sin isaffn d miṣṛ, g llant tmskarin d ttiqniyin n ussgmi, d tgmrt d tgmrt n islman."
"Aristotle, in the fourth century BC, looked at animals as living organisms, studying their structure, development and vital phenomena.","da isksiw aṛiṣṭu g tasut tis kkuẓ dat tlalit, imudar is gan imaddarn, iɣr tuṣkiwt nnsn d ubuɣlu nns d tumanin nns timssrfutin."
"Four hundred years later, Roman physician Galen dissected animals to study their anatomy and the function of the different parts, because the dissection of human cadavers was prohibited at the time.","dffir n kkuẓ n timmaḍ n isggwasn, ifli umsgnf aṛumaniy galinus imudar afad iɣr iflayn nnsn d tazzult n igmamn imzarayn, acku aflay n imttin n ufgan ur yamu g tizi nna."
"In Europe, Galen's work on anatomy remained largely unsurpassed and unchallenged up until the 16th century.","g uṛubba, tqqima twuri n galinus g tmassant n uflay ur illi am ntta d mayd tt izwarn ar tasut tis 16."
"Having previously been the realm of gentlemen naturalists, over the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline.","dffir g iga igr n id mass imassann n tgama, tizi n tasutin 18, 19 d 20, tga tmassant n umudr taẓlayt tamassant tazzulant s talɣa yulin."
"These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in the 1859 publication of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection; in this Darwin placed the theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by explaining the processes by which it can occur, and providing observational evidence that it had done so.","ttusmunn ibuɣlutn ad, d tyafutin n tmassant n warraw d tɣuziwin, g umagraḍ 1859 n tiẓiṛt n ubuɣlu s tbridt n ustay agaman n tcarlz darwin; g manaya isrd darwin tiẓiṛt n ubuɣlu agmaman xf tsila tamaynut, s umamk n ussfru n tasiɣin nna iɣin ad ijṛu, d usnkd n wanẓatn n ujṛṛu nnsn."
"Darwin gave a new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a common biological theory: the theory of organic evolution.","ifka darwin yan umnad amaynu i usnay d tmassant n tazzulin n igmamn, s tbridt n usmun nnsnt g yat tiẓiṛt tabyulujit issarn: tiẓiṛt n ubuɣlu agmaman."
"An early necessity was to identify the organisms and group them according to their characteristics, differences and relationships, and this is the field of the taxonomist.","iga usuɣn amzwaru astay n imaddarn d usmun nnsn nil tmẓlayin nnsn d imzarayn nnsn d izdayn nnsn, wad ayd igan igr n imẓlayn n umyanaw."
His ideas were centered on the morphology of animals.,uddant twngimin nns xf tmurfulujit n imudar.
These groupings have since been revised to improve consistency with the Darwinian principle of common descent.,ittuzray xf trubba ad sg tizi nnaɣ afad isɣudu amsasa ingr umnzay n darwin n uẓuṛ amssur.
"Homo is the genus, and sapiens the specific epithet, both of them combined make up the species name.","afgan ayd igan tawsit, asabyan d afris iẓlin, s sin nnsn ig mann da tggan ism n wanaw."
The dominant classification system is called the Linnaean taxonomy.,angraw amsyanaw irnan ism nns amsyanaw n liniyn.
Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences.,armas n tuskiwt n tɣrasin d tazzulin nnsnt iga yat tɣawsa tadslant i kullu timassanin tibyulujin.
"It focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently.","da ittadd xf tmamkt n uswuri n igmamn d ingrawn n igmamn akkw g tfggiwin n ufgan d imudar, d tmamkt n uswuri nnsn s talɣa istin."
"Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied.","ttubḍant tɣuriwin tifizyulujin s tmamkt tabldit s tfizyulujit n imɣayn d tmassant n tazzulin n igmamn n imudar, maca kra n imnzayn n tmassant n tazzulin n igmamn gan imaḍlann, bla amaddar nna xf ttuga tɣuri."
"For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, herpetology, or entomology, but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution.","s umdya, yumẓ imassann ittusmuttgn iẓlin s kra n imaddarn zund tamassant n tmẓẓagin nɣd tamassant n igḍaḍ nɣd tamassant n imḥrurdn nɣd tamassant n ibuxxa, maca da smrasn imaddarn nna zund ingrawn i tmrarut xf isqqsitn imatuyn xf ubuɣlu."
Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the evolution of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of natural selection.,da ttntayn imassann n tkli s uẓlay s ubuɣlu n tkli d urmas n tkli sg tiẓiṛt n ustay agaman.
"While researchers practice techniques specific to molecular biology, it is common to combine these with methods from genetics and biochemistry.","g tizi g sskarn imrza titiqniyin iẓlin s tbyulujit tafulant, ittwassn is da ttusmunnt d tbridin sg tmassant n tukksi d tcimiyt tamssrfut."
"Biological systematics is the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time.","tangrawant tabyulujit tga taɣuri n umyanaw n talɣatin n tudrt, g umzruy d dɣi, d izdayn ingr imaddarn xf wakud."
"Phylogenetic trees of species and higher taxa are used to study the evolution of traits (e.g., anatomical or molecular characteristics) and the distribution of organisms (biogeography).","da ttusmrasnt tskwla n iɣsan sg wanawn d imyanawn yattuyn g tɣuri n ubuɣlu n tfrisin (s umdya, tiẓlayin tinflayin nɣd tifulanin) d ubṭṭu n imaddarn (tajuɣrafiyt tassrfunt)."
Biological systematics classifies species by using three specific branches.,da smyanawnt tngrawanin tibyulujin anawn s usmrs n kṛaḍ wayyawn iẓlin.
"Experimental systematics identifies and classifies animals based on the evolutionary units that comprise a species, as well as their importance in evolution itself.","da tstti tmngrawt tanaramt ar tsmyanaw imudar s tuṣkiwt xf tgzzumin n ubuɣlu nna g ttusnayn wanawn, d ustawhmma nns g ubuɣlu."
Explaining the biodiversity of the planet and its organisms.,issfra amyanaw abyuluji n wakal d imaddarn digs illan.
Taxonomy is that part of Systematics concerned with topics (a) to (d) above.,iga usmyanaw yat tafult sg tnagrawt igan win imrsitn ad n uflla (a) ar (d).
"However, in modern usage, they can all be considered synonyms of each other.","mqqar, g usmrs atrar, iɣy ad tn ng kullu d ikniwn n ingr asn."
"Some claim systematics alone deals specifically with relationships through time, and that it can be synonymous with phylogenetics, broadly dealing with the inferred hierarchy of organisms.","da ttinin idsn mas d tamassant n tɣalin da ttsmkal s talɣa iẓlin d izdayn g tizi, d iɣy ad ig akniw n tmassant n tukksi, ar ttmskal g wansa abaraw d usnsl azamug amsyafu i imaddarn."
Scientific classifications are aids in recording and reporting information to other scientists and to laymen.,"da ttawsn imsyanawn imassa, g uzmmem n inɣmisn d ussiwḍ nnsn i imassan yaḍn d inamurn unziln."
"In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity.","g tmassant n imaddarn, anaw iga tagzzumt tadslant n usmyanaw d tskwflt n tamsyanawt n umaddar, d tgzzumt n wanaw abyuluji."
"In addition, paleontologists use the concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined.","bla ayann, da smrasn imassan n tɣuziwin armmus n kṛunusbis g ur illi uzzray xf uggady amaɣaz."
"""All species (except viruses) are given a two-part name, a """"binomial"""".""","""da ttugun ismawn i wanawn kullu (bla ifirusn) s yism sg snat tafulin, """"m sin yirawn""""."""
"For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the genus Boa, with constrictor being the species's epithet.","s umdya, bwa kunstriktur iga yan sg kkuẓ n wanawn n tawsit n bwa, d umsbuttl igat wassaɣ n anaw."
"Also, among organisms that reproduce only asexually, the concept of a reproductive species breaks down, and each clone is potentially a microspecies.","awd, ingr imaddarn ittgadayn bla tawsit, da iṭṭar urmmus n wanaw amaqqu, d iɣy ad ig ku amnɣal anaw amikruskubbiy."
"Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed categories that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being.",da ttuẓṛan wanawn sg uzmz n aṛiṣṭu ar tasut tis 18 is gan ismiln izzgan iɣin ad ittusuds g usnsl azamu asnsl n yili amqqran.
That understanding was greatly extended in the 20th century through genetics and population ecology.,ittufsar urmas ad s alɣa tamqqrant g tasut tis 20 s tbridt n tmassant n tukksi d twnnaḍt n imzdaɣ.
"Ernst Mayr emphasised reproductive isolation, but this, like other species concepts, is hard or even impossible to test.","iṛnist mayṛ yudda xf uẓlay n tarwa, zund irmmusn n wanawn yaḍn, icqqa nɣd ur sar ittyaram."
"""This method was used as a """"classical"""" method of determining species, such as with Linnaeus early in evolutionary theory.""","""ttusmras tmamkt ad zund tamamkt """"taklasikiyt"""" i uẓlay n wanawn, am ɣur linaws g yat tizi zikk g tiẓiṛt n ubu""lu."""
"As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that kinds of Bacteria or Archaea with 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by DNA-DNA hybridisation to decide if they belong to the same species or not.","d alugn amatuy, ɣaln imassan n imaddarn usdidn is d anawn n tbaktirt n tarcyatt g illa usnsl ajini RNA aṛibuzumi 16S myaɣn uggar n 97% d ingratsn da ttirin ad ɣisn zzrin s tbridt n ulqqm n DNA-DNA afad ittustay is gant sg yan wanaw mad uhu."
Modern approaches compare sequence similarity using computational methods.,da smzazzalnt tɣarasin titrarin amyaɣ n usnsl s usmrs n tbridin timaṭṭunin.
"A database, Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD), contains DNA barcode sequences from over 190,000 species.","g tsila n isfka, baṛkud uf layf data sistim (BOLD), llan isnsln n baṛkud n DNA i uggar n 190,000 n wnaw."
"For example, in a study done on fungi, studying the nucleotide characters using cladistic species produced the most accurate results in recognising the numerous fungi species of all the concepts studied.","s umdya, g yat tɣuri ittuskarn xf igwrsln, tuwi tɣuri n tẓlayin n iniklyutidn s usmrs n wanawn ikladistikn s tyafutin timnɣudin g tussna n wanawn n igrsln iggutn i kullu irmmusn nna xf ttuga tɣuri."
"""Yet others defend this approach, considering """"taxonomic inflation"""" pejorative and labelling the opposing view as """"taxonomic conservatism""""; claiming it is politically expedient to split species and recognise smaller populations at the species level, because this means they can more easily be included as endangered in the IUCN red list and can attract conservation legislation and funding.""","""mqqar, da ttraran wiyyaḍ xf tɣarast ad, ar ttinin mas d """"abzzug amsyanaw"""" ur iḥli ar snummuln tannayt igan mgal nnsn is tga """"tasḥḍawt tamsyanawt""""; s tmsntilt n is d yusa g tsrtit ubṭṭu n wanawn d tussna n trubba yaḍn timẓẓyanin g wanawn, acku ɣaln is ɣin ad tn skcmn g winna iḥḍaṛn ad yacck g talgamt tazggwaɣt n umun agraɣlan n uḥṭṭu n twnnaḍt d iɣy ad tldi izrfan n uḥṭṭu d ussẓṛf."""
"If scientists mean that something applies to all species within a genus, they use the genus name without the specific name or epithet.","ig nnan imassan mas d kra da d ittasa d kullu anawn agwns n twsit, hat da smrasn tawsit bla ism nɣd tanqqubt istin."
"As further information comes to hand, the hypothesis may be corroborated or refuted.","s yili n kigan n inɣmisn, iɣy ad ttuyaws turda nɣd ad ttyagi."
"Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxa is called splitting.","abṭṭu n umyanaw s tmyanawin iggudn, nna itggan timaynutin s umata, ism nns abṭṭu."
The term quasispecies is sometimes used for rapidly mutating entities like viruses.,kra n tikkal da ittusmras urmmus n kazisbbis afad isnɛat s imaddarn ittusnfaln fisaɛ zund ifirusn.
"In ring species, when members of adjacent populations in a widely continuous distribution range interbreed successfully but members of more distant populations do not.","g wanawn ixṛṣann, ig da ttmyawaln ifridn n trubba n ṭṭrf g wansa n ubṭṭu izdin g wansa abaraw s umurs maca igmamn n trubba iɛrqqn ur da ttmyawaln."
Ring species thus present a difficulty for any species concept that relies on reproductive isolation.,s manaya anawn ixṛṣann tcqqa xf ku armmus isnndn xf uẓlay n tarwa.
"Speciation depends on a measure of reproductive isolation, a reduced gene flow.","yugl umyanaw xf tmsɣalt n uẓlay n tarwa, d wuguz n wufuɣ n ijinumn."
"Bacteria can exchange plasmids with bacteria of other species, including some apparently distantly related ones in different phylogenetic domains, making analysis of their relationships difficult, and weakening the concept of a bacterial species.","tɣi tbaktirt ad tmrara ablasmid nttat d tbaktirt sg wanawn yaḍn, nna g llan wanawn izdin igran imzarayn n tgmi d ubuɣlu, aya da ittadja asfsi n izdayn nnsnt icqqa, ar ittdrus urmmus n wanawn ibaktiriyn."
"Mass extinctions had a variety of causes including volcanic activity, climate change, and changes in oceanic and atmospheric chemistry, and they in turn had major effects on Earth's ecology, atmosphere, land surface and waters.","iga yiccki amgru kigan n tmntilin imzarayn g yamu ussrfu abuṛkaniy d usnfl g unzwi d isnfln g tcimiyt n illn d taɣrift n waṭmusfiṛ, nna mu ɣur illa yiḍiṣn iggudn xf twnnaḍt n wakal d tɣarift n waṭmusfiṛ d uzur n wakal d waman."
Some observers claim that there is an inherent conflict between the desire to understand the processes of speciation and the need to identify and to categorise.,da ttinin kra n imiẓṛitn mas illa yan umlaqay aẓuṛan yiri n urmmus n tsiɣin n umyanaw d wassar n ustay d usmyanaw.
One of the classic cases in North America is that of the protected northern spotted owl which hybridises with the unprotected California spotted owl and the barred owl; this has led to legal debates.,yan g waddadn iklasikiyn g mirikan n iẓlmḍ igat waddad n tanuḥt tamṛqqṭ n iẓlmḍ ittuḥḍan nna ittulqqmn d tanuḥt tamṛqqṭ n kalifuṛnya ur ittuḥḍan d tanuḥt taẓṛaṛt; aya iskr uyad imraratn n wawal g uzrf.
"A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, the young inheriting any variations they might have from their parents.","ittuẓlay uzurt s wumu nns sg kullu igmamn nns, kkusn iɛrrimn imzarayn nna rad akw yili ɣursn sg imarawn nnsn."
He established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.,isskr tawngimt n usnsl azamug amsyanaw xf tsila n tẓlayin nna iɣin ad ittuẓṛa d uwttas nns mgal n izdayn igamann.
"Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in a radical departure from Aristotelian thinking.","isnumml jan babtist lamaṛk, g tflsuft nns g tmassant n umudr asggwas n 1809, asnfl n wanawn, isumr mas d kra n wanaw iɣy ad ittusnfl d tizi, g wufuɣ aẓuṛan xf uswingm n aṛiṣṭu."
Genus (plural genera) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses.,tawsit (amagut tawsitin) iga tas!kflt tamsyanawt ittusmrasn g usmyanaw abyuluji n imaddarn d imuɣaz d awd ifirusn.
E.g. Panthera leo (lion) and Panthera onca (jaguar) are two species within the genus Panthera.,s umdya bantiṛa lyu (izm) d bantiṛa unka (aksil) gan sin wanawn agwns n wanaw n bantiṛa.
"A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus, a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii.","sg imdyatn n imɣayn hibiskus aṛnutyanus, nna igan yan wanaw n twsit n buyisk mi tga tamurt nns haway."
"""Available names are those published in accordance with the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and not otherwise suppressed by subsequent decisions of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN); the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the """"valid"""" (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question.""","""ismawn illan gan tn winna ittufsarn nil tlgamt tagraɣlant n irmmusn n tmassant n umudr nna ur ittyakksn s kra n talɣa yaḍn s tbridt n tɣtasin d iddan sg tsqqamut tagraɣlant i yism n umudr (ICZN); d yism amzwaru n ku amsnaway (s umdya, tawsit) ixssa ad ittustay d ism """"isɣznn"""" (nɣd, win dɣi nɣd ittura) i umyanaw nna."""
"In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels.","g tmassant n imɣayn, llan irmmusn yaksuln maca s ismawn imzarayn."
"However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera.","mqqar, ttuẓlayn kigan n yismawn (kra n tikkal bla amxas) s snat twisin imzarayn nɣd uggar."
A name that means two different things is a homonym.,ism nna mi iga unamk snat tɣawsiwin imzarayn iga akniw.
"However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code.","mqqar, da ttadjan tawsit g kra n tgldit ad tasi ism amassan ittusmrasn d ism amatay (nɣd ism amsyanaw g tskwflt yaḍn) g tgldit g innbḍ inigl n yism imzarayn."
"For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles, which have about 1180 genera, the most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species.","s umdya, sg imḥrurdn (ur igi igḍaḍ), nna g llan wattayn n 1180 n twsit, kigan digsn (>300) digs 1 wanaw day, ~360 digs ingr n 2 d 4 n wanawn, 260 digs 5–10 n wanawn, ~200 digsn 11–50 n wanawn, d 27 n twsit digs uggar n 50 n wanaw."
Which species are assigned to a genus is somewhat arbitrary.,matta wanawn nna ittuẓlayn i tawsit iga cwiy yat tɣawsa n uhttf.
What belongs to a family—or if a described family should be recognized at all—are proposed and determined by practicing taxonomists.,aynna illan g yat tawja—nɣd txssa tussna n yat tawja ittusnummln ɣur kullu—ad ittusumr ittustay sg imuzan n umsyanaw imskarn.
"Often there is no exact agreement, with different taxonomists each taking a different position.","g kigan n tikkal ur illi umsasa amnɣud, mqqar llan imuzayn imzarayn n umsyanaw da ittamz ku yan digsn ansa ixulfn."
Michael Novacek (1986) inserted them at the same position.,iskcmtn maykl nufask (1986) g yan wansa.
"There are no objective rules for describing a class, but for well-known animals there is likely to be consensus.","ur llin kra n ilugnn imsɣarutn i usnumml n usmil, maca g tsga n imaddarn ittwassn, iɣy ad yili umsasa."
"In botany, classes are now rarely discussed.","g tmassant n imɣayn, idrus umrara n wawal xf iswirn inmlann."
"Informally, phyla can be thought of as groupings of organisms based on general specialization of body plan.","s talɣa tar tamaddudt, iɣy ad tg tzuni tirubba n imaddarn s tuṣkiwt n tẓlayt tamatayt n twnaɣt n tfgga."
So phyla can be merged or split if it becomes apparent that they are related to one another or not.,s manaya nɣy ad nskcm tazuni nɣ tt tbḍa ig nsfaw is zdint ingr asnt nɣd uhu.
"By Budd and Jensen's definition, a phylum is defined by a set of characters shared by all its living representatives.","sg usnkd n bud d junsns, da ttusnkad tzuni sg trabbut n iwrikn nna ssarn kullu ismdyatn nns imaddarn."
"However, as it is character based, it is easy to apply to the fossil record.","mqqar, iddɣ da itsnnad xf uwrik, iwhn usnis nns xf warra amaɣuz."
"However, proving that a fossil belongs to the crown group of a phylum is difficult, as it must display a character unique to a sub-set of the crown group.","mqqar, tcqqa tilawt n is tga tmaɣuzt sg trabbut n ufilum, g iqqan ad ittufsar uwrik istawhmman n trabbut tayyawt sg trabbut n ufilum."
"""The table below follows the influential (though contentious) Cavalier-Smith system in equating """"Plantae"""" with Archaeplastida, a group containing Viridiplantae and the algal Rhodophyta and Glaucophyta divisions.""","""aɣawas n yizdar iḍfaṛ anagraw amaḍuṣ (mqqar digs mayd ittwanan) n kafalyi-smit g ussiksl n """"blanta"""" d arcablastida, nna igan tarabbut g illa firidiblanta d snat tuṭṭutin n ruḍufita d glukufita."""
"The division Pinophyta may be used for all gymnosperms (i.e. including cycads, ginkgos and gnetophytes), or for conifers alone as below.","iɣy ad nsmrs abṭṭu n binufita i kullu m ifsan aruntiln (nɣd tinna g alun isikadsn, ginkgus d gnitufits), nɣd i tḥdrin ɣas nitnti s umamk ad."
"Protista is a polyphyletic taxon, which is less acceptable to present-day biologists than in the past.","iga bṛutista yan umsyanaw mi ggusin inbbaḍn, ur dat ttirin imassan n tmaddart g tizi ad am lli zwar."
"Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) laid the foundations for modern biological nomenclature, now regulated by the Nomenclature Codes, in 1735.","isrs kaṛl linyus (1707–1778) tasilin n wassaɣ abyuluji atrar, nna ssudusn dɣi izrfan n wassaɣ, asggwas n 1735."
"""In 1937 Édouard Chatton introduced the terms """"prokaryote"""" and """"eukaryote"""" to differentiate these organisms.""","""g usggwas n 1937, isnkd idward tcatun sin irmmusn """"m iɣyayn iqburn"""" d """"m iɣyayn idttan"""" g usmzaray ingr imaddarn ad."""
Robert Whittaker recognized an additional kingdom for the Fungi.,iqrra ṛubirt witakṛ s tgldit yaḍn n igwrsln.
"The remaining two kingdoms, Protista and Monera, included unicellular and simple cellular colonies.","tiglditin s snat nna d iqqiman, bṛutista d muniṛa, digsnt insdurruyn iɣrasann id m yat tɣrast tafrart."
"In other systems, such as Lynn Margulis's system of five kingdoms, the plants included just the land plants (Embryophyta), and Protoctista has a broader definition.","g ingrawn yaḍn, zund angraw n lyn maṛgulis g llant smmus n tglditin, illa g imɣayn ɣas imɣayn ikalann (umbṛyufita), d bṛutuktista ɣurs asnkd abaraw."
Technological advances in electron microscopy allowed the separation of the Chromista from the Plantae kingdom.,udjan ibuɣlutn itiknulujiyn g umssmɣur iliktṛuniy s watig n ukṛumista sg tgldit n blantay.
"Finally, some protists lacking mitochondria were discovered.","g tgira, ttyafan kran i ibṛutistn id war amitukundri."
"This superkingdom was opposed to the Metakaryota superkingdom, grouping together the five other eukaryotic kingdoms (Animalia, Protozoa, Fungi, Plantae and Chromista).","tagldit ad tga mgal n tgldit n mitakaṛyuta, iddɣ tsmun tiglidin yaḍn d dmmus m uɣyay adttan (animalya, bṛutuzwa, fungi, blanta d kcrumista)."
Cavalier-Smith no longer accepted the importance of the fundamental Eubacteria–Archaebacteria divide put forward by Woese and others and supported by recent research.,ur da yad ittiri kafalyir-smit astawhmma n ubṭṭu adslan n tbaktirt ubactirya–arcaybaktirya nna isrs wuyzi d wittaḍ s tiwsi n irzzutn itrarn.
"""Cavalier-Smith does not accept the requirement for taxa to be monophyletic (""""holophyletic"""" in his terminology) to be valid.""","""ur da ittiri kafalyir-smitt acraḍ ad ig umsyanaw bu yan wanaw (""""hulufiltik"""" g irmmusn nns) afad ittusɣzn."""
"The advances of phylogenetic studies allowed Cavalier-Smith to realize that all the phyla thought to be archezoans (i.e. primitively amitochondriate eukaryotes) had in fact secondarily lost their mitochondria, typically by transforming them into new organelles: Hydrogenosomes.","udjan ibuɣlutn g tɣuriwin n tmassant n tukksi n kafalyir-smitt ad ttwassnt kullu tzunin nna s nɣal is gant sg imaddarn imnɣudn (nɣd m iɣyayn idttan imitukundritn) tdda as tmitukundrit g tilawt s talɣa tasinant, s umyur s usnfl nns s tgmamin timaynutin: hidṛujinusums."
"""Based on such RNA studies, Carl Woese thought life could be divided into three large divisions and referred to them as the """"three primary kingdom"""" model or """"urkingdom"""" model.""","s tuṣkiwt xf tɣuriwin n usmem aribiy RNA, iɣal kaṛl wuẓ is nɣy ad nbḍu tudrt xf kṛaḍt tzuniwin timqqranin nna iga d azurt, """"kṛaḍt tglditin tidslanin"""" nɣd azurt """"tagldit n tɣrma""""."""
"Woese divided the prokaryotes (previously classified as the Kingdom Monera) into two groups, called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria, stressing that there was as much genetic difference between these two groups as between either of them and all eukaryotes.","ibḍa wuẓ id m uɣyay aqqbur (nna ittusmyanawn zwar s yism n tgldit n muniṛa) xf snat trubba, ism awn nnsnt ubaktirya d arcaybaktirya, isddid is illa umziray g tukksi ingr snat trubba ad mkinna iga waddad ingr asnt d kullu id m uɣyay adttan."
"""They held that only monophyletic groups should be accepted as formal ranks in a classification and that – while this approach had been impractical previously (necessitating """"literally dozens of eukaryotic 'kingdoms) – it had now become possible to divide the eukaryotes into """"just a few major groups that are probably all monophyletic"""".""","""ẓṛan mas ixssa uzzurg n trubba id m yat tɣrast day ad gnt tiskwfal timaddadin g umsyanaw d– g ubrid ad ur igi amskar zwar (issuɣn """"id mraw n tglditin id m iɣyayn idttan) – iɣy dɣi ad ttubḍu id m iɣyayn idttan s """"yan umḍan idrusn n trubba tidslanin nna iɣin ad ig kullu m yan uklu""""."""
"""It divided the eukaryotes into the same six """"supergroups"""".""","""ttubḍant id m uɣyay adttan s zund ṣḍiṣ n """"trubba timqqranin""""."""
Plants are thought to be more distantly related to animals and fungi.,ɣaln id imɣayn ayd izdin uggar s imaddarn d igwrsln.
The ten arguments against include the fact that they are obligate intracellular parasites that lack metabolism and are not capable of replication outside of a host cell.,lan wanẓatn s mraw mgal nns tidtt n wis tga tin ibaṛaẓitn agwns n tɣrasin nna ɣur assar s usmdya amatcan d ur tɣiy ad ttgidiy agwns n tɣrast isnbgin.
"The first two are all prokaryotic microorganisms, or mostly single-celled organisms whose cells have a distorted or non-membrane bound nucleus.","amzwaru d wis sin gan imaddarn usdidn ayt uɣyay aqqbur, nɣd s umata imaddarn ayt yat tɣrast miifrɣ uɣyay n tɣrasin nns nɣd ur zdiynt d tɣarift."
"Halophiles, organisms that thrive in highly salty environments, and hyperthermophiles, organisms that thrive in extremely hot environments, are examples of Archaea.","imɣayn n uhalufil, d imaddarn nna ittbuɣlun g twnnaḍin imarɣn kigan, d imaddar irɣan kigan, d imaddarn nna ittbuɣlun g twnnaḍin irɣan kigan, gan imdyatn n arcya."
Cyanobacteria and mycoplasmas are two examples of bacteria.,tga tbaktirt tajnjaliyt d umikublazma sin imdyatn n tbaktirt.
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.,abuɣlu iga asnfl g tẓlayin ittukkusn i trubba tibyulujin g tsutiwin immḍfarn.
"Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection (including sexual selection) and genetic drift act on this variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more common or rare within a population.","da ittjṛu ubuɣlu g tizi g swurint tsiɣin tibuɣlanin zund astay agaman (g illa ustay n twsit) d ufrruɣ ajiniy xf umzaray ad, aya ayd ittawin ad ttwassannt kra n tẓlayin nɣd drusnt agwns n imzdaɣ."
The scientific theory of evolution by natural selection was conceived independently by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the mid-19th century and was set out in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species.,ttusras tiẓiṛt tamassant n ubuɣlu s tbridt n ustay agaman s talɣa tasimant sg ɣur tcaṛlz darwin d alfrid ṛasl d alaṣ g uzgn n tasut tis 19 d ttusfrunt s ufruri g udlis n darwin n uẓuṛ n wanawn.
"Thus, in successive generations members of a population are more likely to be replaced by the progenies of parents with favourable characteristics that have enabled them to survive and reproduce in their respective environments.","s manaya, g tsutiwin imḍfaṛn, iɣy ad ttusmraran ifridn sg umun s imzwura n imarawn s tẓlayin d yusan nna tn yudjan ad qqimn ggadin g twnnaḍin nnasn."
"The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, to fossilised multicellular organisms.","arra amaɣuz digs abuɣlu sg ugrafit amssrfu n zikk, s tɣuziwin n umssu amikrubiy, s imaddarn imaɣuzn id bu kigan n tɣrasin."
It sought explanations of natural phenomena in terms of physical laws that were the same for all visible things and that did not require the existence of any fixed natural categories or divine cosmic order.,irza issfrutn n tumanin tigamanin sg tsga n izrfan ifizikn nna yad illan i kullu tiɣawsiwin ittuẓṛan nna ur ittirin ili n awd yan usmyanaw agaman izgan nɣd angraw aṛbbaniy.
"The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognised the hierarchical nature of species relationships, but still viewed species as fixed according to a divine plan.","iqrra usmyanaw abyuluji nna isnkd kaṛl linyus g usggwas n 1735 s ugama n azamug n izdayn n wanawn, maca suln wanawn da ttuẓṛan is zgan s yiri n ṛbbi."
These ideas were condemned by established naturalists as speculation lacking empirical support.,ttunkaḍn iwngimn ad sg ɣur imassan n ugama iddɣ ur lin tanalit tanaramt.
"""Partly influenced by An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) by Thomas Robert Malthus, Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a """"struggle for existence"""" in which favourable variations prevailed as others perished.""","""ittuḍaṣ cwiyy s umagraḍ xf umnẓay n imzdaɣ (1798) n tumas ṛubirt maltus, isnɛt darwin mas d tamrniwt n imzdaɣ qad yawi s """"imnɣi xf yili"""" g rnan imzarayn umnign g tizi g mmutn wiyyaḍ."""
"""Darwin developed his theory of """"natural selection"""" from 1838 onwards and was writing up his """"big book"""" on the subject when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858.""","""isbuɣla darwin tiẓiṛt nns xf """"ustay agaman"""" sg usggwas n 1838 s aflla d ar itturu """"adlis nns amqqran"""" xf usgum ad llig as yuzn alfrid ṛasl walas yat tunɣilt yaɣn g tiẓiṛt nna asggwas n 1858."""
"Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of pangenesis.","bac ann yawḍ awttas ad, isbuɣla darwin tiẓiṛt nns ur imaṭln xf usnay aɣzuran."
"To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries.","afad ttusfru tmamkt n yili n isnfln imaynutn, isbuɣla difris tiẓiṛt n usnfl nna yuwin ɣr yan umxalaf ur imaṭln ingr winna iran abuɣlu adarwiniy d imassan n isɣaln imssrfutn nna imann d difris."
The publication of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick with contribution of Rosalind Franklin in 1953 demonstrated a physical mechanism for inheritance.,afsar n tuṣkiwt n usmem n aɣyayan issufɣd s tbridt n jims watsun d fṛansis krik d ufrru n ṛuzalind fṛanklin g usggwas n 1953 yan wammak afizikiy n tukksi.
"""In 1973, evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky penned that """"nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution,"""" because it has brought to light the relations of what first seemed disjointed facts in natural history into a coherent explanatory body of knowledge that describes and predicts many observable facts about life on this planet.""","""g usggwas n 1973, yura umassan n imaddarn abuɣlan tyudusyus dubzanski mas d """"awd ḥaḥ g tmassant n imaddarn ur igi amẓlan ɣas g usidd n ubuɣlu,"""" acku issudda xf uynna nẓṛṛa tikklt izwarn is iga tidtt ifrurin g umzruy agaman g yat talɣa tamssfrut imyamaẓn n tussna ar isnummul ar issfal s kigan n tidttin nna nɣy ad nẓṛ tssutli tudrt xf wakal."""
The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism is called its phenotype.,tarabbut ismdn n tfras nna nɣiy ad nẓṛ d tinna isnayn tuṣkiwt d tkli n umaddar ism nns afinutib.
"For example, suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children.","sumdya, da d itddu yilm amzunzl sg umyaɣ ingr usnay n tukksi n uwrik d usidd n tafukt; s manaya, ur da ittmuttuy uznzl s warraw n middn."
DNA is a long biopolymer composed of four types of bases.,asmem aɣyayan iga yan ubyubulimr aɣzzaf ittusnayn sg kkuẓ n wanawn n tsilin.
Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes; different genes have different sequences of bases.,ism n tifulin n sin iqcran n DNA nna istayn yat tagzzumt tazzulant n ijinumn; ijinumn imzarayn ɣursn isnsln imzarayn n tsilin.
"If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles.","ig imzaray usnsl n usmem aɣyayan g kra n wansa ingr ifridn, hat talɣatin imzrayn n usnsl ad ism nnsnt iḥaliln."
"However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by quantitative trait loci (multiple interacting genes).","mqqar, mk da iswuri umsasa ad afrar ingr uḥalil d tfrst g kra n waddadn, hat kigan n tfras mmurksnt kigan ar diksnt ittubaḍ s tbridt n wansatn n tfras tismktayin (ijinumn iggutn imyaɣn)."
"DNA methylation marking chromatin, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by RNA interference and the three-dimensional conformation of proteins (such as prions) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level.","tamitilt n DNA nna s ittwassn ukṛumatin, tixrsin n umitabulizm n unhlla animan, asfst n ijunumn s tbridt n RNA d usnay n umnad amkṛaḍ n ibṛutinn (zund ibryunn) gan ansatn nna g ttyafan ingrawn n tukksi tarajiniyt g ugmam."
"For example, ecological inheritance through the process of niche construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment.","s umdya, da ittustay ukkus awnnaḍ s tbridt n tuṣkiwt n wansa s tbridt n tilal ittusudsn ittyalsn n imaddarn g twnnaḍt nns."
"Despite the constant introduction of new variation through mutation and gene flow, most of the genome of a species is identical in all individuals of that species.","mqqar illa uskcm izdin n umyanaw amaynu s tbridt n isnfln d unɣal n ijinumn, hat amata g ujinum n wanaw yaksul g ifridn kullu n wanaw ad."
A substantial part of the phenotypic variation in a population is caused by genotypic variation.,tafult taxatart sg umzaray anafaw g imzdaɣ iga tayafut n umzaray n tukksi.
Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of fixation—when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely.,amzaray da ittacka iɣ nn ilkm uḥalil amaynu s tnqqiḍt n uszzgu—ig yucka sg umun nɣ iḍṛ g wansa kullu n uḥalil n imzwura.
"When mutations occur, they may alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning, or have no effect.","ig jṛan isnfln, ɣint ad snflnt tayafut n ujinum, nɣ tsbdda ajinum xf twuri, nɣ as ur illi yiḍiṣ."
Extra copies of genes are a major source of the raw material needed for new genes to evolve.,gant tnɣalin yaḍn n ijinumn asagm adslan n tmtta tamsarit tamsuɣnt i ubuɣlu n ijinumn imaynutn.
New genes can be generated from an ancestral gene when a duplicate copy mutates and acquires a new function.,nɣy ad nssirw ijinumn imaynutn sg ujinum n imzwura ig ttusnfl tunɣilt ittuyalsn tasi tazzult tamaynut.
"The generation of new genes can also involve small parts of several genes being duplicated, with these fragments then recombining to form new combinations with new functions.","iɣy ad yamẓ awd ussirw n ijinumn imaynutn allas n tfulin timẓẓyanin n kra n ijinumn, d wallas n usmun n tafulin ad afad ttusnaynt talɣatin timaynutin s tazzulin timaynutin."
"Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies, but instead change which alleles are associated with each other, producing offspring with new combinations of alleles.","allas n usnay d wallas n usmyanaw ur da snfaln isnagarn n iḥaliln, maca da snfaln g wansa nns iḥaliln immzdayn ing asn, aya ayd yakkan tasuta s trubba timaynutin n iḥaliln."
The first cost is that in sexually dimorphic species only one of the two sexes can bear young.,"atig amzwaru igat mas d anawn ayt snat talɣatin tawsitin, tɣy yat day sg twsitin ad yasy imẓẓann."
Yet sexual reproduction is the more common means of reproduction among eukaryotes and multicellular organisms.,"mqqar, hat tarwa ayd igan tamamkt ittwassn kigan i tgaditt ingr id m uɣyay adttan d imaddarn ayt kigan n tɣrast."
Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer.,yumẓ usmutty n ijinumn ingr wanawn asnay n imaddarn imlqqmn d usmutti ajiniy s taflit.
Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the adzuki bean weevil Callosobruchus chinensis has occurred.,ijṛa usmutti n ijinumn s taflit sg tbaktirt s id m uɣyay adttan zund tamtunt n sacaṛumisiz sirifisay d tfga n ibawn adzuki kalusubṛucus cininsis.
Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness).,da akkant tfrisin imzarayn isɣaln imzarayn xf iqqimi d tgadit (assrfu amzaray).
"Consequently, organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors are more likely to pass on their traits to the next generation than those with traits that do not confer an advantage.","s manaya, imaddarn ayt tfras nna tn iẓllin xf imaddaln nnsn iɣy ad smuttin tifras nnsn ɣr tsuta d iddan uggar n winna ɣr ur llint tfras nna tn iẓllin."
The central concept of natural selection is the evolutionary fitness of an organism.,armmus anammas n ustay agaman igat usmsasa abuɣlan n umaddar.
"For example, if an organism could survive well and reproduce rapidly, but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive, this organism would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have low fitness.","s umdya, ig ẓḍaṛ umaddar ad iddr s tmamkt ihyyan ar ittarw fisaɛ, maca tarwa nns imẓẓiy ig amudrus afad iqqim iddr, hat amaddar ad qad ifk afṛṛu n tukksi idrusn i tsutiwin d iddan, s manaya qad yili ussrfu afggan iggzn."
Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival and increased fecundity.,imdyatn n tfras iẓḍaṛn ad isdus assrfu afggan d usdus n yili g tudrt d ussili n tarwa.
"However, even if the direction of selection does reverse in this way, traits that were lost in the past may not re-evolve in an identical form (see Dollo's law).","mqqar ittugda umnid n ustay s tmamkt ad, hat tifras nna yuckan g uynna izrin iɣy ad yad ur buɣlunt tikklt yaḍn g talɣa timiwit (ẓṛ azrf n dulu)."
"The first is directional selection, which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time—for example, organisms slowly getting taller.","amzwaru d astay amnidan, nna igan anfal g unammas n watig n tfrst s uzray n tizi—s umdya, imaddarn da ttalint g tiddi s imik."
"Finally, in stabilising selection there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends, which causes a decrease in variance around the average value and less diversity.","tigira, g uzzgu n ustay, illa ustay g wansa n watig n tfras timṭṭuṛfa xf yirawn ssin, aya ayd ittawin s wuguz n umzaray xf watig anammas d umyanaw idrusn."
"This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which, together, comprise natural selection.",armas ad abaraw i tgama da ittadja imassan ad stin kra n taggalin iskarn astay agaman.
"However, the rate of recombination is low (approximately two events per chromosome per generation).","mqqar, hat iggz usɣl n wallas n usnay (attayn n snat tmsarin i ku akṛumuzum i ku tasuta)."
A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a haplotype.,tarabbut n iḥaliln nna ittumyurn ittukkusn g trabbut ism nns anaw ufrid.
"This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed, either by disappearing from the population or replacing the other alleles entirely.","da itbdda unnxtm ad ig izga uḥalil g tgira, s tbridt n yicki sg trabbut nɣd asmrara n iḥaliln yaḍn kullu."
The neutral theory of molecular evolution proposed that most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of neutral mutations by genetic drift.,tssumr tiẓiṛt tarawsant n ubuɣlu agmaman mas d amata g isnfln ibuɣlutn gan tayafit n uzzgu n isnfln arawsann s tbridt n unnxtm ajiniy.
"However, a more recent and better-supported version of this model is the nearly neutral theory, where a mutation that would be effectively neutral in a small population is not necessarily neutral in a large population.","mqqar, tunɣilt tatrart nna ittusnaln sg uzurt ad tgat tiẓiṛt tarawsant, g ur ittili usnfl nna ɣin ad ig arawsan s tṛwi g yat trabbut tamẓẓant tarawant n imzdaɣ g yan umḍan axatar n imzdaɣ."
"The number of individuals in a population is not critical, but instead a measure known as the effective population size.","amḍan n imzdaɣ g kra n umun ur igi azɣan, maca iga tamsɣalt ittwassn s yism n aksay iṛwan n imzdaɣ."
The presence or absence of gene flow fundamentally changes the course of evolution.,ili nɣd arili n unɣal n ijinumn da isnfal s talɣa tadslant abrid n ubuɣlu.
"This opposing-pressures argument was long used to dismiss the possibility of internal tendencies in evolution, until the molecular era prompted renewed interest in neutral evolution.","ittusmrs wanẓa n isllidn imsnaln sg yat tizi iɣzzifn xf wagi n yili n yinf agnsan g ubuɣlu, allig d issuki uzmz agmaman anfru aslaynu s ubuɣlu arawsan."
"For instance, mutation biases are frequently invoked in models of codon usage.","s umdya, iggut mag d ttuɣran imzzutn idɣrann n isnfln g izurtn n usmrs n ukudun."
Different insertion vs. deletion biases in different taxa can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes.,imzzutn idɣrann imzarayn n uskcm g tugdud n wukus g wanawn imzarayn ɣin ad awin ɣr ubuɣlu n iksayn imzarayn n ujinum.
Contemporary thinking about the role of mutation biases reflects a different theory from that of Haldane and Fisher.,da issfru uswingm atrar xf tilalt n umzzu adɣran n isnfln yat tiẓiṛt imzarayn xf tiẓiṛt n haldan d ficir.
"Organisms can also respond to selection by cooperating with each other, usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial symbiosis.","ɣin imaddarn ad sadmrn awd i ustay s tbridt n umyawas ingr asn, g tmyurt s tbridt n tawsi n wayyawn nns nɣd akccum g umyidir n umrara n ubɣur."
"Macroevolution refers to evolution that occurs at or above the level of species, in particular speciation and extinction; whereas microevolution refers to smaller evolutionary changes within a species or population, in particular shifts in allele frequency and adaptation.","da isnɛat ubuɣlu ismdn s abuɣlu nna ittjṛun g uswin n wanawn nɣd nnig as, lumaṛ asmyanaw d yiccki; maca da isnɛat ubuɣlu agmaman s isnfln ibuɣlutn imẓẓiyn agwns n wanawn nɣd imzdaɣ, lumaṛ isnfln g ummḍfṛ n iḥaliln d tkssuyt."
"However, in macroevolution, the traits of the entire species may be important.","mqqar, g ubuɣlu axatar, ɣint tfras n wanawn kullu ad stawhmmant."
"""A common misconception is that evolution has goals, long-term plans, or an innate tendency for """"progress"""", as expressed in beliefs such as orthogenesis and evolutionism; realistically however, evolution has no long-term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity.""","""armmus izgln ittwassn iga t mas llan iwttasn i ibuɣlu, nɣd isɣiwsn iɣzzifn s dat, nɣd iri n """"walay"""", imkinna ɣifs illa wawal g idmutn zund asnay d ubuɣlu; maca g tsga tanilawt, ur illi ɣur ubuɣlu yan uwttas iɣzzifn d ur igi asuɣn ad iyafu amurks ixatrn."""
"Also, the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism's survival.","awd, iɣy ad isnɛt urmmus n tkssuyt s tfrst istawhmman i tudrt n umaddar."
An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.,tga tfrist takssuyant yat tsga sg tsggin n wanaw n tmrniwt n umaddar nna isnilin taẓḍṛt n umaddar ad g tudrt d tgadit.
"Other striking examples are the bacteria Escherichia coli evolving the ability to use citric acid as a nutrient in a long-term laboratory experiment, Flavobacterium evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by-products of nylon manufacturing, and the soil bacterium Sphingobium evolving an entirely new metabolic pathway that degrades the synthetic pesticide pentachlorophenol.","sg imdyatn yaḍn yuwin taɣḍft, tabaktirt n iciricya kuli nna isbuɣlun tazmrt n usmrs n usmem asitrik d amtcu g irim asakwan mi tɣzzif tizi, d isbuɣla uflafubaktiryum yan wanẓim amaynu nna ittadjan tabaktirt ad tgmu xf tyafutin tisinanin n umgru n unaylun, d ubaktiryum sfingubyum nna isbuɣlun yan ubrid amitabulikiy amaynu nna iswurin xf ussfsi n ubuntaklurufinul nna igan abistisid n tnɣruft."
"Consequently, structures with similar internal organisation may have different functions in related organisms.","s manaya, tuṣkiwin id m ussuds agwnsan ids yaksuln iɣy ad ɣursnt ilint tazzulin imzarayn g imaddarn ẓaṛs izdin."
"However, since all living organisms are related to some extent, even organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity, such as arthropod, squid and vertebrate eyes, or the limbs and wings of arthropods and vertebrates, can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control their assembly and function; this is called deep homology.","mqqar, iddɣ mmzdayn imaddarn kullu, awd igmamn nna imyaɣn cwiy nɣd ur myaɣn g tuṣkiwin nnsn, zund iṛtṛubudn, iskidn d id m usnsul, nɣd tifulin nɣd afriwn n irtṛubudn d id m usnsul, ɣint ad snndnt xf yat trabbut issarn n ijinumn yaksuln nna ibaḍn g usmun nns d tazzult nns; aya ism nns ammemgal iɛubn."
"Examples include pseudogenes, the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave-dwelling fish, wings in flightless birds, the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes, and sexual traits in organisms that reproduce via asexual reproduction.","imdyatn digsn ibsudujinn, d kra n walln ur iswurin g islman iddrn g ifran iɛman, d wafriwn g igḍaḍ ur ittaylaln, d yili n iɣsan n uzuk g tzmkin n ifaɣriwn, d tfras tiwssitin g imaddarn nna ittgadayn bla tuqqut."
"One example is the African lizard Holaspis guentheri, which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices, as can be seen by looking at its near relatives.","sg imdyatn xf uya tlla tqqlit tifriqiyt hulasbis ginturi, nna isbuɣlan yan ixf amzur afad ttffr g ibxsan, d iɣy ad t niẓir sg usksw ɣr wayyawn nns inmalan."
Another example is the recruitment of enzymes from glycolysis and xenobiotic metabolism to serve as structural proteins called crystallins within the lenses of organisms' eyes.,amdya yadn igat usrds n wanẓimn sg usfsi n sskwṛ d usmdya n wutci ar amssrfu afad swurin d abṛutinn tuṣkawanin ism nnsn ikṛiṣṭaln agwns n tlintiyin n walln n imaddarn.
"These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to produce new structures, such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the middle ear in mammals.","ssufɣnt d tɣuriwin ad mas d alay iɣy ad isnfl asbuɣlu ard ifars tuṣkiwin timaynutin, zund tiɣssatin n warraw nna ittusbuɣlun s wagja g imudar yaḍn g wansa n usnay n tafult sg umẓẓuɣ tanammast g tmẓẓagin."
"These changes in the second species then, in turn, cause new adaptations in the first species.","isnfln ad g wanaw wis sin, awd nttat, da sskarn tikssuyin timaynutin g wanaw amzwaru."
"For instance, an extreme cooperation exists between plants and the mycorrhizal fungi that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil.","s umdya, illa umyawas axatar ingr imɣayn d igwrsln iẓuṛann nna igmmun g iẓuṛan nns ar ttaws imɣayn g ussum n igmamn n wutci sg wakal."
Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolved.,buɣlan awd imullitn ingr imaddarn n yan wanaw.
"Here, somatic cells respond to specific signals that instruct them whether to grow, remain as they are, or die.","ɣid, da sadmarnt tɣrasin tifgganin i tmulitin istin nna tt ittawin ɣr tmrniwt, nɣ tqqima imkinna tga, nɣ tmmut."
"""There are multiple ways to define the concept of """"species.""""""","""llant kigan n tbridin afad nskd armmus n """"anawn."""""""
"Despite the diversity of various species concepts, these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and phylogenetic.","mqqar ggudin irmmusn n wanawn imzarayn, iẓḍaṛ ad ttusrasn irmmusn ad imzarayn g yan sg kṛaḍt tɣarasin tiflsufin tibarawin: tuqqut, aykuluji d usbuɣlu."
"Despite its wide and long-term use, the BSC like others is not without controversy, for example because these concepts cannot be applied to prokaryotes, and this is called the species problem.","mqqar d asmrs abaraw d uɣzzaf g tizi, iga BSC zund wiyyaḍ illa digs umrara n wawal, s umdya acku ur nẓḍaṛ ad nssnsi irmmusn ad xf id m uɣyay aqbur, aya ami nttini tamukrist n wanawn."
Gene flow may slow this process by spreading the new genetic variants also to the other populations.,iɣy ad yawi unɣal n ijinumn ɣr ussiẓy n tsiɣt ad s tbridt n ufsar n imskiln ijiniyn imaynutn awd nitni s trubba n imzdaɣ yaḍn.
"In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct.","g waddad ad, ɣin ad myaqqun wanawn imyasatn s talɣa ittusudsn, maca qad ttustayn wanawn ittulqqmn mgal nns d qad qqimn wanawn stin."
Speciation has been observed multiple times under both controlled laboratory conditions (see laboratory experiments of speciation) and in nature.,itwakz umyanaw kigan n tikkal g imsutal n usarm ittuḥḍan (ẓṛ irimn isakwnann n umyanaw) d g tgama.
"The most common in animals is allopatric speciation, which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by habitat fragmentation or migration.","wanna ittwassn kigan g imudar igat umyanaw alubatrik, nna ittjṛun g trubba iẓlin g tjuɣṛafit g tizwuri, zund abṭṭu n izduɣn nɣd amuddu."
"The second mode of speciation is peripatric speciation, which occurs when small populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment.","anaw wis sin n umyanaw igat umyanaw ittnyuddun, nna ittjṛun adday ttustaynt trubba timẓẓanin n imaddarn g yat twnnaḍt tamaynut."
The third mode is parapatric speciation.,anaw wis kṛaḍ igat umyanaw amrwis.
Generally this occurs when there has been a drastic change in the environment within the parental species' habitat.,da ittjṛu uya s umata adday yili usnfl aẓuṛan g twnnaḍt agwns n tmurt n wanawn imarawn.
"Selection against interbreeding with the metal-sensitive parental population produced a gradual change in the flowering time of the metal-resistant plants, which eventually produced complete reproductive isolation.","astay mgal n ulqqm d imzdaɣ imarawn ur iɣiyn i iqddaḥ yuwi ɣr usnfl imik s imik g tizi n walay i imɣayn inzbayn i iqddaḥ, aya yuwi ɣr uẓlay arawan usmid."
This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic differences between parts of a population.,talɣa ad tdrus acku ɣas tasmkta tamẓẓant n unɣal n ijinumn tɣi ad tkks imzarayn ijiniyn ingr tafulin n imzdaɣ.
This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile.,ur ittwassn uya g imudar acku imudar ittulqqmn ittumyar ad gn iburiyn.
"This allows the chromosomes from each parental species to form matching pairs during meiosis, since each parent's chromosomes are represented by a pair already.","da ittadja uyad i ikṛumuzumn n ku anaw amaraw ad isni anatn yaksuln g tizi n umyuz, nna g ttusmdyan ikṛumuzumn n ku amaraw s yan wana."
"Indeed, chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation, as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms.","g tilawt, iɣy ad ig unuḍu n ukrumuzum agwns n kra wanaw tamntilt n uẓlay arawan, acku azgn g ikṛumuzumn inuḍutn ur inni ad ɣursn yili umyaɣ g tarwa d imaddarn arunuḍn."
"Nearly all animal and plant species that have lived on Earth are now extinct, and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of all species.","wḍaṛn ad acckn dɣi kullu wanawn n imudar d imɣayn nna iddrn xf wakal, ɛniɣ iccki ayd illan s tgira i kullu anawn."
"Despite the estimated extinction of more than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, about 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.","mqqar illa yiccki s wuggar n 99 g tmiḍi sg wanawn kullu nna iddrn aflla n wakal, attayn n 1 trilyun n wanaw ayd illan xf wakal dɣi d yan usnumml day sg yifḍ sg yan sg tmiḍi."
"The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon.","da ittuɣul wanẓa azayku xf yili n tudrt aflla n wakal s mayd ur iggizn i 3.5 mlyaṛ n usggwas izrin, g uzmz n iyaṛcayn iṛa ḍaṛt ussnti n tfrkit tajyulujit g umyamaẓ ḍaṛt hadyan iyun ifsin zwar."
"""Commenting on the Australian findings, Stephen Blair Hedges wrote, """"If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe.""""""","""d axfawal xf tyafutin n ustṛalya, yura stifn bliṛ hidgs, """"ig tgma tudrt xf wakal fisɛ, hat tɣy ad akw taɣ iɣzr."""""""
"Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date, leaving at least 80 percent not yet described.","isutugn iẓlin s wanawn illan dɣi xf wakal sg 10 n imlyan ar 14 mlyun, sg digsn attayn n 1.9 ittug as yism d 1.6 mlyun ttuzmmem g tsila n isfka tanammast s dɣi, tqqim 80 sg tmiḍi ur ta ttusnumml."
"The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation.","ittusyafa mas d aẓuṛ amssur n imaddarn zwar sg kkuẓ n tidttin tifrarin xf imaddarn: tamzwarut, ɣurs ibṭṭutn ijuɣrafiyn nna ur iɣiyn ad ittusfru s tkssuyt tadɣrant."
"Fourth, organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups, similar to a family tree.","tis kkuẓ, nɣy ad nsmyanaw imaddarn s usmrs n wudmawn ad imyaɣn g usnsl azamug n trubba immkcamn, ṭṭṛf n tsklut n tawja."
This view dates back to an idea briefly mentioned by Darwin but later abandoned.,da ttuɣul tannayt ad s yat twngimt innat darwin s uzzgzl maca udjan tt s dat.
"By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, palaeontologists can infer the lineages of those species.","sg usmzazal ingr uflay n wanawn itrarn d winna yucckan, ɣin imassan n tɣuziwin ad ssufɣn imyasatn n wanawn ad."
"More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms.","g tgiriwin ad, iddad wanẓa xf uẓuṛ amssur sg tɣuri n wudmawn n umyaɣ ibyucimiyn ingr imaddarn."
The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6 and 2.7 billion years ago.,ffɣnt d tɣrasin id m uɣyay adttan ingr 1.6 d 2.7 mlyaṛ n usggwas.
Another engulfment of cyanobacterial-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants.,yuwy uṣṛaḍ yaḍn n imaddarn igan zund tabaktirt tanilit ɣr usnay n iblastidn izgzawn g wadaln d imɣayn.
"In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK-PID may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.","g innayr 2016, nnan imassan mas d sg wattayn n 800 mlyun n usggwas izrin, qad yili usnfl ajiniy afssas g yat tfult ism nns GK-PID nna yudjan imaddarn ad mmuttin sg bu yat tɣrast ɣr bu kigan n tɣrasin."
"Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis.","ttufkant tmntilin n uṭṭiqs akambariy, g illa usgudi n uksijin g waṭmusfiṛ sg tsiɣt n usmdya asiddan."
Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms.,astay amguran iga yan ustay amxas n tfras g yat trabbut n imaddarn.
Proteins with valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection (for example modified enzymes and new antibodies) in a process called directed evolution.,buɣlan ibrutin ayt tẓlayin tazalin s tbridt n tsutal timallasin n isnfln d ustay (s umdya anẓimn ittusnfln d igmamn inmgaln imaynutn) g yat tasiɣt ism nns abuɣlu amswads.
"Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes, since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves.","ifka usgudi n trubba imzarayn n islman ad ibukaḍ kra n warraw ayt walln tizzulanin, iddɣ jṛan isnfln imzarayn g trubba ittustayn nna ibuɣlan g ifran imzarayn."
"Many human diseases are not static phenomena, but capable of evolution.","kigan n tmuḍan tinafganin ur gint tumanin izgan, maca zmrnt ad buɣlunt."
It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics and predicting the evolution and evolvability of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level.,iɣy is nlla mgal tgira n tudrt timṛwit n umata g wantibyutikn illan d iẓḍaṛ ad buɣlunt tmntilin n tmaḍunin ɣurnɣ d tzmrt nnsnt ad buɣlunt d usras n tstṛatijin i ussiẓy nnsn nna txssa tussna iɛubn n taggalin immurksn nna ittawin abuɣlu g uswir agmaman.
He used evolution strategies to solve complex engineering problems.,ismrs tistṛatijin n ubuɣlu ad ifsi timukrisin titwalin immurksn.
"In some countries, notably the United States, these tensions between science and religion have fuelled the current creation–evolution controversy, a religious conflict focusing on politics and public education.","g kra n tmura, lumaṛ iwunak imunn, uwin igrurusn ad illan ingr tmassant d usɣan s ussiɣ n umrara n wawal n dɣi xf usnfl d ubuɣlu, iga imnɣi yuddan xf tsrtit d usslmd amatay."
"The Scopes Trial decision of 1925 caused the subject to become very rare in American secondary biology textbooks for a generation, but it was gradually re-introduced later and became legally protected with the 1968 Epperson v. Arkansas decision.","tsmntl tɣtst n umṣiriḍ n skubs asggwas n 1925 g ad idris imrsi g idlisn n tbyulujit tasinant tamirikanit n yat tsuta kullu, maka ittyals as ussnkd imik s imik g yat tizi d iddan yuɣul ittuḥḍu s uzrf s tɣtast n iybrsun v. aṛkansas asggwas n 1968."
Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype.,astay agaman iga iɣimi amzaray d tarwa n ifridn s tmntilt n imzarayn g ufinutib.
Variation exists within all populations of organisms.,illa umzaray agwns n kullu tirubba n imaddarn.
"The environment of a genome includes the molecular biology in the cell, other cells, other individuals, populations, species, as well as the abiotic environment.","tumẓ twnnaḍt n ujinum tabyulujit tagmamant g tɣrast, d tɣrasin yaḍn, d trubba n imzdaɣ, d wanawn, awd tawnnaḍt taridirt."
Natural selection is a cornerstone of modern biology.,astay agaman ayd igan aẓṛu n tɣmrt n tmassant n imaddarn tatrart.
"The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, science had yet to develop modern theories of genetics.","ibuɣla urmmus n ustay agaman tizwuri g walu tiẓiṛt n tukksi iṣḥan, g tizi n tirra n darwin, ur ta tsbuɣli tmassant tiẓiṛin titrarin g tmassant n tukksi."
"The classical arguments were reintroduced in the 18th century by Pierre Louis Maupertuis and others, including Darwin's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin.","ittyals usnkd n wanẓatn iklasikin g tasut tis 18 sg ɣur byir lwis mubirtwis d wiyyaḍ, g illa bbaḥllu n darwin, iṛasmus darwin."
"The success of this theory raised awareness of the vast scale of geological time and made plausible the idea that tiny, virtually imperceptible changes in successive generations could produce consequences on the scale of differences between species.",amurs n tiẓirt ad yuwi ɣr ufrak s wansa abaraw n tizi tajyulujit yadj tawngimn n isnfln imẓẓyann iḥḍarn ad ur ittufrayn g tsutiwin immḍfaṛn iɣy ad awint s imukrisn g tsga n imzarayn ingr wanawn.
"""He was in the process of writing his """"big book"""" to present his research when the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace independently conceived of the principle and described it in an essay he sent to Darwin to forward to Charles Lyell.""","""ikka ar ittara """"adlis axatar"""" nns ad issnkd arzzu nns llig iswingm umassan n ugama alfrid ṛasl walas amnzay ad s tlelli isnumml t g yan umagraḍ nna yuzn i darwin afad t yazn i carlz lil."""
"In the 3rd edition of 1861 Darwin acknowledged that others—like William Charles Wells in 1813, and Patrick Matthew in 1831—had proposed similar ideas, but had neither developed them nor presented them in notable scientific publications.","g tunɣilt tis 3 g usggwas n 1861 inna darwin mas d wiyyad—zund wilyam carlz will g 1813, d ḥatrik matyu g 1831—ssumrn tiwngimin yaksuln, maca ur tnt sbuɣlin d ur tnt ssnkidn g imagraḍn imassan ittwassn."
"""In a letter to Charles Lyell in September 1860, Darwin regretted the use of the term """"Natural Selection"""", preferring the term """"Natural Preservation"""".""","""g yat tbrat i carlz lil g cunatbir 1860, isawl darwin xf ussurf nns xf usmrs n urmmus n """"astay agaman"""", yaf ɣurs urmmus """"aḥṭṭu agaman""""."""
"""However, natural selection remained controversial as a mechanism, partly because it was perceived to be too weak to explain the range of observed characteristics of living organisms, and partly because even supporters of evolution balked at its """"unguided"""" and non-progressive nature, a response that has been characterised as the single most significant impediment to the idea's acceptance.""","""mqqar, iqqima ustay agaman da issnkar amrara n wawal d ammak, ar ittuɣul uynnaɣ cwiy ɣr imkinna s ityannay is iga amudrus xf wad issfru ansa n tẓlayin ittuḥsan i imaddarn, d afulan acku ayt ubuɣlu ugin digs """"arasmnid"""" d ugama wa azzigz, nttat d tmrarut ittusnummln mas tga yat tifikkct istawhmman mnid n yiri n twngimt."""
"With the early 20th century integration of evolution with Mendel's laws of inheritance, the so-called modern synthesis, scientists generally came to accept natural selection.","s usmad n ubuɣlu g tizwuri n tasut tis 20 d izrfan n mandil n tukksi, aynna mi nttini tusurt tatrart, aɣuln imassann s umata da ttirin astay agaman."
"""J. B. S. Haldane introduced the concept of the """"cost"""" of natural selection.""","""isnkd J. B. S. haldan armmus n """"atig"""" n ustay agaman."""
"""However, natural selection is """"blind"""" in the sense that changes in phenotype can give a reproductive advantage regardless of whether or not the trait is heritable.""","""mqqar, astay agaman hat """"iɛma"""" acku isnfln g ufinutib ɣin ad fkn tifrst n tgadit bla is tga tfrst tin tukksi mid uhu."""
"If the traits that give these individuals a reproductive advantage are also heritable, that is, passed from parent to offspring, then there will be differential reproduction, that is, a slightly higher proportion of fast rabbits or efficient algae in the next generation.","iɣ gant tfras nna yakkan i wid tifrist n uggadi tga awd nttat tin tukksi, nɣd da tmuttuy sg umaraw s tarwa, hat qad yili uggadi amzaray, nɣd asɣl yugrn imik win iwtal udrifn nɣd adaln imṛwitn g tsuta d iddan."
"This gives the appearance of purpose, but in natural selection there is no intentional choice.","ayad ar yakka tifrist tawttast, maca g ustay agaman ur illi ustay amxas."
"This gave dark-coloured moths a better chance of surviving to produce dark-coloured offspring, and in just fifty years from the first dark moth being caught, nearly all of the moths in industrial Manchester were dark.","ifka uyad i ifṛṭeṭṭutn ayt ikwlan iɣman azmz yufn afad qqimin ddrn fkind arraw mi ɣman ikwlan, g tizi n smmusmraw n isggwasn day g ittugmr ufṛṭeṭṭu amzwaru, druɣ kullu ɣman ifṛṭeṭṭutn n mancistr tamgurant."
"If an organism lives half as long as others of its species, but has twice as many offspring surviving to adulthood, its genes become more common in the adult population of the next generation.","iɣ da ittidir umaddar azgn n uynna ttidirn wiyyaḍ sg wanaw nns, maca idrus ɣurs umḍan n winna ittidirn ar tifrkt n utrag, hat da ttwassan ijinumn nns g imzdaɣ itragn g tsuta d iddan."
"""A distinction must be made between the concept of """"survival of the fittest"""" and """"improvement in fitness"""". """"""","ixss usmziry ingr urmmus """" iɣimi i unna iṣlḥn """" d """""" usɣudu n tfssi""""""."
"""Haldane called this process """"substitution"""" or more commonly in biology, this is called """"fixation"""".""","iga as haldan s yism i tsiɣt ad """" amsbaddal """" nɣd imki nna s ittwassn kigan g tussnmudar, aya ism nns """"asttmr""""."
The probability of a beneficial mutation occurring on some member of a population depends on the total number of replications of that variant.,tazmrt n wad yili usnfl g iɣudan ittjṛun xf kran ifridn n umun da itsnnad xf umḍan assmun n inuḍutn n umskil ad.
"""In this experiment, """"improvement in fitness"""" depends on the number of replications of the particular variant for a new variant to appear that is capable of growing in the next higher drug concentration region.""","""g irim ad, """"asɣudu n talɣa tafggant"""" da itsnnad xf umḍan n tikkal ayd yuls kra n umskil afad iffɣ umskil amaynu izmrn ad g wansa d iddan g iggud usafar."""
"""Richard Lenski's classic E. coli long-term evolution experiment is an example of adaptation in a competitive environment, (""""improvement in fitness"""" during """"survival of the fittest"""").""","""iga yirim n ubuɣlu n E. kuli mi tɣzzif tizi n ṛicaṛd linski yan umdya xf tnamit g twnnaḍt g illa umḥizwar, (""""asɣudu n talɣa tafggant"""" iwnan n """"tudrt i wanna izmrn"""")."""
"The uncommon disruptive selection also acts during transition periods when the current mode is sub-optimal, but alters the trait in more than one direction.","da iswuri uẓlay amrway ur ittudman awd g iwnan n tizi n ummuty adday ig waddad n dɣi ddaw uswir, maca da isnfal tifirst g kigan n imnidn."
"Some biologists recognise just two types: viability (or survival) selection, which acts to increase an organism's probability of survival, and fecundity (or fertility or reproductive) selection, which acts to increase the rate of reproduction, given survival.","da ttisin kra n imassann n imaddarn sin wanawn day: astay n tzmrt n tudrt (iqimi g tudrt), nna iswurin xf ussily n asɣl n tudrt n umaddar, astay n tblsi (tiblsi nɣd tarwa), nna iswurin xf ussily n usɣl n tarwa, s usksw n iqimi g tudrt."
"In kin selection and intragenomic conflict, gene-level selection provides a more apt explanation of the underlying process.","g ustay n wayyawn d imnɣi agwns n ujinum, da yakka ustay g uswir n ujinum assfru nna d yusan uggar i tsiɣt tadslant."
"Ecological selection is natural selection via any means other than sexual selection, such as kin selection, competition, and infanticide.","astay awnḍan iga astay agaman s magan tamamkt yadn bla astay amanaw, zund astay n imnmalatn, d umḥizwar n mnɣiwt n ifrax."
"However, in some species, mate choice is primarily by males, as in some fishes of the family Syngnathidae.","imil, ɣr kra n wanawn, iwtman ayd isttin imdrawn nnsn d imzwura, zund ɣur tawja n islman isangnadidatn."
"Since the discovery of penicillin in 1928, antibiotics have been used to fight bacterial diseases.","sg twafit n ubinisilin g usggwas n 1928, ttusmrasn wantibyutikn mgal timaḍunin tibaktirin."
"Genetic variation is the result of mutations, genetic recombinations and alterations in the karyotype (the number, shape, size and internal arrangement of the chromosomes).","iga amziray ajinitik tawafit n isnfln, asnay ajiniy n isnfaln g wanaw aɣyayan (amḍan n ikṛumuzumn d umaɣnu nns d uksay nns d unmala nns n ugwns)."
"However, many mutations in non-coding DNA have deleterious effects.","imil, kigan n isnfln g wadiyin arinagliwn ɣurs tusurt ur iḥlin."
Changes in these often have large effects on the phenotype of the individual because they regulate the function of many other genes.,iggut mag ittili i isnfln ad kigan n yiḍiṣn g ufinutib n ufrid acku da ssudusn tazzult n kigan n ijinumn yaḍn.
"When such mutations result in a higher fitness, natural selection favours these phenotypes and the novel trait spreads in the population.","tizi g ttawin isnfln ad ɣr talɣa tafggant yulin, da ittiri ustay agaman ifinutibn ad ar ttufsar tfrist tamaynut g umun."
"However, it is intrinsic to the concept of a species that hybrids are selected against, opposing the evolution of reproductive isolation, a problem that was recognised by Darwin.","mqqar, ixssa urmmus n wanaw nna mi ittustay ulqqm mgal nns, ad tagi abuɣlu n uẓlay n tarwa, nna igan tamukrist iqṛṛa is darwin."
Phenotype is determined by an organism's genetic make-up (genotype) and the environment in which the organism lives.,da ittuẓlay wanaw ufinutib s tbridt n usnay n umudr (anaw ajiniy) d twnnaḍt nna g ittidir umudr.
"An example is the ABO blood type antigens in humans, where three alleles govern the phenotype.","amdya xf uya igan wanaw n idammn ABO g ufgan, nna g nnbḍn kṛaḍ iḥaliln g ufinutib."
This process can continue until the allele is fixed and the entire population shares the fitter phenotype.,tɣy ad tzdi tsiɣt ad ard ilukn uḥalil afad munn imzdaɣ kullu g ufinutib d yusan.
"Stabilizing selection conserves functional genetic features, such as protein-coding genes or regulatory sequences, over time by selective pressure against deleterious variants.","astay n usttmr da ittqqil xf tfras tijiniyin tiswuritin, zund ijinumn imnagaln n ubrutin nɣd imḍfṛn ittusudsn, g uzray n tizi s tbridt n uslld mgal isnfln ur iḥlin."
"Some forms of balancing selection do not result in fixation, but maintain an allele at intermediate frequencies in a population.","ur da ttawin kra n wanawn n ustay amyas ɣr asttmr, maca da tḥṭṭu aḥalil ɣr isnagarn inammasn g umun."
"Maintenance of allelic variation can also occur through disruptive or diversifying selection, which favours genotypes that depart from the average in either direction (that is, the opposite of over-dominance), and can result in a bimodal distribution of trait values.","iɣy ad yili awd la g umzaray aḥaliliy s tbridt n ustay amrwi nɣd amyanaw, nna ittirin anawn ijiniyn nna itḥyyadn i unammas g imnidn s sin (nɣd mgal n tɣllabit iggutn), iɣy ad yawi ɣr unɣal bu sin ingrawn i watig n tfrisin."
"However, after a period with no new mutations, the genetic variation at these sites is eliminated due to genetic drift.","imil, ḍaṛt yat tizi g ur llin isnfln imaynutn, da ttackan imzarayn ijiniyn g wansatn ad s tmntilt n uḥray ajiniy."
"The exact outcome of the two processes depends both on the rate at which new mutations occur and on the strength of the natural selection, which is a function of how unfavourable the mutation proves to be.","da tsnnad tyafut tamnɣudt n tsiɣin s snat xf usɣl nna s ttjṛun isnfln imaynutn d xf taggalt n ustay agaman, nna igan anẓa xf war amsasa n usnfl."
The chance that such a reshuffle occurs between two alleles is inversely related to the distance between them.,azmzzu n yili n zund asnfl ad ingr sin iḥaliln islɣ s uzaru n ingr asn s umxalaf.
A strong selective sweep results in a region of the genome where the positively selected haplotype (the allele and its neighbours) are in essence the only ones that exist in the population.,da yakka uzray amstay idusn g yan wansa n ujinum nna g ittili wanaw ufrid ittustayn s wumnig (aḥalil d wadjaṛn nns) ntta iwaḍu nns ayd illan g imzdaɣ.
Background selection is the opposite of a selective sweep.,astay n ubakṛuwnd iga nil tsiɣt n uzray asmstay.
"""In the words of the philosopher Daniel Dennett, """"Darwin's dangerous idea"""" of evolution by natural selection is a """"universal acid,"""" which cannot be kept restricted to any vessel or container, as it soon leaks out, working its way into ever-wider surroundings.""","""nil wawal n ufilusuf danyil dinitt, """"tawngimt timizit n darwin"""" xf ubuɣlu s tbridt n ustay agaman tga """"asmem amaḍlan,"""" ur iɣiy ad isnnd xf yan uḥaglu nɣd aḥaglu, acku fisaɛ innɣl, isskr abrid s ansa abaraw uggar n tizi izrin."""
"These conditions are: heritability, variation of type, and competition for limited resources.","tifidiwin ad gant: asukks, amyanaw n wanaw, d umḥizwar xf isugam idrusn."
"Herbert Spencer and the eugenics advocate Francis Galton's interpretation of natural selection as necessarily progressive, leading to supposed advances in intelligence and civilisation, became a justification for colonialism, eugenics, and social Darwinism.","imzɣ hiṛbrt sḥansr d ujinizm xf ussfru n fṛansis galtuns n ustay agaman nna igan amalay, s manaya da itali ufulls d tɣrma, yuɣul ig tasɛdirt n usddurry, ajiniks, tdarwiniyt tanamunt."
"""The racial idea as the basis of our state has already accomplished much in this respect.""""""","""tawngimt taẓuṛant d tasila i tmurt nnɣ tsskr nnik kigan g umnid ad."""""""
"The most prominent example of evolutionary psychology, notably advanced in the early work of Noam Chomsky and later by Steven Pinker, is the hypothesis that the human brain has adapted to acquire the grammatical rules of natural language.","amdya ittwassn xf tmassant tanimant tabuɣlant, nna izzigzn g twuri n zikk n naɛum cumski d ḍaṛas stifn binkr, tga t turda ittinin mas d allaɣ n ufgan innum ad yagm tajṛṛumt n tutlayt n ugama."
"""He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete """"units of inheritance"""".""","""yukz mas d imaddarn (tajlbant) da ttkus tifras s tbridt n """"tgzzumin n tukksi""""."""
"Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the cell, the organism (e.g. dominance), and within the context of a population.","da ttuɣra tuṣkiwt n ijinumn d tazzulin nnsn, amyanaw nnsn, d unɣal nnsn g umnaḍ n tɣrast d umaddar (zund anbḍ) d g umnaḍ n imzdaɣ."
"Genetic processes work in combination with an organism's environment and experiences to influence development and behavior, often referred to as nature versus nurture.","da swurint tsiɣin tijiniyin ṭṭṛf n twnnaḍt n umaddar d tzmmar nns g yiḍiṣ n ubuɣlu d tikli, da ttusnɛat kigan s ugama mgal n tmrniwt."
"The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, began with the work of the Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel in the mid-19th century.","tssnti tmassant n tukksi tatrart, nna iran ad irmn tasiɣt ad, s twuri n ukhhan uguṣṭiniy gṛiguṛ mandil g uzgn n tasut tis 19."
His second law is the same as what Mendel published.,azrf nns wis sin igan uynna d ifsr mandil.
"A popular theory during the 19th century, and implied by Charles Darwin's 1859 On the Origin of Species, was blending inheritance: the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents.","tiẓiṛt nna ittwassn g tasut tis 19, nna s isnɛt tcaṛlz darwin asggas n 1859 g uẓur n wanwan, tga arway n tukksi: tawngimt n mas d ifridn da ttkkusn yan urway iwhnn n tfrisin sg imarawn nnsn."
"""In his paper """"Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (""""Experiments on Plant Hybridization""""), presented in 1865 to the Naturforschender Verein (Society for Research in Nature) in Brünn, Mendel traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and described them mathematically.""","""g tanfult nns n urzzu """"Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (""""irimn xf ilqqmn n imɣayn""""), nna ittusmrsn asggwas n 1865 i naturfuṛcundr firyin (tamsmunt n urzzu g ugama) g bṛun, iḍfaṛ mandil anawn n tukksi n kran tfrisin g umɣay n tjlbant isnumml t g tusnakt."""
"""William Bateson, a proponent of Mendel's work, coined the word genetics in 1905 (the adjective genetic, derived from the Greek word genesis—γένεσις, """"origin"""", predates the noun and was first used in a biological sense in 1860).""","""wilyam batsun, yan sg imɣra s twuri n mandil, isnfl taguri n tmassant n tukksi asggwas n 1905 (tafrist n tukksi, tanafuɣt n tguri tayinaniyt—γένεσις, """"aẓuṛ"""", tzwar ism ttusmrs tikklt izwarn s unamk abyuluji g usggwas n 1860)."""
"Over the next 11 years, she discovered that females only had the X chromosome and males had both X and Y chromosomes.","iwnan n 11 n usggwas d iddan, tufa mas d tiwtmin ur ɣursnt illi ɣas akṛumuzum X d iwtman ɣursn ikrumuzumn s sin X d Y."
"James Watson and Francis Crick determined the structure of DNA in 1953, using the X-ray crystallography work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins that indicated DNA has a helical structure (i.e., shaped like a corkscrew).","isti jims watsun d fṛankis krik tuṣkiwt n DNA g 1953, s usmrs n tmassant n kristalugrafi n iẓnẓaṛn isiniyn n ṛuzalinda fṛanklin d muris wilkins nna isnɛtn mas d DNA ɣurs uṣkiwt taɣlalt (nɣd talɣa n tsarut)."
"The structure also suggested a simple method for replication: if the strands are separated, new partner strands can be reconstructed for each based on the sequence of the old strand.","tfka tuṣkiwt awd tamamkt tafrart i usnɣl yaksuln: ig ttubḍan ifilan, iɣy ad tals tuṣka n ifilan imssurn imaynutn i ku yan digsn s tuṣka n usnsl n ifilu azayku."
"In the following years, scientists tried to understand how DNA controls the process of protein production.","g isggwasn d iddan, ran imassan ad rmsn mamk ittbaḍ DNA g tsiɣt n ufars n ubṛutin."
With the newfound molecular understanding of inheritance came an explosion of research.,"ijṛa yan uṭṭiqs g urzzu, s urmas afulan amaynu n tukksi."
One important development was chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger.,yan g ibuɣlutn istawhmman iga t usnsl nDNA allig ittusmd usnsl asggwas n 1977 s ufus n fridirik sanjir.
"In his experiments studying the trait for flower color, Mendel observed that the flowers of each pea plant were either purple or white—but never an intermediate between the two colors.",yukz mandil g yirimn nns nna g iqqra tafrist n uklu n ujddig mas d ijddign kullu n umɣay n tjlbant gan imkẓayn nɣd imllaln—maca ur ssarnt ingr sin ikwlan ad.
"Many species, including humans, have this pattern of inheritance.","kigan n wanawn, g illa ufgan, ɣursn anaw ad n tukksi."
"When organisms are heterozygous at a gene, often one allele is called dominant as its qualities dominate the phenotype of the organism, while the other allele is called recessive as its qualities recede and are not observed.","ig ur gin imaddarn imsaritn g kan ujinum, da ittgga yan uḥalil amnbd acku tifrisin nns nbḍnt xf ufinutib n umaddar, ar ittwana i uḥalil yaḍn amakkas acku tturgalnt tfrisin nns ur da ttuẓṛant."
"""Often a """"+"""" symbol is used to mark the usual, non-mutant allele for a gene.""","""da ttusmras kigan tmatart """"+"""" afad ittyakz uḥalil ittunumn ur infiln g ujinum """
One of the common diagrams used to predict the result of cross-breeding is the Punnett square.,yat g twnaɣin ittusmrasn i usnimal s tyafut n usmlaqay d amkkuẓ n bunṭ.
"Some genes do not assort independently, demonstrating genetic linkage, a topic discussed later in this article.)","kra n ijinumn ur da ttusmiln s talɣat tilellit, ayd ar immal taluft tajinit, yan umggay xf illa umrara n wawal g umgraḍ ad.)"
"Another gene, however, controls whether the flowers have color at all or are white.","imil, yan ujinum yaḍn, inbḍ g ijddign id ad klun mid ad gn imllaln."
Many traits are not discrete features (e.g. purple or white flowers) but are instead continuous features (e.g. human height and skin color).,amata g tfras ur gint tifras ibḍan (zund ijddign ijnjaṛiyn nɣd imllaln) maca gant tifras izdin (zund tiddi n ufgan d uklu n ubṭṭan.)
The degree to which an organism's genes contribute to a complex trait is called heritability.,taskwflt nna s ttumun ijinumn n umudr g tfirst immurksn ism nns tikksa.
"DNA is composed of a chain of nucleotides, of which there are four types: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).","ittuskar wadiin g usddi n iniklyutidn, nna g llan kkuẓ n wanawn : adinin (A), situzin (C), gwanin (G), d tiymin (T)."
"Viruses cannot reproduce without a host and are unaffected by many genetic processes, so tend not to be considered living organisms.","ur nnin ifirusn ad ttarwn bla asnbgi d ur da ttuḍaṣn s kigan n tmhalin tijiniyin, s man aya ur nɣiy ad tn ng d imudar."
This structure of DNA is the physical basis for inheritance: DNA replication duplicates the genetic information by splitting the strands and using each strand as a template for synthesis of a new partner strand.,aẓṭṭa ad n wadiin ayd igan tasila tamattant n tukksa : allas n wadiin da ittals inɣmisn ijiniyn s ubṭṭu n ifilan d usmrs n ku ifilu d tirslt i usnay n ifilu amaynu asmun.
"These DNA strands are often extremely long; the largest human chromosome, for example, is about 247 million base pairs in length.","amata g ifilan n wadiin gan ɣzzifn kigan, axatar g ikṛumuẓumn infgann, s umdya, tiddi nns digs 247 nid mlyun n sinisilann."
"DNA is most often found in the nucleus of cells, but Ruth Sager helped in the discovery of nonchromosomal genes found outside of the nucleus.","da ittili wadiin kigan g uɣyay n tɣrasin, maca ṛuṭ ṣajiṛ tuws g tnazuft n ijinumn id war ikṛumuẓumn nna illan bṛṛa n uɣyay."
"While haploid organisms have only one copy of each chromosome, most animals and many plants are diploid, containing two of each chromosome and thus two copies of every gene.","tizi nna g llan imudar ayt yan ukṛumuẓum ɣursn yan uslkn g ku akṛumuẓum, hat amata g imudar d kigan n imɣayn gan id bu sin ikṛumuẓumn, ɣursn sin g ku akṛumuẓum nna igan sin islkinn g ku ajinum."
"In humans and many other animals, the Y chromosome contains the gene that triggers the development of the specifically male characteristics.","ɣur ufgan d kigan n imudar yaḍn, akṛumuẓum Y ag illa ujimum tifras n uwtm s uẓlay."
"This process, called mitosis, is the simplest form of reproduction and is the basis for asexual reproduction.","tasiɣt ad, mi ttinin abṭṭu, ayd igan talɣatin n tarwa ifrarn tg tasila n tarwa tarawsyant."
Eukaryotic organisms often use sexual reproduction to generate offspring that contain a mixture of genetic material inherited from two different parents.,kigan n imudar id bu uɣyay adttan da smrasn tarwa tawsyant afad arun tarwa g illa wurkis n tmtta takssant ittukksan sg imarawn imzarayn.
"Some bacteria can undergo conjugation, transferring a small circular piece of DNA to another bacterium.","tɣy kra n lbaktirya ad tettulqqam, ttyasy as yat tqcuṛt tawrrayt tamẓẓant n wadiin s kra n lbaktirya yaḍn."
In this way new combinations of genes can occur in the offspring of a mating pair.,"s tmamkt ad, ɣint ad munent trubba timaynutin n ijinumn g warraw n imarawn."
"During crossover, chromosomes exchange stretches of DNA, effectively shuffling the gene alleles between the chromosomes.","g tizi n umlaqay, da ttmfkan ikṛumuẓumn igzzumn n wadiin, ayann ad ittawin arway n iḥaliln n ijinumn ingr ikṛumuẓumn."
The first cytological demonstration of crossing over was performed by Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock in 1931.,ittuskar ufsar aɣrasan amzwaru n umlaqay s tbridt n haṛyit kṛitun d baṛbaṛa mklinṭuk asggwas n 1931.
"For an arbitrarily long distance, the probability of crossover is high enough that the inheritance of the genes is effectively uncorrelated.","adday yili uzaru iɣzzifn, ilan n umlaqay attuyn g ur itgga tukksi n ijinumn tugilt s umamk imqwi."
"The specific sequence of amino acids results in a unique three-dimensional structure for that protein, and the three-dimensional structures of proteins are related to their functions.","da yakka usnsl ad amẓlay n ismamn aminiyn yat tuṣkiwt istin m kṛaḍ izarutn i ubṛutin ad, ar ttuzdaynt tuṣkiwin id m kṛaḍ izarutn d tazzulin nnsnt."
"Protein structure is dynamic; the protein hemoglobin bends into slightly different forms as it facilitates the capture, transport, and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian blood.",aẓṭṭa n ibrutinn iga adinamiki; da iknnu ubrutin ahimuglubin s talɣatin imzarayn cwiy acku da issuhan imẓ d wassay d urẓẓum n tqcṛin n uksijin g idammn n id m yiffan.
"For example, sickle-cell anemia is a human genetic disease that results from a single base difference within the coding region for the β-globin section of hemoglobin, causing a single amino acid change that changes hemoglobin's physical properties.","s umdya, laneme tga yan wattan igan asiwan igan ugul n yan wabud imzrin amas n ugnsu n udɣar inigar yakkan la byta glubin g udgar n limuglubin, asufɣ ns igat yan laminu asid imzrin d ardaɣ isnfal amaɣnu n limuglubin."
Some DNA sequences are transcribed into RNA but are not translated into protein products—such RNA molecules are called non-coding RNA.,"kran n tigwzmin n ladiin ar akkant l airin imil urakkant tayafut n lbrutiyin, tusnifin n lariin ganin ɣmkad ttsmmant nun kudin iriniy."
An interesting example is the coat coloration of the Siamese cat.,yan umaday igan anfrar attigan d uklu n wazaf imucca n syamwa.
"But these dark hair-producing proteins are sensitive to temperature (i.e. have a mutation causing temperature-sensitivity) and denature in higher-temperature environments, failing to produce dark-hair pigment in areas where the cat has a higher body temperature.","maka ibrutinn ad yakkan azzar aḥbcan ur ɣiyn i lḥma ( ɣurs yan usnfl ur iɣiyn i lḥma ) ar tsnfal g twnnaḍt g illa lḥma, ur ɣiyn ad farsn iɣman iḥbcann g wansiwn g tuḥmmu tfgga n umucc."
"After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages, but was preserved in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age.","dffir n ṭḍuṛi n tmnukda taṛumaniyya tudrimt, tettkwar tussna s kigan n irmmusn iyunayiyn n umaḍal g uṛubba tudrimt g tsutitin timzwura (400 ar 1000 dat n tlalit) g izmaz inammasn, maca ttuḥḍa g umaḍal a yislm g uzmz n wurɣ a yislm."
"Modern science is typically divided into three major branches that consist of the natural sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, and physics), which study nature in the broadest sense; the social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies; and the formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which deal with symbols governed by rules.","ar ttubḍunt timassanin titrarin bahra s kṛaḍ wayyawn ixatarn nna ittuṣkan sg tmassanin tigamanin (zund tawssntudrt, lkimya, d ufisi), nna izrrun agama s unamk nns mqqurn; d tmassanin tinamunin (zund tadmsa d tiklisnt d tsnamunt) nna izrrun imdan d imunn; d tmassanin tunṣibin (zund tungint d tusnakt d tussniwin n umssuds imiẓiṛ, nna ittnawaln timatarin nna g ttnbaḍtn ilugunn."
New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.,tussna tamaynut g tmassanin da zzigzn irzzutn n imassan nna inzal ufatal xf umaḍal d tnẓeẓdt g ufssay n imukrisn.
"In particular, it was the type of knowledge that people can communicate to each other and share.","slawan akkw, iga wanaw n tussna nna zmrn iwdan ad ẓaṛs myawaḍn ingr atsn ar tt tccurn."
"However, no consistent conscious distinction was made between knowledge of such things, which are true in every community, and other types of communal knowledge, such as mythologies and legal systems.","mqqar d mayan, ur illi uẓlayn izdin gr tussna n tɣawsiwin ad, nna iɣzann g wamun ad, d wanawn nniḍn akd tussna tanamunt, zund umin d imagawn izrfann."
"They even developed an official calendar that contained twelve months, thirty days each, and five days at the end of the year.","allig srsn yan ustal unṣib nna g illa mraw d sin n wayyur, d kṛamraw n wass g ku yan gisn, d smmus n wussan g tgira n usggwas."
"""For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to clearly distinguish """"nature"""" and """"convention.""""""","‘’xf tmntilt ad, ar ttinin irgazn ad mas gan ifaylasufn imzwura s unamk amnɣud, ula iwdan imzwura nna isnuḥyun s ufaw ‘’agama’’ d ‘’tmqqant’’."
"In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature (artifice or technology, Greek technē) was seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate interest for artisans of lower social class.","mgal n man aya, kkan ar ẓṛṛan ifaylasufn itrarn s irm n ussmrs n tussna n ugama s tḍfuṛt n ugama (tisnniɣin nɣ tatiknulujiyt, tatiqniyt tayunant) ayddɣ tga tanafut n nna bahra d yusan i inadn lli illan sg taggayt tanamunt tamazdart."
The theory of atoms was developed by the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his student Democritus.,ttuzzigz tmagunt n ifnuzn sg dar ufaylasuf ayunaniy lyusibbus d unlmad nns dimukritus.
The Socratic method as documented by Plato's dialogues is a dialectic method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions.,tga tɣarast n suqṛaṭ mkinna s tt zmmemn imsawln n aflaṭun tṣka yat tmamkt igan umɣnna n ḥma ad ffɣn xf turda: acku da ttafan turdiwin ifulkin uggar g swuttun nɣ g wugus n turdiwin nnaɣ nna ittawin s imgaln.
Socrates criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism.,ifrn suqraṭ anaw azayku sg tzrawt tafizikt ayddɣ tga yan uswingm izddign kigan d ur gis illi ufran n unmas.
"Aristotle later created a systematic programme of teleological philosophy: Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, according to what types of things they are.","g yat tizi izrin isskr ariṣṭu yan uɣawas anbrid n tflsaft tafrrzant: ar ittusnummal umussu akd usnfl is da suggwn nit g tɣawsiwin, s wanawn nna illan lli xf tlla."
The Socratics also insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being (a study Aristotle divided into ethics and political philosophy).,mkinna gan iṣuqṛaṭiyn tamssumant ḥma ad tssmrs tflsaft ḥma ad tsmuqql g tmsart tamassant n illan g tɣarast ifulkin n tudrt xf kra n ufgan (tazrwt n aṛiṣṭu tbḍa xf tɣariwin d tflsaft tasrtant).
Aristarchus's model was widely rejected because it was believed to violate the laws of physics.,ittuyagi umdya n aristarkus kigan acku ikka ttin iɣal is da iṛẓẓa izrfan n ufizik.
"John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar in the 500s, questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws.","iga jun filubnus afaylasuf abizanṭiy g tsutin n 500 dat n tlalit turda g usslmd n aṛiṣṭu i ufizik, isskn imaladn nns."
"""Aristotle's four causes prescribed that the question """"why"""" should be answered in four ways in order to explain things scientifically.""",‘’timntilin s kkuẓ n aṛiṣṭu ar ttirin tt asdsi ad ‘’max’’ iqqand ad fllas itturar xf kkuẓ n tɣarasin afad ad ttusfrunt tɣawsiwin s yat tmamkt igan tamassant’’.
"However, Aristotle's original texts were eventually lost in Western Europe, and only one text by Plato was widely known, the Timaeus, which was the only Platonic dialogue, and one of the few original works of classical natural philosophy, available to Latin readers in the early Middle Ages.","mqqar, uccan iḍṛiṣn n aṛiṣṭu s tgira g uṛubba tudrimt, d yan uḍṛiṣ n aflaṭun nna ittawassan bahra, tatimuriyt, nna igan amsawal amyiwn n aflaṭun. d yat sg twuriwin tiẓuṛin idrusn n tflsaft tagamant taklasikiyt, nna illan ɣur imɣra ilatiniyn g izmaz inammasn n zikk."
Many Syriac translations were done by groups such as the Nestorians and Monophysites.,kigan n tsuɣulin tisuryalyyin sskrn ttn trubba zund inusturiyn d imunufiziyn.
"""p. 465: """"only when the influence of ibn al-Haytam and others on the mainstream of later medieval physical writings has been seriously investigated can Schramm's claim that ibn al-Haytam was the true founder of modern physics be evaluated.""""""",‘’tasna 465: ‘’ur inni ad ittusitg ifukaln n caṛam masd memmis n lhaytm ntta ad isrsn tirsal s tidt n ufizik atrar xs adday da ittazla usaggu s nniyt g uḍiṣ n memmis d wiyyaḍ g umzaz axatar n tirra tifizikiyin d yuckan g izmaz inammasn’’.
"Avicenna's canon is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and they both contributed significantly to the practice of experimental medicine, using clinical trials and experiments to back their claims.","tga tɣruct n afisna yat sg tfifɣin n usujji issawhmman, qqaḥ nnsn iwsn kigan g tmskrt n usujji n anaram, s ussmrs n trmitin n tisitanin d tirmitin n usdus n tfakultin nnsn."
"In addition, classical Greek texts started to be translated from Arabic and Greek into Latin, giving a higher level of scientific discussion in Western Europe.","uggar n man aya, issnti usuɣl n iḍṛiṣn iklasikiyn sg tɛrabt tayunaniyt s tlatiniyt, aynna ifkan yan uswir yattuyn n umrara amassan g uṛubba udrim."
"Manuscript copies of Alhazen's Book of Optics also propagated across Europe before 1240, as evidenced by its incorporation into Vitello's Perspectiva.","mkinna ittusnɣaln yan warra sg udlis ‘’l ahzan’’ n tsmaqqalin g idɣarn n uṛubba dat n usggwas n 1240, mkinna ifaw sg tuccurt g birṭu fitillu."
"The influx of ancient texts caused the Renaissance of the 12th century and the flourishing of a synthesis of Catholicism and Aristotelianism known as Scholasticism in western Europe, which became a new geographic center of science.","yiwi ubuɣlu n iḍṛiṣn izaykutn g uzmz n tnkra g tsutit tiss 12 d ubuɣlu n trabbut sg tkatulikiyt d tin aṛiṣṭu nna ittwassan s wassaɣ n taculastikiyt g uṛubba tudrimt, nna idwln iga yan wammas ajuɣrafiy amynu n tmassanin."
A model of vision later known as perspectivism was exploited and studied by the artists of the Renaissance.,ttusmras tzrawt amdya n tannayt nna ittwassan s wassaɣ n umnad ɣur inaẓuṛn n uzmz n tnkra.
"This was based on a theorem that the orbital periods of the planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the centre of motion, which he found not to agree with Ptolemy's model.","ibdda wad dar tmagunt lli ittinin masd tasutin n iḥbutn n itritn iɣzzifn masd assutl nns yaggug uggar n wammas n umussu, nna yufan masd ur imsasa akd umdya n buṭulmi."
He found that all the light from a single point of the scene was imaged at a single point at the back of the glass sphere.,yufa masd asidd n tqiffit n yan sg imuɣla nna ittwaḍaṛn g yat tqiffit g ugzzum n ḍaṛt sg twjja n jjaj.
Kepler did not reject Aristotelian metaphysics and described his work as a search for the Harmony of the Spheres.,ur yugi kibluṛ tamitafiziqiyt taṛisṭuqratiyt isnumml tawuri nns mas iga arzzu xf tmsasit n yigran.
"""Galileo had used arguments from the Pope and put them in the voice of the simpleton in the work """"Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems"""", which greatly offended Urban VIII.""","‘’issmrs galilu anẓatn sg lbaba isrs tn g umslli n wunziln g twuri ’’amsawal nna iẓlin s imagawn imaḍlann ixatarn’’, nna ur iḥlin akd lḥaḍṛ wiss tam’’."
Descartes emphasized individual thought and argued that mathematics rather than geometry should be used in order to study nature.,iduz dikart kigan xf uwwngm n umdan d imɣanna mas iqqan ad ttusmras tusnakt g tzrawt n ugama g wansa n tnzgit.
"""This new science began to see itself as describing """"laws of nature"""".""",‘’tssnti tmassant ad tamaynut ar tẓṛṛa ixf nns mas da isnummal ‘’ilugan n ugama’’.
"In the style of Francis Bacon, Leibniz assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes for each type of thing.","g wammak n fṛansis bikun, ifa labbinz turda n masd anawn imyanawn sg tɣawsiwin ar ssudunt qqaḥ nnsn s mad illan g ilugan imatutn n ugama, akd alaḥ n yili n tmntilin tunṣibin nɣ timggura iẓlin s ku anaw n tɣawsiwin."
"""In Bacon's words, """"the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches"""", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond """"the fume of subtle, sublime, or pleasing speculation"""".""","‘’mkinna s as inna bikun, ‘’awttas n tiḍt d usɣnun n tmassanin iga tfki n tudrt n ufgan akd imiggitn d tgrawlitin timaynutin’’, swrn imassan xf uḍfuṛ n twngimin n tflsaft nɣ n yiman tar akmam, nna iɣaln is ur tfki ɣas imik g tumrt n ufgan s wuggar n ‘’wunuɣ n txnddallast, nɣ aswingm amsunfu’’."
Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population.,illa yan uzmz nniḍn issawhmman g usmata n tmassant gr imzdaɣ nna ittlmadn tiɣri d tirra s yat tmamkt iggudin.
"Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors – Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally – as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of nature and natural law to every physical and social field of the day.","ẓlin ifaylasufn n usfaw g umzruy agwzzal sg imzwura imassan-- galilu, bwil, d nyunutn g ixf n imzwura-- ayddɣ gan imnirn imḍagaln n uskkir n urmmus amdnan n ugama d ilugan n ugama g matta yigr ikmamn d inamunn g tizi ad."
"""Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a """"science of man"""", which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity.""","‘’isbuɣla hyum d imswingmn wiyyaḍ d wiyyaḍ sg umsfaw iskutlandiyn ‘’tussna n ufgan’’, nna isiwln fllas g umzruy g twuriwin ɣur imaratn g yamu jims burnit, adam firɣsun, jun milaṛ d wilyam rbrutsun, d qqaḥ nnsn skcmn tazrawt tamassant xf tmamkin n tmskrt n ufgan g tdlsiwin tizaykutin d afrak idusn g tmddasin iswuttan tamtrart’’."
Both John Herschel and William Whewell systematized methodology: the latter coined the term scientist.,isskr jun hircl d wilyam wiwil d yat tɣarast tanagmant: issufɣ umggaru ad irm n umassan.
"""Separately, Gregor Mendel presented his paper, """"Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (""""Experiments on Plant Hybridization""""), in 1865, which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics.""","‘’s yat tmamkt iẓlin, ifka jrijur mindl tifrt nns, ‘’frisuc ubr biflanzinhibridin ‘’(‘’tirmitin xf itthiyyan imɣayn’’), g usggwas n 1865, nna izzrin imnzayn n uratiy abyulujiy, nna iswurin zund tsila i tussniwin n takkusnt tatrart."
The phenomena that would allow the deconstruction of the atom were discovered in the last decade of the 19th century: the discovery of X-rays inspired the discovery of radioactivity.,tumanin nna ittajjan tiṛṛẓi n ifnuzn ufan g tifilit ad amggaru g tsutit n 19: tga twafit iznẓaṛn isiniyn n uɣbalu n twngimt n twafitin n tilal n imẓnẓar.
"In addition, the extensive use of technological innovation stimulated by the wars of this century led to revolutions in transportation (automobiles and aircraft), the development of ICBMs, a space race, and a nuclear arms race.","uggar n man aya, yiwi ussmrs iggutn n usnflul atiknulujiy nna akamn imnɣan n tsutit ad ndrnt tgrawliyin g yigran n usnɣl (tihirritin d taylalin), d usbuɣllu n (ICBM), d amḥizwar n ujnna, d umḥizwar n usalf anawawiy."
The discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964 led to a rejection of the Steady State theory of the universe in favor of the Big Bang theory of Georges Lemaître.,tiwi twafit n iẓnẓaṛn n tɣrḍin n taṭṭangiwin tunɣidin tuɣzuranin g usggwas n 1964 s wagi n tiẓiṛt n waddad iṛṣṣan n umɣrad i tiẓiṛt n ubbḍay amqqran n jurj limatr.
"Widespread use of integrated circuits in the last quarter of the 20th century combined with communications satellites led to a revolution in information technology and the rise of the global internet and mobile computing, including smartphones.","yiwi ussmrs n tẓiyyaṛin ismdn g yan udɣar mqqurn g wiss kkuẓ amggaru g tsutit tiss 20 tama n imyawaḍn n tgrawla tatiknulujiyt n umlan d uɣlay amaḍlan n lantirnit d tmssudst ittmussun, aynna g llan ttilifunat icwan."
"Both natural and social sciences are empirical sciences, as their knowledge is based on empirical observations and is capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.","timassanin tigamanin d tnamunin qqaḥ gant akkw yat amm yat d tmassanin tigamanin, acku da ttnal s tannayin tinaramin d izmr ad ttuẓlayn s uɣzan nnsn ɣur imrza nniḍn iswurin g amm tmamkin."
"For example, physical science can be subdivided into physics, chemistry, astronomy, and earth science.","s umdya, nɣy ad nbḍu ifizikn s ifizikn d lkimya d tawssnitran d tusnakal."
"Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science.","mqqar, gan imnadn iflsafiyn, d isnummal, d turdiwin nna bahra ittwattan, tga anbraz g tmassanin tigamanin."
"It includes mathematics, systems theory, and theoretical computer science.","tsmun tusnakt, d tmaggit n imagawn, d tussniwin n imssudas imiẓiṛ."
"The formal sciences are therefore a priori disciplines and because of this, there is disagreement on whether they actually constitute a science.","mqqar d aynnaɣ gant tmassanin tunṣibin d tmẓlayin izrin, s tmntilt n maynna, illa yan umzaray xf mas tga nit tmassant."
"Engineering itself encompasses a range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, science, and types of application.",tsmun tnzgit s ixf nns kigan n igran n tnzgit igan timẓlit uggar. qul nnsn akd usikl uggar slawan akkw g yigran imẓlay n tusnakt tusnikt d tmassanin d wanawn n isnisn.
"""he responded: """"Sir, what is the use of a new-born child?"""".""","irar: ‘’mass inu, mad igan assmrs n urba d ilulan tigira ad?’’."
This new explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions that are testable by experiment or observation.,ar ittusmras ayddɣ n ussfru amaynu i tmggitin n isnimaln ilaqn n urjan izmr ad as ittug ustal s tirmit nɣ tannayt.
"This is done partly through observation of natural phenomena, but also through experimentation that tries to simulate natural events under controlled conditions as appropriate to the discipline (in the observational sciences, such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might take the place of a controlled experiment).","ar ittili man aya imik s imik sg tnḍaft n tumanin tigamanin, yili awd sg trimin nna ikkatn ad sɣlulun n izmuzzutn igamanin ddaw tmssutlin illan ddaw tnḍaft s yat tmamkt d yusan (g tmassanin n imdi, zund tawssnitran nɣ ljyulujiyya, tzmr ad tasy tannayt iɣin ad yili g wansa n tirmit illan ddaw tnbaḍt)."
"If the hypothesis survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory, a logically reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena.","mk tnjm turda sg ustal, tɣy ad ttwaɣzan g uganza n tmagunt timassanin, amdya ng aganza umgin d yusan n unmas ḥma ad snumml timskrt n kra n tumanin tigamanin."
"In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses.","g umnid ad, da ttuṣkant tiẓiṛin s kigan n imnzayn n tussniwin s ixf nnsn zund turdiwin."
"This can be achieved by careful experimental design, transparency, and a thorough peer review process of the experimental results as well as any conclusions.","izmr ad yili mkinnaɣ sg umamk anaram amnɣud, d tmafawt, d tamhlt d usmnid aɣzuran dar iqqrin n tyafutin tinaramin xf matta usflutn."
"Statistics, a branch of mathematics, is used to summarize and analyze data, which allow scientists to assess the reliability and variability of their experimental results.","ar ttusmrasnt tiddanin, tga yan wanaw sg wanawn n tusnakt, i usgzl d usfsi n ismmaln, nna ittajjan n imassan n usitg inflsn d isnfaln n tyafutin tinarimin."
"It can be contrasted with anti-realism, the view that the success of science does not depend on it being accurate about unobservable entities such as electrons.","iɣy ad ttusmzazal s unmgal n tnlwit, amurs n tussniwin ur ibddi xf ad id amnɣud xf tɣawsiwin ur inɛddaln i ussmrs zund ayiliktruniyn."
There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of science.,llant ɣinna tinmal timyanawin g tflsaft n tussniwin.
"This is necessary because the number of predictions those theories make is infinite, which means that they cannot be known from the finite amount of evidence using deductive logic only.","man aya iqqan d xf wuṭṭun n turdiwin ur igin amggaru nna akkant tmagunin, mad immalan mas d ur inni ad ittwassan sg wanct n inmmaln iswuttan s ussmrs n tungint n usflu day."
"Critical rationalism is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper.","tlla tmɣzant ur iḥlin yat tɣarast imgaln akd g tsutit tiss 20, ittusnumml tikklt izwarn dar ufaylasuf anamsawiy abṛiṭaniy kaṛl bubr."
Popper proposed replacing verifiability with falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories and replacing induction with falsification as the empirical method.,ifka hubr tinmmalin xf tasult n uzrray xf tasult urjan zund aslmad sg idrizn n tiẓiṛt timassanin akd d tmssumant xf urjan zund yat imiss anaram.
"Another approach, instrumentalism, emphasizes the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena.","illa yan wanaw nniḍn, nna t igan d imiss, ar ittduz xf tyafut n tmiẓiṛin zund imassn n tumant d usnimal nns."
"Close to instrumentalism is constructive empiricism, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true.","g tama n tnaramt idusn, iga usfrn agjdan n umurs n tmagunt tamassant aynna kkan da ttinin xf imɣnawn d uynna iɣun ad ittuyannay s uɣzan."
"Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations.",ku amdya dars isqsitn nns d iwttasn nns d issfrutn nna ẓaṛṣ iẓlin.
"That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm.","ku astay n kra n umdya amynu dars kigan n tannayin lli f ittuṣka, mqqar gant tannayin nna ttufkan tt xf dffir n umdya azayku."
Its main point is that a difference between natural and supernatural explanations should be made and that science should be restricted methodologically to natural explanations.,"tlla tqiffit nns tagjdant g ulazm n usnuḥyu gr issfrutn igaman d issfrutn nna izrin agama, d mas ixṣṣa ad tbidd tmassant g tarrayt nns xf issfrutn n ugama."
"That is, no theory is ever considered strictly certain as science accepts the concept of fallibilism.",ur inni ad ttusatg matta tmagunt illan d tasuttuyt acku tamassant da gis ittili urmmus n tzglt.
New scientific knowledge rarely results in vast changes in our understanding.,ar bahra ttusfrunt tussniwin timassanin timaynutin s isnfiln imqqurn n urmmus nnɣ.
Knowledge in science is gained by a gradual synthesis of information from different experiments by various researchers across different branches of science; it is more like a climb than a leap.,"ar ttuyamaẓ tussna g yigr n tussniwin sg yan umyar n imik s imik i tsnsilkimt sg trmitin imyanawn dar imrza imyanawn illan sg wayyawn n tmassanin, nɣ irwas ily sg yan waylal."
"""Philosopher Barry Stroud adds that, although the best definition for """"knowledge"""" is contested, being skeptical and entertaining the possibility that one is incorrect is compatible with being correct.""","isadf ‘’afaylasuf bari strud mqqar ittumgal usnml amufay n ‘’tussna’’, tga issurdu d mrxiwt g tzmrt n ad ur iɣzin ufgan yusa d uynna g iɣzan’’."
"This is especially the case in the more macroscopic fields of science (e.g. psychology, physical cosmology).","mkad ad iga waddad slawan akkw g yigran n tmassanin nna bahra immrwasn (zund tiklisnt, d tussniwin n umgrad, d tussniwin n umgrad afizikiy)."
Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased.,"sg tizi nnaɣ, iɣli wuṭṭun amsmun n izmzan iswurin s tillugna."
"Although the journals are in 39 languages, 91 percent of the indexed articles are published in English.","mqqar da tffuɣn tsɣunin s 39 n tutlayt, tlla gisn 91% sg imgradn ittuskturn da ttffuɣn s tutlayt tangliziyt."
"Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science & Vie, and Scientific American cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research.","tisɣanin timassanin zund tussniwin timaynutinn, d tudrt, d tussniwin n mirikan ar tqqn bahra aynna ixṣṣan willi yaqqran ar takka yan usgzl ur igin atiqniy i yigran n urzzu imdnan, aynna g amunt tnazufin isskmḍn g uzzigz g kra yigran n irzzutn."
"Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories.","izmr ad kcmn kigan n wanawn imzarayn g tgrumma ad n ilɣutn n insbabn, illan gr umaggu d txndallast."
"Many scientists pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit organizations.",kigan n imassan ar skarn tizzulanin g igran imyanawn n tdmsa zund immasn ikadimiyn d tmguri d tnbaḍt d tmddast ur igin tin warraz.
"""For example, Christine Ladd (1847–1930) was able to enter a Ph.D. program as """"C. Ladd""""; Christine """"Kitty"""" Ladd completed the requirements in 1882, but was awarded her degree only in 1926, after a career which spanned the algebra of logic (see truth table), color vision, and psychology.""","s umdya, tɣy kristin lad (1930-1847) ad tkcm s uɣawas n dduktura s usntl n ‘""""C. Ladd""""; tsmd kristin ‘’kiyti’’ lad aynna ixṣṣan g usggwas n 1882, maca ur ṭumiẓ tugga nns ar 1926, dat n yat tazzult nna igan ajbaṛ n tungint (annay taratsa n tiḍt), d tannayt n ikwlan, d taklilsnt’’."
"In the late 20th century, active recruitment of women and elimination of institutional discrimination on the basis of sex greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remain in some fields; in the early 21st century over half of the new biologists were female, while 80% of PhDs in physics are given to men.","g igiriwin n tsutit tiss 20, yiwi uswuri n tmɣart iggutn n d walaḥ n usnuḥyu n wanaw g usadf n wuṭṭun n tmɣarin nna iswurin, maca suln kigan n imzarayn iggutn gr wanawn g kra n yigran; g tzwuri n tstut tiss 21 iga wuggar n uzgn n imassan n tawssntudrt imynutn sg twtmin, g tizi nna g da ttufka 80% n ddukturat g ufizik i irgazn."
"Membership may be open to all, may require possession of some scientific credentials, or may be an honor conferred by election.","tzmr ad tṛẓm tmslayt g wudm n umata, nɣ tɣy ad tssutur ili n kra n warratn n uzzray n tmggit, nɣ tɣy ad tg uddur nna akkant tfrnin."
Science policy thus deals with the entire domain of issues that involve the natural sciences.,"s man aya, ar ṭṭamẓ tsrtit tamssant tuggt n yigran d tmsarin nna iẓlin s tmassanin tigamanin."
"Prominent historical examples include the Great Wall of China, completed over the course of two millennia through the state support of several dynasties, and the Grand Canal of the Yangtze River, an immense feat of hydraulic engineering begun by Sunshu Ao (孫叔敖 7th cent.","sg imdyatn g umzruy illan g man aya agadir n ṣṣin anmɣur, nna ismdn ɣur sin nd yifḍn n isggwasn sg usdus n twunkt sg kigan n tawjiwin, d uɣlal amqqran n wasif n yanɣitsi, nna igan yat tqiffit ixatrn sg tnzgit tahidruliiyt nna isnti suncu a (7%)."
"Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds.","timggitin ad, nna ttdblan tnbaḍt nɣ timssurin nɣ timrsal, nna as iẓllin imik n idrimn idrusn."
"The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in social science and humanities.","asɣal n ussẓṛf n tnbaḍt g kra n tmggitin yattuyyn, ar nit ṭṭamẓ irzzutn g tmassanin tinamunin d tmassanin tinfganin."
"Many factors can act as facets of the politicization of science such as populist anti-intellectualism, perceived threats to religious beliefs, postmodernist subjectivism, and fear for business interests.","zmrn kigan n imggit ad swurin zund tisggiwin ḥma ad ssadfn tasrtit ammas n tussniwin zund tamdnant nna ur irin awngm, d isdiddiyn iswlafn iɣaln, d tfrikt n dat n tmtrart, d tawda d tnafutin n tsbbabt."
An experiment is a procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis.,tga tirmit yat tmggit nna ittuskarn g udus nɣ tiṛẓi n kra n turda.
"Experiments can raise test scores and help a student become more engaged and interested in the material they are learning, especially when used over time.","zmrnt trmitin ad asint iswirn n istaln awsn amḥdaṛ ḥma ad idru uggar yasi anzgum n tmttin nna da ittlmad, slawan akkw adday da ttusmras akd uzrruy n tizi."
"Experiments typically include controls, which are designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the single independent variable.",ar bahra smunnt trmitin imuzurn nna ittugan afad ad sdrisn idrizn n imsnfaln n gar amsnfl iẓlin iwaḍu nns.
Researchers also use experimentation to test existing theories or new hypotheses to support or disprove them.,mkinna da ssmrasn imrza tirmitin ḥma ad armn tiẓiṛin illan nɣ turdiwin timaynutin i isdusn nnsnt nɣ tiṛṛẓi nnsnt.
"If an experiment is carefully conducted, the results usually either support or disprove the hypothesis.","mk tsskrt kra n tirmit s tɣḍft, ar bahra tsdus tiyafutin n turda nɣ da tt tṛẓẓa."
"In medicine and the social sciences, the prevalence of experimental research varies widely across disciplines.","g usujji d tmassanin tinamunin, tmzaray tiggidit n irzzutn inaramn yan umzaray mqqurn gr tmẓlayin."
"A single study typically does not involve replications of the experiment, but separate studies may be aggregated through systematic review and meta-analysis.","ur bahra da ikcim g tzrawt allas n tirmit, maca iẓḍaṛ ad munnt tzrawin ibḍan sg usfsr anbrid d usfsi anaflla."
We may in this way eventually come to the truth that gratifies the heart and gradually and carefully reach the end at which certainty appears; while through criticism and caution we may seize the truth that dispels disagreement and resolves doubtful matters.,"illa yaɣ s uyddɣ n tmamkt ad nn nlkm g tgira tidt nna izziwizn ul ar nn tlkkm imik s imik s yat twlaft iṛṣan ar tigira nna g laḥ akkw turda, g tizi nna g nzmr ad nenziz sg ufran d usmzaɣ n tidt nna da isskarn asnuḥyu ar tfssi timsarin nna g llant turdiwin."
"""In this process of critical consideration, the man himself should not forget that he tends to subjective opinions—through """"prejudices"""" and """"leniency""""—and thus has to be critical about his own way of building hypotheses.""","‘’g tmggit n tannayt tanfrant ad, iqqan d f urgaz s ixf nns ad ur ittu is da ittddu xf tannayin n ixf nns - ammas n ‘’tudmawin’’ d ‘’mrxiwt’’- s man aya iqqn d ad ig anfran n tmamkt nns iẓlin g tuṣṣka n turdiwin’’."
"Bacon wanted a method that relied on repeatable observations, or experiments.","ira bikun yat tmamkt nna ibddan xf tannayin ittuyalasn, nɣ tirmitin."
"For example, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) accurately measured time and experimented to make accurate measurements and conclusions about the speed of a falling body.","s umdya, isɣal galilu galili (1564-1642) tizi s yat tmamkt tamnɣudt d ittuyaram ḥma ad iskr isɣaln d usflutn imnɣudn s mad iẓlin s tḍuṛi n tazzit."
"In some disciplines (e.g., psychology or political science), a 'true experiment' is a method of social research in which there are two kinds of variables.","g kra n tmẓlayin (zund tiklisnt nɣ tussniwin tisrtiwin), ‘’tirimt n tidt’’ ad igan taɣarast n urzzu anamun nna g llan sin wanawn n imsnfaln."
A good example would be a drug trial.,yan umdya ifulkin iga t tirimt n isduhdutn.
"The results from replicate samples can often be averaged, or if one of the replicates is obviously inconsistent with the results from the other samples, it can be discarded as being the result of an experimental error (some step of the test procedure may have been mistakenly omitted for that sample).","g kigan n waddadn iẓḍar unammas n tyafutin lli ittilin g tussifin nna ittuyalasn, nɣ mk tga kra n yat sg tussifin ittuyalasn ur d tusu s ufaw akd tyafutin nna d ittusufɣn sg tnssifin nniḍn, izmr ad ttufln tt ayddɣ gan tt tiyafutin n tzglt tanaramt (ɛniɣ qad gin kra n tsurifin n tmggit n ustal tkks yat tzglt i uynnaɣ n tussift)."
A negative control is known to give a negative result.,ar yakka wuṭṭuf uzdir mkinna nssn yat tyafut tuzdirt.
"""Most often the value of the negative control is treated as a """"background"""" value to subtract from the test sample results.""",‘’ar bahra ittgga umuggu yat tindit n tikiṛiṭṭ tuzdirt mas tga tindi’’ tiɣrdin’’ ayddɣ da takka tiyafutin n tussift n ustal’’.
Students might be given a fluid sample containing an unknown (to the student) amount of protein.,iẓḍaṛ ad ttufka yat tussift i imḥḍaṛn n imṭṭi nna g tlla kra n tmakta ur ittwassan n lbṛutin (imḥḍaṛn).
Students could make several positive control samples containing various dilutions of the protein standard.,zmrn imḥḍaṛn ad zzrin kigan n tussifin n wuṭṭuf amalaw nna g llan kra n isdrisn imyanawn n isfrn n lbṛutin.
The assay is a colorimetric assay in which a spectrophotometer can measure the amount of protein in samples by detecting a colored complex formed by the interaction of protein molecules and molecules of an added dye.,tga tsnawayt yan umuggu n usɣal abluṛi acku iẓḍaṛ i usbdad n iẓṛi ad isɣl anct n lbṛutin g tussifin s tbridt n azzray xf msmun n ukwlu nna ittuṣkan sg umrara n tgzzumin n lbṛuṭin d tgzzumin n wanaw ittusadfn.
"In this case, the experiment begins by creating two or more sample groups that are probabilistically equivalent, which means that measurements of traits should be similar among the groups and that the groups should respond in the same manner if given the same treatment.","g waddad ddɣ, ag tssnti tirmit g tɣarast n usskar n snat nɣ uggar n trubba n tussifin nna igan tasmɣurt g tsga tamdut, aynna immaln mas gan isɣaln n tfrdisin iqqn d ad ilin tt mmrwasn tt gr trubba d iqqnd ad ilint trubba da ttrarant s yat tmamkt mk darsnt yan umuggwu."
"Once equivalent groups have been formed, the experimenter tries to treat them identically except for the one variable that he or she wishes to isolate.","xs sg mad ttuskarnt trubba imsasan, da ikkat umyurm ad fllasn tt izry s yat tmamkt nna g ur yamu yan umsnfal nna ittirin ad iẓli."
This ensures that any effects on the volunteer are due to the treatment itself and are not a response to the knowledge that he is being treated.,man aya da issgar masd isrizn nna illan xf umxas da ttdwal s ujijji s ixf nns d ur d arar xf tussna nna s da ittmuggu.
"These hypotheses suggest reasons to explain a phenomenon, or predict the results of an action.","ar aɣ akkant turdiwin timntilin n ussfru n kra n tumant, nɣ asnimal n tyafutin n kra n tmggit."
The null hypothesis is that there is no explanation or predictive power of the phenomenon through the reasoning that is being investigated.,d turda nna izgln tga tt mas ur illi awd yan ussfru nɣ tadusi n usnimal i tmggit ad sg tungint nna g da izrri usaggu.
"To the degree possible, they attempt to collect data for the system in such a way that contribution from all variables can be determined, and where the effects of variation in certain variables remain approximately constant so that the effects of other variables can be discerned.","tmmaɣ, ar awttu izmrn, asmun n ismmaln n umagaw s yat tmamkt izmr ad iss tswuttut afṛṛu sg qqaḥ n imsnfiln, g tizi lliɣ g gan idrizn n kra n imsnfiln iẓlin iṛṣṣan acku iẓḍaṛ ad nsnuḥyu gr idrizn n imsnfiln nniḍn."
"Usually, however, there is some correlation between these variables, which reduces the reliability of natural experiments relative to what could be concluded if a controlled experiment were performed.","maca ar bahra ittili yan uzday gr uyddɣ n imsnfiln, aynna isdrisn sg tflst n tirimin tigamanin i uynna i usflu mk ttuskar tirmit ittubaḍn."
"""For example, in astronomy it is clearly impossible, when testing the hypothesis """"Stars are collapsed clouds of hydrogen"""", to start out with a giant cloud of hydrogen, and then perform the experiment of waiting a few billion years for it to form a star.""","‘’ s umdya, g tmassanin n tuṣḍṛunumt iḍhrn is yagum, adday daittarm kra n turda ‘’itran gan isignw d iḍṛn sg uhidṛujin’’, ad tssnti sg yat tsignut tamqqrant n uhidrujin, ɛad ad tmggit n tirmit n uggany kra n lbalayin n isggwasn ḥma ad iṣku itri’’."
"For this reason, field experiments are sometimes seen as having higher external validity than laboratory experiments.","s tmntilt ad, ar ẓṛṛan kra n tikkal tirimin n ubaraz mas tga mm twuri n bṛṛa tkka nnig tirimin n uramas."
"In these situations, observational studies have value because they often suggest hypotheses that can be tested with randomized experiments or by collecting fresh data.","g waddadn ad, illa yan wuddur mqqurn ɣur tzrawin n umdi acku ar bahra takka turdiwin nna iẓḍaṛn ad ttuyaramnt akd tirimin irwin nɣ s tbridt n usmun ismmaln imaynutn."
"In addition, observational studies (e.g., in biological or social systems) often involve variables that are difficult to quantify or control.",uggar n man aya gant tzrawin n imdi (s umdya g imagaw ibyulujiyn nɣ tinamunin) ar tsmun kigan xf imsnfiln nna icqqa usɣal n wanc nns nɣ annbḍ gis.
"Without a statistical model that reflects an objective randomization, the statistical analysis relies on a subjective model.","bla awd yan umdya taddadanit ittraran arway d usntl, ibdda usfsi n tddadanit xf yan umdya n unmas."
"For example, epidemiological studies of colon cancer consistently show beneficial correlations with broccoli consumption, while experiments find no benefit.","s umdya, ar ssḍharnt tizrawin timaḍunin n ufurray n lqulun abda tazdayt iɣudan akd tsmurt n uqulis, g tizi nna g ur lint tirmin awd yat tyafut."
"For any randomized trial, some variation from the mean is expected, of course, but the randomization ensures that the experimental groups have mean values that are close, due to the central limit theorem and Markov's inequality.","s mad iẓlin s irwin, ɣin ad ilin ɣinna kra n isnimaln n imzarayn sg wammas, s uɣzan, maca abṭṭu n mxamma da isggr mas llant ɣur trubba tinditin ilmalan, d man aya iga tmntilt n tiẓiṛt n uwttu anammas d gar umsasa gr markuf."
"To avoid conditions that render an experiment far less useful, physicians conducting medical trials—say for U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval—quantify and randomize the covariates that can be identified.","ḥma ad ttili tuggugt xf waddadn nna ittajjan tayafut n tirmit tdrus uggar, ar swuttun imssgnaf nna isskarn tirimin n usujji -afad ad snɣln turagt n tnmahla n wuttci d usafar g mirikan- anct ar skarn mkinnɣ tifrisin nna iɣin ad tn iswuttun."
"It is also generally unethical (and often illegal) to conduct randomized experiments on the effects of substandard or harmful treatments, such as the effects of ingesting arsenic on human health.","mkinna ur igi sg tɣariwin s umata (d gar azrfan g kigan n tikkal) timggit n tirimin irwin xf iḍiṣn nusujji nna g ur llin inawayn nɣ ixcn, zund iḍiḍn n wutci n uzirnij xf tdusi n ufgan."
"A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, while a metallurgy laboratory could have apparatus for casting or refining metals or for testing their strength.","iɣy ad yili g usarm n ufizik xf tazzitin timẓẓyanin bahra nɣ tamṣṛiyt n uqjdim, g izi nna g iɣy ad yili g usarm n izuɣar yan ungmam n yuyz n izuɣar nɣ akaru nns nɣ irm n tdusi nns."
Scientists in other fields will use still other types of laboratories.,qad smrsn imassan g yigran nniḍn sg usarmn.
"""Despite the underlying notion of the lab as a confined space for experts, the term """"laboratory"""" is also increasingly applied to workshop spaces such as Living Labs, Fab Labs, or Hackerspaces, in which people meet to work on societal problems or make prototypes, working collaboratively or sharing resources.""","‘’mqqar tlla twngimt tagjdant i usarm zund yan wansa ittufragn i imassan, iga urmmus n ‘’asarm’’ da isskar s yat tmamkt ittzayasn g wansiwn n usawr n twuri zund isarmn n tudrt, nɣ isarmn n fab, nɣ isarmn n hakrsbs, nna g ismun iwdan s twuri ḥma ad ifsi imukrisn inamunn nɣ tiggi n imdyatn imzwura, nɣ aswuri s tmamkt n umyawas nɣ amsbḍu n isugam."
This laboratory was created when Pythagoras conducted an experiment about tones of sound and vibration of string.,ittuskar uyddɣ n usarm lliɣ g iskr fitaɣuṛs yat tirmit xf iɣnnijn n umslli d imussutn n ifili.
A 16th century underground alchemical laboratory was accidentally discovered in the year 2002.,ittuyafa yan usarm akimawiy ddaw n wakal g tstutt tiss 16 s tzglt g usggwas n 2002.
"Laboratory hazards might include poisons; infectious agents; flammable, explosive, or radioactive materials; moving machinery; extreme temperatures; lasers, strong magnetic fields or high voltage.","qad smunn isaramn n id hiddj, d imggirtn n uzara, d tɣawsiwin nna ilaqn i uɣus nɣ abḍay nɣ tinna issuddan, d imassn ittmussun, d tskwdal n unrɣi yattuyn, d llizr, d igran n umiɣnaṭis idusn nɣ ifulṭuriyn yattuyn."
"The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the United States, recognizing the unique characteristics of the laboratory workplace, has tailored a standard for occupational exposure to hazardous chemicals in laboratories.","tskr tnmhalt n tnfrut g mirikan, s ugra nns s tmẓlayin iẓlin g idɣarn n twuri tasarmant, s usrrus n yan usfran n usmgal azzulan n tangiwin tikimawin icqqan g iramasn."
"In determining the proper Chemical Hygiene Plan for a particular business or laboratory, it is necessary to understand the requirements of the standard, evaluation of the current safety, health and environmental practices and assessment of the hazards.","adday ittusras usɣiws n tdusi takimawiyt d yusan i kra n twuri nɣ kra n urams, iqqnd urmas n issuturn n usfrn d usatik n tmskirin nna illan ɣila n tnfrut d tdusi d twnaḍt d usatig n imizitn."
"""Additionally, third party review is also used to provide an objective """"outside view"""" which provides a fresh look at areas and problems that may be taken for granted or overlooked due to habit.""","‘’uggar n man aya, ar ittusmras n isfsarn n tsggiwin s kṛaḍt n ujbaṛ ‘’tannayt n bṛṛa’’ amsɣaru ar yakka yat tannayt tamaynut xf igran d imukrisn nna izmrn ad gint yat tɣawsa ifawn nɣ yan umcum s tmyurt’’."
Training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility.,illa yan wuddur mqqurn dar usanum ayddɣ izdi usswuri iflsn i tnafut n usarm.
"For example, one research group has a schedule where they conduct research on their own topic of interest for one day of the week, but for the rest they work on a given group project.","s umdya, dar kra n trubba timrza yat trtsa n wakud na g zzrayn kra n irzzutn xf isntal nna iẓlin s yan wass g imalass, maca i wiyyaḍ ar swurin g tmssntit n trabbut nniḍn."
"A Locator is an employee of a Laboratory who is in charge of knowing where each member of the laboratory currently is, based on a unique signal emitted from the badge of each staff member.","yan usmras n usarm iẓlin xf tussna n wansa n ku agmam g usarm ɣila, s uynna as tsskn tmuli tawlawalt nna d ittddun sg tmuli n ku asmras."
"Through ethnographic studies, one finding is that, among the personnel, each class (researchers, administrators...) has a different degree of entitlement, which varies per laboratory.","sg tzrawin tilitnugrafyin, ar ttusgzalnt kra n tyafutin mas d ku tagrumma (imrza d inmhaln) da ɣursn ttilin s kra n tskwfal imzarayn n tklalit, nna da ittmzarayn s umzaray n usarm."
"By looking at the various interactions among staff members, we can determine their social position in the organization.","g uraɛa n kra n imggitn gr imsɣann, nzmr ad nswuttu ansa nnsn anamur g ungmam."
"So a consequence of this social hierarchy is that the Locator discloses various degrees of information, based on the staff member and their rights.","sg tyafutin n uzday n uzamug inamurn ad izzry wansa sg tskfal imzarayn n umlan, g unna illan dar umswuri d izrfan nns."
Social hierarchy is also related to attitudes towards technologies.,ar nn ilkkm uzday aazamugan anamun awd addadn sg waẓy n tatiknulujiyt.
"For example, a receptionist would view the badge as useful, as it would help them locate members of staff during the day.","s umdya, qad iraɛa usmras n usnbgi s tmatart is tɣuda, acku qad tn taws g uswuttu n wansiwin n imswura g wass."
"Staff members feel ill at ease when changing patterns of entitlement, obligation, respect, informal and formal hierarchy, and more.","ar syafan imswura s uzziwz asra g ttusnfaln tmamkin n wuklal, d ibddi, d uwqqr, d uzday n uzamug ur igin unṣib d wunṣib, d wiyyaḍ."
"""Nature, in the broadest sense, is the natural, physical, material world or universe. """"""","‘’tagama, s unamk nns mqqurn, tga amaḍlan agaman, akmam, nɣ amɣrad."
"Although humans are part of nature, human activity is often understood as a separate category from other natural phenomena.","mqqar iga ufgan yan ugẓẓum sg ugama, da tturmasnt tilal n ufgan g kigan n tikkal mas gan tigrumma iẓlin xf tumanin tigamanin nniḍn."
"The concept of nature as a whole, the physical universe, is one of several expansions of the original notion; it began with certain core applications of the word φύσις by pre-Socratic philosophers (though this word had a dynamic dimension then, especially for Heraclitus), and has steadily gained currency ever since.","iga urmmus n ugama qqaḥ, amɣrad akmam, yat sg kigan n isxitirn n urmmus aẓuṛan, tssnti s iskkirn ixatarn iẓlin s tguri nna igan (φύσις) ifaylasufn dat n suqṛaṭ (mqqar tga tguri ddɣ mm yat tindi tadinamikiyt g tizi nnaɣ, slawan akkw dar hiraklitus), d tumẓ adrim nns tillugna sg uzmz nna."
"However, a vitalist vision of nature, closer to the presocratic one, got reborn at the same time, especially after Charles Darwin.","mqqar d man aya, tlmala tannayt n tudrt n ugama s tannayt tafilawt, ttuyaraw d sg diɣ g yat tizi, slawan akkw dat n tcarlz darwin."
"""It is often taken to mean the """"natural environment"""" or wilderness—wild animals, rocks, forest, and in general those things that have not been substantially altered by human intervention, or which persist despite human intervention.""","‘’ar bahra ittgga unamk n ‘’tawnaḍt tagamant’’ nɣ tasramant-imudar isnaramn, iẓṛan, d taganin, slawan akkw tiɣawsiwin nnaɣ nna ur ddji ittusnfaln kigan sg ukccum n ufgan, nɣ tanna izdin mqqar fllas ikcm ufgan."
"Its most prominent climatic features are its two large polar regions, two relatively narrow temperate zones, and a wide equatorial tropical to subtropical region.","sg idrizn nnns n unzwi sin wansiwn n isfaylutn mqqurnin, d sin wansiwn iḥlan inyaman imik, d yan udɣar yastwan ixatrn ar d druɣ istawa."
"The remainder consists of continents and islands, with most of the inhabited land in the Northern Hemisphere.","willi d iɣaman sg imnẓawn d tgzirin, d kigan n ikaln illan g uzgn n twjja ntagafayt."
"The interior remains active, with a thick layer of plastic mantle and an iron-filled core that generates a magnetic field.","ar bahra ittmussu wagns, akd yan ublaḍ izurn n lblastik d tɣyayt itkwarn s wuzzal nna ittarun yan yigr n ulday."
Rock units are first emplaced either by deposition onto the surface or intrude into the overlying rock.,ar zwar zrrint zwar tfrdisin n iẓṛan swa s tɣarast n usqullz xf yiggi nɣ akccum g iẓṛan imunn.
Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere.,iwint tilal n bṛṛa d ukswar s tuṣṣka n tgniwt n ujnna agjdan.
"Continents formed, then broke up and reformed as the surface of Earth reshaped over hundreds of millions of years, occasionally combining to make a supercontinent.","ttuṣkan imnẓawnn bḍunt ttusɣudunt akd wallas n tuṣṣka n yiggi n wakal g kigan n timmaḍ n isggwasn, da ttmun kra n tikkal ḥma ad tg amnẓw imqqurn."
"During the Neoproterozoic era, freezing temperatures covered much of the Earth in glaciers and ice sheets.","g uzmz anyubrutruzumi, dln t tskwfal n unrɣi n ugris kigan g wakal g isaffn n ugris d iqcmaḥ n ugris."
"The last mass extinction occurred some 66 million years ago, when a meteorite collision probably triggered the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but spared small animals such as mammals.","yili yan uzmuzzu nniḍn, lliɣ g illa wuntal amgru dar dat n 66 n mlyun n usggwas, lliɣ g yiwi ungas n unayzak ad laḥ iḍinuẓuṛn akd igḍaḍ d inḥmaḍ imqqrann nniḍn, maca njmn imudar nniḍn nna da itteṭṭdn."
"The subsequent advent of human life, and the development of agriculture and further civilization allowed humans to affect the Earth more rapidly than any previous life form, affecting both the nature and quantity of other organisms as well as global climate.","yujja yili n tudrt n ufgan g yat tizi nniḍn d ubuɣllu n tkrza d tɣrma nniḍn n ufgan ad iḍiṣ xf wakal s yat tazzla mqqurn uggar n tmamkin n tudrt nna izrin, aynna iḍiṣn xf ugama d wanct n imidirn nniḍn iddrn ula anzwi amaḍlan."
The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by gravity.,taggayt tusdidt n inbbazn nna da iddaln akla ttuyamaẓ s tinnuzɣa.
The ozone layer plays an important role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface.,ar tturar taggayt n luzun yan tilal mqqurn g ussmur n iznzaṛn n nnig inibi nna da nn ittlkamn ijnna.
"Terrestrial weather occurs almost exclusively in the lower part of the atmosphere, and serves as a convective system for redistributing heat.","ar ittili unzwi n wakal s uẓlay s udas g ugzzum amazdar g tgniwt n ujnna, ar iswuri xf umagaw imunn akd ubṭṭu n unrɣi."
"Also, without the redistributions of heat energy by the ocean currents and atmosphere, the tropics would be much hotter, and the polar regions much colder.","mkinna ur dars allas n ubṭṭu n tẓḍaṛt n unrɣi s imzazn nna as issitgn d tgniwt, maca gan wansiwn n iḥbunn qad ilin rɣan uggar, d idɣarn n isfaylutn rɣan uggar."
"Surface vegetation has evolved a dependence on the seasonal variation of the weather, and sudden changes lasting only a few years can have a dramatic effect, both on the vegetation and on the animals which depend on its growth for their food.","tbuɣlla tduli n imɣayn n yiggi ayddɣ illa usnuḥyu n tsmẓẓuyt n unzwi, d zmrn isnfiln imẓuyn nna ittkkan kra n isggwasn day ad dars yili yan uḍiṣ mqqurn, swa xf tduli n imɣayn nɣ xf imudar nna ibddan xf txitrt nnsn g umaddur nns."
"Based on historical records, the Earth is known to have undergone drastic climate changes in the past, including ice ages.","g mad illan g izmmimn n umzruy, ittawassan mas issn wakal kigan n isnfiln n unzwi sg iẓuṛan g mad izrin, amun awd izmz n ugris g man aya."
"There are a number of such regions, ranging from the tropical climate at the equator to the polar climate in the northern and southern extremes.","llan kigan n wansiwn, ar ttnyuddu gr unzwi amadriy g tama n uzririg yastwan d unzwi n usfaylu g tfulin igafayn d iyffusn."
This exposure alternates as the Earth revolves in its orbit.,ar ittmxalaf umgal ad akd wannaḍ n wakal g wnsa n ubṛṛm nns.
Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface.,dln waman sg 71% nnig wakal.
"Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays and other names.",gan idɣarn mẓẓiyn g wassaɣ ammas n iftasn d yilln d talatin d ixlijn d wassaɣn nniḍn.
"It is not known if Titan's lakes are fed by rivers, though Titan's surface is carved by numerous river beds.","g mad ur ittwassan mas gan iylmamn n titan da tctta sg isaffn, mqqa iga yiggi n titan nna ittunqacn s kigan n wusutn n wasif."
"A wide variety of man-made bodies of water are classified as ponds, including water gardens designed for aesthetic ornamentation, fish ponds designed for commercial fish breeding, and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy.","ar ittusmaln kigan n islfisn n waman nna iṣka ufgan mas gan imdwan, nna g amunt awd turtitin n waman nn ittuskarn i usɣudu n wafulki, d imdwan n islman ittugan i ussgmi n islman n tsbbabt, d imdwan n tafugt iẓlin s tuffra n taẓḍaṛt n unrɣi."
"Small rivers may also be called by several other names, including stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill; there is no general rule that defines what can be called a river.","ar ttinin i isaffn mẓẓiynin kigan n wassaɣn nniḍn, nna g llan awd trggwin, lxuṛ, d lbṛuk, d rrifulit, d rril, d ur tlli awd yan ulgam amataw nna da iswuttun aynna mi nɣy as nsslɣ asif."
The structure and composition is determined by various environmental factors that are interrelated.,ar iswuttu wunuɣ d usmuttg iggitn n twnaḍt imyanawn izdin.
Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms interact with every other element in their local environment.,sg tɣawsiwin tigjdanin i urmmus n umagaw a ikulujiy yat twngimt n mas da ttmyuggun imɣnawn iddrn akd ku afrdis nniḍn g twnaḍt nns adɣran.
Life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms.,mkinna nzmr ad nini mas tga tudrt s mrxiwt n waddad iẓlin s imɣnawn n tudrt.
"However, not every definition of life considers all of these properties to be essential.","mqqar d maynna, ur igi ku usnumml n tudrt ayddɣ n ifrdisn igjdann."
"From the broadest geophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere (rocks), hydrosphere (water), and atmosphere (air).","sg tannayt n ljyufizikiy na imɣarn,tga tɣarift tadurant yan umagaw anwnaḍ amaḍlan nna da issadafn qqaḥ imɣnawn iddrn d tzdayin nnsn, aynna g yamu umuggu nnsn akd ifrdisn n tɣarift n iẓṛan, d tɣara n waman, d tgniwt."
"More than 2 million species of plant and animal life have been identified to date, and estimates of the actual number of existing species range from several million to well over 50 million.","ittuswutta wuggar n 2 n id mlyun g wanawn n tudrt n imɣayn d imudar ar ɣila, ar nn ttlkamn turdiwin n wuṭṭun amyagan n wanawn nna illan sg kigan n id mlyun ar uggar n 50 n id mlyun."
Species that were unable to adapt to the changing environment and competition from other life forms became extinct.,ttwabbayn kigan n wanawn nna ur iẓḍaṛn ad simkn akd twnaḍt tamsnfalt illan mgal n wunuɣn n tudrt nniḍn.
When basic forms of plant life developed the process of photosynthesis the sun's energy could be harvested to create conditions which allowed for more complex life forms.,"lliɣ g buɣlan wunuɣn igjdann n tudrt n imɣayn tirimt n usmdya n usidd, izmr ad nkks taẓḍaṛt n tafugt ḥma ad nsskr imrnutn nna ittajjan i wunuɣn n tudrt ad rwint uggar."
"Microorganisms are single-celled organisms that are generally microscopic, and smaller than the human eye can see.","gan imɣnawn usdidn isdn imɣnawn imyinawn n usibɣiy nna bahra igan asitaniy, d umẓẓan akkw nna mi tẓḍaṛ tiṭṭ n ufgan ad t tẓṛ."
Their reproduction is both rapid and profuse.,d tlisariyt isrban iɣadan g yat tiklit.
"Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae as originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms.","sg tizi nnaɣ, ifaw mas tga blanṭa mkinna tt snummln g uẓuṛ mas tsmun akkw kigan n trubba mi laḥ azday, twakkasn igwrsaln d tuggt n idaln s iglditin timaynutin."
"Among the many ways of classifying plants are by regional floras, which, depending on the purpose of study, can also include fossil flora, remnants of plant life from a previous era.","sg tɣarasin iggutn n usnmala n imɣayn iga ttnt xf imɣayn idɣrann, nna da itbddan xf uwttas n tzrawt, ɣint awd ad gis ilin imɣaryn ittwaɣzan, g ifrtuttuyn n tudrt n imɣayn g uzmz nna izrin."
"""Some types of """"native flora"""" actually have been introduced centuries ago by people migrating from one region or continent to another, and become an integral part of the native, or natural flora of the place to which they were introduced.""","''kra n wanawn ''imɣayn iẓuṛann ''ttusadfn d sg dat n tisutin dar iwdan nna da ittmuddun sg wansa s wayya nɣ sg umnẓaw s wayyaḍ, ar tggan yan ugzzum sg igzzumn n imɣayn iẓuṛann, nɣ imɣayn igamann n wansa nna g d kcmn''."
Animals as a category have several characteristics that generally set them apart from other living things.,lan kigan n tmẓlayin dar imudar iẓiln nna tn ibṭṭutn s umata xf tɣawsiwin nniḍn iddrn.
"They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls.",mkinna da ttusnuḥyu xf imɣayn d idaln d igwrsiln nniḍn sg alaḥ n iɣrban n tlmiktin.
There is also typically an internal digestive chamber.,ar bahra awd ttili yat tmṣṛiyt tumgant n wagns.
"A 2020 study published in Nature found that anthropogenic mass (human-made materials) outweighs all living biomass on earth, with plastic alone exceeding the mass of all land and marine animals combined.","tlkm tzrawt nna ittugan g usggwas n 2020 g tsɣnt tagamant mas tga agudi n mddn ittuskarn g (tangiwin nna isskwn ufgan) tugr qqaḥ agudi iwran iddrn xf wakal, acku izri lblastik iwaḍu nns tagudiyt n qqaḥ imudar isramn d imudar n yill."
"In spite of this progress, however, the fate of human civilization remains closely linked to changes in the environment.","mqqar illa uzzigz ad, iɣama umsdul n tɣrma tanfgant izdi yan uzday mqqurn s isnfiln g twnaḍt."
"Humans have contributed to the extinction of many plants and animals, with roughly 1 million species threatened with extinction within decades.","yiws ufgan g wubuy n kigan n imɣayn d imudar, dar 1 mlyun n wanaw ad ittusdaddayn s wubuy g kra n tasirin."
This distorts market pricing of natural resources and at the same time leads to underinvestment in our natural assets.,man aya da ittɛdam agadaz n isugam igaman ar awd ittawi g yat tizi s tdrsi n tsarwa g iẓuṛan nnɣ inagamn.
Governments have not prevented these economic externalities.,ur sbddin t tnbaḍin ayddɣ n imggitn idmsan n bṛṛa.
"Some activities, such as hunting and fishing, are used for both sustenance and leisure, often by different people.","d kra n tilal, zund tagmrt d tgmrt n islman, ar tn ssmrasn kra n mddn imyallan g kigan n tikkal ḥma ad jbṛn d ufjjij."
"That nature has been depicted and celebrated by so much art, photography, poetry, and other literature shows the strength with which many people associate nature and beauty.","ittuswlaf uyddɣ n ugama d ussmɣr iss g kigan n tẓuṛiwin, akd uswlf afutuɣrafiy, d tmdyazt, d kigan n tɣawsiwin nniḍn n tskliwin nna da isḍhaṛn adwas nna izdin kigan n mddn akd wafulki."
Nature and wildness have been important subjects in various eras of world history.,tga tgama ula tamkrra sin isntal issawhmman g yat tizi imyanawn g umzruy n umaḍal.
"Although natural wonders are celebrated in the Psalms and the Book of Job, wilderness portrayals in art became more prevalent in the 1800s, especially in the works of the Romantic movement.","mqqar gan imkunn igamann nna s isfuglutn g bsalm d udlis n twuri, dwlnt twlafin timslitin nna bahra ittwassan g 1800, slawan akkw g imassan n trumansiyt."
"""For this reason the most fundamental science is generally understood to be """"physics""""—the name for which is still recognizable as meaning that it is the """"study of nature"""".""","''s tmntilt ad, ar tturmasnt nna igan adaslan uggar slawan akkw is iga ''afizik''- d ntta iga assaɣ nna iɣin ad iqrra mas iga yat ''tzrawt tagamant''."
The visible components of the universe are now believed to compose only 4.9 percent of the total mass.,ar ttiɣil ɣila mas gan itmssukt ittuyannayn i iɣzwr dar 9.4% sg ugudiy n umata.
The behaviour of matter and energy throughout the observable universe appears to follow well-defined physical laws.,iḍhṛ is gan tmskrin n tangi d tazmrt g matta wansa illan g umɣrad nna izmrn ad ittuyannay da iḍffuṛ izrfan ifizikn ittuswuttan kigan.
"There is no discrete boundary between Earth's atmosphere and space, as the atmosphere gradually attenuates with increasing altitude.","d ur llin iwtta nna iẓlin gr tgniwt d wakal d ujnna, acku da tsfsis tgniwt akd titit n ugnar."
"There is also some gas, plasma and dust, and small meteors.","llan awd kra n unbbaz d lblazma d ugḍṛuṛ, d uḍu amẓẓyan."
"Although Earth is the only body within the solar system known to support life, evidence suggests that in the distant past the planet Mars possessed bodies of liquid water on the surface.","mqqar iga wakal tazzit tamyiwnt illan ammas n umagaw n afugan nna ittwassan s usdus n tudrt, maca ar mmaln inmmaln mas ikka ttin g mad izrin mcta aya, masd llan nnig n watri n lmrrix tazzitin n waman."
"If life exists at all on Mars, it is most likely to be located underground where liquid water can still exist.","mk nit tlla tudrt nnig lmrrix, tzwar d tilit nns ad tili g ddaw n wakal acku suln gis waman imsstan."
Observation is the active acquisition of information from a primary source.,"tannayt, iga tt ulkam ikrudn xf umlan g yan usagwm agjdan."
"The use of measurement developed to allow recording and comparison of observations made at different times and places, by different people.",assmrs n usɣal amtrar ad yajj s ikalas d uzmzazal n tannayin nna da ittilin idsnt tikkal d wansiwn imyanawn ɣur kra n iwdan imyanawn.
In measurement the number of standard units which is equal to the observation is counted.,"g usɣal, da ttuṣṣiṭnt uṭṭun n tfrdisin n usɣal nna d yusan akd tannayt."
"Scientific instruments were developed to aid human abilities of observation, such as weighing scales, clocks, telescopes, microscopes, thermometers, cameras, and tape recorders, and also translate into perceptible form events that are unobservable by the senses, such as indicator dyes, voltmeters, spectrometers, infrared cameras, oscilloscopes, interferometers, geiger counters, and radio receivers.","ttustrarn imassn n tmassanin ḥma ad awsn tizmmar tinfganin g yigr n tnḍaft, zund imssatln n taẓiyt, d tsragin, d ttiliskubbat, d tisit, d imssatln n unrɣi, d lkamiṛat, d imzmmemn n tsfifin, mkinna ttusaɣln s izmuzzutn n utam nna ur innin ad ttusmras s isyafatn, zund tunɣa n tfucay, d imassn n usɣal n ufultmitr."
"For example, it is not normally possible to check the air pressure in an automobile tire without letting out some of the air, thereby changing the pressure.","s umdya, ur ilaq uzzray n tmyurt n usiwr n uzwu g tlakat n thrrit mk ur nuri kra n uzwu, ḥma ad nsnfl asiwr."
"For example, in the twin paradox one twin goes on a trip near the speed of light and comes home younger than the twin who stayed at home.","s umdya, g usmzazal n ukniw da ittddu yan ukniw g yat tnyuddut g tama n tazzla n usidd ar d ittdwal imẓẓiy ɣr taddart uggar n ukniw nna igawrn g taddart."
"""Quantum mechanics: In quantum mechanics, which deals with the behavior of very small objects, it is not possible to observe a system without changing the system, and the """"observer"""" must be considered part of the system being observed.""","''kantum tamikanikiyt: g kantum tamikanikiyt nna da ittmraran akd tmskrt n tzzitin nna bahra imẓẓiyn, ur inni ad nanny amagaw mk ur nsnfil amagaw, d iqqan d ad ig ''unḍaf'' yan ugzzum sg umagaw nna ittuyannayn’’"
"Human perception occurs by a complex, unconscious process of abstraction, in which certain details of the incoming sense data are noticed and remembered, and the rest forgotten.","da ittili utam n ufgan g tmggit n wukus irwin d ur igin tafrakt, acku da ttɣima ar ittuyannay ar d iktti kra n ifruruyn n isnummaln n tufrayin nna illan, ar ittwattu uynnaɣ nniḍn."
"""Later when events are remembered, memory gaps may even be filled by """"plausible"""" data the mind makes up to fit the model; this is called reconstructive memory.""","''g yan uzmz nniḍn, asra g d nkty izmuzzutn, qad ttufkan warratn n tmktit ''iɣzan'' nna da itgga unlli ḥma ad yas d umdya, man aya da ittusmma timktit n wallas n tuṣṣka''."
"In psychology, this is called confirmation bias.",man aya illa s wassaɣ tudmawit d usuttuy g tklisnt.
"For example, let us suppose that an observer sees a parent beat their child; and consequently may observe that such an action is either good or bad.","s umdya, adj at aɣ ad nini masd yan sg inḍafn da iẓṛṛa yan sg imarawn da ikkat arba nnsn, s man aya izmr ad yannay ayddɣ nna iga is iɣuda nɣ ur iḥli."
"""Research is """"creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge"""".""",''iga ''urzzu'' yat twuri n usnflul anbrid nna ittuskarn ḥma ad ssilin anct n tussna''
"To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.","ḥma ad nẓliy tadusi n imassn nɣ timggitin nɣ tiramin, ẓḍaṛn irzzutn ad alsn i ifrdisn izrin nɣ asnfar maṛṛa."
This material is of a primary-source character.,gant tmttiwin ad mm yan uɣbalu amzwaru.
"In experimental work, it typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e.g., in the laboratory or in the field, documents the methodology, results, and conclusions of an experiment or set of experiments, or offers a novel interpretation of previous results.","g twuri tanarm, ismun kigan n tannayin tusridin nɣ tinna ur igin tusridin n kra n usntl nna g urzzu nns, s umdya, g usarm nɣ abaraz, d untam n tbridt d tyafutin akd isfluyn n tirimin nɣ kigan n tirimin, nɣ tikki n ussffru amaynu n tyafutin izrin."
The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals and usually established by means of peer review.,taskwflt n tzdgi n urzzu ad igan sg isfrn ixatarn i imgradn nna da ittusfsarn g yigran ikadimiyn ar ttuskar kigan n tikkal xf ussfsr n iqqrinn.
This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world.,ar yakka urzzu ad kigan n inɣmisn d tmẓṛitin timssnawin nna issfrun anaw n umaḍal d tmẓlay nns.
Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines.,iẓḍaṛ ad ittwabḍu urzzu amassan xf wanawn imyanawn xf tmẓlay nnstikadimiyin d usnis.
"Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead, explore the issues and details that surround it.","ar bahra siggiln imassan n tmassanin tinfganin xf kra tmrarut ur izgiln tamggarut xf kra usqsi, nɣ ar snflulun kra g wansa n tmntilin d ifrdisn nna as ittin."
"Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically investigate a topic, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past.","ar ssmrasn imzzezruyn iɣbula imzwura d kra nniḍn n inẓatn ḥma ad ilkm s yat tmamkt tanbridt g kra n usntl, ilmma tirra n umzruy zund imimiḍan izrin."
The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the topic.,iqqand ad iẓli urzzu s uzday n watig nns s tussniwin nna illa nit g usntl.
"Generally, a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment.","s umata, da ttusmras turda afad ad gin isnmaln nna izmrn ad ttustaln g adday da ttuḥṭṭu tyafut n tirimt."
This careful language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations.,ar ttusmras tutlayt ad tunɣidt acku ssn imrza mas d zmrn turdiwin ɣint ad zdint akd tannayin awd.
"As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction.","akd uɣudu n tnnayt s dat n tizi, tzmr ar ur iqqim usnimal amnɣud ɣur turda."
"""Artistic research has been defined by the School of Dance and Circus (Dans och Cirkushögskolan, DOCH), Stockholm in the following manner – """"Artistic research is to investigate and test with the purpose of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines.""",‘’ttunmaln irzzutn n tẓuṛi sg dar tinml n urkaz d usirk g stukhulm s tmamkt ad: ‘’arzzu n tẓuṛi iga uzzray d ustal ḥma ad amzn tussna ammas n tmẓlayin n tẓuṛi d xf uynnaɣ’’.
Artistic research aims to enhance knowledge and understanding with presentation of the arts.,da kkatnt irzzutn n tẓuṛi ad sdusn tussna d urmmus akd usfsr n tẓuṛi.
"""According to artist Hakan Topal, in artistic research, """"perhaps more so than other disciplines, intuition is utilized as a method to identify a wide range of new and unexpected productive modalities"""".""","dar unaẓuṛ han tubal, g irzzutn n tẓuṛi, ‘’ɛniɣ uggar nns g tmẓlayin, ar ttusmras twngimt zund yat tɣarst n uswttu n kigan n tbridin timaynutin n usnflul nna ur ittudmin’’."
"Background research could include, for example, geographical or procedural research.","ɣin ad smunn irzzutn ixatarn s umdya, irzzutn ijɣrafiyn nɣ amaxfan."
The literature review identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study.,ar iswuttu usfsr n tsklanin udmawn n uquḍeḍ nɣ n tbbaydarin n irzzutn izrin nna yakkatn timcuccaḍ n tzrawt.
The research question may be parallel to the hypothesis.,tzmr ad tmsasa tmsart n urzzu akd turda.
"The researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as empirical research.","ilmma ar isfsay umrzu d ar issfru isfka s kigan n tbridin imyanawn n tsnmtayin, d udru g uynna mi ttinin irzzuntn inaramn."
"""However, some researchers advocate for the reverse approach: starting with articulating findings and discussion of them, moving """"up"""" to identification of a research problem that emerges in the findings and literature review.""","''mqqar d mayan, ar ttraran kra n imrza xf ubrid amgal: g umzwaru ar ittili usfaw n tyafutin d umrara nnsnt, d ummuty s ''uswttu n tmukrist n urzzu nna da ittbayan g usḍhr n tyafutin n tskla''."
Qualitative research is often used as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative research hypotheses.,ar bahra ittusmras urzzu amanaw zund yat tɣarast n urzzu n usnubbc zund tirslt n turdiwin n urzzu anctan d yuckan.
Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of positivism.,arzzu anctan izdi s waddad aflsaf d umiẓiṛ n udɣa.
Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest.,ar tt ittawi urzzu anctan g ustal n turdiwin nna d iddan sg tmiẓiṛt nɣ tazmrt n imilɣ n uksay n tumant.
"If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.","mk iga uwttas asmata sg imdrawn g urzzu xf wuṭṭun iggutn n imzdaɣ, qad issmras urzzu tussifin tiḍakadin ḥma ad stin imadrawn."
"Secondary data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can be re-used for the research.","ismmaln isinann gan tn ismmal nna nik illan, zund ismmaln n uswjd, nna iɣin ad ttusmras tikklt yaḍn g urzzu."
This method has benefits that using one method alone cannot offer.,s ayddɣ n tɣarast kigan n tyafutin ur inni ad tn ifk ussmrs n yat tɣarast iwaḍu nns.
Non-empirical research is not an absolute alternative to empirical research because they may be used together to strengthen a research approach.,irzzutn ur igin inaramn ur gin imkkisi n irzzut inaramn acku izmr ad ttusmrasn qqaḥ s sin ḥma ad uttusdus tbridt n urzzu.
The management of research ethics is inconsistent across countries and there is no universally accepted approach to how it should be addressed.,tamhla n tɣariwin n urzzu ur tẓḍi gr tmizar d ur tlli awd yat tɣarast iɣzann g umaḍal xf tmamkt n usɣudu nns.
"Regardless of approach, the application of ethical theory to specific controversial topics is known as applied ethics and research ethics can be viewed as a form of applied ethics because ethical theory is applied in real-world research scenarios.","s mkinna tra tgt tɣarast n uḍfuṛ, illa uskkir n tirmit taɣarnt g isntal iẓlin g umrara d mɣnna imqqurn, ittwassan s tɣariwin tusnisinin d tɣariwin n urzzu izmr ad ig yan wunuɣ sg wunuɣn n tɣariwin tusnisinin acku da ttili tmẓṛit taɣarant g jaj n isinaryutn n irzzutn g umaḍal n tidt."
"Research ethics is most developed as a concept in medical research, the most notable Code being the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki.","tɣariwin n urzzu ar bahra ittbuɣllun zund armmus g irzzutn n usggnaf, d tgriwt tamqqrant tga tt ulɣu n hilinski g usggwas n 1964."
"Meta-research concerns itself with the detection of bias, methodological flaws, and other errors and inefficiencies.","ẓlin irzzutn n uflla s uzzray n tudmawin, d imladn n tarrayt, ula kra nniḍn sg tzggal ula asquḍeḍ."
Periphery scholars face the challenges of exclusion and linguicism in research and academic publication.,ar ttnaln imrza kigan n tbbayḍaṛin d tuggugt d tutlayant g urzzu d usfsr akadimiy.
"For comparative politics, Western countries are over-represented in single-country studies, with heavy emphasis on Western Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.","s mad iẓlin s tsrtitin n usmzazal, ttusmdaynt tmura tudrimin yan usmdya iggutn g tzrawin n yat tmazirt, akd ussikl yattuyn g uṛubba tudrimt d kanaḍa ula ustralya d nyuzilanda."
"Studies with a narrow scope can result in a lack of generalizability, meaning that the results may not be applicable to other populations or regions.","ẓḍaṛnt tzrawin nna mi inyaman wansa s ulaḥ n tnmrawt n usmata, aynna yakkan tiyafutin nna ur innin ad d tas xf imzdaɣ."
"Usually, the peer review process involves experts in the same field who are consulted by editors to give a review of the scholarly works produced by a colleague of theirs from an unbiased and impartial point of view, and this is usually done free of charge.","kigan n tikkal ad tsmun tmggit n usmnid n imassan n yan yigr ar tn ttcawaṛn imaratn ḥma ad sskrn yan usmnid i twuriwin timassanin nna d issufɣ yan umddakwl nnsn sg yat tsga ur igin tudmawant iẓlin, ar bahra ittili mynna s ubnnan."
"For instance, most indigenous communities consider that access to certain information proper to the group should be determined by relationships.","s umdya, gan kigan n imunn n imzdaɣn iẓuṛann masd alkam n ismman iẓlin d yusan akd trabbut iqqand ad tt swuttunt tzdayin."
"The system varies widely by field and is also always changing, if often slowly.","imyalla imagawn yan umyalla imqqurn g unna illan g ubaraz, mkinna da ittusnfal abda, mk yaɣ slḥil g kigan n tikkal."
These forms of research can be found in databases explicitly for theses and dissertations.,izmr ad yaf kigan ayddɣ n wunuɣn g irzzutn g tsila n ismmaln s tidt n irzzutn n dduktura.
"The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields, from the print to the electronic format.","ar ttmziriyn wanawn n tfifɣin izrin zund afṛṛu g tussniwin nɣ irzzutn yan umziray mqqurn gr igran, sg usigz s wunuɣ aliktruniy."
Business models are different in the electronic environment.,d imdyatn n twuriwin n tsbbabt myanawnt g twnnaḍt tlilktruniyt.
Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for research funds.,ar akkan kigan n imrza ixatarn (zund indadn n trubba) yan wanct mqqurn g tizi nnsn g tutra n tikkitin ḥma ad amẓn idrimn n isnubbucn.
The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century (with notable practitioners in previous centuries).,tamamkt tamassant tga yat tmamkt tanaramt g yimẓ n tussna nna iẓlin abuɣlu n tussniwin sg dar tsutit tiss 17 (akd imskirn ixatarn g tsutitin izrin).
"These are principles of the scientific method, as distinguished from a definitive series of steps applicable to all scientific enterprises.","wid ad gan isntitn n tɣarast tamassant, nna iẓllin xf yat trabbut tamggarut sg tsurifin nna ittwasskarn xf kigan n tmrsal timassanin."
"A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question.",tga turda yan uswingm nna ittuṣkan xf tussna nna ittuyamaẓn g tizi n urzzu xf tmrarutin xf usqsi.
"There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method, however.",maca llant cigan n tbbayḍaṛin g usrrus n usmmal n tlɣiwin i tmamkt.
"""The term """"scientific method"""" emerged in the 19th century, when a significant institutional development of science was taking place and terminologies establishing clear boundaries between science and non-science, such as """"scientist"""" and """"pseudoscience"""", appeared.""","''iffɣ d urmmus n ''taɣarast tamassant'' g tsutit tiss 19, dda g da ittili yan ubuɣllu g mrsal tixatarin g tmassanin, ffuɣn d kra n irmmusn nna da iswuttun yan uswuttu anafaw gr tusniwiwin d gar tussniwin, zund ''amassan'' d ''tusniwinur tt igin''."
"Gauch 2003, and Tow 2010 disagree with Feyerabend's claim; problem solvers, and researchers are to be prudent with their resources during their inquiry.","ar ittmziriy jutc 2003 d tu 2010 akd uxatar n fayrabnd, ar ttraran imrza taɣḍft adday da zzrayn xf isugam nnsn."
"Philosophers Robert Nola and Howard Sankey, in their 2007 book Theories of Scientific Method, said that debates over scientific method continue, and argued that Feyerabend, despite the title of Against Method, accepted certain rules of method and attempted to justify those rules with a meta methodology.","inna ufaylasuf rubrt nula d haward sanki, ammas n udlis nnsn g usggwas n 2007 timẓṛitin n tbridt tamassant, zdin imraratn xf ubrid amassan izdin, mɣannan mas d fayrabnd mqqar illa uzwl nns mgal n tɣarast, ira kra sg ilugan iẓlin sg tbridt yarm ad ifk imcaccuḍn xf ilugan nna s tɣarast tanafllat."
The ubiquitous element in the scientific method is empiricism.,tga tirmit yan ufrdis axatar g tmamkt tamassant.
"The scientific method counters claims that revelation, political or religious dogma, appeals to tradition, commonly held beliefs, common sense, or currently held theories pose the only possible means of demonstrating truth.","ar ittini wammak amassan mas iga wazzray yan imiss amyiwn iẓḍaṛn ad iwc tidt n isɣann n tsrtit, nɣ aɣuri xf tmyurin, nɣ iɣaln iggutn, nɣ afikas idusn, nɣ timẓṛitin nna illan dɣi."
"From the 16th century onwards, experiments were advocated by Francis Bacon, and performed by Giambattista della Porta, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei.","sg tsutit tiss 16 s uflla, tlla tɣuri s tirimin nna iskr fransis bikun, isskr tt jyambatsika dila burta, yuhans kiblr, d galilu galili."
"As in other areas of inquiry, science (through the scientific method) can build on previous knowledge and develop a more sophisticated understanding of its topics of study over time.","mkinna iga waddad g yigran nniḍn sg yigran n uzzray, tzmr tmassant (sg tɣarast tamassant) ad tṣku xf tussna nna izrin d usbuɣllu n urmas nna bahra irwin i isntal n tzrawt s uzrruy n tizi."
"""This model can be seen to underlie the scientific revolution.: """"""",‘’izmr ad ittuyannay umdya ad mas d iga tirsal n tgrawla tamassant''.
"One conjecture might be that a new drug will cure the disease in some of the people in that population, as in a clinical trial of the drug.","iɣy ad yan sg iswingmn mas iga yan usafar amaynu na ijjujuyn aṭṭan g kra n iwdan g imzdaɣ nna, mkinna iga waddad g tirimt n wusu n usafar."
These predictions are expectations for the results of testing.,isnamaln ad gan isnimaln n tyafutin n ustal.
The difference between expected versus actual indicates which hypothesis better explains the resulting data from the experiment.,asnuḥyu gr usnimal mgal n umyagan ar immal matta turda nna da issfrun ismmaln nna d iffɣn g tirmit s yat tmamkt ifulkin.
"Depending on the complexity of the experiment, iteration of the process may be required to gather sufficient evidence to answer the question with confidence, or to build up other answers to highly specific questions, to answer a single broader question.","ayddɣ tcqqa tirmit ad bahra, iqqan d ad ttuyalas n tmskrt ḥma ad munn inmmaln yudan xf tmrarut n usqsi s tflst, nɣ ad ttuṣkunt tmrarutin nniḍn xf isqsitn iswuttan bahra, afad ad tili tmrarut n yan usqsi g udɣar mqqurn."
"""X-ray diffraction patterns of DNA by Florence Bell in her Ph.D. thesis (1939) were similar to (although not as good as) """"photo 51"""", but this research was interrupted by the events of World War II.""","llan ''wanawn n iznzarn isiniyn ifrɣn n ismmim anawawiy dar flurns bil g urzzu n dduktura nns (1939) tmsasa akd ''twlaft 51'' (mqqar ur tḥli), maca arzzu ddɣibdda xf tmntilt n ugari maḍlan wiss sin''."
"""June 1952 — Watson had succeeded in getting X-ray pictures of TMV showing a diffraction pattern consistent with the transform of a helix.: """"""","''g yunyu 1952, imurs waṭṣun g ad yamẓ yat twlaft s iznẓaṛn isiniyn i tratsa n (TMV) ḥma ad issufɣ yan wanaw n ussfsr akd usnfal n lhiliks''."
"This prediction was a mathematical construct, completely independent from the biological problem at hand.","iga usnimal ad yat tuṣṣka n tusnakt, iẓli qqaḥ xf tmukrist tabyulujiyt nna illan."
"""DNA is not a helix.""""""",''aḥimḍ anawawiy ur igi hiliks''.
"For example, the number of strands in the backbone of the helix (Crick suspected 2 strands, but cautioned Watson to examine that more critically), the location of the base pairs (inside the backbone or outside the backbone), etc.","s umdya, iga wuṭṭun n ifalan g iẓdy n hiliks (irwas krik g 2 ifalan, maca ismzzaɣ waṭsun g uzzray xf maynna s yat tmamkt igan bhra timzrit), d wansa n imsdditn n tsila (g jaj n uẓdy nɣ bṛṛa n uẓdy), d kra nniḍn."
"""But Wilkins agrees to do so only after Franklin's departure.: """"""",maca wilknz ur da ittiri ad isskr aynnaɣ xs adday iddu frank lin''.
"He and Crick then produced their model, using this information along with the previously known information about DNA's composition, especially Chargaff's rules of base pairing.:","ilmma isnflul d ntta akd krik amdya nnsn, s ussmrs n inmmaln ula inmmaln nna ittwassan g mad izrin xf usmuttg n uḥimḍ anawawiy, slawan akkw ilugan n tcaṛjaf n uzzray agjdan."
"For significant or surprising results, other scientists may also attempt to replicate the results for themselves, especially if those results would be important to their own work.","ḥma ad tlkmt tiyafutin issawhmman nɣ timzway, qad armn imassan nniḍn ad alsn awd tiyafutin nnaɣ s ixfawn nnsn, slawan akkw mk mqqurnt tyafutin n twuri nnsn."
"Peer review does not certify the correctness of the results, only that, in the opinion of the reviewer, the experiments themselves were sound (based on the description supplied by the experimenter).","ur issin usfsr n inggutn s uɣzan n tyafutin, maca ar ittannay mas zddignt tyafutin nnaɣ s ixfawn nnsnt (xf uynna illan g usnumml nna ifka bab n tirmit)."
These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of experimental sciences than social sciences.,da frrɣn idrdisn ad n tbridt d usnmala n tmggitin ad sfirsn uggar s tmassanin tinaramin g tmassanin tinfganin.
"""The elements above are often taught in the educational system as """"the scientific method"""".""",ar bahra zzrayn ifrdisn nna ittubdarn aflla g umagaw n usslmd mas tga ''tamamkt tamassant''.
"For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's Principia.","s umdya, lliɣ g isrs incṭayn timẓṛitin tiẓlay d tmatutin n tsɣlant, ur iwit ula isnaqs g brinsya nyutun s awd yan wunuɣ g wunuɣn."
"The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between pseudo-sciences, such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology.","ar bhra ittgga ugraw imunn ittusudsn inɣdn i isɣaln nɣ assiṭn n id wanct nna ɣur tazdayt akd usnuḥyu illan gr tmassanin irjan, zund lkimya, d tmassanin zund lkimya nɣ tusnatudrt."
Uncertainties may also be calculated by consideration of the uncertainties of the individual underlying quantities used.,nzmr ad nssiṭn udmawn n gar aɣẓan s usmuqql s udmawn n gar aɣẓan sg iwliwln n wanctn igjdann ittusmrasn.
"""The operational definition of a thing often relies on comparisons with standards: the operational definition of """"mass"""" ultimately relies on the use of an artifact, such as a particular kilogram of platinum-iridium kept in a laboratory in France.""","''ar itbdda usnml awuran n kra n tɣawsa g kigan n tikkal xf idmzazaln akd anisman: asnml aswuran n ''agudi'' da itbdda g tgira xf ussmrs n tgzzumt tadrizant, zund kilugram n kra n lblatin-iridyum amḥfuḍ g usarm g fṛanṣa."
Scientific quantities are often characterized by their units of measure which can later be described in terms of conventional physical units when communicating the work.,ar bahra sfirisnt tmaktatin timssanin s tfrdisin n isɣaln nnsnt nna iẓḍaṛn ad tn isnmal dffir n maynna s mad iẓlin s tfrdasin tikmamin tizaykutin adday ilkm tawuri.
"It took thousands of years of measurements, from the Chaldean, Indian, Persian, Greek, Arabic, and European astronomers, to fully record the motion of planet Earth.","tiwi tɣawsa ad kigan n isggwasn n isɣaln, sg itritn ikildaniyn d lhnud d ifarisiyn d iyuaniyn d uṛubbiyn udrimn, ḥma ad zmmemn amussu n tzwinnit n wakal qqaḥ."
The observed difference for Mercury's precession between Newtonian theory and observation was one of the things that occurred to Albert Einstein as a possible early test of his theory of General relativity.,iga umzaray ittunnayn g usnti n mirkuri gr tmẓṛit d tannayt tga yat tɣawsa nna ijṛan i albrṭ ancṭayn zund yan ustal amnzu i tamẓṛit nns i timassɣt tamatut.
"Scientists are free to use whatever resources they have – their own creativity, ideas from other fields, inductive reasoning, Bayesian inference, and so on – to imagine possible explanations for a phenomenon under study.","ar tfjjijn imassan s tlelli g ussmrs n matta isugam ɣursn illan-isnfluln nnsn iẓlin, d twngimin nnsn g yigran nniḍn, d ussfru n afazan, d inmmaln n lbayzi, d wiyyaḍ- ḥma ad swwlfn isffrutn nna qad yili i tumant nna illan g tzrawt."
Scientists often use these terms to refer to a theory that is following the known facts but is nevertheless relatively simple and easy to handle.,ar bahra ssmrasn ayddɣ n yirimn ad sskn s tiẓṛit n tḍfuṛt n tiditin ittwassan maca mqqar d mkinnaɣ trxa imik d twhn g umggi nns.
It is essential that the outcome of testing such a prediction be currently unknown.,iqqan d ad tili tyafut n ustal zund ayddɣ n usnimal ur ta akkw ttwassan ar ɣila.
"If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience, the hypothesis is not yet testable and so will remain to that extent unscientific in a strict sense.","mk ur llin isnimaln s tannayt nɣ tirimt, ur tnni turda ad tg tin ustal dɣi, s man aya qad tqqim xf mki ur tgi tamassant s unamk umnɣud."
This implied that DNA's X-ray diffraction pattern would be 'x shaped'.,man ya dars anamk n mas iga wanaw n unɣal n uḥimḍ anawawiy s iznẓaṛn isiniyn qad yili zund ''unuɣ n (x).
Sometimes the experiments are conducted incorrectly or are not very well designed when compared to a crucial experiment.,kra n tikkal da ttuskarnt tirimin s yat tmamkt izgln nɣ ur ttusskar s mkinna s ixṣṣa mk ttusmzazal s tirmit igan tamɣtast g tndi.
"This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples, or observations, or populations, under differing conditions, to see what varies or what remains the same.","ar ttusmras tetiqniyt ddɣ asnuḥyu gr tnssifin imyanawn, nɣ tannayin, nɣ tirbbaɛ n tzdduɣin, g idsn imdyatn imzarayn, ḥma ad yisin aynna imzarayn nɣ aynna zund ntta."
Factor analysis is one technique for discovering the important factor in an effect.,assfru n imggutn iga yat tetqniyt n twafit n umggu axatar g uḍiṣ.
Even taking a plane from New York to Paris is an experiment that tests the aerodynamical hypotheses used for constructing the plane.,allig yusi yat taylalt g nyuyurk s bariz tga yat tirmit nna ittarmn turdiwin n uzwu ittusmrasn n tuṣṣka n taylalt.
Franklin immediately spotted the flaws which concerned the water content.,iẓṛa franklin g wansa imladn nna iẓllin s wassay n waman.
Failure to develop an interesting hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-define the subject under consideration.,iɣy ad ifk gar ursrrus n turda nna bahra issawhmman kra g imassan ad alsn asnml n usntl nna da ittuẓṛan.
Other scientists may start their own research and enter the process at any stage.,ɣin ad ssntin imassan nnidn irzzutn nnsn iẓlin ar kccmn s tmskrt g matta tfrkt illan.
"Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the scientific community.",tga tɣawsa tamɣtast masd iqqan d i tnafutin tinaramin d tmẓṛitin ad ttusufɣn wiyyaḍ g jaj n wammasn timassanin.
"The better an explanation is at making predictions, the more useful it frequently can be, and the more likely it will continue to explain a body of evidence better than its alternatives.","aynna s iga ussfru yuf asrrus n isnimaln, aynna s ika uynnaɣ tayafut uggar, aynna s issnti nit g ussfru n kigan n isnummaln tn yufn i imkkisi."
"Scientific models vary in the extent to which they have been experimentally tested and for how long, and in their acceptance in the scientific community.","ar ttmziriyn imdyatn imassan g wanct n isntaln inaramn ar matta wttu, d sg uzray nns g wammasn imassan."
"If such evidence is found, a new theory may be proposed, or (more commonly) it is found that modifications to the previous theory are sufficient to explain the new evidence.","iɣ mi ttwafa zun d inmmal ad tɣi a ttssumr itsnt n tẓṛitin timaynutin, niɣ yat talɣa ittwasn uggar, ar aɣ itmala inẓi ishyyutn nna ittuskcmn xf tiẓiṛt tga yan inẓitn issudan afad ad ax ssfrun tamzwarut."
"For example, Newton's laws explained thousands of years of scientific observations of the planets almost perfectly.","s umdya, uggar n ifḍ n isggwasn ayd ssfran izrfan n nyutn tannayin timassanin n itran s akkw."
"Since new theories might be more comprehensive than what preceded them, and thus be able to explain more than previous ones, successor theories might be able to meet a higher standard by explaining a larger body of observations than their predecessors.","s mayd ɣint tẓṛitin timaynutin ad ilin kiggan n usutl sg tilli zwarnin, a titli tɣi ad tssfru uggar n tẓṛitin timzwura, mala tiẓṛitin ra d ilint ɣint xf usufu s usnfrnuggar sg ussfrun aṭṭas n tannayi uggar n tẓṛitin timzwura."
"""Once a structurally complete and closed system of opinions consisting of many details and relations has been formed, it offers enduring resistance to anything that contradicts it"""".""","xs s tiggawt n ungraw ismdn tanɣa iqqn i imnidn isnɣruf sg kigan n ifrurun d tzdayin, yakka yat n tmnskart idumn i akkw ma as imgalan."
Its successes can shine but tend to be transitory.,"amurs n nns iɣi ad tzayd s dat, maca tɣi a tdzri."
"""The method of the a priori – which promotes conformity less brutally but fosters opinions as something like tastes, arising in conversation and comparisons of perspectives in terms of """"what is agreeable to reason.""""""","tinnawt izwarn lli isdusn amsasa s yat talɣa idrusn, maca ar isdus imnidn d iluln g tsmnawalt d usmzazzal n imnidn sg mayd izzri wanli, s usatig nns zun d kra n tɣawsa zun d ismḍitn."
"That is a destination as far, or near, as the truth itself to you or me or the given finite community.","ɣttan tga tannayt yaggugn niɣ tnmala, am tidit s ixf nns i kunni ula nnk niɣ awd i wmun mi idrus usfki."
"From abduction, Peirce distinguishes induction as inferring, based on tests, the proportion of truth in the hypothesis.","ar ifrrz biris akam is iga aṭṭay, yumẓn s irimn, asɣl n tidi g turda."
"Oftenest, even a well-prepared mind guesses wrong.",kigan n tikkal ar yakka unlli icwan kra n iswingm izgln.
"""Peirce, Charles S. (1902), Carnegie application, see MS L75.329330, from Draft D of Memoir 27: """"Consequently, to discover is simply to expedite an event that would occur sooner or later, if we had not troubled ourselves to make the discovery.""","''birs, carls (1902), tisnsi takrnijiyt (MS L75.329330) nna illan g tmssntit n urzzu 27: s man aya, tga twafit n uya s mrxiwt tazzla s kra n uzmuzzu nna qad yili assa nɣ askka, mk ur nenni ad nzziwz ixfawn nnx g uskar n twafit.’’"
"""Consequently, the conduct of abduction, which is chiefly a question of heuretic and is the first question of heuretic, is to be governed by economical considerations.""""""","''g man aya, tga tmskrt n tiksi, nna igan zwar yat tmsart tamṣṣḍṣayt, nna bhra igan tin ṭṭnẓ, mi ttugan isatign idmsan."
"The hypothesis, being insecure, needs to have practical implications leading at least to mental tests and, in science, lending themselves to scientific tests.","ayddɣ ur tgi turda tafilst, ar tḥtajja i kra n idrizn imskirn ar ttawi s imik s irimn inllitn, g tmassanin, ar takka ixf nns i isntaln imassan."
"""Einstein, Albert (1936, 1956) One may say """"the eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility.""""""",''incṭayn albiṛṭ (1936-1956) iɣy ad yini ufgan masd uffir n umaḍal n wabda iga t anct n urmas nns.
These assumptions from methodological naturalism form a basis on which science may be grounded.,gant uyddɣ n turdiwin sg tgama tanbridt yat trslt nna iɣin ad fllas tbidd tussna.
His observations of science practice are essentially sociological and do not speak to how science is or can be practiced in other times and other cultures.,tannyin nns xf tmskirt n tamassanin gant akkw tasnamunt d ur da tsawal xf tmamkt n uskar g izmaz nniḍn d tdlsiwin nniḍn.
"""He opens Chapter 1 with a discussion of the Golgi bodies and their initial rejection as an artefact of staining technique, and a discussion of Brahe and Kepler observing the dawn and seeing a """"different"""" sunrise despite the same physiological phenomenon.""","ar issntay ugzzum amzwaru 1 s umrara nns xf tfggiwin n ɣulji d wagi nns sg zwar zund yat tanuft n tetiqniyt n wunuɣ, d umrara n brahi d kiblr d unḍaf nnsn i tifawt ar ẓṛṛan ''amyinawn'' n inqarn n tafugt mqqar tga xf yat tumant tafisyulujiyt."
"In essence, he says that for any specific method or norm of science, one can find a historic episode where violating it has contributed to the progress of science.","ar ittini g jaj nns masd iga i matta tmamkt nɣ tasila iẓlin sg tusniwin, izmr ufgan ad yaf taxrst n umzruy nns acku yiws tiṛṛẓi nns g uubuɣlu n tussniwin."
The postmodernist critiques of science have themselves been the subject of intense controversy.,gan ifrran n dat n tmtrart n tussniwin s ixf nnsn ansa n umɣnna amaynu.
"Models, in both science and mathematics, need to be internally consistent and also ought to be falsifiable (capable of disproof).","iqqan d xf imdyatn ddɣ, g qqaḥ n tmassanin d tusnakt, ad tmsasa g jaj d ad tg tin urjan (tẓḍaṛ i tṛuẓi)."
"For example, the technical concept of time arose in science, and timelessness was a hallmark of a mathematical topic.","s umdya, ittuskar urmmus atiqqni n tizi ɣ tmassanin, iga ccḥaḥt n uzmz yat tɣawsa ifulkin i usntl n tusnakt."
"Eugene Wigner's paper, The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences, is a very well-known account of the issue from a Nobel Prize-winning physicist.","tanfult n yujin fijnṛ, tiṛwi arɣwẓan itusnakt ɣ tmassant n ugama, tga yat tallast itussann bahra ɣ tɣawsa yad dar ugamassnan lli dar tasmɣurt n nubl."
"In Proofs and Refutations, Lakatos gave several basic rules for finding proofs and counterexamples to conjectures.","g ifrrzn d ismaynutn, ifka lakatus tugt n ilgamn idslann bac ad afn ifrrzn d tmitar mgal n wammaz"
This may explain why scientists so often express that they were lucky.,mayad ar issfru maxx lliɣa tinin imassan ɣ tukt n tkal mas dan ilḥyann
"Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.",mahwah nj: lurans irlbaum imccrkn.
"""This is what Nassim Nicholas Taleb calls """"Anti-fragility""""; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of human error, human bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough – it actually benefits from such randomness in many ways (it is anti-fragile).""","« mayad amu issaɣ nasim nikulas ṭalb kalls » «asnkr n ukukḍ” llan kra n ingrawn n usaggu kukḍn mnid urmidi n ufgan, d usɣlla n ufgan, d umrway, mac taɣarast tamassant amu illa ṣaḥa ɣ umrwi yad s tuktt n tɣarasin."
These unexpected results lead researchers to try to fix what they think is an error in their method.,tyafutin lli nn ur ntam ad ittajan imrzutn ad ttalsn imad nnan iga urmidi s tɣarst nns.
"A scientific theory is an explanation of an aspect of the natural world and universe that has been repeatedly tested and verified in accordance with the scientific method, using accepted protocols of observation, measurement, and evaluation of results.","tiẓiṛi tamassant nttat ad isfrun yat tsga ɣ umaḍal agaman d uɣzuran lli ẓlin tugt ntikkal agiz rzzun s tɣarast tamassant, ad swurin s ubrutukul lli s nẓḍar ad nstl nẓṛ tyafutin nns."
Established scientific theories have withstood rigorous scrutiny and embody scientific knowledge.,mzazalnt tẓiṛin timassanin iskkutan i yan urzzu icqqan tsmrs tussna tamssant.
"""Stephen Jay Gould wrote that """"...facts and theories are different things, not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty.""","yura stifn jay guld mas « tidt d tẓiṛin mas ngarant, ur d ɣ tskwflin n usddi ad tmrniwt tidt."
The meaning of the term scientific theory (often contracted to theory for brevity) as used in the disciplines of science is significantly different from the common vernacular usage of theory.,anamk n urmmus n tiẓiṛt timassanin ( lli nn iḥcan ɣ tiẓiṛt n usidrus) mk lli itawsmras ɣ tẓlayin n tmassanin imzaray yan umzaray igutn ɣ usmrs n tutlayt n tiẓiṛt.
"In everyday speech, theory can imply an explanation that represents an unsubstantiated and speculative guess, whereas in science it describes an explanation that has been tested and is widely accepted as valid.","g tinawt takuyast, tẓḍar tiẓiṛt ad ṭṭf yan ussfru lli ka nqqdr ur iṭṭaf inagan, macc ɣ tmassant ar itili yan ussfru nskr as yan irim nṣṣḥut nzluzut acku iga amdad."
"Some theories are so well-established that they are unlikely ever to be fundamentally changed (for example, scientific theories such as evolution, heliocentric theory, cell theory, theory of plate tectonics, germ theory of disease, etc.).","kra n tmagunin ttuyamaẓnt ar an uswir nna ur innin ad ttnt yajj ad ttusnfalt isnfiln iẓuṛann akkw (s mdya, timgunin timassanin zund abuɣlu, d timguri taggawant, d tmguri n tɣrasin, d timguri n tfilin titaktunyyin, d tmguri n tbxcin n tmaḍunt, d wiyyaḍ)."
Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions.,tiẓiṛin timassanin laqn tt i yirim ar tskar isnimaln izgln.
"The defining characteristic of all scientific knowledge, including theories, is the ability to make falsifiable or testable predictions.","d tfirist nna da isnuḥyun gr qqaḥ tussniwin timassanin, nna g amuunt tmẓṛitin, iga tt tazmrt xf tmggit n isnimaln nna iɣin ad izgl nɣ irim."
"It is well-supported by many independent strands of evidence, rather than a single foundation.","ar ttusdus s yat tmamkt iɣudan s kigan n inmmaln iẓlin, g wansa n ad tg yat tirslt."
"""The theory of biological evolution is more than """"just a theory"""".""",‘’timẓṛit n ubuɣlu abyulujiy iga uggar n ''uwngim n tiẓiṛt''.
This provides evidence either for or against the hypothesis.,ɣid ar yakka inẓatnswa akd ayddɣ n turda nɣ mgal n turda ad.
"This can take many years, as it can be difficult or complicated to gather sufficient evidence.","izmr ad ikk uynnaɣ kigan n isggwasn, acku iɣy ad icqqu nɣ ad irwi usmun n inẓatn yudan."
"The strength of the evidence is evaluated by the scientific community, and the most important experiments will have been replicated by multiple independent groups.","ar skarn wammasn imassan asitg i tdusi n inmmaln, qad yili ulsnt trubba iẓlin imyanawn i kigan n tirimin."
"In chemistry, there are many acid-base theories providing highly divergent explanations of the underlying nature of acidic and basic compounds, but they are very useful for predicting their chemical behavior.","g ukimi, llant kigan n tiẓiṛin n tsila taḥimḍiyt nna yakkan issfrutn imzarayn kigan g ugama nna illan dffir n wuddisn iḥimḍiyn d igjdann, maca tfulki bahra i usnimal s tikli takimit."
"Acceptance of a theory does not require that all of its major predictions be tested, if it is already supported by sufficiently strong evidence.","ur da ttḥtajja uzray n tiẓṛit irim n qqaḥ isnimaln ixatarn, mk ttusdus nit s inmmal idusn nna g tlla tissugra."
"Solutions may require minor or major changes to the theory, or none at all if a satisfactory explanation is found within the theory's existing framework.","qad irint ifssayn kra n isnfaln idrusn nɣ imqqurn g tmagunt, nɣ awd imil akkw mk idda ussfru n tmaḍunt g ugnza n ɣila i tmagunt."
"If modifications to the theory or other explanations seem to be insufficient to account for the new results, then a new theory may be required.","mk gan isɣudutn n tmguri nɣ kra nniḍn n issfrutn ur yudin ad isbidd tiyafutin timaynutin, g tizi nnaɣ qad yili uḥtaj n tmagunt tamaynut."
"This is because it is still the best available explanation for many other phenomena, as verified by its predictive power in other contexts.","man aya isul ussfru iɣudan ittufka i kigan n tumanin nniḍn, mkinna ittwazray sg tdusi nnsn n isnmaln g imnaḍn yaḍn."
"After the changes, the accepted theory will explain more phenomena and have greater predictive power (if it did not, the changes would not be adopted); this new explanation will then be open to further replacement or modification.","d kra n isnfiln, qad ssfrun timẓṛit izrin kigan n tumanin s yan watig mqqurn n tdusi n isnmaln (mk ur tsskirt aynnaɣ ur inni ad ittwasay s inmmaln); d qad iḥtajja ussfru ad amaynu dfir n uynnaɣ i kigan n inmmaln nɣ isɣudutn."
"For example, electricity and magnetism are now known to be two aspects of the same phenomenon, referred to as electromagnetism.","s umdya, ittwassan ɣila mas iga wasidd d umaɣnaṭis sin wudmawn n yat tumant, ar ttusskan s wassaɣ n lkhṛumiɣnaṭisi."
"This was resolved by the discovery of nuclear fusion, the main energy source of the Sun.","ittusfsay man aya s tbridt n ukccum anawawiy, aɣbalu n tzmrt agjdant n tafugt."
"By omitting from special relativity the luminiferous aether, Einstein stated that time dilation and length contraction measured in an object in relative motion is inertial—that is, the object exhibits constant velocity, which is speed with direction, when measured by its observer.","sg tettut n tusɣant tamẓlayt, ibdr incṭayn mas tixxitrt n wakud d tbddi n taɣzi nna ittusɣaln g kra n tfgga g kra n umussu usɣan iga t uquḍeḍ unmas- s unamk nniḍn ar d tssufuɣ tfgga yan ussrirri armsikl, iga ussrirri akd tnila, asra g ittusɣal s tnmatart."
"Einstein sought to generalize the invariance principle to all reference frames, whether inertial or accelerating.","idda incṭayn s usmata n umnzay armskil xf mad igan asati asaɣul, mqqar iga armskil nɣ yuzzlan."
"""Even massless energy exerts gravitational motion on local objects by """"curving"""" the geometrical """"surface"""" of 4D space-time.""",awd tazmart nna ur itsmadn ar tskar amussu amlday xf tfkkiwin tidɣranin s tɣarast ''iḥudrn'' ''azur'' atwal 4d azmz.
"However, scientific laws are descriptive accounts of how nature will behave under certain conditions.",maca azrf/aslgn n tussna iga asiṭṭn anammal n tmamkt n uswuri n tgama g yidsn imrnutn n tɣara.
A common misconception is that scientific theories are rudimentary ideas that will eventually graduate into scientific laws when enough data and evidence have been accumulated.,sg izggaln n irmmusn mas d timagunin n timassnin igan tannayin tizaykutin rad tffɣ g tgira ɣr islgann imassann tizi g munt tsmmalin d imskann igumn.
Both theories and laws could potentially be falsified by countervailing evidence.,d iɣy ad tturjanent tmagunin d izrfans tnila n imskann irrazn.
First-order logic is an example of a formal language.,d umẓlan n ussuds amzwaru d amdya xf tutlayt tunṣibt.
"The phenomena explained by the theories, if they could not be directly observed by the senses (for example, atoms and radio waves), were treated as theoretical concepts.","s tidt mas d tumanin nna ssfrunt tmagunin, mk ur nɣiy ad tnt nsniɣs g wusrid s usmrs n isyafatn (zund/s umdya, afnuztasswit d taḍḍangiwin n unzway), tuɣa tnt (tumanin) tturmasnt d irmmusn imagunn."
"""The phrase """"the received view of theories"""" is used to describe this approach.""",“da nssmras taguri “ tannayt n unlkam n tmagunin “ i usnuml n ummak ad’’.
"One can use language to describe a model; however, the theory is the model (or a collection of similar models), and not the description of the model.","izmr ufgan ad issmrs tutlayt afad isnumml amdya, sul d, mas d tamgunt ad igan amdya (niɣ kigan n imdyatn immrwasn) d ur d asnumml n umdya s ixf nns."
"The model parameters, e.g., Newton's Law of Gravitation, determine how the positions and velocities change with time.","ttyassannt lbaṛamitrat izurtn, amm uslgn nyutun n tnnuzɣa, d mamk ttmziriyin isursn d tazzliwin akd wakud."
"""The word """"semantic"""" refers to the way that a model represents the real world.""",‘’taguri n ''anamk'' ar tsskan tabridt nna s da ittuga umdya n umaḍal n tidt''.
"""Engineering practice makes a distinction between """"mathematical models"""" and """"physical models""""; the cost of fabricating a physical model can be minimized by first creating a mathematical model using a computer software package, such as a computer aided design tool.""","da “ tbḍḍu tmskrt n tmsdagt gr “ izurtn n tunnunt “ d “ izurtn n tfiziqt “, d iɣy ad nssidrus bahra sg tmqṛaḍ n ufrur n azurt akmam s ufars n yan uzurt amanun g umzwaru s usmrs n yat trabbut n iɣawasn islkinn, zund imis amamk s twisi n uslkin."
Certain assumptions are necessary for all empirical claims (e.g. the assumption that reality exists).,ilin idman inbzazn i kullu isutrn inaramn (s umdya amdan n yili n tilawt).
"This may be as simple as observing that the theory makes accurate predictions, which is evidence that any assumptions made at the outset are correct or approximately correct under the conditions tested.","iẓaṛ mayad ad iwhn amm inniy n mas d tamagunt da tikki isnimaln imnɣudn, wa d anẓa xf mas d kullu idman ttugan g tizwuri d imddadn niɣ lmalan imddadn, g idsn imstuln lli mi ttugan irimn."
"The theory makes accurate predictions when the assumption is valid, and does not make accurate predictions when the assumption is not valid.","da tikki tẓiṛt isnimaln imnɣudn ig iga umrdu amddad, d ur da takka isnimaln imddadn ig ur igi umrdu amddad."
"""The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and online Wiktionary indicate its Latin source as assumere (""""accept, to take to oneself, adopt, usurp""""), which is a conjunction of ad- (""""to, towards, at"""") and sumere (to take).""","da issmtar umawal angliz uksfurd d umawal wik xf (OED) lantirnit ɣr asagwm alatini s usatig nns d amrdu (“izmr ad”), afad tfk i ixf nns, tssgmi, ntta d asmzazal gr (“ɣr”, “s” d (sumiri)."
"""The term was originally employed in religious contexts as in """"to receive up into heaven"""", especially """"the reception of the Virgin Mary into heaven, with body preserved from corruption"""", (1297 CE) but it was also simply used to refer to """"receive into association"""" or """"adopt into partnership"""".""","ittusmrs irm g uẓuṛ nns g isursn isɣann awd g « asnbgi nns g ignna », slawan akkw « asnubg n mryam lɛadra g ignna, akd uḥḍu n tfkka sg ugufsu », (1297) maca ittusmrs awd i tmuli n « asnbgi g tamunt » niɣ « asgmi g tmdrawt »."
"Confirmations should count only if they are the result of risky predictions; that is to say, if, unenlightened by the theory in question, we should have expected an event which was incompatible with the theory—an event which would have refuted the theory.","ilaq ad yili usiṭṭn n isddidn xs mk llan macku rad ig tayfut n isnimmaln imizitn, d ur fllas tssnẓi tmagunt, tuɣa ilaq ad ndmu yat tmsart izzln d tmagunt - tamsart iɣin ad irnu tamgunt."
A theory which is not refutable by any conceivable event is non-scientific.,"tamagunt nna s ur nɣiy ad nini ur tgi tamddadt s kra igat tamsart tawalit, tamgunt ad ur tgi tammasnt."
"Some genuinely testable theories, when found to be false, might still be upheld by their admirers—for example by introducing post hoc (after the fact) some auxiliary hypothesis or assumption, or by reinterpreting the theory post hoc in such a way that it escapes refutation.","kra n tmagunin mi ittuskar yirim, ig tnt nufa is gant tizggalin, ɣint ad afnt mad ɣifsnt ittmzaɣn sg winna ssusmnt- s umdya ig nssnkd kra n idman imawasn (ḍaṛt n tidt), niɣ ig nuls assfru n tmagunt tanaktamt s yat twila g ur tnni ad tg asntl i ufran."
"""Popper summarized these statements by saying that the central criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its """"falsifiability, or refutability, or testability"""".""","izgzl bubr ismmaln ad s uya inna «asbdad amqqran n usurs amassan n yat tmagunt iga t «mi nɣi ad nsskr arjan, niɣ tiggi niɣ irim."
"""Several philosophers and historians of science have, however, argued that Popper's definition of theory as a set of falsifiable statements is wrong because, as Philip Kitcher has pointed out, if one took a strictly Popperian view of """"theory"""", observations of Uranus when first discovered in 1781 would have """"falsified"""" Newton's celestial mechanics.""","tugt n iflsafn d inmzrayn n tussniwin, nnan mas d asnml n bubr i tmagunt iga xs aṭṭaṣ n tsgurin mi iɣi ad ittug urjan wa d azggal, imkinna inna filib kitcir, mk da iẓṛṛa ufgan tamagunt s tiṭṭ d tannayt n bubr, han isniɣsn n uranus llig yufa tikklt tamzwarut g usggwas n 1781 qqad ig assntl i « mikanika n ignwan n nyutun’’."
"""Fecundity: """"A great scientific theory, like Newton's, opens up new areas of research….""","tga tmagunt tamassant tamqqrant, zund tin nyutun, tannuṛẓmt xf igran imaynutn n urzzu."
"At any time, it raises more questions than it can currently answer.","d kra iga tt tizi, da yakka unqqis ad cigan n isqqsitn izrin aynna mi iɣi ad ifk tamrarut nns dɣi."
"Like other definitions of theories, including Popper's, Kitcher makes it clear that a theory must include statements that have observational consequences.","amm isisnn yaḍnin n tmagunin, g illa awd win bubr, da issfru kitcir mas d tamagunt ilaq ad gis ilin ismmaln lli dar tunanin n umdi."
"It may be set out on paper as a system of rules, and it is the more truly a theory the more completely it can be put down in such terms.","tɣi ad ttusras xf tfrtin amm umagraw n ilgamn, d kudnna tga tmagunt tin tidt uggar kudnna iɣy ad ttusras kullut g zund irmn ad."
"""The specific mathematical aspects of classical electromagnetic theory are termed """"laws of electromagnetism,"""" reflecting the level of consistent and reproducible evidence that supports them.""","da nqqar i « idisn imannutn n tmagunt n trisinti-amiɣnaṭiṣi azayku » izrfan n trisnti-amiɣnaṭiṣi, da tmmal aswir n inmmaln izmrn ad alsn tawila nna tt isdusn."
An example of the latter might be the radiation reaction force.,sg imdyatn xf tmggarut ad tadusi n umrara amẓnẓṛ.
A scientist is a person who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest.,amassan d afgan isskarn irzzutn imassann afad tbuɣlu tussna g yan igr sg igran n tawit.
"Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the social norms, ethical values, and epistemic virtues associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well.","lan imassan n izmaz imyanawn (win dat asn, ifaylasufn igamann, d imassan n tusnakt, d imassan n umzruy igamann, d imanzagn, ula wiyyad sg winna isbuɣlan tussna) ansiwn imyanawn g yan udɣar mqqurn mkinna ttusnfaln inawayn inamunn, d tnditin tiɣariwin, d wafalkitn n imnfrayn nna izdin s imassan-nna g ttudma sg disn- s dat n tizi."
"Many proto-scientists from the Islamic Golden Age are considered polymaths, in part because of the lack of anything corresponding to modern scientific disciplines.","kigan n imassan g uzmz n wurɣ ayislm gan sg lbilumtrat, ar ittdwal man aya imik s yili n kra nna illan dat tmẓlayin timassanin titrarin."
Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality.,isumar nna n lkkmn s imassn nit igan imẓlan uran akkw sg uynna illan g ilawt.
Descartes was not only a pioneer of analytic geometry but formulated a theory of mechanics and advanced ideas about the origins of animal movement and perception.,"ur ifki dikaṛt ɣas g utwal asfsay day, maca issufɣ d timẓṛit n lmikanik d twngimin izwarn xf iẓuṛan n umussu n umudr d twngimt nns."
He provided a comprehensive formulation of classical mechanics and investigated light and optics.,ifk yat tannayt mqqurn i umikanik atrar izzri xf usidd d tsmaqqalin.
He discovered that a charge applied to the spinal cord of a frog could generate muscular spasms throughout its body.,yufa nn mass d yan uktar ittuyass s ifili aɣtran n ugru izmr ad yaru tamuɣult n wabbajn g matta wansiwn n tfgga.
Lazzaro Spallanzani is one of the most influential figures in experimental physiology and the natural sciences.,lazaru sblanzani iga yan sg kigan n iwrikn iḍiṣn g tfisulujiyt tanaramt d tmassanin tinagamin.
"However, there is no formal process to determine who is a scientist and who is not a scientist.","mqqar d man aya, ur tlli awd yat tmskirt allig iswtta mad igan amassan d unna ur t iggin."
"A little over half of the respondents wanted to pursue a career in academia, with smaller proportions hoping to work in industry, government, and nonprofit environments.","uggar n uzgn n inmarutn ran ad ḍfuṛn tazzult g wammasn ikadimiyn, akd ammas idrusn g usniɣs g twuri timuknanin n tnbaṭṭ d twnaṭin ur igin tin urza."
They exhibit a strong curiosity about reality.,ar d ssufuɣn idusn xf tilawt.
"Some scientists have a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of people's health, the nations, the world, nature, or industries (academic scientist and industrial scientist).","kra n imassan ran g tsnsi n tussna tamassant i tdusi n iwdan, nɣ amaḍal, nɣ agama, nɣ tamguri (amaḍal akadimiy d umaḍal amguran)."
"These include cosmology and biology, especially molecular biology and the human genome project.",ar tsmun tusnadɣrant d twssuntudrt n igzzant zund tamssntit n ujinyum n ufgan.
The figure included twice as many men as women.,ismun uya n wuṭṭun ugrn timɣarin snat n tikal.
"Relevant phenomena include supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts, quasars, blazars, pulsars, and cosmic microwave background radiation.","smunt tumanin na izdin d ibḍayn n ssubir nuɣa, d ibḍayn n iznẓrn gama d umqqs d unkay, d uznẓṛ n tɣṛdin n taḍḍangiwin tusdidin iɣzran."
Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences.,tasṭrunumit tga sg tusna tagamant tazaykut.
"In the past, astronomy included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, and the making of calendars.","g mad izrin ikkatin usṭṛunumi ismun timẓlay isnuḥyay zund asqqul n tiriwt d tmsafga g igna d usṭrunumi amdday, d umgar n usmisi."
Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects.,tamddayt tasṭṛunumit ar issmsi xf yimẓ n ufaylu sg tmhal n umday n tfkkiwin tistṛunumin
These two fields complement each other.,d imẓlay ddɣ ar itsmad yan wayḍ .
"""Based on strict dictionary definitions, """"astronomy"""" refers to """"the study of objects and matter outside the Earth's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties,"""" while """"astrophysics"""" refers to the branch of astronomy dealing with """"the behavior, physical properties, and dynamic processes of celestial objects and phenomena"""".""","‘’xf unna illan g isnmln n umawal uqjir'' ar isskan yirm ''astṛunumi'' s yat tmsirt n tfkkiwin d tmtta bṛṛa n tignut n wakal d uẓlay nns afizikiy d ukimawi, isskn usnml ''afizik atran s wayyaw g tawsnitran nna igan timkli n tfkkiwin d tumanin n ignna d uẓlay nnsnt afizik d tmhliwin tadinamit."
"Some fields, such as astrometry, are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics.","kra n igran, zund asqqul n tiriwt, tga tastṛunimiyt g udɣar n tafizikit n itran."
"From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon and the Earth in the Universe were explored philosophically.","sg tinẓitin ad, ag d uckant twngimin izwarnin xf umussu n itran, d tufayt n tɣara n tafugt d wayyur d wakal g iɣzwr s tɣarast taflsaft."
"A particularly important early development was the beginning of mathematical and scientific astronomy, which began among the Babylonians, who laid the foundations for the later astronomical traditions that developed in many other civilizations.","sg tmaynutin timnza tixatarin s talɣa iẓlin igat tizwiri n tawsnitran tusnikt d umassan, nna issntin gr ibabiliyn, nna isrsn tirsal g tmyurin titranin nna izzigzn g mnnaw n tɣrmiwin yaḍin."
"Greek astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial phenomena.",tẓli tawssnitran tayunaniyt sg tizwiri s ussfru amnlli d ufizik i tumanin n ignna.
"Hipparchus also created a comprehensive catalog of 1020 stars, and most of the constellations of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy.","d isskr hibaṛcus yan usktur ismun 1020 n itri, d tugt n ismuttgn g uzgnkal n iẓlmḍ."
Georg von Peuerbach (1423–1461) and Regiomontanus (1436–1476) helped make astronomical progress instrumental to Copernicus's development of the heliocentric model decades later.,d yiws juṛj fun biṛubax (1423-1461) d ṛijyu munṭanus(1436-1476) ad tlkm tawssnitran awttas yattuyn g usbuɣlu n kubrnikuṣ i umdya anammas ḍaṛt tisira n uzmz.
"In 964, the Andromeda Galaxy, the largest galaxy in the Local Group, was described by the Persian Muslim astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi in his Book of Fixed Stars.","g usggwas n 964, isnuml utrinan afarisiy amunslm ɛabd ṛṛaḥman ṣṣufi g udlis nns itran armskiln asif n ignwan andṛumida, d amqran g trabbut tadɣrant."
Astronomers during that time introduced many Arabic names now used for individual stars.,fkan itrinan g uzmz ann mnnaw n ismawn iɛṛabn ittusmrasn g tizi ad itran ifṛdiyn.
Songhai historian Mahmud Kati documented a meteor shower in August 1583.,isskr unmzray sunɣay maḥmud kati yan untam i unayzak g ɣuct 1583.
Kepler was the first to devise a system that correctly described the details of the motion of the planets around the Sun.,ikkatin kiblṛ iga amzwaru nna isnflulan yan unagraw isnumln afruri n umussu n utri xf tafugt s talɣa tamddadt.
"The English astronomer John Flamsteed catalogued over 3000 stars, More extensive star catalogues were produced by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille.","iskr utrinan anjlizi djun flamstid yan usktur i wuggar n 3000 n itri, isnfl iskturn i itran nna bahra isutln nna isnfl nikulaṣ lwis du lakay."
"This work was further refined by Joseph-Louis Lagrange and Pierre Simon Laplace, allowing the masses of the planets and moons to be estimated from their perturbations.",ismaynu djuẓif lwis lagranj d byiṛ simun lablaṣ tawuri ad nna ikan atig i itran d iyyurn sg umrwi nnsn.
"Stars were proven to be similar to the Earth's own Sun, but with a wide range of temperatures, masses, and sizes.","d isnal masd itran iwind g tafugt n wakal, mac d trabbut tabarawt g tlla tzɣlt, anddur, aksay."
"Theoretical astronomy led to speculations on the existence of objects such as black holes and neutron stars, which have been used to explain such observed phenomena as quasars, pulsars, blazars, and radio galaxies.","tiwy tṣṭṛunumt tamiẓiṛt s yiks is llan tazzitin amm igbayn isggan d itran initruyn, nna ittusmrasn g ussfru n tumanin ittumdayn am itran imrjun, d itran ittnkaln, d iblazaṛsn d umẓlaw aṛadyu."
Observational astronomy may be categorized according to the corresponding region of the electromagnetic spectrum on which the observations are made.,iɣy ad ittuskr yan usnaway i tussnitran tumdiyt sg tsga itmnidn d uwlaf aliktrumajnitik nnq xf ttuskar tmhlt n umday.
"Although some radio waves are emitted directly by astronomical objects, a product of thermal emission, most of the radio emission that is observed is the result of synchrotron radiation, which is produced when electrons orbit magnetic fields.","mqqar llant kra n tsilel n uṛadyu ar tsilel s usrid sg tfkkiwin tatiranin, nttat tga tayafut n usilel aṛadyu nnan ittuẓṛan tga tayafut n uznẓṛ n usinukṛutṛun nna igan tayafut n uliktṛun g usanḍ amiɣnaṭisi."
Observations from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) have been particularly effective at unveiling numerous galactic protostars and their host star clusters.,ikkatin inẓitn sg umnig n wamas n uznẓṛ ddaw tazuɣi inɣln imrwin s talɣa iẓlin g uzzray xf tugt n isafn ignwan d unṛbẓn n itran isnbgin.
Images of observations were originally drawn by hand.,ssunɣ g uẓuṛ tawlaft n inẓitn s ufus.
Ultraviolet astronomy is best suited to the study of thermal radiation and spectral emission lines from hot blue stars (OB stars) that are very bright in this wave band.,iga ustṛunumi nnig umkẓay ntta d tumsist uggar g tɣuri n uznẓṛ inrɣi d izrirign d ittalin s uwlaf g itran iẓṛwaln irɣan inqqrn bahra g udɣar n taḍḍanga.
Gamma rays may be observed directly by satellites such as the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory or by specialized telescopes called atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes.,iɣy ad ttumdayn iznẓṛn n gama s usrid s usatil zund asaḍaf kumbtun i iznẓṛ gama niɣ nɣ iɣṛṛuba n tciṛunkuf g tignut.
Gravitational-wave astronomy is an emerging field of astronomy that employs gravitational-wave detectors to collect observational data about distant massive objects.,tawsnitran n taḍḍangiwin tilddayin iga adɣar igman g tawsnitran ar issmras allaln n uzzray n taḍḍangiwin tilddayin i usmun ifaylutn n umday xf tfkkiwin tizurarin yaggugn.
"Historically, accurate knowledge of the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets and stars has been essential in celestial navigation (the use of celestial objects to guide navigation) and in the making of calendars.","g umzruy, tga tussna n waddad n tafugt d utri d itran d tirsal g tmsafga g ignna ( asmrs n tsrriṭ g uswala n tmsfka) d tlguri tassakudt."
The measurement of stellar parallax of nearby stars provides a fundamental baseline in the cosmic distance ladder that is used to measure the scale of the Universe.,ar ijbbṛ usqqul amgafay atiri i itran inmalan i uzririg adasil g tskala n uzaru aɣzuran nna ittusmrasn g usqqul n uksay.
Analytical models of a process are better for giving broader insight into the heart of what is going on.,ufn imdya isfsayn n kra n tmggit i tikki n usksw airiw xf mummu n ma ay d ittṣṛun.
The observation of a phenomenon predicted by a model allows astronomers to select between several alternate or conflicting models as the one best able to describe the phenomena.,da ttajja taḍuft n tumayt dman imdyatn n imassan n tsnitrit astay ingr imdyatn imsnfal ggutnin nɣ mmrksnin iddɣ tga amdya amyif n usnuml n tumayt.
"In some cases, a large amount of inconsistent data over time may lead to the total abandonment of a model.","g kra n waddadn, iɣy ad d yawi ifaylu axatar ur idusn g wakud ijj ismdn n umdya."
"Because astrophysics is a very broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.","acku tga tfiziqt n tsnitrit asntl amiwriw kigan, aynnaɣ as da smrasn imassann n tfiziqt tasnitrit kigan n tmẓlayin tifiziqin, g tamu tmikanikt d tkahṛumiɣnaṭist d tmikanikt n ussiḍn"
"""The word """"astrochemistry"""" may be applied to both the Solar System and the interstellar medium.""",“ittuzmr usnsi n tguri ““takimit n tsnitrit”” xf ku agrra n tafukt d wammas n yitran.”
The term exobiology is similar.,yaɣ digs yirm tabyulujit n inbṛṛa (exobiology).
"Observations of the large-scale structure of the Universe, a branch known as physical cosmology, have provided a deep understanding of the formation and evolution of the cosmos.","ttufkan isniɣisn n tiski n uɣzwr tamiriwt, igan yan wanaw ittwassnn s wassaɣ n tussna n tfiziqt n tɣzwrin, armas anɣub i usmuttg n uɣzwr d tigmi nns."
A hierarchical structure of matter began to form from minute variations in the mass density of space.,issnta usqqul awlullu n tgmamt da ittili sg isnfaln gtnẓẓi n tstli g usayrar.
"Gravitational aggregations clustered into filaments, leaving voids in the gaps.","da ttmutturnt tsmutturin n tinnuzɣa g ifilan, zrint tiritin g txbyin."
Various fields of physics are crucial to studying the universe.,ciln yigran n tfiziqt imyanawn i tzrawt n uɣzwr.
"Finally, the latter is important for the understanding of the large-scale structure of the cosmos.","g tgira, ila atig unggaru ad i urmas n tiski tamiriwt n uɣzwr."
"As the name suggests, an elliptical galaxy has the cross-sectional shape of an ellipse.","ikinna yakka wassaɣ tidmi, ila wasif n ignwan aglalay talɣa tanabbayt n tgzzumin nngzanin."
"Elliptical galaxies are more commonly found at the core of galactic clusters, and may have been formed through mergers of large galaxies.","llant s tiggidit isaffn n ignwan iglalayn g wul n trabbutin n wasif n ignwan, iɣy ad ilint ttuskant s usmun n isaffn n ignwan ixatarn."
Spiral galaxies are typically surrounded by a halo of older stars.,da ttettin i isaffn n ignwan inɣlaln tahalat n yitran iwssarn.
"About a quarter of all galaxies are irregular, and the peculiar shapes of such galaxies may be the result of gravitational interaction.","attay n yan g kkuẓ n isaffn n ignwan ur issudsn, d talɣiwin tawrssin i isaffn ad n ignwan ɣin ad gin tayafut n umrara n tinnuzɣa."
"A radio galaxy is an active galaxy that is very luminous in the radio portion of the spectrum, and is emitting immense plumes or lobes of gas.","iga wasig n ignwan aṛadyawi ansmussu issuddan kigan g ugzzum aṛadyawi n uwlaf, ar d ttffɣnt digs trsal nɣ isrrarutn n ugaz."
The large-scale structure of the cosmos is represented by groups and clusters of galaxies.,da ittuga ugnses n tiski tamiriwt n uɣzwr sg trabbutin n tgrumma n isaffn n ignwan.
"In the center of the Milky Way is the core, a bar-shaped bulge with what is believed to be a supermassive black hole at its center.","illa wul g wammas n wasif n ignwan n ubrid ankffay, igan abzag n talɣa n uɣruy d uynna mi iɣal is iga aɣbu axatar g wammas nns."
"The disk is surrounded by a spheroid halo of older, population II stars, as well as relatively dense concentrations of stars known as globular clusters.","tetty i uqariḍ thalat tamkurart n yitran n ugraw wis sin awssar, d ummattr n tnẓẓa n itran ittwassnn s wassaɣ n tqssulin timkurarin."
"These begin as a compact pre-stellar core or dark nebulae, which concentrate and collapse (in volumes determined by the Jeans length) to form compact protostars.","tssnta tad zun d annwi n dat ittuḥmmẓn nɣ tllus, ar ttmattar ar ttrdal ( s iksayn tettafa taɣzi n jinz) i tiski n yitran imzwura ittuḥmmẓn."
"These clusters gradually disperse, and the stars join the population of the Milky Way.","da ttfzzaɛnt tgrawin ad imik s imik, ar ttumun itran ɣr imzdaɣ n wasif n ignwan n ubrid akffay."
"7–18 Star formation occurs in dense regions of dust and gas, known as giant molecular clouds.","7–18 da ittuga usmuttg n itran g wansiwn n tnẓẓit n ibnɣr d ugaz, ittwassnn s wassaɣ n isigniw inuṭṭutn igṛuḍn."
Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were created inside the cores of stars.,ttuskan ifṛḍiṣn imastaln akw sg uhidṛujin d uhilyum agnsu n wul n itran.
"Over time, this hydrogen fuel is completely converted into helium, and the star begins to evolve.","s uzray n wakud, da ittuɣul umssiɣ ahiṛujin kullut ɣr ahilyum, issntu itri g tigmi."
The ejection of the outer layers forms a planetary nebula.,da ittgga yiẓẓl n tfrka tibṛṛaniyin isignw n itran.
This is an 11-year oscillation in sunspot number.,wad a igan azuz n 11 n usggwas g umḍan n ibṭṭiɛn n tafukt.
The Sun has also undergone periodic changes in luminosity that can have a significant impact on the Earth.,kkan xf tafuyt altu isnfaln imtattyn g usfakki nns iɣin is tzri tyafut nnsn ɣr akal.
Above this layer is a thin region known as the chromosphere.,aflla n tfrkt ad illa yan wansa ittwassnn s ukuṛumusfir.
"Above the core is the radiation zone, where the plasma conveys the energy flux by means of radiation.","illa aflla n wul wansa n uslat, ar tsmuttuy tblazma anɣal n tdusi s tɣarast n uslat."
"A solar wind of plasma particles constantly streams outward from the Sun until, at the outermost limit of the Solar System, it reaches the heliopause.","da ittsuḍ uzwu n tafuyt s tnuṭṭutin n tblazma aha s bṛṛa sg tafuyt ard tawḍ,ɣur uwttu amggaru i ugrra n tafukt, ar ansa n tigniwt n tafuyt."
The planets were formed 4.6 billion years ago in the protoplanetary disk that surrounded the early Sun.,skan itran dat n 4.6 mlyaṛ n usggwas g uqariḍ n itran amzwaru ittin i tafuyt taqburt.
"The planets continued to sweep up, or eject, the remaining matter during a period of intense bombardment, evidenced by the many impact craters on the Moon.","zdin itran g yisy nɣ asufɣ n tgmamt isuln g tizi n titi tanẓẓit, s imkinna s ittyannay g kigan n tɣba xf wayyur."
"This process can form a stony or metallic core, surrounded by a mantle and an outer crust.","tɣy ad tsku tmggit ad ammas n islliwn nɣ d n izaratn, mi itty uɣmis d tafrkit tabṛṛant."
Some planets and moons accumulate enough heat to drive geologic processes such as volcanism and tectonics.,da smuttrn yids n itran d wayyurn anrɣi i tigawt n kra n tmggitin tijyujulitin zun d tazuzt d ttiktunit.
Astrostatistics is the application of statistics to astrophysics to the analysis of a vast amount of observational astrophysical data.,tasnitrit tga tisnsi n ussiḍn xf tfiziqt n tsnitrit i usfsi amkta axatar n ufaylu n tfiziqt n tsnitrit i umatr.
"Cosmochemistry is the study of the chemicals found within the Solar System, including the origins of the elements and variations in the isotope ratios.","takimit taɣzurant tga tazrawt n tmttiwin tikimin llanin agnsu n ugrra n tafukt, g amun ifṛḍiṣn d umyalla n isɣaln."
Astronomy clubs are located throughout the world and many have programs to help their members set up and complete observational programs including those to observe all the objects in the Messier (110 objects) or Herschel 400 catalogues of points of interest in the night sky.,"mfzzaɛn isrirn n tsnitrit g tsggwin n umaḍal, amata digsn ɣurs aɣawas n yiws n igmamn nns xf usmrs d usmd n iɣawasn n uḥṭṭu g amun awd winna iḥṭṭun awd imilitn n misyi (110 n imili) nɣ hircl 400 n ikatalugn i tnqqaḍ ittraran taɣḍft g yignna n yiḍ."
"Most amateurs work at visible wavelengths, but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum.","da iswuri uma n iramsutn s taɣzi n taṭṭangiwin ittyannayn, maca ka idrusn ay d ittarmn taɣzi n taṭṭangiwin bṛṛa n uwlaf ittyinniyn."
A number of amateur astronomers use either homemade telescopes or use radio telescopes which were originally built for astronomy research but which are now available to amateurs (e.g. the One-Mile Telescope).,da ittuswuri yan umḍan n imassann n tsnitrit iramsutn ya itiliskubn n tmguri tadɣrant nɣ da swurin itiliskubn iṛadyawitn ittuskan i irzzutn n tsnitrit maca aɣul dɣi llan awd ɣur iramsutn (am utiliskub n yan mil).
"Answers to these may require the construction of new ground- and space-based instruments, and possibly new developments in theoretical and experimental physics.","iɣy ad irint tmrarutin xf isqsitn ad tiski n wallaln n wakal d win usayrar imaynutn, iɣy awd isbuɣlutn imaynutn g tfiziqt tmiẓiṛt d tnirimt."
A deeper understanding of the formation of stars and planets is needed.,illa unurz n urmas axatar i tuskiwin n itran d tzwinnitin.
"If so, what is the explanation for the Fermi paradox?","mk d imk nna, ma ay igan asfsr n tuṭṭut n firmi?"
What is the nature of dark matter and dark energy?,ma ay d igan tagama n tmtta illusn d tzḍaṛt illusn?
How did the first galaxies form?,ma imk ttuskan isaffn n ignwan imzwura?
"Astrobiology, formerly known as exobiology, is an interdisciplinary scientific field that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe.","tabyulujit n tsnitrit, ittwassnn altu s tbyulujit n inbṛṛatn, iga igr amassan agrẓlay isslmadn iẓɣṛan d tigmi n zikk d ubṭṭu d imal n tudrt g uɣzwr."
The origin and early evolution of life is an inseparable part of the discipline of astrobiology.,iga uẓɣṛ n tudrt d tigmi nns n zikk agzzum sg tbyulujit n tsnitrit.
"Biochemistry may have begun shortly after the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years ago, during a habitable epoch when the Universe was only 10–17 million years old.","iɣy is tssnta tbyukimit ffir imik n wakud ḍaṛt uḍiqqs amqran, dat n 13.8 mlyar n usggwas, g yat n tizi iṛwan i uzduɣ g uwtay n uɣzwr n 10-17 mlyun n usggwas dayy."
"Nonetheless, Earth is the only place in the universe humans know to harbor life.","mɣar, iga wakal ansa abaylal g uɣzwr g issn ufgan is digs tudrt."
The term exobiology was coined by molecular biologist and Nobel Prize winner Joshua Lederberg.,irm n tabyulujit n inbṛṛatn (exobiology) isskr t umassan n tbyulujit n tnuṭṭut yuwin tasmɣurt n nubl jucwa lidrbirg.
"""The term xenobiology is now used in a more specialized sense, to mean """"biology based on foreign chemistry"""", whether of extraterrestrial or terrestrial (possibly synthetic) origin.""","“da ittuswuri yirm n tbyulujit n inbṛṛatn dɣi s unamk amẓlay ugar, i unamk n ““tbyulujit iskattin xf tkimit tanbṛṛat””, sw ill bṛṛa n wakal nɣ ila aẓɣṛ n wakal (iɣy ad ig amguran).”"
"Though once considered outside the mainstream of scientific inquiry, astrobiology has become a formalized field of study.","waxxa tkka tlla tbyulujit n tsnitrit bṛṛa n urzzu amassan, yaɣul iga igr unṣib n tzrawt."
"In 1959, NASA funded its first exobiology project, and in 1960, NASA founded an Exobiology Program, which is now one of four main elements of NASA's current Astrobiology Program.","g usggwas n 1959, tlla naza (NASA) d usɣnu nns amzwaru g tbyulujit tanbṛṛant, g usggwas n 1960, tska naza aɣawas n tbyulujit tnbṛṛant, igan yan sg kkuẓ n ifṛḍiṣn idslann i uɣawas n tbyulujit n tsnitrit iḍfaṛn i naza."
"Advancements in the fields of astrobiology, observational astronomy and discovery of large varieties of extremophiles with extraordinary capability to thrive in the harshest environments on Earth, have led to speculation that life may possibly be thriving on many of the extraterrestrial bodies in the universe.","yuwi d ubuɣlu g yigran n tbyulujit n tsnitrit d tsnitrit n wuḍuf d tifi n wanawn ggudinin n imilitn imrarn s tzmmar tuddisin tigmi n tgama wf wakal, ar turdawin is tzmr tudrt ad tili bṛṛa n wakal g uɣzwr."
Missions specifically designed to search for current life on Mars were the Viking program and Beagle 2 probes.,kkant tgrawin timazanin xf urzzu n tudrt xf itri n maṛṣ iga aɣawas n fayking d bigl 2.
"In late 2008, the Phoenix lander probed the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars, and researched the history of water there.","g tgira n usggwas n 2008, irza finiks tagama i tussna n temrt n itran xf uzduɣ g izri d umha i tudrt n umikrub xf maṛṣ, treu altu xf waman d umzruy nns digs."
"In November 2011, NASA launched the Mars Science Laboratory mission carrying the Curiosity rover, which landed on Mars at Gale Crater in August 2012.","g nuwanbir 2011, tṛẓm tsnurayt naẓa asarm n tmassanin n maṛṣ yusin tamssudut kuryusiti (Curiosity), iggzn aflla n maṛṣ g gil kritr (Gale Crater) g ɣuct 2012."
"One is the informed assumption that the vast majority of life forms in our galaxy are based on carbon chemistries, as are all life forms on Earth.","yan digsn iga asurd amssiddi is iskutt umata n talɣiwin n tudrt g wasif n ignwan nnɣ xf tkimit n ukaṛbun, am ntta am talɣiwin n tudrt xf wakal."
The fact that carbon atoms bond readily to other carbon atoms allows for the building of extremely long and complex molecules.,da takka tazmrt tidt n uzday n tasswitin n ukṛbun d tasswitin n ukṛbun yaḍn s tiski n tnuṭṭutin tiɣzzafin tuddisin cigan.
A third assumption is to focus on planets orbiting Sun-like stars for increased probabilities of planetary habitability.,asurd wis kṛaḍ iga tawna xf tzwinnit ittettin xf itran yaɣn g tafukt i urnu n tiɣiyin n uzduɣ xf tzwinnitin.
"To that end, a number of instruments designed to detect Earth-sized exoplanets have been considered, most notably NASA's Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) and ESA's Darwin programs, both of which have been cancelled.","i tifi n usuɣr ad, ittusksw g kigan n wallaln ittuskrn i tifi n tzwinnitin n bṛṛa s uksay n wakal, sg ixatarn n iɣawasn ad imifi n imzdaɣ n wakal (Terrestrial Planet Finder) (TPF) d iɣawasn n daṛwin ESA, maca s sin idsn ttyakksn."
"Drake originally formulated the equation merely as an agenda for discussion at the Green Bank conference, but some applications of the formula had been taken literally and related to simplistic or pseudoscientific arguments.","iska drik tagdazalt g yat n tratsa n twuriwin i umrara n wawal g unmuggar n ubank azgzaw (Green Bank), maca yids n tsnsitin n tgdazalt zdint s anẓatn ifrarn nɣ d imassann izgln."
"The discovery of extremophiles, organisms able to survive in extreme environments, became a core research element for astrobiologists, as they are important to understand four areas in the limits of life in planetary context: the potential for panspermia, forward contamination due to human exploration ventures, planetary colonization by humans, and the exploration of extinct and extant extraterrestrial life.","taɣul tifi n imidrn izmrn ad qqimin g tgamatin mrarnin yan g ifṛḍiṣn n irzzutn idslann n imassann n tbyulujit n tsnitrit, acku lan atig g urmas n kkuẓ n yigran g iwtta n tudrt g wakal: iɣy ad tili tbansbirmya, d waluf s umntil n isɣunn n urzzu infgann, d usdurri n ufgan i tzwnnitin, tifi n tudrt izlan d tanna isuln bṛṛa n wakal."
"Even life in the ocean depths, where sunlight cannot reach, was thought to obtain its nourishment either from consuming organic detritus rained down from the surface waters or from eating animals that did.","awd tudrt g ugnsu n urunuḍ, acku ur iɣiy uẓinẓṛ n tafuyt ad nn yawḍ s ɣurs, ikka tt nn da ittyini is da ttili ucci nns s wucci n izrayn iṭṭaṛn sg waman n waflla nɣ ucci n imudar ittggan aya."
This chemosynthesis revolutionized the study of biology and astrobiology by revealing that life need not be sun-dependent; it only requires water and an energy gradient in order to exist.,tsskr tsnayt takimit ad tagrawla g tzrawt n tbyulujit d tbyulujit n tsnitrit sg tifi n is ixssa ad tskutt tudrt xf tafukt; ur tssatr ɣas aman d tẓḍaṛt i tzmrt n tilawt.
"Ten hardy organisms selected for the LIFE project, by Amir Alexander Deinococcus radiodurans, Bacillus subtilis, yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, seeds from Arabidopsis thaliana ('mouse-ear cress'), as well as the invertebrate animal Tardigrade.","isty amir aliksandr dinukukus mraw n imidrn iɣurarn i usɣnu layf (LIFE), tiɣruyin tisdadayin, d tmtunt (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), d ifsan n imɣayn arabidubsis talyana, d umudar warbuxddu tardigrad (Tardigrade)."
"Jupiter's moon, Europa, and Saturn's moon, Enceladus, are now considered the most likely locations for extant extraterrestrial life in the Solar System due to their subsurface water oceans where radiogenic and tidal heating enables liquid water to exist.","iga wayyur n twznnit n lmuctari, uruba, d wayyur n zuḥal , ansiladus, idɣarng tlla tzmrt taxatart n tudrt brra n wakal g ugrra n tafukt s umntil n irunuḍn n waman digsn aynna d yakkan assrɣ n iẓnẓaṛ yili ummlday d wuɣul yakkan tilawt n waman inmṭṭitn."
"""The cosmic dust permeating the universe contains complex organic compounds (""""amorphous organic solids with a mixed aromatic-aliphatic structure"""") that could be created naturally, and rapidly, by stars.""",“llant g ibnɣr aɣzuran illan g uɣzwr tsudutin tingmayin mrarnin (““timtta tiɣurarin tigmayin mm tiski immrksn””) ɣin ad tnt sskunt itran s talɣa tangamat d zikk.”
"PAHs seem to have been formed shortly after the Big Bang, are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with new stars and exoplanets.","gan thidrukaṛbunin tigdxrsin ittuskan ffir tizi n uḍiqqs amqran, mzllaɛnt g uɣzwr, tzdy s itran imaynutn d twznnitin tinbṛṛatin."
"Experimental astroecology investigates resources in planetary soils, using actual space materials in meteorites.","da trzzu tmassant tikulujit n tsnitrit anirimt g tmttiwin llanin g wakal n tzwnnitin, s uswuri n tmttiwin n usayrar g inayzakn."
"On the largest scale, cosmoecology concerns life in the universe over cosmological times.","s umata, izdi tmassant tgama taɣzurant d tudrt g uɣzwr xf wakudn iɣzurann."
"Specializations include cosmochemistry, biochemistry and organic geochemistry.",smanent tmẓlayin takimit taɣzurant d tbyukimit d tkimit n tjyulujit tagmawant.
"Some regions on Earth, such as the Pilbara in Western Australia and the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica, are also considered to be geological analogs to regions of Mars, and as such, might be able to provide clues on how to search for past life on Mars.","yids n wansiwn g wakal, zun d bilbaṛa g uɣlluy n ustṛalya d mkmurdu dray falliz n antarktika, gant am wansiwn ijyulujitn n maṛṣ, xf uya, iɣy ad gin anẓatn xf tɣarast n urzzu n tudrt n izri n itri n mṛṣ."
"Indeed, it seems likely that the basic building blocks of life anywhere will be similar to those on Earth, in the generality if not in the detail.","g tilawt, ittyakz sg usagm is gant tmitar tidslanin n tudrt g ka n wansa am tinna illan g wakal, s umata mk ur illi g tgzzumin nns."
"Only two of the natural atoms, carbon and silicon, are known to serve as the backbones of molecules sufficiently large to carry biological information.","ittwassn is d ɣas snat tasswitin tingamatin, akrbun d usilkun, ay igan buxddu n tnuṭṭutin tixatarins uynna ibaḍn i usmutty n inɣmisn ibyulujitn."
"The four most likely candidates for life in the Solar System are the planet Mars, the Jovian moon Europa, and Saturn's moons Titan and Enceladus.","imnkadn s kkuẓ yuwin s tudrt g ugrra n tafuyt gan tazwinnit n maṛṣ d wayyur jufyanyuruba, d ayyurn ziḥal titan d insiladus."
"At the Martian low temperatures and low pressure, liquid water is likely to be highly saline.","g tskwfal n unrɣi yazdurn d yidr yazdurn xf tzwnnit n maṛṣn, ɣin waman ad ilin marɣn kigan."
"""On 11 December 2013, NASA reported the detection of """"clay-like minerals"""" (specifically, phyllosilicates), often associated with organic materials, on the icy crust of Europa.""","“g 11 dujanbir 2013, tssawḍ tsnurayt naza xf tifi n ““azaratn yaɣn g waluḍ”” (numal, filuzilikats), tzdy s tmtta tigmayin kigan, xf tfrkit nugris n yuruba.”"
Some scientists think it possible that these liquid hydrocarbons might take the place of water in living cells different from those on Earth.,ɣaln yids n imassann is ɣint thidrukaṛbunin ad tinmṭṭitin ad ḍṛin adɣar n waman g tɣrasin ddrnin s talɣa ur yaɣn g tin wakal.
There are no known abiotic processes on the planet that could cause its presence.,ur llin tmggitin ur iddirn ittwassnn xf tzwinnit iɣin ad tg amntil n tilawt nns.
"Yamato 000593, the second largest meteorite from Mars, was found on Earth in 2000.","ittyafa yamatu 000593, anayzak wis sin g ixatarn, xf wakal g usggwas n 2000."
"On 5 March 2011, Richard B. Hoover, a scientist with the Marshall Space Flight Center, speculated on the finding of alleged microfossils similar to cyanobacteria in CI1 carbonaceous meteorites in the fringe Journal of Cosmology, a story widely reported on by mainstream media.","g 5 maṛṣ 2011, idma ritcard b. hufr, wad igan amassan g wammas n marcal i imuddurn n usayrar, i tifi n ka yaɣn g tbaktirya tanilit g inayzakn ikaṛbunitn CI1 g tsɣunt tantama i tussna taɣzurant, igan yat tullist ulsn wallaln n usnɣms idslann s umata."
"Evidence of perchlorates have been found throughout the solar system, and specifically on Mars.","tyafan wanẓiwn n brkluṛat g ungraw n tafuyt maṛṛa, d s uẓlay g imẓuyɣ."
"Improved detection methods and increased observation time will undoubtedly discover more planetary systems, and possibly some more like ours.","qad taf tibridin n tufayt iɣudan; d wakud n uḥṭṭu itturnan bla turda, g inagrawn n itran yaḍn, iɣy is aksuln itsn d inagrawn nns."
The aim is to detect those organisms that are able to survive space travel conditions and to maintain the proliferating capacity.,"asaɣud n manaya; tifit n imidrn iɣin ad iddr g umuddu g ustum, d uḥṭṭu n tiɣiyt n tiggidit."
"These stress responses could also allow them to survive in harsh space conditions, although evolution also puts some restrictions on their use as analogues to extraterrestrial life.","ɣin ad adjint tsdmrin ad n trna; s tilit g waddad astum icqqan, waxxa iga awd uzzigz itsn ikarifn i ussmrs nns amm imnidn n tudrt bṛṛa n wakal."
The formation of spores allows for it to survive extreme environments while still being able to restart cellular growth.,"da tt ittadja usmuttg n lbaktirya ad tddr g twnnaḍin icqqan, tsul tɣy ad tssgm tilmikt."
"The two landers were identical, so the same tests were carried out at two places on Mars' surface; Viking 1 near the equator and Viking 2 further north.","istittin ssin aksuln, aya aɣf ttugant snat tmggitin g sin wansiwn g waflla n umzuyɣn Viking 1 taman n usbgs, d Viking 2 g yiẓẓlmḍ."
"In astronomy, extinction is the absorption and scattering of electromagnetic radiation by dust and gas between an emitting astronomical object and the observer.","g tussitran, ufuḍ igat ussum d uftts n uzznẓṛ iliktrumanitik s iruggwa d lgaz g tazzit dad diks ittffɣ d umḥḍu."
"For stars that lie near the plane of the Milky Way and are within a few thousand parsecs of the Earth, extinction in the visual band of frequencies (photometric system) is roughly 1.8 magnitudes per kiloparsec.","id itran inmalan i uswir n tmjkrirt d ibḍat d wakal kan yifḍn n id kilumiṭṛ, aya aɣf iga wufuḍ ufuɣal amyannay n igluguln ( angraw n usɣal n usidd), diks attayn n 1.8 n usugwr i ku kulubarsk."
Reddening occurs due to the light scattering off dust and other matter in the interstellar medium.,da tjṛu tzuɣi ig izllɛ usidd g iruggwa d tangiwin nniḍn g wammas itri.
In most photometric systems filters (passbands) are used from which readings of magnitude of light may take account of latitude and humidity among terrestrial factors.,"g kigan n ingrawn n usidd d ttussmrasnt tmnkidin ( ifuɣaln n uzrruy), nna iɣin ad yasy g usatig tiɣuriwin n uksay n usidd diks tawnɣa n taflit d tluɣi gr imggitn n wakal."
"Broadly speaking, interstellar extinction is strongest at short wavelengths, generally observed by using techniques from spectroscopy.","s umata da itqsaḥ untal gr itran ɣur taɣziwin n tmzazin igzzuln, ar ityannay s umata s ussmrs n tiqnitin n ufars awlaf."
The amount of extinction can be significantly higher than this in specific directions.,iɣy ad yaly usugwr n wufuḍ kigan ɣf uya g tniliwin iẓlin.
"As a result, when computing cosmic distances it can be advantageous to move to star data from the near-infared (of which the filter or passband Ks is quite standard) where the variations and amount of extinction are significantly less, and similar ratios as to R(Ks): 0.49±0.02 and 0.528±0.015 were found respectively by independent groups.","tayafut n maya, g ussiṭn n ustum n iɣzwr, iɣy ad yaf ummuty ɣr inmmaln n itran g wansa n ddaw tafuyt inmalan (nna g itgga umnkad nɣd afuɣal n uzrruy Ks anaway diks), ard diks idris kigan umziray d untal, isɣaln imaksaln n R(Ks): 0.49±0.02 d 0.528±0.015 s umḍfaṛ n trubba tisimanin."
"This feature was first observed in the 1960s, but its origin is still not well understood.","tyannay tbɣurt ad tiklt izwarn g 1960, maka aẓuṛ nns urta wala itturmas."
"In the SMC, more extreme variation is seen with no 2175 Å and very strong far-UV extinction in the star forming Bar and fairly normal ultraviolet extinction seen in the more quiescent Wing.","g SMC ittyakz ungar wala illin, d ur illi 2175 Å, d untal wala n iznẓaṛ nnig tmusayt, g yan izririg g llan itran, d wufuḍ aɣaran n iznẓaṛ nnig tmusayt g ifr wala igan asa."
Finding extinction curves in both the LMC and SMC which are similar to those found in the Milky Way and finding extinction curves in the Milky Way that look more like those found in the LMC2 supershell of the LMC and in the SMC Bar has given rise to a new interpretation.,"yuwid yif n imfrɣn intln g LMC d SMC nna imyaɣn d tinna illan g tmjkrirt n wansa n tbana d yif n imfrɣn yafudn g tmjkrirt n wansa n tbana nna yaɣn g tnna illan LMC2 supershell, iẓlin s LMC d uzririg SMC, ard ibayn ussfru amaynu."
"This extinction has three main components: Rayleigh scattering by air molecules, scattering by particulates, and molecular absorption.","ufuḍ ad diks kṛaḍ ifṛḍiṣn idslanen: afzzɛ n rayli s wasisn n uzwu d ufzzɛ s tazzitin, d ussum agzzum."
The amount of such extinction is lowest at the observer's zenith and highest near the horizon.,asugwr n untal ad iga amazdar ɣur umḥdu d ila aswir yattuyn g unmila n uflla.
The Drake equation speculates about the existence of sapient life elsewhere in the universe.,tuwid tgdazalt n drak tannyt n wis tlla tudrt iẓiln g wansa nniḍn g iɣzwr.
"This encompasses a search for current and historic extraterrestrial life, and a narrower search for extraterrestrial intelligent life.","arzzu ad yuwid ɣila ɣf tudrt bṛṛa n wakal d umzruy, d urzzu anyimi ɣf tudrt tamiɣist bṛṛa n wakal."
"Over the years, science fiction communicated scientific ideas, imagined a wide range of possibilities, and influenced public interest in and perspectives of extraterrestrial life.","isggwasn aya d ittawy uswingm amassan tiwngimin timassanin, d iswangm g trabbut tabarawt n yiɣiyn, d tannayin ɣf tudrt bṛṛa n tzwinnit n wakal."
"According to this argument, made by scientists such as Carl Sagan and Stephen Hawking, as well as notable personalities such as Winston Churchill, it would be improbable for life not to exist somewhere other than Earth.","sg wanẓa ad, nna kan imusnawn zund kaṛl sajan d stifn huking, d idrizn imqṛan zund winstun tcrcl, iɣy ad ur tlli tudrt g wansa nniḍn bla akal."
Life may have emerged independently at many places throughout the universe.,iɣy ad ttuskr tudrt s talɣa tasimant g kigan n idɣaṛn g iɣzwr s umata.
"At each level of the organism there will be mechanisms in place to eliminate conflict, maintain cooperation, and keep the organism functioning.","g ku aswir g iswirn n imidr, qad ilin wammakn n wukus n imnɣi d uḥṭṭun twizi, d uḥṭṭu n twuri n imidr ."
"Life based on ammonia (rather than water) has been suggested as an alternative, though this solvent appears less suitable than water.","ttusumr tudrt illan ɣf amunya ( asnfl i waman), d imkissi, waxxa ila wad amsas idrusn ɣf waman."
"About 95% of living matter is built upon only six elements: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur.","attayn n 95% n tanga iddrn ttuska ɣf sḍiṣ n ifṛḍiṣn day: karbu, hidṛujin, niṭṛujin, uksijin, fuṣfuṛ d tzfrit."
"The carbon atom has the unique ability to make four strong chemical bonds with other atoms, including other carbon atoms.","illa g ublkam n lkaṛbun yat tzmrt iẓlin ɣf usmuttg n kkuẓn n tzlɣiwin icqqan n lkimya akd iblkimn nniḍn, g amun awd iblkimn yaḍn n lkaṛbun."
"""According to NASA's 2015 Astrobiology Strategy, """"Life on other worlds is most likely to include microbes, and any complex living system elsewhere is likely to have arisen from and be founded upon microbial life.""","s tstrajit n tussnudrt g itran n usggwas n 2015, iḍfaṛn i tsnurayt n naza, “iɣy ad tamẓ tudrt g imaḍaln nniḍn ɣf mikrubat, d iɣy ad ig ka igat angraw iddrn ammrwi yaḍn, ittuskarn g tudrt tamikrubit d ibdda ɣifs."
"""Rick Colwell, a member of the Deep Carbon Observatory team from Oregon State University, told the BBC: """"I think it’s probably reasonable to assume that the subsurface of other planets and their moons are habitable, especially since we’ve seen here on Earth that organisms can function far away from sunlight using the energy provided directly from the rocks deep underground"""".""","rik kulwil, yan sg trbiɛt n tifit n lkaṛbun iɣban sg tsdawit n tmẓlayt n urigun, inna i BBC; ɣalɣ id s nniyt d nini masd agnsu n ukfaf n tzwinnitin yaḍn d wayyurn nns sufrn i uzdduɣ, numṛ i imidrn ad tswuri sg uɛraq n usidd n tafuyt s ussmrs n tzmrt nna yakka s wusrid sg iẓṛan illan g tɣbi n wakal."
The panspermia hypothesis proposes that life elsewhere in the Solar System may have a common origin.,da tssumur tiɣiyt n bansbirmya n wis d tudrt g wansiwn nniḍn g ungraw n tafuyt iɣy ad ɣars yili uẓuṛ amssur.
"In the 19th century it was again revived in modern form by several scientists, including Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1834), Kelvin (1871), Hermann von Helmholtz (1879) and, somewhat later, by Svante Arrhenius (1903).","g usatu wiss 19, ttussidr tiklt yaḍn s talɣa n umrar gr imusnawn, g illa jun jakub brzlyus (1834), kilfin (1871), hirman fun hilmhultz (1879) d ḍaṛt uynnaɣ s wahli sg ɣur sfant arhunyus (1903)."
"""One of the early scientific inquires into the topic appeared in an 1878 Scientific American article entitled """"Is the Moon Inhabited?""""""",ibayn yan g issfrutn imassan imzwura ɣf usntl ad g umgrad tfsrt tsɣunt Scientific American g usggwas n 1878 s uzwl “ is ittusɣyt wayyur?”.
Warm and pressurized regions in the Moon's interior might still contain liquid water.,iɣ ad qimin wansiwn irɣan d tinna ityakln g ugnsu n wayyur diks aman iblullin.
"There is evidence that Mars had a warmer and wetter past: dried-up riverbeds, polar ice caps, volcanoes, and minerals that form in the presence of water have all been found.","llan wanẓiwn n wiss illa umzruy irɣan d ilggaɣn wala ɣur umzuyɣ, ttuyafan isaffn iqquṛn d ilqzan n ugris asfaylu, d ikswarn d izuɣar ittuskarn ig llan waman."
The vapor could have been produced by ice volcanoes or by ice near the surface sublimating (transforming from solid to gas).,iɣy ad ittuskr uraggu sg ikswarn n ugris nɣd s tbridt n uɣllay n ugris tama n ukfaf (da ittusnfal sg taɣart ɣr lgaz).
It is also possible that Europa could support aerobic macrofauna using oxygen created by cosmic rays impacting its surface ice.,iɣy awd ad taws urubba imudar ixatarn n uzwu s ussmrs n uksijin nna d akkan iznẓaṛ iɣzwarn nna isfsayn agris akfaf.
"""On 11 December 2013, NASA reported the detection of """"clay-like minerals"""" (specifically, phyllosilicates), often associated with organic materials, on the icy crust of Europa.""","g 11 dujanbir 2013, “tnna tsnurayt n naza masd tufa izuɣar yaɣn g waluḍ (s uẓlay phyllosilicates), qad wala tslɣ s tangiwin tingmawin ɣf tqcṛt n ugris n uṛubba."
Some claim to have identified evidence that microbial life has existed on Mars.,da ttinin ids mas d is ufan anẓiwn n is tlla tudrt tamikrubit g umzuyɣ.
"In 1996, a controversial report stated that structures resembling nanobacteria were discovered in a meteorite, ALH84001, formed of rock ejected from Mars.","g usggwas n 1996 inna yan unqqis ɣf illa umrara n wawal masd yufa tanɣiwin yaɣn g lbaktirya nanawya g nayzak ALH84001, g llan iẓṛan d ittugrn sg umzuyɣ."
"NASA officials soon distanced NASA from the scientists' claims, and Stoker herself backed off from her initial assertions.","inbdadn n naza d tsnurayt n naza; ɛrqnen aynna ttinin imusnawn, tuɣul stukr awd ntta ɣf isddidn nns."
It is designed to assess the past and present habitability on Mars using a variety of scientific instruments.,"ittuhyya ɣf uzzray n uzmr n tudrt g umzuyɣ gr wasnaḍt d wassa, s ussmrs n trabbut tanawayt n imassn imassan."
"However, significant advances in the ability to find and resolve light from smaller rocky worlds near their stars are necessary before such spectroscopic methods can be used to analyze extrasolar planets.","waxxa hakkak, azzigz imɣarn g tzmrt n yif d ufssay n usidd g imaḍaln iẓṛan imẓẓan taman itran nns, iqnen dat n ussmrs n wammakn n iznẓaṛ mar ad nfars itran bṛṛa n trabbut n tafuyt."
"In August 2011, findings by NASA, based on studies of meteorites found on Earth, suggest DNA and RNA components (adenine, guanine and related organic molecules), building blocks for life as we know it, may be formed extraterrestrially in outer space.","g ɣuct 2011, nnant tyafutin nna d igulan tasnurayt n naẓa, sg tzrawin n nayaẓik illan g wakal, ɣr ifṛḍiṣn n DNA d RNA (adinin, ganin d igzzumn ilan tazlɣa), ifggagn idslan n tudrt imk tt nssn, tɣy ad tili bṛṛa n wakal g yignna."
"In August 2012, and in a world first, astronomers at Copenhagen University reported the detection of a specific sugar molecule, glycolaldehyde, in a distant star system.","g ɣuct 2012, g tiklt tamzwarut g umaḍal, nnan imusnawn n tussnitran g kubnhagn masd ufan imik n skkar glikulaldhid g ungraw n itran nn iɛṛqn."
"The Kepler space telescope has also detected a few thousand candidate planets, of which about 11% may be false positives.","yaf awd tiliskub kiblr astum itsn yifḍn n tzwinnitin timnkadin, iɣin ad tg zund 11% diks umnign izgln."
"The most massive planet listed on the NASA Exoplanet Archive is DENIS-P J082303.1-491201 b, about 29 times the mass of Jupiter, although according to most definitions of a planet, it is too massive to be a planet and may be a brown dwarf instead.","tazwinnit mqquṛn illan g uydda n naẓa, bṛṛa n trabbut n tafuyt iga t DENIS-P J082303.1-491201 b, attayn n 29 ayugan n tagudit n tzwinnit n lmuctari, waxxa llan isissn n tzwinnit, ntta imqquṛ kigan ag ur iɣiy ad ig tizwinnit d iɣy ad ig tizwinnit amniway i manaya."
"One sign that a planet probably already contains life is the presence of an atmosphere with significant amounts of oxygen, since that gas is highly reactive and generally would not last long without constant replenishment.","yat g tmitar nna isnɛatn ɣr tzwinnit iɣy is diks nnik tudrt; iga t yili n tgniwt g llan igudiyn ixatarn n uksijin, acku lgaz ad itmrar aṭṭaṣ d ur inni ad izdi s umata g tizi taɣzzaft bla asmaynu amḍfaṛ."
"Even if it is assumed that only one out of a billion of these stars has planets supporting life, there would be some 6.25 billion life-supporting planetary systems in the observable universe.","mk akkw nenna is d yan day g ku ifḍigndad n itran ɣurs tizwinnitin ittawsn tudr, qad yili wattayn n 6.25 n ifḍigndad angraw n tzwinnit amyiwas i tudrt g iɣzwr ityannayn."
The earliest recorded assertion of extraterrestrial human life is found in ancient scriptures of Jainism.,tyafa uzmmez iwrn n tudrt tanafgant bṛṛa n izwinni n wakal g idlisn ifuzarn izaykutn n jaynizm.
Medieval Muslim writers like Fakhr al-Din al-Razi and Muhammad al-Baqir supported cosmic pluralism on the basis of the Qur'an.,msasan imaratn inslmn g isatutn inammasn zund faxr ddin ṛṛazi d muḥmmad lbaqṛ; tiggidit n izwinnitn ɣf usala n lqṛan.
"Once it became clear that Earth was merely one planet amongst countless bodies in the universe, the theory of extraterrestrial life started to become a topic in the scientific community.","sg wadday ityakz is iga wakal ɣas yan izwinni g kigan n tizzitin g iɣzwr, ttusntay tmagunt n tudrt bṛṛa n wakal mar ad tg asntl g uɣrf amassan."
The possibility of extraterrestrials remained a widespread speculation as scientific discovery accelerated.,"tqima tzmrt n tilit n imɣnawn bṛṛa n wakal, tga ɣas igzzin g ufuɣal amiraw akd usrby n yif amassan."
"The idea of life on Mars led British writer H. G. Wells to write the novel The War of the Worlds in 1897, telling of an invasion by aliens from Mars who were fleeing the planet's desiccation.","tawngimt n tudrt g umzuyɣ n umara abriṭani itc ji wilz ɣr tirra n wungal n imnɣi n imusnawn g usggwas n 1897, isawaln ɣf wazzaɣ n ibṛṛaniyn sg umzuyɣ nna d iruln i taɣart n tzwinnit ad."
"""Belief in extraterrestrial beings continues to be voiced in pseudoscience, conspiracy theories, and popular folklore, notably """"Area 51"""" and legends.""","issada usiwl ɣf uffuls s imɣnawn n bṛṛa n wakal g tussna n ɛnwa, d tamugunin n unguz, d lfulkluṛ agdudan, numar tasga 51, d umiy."
Ward and Brownlee are open to the idea of evolution on other planets that is not based on essential Earth-like characteristics (such as DNA and carbon).,ward d bruwnli rzmn ɣf twngimt n usbuɣlu ɣf tzwinnitin yaḍn nna ur ibddin ɣf imẓlayn idslan yaɣn g wakal (zund DNA d kaṛbun).
"""If aliens visit us, the outcome would be much as when Columbus landed in America, which didn't turn out well for the Native Americans"""", he said.""","inna “ignn ɣurnɣ kkan ibṛṛaniyn, qad tg tyafut zund imkilli g nn igz kulumbus g amrika, d aya ayd ur iḥlin i imirikaniyn aẓɣuṛan."
COSPAR also provides guidelines for planetary protection.,da tgga awd kusbar isisfiwn n ufrag n tzwinnit.
"""Also, according to the response, there is """"no credible information to suggest that any evidence is being hidden from the public's eye.""""""","awd, g umrara ur llin inɣmisn izzgan, isnɛatn tufurt ka igat anẓa nil waln n ugdud."
Top: Light sources of different magnitudes.,"g uflla, isugam n usidd isgwr imzarayn."
"Comet Borrelly, the colors show its brightness over the range of three orders of magnitude (right).","kumit burli, da sbayan ikwlan asafu nnsn ɣf kraḍ wanaḍn g uksay (ayffas)."
"The scale is logarithmic and defined such that each step of one magnitude changes the brightness by a factor of the fifth root of 100, or approximately 2.512.","amsɣal lugaritm d umẓlay acku issnfal ku tasurift s uksay n yan usafu s umwuri sg uẓuṛ wiss smmus i 100, nɣd attayn n 2.512."
Astronomers use two different definitions of magnitude: apparent magnitude and absolute magnitude.,"da ssmrasn imusnawn n tussitran sin isissn imzarayn g uksay: asgwr n tumant, d uksay ur ilin akarif."
"The absolute magnitude describes the intrinsic luminosity emitted by an object and is defined to be equal to the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were placed at a certain distance from Earth, 10 parsecs for stars.","isnummul aksay ilan asflilly n ugns nna d ikkan kan tfkka, d ar ittusissn is iga zund aksay ityannayn, nna s iɣy ad tt ig ufkka ig ittusrs ɣf kan ustum g wakal, 10 frsk n itran."
The development of the telescope showed that these large sizes were illusory—stars appeared much smaller through the telescope.,isbaynd usbuɣlu n tiliskub id iksayn ad ixatarn n tkndawt-agd bayn itran mẓẓiyn sg tiliskub.
"The more negative the value, the brighter the object.",ku ig itturnu watig uzdir da tturnu ussid n umɣnaw.
"Stars that have magnitudes between 1.5 and 2.5 are called second-magnitude; there are some 20 stars brighter than 1.5, which are first-magnitude stars (see the list of brightest stars).","itran min tgula tzmrt nnsn gr 1.5 d 2.5 ism nns taskflt tiss snat, llan wattayn n 20 n itri ikkan nnig 1.5 g usidd, gan itran sg tskflt tamzwarut ( ẓṛ talgamt n itran wala issuddan)."
Absolute magnitudes for solar system objects are frequently quoted based on a distance of 1 AU.,dad wala tyasayn isgwarn ur ilin ikarifn i tazzitin n usgraw n tafuyt s uskan ɣf ustum 1 AU.
The simplest form of technology is the development and use of basic tools.,talɣa tafrarit sg talɣiwin n tiknulujit igat usbuɣlu d ussmrs n imassn idslan.
It has helped develop more advanced economies (including today's global economy) and has allowed the rise of a leisure class.,"yuws g usbuɣlu n tdamsanin wala yattuyn ( g tamu tdmsa tamaḍlant assa), yaws g tilit n taggayt taramsut."
"Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics.","d imdyatn ɣf mayan, tilit n tzmrt sg ufars n ufgan d tnẓṛin n tɣariwin timaddarin."
"""The term's meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into """"technology.""""""","ttusnfln inamkn n isissn g usatu wiss 20, dda g skrn imusnawn imassnamun imirikaniyn, s ussnti turstin fibln, issuɣln tiwngimin sg usissn almani n tiknik ɣr tiknulujya."
"""In 1937, the American sociologist Read Bain wrote that """"technology includes all tools, machines, utensils, weapons, instruments, housing, clothing, communicating and transporting devices and the skills by which we produce and use them.""""""","g usggwas n 1937, yaru umussnamun amirikani rid bayn an; tatiknulujit tsman akkw isggurn d imassn d iqcucn d imrign d isggurn d uzdduɣ d tmlsa d ingmamn n umyawaḍ d usnɣl d ifuksn nna nsnflul d ar tt nssmras."
"""More recently, scholars have borrowed from European philosophers of """"technique"""" to extend the meaning of technology to various forms of instrumental reason, as in Foucault's work on technologies of the self (techniques de soi).""","g tyiriwin ad, umẓnd imusnawn sg ɣur iflsafn irubbiyin, tatiqnit n usirw n unamk n tiknulujit ad yamẓ talɣiwin yaḍn sg wallaɣ ankkin, imk iga waddad g twuri n fuku ɣf tiqnit n unmas."
"""to invent useful things or to solve problems"""" and """"a machine, piece of equipment, method, etc.,""","i usnflul n tɣawsiwin ilan tabɣurt, nɣd afssay n imukrisn, d imis, tagzzumt sg imattiw, tabridt, ar tiyira."
"The term is often used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics, rather than technology as a whole.","da wala ttusmras tguri mar ad tnɛt ɣr kan yigr n tiknulujit, nɣd tatiknulujit yattuyn, nɣd kan iliktrunat n tissmra, ad tg imkkisi i tiknulujit s umata."
"In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems.",g ussmrs ad da tsnɛat tiknulujit ɣr isggurn d imassn ign win adtn tssmrsd g ufsay n imukrisn n umaḍal n tidt.
"""W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a similarly broad way as """"a means to fulfill a human purpose.""""""","d isissin wilyam bryan artur tatiknulujit s tbridt tamiriwt yaksuln, is tga ammak mar ad yawḍ ufgan asuɣd nns."
"""When combined with another term, such as """"medical technology"""" or """"space technology,"""" it refers to the state of the respective field's knowledge and tools. """"""","ig da uttuzmzazl akd tguri nniḍn zund “tatiknulujit tamsgnaft”, nɣd “tatiknulujit n ustum”, daɣ immal addad n tussna d isggurn ibarazn inna."
"Additionally, technology is the application of mathematics, science, and the arts for the benefit of life as it is known.","s tirnut n manaya, tga tiknulujit assmrs n tusnakt d tmassanin d tẓuṛiwin ɣf tudrt imk tyassan."
"Engineering is the goal-oriented process of designing and making tools and systems to exploit natural phenomena for practical human means, often (but not always) using results and techniques from science.","atwal tgat tmggit inmn ɣr usuɣd i ummak d usskar n isggurn d igrrayn n imassn inafgan imassanen, d wala (maka ur id aha) assmrs n tyafutin d tiqnitin n tussna."
"For example, science might study the flow of electrons in electrical conductors by using already-existing tools and knowledge.","s umdya, tɣiy tusnakt anɣal n ilikṭṛunat g tzddayin timẓẓaṛuṛin s ussmrs n isggurn d tussna illan nnik."
"The exact relations between science and technology, in particular, have been debated by scientists, historians, and policymakers in the late 20th century, in part because the debate can inform the funding of basic and applied science.","ittuga umrara n wawal ɣf tzlɣiwin tunɣidin gr tmassant d tiknulujit, s uẓlay, sg ɣur imusnawn d inmzrayn d winna isrsn tisrtitin g tyiriwin n usatu wiss 20, da ittuɣul manaya ɣr amrara n wawal iɣy ad isnm asiẓṛf n tmassanin tidslanin d tmggitin."
"Early humans evolved from a species of foraging hominids which were already bipedal, with a brain mass approximately one third of modern humans.","asbuɣllu n iwdan imzwura igan anaw n mddn itddun ɣf sin iḍaṛn, d unlli ilan anc n wiss kṛaḍ n iwdan itrarn."
The invention of polished stone axes was a major advance that allowed forest clearance on a large scale to create farms.,"asnflul n icuqqaṛ n iẓṛan ihyyan, azzigz mqquṛn d yuwin ukus n taganin g ufuɣal amiraw mar ad tili tgrza."
The earliest known use of wind power is the sailing ship; the earliest record of a ship under sail is that of a Nile boat dating to the 8th-millennium BCE.,"assmrs amzwaru i tzmrt n uzwu tgat “tanawt”, arra aqbuṛ n tanawt igat warra n talflukt n nili g uzmz wiss 8 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ."
"According to archaeologists, the wheel was invented around 4000 BCE probably independently and nearly simultaneously in Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq), the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture) and Central Europe.","nna imusnawn n udriz, is ttuskar tsɣalt attayn n 4000 n usggwas dat tlalit n lmasiḥ, s talɣa tamẓlayt d g zund tizi nnaɣ nnik g gr isaffn ( lɛiṛaq dɣi), d izzlmḍ n lquqaz ( tussna n maykub), d urubba n wammas."
"More recently, the oldest-known wooden wheel in the world was found in the Ljubljana marshes of Slovenia.","g tyiriwin dɣ, tyafa tsɣalt taqbuṛt n ukccuḍ akkw g umaḍal, g inazuɣn n lyublyana g slufinya."
The ancient Sumerians used the potter's wheel and may have invented it.,"ssmrsn sumiryyun izaykutn tasɣalt n idqqi, d iɣy is tt sskrn."
The first two-wheeled carts were derived from travois and were first used in Mesopotamia and Iran in around 3000 BCE.,"ttussufɣnd tulditin timzwura id mm snat tsɣalin sg travois, d ttusmrs tiklt izwarn g gr-isaffn d iṛan attayn n 3000 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ."
A bathtub virtually identical to modern ones was unearthed at the Palace of Knossos.,ittyafa ugrru n wucuf imyaɣn d igrrutn itrarn g tɣrmt n knusus.
The primary sewer in Rome was the Cloaca Maxima; construction began on it in the sixth century BCE and it is still in use today.,"aqqa adslan g ṛuma ism nns Cloaca Maxima, ttusnti diks tuska g usatu wiss ṣḍiṣ dat tlalit n lmasiḥ, isal ittuswuri awd assa."
"Medieval technology saw the use of simple machines (such as the lever, the screw, and the pulley) being combined to form more complicated tools, such as the wheelbarrow, windmills and clocks, and a system of universities developed and spread scientific ideas and practices.","tẓṛ tiqnit n isatutn inammasn assmrs n imassn ifrarin( zund tamyasayt d ukmam d ljṛṛaṛt), nna ittusiḍfn mar ad ttuskarn isggurn wala irwin, zund tasmattayt d tamẓḍit n uzwu d tsaragin, d ungraw n tsdawitin nna ittusbuɣllan d ifsr tiwngimin d imggitn imassanen."
"Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution was a period of great technological discovery, particularly in the areas of agriculture, manufacturing, mining, metallurgy, and transport, driven by the discovery of steam power and the widespread application of the factory system.","sg lamirik g usatu wiss 18, tga tgrawla tamgurant tizi n yif atiknuluji mqquṛn, numaṛ g yigran n tyrza d tmuknant d ugddad d usnɣl, ittutkayn s yikz n tzmrt n irugga d imggitn g ufuɣal amiriw ign angraw ityahyyan."
The rise in technology has led to skyscrapers and broad urban areas whose inhabitants rely on motors to transport them and their food supplies.,"yuwy usbuɣlu n tiknulujit ɣr abrzdduɣ d wansiwn iɣrmanen amiriwn, nna g da ssmrasn imzdaɣ nns inmassutn mar ad ttmctagn ard ttawin utci nnsn."
The 20th century brought a host of innovations.,yuwid usatu wiss 20 kigan n isnfluln.
"Information technology subsequently led to the birth in the 1980s of the Internet, which ushered in the current Information Age.","tuwy tiknulujit tasnmalayt g tizi n dat ɣr wufuɣ n lantirnit g 1980, nna d brrḥn s asatu asnmallay n wass."
"Complex manufacturing and construction techniques and organizations are needed to make and maintain some of the newer technologies, and entire industries have arisen to support and develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools.","ttura tiqnit d tmaddast n tmgurant d uskan icqqan mar ad nmgura d uhyyu itsnt tiqnitin titrarin, d tbaynd tmgurant kul mar ad taws asbuɣlu n tsutiwin d iddan g isggurn wala icqqan s talɣa tamrnut."
"Transhumanists generally believe that the point of technology is to overcome barriers, and that what we commonly refer to as the human condition is just another barrier to be surpassed.","da ttiɣiln winna iḍfaṛn “ḍaṛt tiffugna” s umata id asaɣd n tiknulujit ad tnḍw iwtta, d uynna s nsnɛat s umata iga addad n ufgan; iga yan uwttu yaḍn s nn iqqn ad tt nenḍw."
They suggest that the inevitable result of such a society is to become evermore technological at the cost of freedom and psychological health.,ssumurn id tayafut ur ilin amziray i amm ugdud ad; tgat ad tg uggar n tiqnit ɣf tadawt n tlelli d tdusi tuklist.
"He hopes to reveal the essence of technology in a way that 'in no way confines us to a stultified compulsion to push on blindly with technology or, what comes to the same thing, to rebel helplessly against it.'","da issirim ad yaɣ tagnsut n tiknulujit s tbridt ur ak yaṭṭun s ak mamnk ad ntky yan umsgufsu ad yakl ɣf tiknulujya s tiqn-waln, nɣd mayd itddun s tɣawsa nnaɣ nnik, mar ad ɣifs iɣwwɣ s gar tazmrt."
"Some of the most poignant criticisms of technology are found in what are now considered to be dystopian literary classics such as Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange, and George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four.","tyafant kan izɣan istawhmman ɣur tiknulujit g mayd igan dɣi klasikyat n tskla iqnḍn zund amaḍal amaynu izmrn n aldus hiksli, d anṭuni burgis taznbuɛt tamist, d juṛj uṛwil."
"""The late cultural critic Neil Postman distinguished tool-using societies from technological societies and from what he called """"technopolies,"""" societies that are dominated by the ideology of technological and scientific progress to the exclusion or harm of other cultural practices, values, and world-views.""","ismzaray ufrnan adlsan iddan; nil bustman, igdudn nna issmrasn isggurn n igdudn atiknulujitn, iɣrifn nna g tnnbḍ tdyulujit n uzzigz n tiknulujit d tmassant ɣr uɛra nɣd arnu n twaɣit s ussmrs d tinditin tidlsanin yaḍn, d tannayin n umaḍal."
"Nikolas Kompridis has also written about the dangers of new technology, such as genetic engineering, nanotechnology, synthetic biology, and robotics.","yara awd nikulas kumbrids ɣf imizn n tiknulujit ad tamaynut, zund atwal atari d tiknulujit n nnanu d tbyulujit n tsddast d id rubu."
"Another prominent critic of technology is Hubert Dreyfus, who has published books such as On the Internet and What Computers Still Can't Do.","afrnan yaḍn mqqurn n tiknulujit igat hubir drayfuz, nna ifsrn adlis zund g lantirnit d mayd urta ɣiyn imssudsn ad tt skrn."
"In his article, Jared Bernstein, a Senior Fellow at the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, questions the widespread idea that automation, and more broadly, technological advances, have mainly contributed to this growing labor market problem.","g tmgradt nns, tlla turda n jarid birnctayn, amddakwl amzwaru g usmuttg n tmsastlt d usizwr n tsrtitin, g twngimt wala ittufsarn ɣf uswuri amassan g ufuɣal amiraw, azzigz atiknuluji yuws s tlaɣa tadslan g umukris ad n ubaraz n twuri ifḍḍn."
He uses two main arguments to defend his point.,issmras sin wanẓatn idslan mar ad irar ɣf tannayt nns.
"""Indeed, automation threatens repetitive jobs but higher-end jobs are still necessary because they complement technology and manual jobs that """"requires flexibility judgment and common sense"""" remain hard to replace with machines.""","g tinawt, da smigiln n imassn timrsitin ittyalsn, maka timrsitin yattuyn kigan sulnt lant tawuri acku da tfukkunt tamrst n tiqnit d tin ufus nna ittirin anbaḍ n artutm d usḥssi idusn, isul icqqa usnflel nns s imassn."
"""Technology is often considered too narrowly; according to Hughes, """"Technology is a creative process involving human ingenuity"""".""","da wala ttili tannayt ɣr tiknulujit s talɣa inyaman kigan, imk inna hyuz “ tatiknulujit tga timggit tamsnflult itnnḍn ɣf tiɣist tafganiyt."
They have often supposed that technology is easily controllable and this assumption has to be thoroughly questioned.,"turda nnsn g kigan n tikkal n wis iɣy ad yili unbaḍ iwhn xf tiknulujit, iqnen usurdu ɣf turda ad."
Solutionism is the ideology that every social issue can be solved thanks to technology and especially thanks to the internet.,afssay tgat idyulujyya innan: ka igat tamukrist tanamunt nɣy ad tt nfsi s tulluɣt n tiknulujit d s uẓlay lantirnit.
Benjamin R. Cohen and Gwen Ottinger also discussed the multivalent effects of technology.,imk imrar bnyamin r.kuhn d gwin utingr iḍiṣn mi ggudin imiksiln n tiknulujit.
The use of basic technology is also a feature of other animal species apart from humans.,iga ussmrs awd n tiknulujit tadslant tafrst g tfrsin n wanawn n imudar yaḍn ur ad amm iwdan.
The ability to make and use tools was once considered a defining characteristic of the genus Homo.,tkkat tzmrt n uskar n isggurn d ussmrs nnsn tga yat tfrst s tẓli twsit n ufgan.
"""In 2005, futurist Ray Kurzweil predicted that the future of technology would mainly consist of an overlapping """"GNR Revolution"""" of genetics, nanotechnology and robotics, with robotics being the most important of the three.""","“g usggwas n 2005, isnuml unimal ray kulzwil masd imal n tiknulujit qad ittuskr g “tgrawla n GNR” ikcmn g tussnatari d tiknulujit n nnanu d rubu, imk iga rubu wanna akkw istawhmman g kṛaḍ ad.”"
Humans have already made some of the first steps toward achieving the GNR revolution.,isskr nnik ufgan itsnt tsurifin; tamzwarut ɣr tilit n “tgrawla GNR”.
Some believe that the future of robotics will involve a 'greater than human non-biological intelligence.',iɣal ids id imal n rubu qad yamẓ ccwiyt ikkan nnig tin ufgan ur igin abyuluji.
"""This future shares many similarities with the concept of planned obsolescence, however, planned obsolescence is seen as a """"sinister business strategy.'""","issar imal ad kigan n tnqqaḍ akd usissn n “tqburt tawnaɣt”, waxxa hakkak, ittusksiw ɣr “tqburt tawnaɣt” masd tga tabridt n uswuri ixcn."
"Genetics have also been explored, with humans understanding genetic engineering to a certain degree.",tyafa awd tussnatari s imik n urmmus n ufgan i utwal atari.
Others think that genetic engineering will be used to make humans more resistant or completely immune to some diseases.,wiyḍ yaḍn ɣaln id atwal atari ayd ittusmrasn mar ad tg afgan d bu tzmrt d lan iwtta gr asn d tmaḍunin.
It is believed by futurists that nanobot technology will allow humans to 'manipulate matter at the molecular and atomic scale.',ɣaln inamaln tatiqnit n nanubut is qad tadj afgan ad itturar s tanga g uswir agzzuman d ublkim.
"""In this context, now obsolete, an """"engine"""" referred to a military machine, i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult).""","“g usatal ad, nna inḍu wakud dɣi, da tsnɛat tguri anmassu “ ɣr imis asrdas”, igan “tazlɣa tamikanikt ittusmrsn g imnɣi ( zund aldi).”"
The six classic simple machines were known in the ancient Near East.,"kkant imassn s sḍiṣ iklasikitn unziln, tyassn g ugmmuḍ amazdar aqbuṛ."
"The lever mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where it was used in a simple balance scale, and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology.","ibaynd imis n yisy tiklt izwarn attayn n 5000 n usggwas g agmmuḍ amazdar, ttussmrs g usbdad n umyas unzil, d usmctg n tɣawsiwin timqranin g miṣṛ tazaykut."
"The screw, the last of the simple machines to be invented, first appeared in Mesopotamia during the Neo-Assyrian period (911-609) BC.",ibaynd ukmam igan yan imis amyas nna ittusnfleln tiklt izwarn g tmazirt n gr isaffn g usatu acuri atrar (911-609) dat tlalit n lmasiḥ.
"As one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC.","yan sg inbbaḍn n firɛawn, zusir iɣy id ntta ayd ihyyan ibdd ɣf uskan n uzamug zusr (azamug igan tadṛjanin), g saqaṛa g miṣṛ attayn n 2630-2611 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ."
Kushite ancestors built speos during the Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC.Bloomeries and blast furnaces were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush.,"skan ilusn n lkucyyun speos, g uzmz abrunzi gr 3700 d 3250 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ, imk ttuskarn wafatn d ifṛṛanen yattuyn g usatu wiss 7 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ g kuc."
"Some of Archimedes' inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are still widely used today in diverse fields such as robotics and automotive engineering.","ran itsn isnfluln n arxmis akd imis n Antikythera, tussna ibuɣllan s trus tamafllat nɣd trus tawrerrayt, igan sin imnzayn g tmagunt n imis yuwsn g thyyit n ilawayn n trus i tgrawla tamgurant, tsul ttusmras g ufuɣal amiraw awd assa g yigran inawayn zund rubuyat d atwal n thirritin."
"The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the spinning jenny, which was a key development during the early Industrial Revolution in the 18th century.","ikkat awd ugnduz n tẓnkt ittufka i jini n tẓnkt, nna igan yan usbuɣlu adslan g tgrawla tamgurant n zik g usatu wiss 18."
"He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine, where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.","d isnumml kkuẓ n inaẓuṛn imassan, g amun id bu ugnnag nna iswurin s imis tgnngt igan tin usɣiws, acku iɣy atn tadjd ad ttirirn s talɣiwin imzarayn d tanixin n tgnngin imzarayn."
"Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology.","ig nzri tazzulin ad, ur tlli turda n wiss lant tsdawitin astawhmma amassan mqquṛn g tiknulujit."
Canal building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution.,"ikkat uskan n tbadut yat twuri tatwalt istawhmman, g tfrkiwin timzwura n tgrawla tamgurant."
He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist.,iga awd amtwal amikanik iḍufn d umassan afizik icqqan.
Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to the Newcomen steam engine.,iskr awd smitun asɣudu amikaniki i usmassu n iruggwa Newcomen.
"Samuel Morland, a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that Thomas Savery read.","ṣamwil muṛland, amusnaw n tusnakt d amsnflul nna iswurin g tmtkyin, yudja tannayin g umaris n fukshul urdinans ɣf umamk n tmtkayt n iraggwau, iɣra tt tumas safri."
"Iron merchant Thomas Newcomen, who built the first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training.","asbbab n wuzzal tumas nyukumn, nna iskan asmassu amzwaru n iruggwa g usggwas n 1712, ur ityassn is izzri kan usanun amassan."
"These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making horse railways and iron bridges practical.","ssdrsn isnfluln ad atig n wuzzal, ayd yudjan timzuɣt n iysan d tlggwitin n wuzzal d timggitin."
"With the development of the high pressure steam engine, the power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible.","s usbuɣlu n unsmassu n iruggwa mi yattuy yidr, tga asɣl n tzmrt ɣr astal n insmassutn n iruggwa d talflukin n iruggwa d imalwayn imggitn iẓḍarn ad yili."
"The Industrial Revolution created a demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of several machine tools.","tskr tgrawla tamgurant tuttra ɣf imassn ilan igzzumn izaɣurn, aya ayd yuwin asbuɣlu n kigan n isggurn n imassn."
Precision machining techniques were developed in the first half of the 19th century.,ttusbuɣllant tiqnitin n mgur amnɣad g uzgn amzwaru n usatu wiss 19.
"""The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of """"engineer"""" for the first time with a count of 2,000.""","inna usiṭṭn n mirikan g usggas 1850, yumz amtwal tiklt tamzwarut s imiḍi n 2000."
"In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical.","g usggwas n 1890, llan dinnaɣ 6000 n umtwal g utwal uɣrim d tawsmmudt d tmikanikt d tmẓẓaṛuṛt."
"The foundations of electrical engineering in the 1800s included the experiments of Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872.","llan g isalan n utwal amẓẓaṛuṛ g 1800, tirmitin n alisandru fulta d maykl faraday d juṛj um, d wiyyaḍ d usnflul n tiligraf tamẓzaṛuṛt g usggwas n 1816 d usnmassu amẓẓaṛuṛ g usggwas n 1872."
Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design.,"da iswuri utwal n waylal akd wamamk n tmggit n umamk n taylalt, d iga utwal n waylal yat tguri wala igan tatrart issiriwn afuɣal n uɣyud sg tiggit n umamk n tmssudutin n ustum."
"Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches.",g umzruy iga utwal aylan d utwal n usufɣ n izuɣar sg wayyawn idslan.
"As a result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers.","tayafut n ɣayan, ssudun wahli n imtwaln g ulmmud n tangiwin timaynutin tudrt nnsn tazzulat kullut."
"It is generally insufficient to build a technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements.","s umata, ur iqḍi uskan n usnflul immursn g tiqnit, maka iqnen ad iskar tutriwin yaḍn."
"""Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromises are at the heart of """"low-level"""" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.""","“inna Genrich Altshuller ddag isman assiṭn ɣf kigan n tzzidgiwin n usnflul, id izuggaz llan g wulawn n imamkn n utwal, “ mi igz uswir “, maka g uswir yulin da itgga umamk iɣudan amamk nna ittksn annzray adslan nna itggan imukrisn.”"
Testing ensures that products will perform as expected.,tanfrut n yirim igat is qad swurin isnfluln imktn ndma.
As well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications (computer-aided technologies) specifically for engineering.,"s trnut i iɣawasn n iskkirn n twuriwin timdyatin, llant kigan n tskkirin s umyiwas n umssuds (tatiqnitin s umyiwas n umssuds), s uẓlay i utwal."
"It enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs.","gulanen imtwaln askar n imdyatn n 3 wuggugn d wunuɣn id bu 2 wuggugn, d iṣṭṭatn i imamkn nnsn."
Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of product data management software.,"da ittusuds yiwḍ ɣr inɣmisn ad kul, d tuṭṭut nnsn s umata s ussmrs n uɣawas n tsnbdadt n inmmaln n usnflul."
"By its very nature engineering has interconnections with society, culture and human behavior.",tla tɣara n utwal yat tzlɣa akd ugdud d tussna d tikli tanafgant.
Engineering projects can be subject to controversy.,iɣy ad gin isnfarn n utwal yan waddad amnzaɣ.
Engineering is a key driver of innovation and human development.,atwal ayd igan asnmassu adslan n usnflul d tnflit tanafgant.
"There are many negative economic and political issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues.","llant kigan n tmntilin tidamsanin d tsrtitin tuzdirin nna s iɣy adtnt iskr, d tmntilin n tɣara."
"Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes.","ɣin awd imusnawn ad smdn tiwuriwin n utwal, zund amamk n ungmam n yirm nɣd tuska n imdyatn imzwura."
"First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics or chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.","g umzwaru, da wala itmfka akd yigran nna g tga tfizikt tadslant nɣd lkimya asissn iɣudan, maka timukrisin nnaɣ nnik cqqan kigan d lint afssay s tbrid tunɣidt."
The former equates an understanding into a mathematical principle while the latter measures variables involved and creates technology.,amzwaru iga armas g umnzay usnak imkinna isɣal umggaru isnfal nnaɣ nnik ar iskar tatiknulujit.
A physicist would typically require additional and relevant training.,da wala ittiri ufizik annan yaḍn ilan azday d usntl.
"An example of this is the use of numerical approximations to the Navier–Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of the Finite element method to calculate the stresses in complex components.","amdya ɣf ɣayan, igat ussmrs n tsnmilitin timiḍanin n tgadazalin nafyir stuks mar ad snummlnt anɣal adinamik n uzwu aflla n taylalt, nɣd assmrs n tbridt n ifṛḍiṣn ila iwtta mar ad ssiṭn idr g ifṛḍiṣn irwin."
Engineers stress innovation and invention.,slkan imtwal ɣf isnfluln d iklẓawn.
"Since a design has to be realistic and functional, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristics data defined.","acku amamk iqnen ad ig amsar d amskir, iqnen ad nsti inmmaln n utwam nns d wuggugn nns d imẓlay nns."
"Thus they studied mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics.",imki as ɣran tusnakt d ufizik d kimya d tbyulujit d mikanik.
"Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, brain implants and pacemakers.","iɣy usgnaf atrar ad yili g udɣar n kigan n twuriwin n tfkka s ussmrs n igmamn imguranen, d iɣy ad wala isnfel tawuri n tfkka n ufgan s ingmamn imguranen zund, s umdya; tuẓut n unlli d ingmamn n ussuds n titiwat n wul."
Both fields provide solutions to real world problems.,igran ssin da akkan ifssayn n imukrisn n umaḍal n tidt.
"""Engineering management or """"Management engineering"""" is a specialized field of management concerned with engineering practice or the engineering industry sector.""","tamhla n tatwalt nɣd tatwalt n tmhla, tga yan yigr amẓlay n tmhla, tawit nns ɣf uskar atwal nɣd igr n tmguri tatwalt."
Engineers specializing in change management must have in-depth knowledge of the application of industrial and organizational psychology principles and methods.,"iqnen ad yili ɣur imtwal imẓlayn g tmhla n usnfl, russna iɣban n ussmrs n imnzayn d wammakn n tiklisnt tamgurant d usnmala."
"Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence demonstrated by machines, as opposed to the natural intelligence displayed by humans or animals.","ccwiyt tamgurant (ct) iga ccwiyt d sbayn imassn, ur id amm cwiyt taɣarant nna d isbayan ufgan nɣd imudar."
"AI research has tried and discarded many different approaches during its lifetime, including simulating the brain, modeling human problem solving, formal logic, large databases of knowledge and imitating animal behavior.","urmn irzzutn n cwiyt tamgurant d tnḍw kigan n wammakn imzarayn g tudrt nns, g yamu wunud n unlli, d usmdya n ufsay n imukrisn n ufgan, d umgn unṣib, d ilgamn n inmmaln ixatarn n tussna d tḍfṛt n tkli n umudr."
"The traditional goals of AI research include reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects.","sman isuɣad izaykutn n irzzutn n ccwiyt tamgurant n uswingm, d usmdya n tussna,d uɣaws, d ulmmud, d usmkl n tutlayt taɣarant, d atam d yiɣiy n usmmctg n tɣawsiwin d usmkl nns."
"AI also draws upon computer science, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, and many other fields.",tskuttu awd ccwiyt tamgurant ɣf tmassanin n umssuds d tiklisnt d tsnilsitin d tflsaft d kigan n yigran yaḍn.
"""The study of mechanical or """"formal"""" reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity.""",ttusntay tzrawt n umgin amikanik nɣd unṣib akd iflsafn d imusnawn n tusnakt g isattutn izaykutn.
"The Church-Turing thesis, along with concurrent discoveries in neurobiology, information theory and cybernetics, this led researchers to consider the possibility of building an electronic brain.","tuwid tduktuṛt ntcurc turin taman yifitn d yusan g tbyulujit tarnant, d tmagunt n inɣmisn d tussna n unbaḍ imis, s imrzutn n uswingm g tmamkt n uskan n unlli ilikṭṛuni."
"Attendees Allen Newell (CMU), Herbert Simon (CMU), John McCarthy (MIT), Marvin Minsky (MIT) and Arthur Samuel (IBM) became the founders and leaders of AI research.","tga tilit alin nwil (CMU), d harbrt simun (CMU), d jun mkarti ( asinag n masatcustc i tiknulujit), d marfn minski ( asinag n masatcusts i tiknulujit), d artr ṣamwil (IBM), imssntin d imuzrn n irzzutn n ccwiyt tamgurant."
"""AI's founders were optimistic about the future: Herbert Simon predicted, """"machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do"""".""",imssntin n tmaddast n usurf agraɣlan sfaln s imal: idma hrbrt simun “qad iɣiyn imassn g ugnar n isggwasn ad skrn ka igat tawuri s iɣy urgaz ad t iskr”.
"Progress slowed and in 1974, in response to the criticism of Sir James Lighthill and ongoing pressure from the US Congress to fund more productive projects, both the U.S. and British governments cut off exploratory research in AI.","iẓẓay uzzigz g usggwas n 1974, acku ismdr i uzɣn n mass jims laytil, d ussikl izdin sg ɣur lkungris n lamirik mar ad issẓṛf isnfarn wala iran ad ik, tsbdd tnbaḍt n lamirik tin bṛiṭanya arzzu n yikiz g ccwiyt tamgurant."
"By 1985, the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars.","ddag yuwḍ usggwas n 1985, igulan ugadaz n ccwiyt tamgurant ar uggar n yifḍ igndad n id dulaṛ."
"Faster computers, algorithmic improvements, and access to large amounts of data enabled advances in machine learning and perception; data-hungry deep learning methods started to dominate accuracy benchmarks around 2012.","uwind ilgmamn n umssuds amsrbi, d tsɣudutin n alguritm, d yiwḍ s igudiyn iggudin n inmmaln ɣr uzzigz g usslmd n imis d urmmus; ttusntayn wammakn n ulmmud iɣban iran inmmaln g unbaḍ ɣf isfranen n tunɣidt g wattayn n usggas n 2012."
AI research divided into competing sub-fields that often failed to communicate with each other.,"bḍan irzzutn n ccwiyt tamgarant ɣf yigran ayyawn itmcaḥadn, ar wala msasant grasnt g umsawaḍ."
"The research was centered in three institutions: Carnegie Mellon University, Stanford, and MIT, and as described below, each one developed its own style of research.","ismssa usnubbc ɣf kṛaḍ tmrsal: tasdawit n kaṛnji milun, d stanfurd, d usinag n masatcustc n tiknulujit, d imk ittussfra ddaw as, tbbuɣla ku yuwt s wammak nns imẓli g urzzu."
"They called their work by several names: e.g. embodied, situated, behavior-based or developmental.","gan i twuri nnsn kigan n yismawn: zund, tamskart, nɣd tamsɣara, nɣd tlla ɣf tikli, nɣd tanflit."
"The shared mathematical language permitted a high level of collaboration with more established fields (like mathematics, economics or operations research).",tudja tutlayt n tusnakt iccarn s uswir yattuyn i umyiwas akd yigran wala ittmran (amm tusnakt nɣd tadamsa nɣd irzzutn n tiggitin).
"Nowadays results of experiments are often rigorously measurable, and are sometimes (with difficulty) reproducible.","g tizi ad, da wala ttilint tyafutin n yirmawn igan win usɣal s tunɣidt, d itsnt tikkal ( s cqqiyt) tga tin wallas."
"""These algorithms proved to be insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experienced a """"combinatorial explosion"""": they became exponentially slower as the problems grew larger.""","“surant lugaritmat is ur gint i ufssay n imukrisn n uswingm axatar, acku mrrtnt s “uṭṭiqs amssidf”, d taɣul tẓẓay kigan ggadint as tmukrisin.”"
"Among the things a comprehensive commonsense knowledge base would contain are: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects; situations, events, states and time; causes and effects; knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know); and many other, less well researched domains.","ingr tɣawsiwin nna tɣiy ad tamẓ tlgamt n tussna taɣzurant tumgint: tiɣawsiwin, d imẓlayn, d tgrruma, d tzdayin gr tɣawsiwin; d waddadn, d imzzutn d waddadn d tizi, d isragn d tmitar, tussna s tussna ( mayd nssen d mayd ssnen wiyyaḍ), d kigan n yigran yaḍn g idrus usnubbc."
"For example, if a bird comes up in conversation, people typically picture a fist-sized animal that sings and flies.","s umdya, ig d ibayn ugḍiḍ g tsmnawalt, da swingimn mddn g umudr s uksay n tummiẓt ar ittirir ar ittaylal."
Almost nothing is simply true or false in the way that abstract logic requires.,awd maɛlm iga amddad ula izgl s tbridt nna da ittetr wumgin awngim.
"Research projects that attempt to build a complete knowledge base of commonsense knowledge (e.g., Cyc) require enormous amounts of laborious ontological engineering—they must be built, by hand, one complicated concept at a time.","da tettrn isnfarn n usnubbc nna da itnaɣn ad skun talgamt n tussna isman tussna tumgint ( s umdya Cyc), kigan n igudiyn n utwal anṭulujiy imran - iqnen uskan nns s ufus, s yan usissn irwin ku tiklt."
"""They need a way to visualize the future—a representation of the state of the world and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it—and be able to make choices that maximize the utility (or """"value"""") of available choices.""","“txṣṣatn yat tbridt n usnumml n imal - asmdya n waddad n umaḍal d tiɣiyt n tigit n iswigmn s mamnk s rad snfln iggitn nnsn zaṛs - d tiɣiyt ad asin istayn ittrnun tabɣst (nɣd atig), sg istayn illan.”"
This calls for an agent that can not only assess its environment and make predictions but also evaluate its predictions and adapt based on its assessment.,"aya ira tilit n usmagal ur innin ad ig astal i twnnaḍt nns day, d iskr asnimal, maka awd astal i usnimal nns d ibddi ɣf ustal nns."
"Classification is used to determine what category something belongs in, and occurs after a program sees a number of examples of things from several categories.","da ttusmras tsnawayt mar ad tẓli tagrruma nna g illa ka akkw mi, ar itjṛu daṛt ad yannay uɣawas kigan n imdyatn n tɣawsiwin sg kigan tgrruma."
"Computational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity, by sample complexity (how much data is required), or by other notions of optimization.","tɣy tmagunt n ulmmud n ussiṭn ad tg astal i inlmadn sg ucqqu n ussiṭn d ucqqu n tussift (asgwr n inmmaln ityattarn), nɣd sg isissn yaḍn n usɣudu."
"""Many current approaches use word co-occurrence frequencies to construct syntactic representations of text. """"""",“da ssmrasnt kigan n wammakn n dɣi iglugln n wallasn imyakudn i tguriwin mar ad isskr ismdyatn injṛumn n uḍṛiṣ.”
"Modern statistical NLP approaches can combine all these strategies as well as others, and often achieve acceptable accuracy at the page or paragraph level.","tɣi tmyadast n usɣiws asnils turnant tatrart ad tsmun tistratijitin ad kul d tiyyaḍ, ar tffɣ s yat tunɣid ittwadrgn g uswir n tsna nɣd tasddart."
"A modern mobile robot, when given a small, static, and visible environment, can easily determine its location and map its environment; however, dynamic environments, such as (in endoscopy) the interior of a patient's breathing body, pose a greater challenge.","ɣin id rubu itrarn ittmctagn ig as ttufka twnnaḍt tamẓẓant iwrn ar tyannay, ad ittyaf udɣar nns s trula, d usuɣn n tkaṛḍa i twnnaḍt nns, zund (asmuqql agnsan), agnsu n tfkka n usunfs n umuḍin, isskarn tanẓṛt mqquṛn."
"For example, some virtual assistants are programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously; it makes them appear more sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate human–computer interaction.","s umdya, ittuga uɣawas n itsn imyiwasn iswingmn mar ad sawaln s talɣa tamyawaḍt nɣd lhḍṛt s taḍṣa, datn ittadja ɣr tmzrit wala i dinamikat n usḥussu mar ad tmrara akd ufgan, nɣd asfsi n umrara gr ufgan d umssuds."
"Can intelligent behavior be described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic or optimization)?",is nɣy ad nsnumml tikli tamiɣist s ussmrs n imnzayn unziln d imzdagn (zund tamẓla nɣd asɣudu).
"""Or do we use algorithms that can only give us a """"reasonable"""" solution (e.g., probabilistic methods) but may fall prey to the same kind of inscrutable mistakes that human intuition makes?""","“nɣd da nssmras lugaritm aɣ ur yakkan ɣas afssay “amnlli” (zund ammakn iɣin), maka tɣy ad tg tanqqit i wanawn nnaɣ nnik n izggaln ur itturmasn nna isskar uwngim n ufgan?”"
"""Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig observe that most AI researchers """"don't care about the strong AI hypothesis—as long as the program works, they don't care whether you call it a simulation of intelligence or real intelligence.""""""","yannay stiwart rasl d bitr nurfij masd kigan n imrzutn g yigr n ccwiyt tamgurant; ur rurin taynnit s turda n ccwiyt tamgurant izmrn - sg mayd iswuri uɣawas, nitni urtn ihwwil is as tgid asɣl n ccwiyt nɣd ccwiyt tamgurant."
The new intelligence could thus increase exponentially and dramatically surpass humans.,"iwa, tcy ccwiyt tamaynut ad trnu wahli d wahli, d ad ik nnig ufgan s kigan."
The relationship between automation and employment is complicated.,azday gr unwwr d uswuri irwy.
"""Subjective estimates of the risk vary widely; for example, Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey estimate 47% of U.S. jobs are at """"high risk"""" of potential automation, while an OECD report classifies only 9% of U.S. jobs as """"high risk"""".""","mzaraynt tannayin tiwdanin n imizn ɣf ufuɣal amiraw, s umdya ittini maykl uzburn d kaṛl binidit fray an s 47% g tmrsitin tamirikanin llant g “imizi axatar” sg imisn iɣin ad yili, d isti anqqis n tngmamt n umyiwas admsan s 9% day sg tmrsitin timirikaniyin is illa imik yattuyn."
"In the long-term, the scientists have proposed to continue optimizing function while minimizing possible security risks that come along with new technologies.","dadɣ s wahli, sumrn imusnawn assudu g usɣudu n uswuri d ussdris n imizitn n ufra iɣin ad yili, nna d itddun akd tiqnitin timaynutin."
"In his book Superintelligence, philosopher Nick Bostrom provides an argument that artificial intelligence will pose a threat to humankind.",ika ufaylasuf nik bustrum g udlis nns Superintelligence; anẓa ittinin is qad tsskr ccwiyt tamgurant aasmigl i ufgan.
Bostrom also emphasizes the difficulty of fully conveying humanity's values to an advanced AI.,islkan awd bustrum ɣf tnmart n usnɣl n tinditin tinafganin s umata ɣr ccwiyt tamgurant izzigzn.
"In his book Human Compatible, AI researcher Stuart J. Russell echoes some of Bostrom's concerns while also proposing an approach to developing provably beneficial machines focused on uncertainty and deference to humans, possibly involving inverse reinforcement learning.","g udlis nns imsasa d ufgan, ar ittals umrzu g ccwiyt tamgurant stiwart j.rasl itsn ikssuḍn bustrum yakka awd ntta aɣaras n usbuɣlu n imassn ila tabɣurt iwran tk taynnit i gar aslkn d iknnu i ufgan, d ulmmud ilan unuḍ."
"The opinion of experts within the field of artificial intelligence is mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superhumanly-capable AI.","tannayin n imuzayn g yigr n ccwiyt tamgurant tccar, ili ak ids igzzumn ixatarn ur ilin tawit s imizn nna rad ikk ccwiyt tamgurant igan imrzi n tɣara g tyira."
"""Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg believes AI will """"unlock a huge amount of positive things,"""" such as curing disease and increasing the safety of autonomous cars.""","ittiɣil mark zukrbirg aslway imggi n tdrawt n faysbuk; isd ccwiyt tamgurant ayd innan ad irẓm kigan n tɣawsiwin tumnigin, zund asujji n tmaḍunin d tmrniwt n ufra i thirritin iḥrrin iɣfawn nnsnt."
"""Musk also funds companies developing artificial intelligence such as DeepMind and Vicarious to """"just keep an eye on what's going on with artificial intelligence.""",issẓṛaf awd musk tidrawin nna iswurin ɣf usbuɣlu n ccwiyt tamgurant zund dibmand d fikaryus mar ad tḥḍu mayd ittjṛun i ccwiyt tamgurant.
"Research in this area includes machine ethics, artificial moral agents, friendly AI and discussion towards building a human rights framework is also in talks.","yumẓ urzzu g yigr ad tiɣariwin n imis, d ismagaln iɣaranen imguranen, d ccwiyt tamgurant, d umgdal mar ad ittuska asati n twuri n izrfan n ufgan illan awd g umsgdal."
The time has come for adding an ethical dimension to at least some machines.,"tgulad tizi n tmrnawt n uzaru aɣaran, i itsn imassn bɛda."
Research in machine ethics is key to alleviating concerns with autonomous systems—it could be argued that the notion of autonomous machines without such a dimension is at the root of all fear concerning machine intelligence.,"arzzu g tɣariwin n imis iga: tasarut n usfsis n tkssaḍ g mayd iẓlin s igrrayn n imal - nɣ ad nini masd tawngimt n imassn n imal bla zund azaru ad, acku nttat d aẓuṛ n tkssaḍ illan ɣf ccwiyt n imis."
"Humans should not assume machines or robots would treat us favorably because there is no a priori reason to believe that they would be sympathetic to our system of morality, which has evolved along with our particular biology (which AIs would not share).","ixssa ad ur ka sawaln middn ɣf imassn, nɣd rubutat hat qad idnɣ tmyawaḍ s talɣa tumnigt, acku ur illi awdyan uwttas s rad msasan akd ungraw aɣaran nnɣ, nna ittusbuɣllan yan tama n yan akd tawssntudrt zaṛnɣ iẓlin ( nna s ur tnni ad ucurn igrrayn n ccwiyt amguran)."
One proposal to deal with this is to ensure that the first generally intelligent AI is 'Friendly AI' and will be able to control subsequently developed AIs.,"itsn isumrn mar ad tswurid akd uya; aslkn n wis d cwwiyt tamgurant izwarn, icwa s umata igat ccwiyt tamgurant amddakwl, d qad yiɣiy ad innbḍ g igrrayn n ccwiyt tamgurant ittusbuɣllan ḍaṛt uynnaɣ."
"""I think the worry stems from a fundamental error in not distinguishing the difference between the very real recent advances in a particular aspect of AI and the enormity and complexity of building sentient volitional intelligence.""""""","iɣy azɛaf is dad itffɣ sg uzggal agnsan g gar amziray gr isbuɣllutn itrarn n tidt, g yat tsga n ccwiyt tamgurant d tixxitrt d urway n uskan ataray g uswigm."
Regulation is considered necessary to both encourage AI and manage associated risks.,iga ussuds anbzaz i usrqb n ccwiyt tamgurant d umhal n imizn ẓaṛs islɣn.
"A common trope in these works began with Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, where a human creation becomes a threat to its masters.","ittusnti ulwa illan g twuriwin akd mari ciliyz franknstn, adday iɣy uynna ihyya ufgan ad ismigl bab nns."
"""Isaac Asimov introduced the Three Laws of Robotics in many books and stories, most notably the """"Multivac"""" series about a super-intelligent computer of the same name.""","ika isḥaq isimuf kṛaḍ izrfan i rubutat g kigan n idlisn d tullisin, tamyuft diksnt tazdayt “multifak”, ɣf ungmam amssuds icwan kigan yili ism nnaɣ nnik."
"""In the 1980s, artist Hajime Sorayama's Sexy Robots series were painted and published in Japan depicting the actual organic human form with lifelike muscular metallic skins and later """"the Gynoids"""" book followed that was used by or influenced movie makers including George Lucas and other creatives.""","g 1980, ttusuɣn tgffurt n rubuyat nna yuwin awal, tin unaẓuṛ hajimi surayama nna ifsr g lyaban, tga am uwlaf n talɣa tafganit nnik s ubṭṭan abajj ilan iddrn, iḍfuṛtid udlis n “jinwid” nna issmrs nɣd ila tamatart nns ɣf winna isskarn isarutn g yamu jurj lukas d wammakn yaḍn."
"Biotechnology is a broad area of biology, involving the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make products.","byu-tiknulujit tga yan yigr amiraw n biyuluji, isman assmrs n isnmallatn d imidrn i usbuɣlu nɣd askar n tɣawsiwin."
"The American Chemical Society defines biotechnology as the application of biological organisms, systems, or processes by various industries to learning about the science of life and the improvement of the value of materials and organisms such as pharmaceuticals, crops, and livestock.","tssisin tmsmunt takimiyt n mirikan, tatiknulujit taɣarant s uskkir n imɣnawn iddrn, nɣd imagawn nɣd timggitin sg imguranen ur yaksuln i usissn n tumassanin n tudrt d usɣudu n watig n tangiwin d imɣnan zund isafarn d yisitn d uydda amudr."
"Bioengineering is the application of the principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells and molecules.",atwal aẓuṛan tga assmrs n imnzayn n utwal d tmassanin tiɣaranin g izṭṭatn d tilmikt d wasisn.
"Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best-suited crops, having the highest yields, to produce enough food to support a growing population.","sg biɛtiknulujit n zik, skrn imkrazn imzwura astay d ussgm n yisiyn d yusan, nna ilan asnflul iggudin, mar ad aɣd kin aynna igan n wutci mar ad naws kigan n mddn."
These processes also were included in early fermentation of beer.,ttugant tmggitin dɣ awd g ussxmṛ zik i lbirra.
"In this process, carbohydrates in the grains broke down into alcohols, such as ethanol.","g tmggit ad da fssint lkarbuhidrat illan g imndi gint lalkul, zund itanul."
"Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur's work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.","waxxa ur wala tturmas tmggit n ussxmṛ ar tawuri n lwis bastur g usggwas n 1857, maka tsul tga assmrs amzwaru n byu-tiknulujit isnflaln asagwm n wutci ɣr talɣa nniḍn."
These accounts contributed to Darwin's theory of natural selection.,uwsn issiṭn ad g tmagunt n darwin g ustay aɣaran.
"In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold Penicillium.","g usggwas n 1928, yufa aliksandr flimin amrɣul Penicillium."
The MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959.,"ittusnflel MOSFET (tranzistur n unnuḍs abaraz n uksid n izuɣar d imyaɣn n tmyawaḍin), ɣur muḥmmad m, ɛaṭa llah, d dawn kanj g usggwas n 1959."
"The first BioFET was the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET), invented by Piet Bergveld in 1970.","BioFET amzwaru igat tranzistur bu wunuḍ abaraz, imzrin ayunat (ISFET), nna isnflel biy birfild g usggwas n 1970."
"By the mid-1980s, other BioFETs had been developed, including the gas sensor FET (GASFET), pressure sensor FET (PRESSFET), chemical field-effect transistor (ChemFET), reference ISFET (REFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET).","ddag yuwḍ usggwas n 1980, ittusbuɣlla BioFETs yaḍn, g yamu umsḥssu n lgaz FET (GASFET), tranzistur, n yiḍiṣ n yigr akimya (ChemFET), d usaɣul ISFET (REFET), ityahyyan s lanẓim FET (ENFET), ittusanin affal FET (IMFET)."
"Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the Department of Energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030.","iɣy ad tili tutra iggudin ɣf umsssiɣ aɣaran, inɣmisn ihyyan i yigr n tiknulujit taɣarant, ag tnna tmawast n tzmrt masd assmrs n litanul iɣy ad issdris g usmur n umssiɣ nna d iffɣn g lbiṭrul g mirikan s usɣl yuwḍn ar 30% dadɣ s 2030."
"TCE: The Chemical Engineer, (816), 26–31.","TCE: amtwal akimya, (816), 26–31."
Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals.,amdya yaḍn igat umamk n imɣayn ityahyyan s utari mar ad tmɣur g twnnaḍin timẓlay g illa (nɣd ur illi) tangiwin tikimawiyin.
"On the other hand, some of the uses of green biotechnology involve microorganisms to clean and reduce waste.","g tsga yaḍn, illa g issmrsn n tiknulujit taɣarant tazgzawt imɣnawn imzzakucn n uzzizdg d ussdrs n ifṛaḍn."
"As well as the development of hormones, stem cells, antibodies, siRNA and diagnostic tests.",d usbuɣllu n lhurmunat d tlmikin n tayyart d tazzitin n unmgal d siRNA d yirimn imakazn.
"One application is the creation of enhanced seeds that resist extreme environmental conditions of arid regions, which is related to the innovation, creation of agriculture techniques and management of resources.","yan g tsnsitin igat uskar n wamud amɣudu itraran ɣf imrnutn iwnnaḍn icqqan i idɣarn g illa ljafaf, nna islɣn s asnflul d uskar n tiqnitin n tyrza d umhal n isugam."
"The purpose of pharmacogenomics is to develop rational means to optimize drug therapy, with respect to the patients' genotype, to ensure maximum efficacy with minimal adverse effects.","awttas sg tawssnasnafart jini; iga asbuɣlu n imassn inllitn i usɣudu n ujjujy amsafar, g mayd iẓlin s asin ajini n imaḍun, mar ad dars tili tṣwi d uswuttu kigan n tmitar tiwaɣitin."
Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply.,iɣy ussmrs n tiknulujit taɣarant tatrart; mar ad nsskr isafarn yad illan s umnzal d s watig ur wala iɣlin.
"Genetic testing allows the genetic diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases, and can also be used to determine a child's parentage (genetic mother and father) or in general a person's ancestry.","da ittadja yirim ajini s ussikz ajini n ufgan idhcn nil tmaḍunin timkkusatin, iɣy awd ussmrs nns mar ad nsti tasɣalin n icirran (mma d bba imkkusa) nɣd s umata aẓuṛ n uwrik."
"Most of the time, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders.","g kigan n tikkal, da ittusmras yirm mar ad naf isnfaln ilan tazlɣa d uzɛzɛ amkkusu."
Biotechnology firms can contribute to future food security by improving the nutrition and viability of urban agriculture.,"ɣint tmdrawin n tiknulijit taɣarant ad awsnt g tflast n wutci s imal, g usɣudu n wutci d twiriwin n tyrza taɣrmant."
10% of the world's crop lands were planted with GM crops in 2010.,tyakrazn 10% n wakaln ign win ukraz g umaḍal s yisitn ityahyyan s tmkusit g usggwas n 2010.
These techniques have allowed for the introduction of new crop traits as well as a far greater control over a food's genetic structure than previously afforded by methods such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.,"udjant tiqnitin ad askcm n tfrst n tyrza tamaynut d unbaḍ amqran kigan g usnay amkkusu n wutci ɣf uynna takka dat, tiɣarasin zund assgm anmattay d ussirw aɣuffan."
These have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and better nutrient profiles.,amamk nns illa mar ad irar ɣf isragn n tmaḍunin d umsnnizi n imɣayn d usɣudu n imẓlayn n wutcitn.
"Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.","waxxa hakkak, iɣiy n yikiz n iwdan sg ugdud i wutcitn n usani atari, n wis tla taflast, ur id am imusnawn."
"However, opponents have objected to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food needs, and economic concerns raised by the fact these organisms are subject to intellectual property law.","waxxa mayan, ugin imagin isitn n usani atari nnik acku kṣuḍn i umukrisn n twnnaḍt d is nnik lan wutcitn ad taflast, d is nn qnen yisiyn ad n usani atari mar ad nks laẓ g umaḍal, d tkssaḍ tidamsanin nna ilan timitar n tidt, d wis lan imɣnawn ad azrf n tilit tawngimt."
"There are differences in the regulation of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe.","llan imzarayn g ussuds n imɣnawn n usani atari gr tmizar, d tilit n itsn imzarayn wala ityakzn gr mirikan d urubba."
The European Union differentiates between approval for cultivation within the EU and approval for import and processing.,da ismzaray umuni n urubba gr tahit n tyrza agnsu n umuni n urubba d tahit ɣf yiwy d usɣudu.
Each successful application is generally funded for five years then must be competitively renewed.,"da uttusiẓṛf ku asutr immursn s umata g uzdaw n smmus n isggwasn, ɛad iqnen usmaynu nns s talɣa tamzizwrt."
"Cloning is the process of producing individual organisms with either identical or virtually identical DNA, either by natural or artificial means.","asnɣl iga yat tmggit yakkan imɣnawn amyiwn s DNA amsiskl nɣd amyaɣ cwiy, nɣd s imassn iɣaran nɣd imguran."
It is used in a wide array of biological experiments and practical applications ranging from genetic fingerprinting to large scale protein production.,da ittusmras g trabbut tamiriwt sg yirman ibyulujitn d tsnsitin timggitin nna n igulan g idrizn ijinitn ɣr tikki n bṛutin g ufuɣal amiraw.
"Initially, the DNA of interest needs to be isolated to provide a DNA segment of suitable size.","g tizwuri, iqnen ustay n DNA nil ustawhmma mar ad nadj imik g DNA s uksay d yusan."
Following ligation the vector with the insert of interest is transfected into cells.,"ḍaṛt tzlɣa, da ttumattay tnilat akd tigit n tbɣrt ɣr tlmikt."
A useful tissue culture technique used to clone distinct lineages of cell lines involves the use of cloning rings (cylinders).,tlla g tiqnit n ukraz n iṣṭṭatn imbɣurn ittusmrasn mar ad nsflu usuf iẓlin g izrirign n tnɣrin s ussmrs tixṛṣin n usflu (tugdimt).
"""This process is also called """"research cloning"""" or """"therapeutic cloning"""".""","“da tsmma awd tmggit ad “assgmḍ n irzzutn”, nɣd “assgmḍ n usgnaf”.”"
Therapeutic cloning is achieved by creating embryonic stem cells in the hopes of treating diseases such as diabetes and Alzheimer's.,da tyaga ussgmḍ n usgnaf s usmuttg n tnɣrin n tayyart taslmya s ussirm n usujji n tmaḍunin zund tamaḍunt n skkwar d tmaḍunt n zhaymṛ.
The reason why SCNT is used for cloning is because somatic cells can be easily acquired and cultured in the lab.,asrag g ussmrs n usnɣl n tɣyayt n tnɣrt tafkkant g ussgmḍ igat wisd tinɣrin tifkkatin iɣy wammaẓ nnsnt d ukraz nnsnt s trula g usarm.
"The oocyte will react to the somatic cell nucleus, the same way it would to a sperm cell's nucleus.","qad ttumrara tglayt akd tɣyayt n tnɣrt n tfkka, s tɣarast nna s da tmrar akd tɣyayt n tnɣrt n iblɣuɣayn."
The somatic cells could be used immediately or stored in the laboratory for later use.,"iɣy ussmrs n tnɣrin tifkkatin dɣi nnik, nɣd ufurn nsnt g usarm mar ad ttussmrsnt dat."
This creates a one-cell embryo.,aya da iskar taslmya n yuwt tnɣrt.
"The successfully developed embryos are then placed in surrogate recipients, such as a cow or sheep in the case of farm animals.","ḍaṛt mayan da ttugant tslmyiwin nna ittusbuɣllan s umurs g imlqmn imkkisitn, zund tafunast d wulli g waddad n imudar n uzalaɣ."
Another benefit is SCNT is seen as a solution to clone endangered species that are on the verge of going extinct.,tabɣurt yaḍn igat usmatti n tɣyayt n tnɣrt n tafkkas ittusksiw is tga afssay n usnɣl n wanawn iddan ad yacck.
"Only three of these embryos survived until birth, and only one survived to adulthood.","ugrnd kṛaḍ day g islmyatn ad ag d lulan, yuwn ka ad iddrn ag ig aɛrrim."
"However, by 2014 researchers were reporting cloning success rates of seven to eight out of ten and in 2016, a Korean Company Sooam Biotech was reported to be producing 500 cloned embryos per day.","waxxa hakkak, ddag yuwḍ usggwas n 2014; ɛlmn imrzutn s tyafutin n umurs n usnɣl sg sa ar tam sg ku mrawt, g usggwas n 2016; ittuɛlm sg ɣur tmdrawt takuriyt swam n byu-tiknulujit is da takka 500 n tslmya ittusnɣl ku ass."
"Asexual reproduction is a naturally occurring phenomenon in many species, including most plants and some insects.","tiggidit tarawsyan tga tumant itjṛun s talɣa taɣarant g kigan n wanawn, g amun wahli n imɣayn d mnnawt n ifxxac."
"As an example, some European cultivars of grapes represent clones that have been propagated for over two millennia.","s umdya, da smdyan itsn wanawn n waḍil n urubba, imudar ittunɣaln nna ityafsarn uggar n sin yifḍn n isggwasn."
"Many trees, shrubs, vines, ferns and other herbaceous perennials form clonal colonies naturally.","gan kigan ɣ waddagn d tskwla, d tifaf, d ufrsi, d imɣayn yaḍn ign timadaɣin yamun g usray aɣaran."
"In plants, parthenogenesis means the development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg cell, and is a component process of apomixis.","g imɣayn, iriw n wawan aga asbuɣlu n tslmya sg tnɣrt n tglayt ur ittusblasn, tga timggit illan g tmggit n apomixis."
Such clones are not strictly identical since the somatic cells may contain mutations in their nuclear DNA.,isnɣaln ad ur aksuln nnik acku tinɣrin n tfkka iɣy ad diksnt anawn g DNA nnsnt.
"Artificial embryo splitting or embryo twinning, a technique that creates monozygotic twins from a single embryo, is not considered in the same fashion as other methods of cloning.","ur da ittusmuqqul ɣr tuṭṭut n tslmya tamgurant nɣd akniwn tslmyiwt, tga ya tiqnit iskarn akniwn mm yuwn zijut sg yuwn uslmya, s tbridt ad nnik as ttusmrasnt tbridin n isnɣln yaḍn."
Dolly's embryo was created by taking the cell and inserting it into a sheep ovum.,ittuskar uslmya n duli s tɣarast n yisy n tnɣrt d uskcm nns ɣr usirw n wulli.
She was cloned at the Roslin Institute in Scotland by British scientists Sir Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell and lived there from her birth in 1996 until her death in 2003 when she was six.,"ttusnɣl g usinag n ruzlin g isktland sg ɣur imusnawn ibṛiṭanitn; mass iyan wilmut d kit kambl, tddr dinnaɣ sg mayd tlula g usggwas n 1996 ag tmmut g usggwas n 2003 dda g ɣurs ṣḍiṣ n isggwasn."
"Dolly was publicly significant because the effort showed that genetic material from a specific adult cell, designed to express only a distinct subset of its genes, can be redesigned to grow an entirely new organism.","duli ɣars astawhmma acku tawuri tbaynd is tga taslmya tanɣrt mqqurn, ittuskarn mar ad tml day tarabbut tayyawt iẓlin n jinat nns, d iɣy wuɣul n wamamk nns ad isnfli yan udṛiz amaynu yaḍn."
"The first mammalian cloning (resulting in Dolly the sheep) had a success rate of 29 embryos per 277 fertilized eggs, which produced three lambs at birth, one of which lived.","ika usnɣl amzwaru n tssuḍeḍin (d ikan tixsi n duli), yat tyafut n igulan 29 n tslmya i ku 277 n tglayt ittusblasn, nna d ikan kṛaḍ inuguḍn g tarwa, iddr yan diksn."
"Notably, although the first clones were frogs, no adult cloned frog has yet been produced from a somatic adult nucleus donor cell.","s ussmkti waxxa d imudar imzwura ittusnɣln gant igwra, maca ur ta ittusnflel awd yan ugru ixatrn ig sg usnɣl n tnɣrt n tfkka d ikan taɣyayt mqqurn."
"However, other researchers, including Ian Wilmut who led the team that successfully cloned Dolly, argue that Dolly's early death due to respiratory infection was unrelated to problems with the cloning process.","waxxa hakkak, mmnzaɣn imrzutn yaḍn, g yamu iyan wilmut nna iḥrin tarabbut nna isnɣl duli s umurs, d tmttant inzin n duli tkkasd asunfs ur id imukrisn n tmggit n usnɣl."
"""Soviet scientists Chaylakhyan, Veprencev, Sviridova, and Nikitin had the mouse """"Masha"""" cloned.""","imusnawn n sufyat tcaylaxyan, fibrinkif, sfiridufa, d nikitin illa ɣursn uɣrda “maca” ittusnɣl."
More akin to artificial formation of twins.,inmala ɣr usmuttg amguran b wakniwn.
"Dog: Snuppy, a male Afghan hound was the first cloned dog (2005).","igdi: snubbi, aqzin afɣani igan amzwaru n igdan nna ittusnɣln (2005)."
Water buffalo: Samrupa was the first cloned water buffalo.,amugay n waman: ikkat samruba amugay n waman amzwaru ittusnɣln.
"Camel: (2009) Injaz, is the first cloned camel.","alɣm: (2009) injaz, tga talɣmt tamzwarut ittusnɣln."
Goat: (2001) Scientists of Northwest A&F University successfully cloned the first goat which use the adult female cell.,"taɣaḍt: (2001) mmursn imusnawn g tsdawit n Northwest A&F, ad snɣln taɣaḍt tamzwarut nna issmrasn tanɣrt n twtmt taɛrrimt."
"Conducted in China in 2017, and reported in January 2018.","ttuga g ṣṣin g usggwas n 2017, d tyanna g yanayr 2018."
"Black-footed ferret: (2020) In 2020, a team of scientists cloned a female named Willa, who died in the mid-1980s and left no living descendants.","izirdi bu iḍaṛn ungaln: (2020) g usggwas n 2020, tsnɣl trbiɛt n imusnawn tawtmt ism nns wila, tmmut g uzgn n 1980, ur d tudji icirran g tudrt."
It does not refer to the natural conception and delivery of identical twins.,ur da ittunɛat s usissn aɣaran d tarwa n ikniwn imyaɣn.
"As of right now, scientists have no intention of trying to clone people and they believe their results should spark a wider discussion about the laws and regulations the world needs to regulate cloning.","sg dɣi, ur tlli ɣur imusnawn tikti mar ad armn asnɣl n iwdan, d ɣaln is nn iqn tiyafutin nnsn ad skrnt amdakaṛ amiriw ɣf izrfan d tlgamin nna ira umaḍal mar ad issuds asnɣl."
"While many of these views are religious in origin, the questions raised by cloning are faced by secular perspectives as well.","maka kigan g tannayin ad tin usɣan ayd gant g uẓuṛ nnsnt, isqsitn nna d yudja usnɣl datn tnalt awd tannayin timassanin."
"Opponents of cloning have concerns that technology is not yet developed enough to be safe and that it could be prone to abuse (leading to the generation of humans from whom organs and tissues would be harvested), as well as concerns about how cloned individuals could integrate with families and with society at large.","winna ur irin asnɣl ɣursn tikṣṣaḍ n wid tatiknulujit ur ta ttusbuɣlla kigan; mar ad tg taflast, d tɣy ad ttusmrs g mayd ixcn ( nna innan ad ik tasuta n mddn g nnan ad tksn ingmamn d izṭṭatn), d tugda s tmamkt n usmun n iwdan ittusnɣln akd tawjiwin d uɣrf s umata."
"""This is also referred to as """"Conservation cloning"""".""",aya da zaṛs ittunɛat awd s yism “ asnɣl imḥḍi”.
These successes provided hope that similar techniques (using surrogate mothers of another species) might be used to clone extinct species.,"kan imursn ad assirm g tmamkt n ussmrs n tiqnitin timyaɣin (assmrs n id mma timkkisitin sg wanaw yaḍn), mar ad ttusnɣln wanawn yucckan."
"In 2002, geneticists at the Australian Museum announced that they had replicated DNA of the thylacine (Tasmanian tiger), at the time extinct for about 65 years, using polymerase chain reaction.","g usggwas n 2002, nnan imusnawn n tiksi g usfsr n ustralya masd gan yan wallas i DNA n iɣulasn itismanitn (aɣilas atismani), nna ur iqimin g tizi nnaɣ attayn n 65 n usggwas, s ussmrs n umrara lbilmara agffur."
"In 2003, for the first time, an extinct animal, the Pyrenean ibex mentioned above was cloned, at the Centre of Food Technology and Research of Aragon, using the preserved frozen cell nucleus of the skin samples from 2001 and domestic goat egg-cells.","g usggwas n 2003, g tiklt izwarn, ittusnɣl umudr intln, ɣf lbrans ittyabdarn aflla, g wammas atiknuluji n wutcitn d irzzutn g aragun, s ussmrs n tɣyayt n tnɣrt igrsn ityaḥḍan i tassift n ubṭṭan sg usggwas n 2001 d tnɣrin n tglay n waɣaḍ adɣaran."
"""""""Когда вернутся мамонты"""" (""""When the Mammoths Return""""), 5 February 2015 (retrieved 6 September 2015) Another problem is the survival of the reconstructed mammoth: ruminants rely on a symbiosis with specific microbiota in their stomachs for digestion.""","""""""Когда вернутся мамонты"""" ( adday d yuɣul lmamut), 5 fbṛayṛ 2015 ( ittururad g 6 cutanbir 2015), tlla tmukrist yaḍn sg iɣimi n lmamut nna mi tyals uskan: da tbddant tɣawsiwin ɣf tudrt akd mikrubyuta g wakur nnsnt mar ad ttawsnt g ufẓaẓ.”"
"Because of this, some posited she may have aged more quickly than other naturally born animals, as she died relatively early for a sheep at the age of six.","ɣf usrag ad, nnan itsn is tɣi ad tusir uggar n imudar nniḍn nna d ilulan s talɣa taɣarant, ag tmmut zik ɣf ilqɛ g usmmud wiss ṣḍiṣ."
"However, early pregnancy loss and neonatal losses are still greater with cloning than natural conception or assisted reproduction (IVF).","waxxa hakkak, tizla n tarwa n zik d tzla n icirran mḥṛa d ilulan suln mqqurn ɣf usnɣl sg tarwa taɣarant nɣd tarwa tamyawast (IVF)."
"The concept of cloning, particularly human cloning, has featured a wide variety of science fiction works.","ibaynd usissn n usnɣl, numar asnɣl n ufgan, g trabbut tanawayt sg twuriwin n umarur amassan."
"Many works depict the artificial creation of humans by a method of growing cells from a tissue or DNA sample; the replication may be instantaneous, or take place through slow growth of human embryos in artificial wombs.","asnumm n kigan n twuriwin n uskkir amguran i ufgan g ubrid n tɣarast n tyrza n tnɣrin n iẓṭṭatn, nɣd tussift n DNA, iɣy ad tg tiggidit tin dɣi, nɣd ad yili ussgmi idrusn n tslmiyitn tinafganin g isiru amguran."
Science fiction films such as The Matrix and Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones have featured scenes of human foetuses being cultured on an industrial scale in mechanical tanks.,gan ifilmn ingimn zun d matriks d imɣan n imanawn: tsddit tiss snat - asugi n imzizdrn nna ifsrn yitsn wannayn n wamgrudn inafgan ar ttuslmadn xf umnaḍ n trna g tdbbain timikanikiyin.
"A Number was adapted by Caryl Churchill for television, in a co-production between the BBC and HBO Films.","ittusnumk uzwil n ttilifizyun sg karyal tcircl, g ufars ismunn ngr BBC d ufils n HBO."
"She grew up always doubtful about the love from her mother, who looked nothing like her and who died nine years before.","tmqqur bdda g usurdu n tayri n immas, nna ur tt irwasn d immutn dat n tẓa n isggwasn."
"In the 1976 Ira Levin novel The Boys from Brazil and its 1978 film adaptation, Josef Mengele uses cloning to create copies of Adolf Hitler.","g wungal n iṛa lifin asggwas n 1976 xf tarwa n lbṛazil isnnumkn ifilmn nns 1978, ismrs juzif minjl asnɣl g uskar n tunɣilin n adulf hitliṛ."
"""In Doctor Who, an alien race of armour-clad, warlike beings called Sontarans was introduced in the 1973 serial """"The Time Warrior"""".""","g ufilm n ""udukṭuṛ hu"", igan yan umzizwr n tiriwt s tazibba, ttusmnadn imaddarn n imnɣi ittusmman suntṛans sg umsddi asggwas n 1973 ""amnnaɣ akudan""."""
"""The concept of cloned soldiers being bred for combat was revisited in """"The Doctor's Daughter"""" (2008), when the Doctor's DNA is used to create a female warrior called Jenny.""","ittuɛayd uraɛa g urmmus n isrdasn imsnɣiln nna ittusgman xf imnɣi g illis n udukṭuṛ"" (2008), kud nna issmrs aɣyay asmmam i umsgnaf g uskar n umnnaɣ awtman ittusman ajiniy""."
"The 2005 Kazuo Ishiguro novel Never Let Me Go and the 2010 film adaption are set in an alternate history in which cloned humans are created for the sole purpose of providing organ donations to naturally born humans, despite the fact that they are fully sentient and self-aware.","g tnfust n kazuwu icuguru n usggwas n 2005 ad ur i ttajjt ad ruḥɣ d unnumk n ufilm n 2010 nna g ittusras umzruy amkkisi acku ar dis ittuskar usinɣl n ufgan ɣas xf yan uskkin igan tikki n irisn n ufgan nna d ilulan s tbridt tagamant, waxxa s tidt gan akkw ifccadn d ssn iɣfawn nnsn."
"""In the futuristic novel Cloud Atlas and subsequent film, one of the story lines focuses on a genetically-engineered fabricant clone named Sonmi~451, one of millions raised in an artificial """"wombtank"""", destined to serve from birth.""","g tnfust n tanimalt n aṭṭlas klud d ufilm anḍfaṛ, yan sg izrirign n tnfust ibdda xf ussinɣl ittuskarn s ukkusu ittusmma sunmi~451, yan sg imlyunn igman s unmguri ""wombtank"", nna s ran ad uswuri sg tlalit nns."
"In the film Us, at some point prior to the 1980s, the US Government creates clones of every citizen of the United States with the intention of using them to control their original counterparts, akin to voodoo dolls.","g ufilm uz, g yat tizi n dat isggwasn n 1980 n lmadsiḥ, tanbaḍt n iwunakn imunn marikan tskr asinɣl sg kra iga tt anamur g marikan tuskiwt ittusmrsn g unbaḍ g imzwura nnsn inliy, zun d fudu duls."
"In the present day, the clones launch a surprise attack and manage to complete a mass-genocide of their unaware counterparts.","g uzmz ad, ar tggn imsnɣiln ukuy xf smdn tirmit tigsri tagrawant xf imddukkaln nnsn ur ifrikn."
"Genes have been transferred within the same species, across species (creating transgenic organisms), and even across kingdoms.","ttusmattaynt ljinat jaj n yan wanaw, xf wanawn (askar n inmaddarn ittusnfln s tjiniyt), d awd sg tglditin."
"Genetic engineers must isolate the gene they wish to insert into the host organism and combine it with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and often a selectable marker.","iqqan d i imnzagn inmkkusayn ad ẓlin ajini nna ran ad gn g unmaddar iddrn ittuzaydn d usadf nns akd ifrdisn imkuusay yaḍn, nna g tamu tmnaḍt n umssadus d umssrci d iggut ma d g tettili tmatart ittqbaln astay."
"Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen made the first genetically modified organism in 1973, a bacterium resistant to the antibiotic kanamycin.","iskr haṛbṛt buyṛ d stanli kuhin amddar amzwaru aslkat amkkusi g usggwas n 1973, iga yat tbaktiriyt izbbun i unmgal anmddar kanamisin."
The first genetically modified animal to be commercialized was the GloFish (2003) and the first genetically modified animal to be approved for food use was the AquAdvantage salmon in 2015.,ikka tt inn uslm n glufic (2003) iga amudr amzwaru ittuhyyan s ukusuy ar ittunza d iga umudr amzwar ittuhyyan s ukusay xf ittumsasa usmrs nns g wutci iga t uslm n ssalamun ittusatyn g usggwas n 2015.
Fungi have been engineered with much the same goals.,ttusmamkn igrsln akd cigan n iwttasn.
There are proposals to remove the virulent genes from viruses to create vaccines.,llant tsumrin n uẓlay n ljinat timɛawrḍin sg ifirusn g tskrawt n tgzzayin.
The majority are engineered for herbicide tolerance or insect resistance.,ar ttusmamkn cigan ttaf ad iɣiynt i tuga d uzbu n ibuxxa.
Animals are generally much harder to transform and the vast majority are still at the research stage.,imudarn s umata cqqan bzzaf g usnfl d cigan digsn suln g tfrkt n urzzu.
"Livestock is modified with the intention of improving economically important traits such as growth rate, quality of meat, milk composition, disease resistance, and survival.","ar ittusnfl uyda amudran s uwttas n usɣudu n tfras istawhmman tadamsa zun d uṭṭun n tngmi, tasmkta n uksum, akwfay d wuddisn nnsn, azbay n tmuḍan, d ussidr."
"Although human gene therapy is still relatively new, it has been used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency, and Leber's congenital amaurosis.","wxxa d isul d asujji ajiniy n ufgan isul d amaynu durɣ dd, ittusmras d asujji n immrwayn ijiniyn zun d tadrsi n waffal tamccart yussan, d ukmmuḍ n tsggin tuskirin amurusis."
"Other concerns are the objectivity and rigor of regulatory authorities, contamination of non-genetically modified food, control of the food supply, patenting of life and the use of intellectual property rights.","sg isnatln n twuri yaḍn uqjirn n tnbaḍin timssudsin, d wuluf n wutci ur ittunfaln s uksuy, d unmatr n isugam n wutci, d uzmmem tasmla n ussɣna n tudrt, d usmrs n izrfan n tilit tawngimt."
Countries have adopted regulatory measures to deal with these concerns.,lant tmizar iswuddutn imssudsn g usmkl n twuriwin ad.
"""A broad definition of genetic engineering also includes selective breeding and other means of artificial selection."""",""","yamu g usnml abaraw n tnzgit tuksayt altu annan n ustay d wuggar n imassn n ustay amugri.,"""
"For example, the grain crop triticale was fully developed in a laboratory in 1930 using various techniques to alter its genome.","s umdya, ittugma tritikal n yigran n imndi s umata g usaram g usggwas n 1930 s usmrs n ttqniyin ingaran i usnfl n ljinat nns."
"""Modern biotechnology is further defined as """"In vitro nucleic acid techniques, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles, or fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family.""""""","tabyutiknulujiyt tatrart tettwassn altu blli mas d g ttqniyin n iɣyayn ismmamn fitru, g yamu usmmam dyuksiribunuyik (aɣyay asmmam rribuzi amdrus n luksijin) d tgzzayt tusridt n ismmamn iɣyayn g tɣrasin nɣ g irisn, nɣ asidf n tɣrasin bṛṛa n tmnaḍt n tawja tasnawayt."""""
"The definitions focus on the process more than the product, which means there could be GMOS and non-GMOs with very similar genotypes and phenotypes.","bddan isnmln xf tirmit uggar n tyafut, aynna isnamkan mas d iẓḍaṛ ad yili GMOS d war-GMOS akd war amussu ɣr illa umdya n tjiniyt d imdyatn n ifizyayin irmyaɣn akkw."
It also poses problems as new processes are developed.,ar yakka altu timkrisin d uzzigz n trmitin timaynutin.
Genetic engineers must isolate the gene they wish to insert into the host organism.,imtwaln inmkusayn iqqan d ad ẓlin ajiniy na ran ad ssidfn ɣr umddar iddrn.
"The gene is then combined with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and a selectable marker.","ar ittusmun ngr ujiniy d ifrdisn imksay yaḍn, g tamu tmnaḍt issudsn d tgsri d tmatart ilaqn i ustay."
"DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using microinjection, where it can be injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus, or through the use of viral vectors.","ittusadf usmmam aɣyay s umata g tɣrasin timudarin s usmrs n uimkṛugzay, acku iẓḍaṛ ad ttugzay sg uttl n aɣyay n tɣrast s wusrid g tɣyayt, nɣ sg usmrs ismattayn n ifirusn."
In plants this is accomplished through tissue culture.,g imɣayn ar ittili mayan s tkrza n ifsan.
Traditionally the new genetic material was inserted randomly within the host genome.,s tbridt taqqburt ttuskcam tmtta tamkkasut tamaynut s waralugn jaj n ujinum amranay.
"There are four families of engineered nucleases: meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases, transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from CRISPR).","llan kkuẓ n tawjiwin n tɣyayin ittumamkn s tnzgit: tiɣyay n ẓẓnk, tiɣyay n iḍudan n ẓznk, tiɣyay tinmassin irwasn asɣil (TALENs), d ungraw Cas9-guideRNA (ittusmamkn sg CRISPR)."
In 1972 Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecule when he combined DNA from a monkey virus with that of the lambda virus.,g usggwa sn 1972 iskr bul birg afrdis n uɣyay asmmam aribuzi amzwaru amdrus n luksijin llig isman asmmam aɣyay sg ufirus n ubaɣus d win lambada.
The bacteria that had successfully incorporated the plasmid was then able to survive in the presence of kanamycin.,tẓḍaṛ tbaktiriyt nna issudfn lblazmid ad tddr s tilit n kanamicin.
"In 1974 Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first transgenic animal.","g usggas n 1974 iskr ṛudluf djinic aɣrda infln s tkssuyts tbridt n usidf n usmmam aɣyay war aniji s ljini nns, nna t igan d amudr amzwru infln g umaḍal."
Mice with genes removed (termed a knockout mouse) were created in 1989.,g usggwas n 1989 ttuskarn iɣrdayn ittusgrsn s lljinat ittwakksn (smman asn s iɣrdayn n titi tanggarut).
"In 1983 the first genetically engineered plant was developed by Michael W. Bevan, Richard B. Flavell and Mary-Dell Chilton.","g usggwas n 1983 ittunfl umugri anzgi akssuy amzwaru sg maykl w. bifn, ritcard b.falbl d lari-dill cilṭun."
"In 2000, Vitamin A-enriched golden rice was the first plant developed with increased nutrient value.","g usggwas n 2000, ikka tt inn ufitamin n ṛṛuz awrɣ asblas iga amɣay amzwaru nn ittusnfln s urnay n ussuds anutci."
"The insulin produced by bacteria, branded humulin, was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration in 1982.","g usggwas n 1982, tmsasa tmssugurt n wuttci d isufar xf uṛẓzum n lansulin nna tsnflul tbaktiriyt, nna ilan humulin."
"In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the Flavr Savr tomato, the first genetically modified food.","g usggwas n 1994 yuwi kaljin amsasa n uṛẓẓum n uṭmṭam flafṛ safṛ i tsbbabt, d tg utcu uttusnfln s tkssuyt."
"In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute announced that they had created the first synthetic bacterial genome.","g usggwas n 2010, ssuḍrern imusnawn g usinag n jih grig fintr mas sskrn ajinyum abaktiriy amugri amzwaru."
It was released to the US market in 2003.,"iffuɣ ɣr agadazn n marikan ""iwunak imunn"" g usggwas n 2003."
Genes and other genetic information from a wide range of organisms can be added to a plasmid and inserted into bacteria for storage and modification.,iẓaḍ ar ad ttuzaydnt ljinat d wuggar n tnmmalin tmkkusay sg tgrawin ibarwn n imddarn iddrn ɣr lblazma d ussidf nns g tbaktiriyt g uḥṭṭu d usnfl nns
A large number of custom plasmids make manipulating DNA extracted from bacteria relatively easy.,illa yan wuṭṭun iggutn n lblazma ittuẓlayn nna ittajan urar s uɣyay asmmam d iffɣn sglbaktiriya iwhn druɣ dd.
Scientists can easily manipulate and combine genes within the bacteria to create novel or disrupted proteins and observe the effect this has on various molecular systems.,ẓdaṛn imusnawn s umhal ad urran s ljinat ssidfn tnt jaj n tbaktiriyt ttaf ad ttuskarnt lbṛutinat timayutin nɣ tirwuritin d uraɛa n wuḍuṣ nna d iffal uyna xf cigan n imagrawn ifulann.
"Bacteria have been used in the production of food for a long time, and specific strains have been developed and selected for that work on an industrial scale.","ttusmras tbaktiriyt g usnflul n wutci tizitaɣzzaft, d ttugmant tsdditin iẓlin d ttustaynt i twuri ad xf umnaḍ amugri."
"Most food-producing bacteria are lactic acid bacteria, and this is where the majority of research into genetically engineering food-producing bacteria has gone.","cigan n tbaktiriyt isnfluln utci tga tabaktiriyt n usmmam alaktiki, abrid ad ag ssudan cigan n irzzutn g tbajtiriyt isnfluln utci tanmzgit takssuyt."
"The majority are produced in the US and even though regulations are in place to allow production in Europe, as of 2015 no food products derived from bacteria are currently available there.","ar ittusnflul cigan nns g ""iwunak imun"" marikan d waxxa llan tmsḍfṛin nna issurufn s usnflul g uṛubba, sg usggwas n 2015 ur llint dɣi tyafutin n wutci d iffɣn sg tbaktiriyt."
The bacteria are then harvested and the desired protein purified from them.,ar ttumgra tbaktiriyt d ttqniyt n lbṛutin nna ran.
"Many of these proteins are impossible or difficult to obtain via natural methods and they are less likely to be contaminated with pathogens, making them safer.","cigan sg lbṛutinat ad ggamintnɣ icqqa ad ttyawḍnt s tbridt tagamant, d idrus wuluf nnsnt s tmntilin n tmuḍa, nna tnt ittajan ad flsnt uggar."
Outside of medicine they have been used to produce biofuels.,ttusmrasn bṛa n umnaḍ n tsnijjit g ufars n umssiɣ undir.
"Ideas include altering gut bacteria so they destroy harmful bacteria, or using bacteria to replace or increase deficient enzymes or proteins.","yamu g twingimin asnfl n tbaktiriyt n iṣṛman acku d txllu tbaktiriyt imizi, nɣ asmrs n tbaktiriyt n tsnflt nɣ irnay n lanzimat nɣ lbṛutinat timdras."
"Enabling the bacteria to form a colony could provide a more long-term solution, but could also raise safety concerns as interactions between bacteria and the human body are less well understood than with traditional drugs.","ar tikki i tbaktiriyt ad tṣku tamsdurruyt nns iɣin ad as ign afssay tizi iɣzzifn, macan iɣi diɣ ad isdiy tikṣṣaḍ iqqn ɣr ufra acku imrartn ngr tbaktiriyt d tfkka n ufgan d amdrus n ufrak scigan sg digs d isufarn iqqburn."
For over a century bacteria have been used in agriculture.,xf taɣzi n wuggar n tsuta ttusmras tbaktiriyt g tkrza.
"With advances in genetic engineering, these bacteria have been manipulated for increased efficiency and expanded host range.","akd uzzugz g tnzgit takssuyt, ittusurar s tbaktiriyt ad g irnay n tzmrt d unɣal n umnaḍ n umrniw."
Pseudomonas strains of bacteria cause frost damage by nucleating water into ice crystals around themselves.,tadfrt n tbaktiriyt da tsmntil attuɣcd n ugris sg uɣyay n waman g tmcci n ugris xf iɣf nns.
"Other uses for genetically modified bacteria include bioremediation, where the bacteria are used to convert pollutants into a less toxic form.","amusn ismrsn yaḍn n tbaktiriyt ittusnfln s tkssuyt i tknawt tabyulujit, acku ar tssmras tbaktiriyt ttaf ad tsnfl imlufn ɣr talɣa mi tdrsu tfrist."
"In the 1980s artist Jon Davis and geneticist Dana Boyd converted the Germanic symbol for femininity (ᛉ) into binary code and then into a DNA sequence, which was then expressed in Escherichia coli.","g isggwasn n 1980 n tlalit, tsnflt tnaẓuṛt jun difis d tmassant n tkssuyt dana buyd tamatart n lalman i tutmt (ᛉ) ɣr asumd ayugan d ɣr usddi n usmmam aɣyay, nna s ittusnml dffr aynna s iciricya kuli""."
"Researchers can use this to control for various factors; including the target location, insert size, and duration of gene expression.","ẓḍaṛn imrzutn ad smrsn anbaḍ ad g tfadiwin ingaran; nna g yamu umnaḍ ittuwttasn, d uksay ittuswrn, d wakud n usmal ajini."
"Although primarily still at trial stages, there has been some successes using gene therapy to replace defective genes.","waxxa isul g tsurifin nns timzwura g tfriwin n tirmit, lant cigan n tyafutin s usmrs n usmkl ajini g usnfl n ljinat tigarin."
"As of 2018, there are a substantial number of clinical trials underway, including treatments for hemophilia, glioblastoma, chronic granulomatous disease, cystic fibrosis and various cancers.","sg usggwas n 2018, llant cigan n tirmitin n tisi ittuskarn, g amunt ismkln n lhimufuliya, gliyublastuma, d tmaḍunt n uwlal aḍṛḍuṛ ixcnn, syatik afibrusiy d cigan n ifurruyn."
"Herpes simplex viruses make promising vectors, having a carrying capacity of over 30kb and providing long term expression, although they are less efficient at gene delivery than other vectors.","ar ttuskrant ifirusn ifrarn harbs tismattayin ihran, acku tuti tẓiḍrt n yisy nns xf 30 kilubayt d ar takka awnni mi txatr tizi, waxxa tdrus tzmrt g ussiwḍ n ljinatsg ismattayn yaḍn."
"Other viruses that have been used as vectors include alphaviruses, flaviviruses, measles viruses, rhabdoviruses, Newcastle disease virus, poxviruses, and picornaviruses.","sg lfirusat yaḍn nna ittsmrasn am ismattain : alfirus, lflafiris, ifirusn n buzggwaɣ, afirus n lhabdufirus, afirus n tmaḍunt n nyukasl, d ufirus n lbikrunafirus."
"This does not affect the viruses infectivity, invokes a natural immune response and there is no chance that they will regain their virulence function, which can occur with some other vaccines.","ayad ur da ittḍuṣ xf warnasmd i ifirusa, ar isnigi s umrara n wffal agaman d ur illi kra n usulf n usdwl n twuri nns tamaẓayt, n iɣin ad tjṛu akd cigan n igzayn yaḍn."
"The most effective vaccine against Tuberculosis, the Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine, only provides partial protection.","agzay bahra irwan mgal n tmaḍunt n turin, iga t ugzayn bakilus kalmitt-gurin (BCG), ur da yakka ɣas afrag agzman."
Other vector-based vaccines have already been approved and many more are being developed.,ittumsas s tiggit xf igzayn yaḍn ittuskan xf tmsmattayin n tmuḍan ar ttwagnt cigan izzigzn n igzayn yaḍn.
"In 2004, researchers reported that a genetically modified virus that exploits the selfish behaviour of cancer cells might offer an alternative way of killing tumours.","g usggwas n 2004, uwin d imrzutn mas d afirus ittusnfln s tkssuyt nna isyafan tuskirin amrixf i tɣrast n ufarray iɣi ar iskr tabridt imkkisn i mnɣiwt n tgrmanin."
The virus was injected into orange trees to combat citrus greening disease that had reduced orange production by 70% since 2005.,ittugzay ufirus g waddagn n ulitcin isbddin tamaḍunt n usffantar n tsmmamin nna isdrusn asnflul n ulitcin s wamas n 70% sg usggwas n 2005.
Genetically modified viruses that make the target animals infertile through immunocontraception have been created in the laboratory as well as others that target the developmental stage of the animal.,ttuskarn ifirusn ittunfln s tkssuyt ittajanimudarn ittuwttasn ar ur ṣlḥn sg ufrag n waffal g usaram d awd ifirusn yaḍn nna iswttasn tifrkt n tgmi n imudarn.
Genetic modification of the myxoma virus has been proposed to conserve European wild rabbits in the Iberian peninsula and to help regulate them in Australia.,ittussumr usnfl amkkasu n ufirus miksuma ḥma ad ifrg n iwtlan n udrar n turuft g wamm tgzirt tabiriyt d yiws g usnmala nns g ustralya.
It is possible to engineer bacteriophages to express modified proteins on their surface and join them up in specific patterns (a technique called phage display).,iɣiy ad ttugn ibakturyufaj ḥma ad ssufɣn ibrutin innfln ɣf wudm d uzday nns g izurat iẓlin (yat tiknikt ittusmman asmal n faj).
"For industrial applications, yeasts combine the bacterial advantages of being a single-celled organism that is easy to manipulate and grow with the advanced protein modifications found in eukaryotes.","g tsnsiwin tinsukan, da tzddi tmtunt ibɣurn n tbaktirin ad gn ingmam id bu yat tɣrast ilmḍn g uqddc d ukraz s isnfln ibrutin izwan ittyafan g ukaryutis."
"One has increased malolactic fermentation efficiency, while the other prevents the production of dangerous ethyl carbamate compounds during fermentation.","issuli yan tusurt n uslay amalulati, kudnna igddl wayyaḍ afars n wuddisn imizitn n karbammat n itil g wakud n uslay."
"Unlike bacteria and viruses they have the advantage of infecting the insects by contact alone, although they are out competed in efficiency by chemical pesticides.","g tmgla n tbaktirt d ifirusn lan tabɣurt n ad ṭṭṣnt ibuxxa s wawaḍ day, mqqar da ttmzizwirn g tusurt s tgsri ikimiyn."
"An attractive target for biological control are mosquitos, vectors for a range of deadly diseases, including malaria, yellow fever and dengue fever.","iga wabiba yan umlday istawhmman g imnɣi abyuluji, amsmattay n kigan n waṭṭann inqqan, g yamu malarya d tawla tawraɣt d tawla n ḍng."
Another strategy is to add proteins to the fungi that block transmission of malaria or remove the Plasmodium altogether.,yat tstratijit yaḍn iga tt tirni n ibrutinn i igrsaln lli ittamman i usmatti n kulira nɣ asnɣubu imdan n blasmudyum.
"Many plants are pluripotent, meaning that a single cell from a mature plant can be harvested and under the right conditions can develop into a new plant.","kigan n imɣayn gan igtifrdisn, aylli isnamkn is tɣiy yat tɣrast n umyat inwan ad ttumgr d tɣiy g tfadiwin d yusan ad tbuɣlu s amɣay amaynu."
Major advances in tissue culture and plant cellular mechanisms for a wide range of plants has originated from systems developed in tobacco.,ilayn idslann lli ittulwan f unbdu n tifst iga t umikaniz n tɣrast n imɣayn i yan uɣttuy yiriwn n imɣayn d ittkkan anagraw ibuɣlan g tbaɣɣa.
Another major model organism relevant to genetic engineering is Arabidopsis thaliana.,iga ababidubsis talyana yan ungmam azurt yaḍn ixatrn g tmsgda tajinit.
"In research, plants are engineered to help discover the functions of certain genes.","g irzzutn, ttugan imɣayn ḥma ad awsn g twafit n tsɣan n idsn ijinn."
"Unlike mutagenisis, genetic engineering allows targeted removal without disrupting other genes in the organism.","g tmgla n mutajinizis, ur da ttajja tmsgda tamkkasut ukus ittwatasn bla asnɣubu n ijinn yaḍnin g tilit tamadurt."
"Other strategies include attaching the gene to a strong promoter and see what happens when it is overexpressed, forcing a gene to be expressed in a different location or at different developmental stages.","tistratijin yaḍn umant azday n ujinn akd umsiliy amadus d yinniy n ma rad imsarn kudnna tufa tknnawt nns, aylli ittawin ajin ad ittunna g yan udɣar imzarayn nɣ g iswirn imzarayn n usbuɣlu."
The first genetically modified ornamentals commercialized altered color.,imyayn imzwura n udikur lli innfln g tjinit nnsn ikcm tasbbabt snfln ikwlan.
Other genetically modified ornamentals include Chrysanthemum and Petunia.,uman wiyyaḍ ildjign n udikur innfln g tjinit nnsn akrizantim d ubitunya.
The papaya ringspot virus devastated papaya trees in Hawaii in the twentieth century until transgenic papaya plants were given pathogen-derived resistance.,ixla ufirus n twrmt babaya addagn n babaya g haway g tsut tiss simraw allig ittufka uzbay i imyayn babaya innfln g tjinit d ittyasayn sg isbdadn ittsragn i yiɣnka.
"The second generation of crops aimed to improve the quality, often by altering the nutrient profile.","tasuta tiss snat n inbdutn tettnayyas asɣudu n tɣara, kigan n tikkal s usnfl n ifrs amsadur."
"GM crops contribute by improving harvests through reducing insect pressure, increasing nutrient value and tolerating different abiotic stresses.","inbdutn innfln g tjinit nnsn da ttumun g usɣudu n inbdutn s ufnaẓ n uẓmmi ɣf ibuxxa, s usili n watig amsadur d s susrf n uẓmmi abyutik imzarayn."
"The majority of GM crops have been modified to be resistant to selected herbicides, usually a glyphosate or glufosinate based one.","tugt n inbdutn nnflnt g tjinit nnsn ḥma ad ttzbayn i tgsri n imɣayn ittufrann, s umata sg glufuzyat nɣ glufuzinat."
A few use the genes that encode for vegetative insecticidal proteins.,drust digsn da issmras ijinn ikrrsn i ibrutinn inqqan ibuxxa n imɣayn.
"Less than one percent of GM crops contained other traits, which include providing virus resistance, delaying senescence and altering the plants composition.","drust n yan g tmiḍi n inbdutn innfln g tjinit nnsn uman tiyyad tmẓlay, s lawan akw azbay i ifurusn, aɛṭṭṛ n tawsrt d usnfl n usilɣ n imɣayn."
"Plants and plant cells have been genetically engineered for production of biopharmaceuticals in bioreactors, a process known as pharming.","imɣayn d tɣrasin n imɣayn lli innfln g tjinit nnsn ḥma ad farsn ifarsn n tsasfrt d tbyulujit n ifarsn indran, tga timskrt ittyassn s yism tmssasfrt."
Many drugs also contain natural plant ingredients and the pathways that lead to their production have been genetically altered or transferred to other plant species to produce greater volume.,tugt n isafarn uman awd isgwra n imɣayn igamann d ibrdan lli ittawin s afars ttunfln g tjinit nnsn nɣ ttyawayn s wiyyaḍ wanawn n imɣayn ḥma ad syafun yan uksay ixatrn uggar.
They also pose less risk of being contaminated.,lan awd tadrsi n imizitn g ad ttuslɣn.
"Vaccines are expensive to produce, transport, and administer, so having a system that could produce them locally would allow greater access to poorer and developing areas.","ɣlan ifarsn n igzayn, tawayt nnsn ula tamssugurt nnsn, allig ittajjan i unagraw iɣiyn ad tn ifars ad yadf s tmnaḍin akw iẓlḍn d g ubrid n usbuɣlu."
"Being stored in plants reduces the long-term cost as they can be disseminated without the need for cold storage, don't need to be purified, and have long term stability.","ad ittusitm g imɣayn da isnaqas atig g tzarayt tamaggagt acku ɣiyn ad ttuzuzzrn bla assar n isitm g usmmiḍ, ur usrn ad gin imazdagn, ilin timntit g tzarayt tamaggagt."
"As of 2018 only three genetically modified animals have been approved, all in the USA.","sg 2018 ur ittumsasa ɣas ɣf kṛaḍ sg imudar innfln g tjinit nnsn, g iwunak imunn n marikan kull nns."
Canada: Brainwaving The first transgenic mammals were produced by injecting viral DNA into embryos and then implanting the embryos in females.,kanada: ttufrsn imssuḍeḍn imzwura s unxar n unlli s tɣarast n ugzay n usmmam aɣyay afirus g ijinn d ukraz n ijinn n twtmin.
"The development of the CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing system as a cheap and fast way of directly modifying germ cells, effectively halving the amount of time needed to develop genetically modified mammals.","asbuɣlu n unagraw n uẓṛag n ijinn CRISPR-Cas9 igan allal irxsn d isddrfan g usnfl usrid n tɣrasin tijurtumin, lli isfnaẓn s uzgn akud yusrn i unbuɣlu n imssuḍeḍn innfln h tjinitnnsn."
"Genetically modified mice have been the most common mammals used in biomedical research, as they are cheap and easy to manipulate.","asbuɣlu n unagraw n uẓṛag n ijinn CRISPR-Cas igan allal irxsn d isddrfan g usnfl usrid n tɣrasin tijurtumin, lli isfnaẓn s uzgn akud yusrn i unbuɣlu n imssuḍeḍn innfln h tjinitnnsn."
"In 2009, scientists announced that they had successfully transferred a gene into a primate species (marmosets) for the first time.","g 2009, nnan imusnawn is mursn tikklt tamzwarut g usmatti n yan ujin g yan wanaw n brimat (marmuzi)."
"Stable expression has been accomplished in sheep, pigs, rats and other animals.","tawnnit timntit tettuga ɣur izamarn, iladayn, iɣrdayn d wiyyaḍ imudar."
Human alpha-1-antitrypsin is another protein that has been produced from goats and is used in treating humans with this deficiency.,alfa -1-mgaltribsin anfgan iga yan ubrutin yaḍn lli ittusyafun sg tɣṭṭn d lli ittusmrsn g usujji n ifgann ilan assar a.
Pig lungs from genetically modified pigs are being considered for transplantation into humans.,turin n iladyn d iddan sg iladayn ituufln g tjinit nnsn rad ttugnt i ifgann.
"Animals have been engineered to grow faster, be healthier and resist diseases.",nnulfan d imudar ḥma ad ttxitirn s tazzlan ilin g udwas amufay ad ttzbayn n tmaḍunin.
A GM pig called Enviropig was created with the capability of digesting plant phosphorus more efficiently than conventional pigs.,yan uladay infln g tjinit nns ittusmma inbirubig innulfa s tzmrt n iɣẓaẓ n ufusfur n imɣayn ilan tasurt uggar n iladayn igamann.
This could potentially benefit mothers who cannot produce breast milk but want their children to have breast milk rather than formula.,"iɣiy uya ad yili tanafut i tymmatin lli ur iẓḍaṛn ad isyafu akwfay n taymmat, maca lli iran ad fknt akwfay n tymmat i tarwa nnsnt ur d akwfay infln."
There have been suggestions that genetic engineering could be used to bring animals back from extinction.,llant kra n tsumar ittinin is tɣiy tmsgda tajinit ad ttusmrs g waray n imudar g usnɣubu.
"It has been used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency, and Leber's congenital amaurosis.",tettusmrs g ujujji n waṭṭann ijinitn amm tar taggaẓt iccarn icqan d uturts n libr amɣnan.
"Germline gene therapy results in any change being inheritable, which has raised concerns within the scientific community.","da ittawi ujujji n tjinitin s asnfl n tukksa, aylli isgudin inzgumn g wammas n wamun amassan."
"Aquaculture is a growing industry, currently providing over half the consumed fish worldwide.","iga usgmi n waman asukn ittbuɣlun, da takka dɣi uggar n uzgn n islman ittyiccin g maṛṛa tisggwin n umaḍal."
Several groups have been developing zebrafish to detect pollution by attaching fluorescent proteins to genes activated by the presence of pollutants.,sbuɣlant kigan n trubba aslm-azulil ḥma ad afn tmrkit s uslaɣ n ibrutin iflurin s ijinn lli ittncaṭn ig llant tmrkitin.
"It was originally developed by one of the groups to detect pollution, but is now part of the ornamental fish trade, becoming the first genetically modified animal to become publicly available as a pet when in 2003 it was introduced for sale in the USA.","ittusbuɣla zwar ɣur yat sg trubba ittafan timrkit, maca yamu dɣi g tsbbabt n uslm n udikur, ig amudr amzwaru lli infln g tjinit nns iffɣn s ɣur mddn ad ig amudr asmun kudnna da inzza g iwunak imunn g 2003."
"Zebrafish are model organisms for developmental processes, regeneration, genetics, behaviour, disease mechanisms and toxicity testing.","islman izuliln gan ingmamn izurat i tziggzt n usbuɣlu, asmaynu, tajinit, aṣniɛ, amikanizm n waṭṭan d tirmitin n hidj."
GM fish have been developed with promoters driving an over-production of growth hormone for use in the aquaculture industry to increase the speed of development and potentially reduce fishing pressure on wild stocks.,ttusbuɣlan islman innfln g tjinit nnsn akd imssntayn lli yiwin s asyafu axatar n ihurmunn n tgmi i tgmi n waman ḥma ad zizzln asbuɣlu fnẓn aẓmmi illan ɣf tgwmrt ɣf isatimn iramyarn.
"It obtained regulatory approval in 2015, the first non-plant GMO food to be commercialized.","yumẓ turagt n usnmala g 2015, asadur amzwaru n GMO armaɣay lli inzzan."
"Drosophila have been used to study genetics and inheritance, embryonic development, learning, behavior, and aging.","ttusmrs drusufila g uzraw n tjinit d tukksa, asbuɣlu n warraw, asslmd, aṣniɛ d tawsrt."
Malaria-resistant mosquitoes have been developed in the laboratory by inserting a gene that reduces the development of the malaria parasite and then use homing endonucleases to rapidly spread that gene throughout the male population (known as a gene drive).,"ibuxxa inzbayn n malarya g isirmn s usidf n yan ujinn ifnnẓn asbuɣlu n ubarazit n malarya, ukan s usmrs n ubaxxu anɣyay n ufẓaẓ ḥma ad ittuzuzzr s tazzla ujin a g mddn akw iwtmann (ittyassn s yism n ussanun n ijinn)."
"Another approach is to use a sterile insect technique, whereby males genetically engineered to be sterile out compete viable males, to reduce population numbers.","yat tmyadast aḍnin da tssmras tatknit n ubaxxu amrdid, lli ittinin nwis d iwtman innfln g tjinit nnsn ḥma ad gn imrdidn da ttmḥizwarn akd iwtman iɣiyn ad ddrn, ḥma ad ifnẓ umḍan n imzdaɣ."
"The approach is similar to the sterile technique tested on mosquitoes, where males are transformed with a gene that prevents any females born from reaching maturity.","trwas tmyadast a tatkint tamrdidt lli ittyaramn ɣf ubiba, lli g ttunfln iwtman s yan ujin lli igddln i tuntitin lli d ilulan ad lkmnt tixxitrt."
In this case a strain of pink bollworm that were sterilized with radiation were genetically engineered to express a red fluorescent protein making it easier for researchers to monitor them.,"g umdya a, yan uẓɣṛ n twkka taliccint lli yaɣuln d tamrdidt s iẓnẓaṛn tuttsdg g tjinit ḥma ad tssufɣ abrutin afluri azggwaɣ aylli isslmaḍn ɣf imrza aḍfaṛ nns."
There is also potential to use the silk producing machinery to make other valuable proteins.,iɣiy aw ad ttusmrsnt tmacinin n usyafu n umaṭṭalṣu i tiggi n wiyyad ibrutinn iɣlan.
"A GM chicken that produces the drug Kanuma, an enzyme that treats a rare condition, in its egg passed US regulatory approval in 2015.","yan uyaẓiḍ innfln g tjinit nns lli ifrrsn kanuma, yan wunẓim lli ijujjuyn aṭṭann idrusn, yiwḍ g yat tglayt turagt tuzrift g iwunak imunn g 2015."
There are proposals to use genetic engineering to control cane toads in Australia.,ar nssumur asmrs n ujin anitik g waḍaf n igwra n tɣruyt g ustralya.
It is also relatively easy to produce stable transgenic nematodes and this along with RNAi are the major tools used in studying their genes.,ilmḍ awd s imik ufars n nimatud nnigajinitk imnti d uya iga akd ir in ay allaln idslann lli ittusmrsn g tzrawt n ijinn nnsn.
"Transgenic nematodes have been used to study viruses, toxicology, diseases, and to detect environmental pollutants.","nimatud nnigajinitik ittusmrs g tzrawt n ifirusn, tusnahidj, aṭṭann d tifi n imssrkutn n twnnaḍt."
Flatworms have the ability to regenerate themselves from a single cell.,iwkkiwn usdidn lan taẓḍaṛt n smaynun iman nnsn sg yat tɣrast.
"The bristle worm, a marine annelid, has been modified.","tettunfl twkka n umṭṭalṣu, lli igan tawkka tabḥtiyt."
"The development of a regulatory framework concerning genetic engineering began in 1975, at Asilomar, California.","issnta usbuɣlu n tmsgda n tukksa g usati issudsn g usggwas n 1975, g asilumar, kalifirnya."
"It is an international treaty that governs the transfer, handling, and use of genetically modified organisms.","d tafrist tagraɣlant i innbḍn g usmatti, aqddc d usmrs n ungmam innfln g tjinit nns."
Many experiments also need permission from a national regulatory group or legislation.,kigan n tirmitin usrnt turagt n yat trabbut tanamurt d uslgn nɣ n yat tuzrift.
There is a near-universal system for assessing the relative risks associated with GMOs and other agents to laboratory staff and the community.,illa yan unagraw druɣ igan agraɣlan n usittg n imizitn iẓlin qqnn s GMOs d wiyyaḍ imggayn i ugaluf n usirm d tgrawt.
Different countries use different nomenclature to describe the levels and can have different requirements for what can be done at each level.,da ssmrasnt kigan n tmizar yan umawal imzarayn g usnuml n iswirn d ɣiyn ad ilin assarn imyanawn ɣf uylli iɣiyn ad ittug g ku aswir.
"For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.","s umdya, yat tkrza ur ittugin ɣf usmrs n wucci ur ttufsi s umata sɣut tnbaḍin timasayin n tdusi tamsadurt."
Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research using GMOs.,tugt n tmizar lli ur ittajjan takrza innfln g tjinit nns da ttajjant arzzu issmrasn GMO.
While only a few GMOs have been approved for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing.,"kudnna llan ɣas kra n GMO ay d izrin g tkrza g tamunt n turuft, idsn id GMO ay d izrin g ussidf d usnfl."
"The US policy does not focus on the process as much as other countries, looks at verifiable scientific risks and uses the concept of substantial equivalence.","tasrtit tawmarikant ud da tsnammas ɣf tziggzt amm tmizar yaḍn, da tsfsay imizitn imassan ittussidedn ar tsmras armmus n tgdazalt n tmtta."
One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled.,ijj n tmntilt tadslant n imssudsn ad s nn iqnen ad fllasn nsrs tikaṛḍiwin ifarisn d yusan s utari.
"The dispute involves consumers, producers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists.","iẓli umnzaɣ s insmurn, imfarsn, timssntay n tbyutiknulujit, ingmamn n izzrafn unbiḍn, timaddasin ur igin tunbiḍin d imusnawn"
Most concerns are around the health and environmental effects of GMOs.,iẓli umata n inzgumn s tasurt n GMO ɣf tdusi d twannaḍt.
"Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.",macan igmamn n ugdud ur bahra ẓḍarn ad isinn ifarsn imsadurn lli innfln g tjinit nnsn is ɣudan imkinna sskarn imusnawn.
"Gene flow between GM crops and compatible plants, along with increased use of broad-spectrum herbicides, can increase the risk of herbicide resistant weed populations.","iɣiy wufuy n ijinn gr tkrziwin innfln g tjinit nnsnt d imɣayn imsagarn, ula asmrs mqqurn n isafan n imɣayn ilan aklu yiriwn, ad yawi n trni n imizitn n waṭṭan n isafarn n imɣayn lli ittzbayn i imɣayn."
In order to address some of these concerns some GMOs have been developed with traits to help control their spread.,"ḥma ad ttusmskln inzgumn a, ttusbuɣlan idsn GMO akd tfras ittawsn g waḍaf n uzuzzr nnsn."
"Other environmental and agronomic concerns include a decrease in biodiversity, an increase in secondary pests (non-targeted pests) and evolution of resistant insect pests.","wiyyaḍ inzgumn n twannaḍt d n tkrza uman afnaẓ n tmyanawt tbyulujit, asgidi n ṭṭṛuṛt tasinant (ṭṭṛuṛt ur ittwatasn) d usbuɣlu n ṭṭṛuṛt n ibuxxa inzbayn."
The impact of Bt crops on beneficial non-target organisms became a public issue after a 1999 paper suggested they could be toxic to monarch butterflies.,tusurt n tkrziwin Bt ɣf ingmamn imnafutn lli ur ittwatasn yaɣul iga yan umsaras agdudan dffir ma d inna yan warra n 1999 is ɣiyn ad gn inhidjn n ifṛṭeṭṭutn igllidn.
"With the ability to genetically engineer humans now possible there are ethical concerns over how far this technology should go, or if it should be used at all.","akd tzmrt n usnulfu ajinitik n ifgann, llan dɣi inzgumn n tɣariwin iẓlin s uwttas n tiknulujit a d usmrs nns."
"October 2006 the rigor of the regulatory process, consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell GMOs, exaggeration of the benefits of genetic modification, or concerns over the use of herbicides with glyphosate.","kṭubṛ 2006 takṛẓi n tziggzt tuzrift, asdus n tiḍaf n usmkl amsadur g tmssntay lli itthayyan ar zznzant GMO, aftay n ibɣurn n usnfl ajiniti, nɣ inzgumn iẓlin s usmrs n isafarn n imɣayn akd glifuzat."
"GMOs arrived on the scene as the public confidence in food safety, attributed to recent food scares such as Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and other scandals involving government regulation of products in Europe, was low.","gulan nn GMO idɣarn kudnna tdrus tflst n ugdud g tnfrut tamsadurt, lli ittfkan i tugdiwin timsadurin timggura amm unsifalubati sbunjifurm n imagayn d wiyyaḍ ikacafn lli g illa izzraf unbiḍ n ifarsn g turuft."
"Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology.","tamsgda tajinitikt, ittyassn awd n usnfl ajinitik nɣ aqddc ajinitik, tga aqddac usrid n ijinn n yan ugmam s wallal n tabyutiknulujit."
A construct is usually created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism.,da tettugu tuskiwt ar tettusmras g uskcm n usmmam aɣyay g yili amsnubg.
"The new DNA can be inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome.","iɣiy usmmam aɣyay amaynu ad iyyuskmc s usmassa, nɣ as ttufran yat tafult iẓlin g ujinum."
Rudolf Jaenisch created the first GM animal when he inserted foreign DNA into a mouse in 1974.,isnulfa rudulf janic amudr amzwaru innln g tjinit nns s isidf n usmmam aɣyay imzzi g yat tɣrdayt g 1974.
"Genetically modified food has been sold since 1994, with the release of the Flavr Savr tomato.","isadurn innfln g tjinit nnsn da nzzan sg 1994, kudnna d tffɣ tmiṭact flabr sabr."
In 2016 salmon modified with a growth hormone were sold.,"g 2016, nzan inssalmn innfln g tjinit nnsn akd yan uhurmun n tgmi."
By knocking out genes responsible for certain conditions it is possible to create animal model organisms of human diseases.,"s wukus n ijinn imasayn ɣf kra n tfadiwin, iɣiy ad nnulfun ingmamn izurat n imudar n waṭṭann infgann."
"The rise of commercialised genetically modified crops has provided economic benefit to farmers in many different countries, but has also been the source of most of the controversy surrounding the technology.","tfka tgmi n tkrziwin innfln g tjinit nnsn inzzan ibɣurn i tdamsa d imgyakn g kigan n tmizar, maca iga aɣbalu n umata n imnzaɣn illan ɣf tiknulujit."
"Gene flow, impact on non-target organisms, control of the food supply and intellectual property rights have also been raised as potential issues.","anɣal ajinitik, tusurt ɣf ingmamn ur ittwatasn, tiḍaf n usmkl amsadur d izrfan n tilit tawngimt ttusrsn awd is igan imukrisn illan."
"This is much faster, can be used to insert any genes from any organism (even ones from different domains) and prevents other undesirable genes from also being added.","da ittazzla uya uggar, ɛniɣ ittusmrs ḥma ad ikcm g ijinn n matta ungmamn illan (awd win yigran imzarayn) ar igddl wiyyaḍ ijinn ur ittyaran ad tturnun awd nitni."
"Drugs, vaccines and other products have been harvested from organisms engineered to produce them.","isafarn, tigzzayin d wiyyaḍ ifarsn ttyakkasn d sg ingmamn lli ittskrn i ufars nnsn."
Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesised material into an organism.,tamassant n tudrt tamsuknt d iẓli d yulin ar idkki tamsgda tajinits usidf n imattiwn imsuknn g tilit iddrn.
"If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic.","ig tetturna tmtta tamkkasut yan wanaw i yan umsnubg, da as nttini i tilit d iffɣn anafal g tjinit nns."
In 1973 Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first transgenic organism by inserting antibiotic resistance genes into the plasmid of an Escherichia coli bacterium.,"g 1973, isnulfa hirbirt bwayi d stanli kuhin angmam amzwaru innfln g tjinit nns s usidf n ijinn n uzbay i untibyutik g ublazmid n yat tbaktirt icirciya kuli."
"In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company, was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson and a year later the company produced a human protein (somatostatin) in E.coli.","g 1976, tuttuska tmssurt tmazwarut n tmsgda tajinit, ginintic, sɣur hirbirt bwayi d rubirt swansun d yan usggwas dffiras, tfars tmssurt abrutin anfgan (sumatustatin) g ikuli."
The insulin produced by bacteria was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1982.,ittumsasa ɣf wansulin d iffɣn sg tbaktirit sɣur tmssugurt n wucci d usafar g 1982.
"The People's Republic of China was the first country to commercialise transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992.","tagduda tamdnant n ccinwa tga tamazirt tamzwarut lli izznzant imɣayn innfln g tjinit, tsskr tbaɣɣa ittzbayn mdal ifirusn g 1992."
"In 1995, Bt Potato was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency, after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the US.","g 1995,tzri baṭaṭa innfln g tjinit nns bla imizi sɣur tsnurayt n ufrag i twannaḍt, dffis ma d tt tzzri tmssugurt n wucci d usafar, aylli gid isskrn anbdu amzwaru amsyafu n isafarn n imɣayn lli izrin g iwunak imunn."
Genetic screens can be carried out to determine potential genes and further tests then used to identify the best candidates.,irimn ijinitn ɣiyn ad ttuskrn g uswuttu n ijinn illan d wiyyaḍ irimn sissn ttusmrsn g uswuttu n imnkadn imyafutn.
These segments can then be extracted through gel electrophoresis.,ɣiyn ifrdisn a ad d ffɣn sissn s tbridt n ujil ailiktrufuruzis.
Once isolated the gene is ligated into a plasmid that is then inserted into a bacterium.,adday ittuẓlay ujinn da ittuslaɣ s ublazmid lli ittusidifn dffiras g tbaktirt.
"These include a promoter and terminator region, which initiate and end transcription.","yuma uya yan umssntay d yat tmnaḍt tasmmudt, lli issntayn ar tsmmd talsarit."
"This ability can be induced in other bacteria via stress (e.g. thermal or electric shock), which increases the cell membrane's permeability to DNA; up-taken DNA can either integrate with the genome or exist as extrachromosomal DNA.","tɣiy tzmrt a ad tadf g tiyyaḍ tbaktirin s ustriss (s ungas azɣlan nɣ atrisinti), aylli issiliyn g ukccum n tfrkit n tɣrast g usmmam aɣyay; d iɣiy usmmam aɣyay ad ittyasayn ad tadf g ujinum nɣ illa iga asmmam aɣyay n bṛṛa."
"In plants the DNA is often inserted using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, taking advantage of the Agrobacteriums T-DNA sequence that allows natural insertion of genetic material into plant cells.","g umata da ittuskcam usmmam aɣyay g imɣayn s usmrs n usnfl agrubaktiryum-ittuswangmn, d usyafu sg usddi n agrubaktiryum T-DNA lli ittajjan asidf agaman n umattiw ajinitik g tɣrasin n imɣayn."
In plants this is accomplished through the use of tissue culture.,"g imɣayn, da ittugu uya s usmrs n unbdu n tifst."
Selectable markers are used to easily differentiate transformed from untransformed cells.,imrcamn imstayn da ttusmrasn g uzmzaray ilmḍn n tɣrasin innfln n tɣrasin lli ur innfln.
These tests can also confirm the chromosomal location and copy number of the inserted gene.,ɣiyn yirims a ad awd ssntmn adɣar akrumuzumi d umḍan n tunɣlt n ujinn yudfn.
The new genetic material can be inserted randomly within the host genome or targeted to a specific location.,amattiw amaynu n tjinit iɣiy ad yadf s tbridt irwin g ujinum n umsunbg nɣ ad ittyafran udɣar unɣid.
The frequency of gene targeting can be greatly enhanced through genome editing.,asnagar n unyyc n ijinn iɣiy ad ittusɣudu s kigan s uẓṛag n ujinum.
TALEN and CRISPR are the two most commonly used and each has its own advantages.,talin d krisbr gan sin lli bahra ittusmrsn yili ku yan ibɣurn nns iẓlin.
Most commercialised GMOs are insect resistant or herbicide tolerant crop plants.,amata g inbdutn innfln g tjinitnnnsn lli inzzan da ttzbayn i ibuxxa nɣ gan imsuraf akd isafarn n imɣayn.
"Mouse hybridomas, cells fused together to create monoclonal antibodies, have been adapted through genetic engineering to create human monoclonal antibodies.","da ittunami uɣrday ittuhjjann, tiɣrasin ittugan ɣf usnuflu n tfggiwin mgal tayant n nnasila, sɣur tmsgda tajinit g usnulfu n tfggiwin mgal tayant n nnasila tanfgant."
Genetic engineering is also used to create animal models of human diseases.,tamsdga tajinit tettusmrs awd g usnulfu n izurat n imudar n waṭṭan infgann.
Potential cures can be tested against these mouse models.,ɣiyn ijujjitn illan ad ttusnirmn mgal izurat a n iɣrdayn.
"In 2015 a virus was used to insert a healthy gene into the skin cells of a boy suffering from a rare skin disease, epidermolysis bullosa, in order to grow, and then graft healthy skin onto 80 percent of the boy's body which was affected by the illness.","g 2015, ittusmrs yan ufirus g ussidf n yan ujin amadus g yat tɣrast n yilm n yan urba isnnmri waṭṭan idrusn n yilm, ibidirmulizis buluza, ḥma ad igm, d ad isucc ilm adusan ɣf 80% n tfgga n urba lli yaɣ waṭṭan."
"There are also concerns that the technology could be used not just for treatment, but for enhancement, modification or alteration of a human beings' appearance, adaptability, intelligence, character or behavior.","llan awd inzgumn sg tiknulujit ad ur tettusmrs day u ujujji, maca awd g usɣudu, asnfl nɣ asfrɣ n uḍhaṛ, tanamit, taytti, tafrst nɣ aṣniɛ n ufgan."
"He said that twin girls, Lulu and Nana, had been born a few weeks earlier.","inna is d lulant trbatin tikniwin, lulu d nana, kra n imalassn dat."
"Currently, germline modification is banned in 40 countries.","dɣi, ittugdl usnfl n izririg ajiri g 40 n tmazirt."
"Bacteria are cheap, easy to grow, clonal, multiply quickly, relatively easy to transform and can be stored at -80 °C almost indefinitely.","lant tbaktirin atig irxsn, lmḍn g tkrza, da ttusnɣaln, da ttgidiyn s tazzla, uhneng usnfl d ɣiyn ad ttusitmn g -80 °C n tskwflt ar war tigira."
"This could be the effect on the phenotype of the organism, where the gene is expressed or what other genes it interacts with.","iɣiy uya ad yili tusurt ɣf uzurt anaflla n ungmam, mani g ittili ujin n ijinn yaḍnin lli ittmyaɣn akids."
In a simple knockout a copy of the desired gene has been altered to make it non-functional.,"g yat tiyti tafrart , da tettusnfal yat tunɣilt n ujinn ittyastayn ḥma ad ur yad isuri."
This allows the experimenter to analyse the defects caused by this mutation and thereby determine the role of particular genes.,da ittajja uya amsnirm ad isfsi ifrruɣn mi isrg usnfl a d uswuttu n tmlalt n ijinn iẓlin.
"""The simplest method, and the first to be used, is """"alanine scanning"""", where every position in turn is mutated to the unreactive amino acid alanine.""","tabridt akw tafrart, d tmzwarut lli ittusmrsn, iga tt ""uskki n alanin, lli g ttnfal ku tasdɣrt g twala nns s alanin n usmmam amini ur iswurin."""
"The process is much the same as that in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the function of the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or inducing synthesis of the protein more frequently.","trwas tziggzt s imikk tamsdga n wuduz slid tuska lli ittugan i usili n tsɣnt n ujin, g tmyurt s tikki n tunɣilin timrna n ujinn nɣ s usidf n ufsay n ubrutin lli bahra illan."
"One way to do this is to replace the wild-type gene with a 'fusion' gene, which is a juxtaposition of the wild-type gene with a reporting element such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) that will allow easy visualisation of the products of the genetic modification.","yat tɣaratn n tiggi iga tt asnfl n ujin anaw aramyar n yan ufin n 'ufsay', lli igan yan ustama n ujin anaw aramyar ald ufrdis n umyassa amm ubrutin aflurin azgzaw (GFP) lli ittajjan asksw ilmḍn n ifarsn n usnfl ajinitik."
Expression studies aim to discover where and when specific proteins are produced.,da ttnyyacnt tzrawin n twnnit tawafit n mani d mantur ad ttufrasn ibrutinn iẓlin.
"Some genes do not work well in bacteria, so yeast, insect cells or mammalians cells can also be used.","idsn ijinn ur da swurin mliḥ g tbaktirin, iwa tiɣrasin n tmtunt, n ibuxxa nɣ tin imssuḍeḍn ɣiynt awd nitnti ad ttusmrsnt."
"Certain genetically modified microbes can also be used in biomining and bioremediation, due to their ability to extract heavy metals from their environment and incorporate them into compounds that are more easily recoverable.","idsn imikrubn innfln g tjinit nnsn ɣiyn ad awd ttusmrsn g usmskl undir d tknnawt tabyulujit, s tmntilt n tzmrt nnsn ad d ssufɣn aldun amaẓay sg twannaḍ nnsn d ad t skcmn g wuddisn iɣiyn ad d tturan s tlmḍi."
Fungal and virus resistant crops have also been developed or are in development.,ttusbuɣaln awd inbdutn n uzbay i igwrsaln d ifirusn nɣ llan g ubrid n usbuɣlu.
In 2016 Salmon have been genetically modified with growth hormones to reach normal adult size much faster.,g 2016 ittusnfl unssalm g tjinit nns s ihurmunn n tgmi ḥma ad yawḍ tiddi n umtrug s kigan n tazzla.
Soybeans and canola have been genetically modified to produce more healthy oils.,ttusnfl suja d kanula ḥma ad frsnt kigan n uzatim amadus uggar.
Gene transfer through viral vectors has been proposed as a means of controlling invasive species as well as vaccinating threatened fauna from disease.,ittussumr usmatti n ijinn s tbridt n tsmattayin n ifirusn amm wallal n tiḍaf n wanawn ittsugn d tgzzayt n imaddarn isiddiyn waṭṭann.
Applications of genetic engineering in conservation are thus far mostly theoretical and have yet to be put into practice.,tisnisiwin n tmsdga tamkkasut g yigr n ufrag gant ar dɣi s umata yat tiẓiṛt d ur ta ttugint g tumskrt.
The Asilomar meeting recommended a set of voluntary guidelines regarding the use of recombinant technology.,twṣṣa tsmuni n azilumar s tagrumma n taratin timxas iẓlin s usmrs n tiknulujit n wallas n usnmala.
One hundred and fifty-seven countries are members of the Protocol and many use it as a reference point for their own regulations.,yat tmiḍi d smmus mraw d sa n tmurt gan igmamn g ubrutukul d kigan digsn da t ismras d tsaɣult i uslgn nnsn.
Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research.,amata g tmura nna ur issugrn tadlsa n imudar ittusnfln s tukksi ssugrn arzzu.
"Emily Marden, Risk and Regulation: U.S. Regulatory Policy on Genetically Modified Food and Agriculture, 44 B.C.L. Rev. 733 (2003) The European Union by contrast has possibly the most stringent GMO regulations in the world.","imili mardn, imizi d uslgn : tasrtit taslgant n iwunak imunn xf usadur d tfllaḥt ittusnfln s tukksi, 44 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ. Rev. 733 (2003), d umrar ɣf manaya iɣy is illa dar umuni n urubba tilgamin n imɣnawn wala ittusmmisin g utari iqjeṛn g umaḍal."
One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled.,ijj n tmntilt tadslant n imssudsn ad s nn iqnen ad fllasn nsrs tikaṛḍiwin ifarisn d yusan s utari.
"These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, and protests, and to restrictive regulation of commercial products in some countries.","uwin imnziɣn ad s amzzarfu d inbḍawn imzznzawn imaḍlan d iɣuyyitn,d ussuds inngzan i tɣawsiwin timzznzay g kra n tmizar."
"Although doubts have been raised, economically most studies have found growing GM crops to be beneficial to farmers.","waxxa llant turdiwin,maka kigan n tɣuriwin tidamsanin ufant isd tayrza d yusan s utari tka tayafut i imkrazn."
Many of the environmental impacts regarding GM crops may take many years to be understood and are also evident in conventional agriculture practices.,iɣy urmas n kigan n iḍiṣn iwnnaḍn iṭfn s tigi tatarit isggwas mar ad ityakz imkinna tbayn g tyrza tazaykut.
"Few films have informed audiences about genetic engineering, with the exception of the 1978 The Boys from Brazil and the 1993 Jurassic Park, both of which made use of a lesson, a demonstration, and a clip of scientific film.","imik n isarutn ayd issawḍn i ugdud atwal atari,ɣas asaru 1978 icirran sg braẓil d jurasi bark 1993 kullutn ugmn g tmsirt d ufsar n ussikz, d tafirt g usaru amassan."
"Nanotechnology, also shortened to nanotech, is the use of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale for industrial purposes.","nnanu tiknuluji igan s uzzgzl nnanutik, tga aswuri s tanga g mayẓlin s ublkim d wasis d waflla n wasis i uskkin amguran."
"This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are important at this quantum-realm scale, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological goal to a research category inclusive of all types of research and technologies that deal with the special properties of matter which occur below the given size threshold.","asissn ad ar yakka yat tidt n wis d iḍiṣn imikanikitn n kanṭum stawhmman g tmsɣalt n umaḍal n tmnnawt, aya aɣf ittusnfl usissn sg usaɣd atiknuluji ɣr tgrruma n isnubbucn yumẓn marra anawn n irzzutn d tiqniyat iswurin s inamaẓan iẓlin s tmtta tamsart s tadrsi n umnar ilaqn ad yili."
"The associated research and applications are equally diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to direct control of matter on the atomic scale.","ttmyanawn irzzutn d tsnsitin iṭfn s yuwn ugdur,sg ussnti n ufuzik n ingmamn iqbuṛn ɣr tbridin timaynutin kul ibddan ɣf usmuttr unmas n wasis, sg usbuɣlu n tangiwin timaynutin ilan imnadn ɣf usbdad anannu, ɣr anbaḍ usrid i tanga g ufuɣal ablkim."
"""The term """"nano-technology"""" was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974, though it was not widely known.""","iswuri nanu tanigutci s tguri n “tatiknulujit n nanu” tiklt tamzwarut asggwas n 1974, waxxa ur ityassn kigan."
"The emergence of nanotechnology as a field in the 1980s occurred through convergence of Drexler's theoretical and public work, which developed and popularized a conceptual framework for nanotechnology, and high-visibility experimental advances that drew additional wide-scale attention to the prospects of atomic control of matter.","tbaynd tatiqnit n nanu g usggwas 1980 s tbridt n usnmili n twuriwin timiẓiṛin d tgdudant n drikslrs,ntta ayd issarun izuzzr ismmusn n nnanu, d tmrniwin tirmiwin ityakzn kigan tili fllasnt tɣḍft i ussnbḍ i tassayt n tɣawsiwin."
The microscope's developers Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM Zurich Research Laboratory received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.,tuwi tisitin tsbuɣlut jird binig d haynic ruhrer g usarm n irzzutn n imassn n twuriwin tigraɣlanin g zyurix tasmɣrt n nubl g fizik asggwas n 1986.
C60 was not initially described as nanotechnology; the term was used regarding subsequent work with related carbon nanotubes (sometimes called graphene tubes or Bucky tubes) which suggested potential applications for nanoscale electronics and devices.,g tizwuri ur ttusnuml s60 g tiqnit n nnanu; ttusmrs tguri s mad iẓlin d twuriwin n islditn n nnanu ikarbunn izdin (ttin as islditn n lgṛafin nɣd islditn buki) nna d ikan tisnsiwin taliktruniyin n wallaln inannutn.
"Decades later, advances in multi-gate technology enabled the scaling of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) devices down to nano-scale levels smaller than 20 nm gate length, starting with the FinFET (fin field-effect transistor), a three-dimensional, non-planar, double-gate MOSFET.","ḍaṛt tasirt, kan isbuɣlutn g tiknulujiyt ilan kigan n twura asiriw n ufuɣal n ingmamn n tranzistur ɣar illa iḍiṣ n ubaraz n aksid n uzaɣur, d zund izddayn ard nawḍ ɣr iswirn n ufuɣal anannu amẓẓyan; sg 20 nanumitr s taɣzi n tawwurt,ittusntayn sg finft (tranzistur uḍiṣ s igr zaɛnafi),bu kraḍ izarutn, d musfist ur yaksuln, d tawwurt tayugant n musfist."
"Controversies emerged regarding the definitions and potential implications of nanotechnologies, exemplified by the Royal Society's report on nanotechnology.","baynd imnziɣn g mayd iẓlin s isnmaln d tmitar iɣin ad yili g tiqnit n nnanu, zund anqqis n tmsmunt tagldant ittugan ɣf tiknulujit n nnanu."
These products are limited to bulk applications of nanomaterials and do not involve atomic control of matter.,ifarisn ad ttamẓ ɣas sg isnsitn ixatarn n tangiwin tinannutin d ur diks asnbḍ ablkim i tmtta.
It was based on gate-all-around (GAA) FinFET technology.,da issɣzan tatiqnit ɣaft nɣd faynfit taɣzuṛant.
This covers both current work and concepts that are more advanced.,yumz manaya tiwuriwin n ɣila d irmmusn yattuyt kigan.
"The lower limit is set by the size of atoms (hydrogen has the smallest atoms, which are approximately a quarter of a nm kinetic diameter) since nanotechnology must build its devices from atoms and molecules.","da itwafka umadrus s uksay n iblkimn (tlla g lhidṛujin tblkimt akkw imẓẓiyn, ɣur illa ukssay zund tiss kkuẓt n twal n wagum ɣ usmussi ananumitr), imkinna n iqn ad ttuskn tiqnit n nnanu ingmamn nns sg iblkimn d wasisn."
"To put that scale in another context, the comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same as that of a marble to the size of the earth.","marad ng amsɣal ad ɣ ustal nniḍn, aksay amngiddi n nnanumitr s lmitr ntta nit d amsɣal n umicci g umsɣal n wakal."
"""In the """"bottom-up"""" approach, materials and devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition.""","“ g wammak””izdar s aflla”, da ttuskant tangiwin d ingmamn g imik n ifrdisn itmunen akimi s imnzayn n yikiz afulan."
"One example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of materials.",yan umdya ɣf uya tamrniwt n tajumma n udlas ɣr usɣl n uksay issnfaln ilgam imikanikitn d tirɣi d mayẓlin s tangamin.
The catalytic activity of nanomaterials also opens potential risks in their interaction with biomaterials.,da irẓẓm uẓwarn n wakam ula imizitn iɣin ad ijṛu ig iman d tanga tamaddart.
The concept of molecular recognition is especially important: molecules can be designed so that a specific configuration or arrangement is favored due to non-covalent intermolecular forces.,"armmus n yiks afulan istawhmma s uẓlay, tɣy tmamkt n ifulanen g ittaf usmuttg nɣd kan usudds s umntl n tzmrt ur ittawsn ingr ifulanen."
"Such bottom-up approaches should be capable of producing devices in parallel and be much cheaper than top-down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly increases.","iqnen ad gin zund ammakn ad timalayin iɣin ad isflel ingmamn s umyasa, tg baṭl xf tbridin n uzuzdr, maka iɣy ad t tsgl s trnut n uksay d ummukrs n ugraw ityattarn."
"Manufacturing in the context of productive nanosystems is not related to, and should be clearly distinguished from, the conventional technologies used to manufacture nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles.","ur illi uzday gr uskar g usatal n ungraw anannu ittuskarn s tiqnitin tizaykutin, ittusmrasn g usskar n tangiwin tinannutin n lkaṛbun, d wanckn inannutn, d iqnen usnuḥyu gratsn."
"It is hoped that developments in nanotechnology will make possible their construction by some other means, perhaps using biomimetic principles.","illa ussirm n wis iɣy ad gin isbuɣlutn itiknulujitn nnanu taska nns s itsn imassn yaḍn, iɣy id s ussmrs n imnzayn immalaɣn imaddarn."
"In general it is very difficult to assemble devices on the atomic scale, as one has to position atoms on other atoms of comparable size and stickiness.","s umata, icqqa kigan usmun n ingmamn g uswir ablkim, icku iqnen afgan ad isrs iblkamn ɣf wiyḍ yaḍn yaksuln g uksay d tunɣidt tamyaɣt."
This led to an exchange of letters in the ACS publication Chemical & Engineering News in 2003.,imkinna yuwy uya s umrara n tbratin g ififɣ “inɣmisn n lkimya d utwal” sg ɣur “tmsmunt takimit tamirikanit” asggwas n 2003.
"They have constructed at least three distinct molecular devices whose motion is controlled from the desktop with changing voltage: a nanotube nanomotor, a molecular actuator, and a nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator.","skan mayd ur ikkin ddaw kṛaḍ ingmamn ifulanen iɣudan, da ittunbaḍ g tsurifin nns sg usira s usmsi n tarna: ansmassu anannu d umswuri afulal, d umlellay amssunfu annanuliktrumikanik."
Nanomaterials with fast ion transport are related also to nanoionics and nanoelectronics.,mzdaynt tangamin tinannutin ilan tumni tayyunit isrbin d ayyunat n nnanu d iliktrunat n nnanu.
Nanoscale materials such as nanopillars are sometimes used in solar cells which combats the cost of traditional silicon solar cells.,da ttusmrasnt tangamin tinannutin zund innaln inannutn itsn tikkal g talmikin tiyafuyin nna itggan tizmmar ɣf talmikin n ssilikun tiyafuyin tizaykutin.
"More generally, molecular self-assembly seeks to use concepts of supramolecular chemistry, and molecular recognition in particular, to cause single-molecule components to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation.","s talɣa wala igan tagdudant, da itnaɣ usmun unmas afulan, ad issmrs irmmusn n lkimya n nnig tfulant, d umyassan n tfulayt s uẓlay, mar ad ssudsn ifrdisn ifulanen imyiwnen iɣfawn nns s iɣfawn nnsn g itsnt talɣiwin ilan tabɣurt."
"Giant magnetoresistance-based hard drives already on the market fit this description, as do atomic layer deposition (ALD) techniques.","tmsasant inmassutn n iqaṛiḍn iqurarn ixatarn illan ɣf umsnkar amiɣnaṭis illan nnik g ubaraz s usnumml ad, ula awd tatiqnitin n usfsi n taggayt tablkmt (ALD)."
"Focused ion beams can directly remove material, or even deposit material when suitable precursor gasses are applied at the same time.","ɣin iẓnẓaṛ n ayyun tamɣḍft; ad ksn tangiwin tusridin, nɣd awd asrrus n tangiwin ig ittusmrs lgaz amṛḍl, d yusan ga tizi."
These could then be used as single-molecule components in a nanoelectronic device.,nɣy ḍaṛt uynnaɣ ad nswuri s ifrdisn ad ifrdisn ɣur yan ugzzum angmam aliktruni anannu.
"Molecular nanotechnology is a proposed approach which involves manipulating single molecules in finely controlled, deterministic ways.",tatiqniyt n nnanu amilukulir tga yan wammak d yuwin asmkl n tuṭṭutin iẓlin s tbridin ɣf tlla tynnit d unbaḍ s kigan n tɣdft.
There are hopes for applying nanorobots in medicine.,illa ussirm ad ttusmrsn id ṛṛubuwat n nnanu g yigr n ussasfr.
"Because of the discrete (i.e. atomic) nature of matter and the possibility of exponential growth, this stage is seen as the basis of another industrial revolution.","s usrag n tɣara timbḍit ( tablkimt), n tanga d tzmrt n ussgmi n taggaḍt, da ittusksiw ɣr tfrkt ad id nttat ayd igan tasila tagrawla tanmgurant yaḍn."
"With the decrease in dimensionality, an increase in surface-to-volume ratio is observed.","s tidrust n wuggugn,nẓṛa tamrniwt n usɣl n udlas ɣr uksay."
"Although conceptually similar to the scanning confocal microscope developed by Marvin Minsky in 1961 and the scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) developed by Calvin Quate and coworkers in the 1970s, newer scanning probe microscopes have much higher resolution, since they are not limited by the wavelength of sound or light.","waxxa myaɣn g irmmusn akd tisit mi manen iɣisa, nna isbuɣlla marfn misnski g usggwas n 1961, d tisit n uṣffaḍ imsli (SAM) nna isbuɣlla kalfn kwan d imddukal nns g 1970, maka tisitin n uṣffaḍ n imsar, tla tasddi yattuyn kigan, acku ur da tbdda ɣf taɣzi n usidd n imsli nɣd asidd."
"However, this is still a slow process because of low scanning velocity of the microscope.","waxxa hakkak, tsul tmggit ad tẓẓay acku tagguz tafssi n usɣl n tisit."
"Another group of nanotechnological techniques include those used for fabrication of nanotubes and nanowires, those used in semiconductor fabrication such as deep ultraviolet lithography, electron beam lithography, focused ion beam machining, nanoimprint lithography, atomic layer deposition, and molecular vapor deposition, and further including molecular self-assembly techniques such as those employing di-block copolymers.","tarabbut nniḍn n tiqnitin n nnanu da tsmun tamswurit iskarn islditn imɣyayn d ifilan imɣyayn, ula tinna ittusmrsan g usukn n usmsl zund, aṛcam amsdan nnig tmgẓayt iɣban, ula aṛcam amsdan n umẓẓnẓṛ aliktṛun, ula amgur amẓẓnẓṛ n ayyunat iɣḍḍfn, d uṛcam amsdan d udriz anannu, d urmrum n taggayt n tblkmt, d urmrum n irugga isisn, d tiqnit ismunen ayman n wasis, zund tinna issmrasn lbbulimrat ilan snat tgudiyin."
Scanning probe microscopy is an important technique both for characterization and synthesis of nanomaterials.,azzray n tisit n waddad tga yat tiqniyt mqqurn isnummaln ar tsnay tangamin tinannutin.
"By using, for example, feature-oriented scanning approach, atoms or molecules can be moved around on a surface with scanning probe microscopy techniques.","s ussmrs s umdya, tabrit asɣl ɣr tfrisin, iɣy ad ismcctg iblkimn nɣd asisn illan s aflla, s ussmrs n tiqnitin s mikruskubi."
"These techniques include chemical synthesis, self-assembly and positional assembly.",smunent tiqniyat ad assidr akimya d usmun unmas d usmun imrsi.
Researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories like John R. Arthur.,imrzutn g isarmn n tilifun bil zund djun r.artr.
"MBE allows scientists to lay down atomically precise layers of atoms and, in the process, build up complex structures.","da ittadja umslay n tmnukda n britanya; imasnawn ad gin taggayin n uslkim inɣdn, g tmhlt ad ttuskant tanɣiwin irwin."
Bandages are being infused with silver nanoparticles to heal cuts faster.,da ttugan isatln s tzlɣiwin n uẓṛf anannu mar ad ijjy uɛṭṭib zik.
Nanotechnology may have the ability to make existing medical applications cheaper and easier to use in places like the general practitioner's office and at home.,"tɣy tiqniyt n nnanu ad tg imassn n ussgnf d baṭl, imkinna tnna ad tssuhn aswuri nsnt g umaris n umswuri amattu ula g tgmmi."
Platinum is currently used as the diesel engine catalyst in these engines.,da ittusmras lblatinum ɣila d inzl n unsmassu n lyayz g insmassutn ad.
Next the oxidation catalyst oxidizes the hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide to form carbon dioxide and water.,"ḍaṛt uya, ituyaksad uzmmr n aksada n hidṛu-kaṛbunat d aksid-karbun amzwaru mar ad iskr aksid-karbun wiss sin d waman."
Danish company InnovationsFonden invested DKK 15 million in a search for new catalyst substitutes using nanotechnology.,tssarw tmssurt n innufasyun fundn ddanimarkyya 15 n ugndid n lkruna tadanimarkiyt ɣf urzzu imkkisi yakkan tizmmar timaynutin mar ad ttusmrs tiknulujit n nnanu.
"If the catalyst's surface area that is exposed to the exhaust fumes is maximized, efficiency of the catalyst is maximized.","ar mk tlla tmrniwt ɣf tjumma n ukfaf n uzmmr n iruggutn n wara, da tturnu tzmrt nns ar umuzzur."
"Thus, creating these nanoparticles will increase the effectiveness of the resulting diesel engine catalyst—in turn leading to cleaner exhaust fumes—and will decrease cost.","iwa, tiggit n wanckiwn inannutn qad irnu g tiṛwi n imnzl n unsmassu n lyayz amsnflul-ittawin awd ntta ɣr irugga ara izddign-qadissdris atig."
"When designing scaffolds, researchers attempt to mimic the nanoscale features of a cell's microenvironment to direct its differentiation down a suitable lineage.","g umamk n iwjyaln, tnaɣn imrzutn ad sɣlaln n tmitar tinannutin n twnnaḍt n tilmikt tamikrawit mar ad tsnmalla taranawt ɣr tarwa tamsasant."
"TSMC began production of a 7 nm process in 2017, and Samsung began production of a 5 nm process in 2018.","tssnti “tmssurt ṭaywan i tmguri aznamaqqan”; tihyyit n tmggit 7 nanumitr g 2017, imkinna tssnti samsung asnflul n 5 nanumitr g 2018."
"For these reasons, some groups advocate that nanotechnology be regulated by governments.","ɣf isragn ad, da ggarnt itsnt trubba aɣuri mar ad yili ussuds n tiknulujit n nnanu sg ɣur tnbaḍin."
Some nanoparticle products may have unintended consequences.,iɣy ad yili i kan isnfluln n tazzitin tinannutin tiyafutin ur iwadsn.
"Inhaling airborne nanoparticles and nanofibers may lead to a number of pulmonary diseases, e.g. fibrosis.","iɣy ukṭṭu n wasisn inannutn d isarrn inannutn d ittawy waḍu; ad gin kigan n tmaḍunin n turin,zund iɣct."
"""A major study published more recently in Nature Nanotechnology suggests some forms of carbon nanotubes – a poster child for the """"nanotechnology revolution"""" – could be as harmful as asbestos if inhaled in sufficient quantities.""","“ar tsnɛat tzrawt tadslant ttufsar tiyira dɣ g tsɣnt Nature Nanotechnology, is gan itsn watyyutn inannutn n lkarbun- tiwlafin n urba n “tagrawla n tiknulujit tanannut”” - iɣy uwaɣi zund asbistun ig as ittuskḍa s ugudi iwdan”."
Davies (2008) has proposed a regulatory road map describing steps to deal with these shortcomings.,isnnulfa diɣiz (2008) takaṛḍa n ussuds immaln tisurifin n iqn ad ntfur g ingaẓn ad.
"As a result, some academics have called for stricter application of the precautionary principle, with delayed marketing approval, enhanced labelling and additional safety data development requirements in relation to certain forms of nanotechnology.","tayafut n manaya, ɣran kan ikadimiyn ɣr tisnsi iqjṛn wala i umnzay n ufrag akd umaḍl n usyaha n mnziwt, d usdus n usrrus n tmitar d uynna ixṣṣan asbuɣlu n ismmaln n tnfrut yaḍn, d mayd akkw izlɣ akd talɣiwin n tiknulujit n nnanu."
Nuclear technology is technology that involves the nuclear reactions of atomic nuclei.,tatiknulujitn umɣyay tga yat tiqnit g llan imraratn n umɣyay n tɣyayt ablkim.
"He, Pierre Curie and Marie Curie began investigating the phenomenon.","issnti ntta d byir kuri d mari kuri, tasistant g tumant ad."
"Some of these kinds of radiation could pass through ordinary matter, and all of them could be harmful in large amounts.","ɣin itsn g wanawn ad n uẓẓnẓṛ ad zrin g tanga tunzilt, imkinna nnant ad xcnt s uwudiy."
"Gradually it was realized that the radiation produced by radioactive decay was ionizing radiation, and that even quantities too small to burn could pose a severe long-term hazard.","s umḍfaṛ, ittyassn id assnẓṛ nna d yakka ufsay amzznẓṛ iga azznẓṛ ig ayyun, awd igudiyn imẓẓan nna ur nɣiy ad nsskmḍ ɣin ad gin imizitn kigan s dat."
"As the atom came to be better understood, the nature of radioactivity became clearer.","dda g ttumras tsswit s twala iẓiln, nttafa tilal n ussnẓṛ ṣfant kigan."
"Alpha decay is when a nucleus releases an alpha particle, which is two protons and two neutrons, equivalent to a helium nucleus.","da ifssi alfa adday trẓm tɣyayt tazlɣa n alfa, nna igan sin bṛuṭun d sin nyuṭun aɣ yakkan zund taɣyayt n hilyum."
This type of radiation is the most dangerous and most difficult to block.,anaw ad n ussnẓṛ ayd akkw icqqan icqqu ad ittusbdd.
"The average number of neutrons released per nucleus that go on to fission another nucleus is referred to as k. Values of k larger than 1 mean that the fission reaction is releasing more neutrons than it absorbs, and therefore is referred to as a self-sustaining chain reaction.","da ittusnɛat ɣr imiḍ n nyuṭṛunat nna d yakkan ka igat taɣyayt, nna issudun g tiggidit n tɣyayin yaḍn s yism n k. ig watig n k yugrn 1; ig ittumrara uggidy dad irẓẓm i nyuṭṛunat ugga n uynna issumum, aya aɣf as ttinin amrara amḍfaṛ issudan s unmas."
"If there are enough immediate decays to carry on the chain reaction, the mass is said to be prompt critical, and the energy release will grow rapidly and uncontrollably, usually leading to an explosion.","ig illa usslmḍ iwdan adɣik i uzdduy anmaggan imḍfaṛn, da ittyanna tagudiyt tga tasnukmut d tasrbayt, d qad imɣar urẓẓum n tzmrt s zzrabit d talɣa ur nzḍaṛ ad tt namẓ, aya ayd ittawin aṭṭiqs."
"During the project, the first fission reactors were developed as well, though they were primarily for weapons manufacture and did not generate electricity.","g usnfar, ttusbuɣllant awd imggitn imzwura ibḍan, waxxa gan g usala nnsn xin umgur n ulaf, ur id win assufɣ n usidd."
"However, if the mass is critical only when the delayed neutrons are included, then the reaction can be controlled, for example by the introduction or removal of neutron absorbers.","waxxa hakkak, mk tnyama tgudiyt day ig is tturnan id nyuṭṛunat timaḍlin, iɣy ad nbaḍ g imraratn, s umdya, s tbrid n uskcm nɣd ukus tinna issumumn nyuṭṛunat."
"When the resulting nucleus is lighter than that of iron, energy is normally released; when the nucleus is heavier than that of iron, energy is generally absorbed.","ig tfssus tɣyayt tamsnflelt xf tɣyayt n wuzzal, da tnaṛzam tzmart s talɣa taɣarant, ig tẓẓay tɣyayt uggar n tin wuzzal da ttussum tzmrt s umata."
"The remaining abundance of heavy elements, from nickel to uranium and beyond, is due to supernova nucleosynthesis, the R-process.","tagudit d iqiman g ifrḍṣin iẓẓayn, sg nnikl ar lyunaryum d ḍaṛas, da ttuɣul ɣr asnay aɣyay n umṛḍl mqquṛn, timggit-r."
"Hydrogen bombs obtain their enormous destructive power from fusion, but their energy cannot be controlled.","tla tsnfrt tahidrujinit tazmrt nns icqqan sg ussidf, maka ur nzḍaṛ ad diks nennbd."
"However, both of these devices operate at a net energy loss.","waxxa hakkak, swurin ingmamn s taẓḍaṛt tuzdigt."
"Nuclear fusion was initially pursued only in theoretical stages during World War II, when scientists on the Manhattan Project (led by Edward Teller) investigated it as a method to build a bomb.","g tizwuri ittuyḍfṛ usiḍf aɣyay g tfrkiwin timagunin day, g imnɣi agraɣlan wiss sin, dda g skrn imusnawn g usnfar n manhaṭn (s uḥray n idwaṛd tilr), s tɣusi g tɣawsa s tbridt n uskan n tsnfrt."
"Even small nuclear devices can devastate a city by blast, fire and radiation.",awd ingmamn imɣyayn imẓẓan ɣin ad xlun aɣrm s uṭṭiqs d wafa uẓẓnẓṛ.
"Such a weapon must hold one or more subcritical fissile masses stable for deployment, then induce criticality (create a critical mass) for detonation.","alaf amm wa iqnen ad dars tili tgudiyt ibḍan bla yuwt tmcqqit nɣd tnna wala igan tin ufsar ithyya timcqqit (iskr tawudiyt timcqqit), i usbbaqi."
"One isotope of uranium, namely uranium-235, is naturally occurring and sufficiently unstable, but it is always found mixed with the more stable isotope uranium-238.","yan g imniwayn n lyuranyum, igat lyuranyum-235, illa s tlɣa taɣarant, d ur wala izzga , maka da wala itccur d umniway lyuranyum-238 wala ittuzgan."
"Alternatively, the element plutonium possesses an isotope that is sufficiently unstable for this process to be usable.","s umskl n manaya, illa ɣar ufrḍiṣ n blutunyum akniw ur izzgan s tskflt iran ad yadj tamggit ad tswuri."
"""They detonated the first nuclear weapon in a test code-named """"Trinity"""", near Alamogordo, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945.""","“sbbaqin alaf aɣyay amzwaru g yirm mi gan s yism “triniti””, taman alamugurdu, nyu miksiku, ass n 16 yulyuz 1945."
"In the wake of unprecedented devastation and casualties from a single weapon, the Japanese government soon surrendered, ending World War II.","s yuwn walaf ggudin irdaln d titiwat,ayd yudjan tanbaḍt n lyaban ad tasy acnyal umlil,tfukku imnɣi agraɣlan wiss sin."
"Just over four years later, on August 29, 1949, the Soviet Union detonated its first fission weapon.","daṛt kkuẓ n isggwsn s imik, ass n 29 ɣuct 1949, isbbaqi umuni n ssufyat alaf n ufrcq nns amzwaru."
A radiological weapons is a type of nuclear weapon designed to distribute hazardous nuclear material in enemy areas.,ilafn n imẓnẓṛn gan yan wanaw n walaf aɣyay ttuhyyan mar ad bṭṭun tanga taɣyayt icqqan g tmizar n icngwa.
"While considered useless by a conventional military, such a weapon raises concerns over nuclear terrorism.","imkinna ur ili walaf ad tabɣurt dar tsrdast taqbuṛt, zund alaf ad da issiwid acku iɣy ad iskr asiwf aɣyay."
The treaty permitted underground nuclear testing.,tudja taḍa ad irimn iɣyayn ad ilin ddaw wakal.
"After signing the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996 (which had as of 2011 not entered into force), all of these states have pledged to discontinue all nuclear testing.","ḍaṛt usgmḍ ɣf taḍa n wubuy aɣzuran n yirimn g usggwas n 1996 (ɣur ur yad illi ussmrs sg 2011),kant kullu tmura ad awal nsnt ad ur sar yad ttili tirmit n uɣyay."
"Throughout the Cold War, the opposing powers had huge nuclear arsenals, sufficient to kill hundreds of millions of people.","g uzmz n imnɣi ukrim, tlla ɣar tzmrt n tuzlt asarbeb mqquṛn n uɣyay, tga win ad tnɣ timmaḍ n igndidn n mddn."
"Currently nuclear power provides approximately 15.7% of the world's electricity (in 2004) and is used to propel aircraft carriers, icebreakers and submarines (so far economics and fears in some ports have prevented the use of nuclear power in transport ships).","da takka tzmrt taɣyayt ɣila attayn n 15.7% n uẓaṛuṛ g umaḍal ( g 2004), ar ttussmras i utkay n tmyisitin n taylalin d tmksitin n ugris d tmngaḍin (ar assa, tsnfel tadamsa d tuggda g itsn iftisn bla n ussmrs n tzmrt taɣyayt g itsn iɣrruba n usutti)."
Medical and dental x-ray imagers use of cobalt-60 or other x-ray sources.,"da ttusmrasn ingmamn n uswllf s umẓẓnẓṛ d umssgnaf n kubalt 60, nɣd isugam yaḍn n umẓẓnẓṛ."
Both contain a small source of 241Am that gives rise to a small constant current.,"ssin ɣarsn asagm amẓyan 241 amirikyum, ittawy s amzaz amẓẓan izzgan."
"Another use in insect control is the sterile insect technique, where male insects are sterilized by radiation and released, so they have no offspring, to reduce the population.","assmrs yaḍn g usbddi n ibxxucn, iga tatiqnit n usizdg n ibxxucn, da ittusidg iwtmanen n ibxxucn s uznẓṛ iwa nṛẓm as, iwa ur ɣars ttili tarwa, mar ad nssdris imzdaɣ."
"The radiation sources used include radioisotope gamma ray sources, X-ray generators and electron accelerators.",smann isugam n uzznẓṛ ittussmrasn; isugam n uznẓṛ gama s inawayn issiddin d imssufɣn n iznẓaṛ imiɣnaṭiṣn d imsrbayn n ilikṭṛun.
"As such it is also used on non-food items, such as medical hardware, plastics, tubes for gas-pipelines, hoses for floor-heating, shrink-foils for food packaging, automobile parts, wires and cables (isolation), tires, and even gemstones.","g usara ad, da ittusmras awd g isadurn ur igin win wutci, zund ingmamn n usgnaf d lmika d tyyuwat n lgaz d iqudas n unnrɣi n wakal, d wasisn n uqsaf n wutul n tɣawsiwin n wutci, d tgzzumin n iqzdirn n thirritin, d ifilan d iguta (aẓlay), d ṛṛwayḍ, d iẓṛan isfikkitn."
Microorganisms can no longer proliferate and continue their malignant or pathogenic activities.,ur yad ɣiyn imidrn imẓẓakucn ad ggidin ula ssadan g tilal nsn ixcn iskarn timaḍunin.
Plants cannot continue the natural ripening or aging process.,ur yad nnin imɣayn ad ssudun g tixxitrt taɣarant nsn ula g tawsrt nsn.
"The specialty of processing food by ionizing radiation is the fact, that the energy density per atomic transition is very high, it can cleave molecules and induce ionization (hence the name) which cannot be achieved by mere heating.","taẓlayt n usmkl n wutci s tɣarast n uẓnẓṛ ayyun, iga s tidt tanẓẓi n tzmrt i ka igat amutty ablkim yattuyn kigan, d iɣy ad tbbi tifulin d unzal n ayyun ( sg da ism ), nna ur innin ad yili s unnrɣi."
"However, the use of the term, cold pasteurization, to describe irradiated foods is controversial, because pasteurization and irradiation are fundamentally different processes, although the intended end results can in some cases be similar.","waxxa hakkak, assmrs n tguri “ assḥmu ankram “ mar ad nsnumml n wutcitn ittusnẓṛn ɣifs taqqurt, acku assḥmu ussnẓṛ gan snat tmggitin imzarayn g ugns, waxxa tiyafutin timggura ɣint ad iksilnt g itsn waddadn."
Marie Curie died from aplastic anemia which resulted from her high levels of exposure.,"tmmut mari kuṛi s ẓẓlḍ n idammn as tga lmika, acku igulan diks tiskfal mqquṛn."
Approximately half of the deaths from Hiroshima and Nagasaki died two to five years afterward from radiation exposure.,immut uzgn n winna immutn g hirucima d nagazaki ḍaṛt sin isggwasn ar smmus aydtn innal umẓnẓṛ.
A nuclear meltdown refers to the more serious hazard of releasing nuclear material into the surrounding environment.,immal urdal n uɣyay imizi ixxan kigan igan d annfcu n tangawin n uɣyay g twnnaḍt inmalan.
Military reactors that experienced similar accidents were Windscale in the United Kingdom and SL-1 in the United States.,"anmaggu asrdas nna ɣf kkan ingasn am wi; windskal g tgldit tamassaɣt,d sl-1 g tmaẓlayt tamassaɣt."
"Another topic of transhumanist research is how to protect humanity against existential risks, such as nuclear war or asteroid collision.","yan urzzu nnidn ḍaṛt tfugna, mamk s nra ad ng afrag i tfugna g imizitn ad illan,zund imnɣi aɣyay d ungas n tzwinnitin."
"The assertion would lay the intellectual groundwork for the British philosopher Max More to begin articulating the principles of transhumanism as a futurist philosophy in 1990, and organizing in California a school of thought that has since grown into the worldwide transhumanist movement.","qad isrs usddi ad tasila n uswingm n ufaylasuf abriṭani maks mur, mar ad issnti assfru n imnzayn n ḍaṛt tfugna igan taflsaft n imal 1990, d ussuds n tinml n uswingm g kalifuṛnya, ttumrnaw sg tizi nnaɣ ag tga amussu n ḍaṛt tfugna tagraɣlant."
"In the Discourse, Descartes envisioned a new kind of medicine that could grant both physical immortality and stronger minds.","g uwnni, ika dikart yat twalit tamaynut n usgnaf tɣy ad tk tfkka tamɣlalt d wanlli idusn."
St. Leon may have provided inspiration for his daughter Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein.,ɛniɣ issnkd umsfuẓẓr lyun asagwm istawhmman i walls n frankinctayn i illis mari cili.
"In particular, he was interested in the development of the science of eugenics, ectogenesis (creating and sustaining life in an artificial environment), and the application of genetics to improve human characteristics, such as health and intelligence.","s uẓlay iɣḍf s uzzigz n tmassant n usɣudu n warraw, d usmuttg abṛṛaniy ( tigi n tudrt d uḥṭṭu nns g twnnaḍt tamgurant), d ussmrs n tmassant tatrrawt isɣudun mayẓlin s afgan, zund adwas d ufulls."
These ideas have been common transhumanist themes ever since.,tidɣ gant tiwngimin n isntiln n ḍaṛt tfugna llant sg wakud nnaɣ.
"""In the Material and Man section of the manifesto, Noboru Kawazoe suggests that:After several decades, with the rapid progress of communication technology, every one will have a """"brain wave receiver"""" in his ear, which conveys directly and exactly what other people think about him and vice versa.""","g tdala n tangiwin d ufgan g ulɣu, issumr nuburu kwazu: n wiss dadɣ s mnnawt nigllayn , s uzzigz isrbin n tiknulijit tamyawaḍt, ku ijj ufgan qad dars yili unrmas n umzaz n unlli g tmẓẓuɣt nns,asd ittawin s wusrid mag swingimn wiyyaḍ, yawy asn ula nitni mag iswingim."
"""In 1966, FM-2030 (formerly F. M. Esfandiary), a futurist who taught """"new concepts of the human"""" at The New School, in New York City, began to identify people who adopt technologies, lifestyles and world views transitional to posthumanity as """"transhuman"""".""","g usggwas n 1966, fm-2030(fridun isfandiyari) igan amusnaw n imal “issɣra irmmusn imaynutn i ufgan”, g tinml tamaynut g nyuyurk, isti iwdan isgman tiqniyat d yiggitn n tudrt d tannayin g umaḍal itmattayn s ḍaṛt tiffugna, nna innan ad ig izrruyn ɣf mddn."
"FM-2030 and Vita-More soon began holding gatherings for transhumanists in Los Angeles, which included students from FM-2030's courses and audiences from Vita-More's artistic productions.","issnti fm-2030 d fita mur igrawn n imusnawn n ḍaṛt tiffugna g lus anjlus, g llan imzrawn sg tsutal n fm-2030,d ugdud s usnfl n fita mur tanaẓuṛt."
A particular concern is the equal access to human enhancement technologies across classes and borders.,asagwm amẓlay n unzgum igat yiwḍ n imsasatn ɣr tiqniyt n usdus anafgan s taggayin d iwtta.
This left the World Transhumanist Association as the leading international transhumanist organization.,affal n tzlɣa ad tamaḍlant s ḍaṛt tiffugna zund tamaddast tagraɣlant immursn g yigr n ḍaṛt tiffugna.
The Mormon Transhumanist Association was founded in 2006.,tbdda “tmsmunt n murmu ḍaṛt tiffugna” g usggwas n 2006.
"""Transhumanism stresses the evolutionary perspective, including sometimes the creation of a highly intelligent animal species by way of cognitive enhancement (i.e. biological uplift), but clings to a """"posthuman future"""" as the final goal of participant evolution.""","tsslkan ḍaṛt tiffugna ɣf umnad n usbuɣlu, g yamu uskar n wanaw n imudar icwan kigan s tbridt n usdus amassan (s walay abyuluji), maca tumz g “imal n ḍaṛt tiffugna”, acku ntta ayd igan asuɣd n tmrniwt n imdrawn."
"""While such a """"cultural posthumanism"""" would offer resources for rethinking the relationships between humans and increasingly sophisticated machines, transhumanism and similar posthumanisms are, in this view, not abandoning obsolete concepts of the """"autonomous liberal subject"""", but are expanding its """"prerogatives"""" into the realm of the posthuman.""","d zund “ḍaṛt tfugna tadlsant” tɣy ad tskr isugam n wul n uswigm gr iwdan d imassn ittusbuɣllan kigan, iwa ḍaṛt tfugna d ḍaṛt tfugna tanawayt, g tannayt ad, ur da tmzaray d isissn izaykutn “ankkin alibirali iẓlin”, maka assirw n tbɣurin ɣr “ umaḍal n ḍaṛṭ ufgan”."
"However, other progressives have argued that posthumanism, whether it be its philosophical or activist forms, amounts to a shift away from concerns about social justice, from the reform of human institutions and from other Enlightenment preoccupations, toward narcissistic longings for a transcendence of the human body in quest of more exquisite ways of being.","waxxa hakkak , mnzaɣn isattuyn yaḍn n wis d ḍaṛt tfugna, swa gant talɣiwin nns tiflsafin ula tilalin, tuwḍ asmutty n tiwitin izdin akd tazrfi tagdudant, sg umukn timrsal n tiffugna d sg iswuritn n ussisfiw yaḍn, ɣr yiri anarjis n ussurf i ufgan i tfkka, xf urzzu n tbridin n tilit wala iẓiln."
"Many transhumanists actively assess the potential for future technologies and innovative social systems to improve the quality of all life, while seeking to make the material reality of the human condition fulfill the promise of legal and political equality by eliminating congenital mental and physical barriers.","da iskar wahli n imusnawn n ḍaṛt tffugna azzray ɣf imamkn n tiqnitin n imal, d igrratn inamunen ittugan ithyyut n wanawn n tudrt maṛṛa, d tuttra n uhyyu n tinawt tagmamt n waddad afgan, ar yakka asiskl azrfan d usrtan sg wukus n ifragn inllitn d igmamn n tugit."
"Some theorists such as Ray Kurzweil think that the pace of technological innovation is accelerating and that the next 50 years may yield not only radical technological advances, but possibly a technological singularity, which may fundamentally change the nature of human beings.","da ttiɣiln kigan n imssiẓiṛn zund kulzwiṛ masd tanawt tasnflult tatiknulujit ttazla, d masd 50 d iddan qad tawy ur id ɣas isbuɣlutn ituknulujitn iẓuṛan, maka iɣy ad tawy aẓlay atiknuluji nna innan ad isnfel aɣaran n ufgan s talɣa tasilant."
"For example, Bostrom has written extensively on existential risks to humanity's future welfare, including ones that could be created by emerging technologies.","s umdya, yara bustṛum g ufuɣal abaraw n imizitn n tillawt ɣf uṭṛṛḥ n ugdud s imal, g tamun tnna iɣin ad ittuskr s tɣarast tatiqnit tangmant."
"To counter this, Hawking emphasizes either self-design of the human genome or mechanical enhancement (e.g., brain-computer interface) to enhance human intelligence and reduce aggression, without which he implies human civilization may be too stupid collectively to survive an increasingly unstable system, resulting in societal collapse.","i umnala n ɣayan, islkan huking swa s umamk ayman n ljinum anafgan nɣd asdus amikanik ( s umdya aqmu n unlli, d umssuds), i usdus n ccwiyt n ufgan d ussdrs n icngwa, nna ittini bla t; taɣrma tanafgant iɣy ad tbbuhllu kigan s umata, mar ad tqim tddr g ungraw ur izzgan s talɣa tamrniwt, ayd yuwin ɣr tḍuṛi n ugdud."
These thinkers argue that the ability to discuss in a falsification-based way constitutes a threshold that is not arbitrary at which it becomes possible for an individual to speak for themselves in a way that is not dependent on exterior assumptions.,"tmnzaɣt imswangam ɣf tiɣiyt n umdakaṛ s tbridt ibddan ɣf umrjun, tgga yat lɛdft ur igin tasqddct, ard yiɣiy ufgan ad isiwl ɣf iɣf nns s tbridt ur iskuttun ɣf yinit n bṛṛa."
"""In keeping with this, many prominent transhumanist advocates, such as Dan Agin, refer to transhumanism's critics, on the political right and left jointly, as """"bioconservatives"""" or """"bioluddites"""", the latter term alluding to the 19th century anti-industrialisation social movement that opposed the replacement of human manual labourers by machines.""","“assudu d maya, da snɛatn kigan n winna iqqarn ɣr ḍaṛt tffugna zund: dan ajin, s ismtaln n ḍaṛt tffugna, xf uyffas d uẓlmaḍ isrtanen s tucurt s yism n “ imḥday ibyulujitn”, nɣd “bioluddites” taguri ad sg usatu wiss 19, amussu anamun yugin tamguri, yugy asnfel n inawurn n ufus ɣr imassn.”"
The same scenario happens when people have certain neural implants that give them an advantage in the work place and in educational aspects.,da ittals ssinaṛyu adday yili ɣur iwdan tuẓẓutin n taḍa asn yakkan tabɣurt g wansa n twuri ula tisggwin n usslmd.
"Immortalism, a moral ideology based upon the belief that radical life extension and technological immortality is possible and desirable, and advocating research and development to ensure its realization.","tasult, tadyulujit taɣarant tbdda ɣf yiɣil n uzday n tudrt taradikaliyt d tasult tatiknulujit taɣawsa iɣin ad yili d rant iwdan, ar tqqaṛ s urzzu d usbuɣlu mar ad yili usugr n tilit nns."
"Mathematics (from Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), structure (algebra), space (geometry), and change (analysis).","illa g tusnakt (sg lyunanya) tazrawt tasgumant zund tamakta (tamagunt n imḍan), tuṣkiwt (ljibr), asayrar (tanzgit), asnfl (asfsi)."
"When mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, mathematical reasoning can be used to provide insight or predictions about nature.","adday tg tanɣa n tusnakt imdyatn iɣudan i tumanin n tidt, iɣy ad nswuri s uswingm amsnakiy mar ad nk tannayt inmn d isnimaln ɣf tɣara."
The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry.,iɣ ad ik urzzu iran ad ik afssay i tmukrisin n tusnakt isggwas nɣd tisutiwin n urzzu asulan.
"Mathematics developed at a relatively slow pace until the Renaissance, when mathematical innovations interacting with new scientific discoveries led to a rapid increase in the rate of mathematical discovery that has continued to the present day.","ttusbuɣlla tusnakt s talɣa tamdrust ar azmz n tnkra, ddag d uwin isnfluln n tusnakt nna itmraran akd yifitn n tussna imaynutn, ɣr trnawt isrbin g tyafut n yifitn n tusnakt nna issadan ar assa."
"As evidenced by tallies found on bone, in addition to recognizing how to count physical objects, prehistoric peoples may have also recognized how to count abstract quantities, like time—days, seasons, or years.","imk ityakz g issiṭn illan ɣf iɣṣan, ula mamk s ittussitn tɣawsiwin tangamin,iɣy is gan igdudn n dat umzruy mamk ssitin anct waratig, zund tizi- ussan d imirn nɣd isggwasn."
"Beginning in the 6th century BC with the Pythagoreans, with Greek mathematics the Ancient Greeks began a systematic study of mathematics as a subject in its own right.","sg tasut tiss 6 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ akd fitaɣurs, d tusnakt tayunaniyt, ssntin liɣriq iqburn asntl n tabridt tusnakt."
The greatest mathematician of antiquity is often held to be Archimedes (c. 287–212 BC) of Syracuse.,kigan ayd ittinin n wisd arxmisd (287-212 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ) ayd igan amusnaw axatar n tusnakt g izmaz iqburn.
"The Hindu–Arabic numeral system and the rules for the use of its operations, in use throughout the world today, evolved over the course of the first millennium AD in India and were transmitted to the Western world via Islamic mathematics.","azzigz n ungraw n imḍan ahindi-aɛṛab; d ilgamn n usmrs n tmggitin nns, ittusmrasn assa g umaḍal kullut, yumẓ ifḍ amzwaru n tlalit n lmasiḥ g lhind , ag ttusmatty s amaḍal ataram t tbridt n tusnakt tanslmt."
The most notable achievement of Islamic mathematics was the development of algebra.,assḍru amqran n tusnakt tanslmt igat usbuɣlu n tmassant n ljibr.
"During the early modern period, mathematics began to develop at an accelerating pace in Western Europe.","g tasut tatrart n zik, tssnti tusnakt abuɣlu s yat tbridt isrbin g urubba n utaram."
"Perhaps the foremost mathematician of the 19th century was the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss, who made numerous contributions to fields such as algebra, analysis, differential geometry, matrix theory, number theory, and statistics.","iɣ is tt ikka umusnaw almaniy “kaṛl fridritc djaws” n tusnakt g usatu wiss 19, yuws kigan g yigran zund ljibr, afars, tanzgit tafdawit, tamagunt tadrast d tmagunt n imḍan d usiḍn."
Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today.,tssada twafit n tusnakt ass.
"""In particular, mathēmatikḗ tékhnē meant """"the mathematical art.""""""",“s uẓlay matimatik tixn ayd igan “taẓuṛi n tusnakt.””
"In English, the noun mathematics takes a singular verb.","g tutlayt tanglizt, tla tusnakt tasmawant amyag amyuwn."
"""However, Aristotle also noted a focus on quantity alone may not distinguish mathematics from sciences like physics; in his view, abstraction and studying quantity as a property """"separable in thought"""" from real instances set mathematics apart.""","waxxa hakkak, yukz arisṭu arar n tynnit ɣf tmakta day, iɣ ad usti tusnakt ɣf tmassanin zund afizik, g tannayt nns iga ukus d tzrawt n tmakta ign tanamaẓt, “tga tin umziray g uswing”, g imdyatn n tidt da ttumzaray tusnakt gras."
A peculiarity of intuitionism is that it rejects some mathematical ideas considered valid according to other definitions.,taẓlayt n twngimt; igat ad yagy itsnt twngimin n tusnakt nna imsasan d isussn nniḍn.
"""Haskell Curry defined mathematics simply as """"the science of formal systems"""".""",“isnml haskar kari tusnakt s ufrari id nttat ayd igan “tussnimagawn tunṣibt””.
"""Popper also noted that """"I shall certainly admit a system as empirical or scientific only if it is capable of being tested by experience.""""""",“issmtr bubbr ula ntta “ ssnɣ id ingrawn gan ɣas anaram nɣ amassan ig iga win yirim s tirmit””.
Intuition and experimentation also play a role in the formulation of conjectures in both mathematics and the (other) sciences.,tawngimt d yirim ɣarsn awttas g yiggi n yikizn g tusnakt d tmassanin yaḍn.
"For example, the physicist Richard Feynman invented the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics using a combination of mathematical reasoning and physical insight, and today's string theory, a still-developing scientific theory which attempts to unify the four fundamental forces of nature, continues to inspire new mathematics.","s umdya, iskr ufizik ritcaṛd faynman yan usara ittsmadn mikanik asmkta s tucurt n uswing n tusnakt d wannay afikik, tsul tmagunt n ifilan, igan tamagunt tamassant da ttusbuɣlu is ur tsmun tizmmar tidslanin n tamust s kkuẓt, asagwm anfrar n tusnakt tamaynut."
A distinction is often made between pure mathematics and applied mathematics.,itsnt tikkal da ittili usnuḥyu ingr tusnakt tarzzut d tusnakt tuskirt.
"As in most areas of study, the explosion of knowledge in the scientific age has led to specialization: there are now hundreds of specialized areas in mathematics and the latest Mathematics Subject Classification runs to 46 pages.","imkinna iga waddad g kigan n yigran n tɣuri, yuwy unyuddu n tussna g uzmz amassan ɣr taẓlayt, ɣila llant tmiḍiwin n yigran iẓlin s tusnakt, anwaya amaybu i usntl n tusnakt igulan 46 n tsna."
"Many mathematicians talk about the elegance of mathematics, its intrinsic aesthetics and inner beauty.",kigan g imusnawn n tusnakt da sawaln ɣf tadgi n tusnakt d tiḥli nns n ugnsu d uɣudu nns agwnsan.
"G. H. Hardy in A Mathematician's Apology expressed the belief that these aesthetic considerations are, in themselves, sufficient to justify the study of pure mathematics.","issurf umusnaw n tusnak “gudfri haṛuld hardi “, ɣf uffuls nns s isatign ad day ; ɣf tzrawt tusnakt tarzzut."
A theorem expressed as a characterization of the object by these features is the prize.,"tamagunt ɣf illa wawal zund afars n umɣnaw ilan timitar am ti, igat ubɣur."
Euler (1707–1783) was responsible for many of the notations in use today.,"ikkat “uwilr (1707-1783)”, iga amslay ɣf kigan n tmitar ittusmrasn assa."
"Unlike natural language, where people can often equate a word (such as cow) with the physical object it corresponds to, mathematical symbols are abstract, lacking any physical analog.","tutlayt n taɣarant g ɣin iwdan ad ssiksln tiguriwin (zund tafunast) d umniway akmam nns, ur id am tmitar n tusnakt taratig, d ur tli amniway afikiz."
Mathematical language also includes many technical terms such as homeomorphism and integrable that have no meaning outside of mathematics.,"illa awd g tutlayt tusnakt kigan n tguriwin tinaẓuṛin zund ammrws d usmdan, ur ilin anamk bṛṛa n tusnakt."
"""Mathematicians refer to this precision of language and logic as """"rigor"""".""",“da snɛatn imusnawn n tusnakt s assfru dɣ n tutlayt d umgn “”tammazt””.
"""This is to avoid mistaken """"theorems"""", based on fallible intuitions, of which many instances have occurred in the history of the subject.""","“aya mar ad nkk tasga i “”tmagunin“”, izgln itwagan ɣf uswing ur immuẓln, nna d yuwin kigan n imdyatn ɣf usntl.”"
Misunderstanding the rigor is a cause for some of the common misconceptions of mathematics.,gar armas n uqjaṛ ayd yuwin itsn irmmusn izgln illan g tusnakt.
"On the other hand, proof assistants allow verifying all details that cannot be given in a hand-written proof, and provide certainty of the correctness of long proofs such as that of the Feit–Thompson theorem.","g tsga yaḍn, da ittadja umawas n tilit asaggw n ifruritn kull nna ur igin win ussnkd g tilit ityaran s ufus, ar akkan aslkn s wanẓatn imddadn iɣzzafn, amm winna illan g tmagunt n fayt tamsun."
"In addition to these main concerns, there are also subdivisions dedicated to exploring links from the heart of mathematics to other fields: to logic, to set theory (foundations), to the empirical mathematics of the various sciences (applied mathematics), and more recently to the rigorous study of uncertainty.","s tmrnut i twnnitin ad tidslanin, llant awd tdaliwin tayyawin tusligin ittafan tazlɣiwin g wul n tusnakt s igran yaḍn: s umgin, d usrrus n tmagunt (israsn), tusnakt n tirmi ɣr tmassanin yaḍn (tusnakt taskrant), tiyira ɣr tzrawt inɣdn ur iṭṭifn aslkn."
Some disagreement about the foundations of mathematics continues to the present day.,ar assa isul ka n umziray ɣf israsn n tusnakt.
"As such, it is home to Gödel's incompleteness theorems which (informally) imply that any effective formal system that contains basic arithmetic, if sound (meaning that all theorems that can be proved are true), is necessarily incomplete (meaning that there are true theorems which cannot be proved in that system).","g usara ad, tga tigmmi n “tmagunin inngzan” n judl ( s talɣa ur igin tinṣibt), ar aɣ tmmal ka igat agrra amswuri unsib dars assiḍn adslan, ig iga imsli ( timagunin kullutnt s nɣi ad tnt ntlaw d timddadin), mqqar ur tsmid ( llant tmagunin timddadin), nna s ur nɣiy ad tnt ntlaw d timddadin."
"Modern logic is divided into recursion theory, model theory, and proof theory, and is closely linked to theoretical computer science, as well as to category theory.","ibḍa umgin amaynu xf tmagunt tadwalant, d tmagunt n umdya, d tmagunt n tilawt, ilan azday akd mqqurn d umssuds amagun, ula tamagunt n tgrruma."
"Computability theory examines the limitations of various theoretical models of the computer, including the most well-known model—the Turing machine.","da tskar tmagunt n ussiṭn azzray i ikarifn n imdyatn n tmagunt tamzirayt i umssuds, g illa umdya ityassan kigan; “imis turin”."
"""Consideration of the natural numbers also leads to the transfinite numbers, which formalize the concept of """"infinity"""".""","“asksw g imḍan igamayn da ittawy awd s imḍan izrin iwtta, nitnti ayd itggan armmus n “wartmi” d unṣib.”"
"Thus one can study groups, rings, fields and other abstract systems; together such studies (for structures defined by algebraic operations) constitute the domain of abstract algebra.","imki as nɣy ad ng tazrawt ɣf trubba d tmtettayin d yigran d imagawn iwngimn yaḍn, da skarnt tzrawin ad ( tanɣiwin ittuẓlayn s tmhin tijibriyin), igr n ljibr awngim."
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with relationships between the sides and the angles of triangles and with the trigonometric functions.,tamassant n tmkṛaḍ iga ayyaw n tawsnakt iswurin akd tzdayin iɣzdisn d tɣmrin n tmkṛaḍ d twuriwin timkṛaḍ.
Convex and discrete geometry were developed to solve problems in number theory and functional analysis but now are pursued with an eye on applications in optimization and computer science.,"ttusbuɣlla tgzit yattuyn tbḍu mar ad tfsi timukrisin g tmagunt n imḍan d ufars asɣnan, maka da ttuḍfuṛ ɣila s usmssi ɣf tsnsitin g usfulku d tmassanin n umssuds."
"Lie groups are used to study space, structure, and change.",da ttusmrasnt trubba n ixdadn mar ad ittuɣr usayrar d tuskiwt d usnfl.
Functions arise here as a central concept describing a changing quantity.,tga tsɣnt ɣid zund armmus anammas isnummaln agudi ittusnfaln.
One of many applications of functional analysis is quantum mechanics.,tga tmikanikit n tsmkta yat g kigan tsnsiwin n usfsi asɣnan.
"""Statisticians (working as part of a research project) """"create data that makes sense"""" with random sampling and with randomized experiments; the design of a statistical sample or experiment specifies the analysis of the data (before the data becomes available).""","imsnmktitn (swurin ɣf tgzzumt amm usnfar arzzu), skarn inmmaln umginen, s yisy n itsn tussifin s itsn tirmitin, istti amamk n tussift tasnmktit nɣd tirmi n ufars n inmmaln ( dat n ad ilin inmmaln)."
Numerical analysis studies methods for problems in analysis using functional analysis and approximation theory; numerical analysis includes the study of approximation and discretisation broadly with special concern for rounding errors.,"da issɣra ufars amiḍan tibridin n imukrisn g ufars, s ussmrs n ufars imggi d tmagunt n usnmila, illa g ufars amiḍan tazrawt n usnmala d yiɣil g ufuɣal imiraw, d tawit iẓlin s usnmila n izggaln."
The Chern Medal was introduced in 2010 to recognize lifetime achievement.,"ttufka tsmɣurt n “tcirn” g usggwas n 2010, ad tg isin s twuriwin n usmmud."
"This list achieved great celebrity among mathematicians, and at least nine of the problems have now been solved.","talgamt ad tgulan yan umsussn axatar gr imusnawn n tusnakt, ar dɣi ttufukkan tẓa n imukrisn."
The value of Pi was first calculated by him.,ntta ayd ikan atig i “bi” tiklt tamzwarut.
"""It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term """"mathematics"""", and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins.""",“krn lfitaɣuryyun taguri n “ tusnakt” nitni aɣur ttusntay tzrawt tusnakt i waduns.”
"Because of a political dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked and scraping off her skin with clamshells (some say roofing tiles).","s umziray asrtan, tmrrt taggayt n lmasiḥ g liskandaryya, n wis tamu, tyaksn as iḥruyn, ittukṛaḍ ubḍḍan nns s ilm (llan winna innan inbdad n tmasiḥiyt)."
"Funding for translation of scientific texts in other languages was ongoing throughout the reign of certain caliphs, and it turned out that certain scholars became experts in the works they translated and in turn received further support for continuing to develop certain sciences.","issada ussẓṛf n usuɣl n iḍṛiṣn imassan g tizi n unbaḍ n imkkusa, imk ifaw n wis gan kan itsn imassan imuzayn g twuriwin ssuɣln, aya aɣf umẓn amyiwas nniḍn ad ssudun g usbuɣlu n itsnt tmassanin."
A notable feature of many scholars working under Muslim rule in medieval times is that they were often polymaths.,uddur anẓlay n imusnawn iswurin ddaw tnbaḍt tanslmt g izmaz inammasn; kigan diksn ɣars amyanaw n tdlsanin.
"During this period of transition from a mainly feudal and ecclesiastical culture to a predominantly secular one, many notable mathematicians had other occupations: Luca Pacioli (founder of accounting); Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia (notable engineer and bookkeeper); Gerolamo Cardano (earliest founder of probability and binomial expansion); Robert Recorde (physician) and François Viète (lawyer).","g tizi ad n ummuty sg tdlsa n usmmɣd d tmasiḥt ɣr tdlsa talassnt, iswuri kigan g imusnawn ikswatn g tɣlifin nniḍn, luka basyuli (bab n ussiḍn), nikulu funtana tartagliya (amnzag d umsiḍn mqquṛn), jirulamu kardanu ( ntta d amzwaru iskrn iɣiy d ussirw ilan sin iwtta), rubirt rikurd (amsgnaf), d franswa fyit (amstan)."
"British universities of this period adopted some approaches familiar to the Italian and German universities, but as they already enjoyed substantial freedoms and autonomy the changes there had begun with the Age of Enlightenment, the same influences that inspired Humboldt.","ssgmant tsdawitin n bṛiṭanya g tizi ad, itsn wammakn illan g tsdawitin n ṭalyan d lalman, maka id ɣurs nnik tilelli mqquṛn d tga tasimant, ssntin isnfaln g usatu n tifawt, iḍiṣn ad ayd illan awd ɣf hmbult."
Students could conduct research in seminars or laboratories and began to produce doctoral theses with more scientific content.,"ɣin imzrawn ad gin irzzutn g tinaw d isaramn, ssntin afars asnubbc n tdukturt s kigan n tumayt tamassant."
"Mathematicians and applied mathematicians are considered to be two of the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) careers.","imusnawn n tusnakt d imusnawn n tusnakt tamskart d tiwuriwin n ( timassanin, tatiknulujit, tamsdagt, tusnakt)."
"Actuaries also address financial questions, including those involving the level of pension contributions required to produce a certain retirement income and the way in which a company should invest resources to maximize its return on investments in light of potential risk.","awd iktiwariyn uwind isqsitn n tiẓraf, g amunt tinna ilan tazlɣa s aswir n imyiwasn n tawsudrin tinafanin ityattarn g usnflel n kan tastaɣt, d tɣarast s rad tsyafa tmssurt isugam, mar ad tssmɣur imaɣuln nns g isyafatn agns n imizn iɣin ad yili."
"The hieroglyphic system for Egyptian numerals, like the later Roman numerals, descended from tally marks used for counting.","angraw ahidruɣlafi i imḍan imiṣṛiyn, zund imḍan iṛumaniyn ikkan, tyasaynd g tmitar n ussiḍn iswurin ɣf usiḍn."
"Early number systems that included positional notation were not decimal, including the sexagesimal (base 60) system for Babylonian numerals, and the vigesimal (base 20) system that defined Maya numerals.","ur gin igrrayn n wuṭṭunen imnzutn nna g llan izmmemn isursn imrawn, g yamu ungraw amṣḍiṣ-mraw (asila 60), n imḍan ibabilitin, d ungraw vigesimal ( asila 20), nna iẓlin uṭṭun n maya."
"Prior to the works of Euclid around 300 BC, Greek studies in mathematics overlapped with philosophical and mystical beliefs.","dat n twuriwin n uklid zund 300 n usggwas dat tlalit n lmasiḥ, mmkcamnt tzrawin tiyunaniyin g tusnakt akd turda taflsaft d igrramn."
"The ancient Greeks lacked a symbol for zero until the Hellenistic period, and they used three separate sets of symbols as digits: one set for the units place, one for the tens place, and one for the hundreds.","iɣriq iqburn ur darsn tangalt n umya, ar azmz ahilinistik, swurin s kṛaḍ trubba n tngalin ayd ɣursn igan imḍan, tarabbut i wansa n imyiwn, yat i wansa n id mraw, tayḍ i timmaḍ."
"Their long division algorithm was the same, and the digit-by-digit square root algorithm, popularly used as recently as the 20th century, was known to Archimedes (who may have invented it).","tkkat alguritm timbḍit iɣzzifn zarṣn iẓlin nttat nit, d alguritm n uẓuṛ amkkuẓ g illa wuṭṭun s uṭṭun, nna ittusmrsn wala tiyira dɣ g usatu wiss 20, tyassn s arxmids (iɣy id ntta ayd tt iskrn)."
"The ancient Chinese had advanced arithmetic studies dating from the Shang Dynasty and continuing through the Tang Dynasty, from basic numbers to advanced algebra.","ikka tt ɣur iṣiniyn izaykutn tizrawan n ussiṭn yattuyn, llant sg usatu n tawja n cang, tssudu ar asatu n tawja n tang, sg imḍan idslan ɣr ljibr yattuyn."
"For the hundreds place, they then reused the symbols for the units place, and so on.","g tuzunt n timmaḍ, swurin diɣ s tmatart iẓlin s amyiwn, ssudun."
"The ancient Chinese were the first to meaningfully discover, understand, and apply negative numbers.","iṣiniyn iqburn ayd yufan, rmsn ssmrsn imḍan inabawn."
"""His contemporary, the Syriac bishop Severus Sebokht (650 AD) said, """"Indians possess a method of calculation that no word can praise enough.""",inna uxatar n ssiryan sifirus sibuxt (650 s talalit n lmasiḥ): tlla ɣur ihindiyn tbridt n ussiḍn nna s ur nɣiy ad t nalɣ s awd yat tguri.
The Arabs also learned this new method and called it hesab.,"imkinna lmdn waɛṛabn tabridt ad tamaynut, ar as qqarn s yism n “ḥisab”."
"The flourishing of algebra in the medieval Islamic world, and also in Renaissance Europe, was an outgrowth of the enormous simplification of computation through decimal notation.","ikkat usbuɣlu n tusnajibrt g umaḍal anslm g izmaz inammasn, ula g uzmz n tnkra g urubba, tayafut n ufrari mqqurn n ussiḍn g uzmmem amraw."
Arithmetic expressions must be evaluated according to the intended sequence of operations.,iqnen ustal n uwnni n ussiḍn ɣf uzdduy n tmhlt nna nra.
"For example, digital computers can reuse existing adding-circuitry and save additional circuits for implementing a subtraction, by employing the method of two's complement for representing the additive inverses, which is extremely easy to implement in hardware (negation).","s umdya, ɣin ingmamn n umssuds n usiḍn ad diɣ sswurin tiwrerray n urnnu n ɣila, ḥḍun tiwrerray nniḍn mar ad skrn tiggit n tukksa, s tbridt n uswuri s sin imzdayn aɣ yakkan aynna as ittrnun, iwhn ad ttuskr g ingmamn (tibawt)."
"Multiplication also combines two numbers into a single number, the product.","da ismun ukfud sin wuṭṭun g yuwn, ntta ayd igan amsyafu."
"If the numbers are imagined as lying in a line, multiplication by a number greater than 1, say x, is the same as stretching everything away from 0 uniformly, in such a way that the number 1 itself is stretched to where x was.","ig da nswingim g wuṭṭun is llan g twnɣa inmn, akfud g wuṭṭun yugrn “1”, ad nini “k” ntta nnik ayd igan tinzdadt ɣr “0” s tmuni, itggan tanzdadt n wuṭṭun “1” ɣr mag illa “k”."
Any dividend divided by zero is undefined.,aynna d akkw yaɣuln ibḍu ɣf umya; hat ur ittyassn.
The fundamental theorem of arithmetic was first proven by Carl Friedrich Gauss.,tamagunt tadslant n ussiḍn g tilawt tiklt izgwarn sg ɣur kaṛl fridric gaws.
"""Positional notation (also known as """"place-value notation"""") refers to the representation or encoding of numbers using the same symbol for the different orders of magnitude (e.g., the """"ones place"""", """"tens place"""", """"hundreds place"""") and, with a radix point, using those same symbols to represent fractions (e.g., the """"tenths place"""", """"hundredths place"""").""","da tmmal tguri “azmmem asursan” (ityassn awd s yism “azmmem n watig adɣaṛan”), ɣr asmdya n wuṭṭun, nɣd asmatar nnsn s ussmrs n tmatart nnaɣ nnik i wuṭṭun ur yaksuln, g uksay (s umdya, yan udɣar, tuzunt n tmrawin, tuzunin n timmaḍ), d tnqqiḍt n ljidr, s ussmrs n tmatarin nnaɣ nnik i usmdya n imtwaln (s umdya, tuzunt n tmrawin, tuzunt n timmaḍ)."
"The use of 0 as a placeholder and, therefore, the use of a positional notation is first attested to in the Jain text from India entitled the Lokavibhâga, dated 458 AD and it was only in the early 13th century that these concepts, transmitted via the scholarship of the Arabic world, were introduced into Europe by Fibonacci using the Hindu–Arabic numeral system.","ittuzga ussmrs n 0 amm ufṛḍis aḍfaṛ, iwa assmrs n uzmmem asursan tiklt izwarn g uḍṛis Jain sg lhind s uzwl Lokavibhâga g usakud 458 g tlalit n lmasiḥ, ur ttumuttiyn isussn ad ar asatu siss 13, tawsa n umaḍal aɛṛab, tyakcam s urubba sg ɣur fibunatci s ussmrs n angraw amaṭṭun ahindi-aɛṛab."
"The result is calculated by the repeated addition of single digits from each number that occupies the same position, proceeding from right to left.","da ttussiḍn tyafut s tbridt n urnnu izdin n wuṭṭun amyiwn iswurin g yuwn usurs, sg uyffas ɣr uzlmaḍ."
"The rightmost digit is the value for the current position, and the result for the subsequent addition of the digits to the left increases by the value of the second (leftmost) digit, which is always one (if not zero).","uṭṭun illan g uyffas ayd igan atig n usurs n dɣi, ar tturnu tyafut n wuṭṭun illan g uzlmaḍ s watig n wuṭṭun wiss sin (azlmaḍ), itggan aha yan (mk ur igi amya)."
A multiplication table with ten rows and ten columns lists the results for each pair of digits.,"ittals usmyallay n ukfud g llan mrawt n wadurn d mrawt n tirsal, tayafut n ku sin wuṭṭun."
Similar techniques exist for subtraction and division.,llant tiqniyat tiwayin n tukksa d ubṭṭu.
"In mathematical terminology, this characteristic is defined as closure, and the previous list is described as .","g tguriwin n tusnakt da tettyassan tnamaẓt ad s wuɣun, ar ttusnummal tlgamt tazwirt s."
The total in the pence column is 25.,s umata g tirslt n lbns tga 25.
"This operation is repeated using the values in the shillings column, with the additional step of adding the value that was carried forward from the pennies column.","da ttuyals tiggit ad s ussmrs n tinditin illan g trslt n cilnat, d tsurift tamrniwt mar ad as itturnu watig ittumuttin ɣr dat sg tirslt n lbinsat."
"""One typical booklet that ran to 150 pages tabulated multiples """"from one to ten thousand at the various prices from one farthing to one pound"""".""","yuwn udlis amdya igulan 150 n tasna taratsa d islagn nns, sg yan ar mrawt n yifdn s watign imzarayn, sg yan fart ɣr yan jinih."
This study is sometimes known as algorism.,tyassan tzrawt ad s: “algurizm”.
"Also, arithmetic was used by Islamic Scholars in order to teach application of the rulings related to Zakat and Irth.",imkinna smrsn imusnawn inslmn assiḍn mar ad sslmdn afrru n tkuti d tkasit.
"Addition (usually signified by the plus symbol ) is one of the four basic operations of arithmetic, the other three being subtraction, multiplication and division.","asmun ( tta ittunɛat s tmatart n tmuni), iga yat timggitin tadslant n ussiṭn g kkuẓt, kṛaḍ tmggitin yaḍn; tukksa, akfud, abṭṭu."
"In algebra, another area of mathematics, addition can also be performed on abstract objects such as vectors, matrices, subspaces and subgroups.","g ljibr, igr nniḍn n tusnakt, iɣy ad nrnu i imɣnawn waratig zund imnidan d tdrasin d taritin tayyawin, d trabbutin tayyawin."
"""Using the gerundive suffix -nd results in """"addend"""", """"thing to be added"""".""","“asmrs n tmḍfuṛt “jirundif”, dad takka “addnd”, taɣawsa nra as nrnu.”"
"""""""Sum"""" and """"summand"""" derive from the Latin noun summa """"the highest, the top"""" and associated verb summare.""","“iffɣd “ sum”, d “summand”, sg yism alatini “summa” amaflla, yattuyn, azgzl n umyag ugil.”"
"""The later Middle English terms """"adden"""" and """"adding"""" were popularized by Chaucer.""",“tiguriwin tiqburin n tnglizt “addn” d “ addin” tyafsarnt sg ɣur “kusr”.”
"As an example, should the expression a + b + c be defined to mean (a + b) + c or a + (b + c)?","s umdya, is inm usissn n uwnni ad; ” a + b + s ”, qad aɣ d ik “ ( a + b ) + s “, nɣd “ a + ( b + s )?"
"Even some nonhuman animals show a limited ability to add, particularly primates.","awd kan imudar ur igin afgan, ɣurs tazmrt n trnut , numar tidslanin."
"""With additional experience, children learn to add more quickly by exploiting the commutativity of addition by counting up from the larger number, in this case, starting with three and counting """"four, five.""""""","“s imik n tmuzayt, da tlmadn icirran ad trnun s tbridt isrbin s usmrs n usmun amnfk s ussiṭn sg uṭṭun axatar, g waddad ad; assnti sg kṛaḍ, issudu “kkuẓ, smmus.””"
"Zero: Since zero is the additive identity, adding zero is trivial.","amya: ntta ayd igan tamagit n tmrnut, s urnnu nns ka ur illi."
"One aligns two decimal fractions above each other, with the decimal point in the same location.","yan usmun n sin imtwaln id mraw, yan aflla n wayyaḍ, tili tmatart tamrawt g udɣar nns."
"If the addends are the rotation speeds of two shafts, they can be added with a differential.","mk gant tmrnutin asrby n wutuy n snat tirsal, hat iɣy aa itturnu s umziray."
It made use of a gravity-assisted carry mechanism.,da tssmras imis n yisy s umyiwas n tldayt.
"To subtract, the operator had to use the Pascal's calculator's complement, which required as many steps as an addition.","i tukksa, issmrs umswuri asmd n ussiṭn “baskal, iran kigan n tsurufin zund “tamrnut”."
Both XOR and AND gates are straightforward to realize in digital logic allowing the realization of full adder circuits which in turn may be combined into more complex logical operations.,"XOR d AND gates whnent ad tturmasnt g wumgin amaṭṭun ayd ittadjan tiggit n twrerrayin adder maṛṛa, nna s nɣy ad nssidf g tiggitin tumginin wala irwin."
"Many implementations are, in fact, hybrids of these last three designs.","kigan g tsnsitin ad , gant g tinawt tucurt gr imamkn ad imggura s kṛaḍ."
Unanticipated arithmetic overflow is a fairly common cause of program errors.,"agwur n ussiṭn xf ur ngi, ayd igan asrag n tzggal n uɣawas."
"Taken literally, the above definition is an application of the recursion theorem on the partially ordered set N2.","mk nusy asussn n uflla s mimk iga, iga asmrs i tmagunt tamaɣult xf trabbut n “ n 2 “, illan s tafult."
"If either a or b is zero, treat it as an identity.","mk d a nɣd b ayd igan amya, swuri ids id nttat ayd igan “ amsasa “."
"Here, the semigroup is formed by the natural numbers and the group is the additive group of integers.",dadɣ azgn n trabbut diks imḍan iɣaran d trabbut tga mnnawt n imḍan imddadn itturnun.
"The commutativity and associativity of real addition are immediate; defining the real number 0 to be the set of negative rationals, it is easily seen to be the additive identity.","asnmrara d usɣn d urnu n tidt iga adɣyan, aswuttu n wuṭtun n tidt “0” mar ad ig tarbiɛt n isragn n tumgint tuzdirt, iwhn ad ittuyannay is iga tamagit tamrniwt."
"One must prove that this operation is well-defined, dealing with co-Cauchy sequences.","iqnen afgan ad ik tilawt n wis tga tmggit timẓlit, d da tswuri akd tmḍfaṛ n kuci."
"""The set of integers modulo 2 has just two elements; the addition operation it inherits is known in Boolean logic as the """"exclusive or"""" function.""","tarabbut n imḍan imddadn, “mudul 2”, diks sin ifrḍiṣn day, d tmggit tamrnut tkusa, tyassan g umgin s trabbut “ taẓlayt” nɣ “ taɣlift”."
These give two different generalizations of addition of natural numbers to the transfinite.,"ta da takka sin ismatatn imzarayn, mar ad as tturnun imḍan iɣaran ɣr tasnflt."
There are even more generalizations of multiplication than addition.,llan ismatatn n ukfud uggar n win usugt.
"In fact, if two nonnegative numbers a and b are of different orders of magnitude, then their sum is approximately equal to their maximum.","g tinawt, mk llan sin imḍan inabawn “a” d “b”, ɣarsn iswirn n uksay imzarayn tamuttrt nnsn da aɣ takka awttu uzzur"
"It includes the idea of the sum of a single number, which is itself, and the empty sum, which is zero.","ila tawngimt n tagart n wuṭṭun yan, d ntta nit atig ixwan, d umya."
"""Integration is a kind of """"summation"""" over a continuum, or more precisely and generally, over a differentiable manifold.""","“asmad ayd igan anaw n “ uzzgzl” s uzday imanen, nɣd s talɣa tunɣidt s umata, s tigdi iɣin ad yili tulluɣt.”"
"Linear combinations are especially useful in contexts where straightforward addition would violate some normalization rule, such as mixing of strategies in game theory or superposition of states in quantum mechanics.","s uẓlay n isataln g tṛẓẓa tmrniwt tusridt itsn ilgamn iɣaran, zund tucurt n tstratijiyin g tmagunt tawrart, nɣd asnay n waddadn g tmikanikit n tmakta."
"Division is one of the four basic operations of arithmetic, the ways that numbers are combined to make new numbers.","tabḍut tga yat tmggit n ussiṭn tadslant mm kkuẓt, igan tabridt n usmun n wuṭṭun af ad nsmuttg uṭṭun imaynutn."
Those in which a Euclidean division (with remainder) is defined are called Euclidean domains and include polynomial rings in one indeterminate (which define multiplication and addition over single-variabled formulas).,"tanna g ityaskar usissn n “ uklidn anabḍu” (s umagur), ayd igan igran n uklidn d ar tsmun tixrṣin mi ggudin iwtta g yuwt ur iẓliyn ( isttin akfud d tmrnut s twila n “yuwn umskil”)."
"This division sign is also used alone to represent the division operation itself, as for instance as a label on a key of a calculator.","da ttusmras tmatart dɣ n bṭṭu xs nttat, mar ad tsmdya n tmggit n ubṭṭu dɣ nnik, s umdya tisura n yimis n ussiṭn."
Distributing the objects several at a time in each round of sharing to each portion leads to the idea of 'chunking' a form of division where one repeatedly subtracts multiples of the divisor from the dividend itself.,"dad ittawy ubṭṭu n ifṛḍisn kigan n tikkal g yuwt tizi g ku tasutlt yamun ɣf ku tafult s twngimt n “ tuṭṭut”, talɣa g talɣiwin n tuṭṭut, ittadjan yan ad iggar aslag ɣf ityabḍa s talɣa yulsn sg ubṭṭu nnaɣ nnik."
"A person can use logarithm tables to divide two numbers, by subtracting the two numbers' logarithms, then looking up the antilogarithm of the result.","izḍaṛ ku yan ad issmrs ismyallayn n “lugaritm” mar ad ibḍu sin wuṭṭun, s tbridt n tukksa n “lugaritm” n sin imḍan, d yinig n “lugaritm” anmgal i tyafut."
"Some programming languages, such as C, treat integer division as in case 5 above, so the answer is an integer.","da swurint itsnt tutlayin n usɣiws amm: “s”, d ubṭṭu n imḍan imddadn, imk illan aflla g waddad wiss 5, agan tamrarut d “uṭṭun amddad”."
"Similarly, right division of b by a (written ) is the solution y to the equation .","s usmdya, tabṭṭut tamddadt n “b” xf “a” ( ityaran), afssay “y” g tgdazalt."
Examples include matrix algebras and quaternion algebras.,sman imdyatn ljibr adrasan d ljibr bukkuẓ.
Entry of such an expression into most calculators produces an error message.,askcm n uwnni am wa g kigan n imassn n ussiṭn daɣd yakka tabrat izgln.
"Since this replacement reduces the larger of the two numbers, repeating this process gives successively smaller pairs of numbers until the two numbers become equal.","imk iskar usnfl tadrsi n sin wuṭṭun ixatarn, aɣf aɣ d yakka yils n tmggit sin wuṭṭun imẓẓan izdin ard iksiln uṭṭun ssin."
The fact that the GCD can always be expressed in this way is known as Bézout's identity.,"tyassn aha tidit n usiwl ɣf “anbḍu axatar iccarn” s tbridt ad, tamagit n “bizut”."
"With this improvement, the algorithm never requires more steps than five times the number of digits (base 10) of the smaller integer.","s usɣudu ad, taxawarizmiyt ur djun tri tisurifin nnig smmus n yilsn n wuṭṭun (tasila 10), n imiḍ amẓẓyan amddad."
The Euclidean algorithm has many theoretical and practical applications.,tlla g txwarizmt tasmagalt kigan n iskkirn imagutn d imggitn.
"The Euclidean algorithm may be used to solve Diophantine equations, such as finding numbers that satisfy multiple congruences according to the Chinese remainder theorem, to construct continued fractions, and to find accurate rational approximations to real numbers.","iɣy ad ttusmrs txwarizmt tamsagalt g ufrru n tgdazalin “dyufantin”, zun tifit n wuṭṭun ittmcackan d imsasatn iggudin, nil tmagunt n “tugrt tasiniyt”, i tuska imtwaln imzdayn, d ad naf adas amẓlan inɣdn i imḍan n tidt."
"The greatest common divisor is often written as gcd(a, b) or, more simply, as (a, b), although the latter notation is ambiguous, also used for concepts such as an ideal in the ring of integers, which is closely related to GCD.","anbḍu amssur axatar da wala ityara s “a,m,x”(a, b), nɣd s umdya nniḍn (a, b), mqqar ur wala issuddi umeggaru ad, maka da ittusmras i irmmusn zund: “ tafilawt n imḍan imddadn”, nna iṭfn s anbḍu amssur axatar."
"For example, neither 6 nor 35 is a prime number, since they both have two prime factors: 6 = 2 × 3 and 35 = 5 × 7.","s umdya, imiḍ 6 ula 35; ur gin imiḍ amzwaru, acku ssin itsn ɣursn sin wuṭṭun tn ismanen: 6 = 2 × 3 d 35 = 5 × 7."
"Factorization of large integers is believed to be a computationally very difficult problem, and the security of many widely used cryptographic protocols is based upon its infeasibility.","da ittuyaɣal id afars n imḍan ixatarn imddadn, ayd iskarn tamggit n ussiṭn icqqan kigan, ar ittili ufra n kigan n bṛutukulat n usntl ittuswurin g ubaraz axatar nna ur illin nil ussmrs."
"The set of all integral linear combinations of a and b is actually the same as the set of all multiples of g (mg, where m is an integer).","tarabbut n tnfalitin tiwnɣanin ismdn “a” d “b”, g tinawt gant tirubba tislagin n “g” (“m,g”, aɣ yakkan “m” imiḍ amddad)."
"In other words, multiples of the smaller number rk−1 are subtracted from the larger number rk−2 until the remainder rk is smaller than rk−1.","s unamk nniḍn, da ttyakasnt tslagin n yimḍ amẓẓan “rk-1” sg yimiḍ axatar “rk-2”, ar d aɣd iqqim “rk” imẓẓiy ɣf “rk-1”."
"Therefore, c divides the initial remainder r0, since r0 = a − q0b = mc − q0nc = (m − q0n)c.","ɣayan aɣf ibṭṭu “s” amagur amzwaru “r0”, acku “r0” = a - q0b = ms - q0ns = (m - q0n)s."
"We first attempt to tile the rectangle using b-by-b square tiles; however, this leaves an r0-by-b residual rectangle untiled, where r0 < b. We then attempt to tile the residual rectangle with r0-by-r0 square tiles.","da nttarm ad nkk tasga i wunziɣ s ussmrs n umkkuẓ, “b-by-b” waxxa hakkak, aya daɣd ittadja unziɣ “r0-by-b” ard ifukk, igan “r0” imẓẓiy xf “b”. daṛt uya da as ntgga i wunziɣ d yugrn tiblaḍin n umkkuẓ “r0-by-r0”."
The theorem which underlies the definition of the Euclidean division ensures that such a quotient and remainder always exist and are unique.,"tuwid tmagunt ɣf ittwaga n ubṭṭu aklidn, zund tayfut d umagur ad llan aha gan imẓlay."
"At the end of the loop iteration, the variable b holds the remainder rk, whereas the variable a holds its predecessor, rk−1.","g tyira n yils n txrst da iḥṭṭu usnfl “b” s amagaru “rk”, imkinna ihṭṭu umsnfl “a” s umzwaru, “rk-1”."
The mathematician and historian B. L. van der Waerden suggests that Book VII derives from a textbook on number theory written by mathematicians in the school of Pythagoras.,"amusnaw n tusnakt “b.l.fan .dir. wirdn, ittini id adlis wiss sa, ittusufɣd sg udlis anmlan n tmagunt n imḍan nna aran imusnawn n tusnakt g tinml n fitaɣurs."
"Centuries later, Euclid's algorithm was discovered independently both in India and in China, primarily to solve Diophantine equations that arose in astronomy and making accurate calendars.","tisutiwin aya tyafa “ alguritm n uqlid” s talɣa tansimant g lhind d ṣṣin, s talɣa tasilant mar ad tg afssay i tgdazalin n dyufantin d igman g tawssnitran d uskar n istaln imnɣadn."
"The Euclidean algorithm was first described numerically and popularized in Europe in the second edition of Bachet's Problèmes plaisants et délectables (Pleasant and enjoyable problems, 1624).","ttusnuml “ alguritm uqlidn” g tiklt tamzwarut s imiḍ, taɣ akkw urubba g wufuɣ wiss sin n “imukrisn n bakits ifjjijn iḍfitn”( imykrisn immrn, fjjijn 1624)."
"In the 19th century, the Euclidean algorithm led to the development of new number systems, such as Gaussian integers and Eisenstein integers.","g usatu wiss 19 tuwy “ alguritm uklidn” asbuɣlu imagan n imḍan imaynutn, zund imḍan imddadn n gusyan, d imḍan imddadn n iznctayn."
Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet seems to have been the first to describe the Euclidean algorithm as the basis for much of number theory.,"bitr gustaf ligun diritclit, ayd igan amzwaru isnumln “ alguritm uklidn” asilan n kigan n tmnugalin n imḍan."
"For example, Dedekind was the first to prove Fermat's two-square theorem using the unique factorization of Gaussian integers.","s umdya, didkin ayd igan amzwaru inẓin tamagunt “firma” mm sin imkkuẓn, s ussmrs n ufssay iẓlin “gusyan” n imḍan imddadn."
Other applications of Euclid's algorithm were developed in the 19th century.,"tisnsitin yadn n “iklids alguritm”, ttusbuɣllant g usatu wiss 19."
"Several novel integer relation algorithms have been developed, such as the algorithm of Helaman Ferguson and R.W. Forcade (1979) and the LLL algorithm.",ttusbuɣllant kigan n “ alguritm tamzdayt tamddadt ign tamaynut” zund “alguritm n hilaman furgusun d r.w.furkad (1979) d lll alguritm.”
The players take turns removing m multiples of the smaller pile from the larger.,umzn imirarn tawala ɣf usftay n takurt tamẓẓant g txatart.
"By allowing u to vary over all possible integers, an infinite family of solutions can be generated from a single solution (x1, y1).","asmuruf n “u” s unuḥyu gr imḍan imddadn ig win ad ilin” nɣy ad nskr tawja ur itfḍḍun n ifukkutn n ifssayn g yuwn ufssay (k1, y1)."
"In this field, the results of any mathematical operation (addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division) is reduced modulo 13; that is, multiples of 13 are added or subtracted until the result is brought within the range 0–12.","g yigr ad, da issdris tiyafutin n ka igat tiggi n ussiṭn ( tarnut, tukksa, akfud, tuṭṭut) s tbridt 13, igan is da ittrnu nɣd tukksa n isftayn n imiḍ 13, ard isujd tayafut g uasgrar 0 - 12."
Now assume that the result holds for all values of N up to M − 1.,mrd dɣi id tayafut ttusmras ɣf tinditin akkw n “n” ar “m - 1”.
"For illustration, the probability of a quotient of 1, 2, 3, or 4 is roughly 41.5%, 17.0%, 9.3%, and 5.9%, respectively.","i usissfiw, iɣy ad naf tibḍut n 1, 2, 3, nɣd 4 inmalann i 41.5%, 17.0%, 9.3%, d 5.9%, s umḍfaṛ."
One inefficient approach to finding the GCD of two natural numbers a and b is to calculate all their common divisors; the GCD is then the largest common divisor.,"yan g wammakn ur imṛwin g tifit n GCD i sin wuṭṭunen iɣaranen a d b, iga assiṭn n amgal amccur gratsn, d GCD iga umgal amccur axatar."
"As noted above, the GCD equals the product of the prime factors shared by the two numbers a and b. Present methods for prime factorization are also inefficient; many modern cryptography systems even rely on that inefficiency.","imk ityanna aflla, daɣ yakka GCD tayafut n usffukti n imggitn imzwura imssarn gr sin imḍan a d b. tibridin n dɣi i imggitn imzwura ur gin awd imṛwitn, awd kigan n igrrayn n ufssu tatrart, tbdda ɣf gar tazmrt."
Lehmer's GCD algorithm uses the same general principle as the binary algorithm to speed up GCD computations in arbitrary bases.,"da ssmrasnt alguritm Lehmer's GCD, amnzay anmattay nnik, zund alguritm tamsnat n usrby n issiṭn n GCD g ilgamn imxrbqn."
The Euclidean algorithm can be used to solve linear Diophantine equations and Chinese remainder problems for polynomials; continued fractions of polynomials can also be defined.,"nɣy ad nssmrs alguritm uklidn n ufssay n tgdazalt dyufantin awnɣan d isqsay n imagurn iṣiniyn n id mm iwtta iggudin, iɣy awd urmmus n imtwaln imzday sg id mm iwtta iggudin."
"Any Euclidean domain is a unique factorization domain (UFD), although the converse is not true.","ka igat yigr n uklidn; iga igr n ufars iẓlin (UFD), waxxa ur igi wuɣul amddad."
"A Euclidean domain is always a principal ideal domain (PID), an integral domain in which every ideal is a principal ideal.","iga yigr n uklidn; iga aha igr amattay adslan (PID), d ntta d igr asmdan ilan amdya yattuyn."
"Numerators and denominators are also used in fractions that are not common, including compound fractions, complex fractions, and mixed numerals.","da ttusmrasn imḍan d imccurn awd g imtwaln ur wala illin, g amun imtwaln uddisn d imtwaln irwin d imḍan iccarn."
The term was originally used to distinguish this type of fraction from the sexagesimal fraction used in astronomy.,"taguri ttusmras g usala mar ad tsnuḥyu anaw ad n umtwal ɣf umtwal aṣḍismraw, ittusmrasn g tawssnitran."
This was explained in the 17th century textbook The Ground of Arts.,ittusfra uya g udlis anmlan “akal n tẓuṛiwin” g usatu wiss 17.
"The product of a fraction and its reciprocal is 1, hence the reciprocal is the multiplicative inverse of a fraction.","tayafut n umtwal d umyaɣ nns igat 1, xf aya as iga umyaɣ amaɣul n ukfud ɣf umtwal."
The remainder becomes the numerator of the fractional part.,da itgga umagur anzl n tafult tamtwalt.
"Since 5×17 (= 85) is greater than 4×18 (= 72), the result of comparing is .","sg mayd iga 5×17 (= 85) yugr 4× 18 (= 72), tayafut n usmzazal tga."
"Since one third of a quarter is one twelfth, two thirds of a quarter is two twelfth.","sg mayd wiss kṛaḍ n wiss kkuẓ ayd igan yan ɣf sin d mraw, da itgga sin n id wiss kṛaḍ g wiss kkuẓ sin ɣf sin d mraw."
Sometimes an infinite repeating decimal is required to reach the same precision.,"itsnt tikkal da ittiri waddad imiḍ amrawan wartmi yulsn, mar ad nawḍ tamnɣut amm tanna."
The Egyptians used Egyptian fractions  BC.,smrsn imiṣṛiyn imtwaln imiṣṛiyn dat tlalit n lmasiḥ.
Their methods gave the same answer as modern methods.,tka tɣarast nsn tamrarut zund tin tɣarast tatrart.
"A modern expression of fractions known as bhinnarasi seems to have originated in India in the work of Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara.","iga uwnni atrar ɣf imtwaln ittyasn s yism n “binarasi” igan sg lhind ityassn s twuriwin “aryabata”, “bramaguta”, d “baskara”"
"""In mathematics, modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers """"wrap around"""" when reaching a certain value, called the modulus.""","g tusnakt, assiṭn anawan, iga angraw n ussiṭn n imḍan imddadn, ag da tmun imḍan ign uwḍn yan watig; ism nns amyiwn."
A very practical application is to calculate checksums within serial number identifiers.,tisnsit n imskr tga assiṭn ammutrn aruccil agnsu n wunmiln n wuṭṭun asnsl.
RSA and Diffie–Hellman use modular exponentiation.,"“r,s,a” d “ difi hilman” smrsn aggaḍ anaway."
"It is used by the most efficient implementations of polynomial greatest common divisor, exact linear algebra and Gröbner basis algorithms over the integers and the rational numbers.",ikkat da ittusmras g tzmrt n umbḍu n umssur axatar ilan kigan n iwtta d ljibr awnɣan amnɣud d “alguritm” n granara ɣf imḍan imddadn d wuṭṭun umginen.
"The modulo operation, as implemented in many programming languages and calculators, is an application of modular arithmetic that is often used in this context.","g kigan n tutlayin n usɣiws d imassn n ussiṭn, tga tisnsi n ussiṭn anaway ittusmrasn kigan g usatal ad."
The method of casting out nines offers a quick check of decimal arithmetic computations performed by hand.,da tskar tbridt n ussufɣ n tẓa n tarkiwin; azzray urmiḍ asiḍn i “tssiṭnt tamrawt” nna ittuyagan s ufus.
"A linear system of congruences can be solved in polynomial time with a form of Gaussian elimination, for details see linear congruence theorem.","iɣy ad ittufsay unmala amsasa awnɣan g tizi mm iwtta s yat talɣa g talɣiwin n “gusyan”, mar ad takzd uggar iziṛ “ tamagunt n umsasa awnɣan”."
"The multiplication of integers (including negative numbers), rational numbers (fractions) and real numbers is defined by a systematic generalization of this basic definition.","da ittusissn usftay n imḍan imddadn ( g llan awd wuṭṭun uzdirn), d imḍan umginen (imtwalnen), d wuṭṭun n tidt s usmata isnmalan asussn ad adslan."
The product of two measurements is a new type of measurement.,tayafut n ukfud n sin isɣaln ayd igan yan wanaw amaynu n usɣal.
The inverse operation of multiplication is division.,timggit n ukfud amuɣul ayd igan tibḍit.
The division of a number other than 0 by itself equals 1.,tubḍut n imiḍ s umziray n “0” da itgga “1”.
"This implicit usage of multiplication can cause ambiguity when the concatenated variables happen to match the name of another variable, when a variable name in front of a parenthesis can be confused with a function name, or in the correct determination of the order of operations.","iɣy ad isk ussmrs uffir n ukfud awlallas, ig mcackant tmskilin tisnkudanin akd yism n umskil nnidn, adday niɣi ad nssur ism n umskil dat taskiwt d yism n tnamkt, nɣd g yikiz amddad n ussuds n tiggiwin."
"""The numbers to be multiplied are generally called the """"factors"""".""",uṭṭun nna rad ittukfudn s umata ayd igan “ immakn”.
"""Also as the result of a multiplication does not depend on the order of the factors, the distinction between """"multiplicand"""" and """"multiplier"""" is useful only at a very elementary level and in some multiplication algorithms, such as the long multiplication.""","“ d awd tayafut n ukfud ur da tskuttu ɣf ussuds n wammakn, da itgga usnuḥyu gr “ usftay” d “umsftay” ubɣir day g uswir amzwaru kigan, d itsnt “alguritm n ukfud” g yiggitn iɣzzafn n ukfud”."
The result of a multiplication is called a product.,tayafut n ukfud ayd igan afars.
The slide rule allowed numbers to be quickly multiplied to about three places of accuracy.,da ttadja tlgamt n ufssugan ad isffukti uṭṭun s zrabit ar attayn n kṛaḍ idɣaṛn s tsddi.
The general theory is given by dimensional analysis.,da ttufka tmagunt tanmattayt s tslṭ n wuggugn.
The complex numbers do not have an ordering.,imḍan uddisn ur lin asnmala.
"Here we have identity 1, as opposed to groups under addition where the identity is typically 0.","dadɣ ɣarnɣ tamagit 1, ur id zund tirabbutin n ddaw trnut g wala tgga tmagit 0."
"To see this, consider the set of invertible square matrices of a given dimension over a given field.","mar ad tannayd ɣaya, g ɣ uswingm nnk tarbiɛt n idrasn imkkuẓn ilan tuḍut mm wuggug amẓlay g kan yigr."
Another fact worth noticing is that the integers under multiplication is not a group—even if we exclude zero.,tlla tidt yaḍn s ilaq as nk taɣḍft nna igan; imḍan imddadn ddaw usfukti ur igin tarbiɛt mqqar asn nks amya.
"""In mathematics, a percentage (from Latin per centum """"by a hundred"""") is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100.""","g tusnakt, tigmiḍi (sg tigmiḍi talatinit “ s tmiḍi”) tga uṭṭun nɣd asɣl ilan awnni amtwal n 100."
Computation with these fractions was equivalent to computing percentages.,"ikkat ussiṭn s imtwaln ad, iga tigmiḍi n tmssiṭnt."
"Whenever communicating about a percentage, it is important to specify what it is relative to (i.e., what is the total that corresponds to 100%).","ig da nsawal ɣf tigmiḍi iqnen ad nssikz mayd igan asɣl (i.e., amsmun imsasan d 100%)."
"""When speaking of a """"10% rise"""" or a """"10% fall"""" in a quantity, the usual interpretation is that this is relative to the initial value of that quantity.""","“ig da nsawal ɣf “”urnu n usɣl 10%” nɣd “uguz s usɣl 10%” g tmakta, assfru illan igat; aya ila tazlɣa s atig amzwaru n tmakta nna."
"The same confusion between the different concepts of percent(age) and percentage points can potentially cause a major misunderstanding when journalists report about election results, for example, expressing both new results and differences with earlier results as percentages.","iɣy ad isskr wucur nnaɣ gr irmmusn imzarayn i tigmiḍi (awtay) d tnqqaḍ sg timiḍi g gar armmus mqqurn adday skrn isnɣmasn asiwḍ ɣf tfrnin, s umdya; asiwl ɣf tyafutin timaynun d umziray n tigmiḍi akd tyafutin izrin."
The term has been attributed to Latin per centum.,isunnḍ irm ɣr tigmiḍi talatinit.
Grammar and style guides often differ as to how percentages are to be written.,g kigan n tikkal da tmzarayn wumlan d ilgamn d wammak g mayd iẓlin s tmamkt n tarayt n tgmiḍiwin.
"""When interest rates are very low, the number 0 is included if the interest rate is less than 1%, e.g. """"% Treasury Stock"""", not """"% Treasury Stock"""".)""","adday gzn kigan watign n ubɣur da itturnu uṭṭun 0, mk tkka tyafut n ubɣur ddaw 1%, s umdya “% n uydda illan g izɣi” ur id “% n uydda illan g izɣi”."
"Likewise, the winning percentage of a team, the fraction of matches that the club has won, is also usually expressed as a decimal proportion; a team that has a .500 winning percentage has won 50% of their matches.","zund, tigmiḍi n umurs g trabbut, d ka g imḥizwarn nna yuwy usrir, da ɣifs awd nsawal s tigmraw, tarabbut mi yuwḍn usɣl n warraz nns 500 hat irza s usɣl n 50% g iḥmzwurn nns."
"Subtraction also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations, such as addition and multiplication.","tla awd tuksa ilgam s iɣy ad isnimal g mayd iẓlin s imggitn ilan tazlɣa, zund amagut d usfukti."
Performing subtraction on natural numbers is one of the simplest numerical tasks.,tiggi n tuksa ɣf imḍan iɣaranen ad igan imskarn imḍan iwhn.
"Formally, the number being subtracted is known as the subtrahend, while the number it is subtracted from is the minuend.","s tunṣibt iga wuṭṭun ityaksn da itsmma amyakkas, maka uṭṭun diks ityakkasn ayd igan dduzdar."
"""Subtraction"""" is an English word derived from the Latin verb subtrahere, which in turn is a compound of sub """"from under"""" and trahere """"to pull"""".""","“substrakcn” yat tguri tangliziyt d iffɣn sg umyag alatini “sabtrhir”, igan uddis n “sab” sg “andr” d tuḍfṛt n “ tu bul”."
"From position 3, it takes no steps to the left to stay at 3, so .","sg usurs 3, ur iri waddad awd yat n tsurifin ɣr aẓlmaḍ mar ad nqqim dar 3, ɣmkann."
"To represent such an operation, the line must be extended.","mar ad nsmdya zund timggit ad, iqnen ulday n izririg."
"""The leading digit """"1"""" of the result is then discarded.""",“ akkudl n wuṭṭun “1” sg tyafut.
"In the ten's place, 0 is less than 1, so the 0 is increased by 10, and the difference with 1, which is 9, is written down in the ten's place.","g tuzunt n timrawin, 0 tdrus xf 1, xf uya 0 da itturnu s usgwr n 10, d umziray d 1 igat 9, ityara g tuzunt n timrawin."
"The subtraction then proceeds in the hundreds place, where 6 is not less than 5, so the difference is written down in the result's hundred's place.","ḍaṛt uya da ttuskar tmggit n tukksa g tuzunt n timaḍ, ad ur ik wat n 6 ddaw win 5, ɛad ityara umziray g tuzunt n timaḍ."
Rather it increases the subtrahend hundred's digit by one.,d da ttili tmrniwt i wuṭṭun amaks s usgwr n yan.
"The answer is 1, and is written down in the result's hundred's place.","tamrarut tga 1, d tyara g tuzunt n timaḍ."
"This theorem was first conjectured by Pierre de Fermat in 1637 in the margin of a copy of Arithmetica, where he claimed that he had a proof that was too large to fit in the margin.",twaga taɣalt n tmagunt ad tiklt izwarn sg ɣur “byir di firma g 1637 g tsga n tunɣilt “aritmitika” imk inna ɣars anmmal imɣarn ɣf ad ittug g tsga.
"The five color theorem, which has a short elementary proof, states that five colors suffice to color a map and was proven in the late 19th century; however, proving that four colors suffice turned out to be significantly harder.","tuwid tmagunt n smmus n ikwlan, ɣur illa unmmal amzwaru ugzil, n wis gan smmus n ikwlan mar ad ttuɣm tkaṛḍa, imk ttuga g tilawt g tyira n usati wiss 19, waxxa hakkak, tcqqa tinawt n is gan kṛaḍ ikwlan."
It was the first major theorem to be proved using a computer.,tga tamagunt taxatart illan g tinawt s ussmrs n umssuds.
"Additionally, any map that could potentially be a counterexample must have a portion that looks like one of these 1,936 maps.","tarnawt uya, iqnen ad yili g ku takaṛḍa iɣin ad ig amdya anmgal, ɣf tgzzumt igan zund tikaṛḍiwin ad nn igulan 1,936 n tkaṛḍa."
"It was originally formulated in 1908, by Steinitz and Tietze.",isskrt “ctayntz d titz” g usggwas n 1908.
"A variety V over a finite field with q elements has a finite number of rational points, as well as points over every finite field with qk elements containing that field.","tlla g wanaw “f” g yigr iẓlin s ifṛḍiṣn “q” ɣf imid iẓlin sg tnqqaḍ tumginin, d tmrnawt n tnqqaḍ aflla n yigr iẓlin d ifṛḍiṣn “qk” g illa yigr ad."
"Originally conjectured by Henri Poincaré, the theorem concerns a space that locally looks like ordinary three-dimensional space but is connected, finite in size, and lacks any boundary (a closed 3-manifold).","g uẓuṛ n twngimt n “hinri bwankari” tamagunt yugln s tajumma igan tamurant zund asayrar unzil ilan kṛaḍ wuggugn maka mmslaɣn, ilan iwutta g uksay, d tar iwutta ( uɣun n 3 wuggugn)."
"After nearly a century of effort by mathematicians, Grigori Perelman presented a proof of the conjecture in three papers made available in 2002 and 2003 on arXiv.",zund yan usatu aya n tzmmar n imusnawn n tusnakt issnkd “griguri birilman” anmmal g kṛaḍt tfrtin llant g 2002 d 2003 g “arxayf” (talkiwt n tmḥḍit g antirnit).
Perelman completed this portion of the proof.,ismd “birilman” tagzzumt ad n tilawt.
"Informally, it asks whether every problem whose solution can be quickly verified by a computer can also be quickly solved by a computer; it is widely conjectured that the answer is no.","s tlɣa ur igin tunṣibt, da isqsa is nɣy ad ng igiws n ufssay isrbin i ka igat d tamukrist s umssuds, imkinna nɣy ad tt nfsi g umssuds s usrarri, da ityaɣal g ufuɣal abaraw id uhu."
"It has not been proven which one is false, but it is widely believed that the first conjecture is true and the second one is false.","g tilawt awd yan diksn izgln, maka g tlla taɣalt g ufuɣal abaraw n wis d aswingm amzwaru ayd ign amddad, wiss sin izgl."
"For instance, the Collatz conjecture, which concerns whether or not certain sequences of integers terminate, has been tested for all integers up to 1.2 × 1012 (over a trillion).","s umdya, ttustay twngimt n “kulatz” yugln s kan tgffurin n imḍan imddadn; da tfukku mid uhu, i umata n imḍan imddadn ar 1.2 × 1012 ( uggar n trilyun)."
"That evidence may be of various kinds, such as verification of consequences of it or strong interconnections with known results.","iɣ ad ig unmmal ad sg wanawn imzarayn, zund igiws g tlkamin nns, nɣd tasɣt idusn akd tyafutin ittyassan."
"""One method of proof, applicable when there are only a finite number of cases that could lead to counterexamples, is known as """"brute force"""": in this approach, all possible cases are considered and shown not to give counterexamples.""","“ yat g tɣarasin n tilawt ilan assmrs, ig walu ɣas imiḍ amẓlay waddadn iɣin ad yawy ɣr imdyatn inmgaln ittyassn s “ tazmrt n umuttl” g usara ad, da ittili usksw ɣr waddadn iɣin ad yili, d uzkan n ad ur ttufkn imdyatn inmgaln."
"The continuum hypothesis, which tries to ascertain the relative cardinality of certain infinite sets, was eventually shown to be independent from the generally accepted set of Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms of set theory.","turda n uzzigz, nna itnaɣn ad tg aslkn i tzlɣa tasɣlant n itsnt trubba tartmi, da tsbayan g tyira mas tẓli ɣf trubba iswahan s umata i zirmilu-frinkl, tmagunt n trubba."
Few number theorists doubt that the Riemann hypothesis is true.,tlla turda n mannw n imssiẓirn n imḍan ɣf imidi n turdut n “riman”.
"The logistic map is a polynomial mapping, often cited as an archetypal example of how chaotic behaviour can arise from very simple non-linear dynamical equations.","takaṛḍa talijistit tga unuɣ n tkaṛḍiwin mi ggudin iwtta, da wala tubdar zund amdya n wanaw n mamk ad tili tikli tamtruyt sg tgdazulin tidinamikin ur igin tiwnɣanin tiwnzalin kigan."
Kepler proved that it is the limit of the ratio of consecutive Fibonacci numbers.,iswr “kiblr” id awttu uzzur n usɣl n wuṭṭun “fibunatci” immzdayn.
For two reasons this representation may cause problems.,"s sin isragn iɣy usmdya ad, ad iskr imukrisn."
"For example, the two representations 0.999... and 1 are equivalent in the sense that they represent the same number.","s umdya, asmdya 0.999... d 1 aksuln, ssin da ssnkadn yan wuṭṭun."
"Using computers and supercomputers, some of the mathematical constants, including π, e, and the square root of 2, have been computed to more than one hundred billion digits.","s ussmrs n ingmamn n umssuds d ingmamn n umssuds mqqurn, ttusiṭnt trsal n tusnakt g yamu “π” d “e” d uẓɣṛ amkkuẓ n 2 i nnig tmiḍi n ifḍ igndad."
Some constants differ so much from the usual kind that a new notation has been invented to represent them reasonably.,"mzaraynt mnnaw n imzgitn d wanaw illan, ag ittusnflel uzmmem amaynu ad is ismdya."
"Sometimes, the symbol representing a constant is a whole word.","itsnt tikkal, inigl issnkadn aswr iga taguri ismdn."
"0 (zero) is a number, and the numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals.","0 (amya) iga uṭṭun, d wuṭṭun amiḍan ad ittusmras d amsnkd n wuṭṭun s wuṭṭunen."
"""Names for the number 0 in English include zero, nought (UK), naught (US; ), nil, or—in contexts where at least one adjacent digit distinguishes it from the letter """"O""""—oh or o.""","illa g yismawn n 0 g tnglizt “amya”, nɣd awwd (tagldit imunn), nɣd awdḥaḥ (timẓlay umunn), nɣd awwd g isataln g nsnuḥyu uṭṭun yan d uskkil “u” (mqqurn) nɣd “u” (mẓẓiyn)."
"For the simple notion of lacking, the words nothing and none are often used.",i urmmus axṣṣa unzil da wla ttussmrasnt tguriwin amya d awtḥaḥ.
It is often called oh in the context of telephone numbers.,da as ttinin “uh” g usatal n wuṭṭun n tilifun.
"The symbol nfr, meaning beautiful, was also used to indicate the base level in drawings of tombs and pyramids, and distances were measured relative to the base line as being above or below this line.","imkinna ttusmrs tmatart “nfr”, igan afulki, mar ad ittunɛt uswir asilan g wunuɣn n ismḍal d izamugn, imk ttusɣal ustum n izririg asila ittilin aflla nɣd ddaw uzririg ad."
"The Babylonian placeholder was not a true zero because it was not used alone, nor was it used at the end of a number.","ur igi ufṛḍiṣ aḍfaṛ n babili amya imidi, acku ur ittussmras i waḍu nns, d ur ittusmras g tyira n wuṭṭun."
"By AD 150, Ptolemy, influenced by Hipparchus and the Babylonians, was using a symbol for zero in his work on mathematical astronomy called the Syntaxis Mathematica, also known as the Almagest.","adday tawḍ 150 ḍaṛt tlalit n lmasiḥ, isnnd “baṭlimus” ɣr “bhibarxus” d “babilyyin” da issmras tangalt i umya g twuri n tusnitran tawsnakt mi ttinin “tajṛṛumt tawsnakt”, tyassn awd s “almajist”."
"""This use was repeated in AD525 in an equivalent table, that was translated via the Latin nulla or """"none"""" by Dionysius Exiguus, alongside Roman numerals.""","“ittuyals ussmrs ad g usggwas n 525 ḍaṛt tlalit n lmasiḥ g usmyallay n ussiksl, issuɣlt s “umya” dyunisyus iksijus sg tlatinit, imk immslaɣ d wuṭṭun iṛumanitn”."
"The Lokavibhāga, a Jain text on cosmology surviving in a medieval Sanskrit translation of the Prakrit original, which is internally dated to AD 458 (Saka era 380), uses a decimal place-value system, including a zero.","“lukafibaga” igan aḍṛiṣ n “jayn” isawaln ɣf tusnaɣzwrt isuln iddr g usuɣl n “sanskri” igan win “brakri”, sg izmazn inammasn, nna illan g usakud 458 ḍaṛt tlalit n lmasiḥ ( azmz n saka 380), issmrasn angraw n “watig adɣaran amraw” g yamu umya."
"""In 813, al-Khwarizmi used the Hindu numerals in his astronomical tables.""""""","“g usggwas n 813, issmrs “alxawarizm” uṭṭun ihindiyn g ismyallayn nns iwtranen.”"
This book was later translated into Latin in the 12th century under the title Algoritmi de numero Indorum.,ittusuɣl udlis ad ɣr tlatinit g usatu wiss 12 ddaw uzwl “alguritm n wuṭṭun indurum”.
I pursued my study in depth and learned the give-and-take of disputation.,"smdɣ taɣuri inw s tidrut, d lmdɣ tikki d yimẓ g umziray."
"I have striven to compose this book in its entirety as understandably as I could, dividing it into fifteen chapters.","giɣ tizmmar mar ad ssufɣ adlis ad kullut s uynna mi zḍaṛɣ, d bḍiɣt ɣf smmus d mraw n tsddart."
The nine Indian figures are: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1.,tẓa n wuṭṭun ihiditn: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1.
"254–255 include 0 as a natural number, in which case it is the only natural number that is not positive.","254-255 tsman 0 uṭṭun aɣaran, g waddad ad da itgga wuṭṭun aɣaran i waḍun nns ur igin umnig."
"As a value or a number, zero is not the same as the digit zero, used in numeral systems with positional notation.","atig nɣd uṭṭun, “amya” ur id ntta nnik ayd igan “awtḥaḥ”, ittusmrasn g igrrayn imaṭṭunen ilan tamatart n usurs."
"The number 0 may or may not be considered a natural number, but it is an integer, and hence a rational number and a real number (as well as an algebraic number and a complex number).","uṭṭun 0 ittusnfl nɣd ur igi imiḍ aɣaran, maka imiḍ amddad ign uṭṭun umgin d aɣaran (d trnut n wuṭṭun ajibri d wuṭṭun uddis)."
"It cannot be prime because it has an infinite number of factors, and cannot be composite because it cannot be expressed as a product of prime numbers (as 0 must always be one of the factors).","ur iɣiy ad ig imiḍ amzwaru acku diks kigan n wammakn, d izḍaṛ ad ig uddis acku nɣiy ad ɣifs nsiwl d afars n imḍan imzwura ( imk nn iqnen ad aha ig 0 yan g wammakn)."
"These rules apply for any real or complex number x, unless otherwise stated.",da ttugan ilgamn ad ɣf ka igat uṭṭun aɣaran nɣd uddis “k” ig ur igi aknas n mayan.
"The cardinality function, applied to the empty set, returns the empty set as a value, thereby assigning it 0 elements.","da ttuɣul tnamkant n uzdduy adslan ittusmrasn ɣf trabbut ixwan, tarabbut ixwan ign atig, tg tissift nns 0 n ifṛḍiṣn."
"In abstract algebra, 0 is commonly used to denote a zero element, which is a neutral element for addition (if defined on the structure under consideration) and an absorbing element for multiplication (if defined).","g ljibr awngim, da wala ittusmras 0 ad ig tanɛt n ufṛḍiṣ amya; d ntta afṛḍiṣ arawsan n tmrniwt (ig ittyakz g tuskiwt tamzrawt), d ufṛḍiṣ issumumn asfukti (ig ittyakz)."
"For some quantities, the zero level is naturally distinguished from all other levels, whereas for others it is more or less arbitrarily chosen.","g itsn iwudiyn, da ittusnuḥyu uswir n umya s talɣa taɣarant d iswirn nniḍn, ar ittustay s talɣa tasqddct s uwttu akd itsn yaḍn."
It has been shown that a cluster of four neutrons may be stable enough to be considered an atom in its own right.,"tarabbut tamkkuẓt n nitrun ttuwr is tɣy ad tzzga ar yat tskwflt ifukn, imk iɣy ad tg nttat nnik tablkmt."
"For example, the elements of an array are numbered starting from 0 in C, so that for an array of n items the sequence of array indices runs from 0 to .","s umdya, da ttusnqḍn ifṛḍiṣn n tadurt sg “0” g “s”, ar ttuswuri tsnslt n tskturin n tadurt sg 0 ar ."
"In databases, it is possible for a field not to have a value.","g ilgamn n isfrutn, iɣ ad ur yili yigr atig."
For text fields this is not blank nor the empty string.,"g yigran uḍṛiṣn, wad ur ixwi ula iga tagffurt n ixwan."
Any computation including a null value delivers a null result.,ka igat assiṭn diks atig ixwan ittamẓn tayafut ixwan.
"In Formula One, if the reigning World Champion no longer competes in Formula One in the year following their victory in the title race, 0 is given to one of the drivers of the team that the reigning champion won the title with.","g “lfurmula wan” ig ur da ittmzizwr unbraz amaḍlan g “lfurmala wan” g usggwas g uwin tasmɣurt, da ittufka 0 i yan g imḥray n trabbut yuwin tasmɣrt."
Typewriters originally made no distinction in shape between O and 0; some models did not even have a separate key for the digit 0.,ur da smziriyn imassn n tarayt gr “O” d “0” mnnaw n wazurt ur ɣars tasarut n usmziray n wuṭṭun 0.
"The digit 0 with a dot in the center seems to have originated as an option on IBM 3270 displays and has continued with some modern computer typefaces such as Andalé Mono, and in some airline reservation systems.","iga wuṭṭun 0 ilan tanqqiḍt g wammas ittuskar d adaɣar g imiẓaṛn “ibm 3270”, issuda akd kan tarayin n umssuds amaynu zund andali munu, d ca n igrrayn n wuḍuf n tdrawin n waylal."
"1 (one, also called unit, and unity) is a number and a numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals.","1 (yan, iga awd tafrdist, tagzzumt) igan uṭṭun d amṭṭun da ittusmras g usmdya n wuṭṭun g umṭṭun."
"In conventions of sign where zero is considered neither positive nor negative, 1 is the first and smallest positive integer.","g irman n tmuli g ur igi umya umnig wala uzdir, 1 ayd igan imiḍ amzwaru d amẓẓa d amddad umnig."
Most if not all properties of 1 can be deduced from this.,"iɣt ad sflu kigan g imẓlay n 1, mk akkw ur gin sg uya ."
It is thus the integer after zero.,d ntta imiḍ amddad ḍaṛt umya.
"It was transmitted to Europe via the Maghreb and Andalusia during the Middle Ages, through scholarly works written in Arabic.","ittusmutty ɣr urubba sg lmrruk d landalus g izmaz inammasn, s twuriwin timassani ityaran s tɛrabt."
Styles that do not use the long upstroke on digit 1 usually do not use the horizontal stroke through the vertical of the digit 7 either.,"imamkn ur ittusmrasn g taduzt taɣzzaft ɣf wuṭṭun 1, ur da wala tssmras afst anlli tamafllat g trslt tawfllat n awd wuṭṭun 7."
"By definition, 1 is the magnitude, absolute value, or norm of a unit complex number, unit vector, and a unit matrix (more usually called an identity matrix).","sg usnml, 1 iga aksay nɣd atig ifukn nɣd anaway i tgzzumt n imiḍ uddis, d umnid n tgzzumt d tadurt n tgzzumt (ityassn s: tadurt n tmagit)."
"In category theory, 1 is sometimes used to denote the terminal object of a category.","g tmaguntn tgrruma, da ittusmras 1 itsnt tikkal mar ad ittunɛt umsɣaru amggaru n tgrruma."
"Since the base 1 exponential function (1x) always equals 1, its inverse does not exist (which would be called the logarithm base 1 if it did exist).","macku tga tnamkant taggaḍt n usila n 1, (k1) tga aha 1, uḍu nns ur illi (nna mi rad smman lugaritm asila 1, ig illa)."
"Likewise, vectors are often normalized into unit vectors (i.e., vectors of magnitude one), because these often have more desirable properties.","s unaway, da wala tturcamn isuttiyn g imnidiln awyiwn ( imnidiln id m yuwn uksay), acku da wala ɣurs ttilin imẓlay itturan kigan."
It is also the first and second number in the Fibonacci sequence (0 being the zeroth) and is the first number in many other mathematical sequences.,"ntta awd ayd igan uṭṭun amzwaru d wiss sin g tsnslt n “fibunatci (0 ismdya amya), ntta d uṭṭun amzwaru g kigan n tmḍfṛin tusnakin yadn."
"Nevertheless, abstract algebra can consider the field with one element, which is not a singleton and is not a set at all.","waxxa hakkak, iɣy ljibr awngim ad isksw ɣr igr s yuwn ufṛḍiṣ, d ntta ur igi afṛḍiṣ iẓlin wla iga tarabbut akkw."
A binary code is a sequence of 1 and 0 that is used in computers for representing any kind of data.,lkud bu-sin iga tagffurt 1 d 0 ittusmrasn g ingmam n umssuds mar ad smdyan s ka igat wanaw n unmmal.
+1 is the electric charge of positrons and protons.,+1 tga taktrt tamẓẓaṛuṛt n lbuẓṛunat d lbuṭṛunat.
"The Neopythagorean philosopher Nicomachus of Gerasa affirmed that one is not a number, but the source of number.","islkn ufaylasuf nyufitaɣuri “ nimukaxarus” g grasa is ur igi yan uṭṭun, maka asagwm n imiḍ."
"We Are Number One is a 2014 song from the children's TV show LazyTown, which gained popularity as a meme.","“nkwni uṭṭun yan” ism n yat tzlit g 2014, sg uɣawas atlfaz n imẓẓan “lazi-tawn” ilan yat tmdnant acku."
In association football (soccer) the number 1 is often given to the goalkeeper.,g takurt n uḍaṛ da wala ittufka wuṭṭun 1 i imḥḍi n tsiswit.
1 is the lowest number permitted for use by players of the National Hockey League (NHL); the league prohibited the use of 00 and 0 in the late 1990s (the highest number permitted being 98).,"1 d uṭṭun amazdar s ẓḍaṛn ad tt ssmrsn imirarn n tbrza tanamurt n “lhuki” (t.t.l), ttusgdl tbrza assmrs n 00 d 0 g tyiriwin n 1990 ( uṭṭun amaflla ig win ad ittusmrs iga t 98)."
"Any random sequence of digits contains arbitrarily long subsequences that appear non-random, by the infinite monkey theorem.","ka igat tasnslt tamrwit n wuṭṭun diks tilsitin timḍfṛin tiɣzzafin s talɣa n uskkcd ur tnni ad arway, s tmagunt n zɛḍuḍ wartmi."
"""Second, since no transcendental number can be constructed with compass and straightedge, it is not possible to """"square the circle"""".""","“ wiss sin, acku ur tlli tzmrt mar ittuskr wuṭṭun amaflla s ussmrs n tabiṣult d tnumi, ur nzḍaṛ ad nrar tazgunt ad tg tamkkuẓt”."
The Indian astronomer Aryabhata used a value of 3.1416 in his Āryabhaṭīya (499 AD).,issmrs umsnitran ahindi “aryabaṭa” atig n 3.1416 g udlis nns “aryabiṭiya” (499 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ).
"The Persian astronomer Jamshīd al-Kāshī produced 9 sexagesimal digits, roughly the equivalent of 16 decimal digits, in 1424 using a polygon with 3×228 sides, which stood as the world record for about 180 years.","ifars umusnitran afarisi “ jamcid alkaci” 9 n wuṭṭun imṣḍiṣ-mraw, itgga zund 16 n wuṭṭun amraw g uzsggwas n 1424 s ussmrs n umɣzds g llan 3×228 n usga, nna ismdyan d uṭṭun amsɣal amaḍlan kan 180 n usggwas."
These avoid reliance on infinite series.,tadɣ ttari i tasɣznt ɣf tgffurt wartmi.
"As modified by Salamin and Brent, it is also referred to as the Brent–Salamin algorithm.","imkinna t isnm salamin d brant, d ttuyasn awd s yism n “alguritm n brant- salamin”."
"This is in contrast to infinite series or iterative algorithms, which retain and use all intermediate digits until the final result is produced.","ur id am “alguritm wartmi” nɣd “ alguritm timyalsin” nna iḥṭṭun uṭṭun imazan kul, artn tssmras ard tssufɣ tayafut tartmi."
Such memorization aids are called mnemonics.,ttuyassn isggurn ad n uḥṭṭu s taẓuṛi n usmmkti.
The digits are large wooden characters attached to the dome-like ceiling.,uṭṭun gan iskkiln ixatarn n ukccuḍ mmzdayn s usrag yaɣn g tkrbust.
"""A numerical digit is a single symbol used alone (such as """"2"""") or in combinations (such as """"25""""), to represent numbers in a positional numeral system.""","uṭṭun amiḍan iga tamatart i waḍun nns ittusmrasn i waḍuns (amm “2”), nɣd g trubba ( zund “25”), i usmdya n wuṭṭun g ungraw n usnqḍ asursan."
"A positional number system has one unique digit for each integer from zero up to, but not including, the radix of the number system.","illa g ungraw n wuṭṭun isursan; yuwn wuṭṭun iẓlin g ku imiḍ amddad awd g umya, maka ur isman asila anagraw n wuṭṭun."
"The original numerals were very similar to the modern ones, even down to the glyphs used to represent digits.","kkan wuṭṭun iẓɣuṛanen aksuln kigan d wuṭṭun itrarn, ar d nn akkw nawḍ uṭṭun n wunuɣ ittusmrsn ad smdyan uṭṭun."
The Mayas used a shell symbol to represent zero.,issmrs mayaz “tiqcrt” ad smdyan i umya.
The Thai numeral system is identical to the Hindu–Arabic numeral system except for the symbols used to represent digits.,imsasa ungraw n wuṭṭun n ṭayland akd ungraw n wuṭṭun n hindu- aɛṛab xs timatarin ittusmrsnt ad smdyant uṭṭunn.
They are both base 3 systems.,kullutn gan bddan ɣf 3 imagawn.
Several authors in the last 300 years have noted a facility of positional notation that amounts to a modified decimal representation.,annayn wahli n imgayn g 300 n usggwas izrin n wis illa wammak n uzmmem asursan tgulan aswir n usmdya amraw ityalsn.
"For example, 1111 (one thousand, one hundred and eleven) is a repunit.","s umdya, 1111 ( ifḍ d tmiḍi d yan d mraw) igan yat tallast."
"Besides counting ten fingers, some cultures have counted knuckles, the space between fingers, and toes as well as fingers.","g tsga n ussiṭn n mraw iḍudan, kan tdlsiwin assiṭn n tɣnfifin d ustum illan gr iḍudan n ifassn d win iḍaṛn d iḍudan."
"Stone age cultures, including ancient indigenous American groups, used tallies for gambling, personal services, and trade-goods.","ssmrsnt tdlsiwin n uzmz-aggun g amunt trubba timirikanin tiqbuṛin, imḍan i tqbbaḍt d twuriwin tinmɣurin d tɣawsiwin n mnziwt."
"Beginning about 3500 BC, clay tokens were gradually replaced by number signs impressed with a round stylus at different angles in clay tablets (originally containers for tokens) which were then baked.",sg wattayn n 3500 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ ttusnflt tmatarin n waluḍ imik s imik ɣr tmatarin n wuṭṭun imssiggzn s uɣanib awrerray ilan tiɣmrin imzarayn g tfilitin n waluḍ ( ikkan gant tin ttuknat) nna yad inwan.
These cuneiform number signs resembled the round number signs they replaced and retained the additive sign-value notation of the round number signs.,"aɣnt tmatarin n wuṭṭun akmam ad, timitar n wuṭṭun awrerray nna illan g udɣar nns tḥḍu atig n uzmmem n tmitar n turnut i tmitar n wuṭṭun aqlallay."
Sexagesimal numerals were a mixed radix system that retained the alternating base 10 and base 6 in a sequence of cuneiform vertical wedges and chevrons.,kkant wuṭṭun amṣḍiṣ-mraw gan angraw n ljidr iccarn iḥṭṭun talgamt 10 tawalit d talgamt 6 g tgffurt d tgusin tikmamin ibddan d cifrun.
Unique numbers of troops and measures of rice appear as unique combinations of these tallies.,dad tffɣn imḍan iẓlin n taggalin d imsɣaln n idgl am trubba istin g imḍan ad.
Conventional tallies are quite difficult to multiply and divide.,icqqa kigan usfukti d bṭṭu n imḍan izaykutn.
"Jews began using a similar system (Hebrew numerals), with the oldest examples known being coins from around 100 BC.","ssntin wudayn assmrs n ungraw amm wa (uṭṭun n lɛibriya), acku kkant imdyatn iqburn ityassn adrim azaɣur attayn n 100 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ."
"The Maya of Central America used a mixed base 18 and base 20 system, possibly inherited from the Olmec, including advanced features such as positional notation and a zero.","tssmrs lmaya g amrika n wammas; angraw iccarn gr tlgamt 18 d tlgamt 20, iɣy is asntid udjan ulmk, g tlla tbɣurt yattuyn zund azmmem asursan d umya."
"Knowledge of the encodings of the knots and colors was suppressed by the Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century, and has not survived although simple quipu-like recording devices are still used in the Andean region.","ttwamsay tussan n isntln n ugllay d ikwlan g ɣur wazzaɣn n sbanya g uzmz wiss 16, ur tnjim waxxa llan ingmam unziln n uzmmem yaɣn g “kibbu”, tsul da ttussmras g wansa n “landiz”."
Zero was first used in India in the 7th century CE by Brahmagupta.,"ittusmrs umya tiklt izwarn g lhind sg ɣur “brahmaguta”, g uzmz wiss 7 ḍaṛt tlalit n lamsiḥ."
"Arabic mathematicians extended the system to include decimal fractions, and Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Ḵwārizmī wrote an important work about it in the 9th  century.","sbirwn imusnawn aɛrabn n tusnakt angraw mar ad yamẓ imtwaln imrawn, d yaru muḥmmad bn musa lxawarizmi yat twuri istawhmman ɣf uynnaɣ, g uzmz wiss 9."
"The binary system (base 2), was propagated in the 17th century by Gottfried Leibniz.","ityafsar ungraw amsin (talgamt 2), g uzmz wiss 17 sg ɣur gutfrid libniz."
"The variables for which the equation has to be solved are also called unknowns, and the values of the unknowns that satisfy the equality are called solutions of the equation.","imskiln s nn iqn ad as tyafsay tgdazalt, ttuyassn s warism, d tinditin tilimslitin nna iskarn asiksl g ifssayn n tgdazalt."
A conditional equation is only true for particular values of the variables.,tagdazaltn tfada tga day tamddadt mar ad tg tazlɣa i tinditin n isnfaln.
Very often the right-hand side of an equation is assumed to be zero.,da wala ttgga tsga tayffast n tgdazalt amya.
An equation is analogous to a scale into which weights are placed.,tagdazalt tawayt n umsɣal g ttuyagan istaln.
"This is the starting idea of algebraic geometry, an important area of mathematics.","tadɣ ayd igan tawngimt tadslant n utwal aljibri, d tga igr istawhmman g tusnakt."
"To solve equations from either family, one uses algorithmic or geometric techniques that originate from linear algebra or mathematical analysis.","mar ad nfsi tagdazalt illan g ka igat tawja, da issmras yan tatiqnit n ussiṭn nɣd atwal d igman g ljibr awnɣan, nɣd afssay awsnak."
"These equations are difficult in general; one often searches just to find the existence or absence of a solution, and, if they exist, to count the number of solutions.","tigdazalin ad cqqant s umata, da wala ittinig ufgan ad yaf afssay nɣd war afssay, mk illa, da issiṭin mcta n ifssayn."
"In the illustration, x, y and z are all different quantities (in this case real numbers) represented as circular weights, and each of x, y, and z has a different weight.","g wunuɣ n ussikz, “k”, “y” d “z” gan akkw anct imzarayn ( g waddad ad uṭṭun n tidt), s mdyan s istaln iwrerrayn, d i ku “k”, “y”, d “z” astal istin."
"Hence, the equation with R unspecified is the general equation for the circle.","sg uya, tagdazalt d “r” ur iẓliyn, tga tagdazalt tnmatayt n uwrerry."
"The process of finding the solutions, or, in case of parameters, expressing the unknowns in terms of the parameters, is called solving the equation.","da as ttinin tiggit n yif n ifssayn nɣd asiwl ɣf ilimsli g tsɣlt, mk tga tsɣlt tin ufssay n tgdazalt."
Multiplying or dividing both sides of an equation by a non-zero quantity.,asfukti nɣd tuṭṭut sin imnaḍn n tgdazalt ɣf tsmkta ur igin amya.
An algebraic equation is univariate if it involves only one variable.,da tgga tgdazalt aljibr mm yuwn usnfl ig diks yan usnfl day.
"In mathematics, the theory of linear systems is the basis and a fundamental part of linear algebra, a subject which is used in most parts of modern mathematics.","g tusnakt, tga tmagunt n igrrayn iwnɣann asilan, d imik adslan g ljibr awnɣan, ntta d asgum ittusmrasn g kigan ifrdas n tusnakt tatrart."
This formalism allows one to determine the positions and the properties of the focuses of a conic.,da ittadja ukurmis ad afgan ad isti imnadn d tẓlayin n iɣisan icɛba.
"This point of view, outlined by Descartes, enriches and modifies the type of geometry conceived of by the ancient Greek mathematicians.","tannayt ad, nna iẓli dikart da thyya ar tgadda anaw n tnzgit nna snumln kigan n imusnawn iyunaniyin n tusnakt taqburt."
An exponential Diophantine equation is one for which exponents of the terms of the equation can be unknowns.,"tagdazalt dyufantin taggadt, tga tagdazalt nna g iɣy ad yili winna iqqarn s tagdazalt mm sin warismawn."
"Modern algebraic geometry is based on more abstract techniques of abstract algebra, especially commutative algebra, with the language and the problems of geometry.","tbdda tnzgit tatrart n ljibr ɣf tiqnitin wala inzzɣn ljibr awngim, numar ljibr ittmnfkan akd tutlayt d tmukrisin n tnzgit."
A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation.,da ttumu tnqqiḍt taswirant g izririg n ljibr ig ṭfn izdayn nns ɣr tgdazalt ilan kigan n iwtta.
"In pure mathematics, differential equations are studied from several different perspectives, mostly concerned with their solutions — the set of functions that satisfy the equation.","g tusnakt imzarayn, da ttuɣrant tgdazalin timufayin g wahli n tɣmrin imzarayn, wahli diks iga win ifssayn nns tarbiɛt n isɣnan itggan tagdazalt."
"Linear differential equations, which have solutions that can be added and multiplied by coefficients, are well-defined and understood, and exact closed-form solutions are obtained.","tigdazalin tizraragin imzaray, nna ilan ifssayn iɣy ad tturnu ttusfuktu s watig ibddan, tẓli d tturmas kigan, d da ttafa ifssayn ilan tlaɣa tunɣidt gin imaqqan."
"PDEs can be used to describe a wide variety of phenomena such as sound, heat, electrostatics, electrodynamics, fluid flow, elasticity, or quantum mechanics.","iɣy ad nsmrs igmamn n “PDE” mar ad nsnumml kigan n wanawn n tumanin zund imsli d tirɣi nɣd iluktrustatik, iluktrudinamik, nɣd tanɣla n ibluliwn, nɣd artutm, nɣd tamikanikt n idamn."
A solution is an assignment of values to the unknown variables that makes the equality in the equation true.,afssay igat ad nadj i tinditin timsnfalin ur ityassn nna ittadjan angiddi g tgdazalt tamddadt.
The set of all solutions of an equation is its solution set.,tarbiɛt n ifssayn akkw n tgdazalt ayd igan tarbiɛt n ifssayn iẓlin ẓaṛs.
"Depending on the context, solving an equation may consist to find either any solution (finding a single solution is enough), all solutions, or a solution that satisfies further properties, such as belonging to a given interval.","sg usatal iɣy ad ittug ufssay n tgdazalt abrid ɣr ifssayn nniḍn (xs ad day tafd yan ufssay), nɣd ifssayn maṛṛa, nɣd afssayn imsasan d tmitar , zund tilit sg kan uzmz."
"In this case, the solutions cannot be listed.","g waddad ad, ur nzḍar ad ng allas n ifssayn."
"The variety in types of equations is large, and so are the corresponding methods.","tanawayt g wanawn n tgdazalin imqqur, ula awd tibridin n umyawaḍ."
This may be due to a lack of mathematical knowledge; some problems were only solved after centuries of effort.,"iɣy ad ig uya asrag n tdrsi n tmusna tusnakt, ɛad afssay n itsn imukrisn ḍaṛt tsutin n tzmmar."
Polynomials appear in many areas of mathematics and science.,dad tbayant mm iwtta iggudin g kigan n yigran n tusnakt d tmassanin.
Many authors use these two words interchangeably.,da issmras kigan n imgayn snat tguriwin ad s umrara.
"Formally, the name of the polynomial is P, not P(x), but the use of the functional notation P(x) dates from a time when the distinction between a polynomial and the associated function was unclear.","P ayd igan ism unṣib n kigan n iwtta ur id P(x), maka asmrs n untal uɣrif P(x), iddad sg uzmz g ur iṣfi usnuḥyu n kigan iwtta d tmskart zaṛs islɣn."
"However, one may use it over any domain where addition and multiplication are defined (that is, any ring).","waxxa hakkak, iɣy ufgan ad tt issmrs g ka igat igr g ityassan usmun d usfukti s (ka igat, d ka igat taxrst)."
Polynomials of small degree have been given specific names.,"tid mi ggudin iwtta ilan taskflt mẓẓiyn, ayd ikan ismawn imẓlayn."
"The polynomial 0, which may be considered to have no terms at all, is called the zero polynomial.","bu-iwtta 0, s nɣy ad nini ur akkw ili iwtta da itsmma amya mggudy iwtta."
"Because the degree of a non-zero polynomial is the largest degree of any one term, this polynomial has degree two.","macku lant tskfal tar-amya mm iwtta iggudin, tga taskflt taxatart g yuwt tguri, da ttili mm iwtta iggudin g tskflt tiss snat."
"Polynomials can be classified by the number of terms with nonzero coefficients, so that a one-term polynomial is called a monomial, a two-term polynomial is called a binomial, and a three-term polynomial is called a trinomial.","nɣy ad ng mm iwtta iggudin sg mnck n tguriwin ila iggitn ur igin amya, imk ittyanna i bu-iwtta iggudin s yuwt tguri ism bu-yuwn uwttu, ar ityanna i bu-iwtta iggudin s snat tguriwin bu-sin iwtta, ar ityanna i bu mnnaw n iwtta; bu-kṛaḍ iwtta."
"When it is used to define a function, the domain is not so restricted.","ig da ittusmras mar ad isti tamrst, ur da ittukraf yigr."
"A polynomial in one indeterminate is called a univariate polynomial, a polynomial in more than one indeterminate is called a multivariate polynomial.","bu iwtta iggudin g yuwn uwttu ur ityassan da as nttini bu iwtta iggudin ilan yuwn usnfl, bu iwtta iggudin g kigan ur iẓliyn da as nttini amggudy n iwtta, amgguwdy n isnfaln."
"In the case of the field of complex numbers, the irreducible factors are linear.","g waddad n yigr n imḍan uddisn, da tggan imskarn ityakkasn; izririg."
"If the degree is higher than one, the graph does not have any asymptote.","ig tkka tskflt nnig yan, ur da ittili i wunuɣ n usmmal awd yan izririd inmalan."
"In elementary algebra, methods such as the quadratic formula are taught for solving all first degree and second degree polynomial equations in one variable.","g ljibr amzwaru, da ttusɣrant tbridin zund talɣa tamkkuẓt i ufssay n maṛṛa n tgdazalin ilan kigan n iwtta illan g tskflt tamzwarut ula tiss snat g yuwn usnfl."
"However, root-finding algorithms may be used to find numerical approximations of the roots of a polynomial expression of any degree.","waxxa hakkak nɣy ad nssmrs alguritm n urzzu xf uẓuṛ, mar ad naf anmala uṭṭun i iẓɣṛan n talɣa ilan iwtta iggudin g ka igat taskflt."
"Since the 16th century, similar formulas (using cube roots in addition to square roots), but much more complicated are known for equations of degree three and four (see cubic equation and quartic equation).","sg usati wiss 16 ttuyassnt talɣiwin n usmsksl ( s ussmrs n izɣṛan igntrn d izɣṛan imkkuẓn), maka wanna wala icqqan igat tigdazalin n tskflt tiss kṛaḍt d tiss kkuẓt ( ẓṛ tagdazalt tagntrt d tgdazalt tamkkuẓt)."
"In 1830, Évariste Galois proved that most equations of degree higher than four cannot be solved by radicals, and showed that for each equation, one may decide whether it is solvable by radicals, and, if it is, solve it.","g usggwas n 1830, iswr ifarist galu n wisd kigan n tgdazalt n tskflt tamafllat sg kkuẓ, ur nzḍaṛ at nfsi s uẓuṛ, issfrud id ka igat tagdazalt iɣy ufgan ad yini is tla afssay s tbridt tzɣṛant, mk iɣy, ifsi tt."
"Nevertheless, formulas for solvable equations of degrees 5 and 6 have been published (see quintic function and sextic equation).","waxxa hakkak, tyafsarnt talɣiwin n tgdazalin ilan afssay s tskflt tiss 5 d 6 (ẓṛ tamrst tamsmmust d tgdazalt tamṣḍiḍt)."
"The most efficient algorithms allow solving easily (on a computer) polynomial equations of degree higher than 1,000 (see Root-finding algorithm).","da ttadjant alguritm tunṣibin ad ttyafsaynt tgdazalin id mm iwtta s umnhal ( g umssuds), s tskflt ikkan nnig 1,000 ( ẓṛ alguritm n yif n izɣṛan)."
"For a set of polynomial equations in several unknowns, there are algorithms to decide whether they have a finite number of complex solutions, and, if this number is finite, for computing the solutions.","g kigan n tgdazalin id mm iwtta iggudin g kigan n id war-ism, llant alguritm ittinin is ɣarsn ifssayn mẓlay icqqan, d mk iga wuṭṭun ad amẓlay i ussiṭn n ifssayn."
A polynomial equation for which one is interested only in the solutions which are integers is called a Diophantine equation.,tagdazalt da tgga mm iwtta iggudin nna mi yakka ufgan taɣdft s ifssayn igan imḍan imddadn s tgdazalt dyufantin.
"The coefficients may be taken as real numbers, for real-valued functions.",nɣy ad ng imggutn d uṭṭun iɣaran n tiggitin ilan atig aɣaran.
This equivalence explains why linear combinations are called polynomials.,da issfru ussksl ad amntil n yism n trubba tizririgin ilan kigan n iwtta.
"""In the case of coefficients in a ring, """"non-constant"""" must be replaced by """"non-constant or non-unit"""" (both definitions agree in the case of coefficients in a field).""","g waddad n imggutn g txrst iqnen ad nsnfl unna ur izzgan ɣr unna ur iwirn, nɣd unna ur igzimn (isussn ssin ttmsasan g waddad nwaggitn g yigr)."
"When the coefficients belong to integers, rational numbers or a finite field, there are algorithms to test irreducibility and to compute the factorization into irreducible polynomials (see Factorization of polynomials).","ig da ttuɣuln waggitn ɣr imḍan imddadn nɣd uṭṭun umginen nɣd igr iẓlin, tlla alguritm mar ad tg irm n gar tazmrt n uzgzl d ussiṭn d yiggitn n tinna mi gudin iwtta ur igin tin uzgzl (ẓṛ asfsi mi ggudin iwtta s imskirn)."
The characteristic polynomial of a matrix or linear operator contains information about the operator's eigenvalues.,"illa g imggudin n iwtta s tẓli tdrast, nɣd amswuri azririg ɣf inɣmisn n tinditin n tnkkint n umswuri."
"However, the elegant and practical notation we use today only developed beginning in the 15th century.",waxxa hakkak asdukm anwuri iẓiln nssmras assa ittusbuɣlla g tizwuri n usatu wiss 15.
"""This """"completes the square"""", converting the left side into a perfect square.""","ɣaya “itsmad amkkuẓ”, d ar itrar tasga tazlmaḍt ad tg amkkuẓ."
"Descartes' theorem states that for every four kissing (mutually tangent) circles, their radii satisfy a particular quadratic equation.","tamagunt n dikar da ttini llant ɣur kkuẓt n twrerray tugdut (amalu ugdu), gan izgn n wagm nns ijj n tagdazalt tamkkuẓt."
Babylonian mathematicians from circa 400 BC and Chinese mathematicians from circa 200 BC used geometric methods of dissection to solve quadratic equations with positive roots.,"ssmrsn imusnawn ibabiliyn n tusnakt; ɣur wattayn n 400 n usggwas dat tlalit n lmasiḥ, d umusnawn iṣiniyn n tusnakt, attayn n 200 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ, tibridin n jyumitik i usfsy n tgdazalin timkkuzin ilan iẓɣṛan umnign."
"Euclid, the Greek mathematician, produced a more abstract geometrical method around 300 BC.","isskr uklid amusnaw ayunaniy n tusnakt, tabridt tajyumitrikt attayn n 300 n usggwas dat tlalit n lmasiḥ."
"Al-Khwarizmi goes further in providing a full solution to the general quadratic equation, accepting one or two numerical answers for every quadratic equation, while providing geometric proofs in the process.","ddan lxawarizm ɣr uggar n uya g ussnkd n ufssay akkw isman tagdazalt tamkkuẓt tamattayt, ittirin yat tmrarut nɣd snat tmrarutin i ku tagdazalt tamkkuẓt, d tikki n wanẓiwn ajyumitrikn g tiggi ad."
"Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam (Egypt, 10th century) in particular was the first to accept irrational numbers (often in the form of a square root, cube root or fourth root) as solutions to quadratic equations or as coefficients in an equation.","abu kamil cujaɛ ibn aslam (miṣṛ, asatu wiss 10); s uẓlay, d amzwaru innan ah i wuṭṭun imsɣan ( g uẓuṛ amkkuẓ nɣd agntr, nɣd wiss kkuẓ) zund ifssayn n tgdazalin timkkuẓin nɣd imsɣal g tgdazalt."
His solution was largely based on Al-Khwarizmi's work.,afssay nns da ittuɣul kigan ɣf twuri n lxawarizmi.
"However, at some point the quadratic formula begins to lose accuracy because of round off error, while the approximate method continues to improve.","waxxa hakkak, g yat tfrkt da ttusntay talɣa tamkkuzt mi ittaccka unɣad; s uzgl n usnmila, tssudu tɣarast n usnmila g tixxitrt."
"Methods of numerical approximation existed, called prosthaphaeresis, that offered shortcuts around time-consuming operations such as multiplication and taking powers and roots.","llant tbridin n usmila amiḍan da as ttinin taɣart timkisit yakkan isanfn ɣf tiggitin ittamẓn tizi kigan, zund asfukti d yisy n tzmrt d uzɣṛan."
"Computational algorithms for finding the solutions are an important part of numerical linear algebra, and play a prominent role in engineering, physics, chemistry, computer science, and economics.","ifssayn gan agzzum istawhmman g ljibr izririg amiḍan, d ɣurs tawila mqqurn g tnzgit d fizik d cimi d tusnamssudst d tdamsa."
"For solutions in an integral domain like the ring of the integers, or in other algebraic structures, other theories have been developed, see Linear equation over a ring.","ismd amm txṛst n imḍan imddadn, nɣd g tanɣiwin nniḍn n ljibr, ttusbuɣllant tmagunin yaḍn, ẓṛ tagdazalt tazrirgt aflla n txṛst."
"This allows all the language and theory of vector spaces (or more generally, modules) to be brought to bear.",wad ar ittadja ad ittug ka igat tutlayt d tmagunt n istumn n imnidn ( s umata ifrdasn ursiln).
Such a system is known as an underdetermined system.,ityassn ungraw ad s yism n angraw ur iẓliyn.
"The second system has a single unique solution, namely the intersection of the two lines.",angraw wiss sin ɣars afssay iẓlin igan amrjal n izrirign.
Any two of these equations have a common solution.,ka igat snat tgdazalin g tgadazalin ad ɣarsnt afssay iccarn.
A system of equations whose left-hand sides are linearly independent is always consistent.,aha da itgga ungraw n tgdazalin nna mi tggant tsggin nns tiẓlmaḍ timẓlay; azririg imzgi.
This yields a system of equations with one fewer equation and one fewer unknown.,"dad yakka maya angraw n tgdazalin diks tagdazalt yazdurn, d tayḍ ur tyassn."
Type 3: Add to one row a scalar multiple of another.,anaw 3: rnu as i yan wadur aslag amiḍan n wadur nniḍn.
"For instance, systems with a symmetric positive definite matrix can be solved twice as fast with the Cholesky decomposition.","s umdya, iɣy ad nfsi igrrayn ilan adurn imẓlay umnign inawayn s zzrabit tasftayt s tslṭ ntculiski."
"A completely different approach is often taken for very large systems, which would otherwise take too much time or memory.","da wala ittuḍfuṛ usara amziray i igrrayn mqqurn kigan, nna ittettrn kigan n tizi nɣd timktit."
This leads to the class of iterative methods.,aya ar ittawy ɣr tgrruma n tbridin yulsn.
"In mathematics, a series is, roughly speaking, a description of the operation of adding infinitely many quantities, one after the other, to a given starting quantity.","g tusnakt, tga tgffurt s talɣa n unmili; asnuml i tiggit n turnut iwudiyn wartmi iggudin, yat ḍaṛt yat ar agudi n kan ussnti."
"In addition to their ubiquity in mathematics, infinite series are also widely used in other quantitative disciplines such as physics, computer science, statistics and finance.","d turnut xf unɣal nns g tusnakt, da ttusmrasnt tsnslin wartmi g ufaɣul abaraw g tẓlayin n ugudiy nnidn zund fizik d tussnamssuds taddadant d ussẓṛf."
"Zeno's paradox of Achilles and the tortoise illustrates this counterintuitive property of infinite sums: Achilles runs after a tortoise, but when he reaches the position of the tortoise at the beginning of the race, the tortoise has reached a second position; when he reaches this second position, the tortoise is at a third position, and so on.","da tssfru tmzarayt n zinu gr axil d kfrun taẓlayt ad inmn ɣf watign wartmi, axil ittazla ḍaṛt kfrun, maka adday yawḍ ansa n kfrun g tizwiri n uḥmmzwur, dan ittawḍ kfrun aswir wiss sin, ign yuwḍ wiss sin da ttili g wiss kṛaḍ, ar tddu."
"This argument does not prove that the sum is equal to 2 (although it is), but it does prove that it is at most 2.","ur da izzga wanẓa is tag tmuttrt nns 2 (waxxa iga imkinnaɣ), maca da tzzga ddaw 2."
"Tests for uniform convergence include the Weierstrass' M-test, Abel's uniform convergence test, Dini's test, and the Cauchy criterion.","smunn yirimn n usnmala n ussuds, irim n “wayrstris m Weierstrass' M-tes”, d yirim n usnmala amyiwn izlin s “abil Abel's” d “ dini Dini's” d anaway “kuci Cauchy ”."
"The convergence is uniform on closed and bounded (that is, compact) subsets of the interior of the disc of convergence: to wit, it is uniformly convergent on compact sets.","asnmala da ittusuds g trabbutin tayyawin iqnn gint timẓaly ( ig gant tuddizin), g tgzzumt tagnsut n disk n usnmala: i tiɣist, inmala s talɣa iẓlin g trabbutin yudrn."
The Hilbert–Poincaré series is a formal power series used to study graded algebras.,tagffurt “ilbir-bwankari Hilbert–Poincaré” tga tagffurt tunsibt ittusmrasn g tɣuri n ljibr amḍfuṛ.
"In the 17th century, James Gregory worked in the new decimal system on infinite series and published several Maclaurin series.","g usatu wiss 17 iswuri “gims griguri James Gregory” g ungraw amrawan amaynu; ɣf tgffurt tartmi, d ifsr kigan n tgffurin n “maklurin Maclaurin”."
"Cauchy (1821) insisted on strict tests of convergence; he showed that if two series are convergent their product is not necessarily so, and with him begins the discovery of effective criteria.","isddid “kuci” (1821) ɣf yirimn inmalanen uqjirn, issakz ig mmlmalant snat tgffurin amẓaraw nns ur id ccil as ad mayan, ar ids ttusntay tufayt n inawayn imṛwitn."
A summability method is such an assignment of a limit to a subset of the set of divergent series which properly extends the classical notion of convergence.,"taɣarast n usmun tga ikz awttu i trabbut tayyawt n trabbut n tgffurin immɛraqn, ittanfn s talɣa tamddadt armmus aklasiki n tnmila."
Indian scholars have been using factorial formulas since at least the 12th century.,da ssmrasn imassn ihindiyn talɣiwin n imggutn sg usatu wiss 12.
"In functional languages, the recursive definition is often implemented directly to illustrate recursive functions.","g tutlayin tisɣnan, da wala ittuga s wusrid usissn amaɣul, mar ad issfru tisɣna n tmaɣult."
Other implementations (such as computer software such as spreadsheet programs) can often handle larger values.,ɣint tsnsitin yaḍn (zund iɣawasn n umssuds zund iɣawasn n ismyallayn n ismmaln) asmkd n tinditin tixatarin g kigan n waddadn.
"Compared to the Pickover definition of the superfactorial, the hyperfactorial grows relatively slowly.","s uzmzazal n usissn bikufr n umswur amagur, da ittugm umswur n usigz n tilal s timmisɣt."
"There are, relatively speaking, no such simple solutions for factorials; no finite combination of sums, products, powers, exponential functions, or logarithms will suffice to express ; but it is possible to find a general formula for factorials using tools such as integrals and limits from calculus.","s tmisɣt ur llin ifssayn unziln i imggitn, ur tgi trabbut n watign tuẓliyt nɣd isnfluln nɣd tizmar nɣd timrsin taggaḍin nɣd lugaritm s nra ad ɣifs nsiwl, maka nɣy ad naf talɣa tamattut i umsfukti s ussmrs n isggurn amm imzdayn d iwtta i ussiṭn amyuf d amsmd."
"The integrals we have discussed so far involve transcendental functions, but the gamma function also arises from integrals of purely algebraic functions.","timsmadin xf nmrara awal ad dɣi uwind timrsitin yattuyn, maka tamrst n gama ttwaskar awd nttat g tmsmadin n tmrst n ljibr idusn."
"By taking limits, certain rational products with infinitely many factors can be evaluated in terms of the gamma function as well.","sg yisy n iwtta, nɣy ad ng astal i itsn isnfluln umgin, g illa imiḍ wartmi n ifatrn sg tmrst n gama."
"Its history, notably documented by Philip J. Davis in an article that won him the 1963 Chauvenet Prize, reflects many of the major developments within mathematics since the 18th century.","da yakka umzruy nns nna yaru filib j. difis, g umgrad yuwin tasmɣrt n cufini briz asggwas n1963, kigan n isbuɣlutn idslan g tusnakt sg usatu 18."
"Instead of finding a specialized proof for each formula, it would be desirable to have a general method of identifying the gamma function.","xf ad ityaf unmmal iẓlin i ka igat tagdazalt, yuf ad dark tili tbridt tamattut n yif n tmrst n gama."
"However, the gamma function does not appear to satisfy any simple differential equation.",waxxa hakkak tamrst n gama da tmsasa d ka igat tagdazalt tamyaft tunzilt.
The Bohr–Mollerup theorem is useful because it is relatively easy to prove logarithmic convexity for any of the different formulas used to define the gamma function.,"tamagunt n burh-muliru tubɣirt, acku iwhn ad ittuwr wuḍu alugaritmi i ka igat talɣiwin imzarayn ittusmrasn mar ad nsti tamrst n gama."
"As electronic computers became available for the production of tables in the 1950s, several extensive tables for the complex gamma function were published to meet the demand, including a table accurate to 12 decimal places from the U.S. National Bureau of Standards.","dda g gan ingmamn n umssuds iliktruni win usnfl n imyallayn g 1950, ttyafsarn kigan n isnmallayn isman tamrst n gama icqqan mar ad ttug tuttra, g yamu yan usnmallay amɣdan n 12 n tuzunt tamrawt, sg ɣur usira anaway anamur amirikani."
"In science, a formula is a concise way of expressing information symbolically, as in a mathematical formula or a chemical formula.","g tusna, tagdazalt tga tabridt isanfn n usiwl ɣf inɣmisn s talɣa tamatart, imk illan g talɣa tusnakt d talɣa n cimi."
"In mathematics, a formula generally refers to an identity which equates one mathematical expression to another, with the most important ones being mathematical theorems.","g tusnakt d tmmal talɣa s umata tamagit igan asiwl n tusnakt yaḍn, stawhmmant diks tmagunin n tusnakt."
"This convention, while less important in a relatively simple formula, means that mathematicians can more quickly manipulate formulas which are larger and more complex.","tamyaqqant ad mqqar ur wala tstawhmma g talɣa tamnzalt, da ttini is imusnawn n tusnakt ɣin ad tmcackan s kigan n usrbi akd talɣiwin tixatarin d tinna wala icqqan."
"For example, H2O is the chemical formula for water, specifying that each molecule consists of two hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom.","s umdya, H2O tga talɣa takimiyt n waman nna isttin id ku imik diks snat tblkimin n hidrujin (H) d tblkimt n uksijin (O)."
"In empirical formulas, these proportions begin with a key element and then assign numbers of atoms of the other elements in the compound—as ratios to the key element.","g talɣiwin n tirmit, da ttusntaynt tsɣalin ad s udṛḍiṣ adslan d ar tsttiy mnnawt n tblkimin n ifṛḍiṣn yaḍn g tanawt, igan isɣaln n ufṛḍiṣ adslan."
"Some types of ionic compounds, however, cannot be written as empirical formulas which contains only the whole numbers.","waxxa hakkak, ur nzḍaṛ d nuru itsn wanawn n tuddisin tayyunin ad gint talɣiwin n tirmit g llan imḍan imddadn day."
"There are several types of these formulas, including molecular formulas and condensed formulas.",llan kigan n wanawn g talɣiwin ad g tamu talɣiwin tigzzumin d talɣiwin tanẓẓiwin.
Functions were originally the idealization of how a varying quantity depends on another quantity.,tiwuriwin g uẓuṛ nnsnt gant tasfilawt n mamnk snzɣzan tamakta tamsnflt ɣf tmakta nniḍn.
"""This definition of """"graph"""" refers to a set of pairs of objects.""","da immal usissn n “unuɣ asnmmal” ad, ɣr trabbut n inaragn imɣnawn."
"When the domain and the codomain are sets of real numbers, each such pair may be thought of as the Cartesian coordinates of a point in the plane.","adday ig yigr d yigr iccarn tarbiɛt n imḍan n tidt, iɣy ad ig unarag g inaragn ad timitar tidikartiyyin n tnqqiḍt g uɣawas."
"Occasionally, it may be identified with the function, but this hides the usual interpretation of a function as a process.","g tizi ɣr tayḍ, iɣ ad ttusty akd twuri, maka aya da iddal afssay yad illan i twuri amm tizigzt."
"A map can have any set as its codomain, while, in some contexts, typically in older books, the codomain of a function is specifically the set of real or complex numbers.","iɣ ad yili g tkaṛḍa ka igat tarabbut afuɣal amatar nns, maka g itsn isatiln, wala g idlisn iqburn, da itgga yigr tamatart n twuri, ntta nnik s uẓlay; tarabbut n imḍan tidt nɣd uddisn."
Another common example is the error function.,amdya yadn ityafsarn; tanamkant izgln.
Power series can be used to define functions on the domain in which they converge.,iɣy ad nswuri s tgffurt n tzḍaṛt mar ad nsti tiwuriwin g yigr g mmlmalant.
"Then, the power series can be used to enlarge the domain of the function.",ḍaṛt uynnaɣ nɣy ad nswuri s tgffurt n tzḍaṛt mar ad nsxitr igr n twuri.
Parts of this may create a plot that represents (parts of) the function.,iɣy ad awin igzzumn sg uya ɣr uskar n uṣṭṭa ismdyan (tagzzumt sg) s tnamkant.
This is the canonical factorization of .,wad ayd igan afars adslan n.
"At that time, only real-valued functions of a real variable were considered, and all functions were assumed to be smooth.","g tizi nnaɣ, tannayt ɣf twuriwin ilan atig n tidt n umsnfl n tidt, d iqnen ad akkw gint tnamkatin tagffurt."
Functions are now used throughout all areas of mathematics.,da ttusmrasnt tnamkatin dɣi g yigran maṛṛa n tusnakt.
"This is how inverse trigonometric functions are defined in terms of trigonometric functions, where the trigonometric functions are monotonic.","tadɣ tabridt n usissn s tanamkant tamkṛadt tamaɣult, sg tnamkant tamkṛaḍt, d da tgga tnamkant tamkṛaḍt tamssartut."
"Usefulness of the concept of multi-valued functions is clearer when considering complex functions, typically analytic functions.","tabɣurt n usissn n tnamkant mi ggudint tinditin, fawnt kigan ig da nsksiw tanamkant tuddist, d ar tgga ula tanamkant tafarst."
Such a function is called the principal value of the function.,tyassn tnamkant ad s watig adslan n twuri.
Functional programming is the programming paradigm consisting of building programs by using only subroutines that behave like mathematical functions.,"asɣiws n tnamkant iga amya n usɣiws nna g tlla tuska n iɣawasn s ussmrs n imggitn ayyawn day, nna itggan zund tiwuriwin n tusnakt."
"""Except for computer-language terminology, """"function"""" has the usual mathematical meaning in computer science.""",s uslid n yirmn n tutlayt n umssuds illa ɣur tnamkant unamk n tusnakt nna yad illan g tussnamssuds.
"Terms are manipulated through some rules, (the -equivalence, the -reduction, and the -conversion), which are the axioms of the theory and may be interpreted as rules of computation.","da ittusurar s tguriwin sg itsn ilgamn (tagdazalt, azugz, asnfl), d nitni inflalayn n tmagunt d nɣy ad nssfru is tga ilgamn n ussiṭn."
"Nicolas Chuquet used a form of exponential notation in the 15th century, which was later used by Henricus Grammateus and Michael Stifel in the 16th century.","issmrs nikulaṣ tcuki talɣa sg talɣiwin n uzmmem n tsila g usatu wiss 15, d iswuri is ḍaṛas hinrikus gramatus d micil stifl g usasu wiss 16 ."
"Thus they would write polynomials, for example, as .","imki as tturun timggudyin n iwtta, s umdya, zund."
"The result is always a positive real number, and the identities and properties shown above for integer exponents remain true with these definitions for real exponents.","tayafut tga aha uṭṭun umnig n tidt, gimint tmagitin d inamaẓn imssfrutn aflla, idslan imddadn, imddadn akd isussn ad n idslan n tidt."
This function equals the usual th root for positive real radicands.,"tanamkant ad ayd igan “aẓuṛ th”, g aha llan izɣṛan umnign n tidt."
This is the starting point of the mathematical theory of semigroups.,tadɣ d tanqqiḍt tamzwarut i tmagunt tusnakt i tznarabbut.
"We can again replace the set N with a cardinal number n to get Vn, although without choosing a specific standard set with cardinality n, this is defined only up to isomorphism.","tiklt yaḍn nɣy ad nsnfl tarbiɛt N s wuṭṭun adslan n, mar ad aɣd tk Vn, waxxa ur nstiy kan trabbut tanawayt d uẓuṛ n da ittuyassan uya ar amtran."
"Nicolas Bourbaki, Elements of Mathematics, Theory of Sets, Springer-Verlag, 2004, III.§3.5.","nikulaṣ burbaki, ifṛḍiṣn n tusnakt, tamagunt n trubba sbrinj-firlag, 2004, III.§3.5."
"Iterating tetration leads to another operation, and so on, a concept named hyperoperation.","da ittawy yils n tsnawayt ɣr tmhlt nniḍn, imki, armmus igan tamrniwt g tmhlt."
"In applied settings, exponential functions model a relationship in which a constant change in the independent variable gives the same proportional change (that is, percentage increase or decrease) in the dependent variable.","g tsɣlin n tsnsi, tsmdya tnamkantin n tsila, asɣn ɣ yakka usnfl amzday g usnfl amẓlay; asnfl amasaɣ ( tigmiḍi n trnut nɣd ukus ), g umsnfl amḍfaṛ."
This function property leads to exponential growth or exponential decay.,da ittawy unamaẓ n tmrst ad ɣr tigmi n tsila nɣd alakay n tsila.
"Similarly, the composition of onto (surjective) functions is always onto.","s urwas, asmuttg n tmrsin tayyawin ( tiswingmanin) da aha ittili g twuri."
"Then one can form chains of transformations composed together, such as .","d iɣy ufgan ad isskr tigffurin timsnflin imanen, zund."
This alternative notation is called postfix notation.,asnamatar imkkisi ayd igan azmmem n bustfiks.
The category of sets with functions as morphisms is the prototypical category.,tagrruma n trubba g llant tmrstin zun talɣiwin igan tagrruma n umdya amnzu.
"For example, the decibel (dB) is a unit used to express ratio as logarithms, mostly for signal power and amplitude (of which sound pressure is a common example).","s umdya, disibl (db), tga tagzzumt ittusmrasn ad tsiwl ɣf asɣl kilugaritmat, g kigan n tikkal i tzmrt n tmatart d ukttur ( idr n imsli ayd wala illan)."
"They help to describe frequency ratios of musical intervals, appear in formulas counting prime numbers or approximating factorials, inform some models in psychophysics, and can aid in forensic accounting.","da ttaws g usnuml n uglugl n izmaz n uẓawan, ard tffeɣ g talɣiwin issiṭin imḍan imzwura nɣd tanmilit n ifṛḍiṣn, d ar tsslmad itsn imdyatn g tiklisnt tafizikt, d tɣy ad taws g ussiṭn n unbkaḍ."
"The next integer is 4, which is the number of digits of 1430.","imiḍ amddad ad iga 4, d ntta aygan imiḍ n tuzunin 1430."
"Prior to Napier's invention, there had been other techniques of similar scopes, such as the prosthaphaeresis or the use of tables of progressions, extensively developed by Jost Bürgi around 1600.","dat n ad ittuhyya “nabir”, llan tiknitin nniḍn ilan iɣufaln am wi, zund “timlsit”, nɣd assmrs n ismyallanen n tiḍfurt, nna isbuɣlla just burji g uɣufal abaraw attayn n usggwas n1600."
"Speaking of a number as requiring so many figures is a rough allusion to common logarithm, and was referred to by Archimedes as the “order of a number”.","ig da nsawal ɣf wuṭṭun iran kigan n wuṭṭun, tga tamatart n unmila ɣr lugaritm amccur,imk zaṛs inɛt arxmid id ntta ayd igan “assuds n wuṭṭun”."
Such methods are called prosthaphaeresis.,da asn ttinint i tbridin ad; tinkramin.
"For example, each chamber of the shell of a nautilus is an approximate copy of the next one, scaled by a constant factor.","s umdya, ku tamṛṣit g ifrki n nutilus, tga tunɣilt tanmilit n tmṛṣit ẓaṛs illan ttusɣal s ammak izzgan."
Logarithms are also linked to self-similarity.,lugaritm lant awd tasɣn s amrws animan.
"It is used to quantify the loss of voltage levels in transmitting electrical signals, to describe power levels of sounds in acoustics, and the absorbance of light in the fields of spectrometry and optics.","da ittusmras mar ad isɣl iswirn n tzmrt g yizn n tmuli timẓẓaṛuṛin, afad nsnuml iswirn n tzmrt n imsli g tmslitin, d ussum n trisinti g yigran n uwlaf d imwalan."
Vinegar typically has a pH of about 3.,da wala ittili g lxll ar attayn 3 n tskfal n tasmmi.
"""This """"law"""", however, is less realistic than more recent models, such as Stevens's power law.)""","waxxa hakkak, azrf ad ur igi anilaw am imdyatn itrarn, zund azrf anbbaḍ n stifns."
"When the logarithm of a random variable has a normal distribution, the variable is said to have a log-normal distribution.","ig iga lugaritm amsnfl amxbbḍ n ibṭṭu aɣaran, da ityanna id amsnfl ɣurs abṭṭu alugaritm unzil."
"For such a model, the likelihood function depends on at least one parameter that must be estimated.","g zund amdya ad, da tbdda tmrst n iɣy ɣf yuwt tsɣlt, s ilaq ad ttuwqqr."
"Similarly, the merge sort algorithm sorts an unsorted list by dividing the list into halves and sorting these first before merging the results.","zund, da tgga alguritm asufɣ n ummkcm, s wufuɣ n tlgamt d ur iffiɣn s tbridt n tlgamt ɣf sin, d wufuɣ nns dat usmun n tyafutin."
Lyapunov exponents use logarithms to gauge the degree of chaoticity of a dynamical system.,da ssmrasn winna iqran s lyabunuf lugaritm mar ad ssɣaln taskflt n urway g ungraw adinamik.
"The Sierpinski triangle (pictured) can be covered by three copies of itself, each having sides half the original length.","nɣ ad ndl amkṛaḍ syirbinski ( g twlaft), s kṛaḍt tunɣilin, ku yuwt diksnt s uzgn ntaɣzi aẓuṛan."
"Another example is the p-adic logarithm, the inverse function of the p-adic exponential.",amdya nniḍn igat p-adic lugaritm n twuri tamaɣult tasila n p-adic.
"Carrying out the exponentiation can be done efficiently, but the discrete logarithm is believed to be very hard to calculate in some groups.","nɣy ad ng tamhlt n tsila s tzmrt, maka da ityaɣil is icqqa ussiṭn n lugaritm ambḍi g itsnt trubba."
Square roots of negative numbers can be discussed within the framework of complex numbers.,iɣy umrara n wawal ɣf iẓuṛan imkkuẓn n imḍn uzdirn agnsu n imḍan uddisn.
"In Ancient India, the knowledge of theoretical and applied aspects of square and square root was at least as old as the Sulba Sutras, dated around 800–500 BC (possibly much earlier).",g lhind taqburt tkkat tussna s tsggin timagunin d iskkirn iẓuṛan imkkuẓn d uẓuṛ amkkuẓ iga aqbur zund sulba sutras nna ikkan attayn n 800 ar 500 n usggwas dat tlalit n lmasiḥ (iɣy id uggar).
The letter jīm resembles the present square root shape.,askkil jīm yaɣ g talɣa n uẓuṛ amkkuẓ n dɣi.
It defines an important concept of standard deviation used in probability theory and statistics.,da istti armmus istawhmman n wunuf anaway ittusmrasn g tmagunt n yiɣiy d taddadant.
Most pocket calculators have a square root key.,tlla g kigan tmssiṭnin tsarut n uẓuṛ amkkuẓ.
The time complexity for computing a square root with n digits of precision is equivalent to that of multiplying two n-digit numbers.,"asrrunks azmzan mar ad nssiṭn uẓuṛ amkkuẓ s wuṭṭun n s unɣad, yaksul d usrruks n usfukti n sin imḍan sg sin wuṭṭun n."
Hilbert's problems are twenty-three problems in mathematics published by German mathematician David Hilbert in 1900.,"imukrisn n hibrt gan agnar d kṛaḍ imukrisn g tusnakt, ifsrtnt umusnaw almani difid halbr asggwas n 1900."
"For other problems, such as the 5th, experts have traditionally agreed on a single interpretation, and a solution to the accepted interpretation has been given, but closely related unsolved problems exist.","imukrisn nniḍn, zund wiss 5 msasan imassan s tzaykut ɣf yuwn ussfru, ittufk ufssay i ussfrutn ityastayn, maka llan imukrisn ila tazlaɣ zaṛs ur ta ttyafsayn."
There are two problems that are not only unresolved but may in fact be unresolvable by modern standards.,"llan snat tmukrisin day urta tyafsaynt, maka g tinawt iɣy is ur lint ifssayn s inawayn ad itrarn."
"The other twenty-one problems have all received significant attention, and late into the twentieth century work on these problems was still considered to be of the greatest importance.","ttufk asn taɣdft kigan i imukrisn an d iqiman sg ugnar d smmus, g tyiriwin n usatu wiss simraw tsul twuri ɣf imukrisn ad tla taɣḍft."
"Hilbert lived for 12 years after Kurt Gödel published his theorem, but does not seem to have written any formal response to Gödel's work.","iddr halbrt 12 n usggwas, ḍaṛt ufsar n kurt gudl tamagunt nns, maka ur ibayn is yaru kan tmrarut ɣf twuri gudl."
"In discussing his opinion that every mathematical problem should have a solution, Hilbert allows for the possibility that the solution could be a proof that the original problem is impossible.","ig illa umrara n wawal ɣf tannayt nns n ku tamukrist tusnakt iqnen as yili ufssay, yudja hilbr tazmrt n wis iɣy ufssay ad ig inigi n wagum n tmukrist taẓuṛant."
"The first of these was proved by Bernard Dwork; a completely different proof of the first two, via ℓ-adic cohomology, was given by Alexander Grothendieck.","ttuwr tmzwarut nnsn sg ɣur birnard durk, ifk aliksandr grutindik anẓa ur yaksuln akkw d imzwura, g tussnamyidirt iccarn ℓ-adic."
"However, the Weil conjectures were, in their scope, more like a single Hilbert problem, and Weil never intended them as a programme for all mathematics.","waxxa hakkak, gan iswingimn n wil; g usatal nnsnt zund tamukrist tamzwarut n hilbr, d ur inni wil is id nttat ayd innan ad ig aɣawas n tusnakin kullu."
Erdős often offered monetary rewards; the size of the reward depended on the perceived difficulty of the problem.,"akkat ar wala yakka irdus tismɣurin n idrimn, atig n tsmɣurt ɣf cqqiyt n tmukrist ityannayn."
"At least in the mainstream media, the de facto 21st century analogue of Hilbert's problems is the list of seven Millennium Prize Problems chosen during 2000 by the Clay Mathematics Institute.","waxxa aynnaɣ g imassn n usmmal idslan, tga tarwsant timggit n imukrisn n hilbrt g uzmz wiss 21, talgamt n imukrisn n tsmɣurt n tifḍt tiss sa isti usinag klay n tusnakt g usggwas n 2000."
"The Riemann hypothesis is noteworthy for its appearance on the list of Hilbert problems, Smale's list, the list of Millennium Prize Problems, and even the Weil conjectures, in its geometric guise.","turda n riman tra asniɣs acku tbaynd g tlgamt n imukrisn n hibrt, d tlgamt n smil, d tlgamt n imukrisn n usmɣr n tifḍnt, ula awd g iswingimn n wil sg talɣa nns tanzgant."
"1931, 1936 3rd Given any two polyhedra of equal volume, is it always possible to cut the first into finitely many polyhedral pieces that can be reassembled to yield the second?","1931, 3 g usggwas n 1936 ig nusy sin ifrɣas yaksuln g uksay, is nẓḍaṛ ad aha nbṭṭu amzwaru ar d ig tgzzumin timẓlay ilan kigan n idlasn, nna s nɣy adtn nsmun ar d aɣ d kin tiss snat?"
— 12th Extend the Kronecker–Weber theorem on Abelian extensions of the rational numbers to any base number field.,__12 issarw tamagunt n wibr tyurm xf izdamn n abilyan n wuṭṭun umginen ɣr ka igat igr n wuṭṭun adslan.
1959 15th Rigorous foundation of Schubert's enumerative calculus.,15 g 1959 tasila tuqjiṛt n ussiṭn cubrt amiḍan.
1927 18th (a) Is there a polyhedron that admits only an anisohedral tiling in three dimensions?(b) What is the densest sphere packing?,18 g 1927 (a) is illa bu imyanawn idlasn ittadjan akfaf mi tyakzn idlasn nns g kṛaḍ wuggugn? (b) matta igran g tggudy tanẓẓi g usmussu?
"A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label.",uṭṭun ayd igan amɣnaw n tusnakt da ittusmras g ussiṭn d usɣal d usessaɣ.
"""More universally, individual numbers can be represented by symbols, called numerals; for example, """"5"""" is a numeral that represents the number five.""","s umata, iɣy usmdya n wuṭṭun imẓlay s tmatarin igan inmḍan, s umdya “5” tga imiḍ aɣ yakkan uṭṭun smmus."
"Calculations with numbers are done with arithmetical operations, the most familiar being addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation.","assiṭn s wuṭṭun da twafka sg tmhlin n ussiṭn, tinna wala illan; amagut d tukksa, d usfukti d tuṭṭut d tasila."
"Gilsdorf, Thomas E. Introduction to Cultural Mathematics: With Case Studies in the Otomies and Incas, John Wiley & Sons, Feb 24, 2012.Restivo, S. Mathematics in Society and History, Springer Science & Business Media, Nov 30, 1992.","gilsdurf, tumas iy, tamssnkdt g tusnakt tadlsant, g tzrawt n uṭumyi d inkas, jun wiliy & suns, 24 ibrir 2012. ristifu , s. tusnakt g uɣrf d umzruy, sbrangr says, imassn n usnɣms asbbab, 30 nuwanbir 1992."
"During the 19th century, mathematicians began to develop many different abstractions which share certain properties of numbers, and may be seen as extending the concept.","g usatu wiss 19, ssntin imusnawn n tusnakt asbuɣlu n kigan n twngimin imzarayn ucurnt itsn inẓlayn n wuṭṭun, nɣ ad nini assirw n usissn."
"A tallying system has no concept of place value (as in modern decimal notation), which limits its representation of large numbers.","angraw n usmzazal ur diks asissn n watig adɣaran (imk iga waddad n uzmmem amrawi atrar), imk iwda g usmdya n imḍan ixatarn."
"Brahmagupta's Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta is the first book that mentions zero as a number, hence Brahmagupta is usually considered the first to formulate the concept of zero.","brahamaguṭa sg brahmasfuṭasidanṭa; adlis amzwaru innan amya iga uṭṭun, aya aɣf iga brahamaguṭa amzwaru isrsn asissn n umya."
"In a similar vein, Pāṇini (5th century BC) used the null (zero) operator in the Ashtadhyayi, an early example of an algebraic grammar for the Sanskrit language (also see Pingala).","g usara dɣ nnik issmrs banini ( asatu wiss 5 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ), amwuri ixwan (amya), g actadayayi, igan amdya amnzu n ilgamn ljibr n tutlayt tasansikrit (ẓṛ awd bigala)."
"By 130 AD, Ptolemy, influenced by Hipparchus and the Babylonians, was using a symbol for 0 (a small circle with a long overbar) within a sexagesimal numeral system otherwise using alphabetic Greek numerals.","ddag yuwḍ usggwas n 130 ḍaṛt tlalit n lmasiḥ, ikkat baṭlimus iḍiṣ s bhibarxus d lbabilyyin, iswuri i tmatart 0 ( yat twrerrayt tamẓẓant ilan yan ifilu amaflla aɣzzaf ), agnsu n ungraw anqḍ awsyan s ussmrs n wuṭṭun iyunaniyn igmmayn."
"Diophantus' previous reference was discussed more explicitly by Indian mathematician Brahmagupta, in Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta in 628, who used negative numbers to produce the general form quadratic formula that remains in use today.","ittumrara wawal ɣf usaɣul dyufantus yad ittusrsn s ussfru n umusnaw ntusnakt ahindi brahamaguta g brahmasfuṭasidanṭa g 628, issmrsn uṭṭun uzdirn mar ad isnflel talɣa tamkkuẓt tamattut, isuln s assa da ttusmras."
"At the same time, the Chinese were indicating negative numbers by drawing a diagonal stroke through the right-most non-zero digit of the corresponding positive number's numeral.","g tizi nnaɣ nnik, llan iṣiniyn snɛatn s uṭṭunen uzdirn s tbrid n wunuɣ n izririg awuman sg wuṭṭun illan g uyffas ur igin amya, sg wuṭṭun amiḍan umnig illan nil as."
"Classical Greek and Indian mathematicians made studies of the theory of rational numbers, as part of the general study of number theory.","skrn imusnawn n tusnakt iyunaniyn d ihindiyniklasikiyn, tizrawin ɣf tmagunt n imḍan umginen, zund imik g tzrawt tamattut i tmagunt n imḍan."
The concept of decimal fractions is closely linked with decimal place-value notation; the two seem to have developed in tandem.,"izlɣ urmmus n imtwaln imrawn, azlaɣ itzmmamn atig adɣaran amraw, lan ssin abuɣlu imanen."
"However, Pythagoras believed in the absoluteness of numbers, and could not accept the existence of irrational numbers.","waxxa hakkak, iffuls fitaɣurs tilit n imḍan, d ur izḍaṛ ad isyaha n tilit n imḍan umginen."
"By the 17th  century, mathematicians generally used decimal fractions with modern notation.","g usatu wiss 17, ssmrsn imusnawn n tusnakt s umata imtwaln imrawn s uzmmem atrar."
"In 1872, the publication of the theories of Karl Weierstrass (by his pupil E. Kossak), Eduard Heine, Georg Cantor, and Richard Dedekind was brought about.","g usggwas n 1872 ttufsarnt tmagunin n kaṛl wyyirstras ( sg ɣur unlmad nns iy kusak), d idwaṛd hayna d juṛj kantur d ritcard didikind."
"Weierstrass, Cantor, and Heine base their theories on infinite series, while Dedekind founds his on the idea of a cut (Schnitt) in the system of real numbers, separating all rational numbers into two groups having certain characteristic properties.","ar iskan wiyistras d kantur d hin timgunin nnsn ɣf tgffurt tartmi, isbdd didkin tawngimt n tubuyt (scnit) g ungraw n imḍan n tidt, ibḍa imḍan n tidt kul xf snat trubba mi ɣur llan kan ifṛḍiṣn imẓlayn."
Hence it was necessary to consider the wider set of algebraic numbers (all solutions to polynomial equations).,sg uya iqnen uxzzr g trabbut tamuzzut n imḍan n ljibr ( ifssayn maṛṛa n tgdazalin mi ggudin iwtta).
Aristotle defined the traditional Western notion of mathematical infinity.,isnml arisṭu armmus aɣrbi azayku ɣf tartmi tusnakt.
"But the next major advance in the theory was made by Georg Cantor; in 1895 he published a book about his new set theory, introducing, among other things, transfinite numbers and formulating the continuum hypothesis.","maka azzigz ad mqquṛn n tmagunt iskrt juṛj kantur; g 1895 ifsr adlis ɣf tmagunt nns tamaynut i trabbut, issnkd akd tɣawsiwin nniḍn, imḍan izrrin iwtta, d isskr turda tasult."
"""A modern geometrical version of infinity is given by projective geometry, which introduces """"ideal points at infinity"""", one for each spatial direction.""","tunɣilt tanzgant tatrart sg wartmi d ittufkan sg tanzgant tastuttit, nnad yakkan tinqqaḍ yattuyn sg ɣur wartmi, tanqqiḍt i ka igat tanila tadɣarant."
"The idea of the graphic representation of complex numbers had appeared, however, as early as 1685, in Wallis's De algebra tractatus.",tbaynd twngimt n usmdya awnɣan n imḍan uddisn sg 1685 g udlis “walis” “isakatn n ljibr”.
"In 240 BC, Eratosthenes used the Sieve of Eratosthenes to quickly isolate prime numbers.","g 240 dat tlalit n lmasiḥ, issmrs iratustans arkkut n iratustans n uẓlay n imḍan imzwura s zzrabit."
"Other results concerning the distribution of the primes include Euler's proof that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges, and the Goldbach conjecture, which claims that any sufficiently large even number is the sum of two primes.","tiyafutin nniḍn n ubṭṭu n imḍan imzwura, diks tuzgit n ulr ittinin masd da ttmɛraqnt trbiɛin n tmggitin ittmfkan imḍan imzwura, d uswingm n guldbac nna ittini masd ka igat imiḍ axatar igan sin g tlla tugdut iga tamunt n sin imḍan sg imḍan imzwura."
"Traditionally, the sequence of natural numbers started with 1 (0 was not even considered a number for the Ancient Greeks.)","s tzaykut, tssnti tsnslt n imḍan iɣaran s wuṭṭun 1 (0 ur djun igi uṭṭun n lyunan iqburn)."
"In this base 10 system, the rightmost digit of a natural number has a place value of 1, and every other digit has a place value ten times that of the place value of the digit to its right.","g ungraw n tsila ad 10, da ittili i wuṭṭun illan g tsga n uyffas wala n wuṭṭun aɣaran atig adɣaran igan 1, d i wuṭṭun yaḍn atig adɣaran mraw n tikkal ɣf watig adɣaran n wuṭṭun illan g uyffas nns."
Negative numbers are usually written with a negative sign (a minus sign).,da wala tyaran wuṭṭun uzdirn s tmatart tuzdirt ( tamatart tanaktamt).
Here the letter Z comes .,dadɣ dad itddu uskkil ẓ.
"Fractions can be greater than, less than, or equal to 1 and can also be positive, negative, or 0.","iɣy ad gin imtwaln; nnig n, nɣd ddaw n, nɣ aksuln d 1, d iɣy ad gin umnign nɣd uzdirn nɣd 0."
The following paragraph will focus primarily on positive real numbers.,ttwan n tsddart ad s talɣa tadslant ɣf imḍan n tidt ign umnign.
"Thus, for example, one half is 0.5, one fifth is 0.2, one-tenth is 0.1, and one fiftieth is 0.02.","imki, s umdya, azgn iga 0.5, tiss smmus twal tga 0.2, tiss mrawt twal tga 0.1, d yan xf smmus mraw iga 0.02."
Not only these prominent examples but almost all real numbers are irrational and therefore have no repeating patterns and hence no corresponding decimal numeral.,"ur id ɣas imdyatn ad ayd ityassn day, maka maṛṛa uṭṭun n tidt ur wala gin umgin, aya aɣf ur lin talɣiwin ittyalsn, aɣf ur illi wuṭṭun amraw amaksal."
"Since not even the second digit after the decimal place is preserved, the following digits are not significant.","macku ur illi uḥṭṭu n wiss sin ḍaṛt tiskrt tamrawt, aɣf ur yad stawhmman wuṭṭun d ikkan dat."
"For example, 0.999..., 1.0, 1.00, 1.000, ..., all represent the natural number 1.","s umdya, 0.999..., 1.0, 1.00, 1.000, ..., kullutn smdyan s wuṭṭun aɣaran 1."
"Finally, if all of the digits in a numeral are 0, the number is 0, and if all of the digits in a numeral are an unending string of 9's, you can drop the nines to the right of the decimal place, and add one to the string of 9s to the left of the decimal place.","tiyira, ig llan wuṭṭun maṛṛa g wuṭṭun 0, da itgga wuṭṭun 0, d mk gan wuṭṭun kul g wuṭṭun n tgffurt ur itfukkun g 9, tɣid ad tsugzzd tẓa g uyffas g udɣar amraw, trnud yan i tgffurt g llan 9 n tisnatin g uẓlmaḍ n wansa amraw."
Thus the real numbers are a subset of the complex numbers.,"d gin imḍan n tidt; tarbiɛt tayyawt n imḍan uddisn,"
"The fundamental theorem of algebra asserts that the complex numbers form an algebraically closed field, meaning that every polynomial with complex coefficients has a root in the complex numbers.","tslkan tmagunt tadslant n ljibr ɣf imḍan uddisn ittggan igr n ljibr ign amaɣun, aɣ ittinin isd amggudy n iwtta akd irwin ɣurs aẓuṛ g imḍan uddisn."
"The primes have been widely studied for more than 2000 years and have led to many questions, only some of which have been answered.","ttuga tzrawt ɣf imḍan imzwura g ufuɣal amiriw uggar n 2000 n usggwas, yuwin ɣr kigan n isqsitn, ttufka tmrarut i itsn day."
Real numbers that are not rational numbers are called irrational numbers.,"da tsmman imḍan n tidt, nna ur igin uṭṭunen umginen; imḍan ur igin umginen."
"The computable numbers are stable for all usual arithmetic operations, including the computation of the roots of a polynomial, and thus form a real closed field that contains the real algebraic numbers.","uṭṭun ittusiṭn; wrn ɣf tiggitin n ussiṭn ittuwalfn, g illa ussiṭn n uẓuṛ n bu iwtta iggudin, aya aɣf tskar igr amaqqan n tidt g llan wuṭṭun n ljibr n tidt."
One reason is that there is no algorithm for testing the equality of two computable numbers.,yan g imntiln igat ur tlli alguritm n yirm n tngiddit ingr sin wuṭṭun ign win ussiṭn.
"The number system that results depends on what base is used for the digits: any base is possible, but a prime number base provides the best mathematical properties.","da iskuttu ungraw n wuṭṭun d ittufkan s usila ittusmrasn i wuṭṭun, ka igat talgamt iɣin ad yili, maka talgamt n imḍan imzwura, da takka imẓlay iɣudan n tusnakt."
"The former gives the ordering of the set, while the latter gives its size.","da yakka umzwaru assuds n trbiɛt, ar yakka umggaru aksay nns."
"This standard basis makes the complex numbers a Cartesian plane, called the complex plane.",asila ad amsɣal da itgga imḍan uddisn g uswir adikartiy da itsmma aswur uddis.
The complex numbers of absolute value one form the unit circle.,"da tggan imḍan uddisn n watig amggaru, yat tzgunt ign yuwt."
"In domain coloring the output dimensions are represented by color and brightness, respectively.","g yigr n usuɣn, da ttusmdyan wuggugn n ussufɣ s ukwli d uzznẓṛ amzday."
"Work on the problem of general polynomials ultimately led to the fundamental theorem of algebra, which shows that with complex numbers, a solution exists to every polynomial equation of degree one or higher.","yuw uswuri ɣf tmukrisin n tmggudin n iwtta timattutin g tyira ɣr tmagunt tasilant n ljibr, nna issfrun akd imḍan uddisn, illa ufssay n ka igat tagdazalt ila iwtta iggudin; sg tskwflt tamzwarut nɣd nnig as."
Wessel's memoir appeared in the Proceedings of the Copenhagen Academy but went largely unnoticed.,"baynd tsmktitin n wisl g tiwin tikadimitin zund “kubnhagn”, maka tzri ur tt yannay awd yan kigan."
"Later classical writers on the general theory include Richard Dedekind, Otto Hölder, Felix Klein, Henri Poincaré, Hermann Schwarz, Karl Weierstrass and many others.","sg imarratn iklasikn g tizi yaḍn ɣf tmagunt tamattut n ritcard didikind, nɣd utu hildr,d filiks klin, d hinri bwankir, d hirman cwartz, d karl wirstras d wiyyaḍ."
The use of imaginary numbers was not widely accepted until the work of Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) and Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855).,"ur ittusyaha ussmrs n imḍan iwngimn g uɣufal amiriw, ar tawuri n lyunard ulr (1707-1783), d kaṛl fridritc gaws (1777-1855)."
The integers form the smallest group and the smallest ring containing the natural numbers.,"da tggan imḍan imddadn; tarbiɛt tamẓẓant, d txrst tamẓẓant g llan imḍan iɣaranen."
It is the prototype of all objects of such algebraic structure.,"iga amdya amnzu n maṛṛa imɣnawn, zund tuskiwt tajibrit."
"Fixed length integer approximation data types (or subsets) are denoted int or Integer in several programming languages (such as Algol68, C, Java, Delphi, etc.).","da ttubdarn wanawn n inmmaln n usnmili n imiḍ amddad ilan taɣzi iwrn (nɣd tirbiɛin tayyawin), igan s tmatart “ int “ nɣd “Integer” g kigan n tutlayin n usɣiws ( zund Algol68, d C, d Java,d Delphi, d tiyyaḍ)."
"These are provable properties of rational numbers and positional number systems, and are not used as definitions in mathematics.","imẓlay ad iɣy ad tnt nswr i uṭṭun umginen, d ingrawn imiḍan imsursn, d urda ttusmras am isissn."
"Since the triangle is isosceles, a = b).","mayd iga wamkṛaḍ amsaskl n igalaln, a = b)."
"Since c is even, dividing c by 2 yields an integer.","mayd iga c amsin, da aɣd takka tubḍut n c xf 2; imiḍ amddad."
Substituting 4y2 for c2 in the first equation (c2 = 2b2) gives us 4y2= 2b2.,"asnfl n 4y2 ɣr c2, g tgadazt tamzwarut (c2 = 2b2), aɣ yakkan 4y2= 2b2."
"Since b2 is even, b must be even.","mayd iga b2 amsin, iqnen ad ig b amsin."
However this contradicts the assumption that they have no common factors.,maka aya itmgla d umrdu ittinin ur llin imggitn imccurn grasn.
"Hippasus, however, was not lauded for his efforts: according to one legend, he made his discovery while out at sea, and was subsequently thrown overboard by his fellow Pythagoreans “…for having produced an element in the universe which denied the…doctrine that all phenomena in the universe can be reduced to whole numbers and their ratios.”","waxxa hakkak , illa yilɣ n hibasus ɣf tzmmar nns, ayd inna yan wumiy, yukz, ikiz nns aynna illa g yil, grnt imddukal nns ifitaɣursn g tizi yaḍn,..., acku snfln ya ufṛḍiṣ g iɣzwr ur irin... taɣalt ittinin iɣy uzgzl n tumanin g iɣzwr ɣr imḍan imddadn d usɣal nnsn."
"For example, consider a line segment: this segment can be split in half, that half split in half, the half of the half in half, and so on.","s umdya, g twngimt nnk tagzzumt inmn: iɣ ad ttubḍu ɣr snat, d uzgn n uzgn ɣr sin, d uzgn n uzgn ɣf azng, imki."
This is just what Zeno sought to prove.,aya ayd itnaɣ zinun ad tt iswr.
"In the minds of the Greeks, disproving the validity of one view did not necessarily prove the validity of another, and therefore further investigation had to occur.","g twngimin n liɣriq, ukus n umddad n kan tannayt ur da iswar amddad n tannayt nniḍn, xf uya asn iqqn uzrru uggar."
"A magnitude “...was not a number but stood for entities such as line segments, angles, areas, volumes, and time which could vary, as we would say, continuously.","aksay”...ur igi imiḍ, maka ismdya s inmallatn zund: imzrayn n uzririg, d tɣmrin, d tijimma, d iksayn, d tizi iɣin ad tmziriy, imk nttini s talɣa izdin."
"Because no quantitative values were assigned to magnitudes, Eudoxus was then able to account for both commensurable and incommensurable ratios by defining a ratio in terms of its magnitude, and proportion as an equality between two ratios.","acku ur ityakz watig n wanc illan g uksay, iɣy iduksus ad issiṭn asɣaln igan win usqqul, d tinna ur igin tin usqqul sg ustay n usɣl sg uksay, d usɣl zund assiksl n sin isɣal."
"This incommensurability is dealt with in Euclid's Elements, Book X, Proposition 9.","da ittuga i winna ur iẓḍaṛn i usqqul g ifṛḍisn n iqlids, adlis mraw, asumr 9."
"In fact, in many cases algebraic conceptions were reformulated into geometric terms.",g tinawt; g kigan n waddadn ittuyalls tihkct i irmmusn n ljibr ɣr irman inzganen.
The realization that some basic conception within the existing theory was at odds with reality necessitated a complete and thorough investigation of the axioms and assumptions that underlie that theory.,"iqnen wusun n itsn irmmusn idslan agnsu n tmagunt n dɣi, imzaray n tilit n tiggi azrru akkw ign aɣzuran i tiggiwin d iswingmn illan ḍaṛt tmagunt ad."
"""However, historian Carl Benjamin Boyer writes that """"such claims are not well substantiated and unlikely to be true"""".""","waxxa hakkak, yara unmzruy kaṛl bn jamin bwir an; “zund tafakult ad ur ilin iswrn iɣudan, ur tnni ad tg tamddadt”."
Mathematicians like Brahmagupta (in 628 AD) and Bhāskara I (in 629 AD) made contributions in this area as did other mathematicians who followed.,"kan imusnawn n tusnakt zund brahamaguta (asggwas n 628 ḍaṛt tlalit n lmasiḥ), d baskara (g 629 ḍaṛt tlalit n lmasiḥ), imyiwasn g yigr ad, mk skrn imusnawn n tusnakt yaḍn iḍfaṛn mayan."
"The year 1872 saw the publication of the theories of Karl Weierstrass (by his pupil Ernst Kossak), Eduard Heine (Crelle's Journal, 74), Georg Cantor (Annalen, 5), and Richard Dedekind.","g usggwas 1872 tyafsarnt tmagunin n kaṛl wiyrstras ( sg ɣur unlmad nns irnst kusak) d idwaṛd hayn ( tasɣnt n kṛil, 74), d juṛj kantur (analin, 5), d ritcaṛd didikind."
"Weierstrass, Cantor, and Heine base their theories on infinite series, while Dedekind founds his on the idea of a cut (Schnitt) in the system of all rational numbers, separating them into two groups having certain characteristic properties.","iska wiyrstras d kantur d hin; timagunin nnsn ɣf tgffurt tartmi, isbdd didkin tamagunt nns ɣf twngimt n wubuy (sicnit), g ungraw n maṛṛa uṭṭun umginen, artn yaṭṭu ɣf snat trubba ilan itsn imẓlayn istin."
"Dirichlet also added to the general theory, as have numerous contributors to the applications of the subject.","irna awd diliclit i tmagunt tamattut, imk gan kigan n winna yuwsn n tsnsitin n usntl."
This asserts that every integer has a unique factorization into primes.,aya islkan n wis d ku imiḍ amddad ɣars imggi amẓlay g imḍan imzwura.
"To show this, suppose we divide integers n by m (where m is nonzero).",mar ad nsbayn ayad yurda is da naṭṭu imḍan amddadn n xf m ( acku m ur tgi tamyat).
"If 0 never occurs, then the algorithm can run at most m − 1 steps without using any remainder more than once.","ig ur akkw ittuga 0, tɣy ad tswuri alguritm ɣf kigan n tsurifin m - 1, bla nssmrs awdyan umagur wahli n tikkal."
"""In mathematics, the natural numbers are those used for counting (as in """"there are six coins on the table"""") and ordering (as in """"this is the third largest city in the country"""").""","“g tusnakt, uṭṭunen iɣaranen gantn tinna ittusmrasn g ussiṭn ( imk illan g : llant sḍiṣ n idrimn aflla n tdabut), d ussuds ( imk illan g : wad aɣrm wiss kṛaḍ g tmurt).”"
These chains of extensions make the natural numbers canonically embedded (identified) in the other number systems.,"da tggant tgffurin n izdawn n wuṭṭu iɣaran g llan ( iẓlin), g imagrawn n wuṭṭun yaḍn."
The first major advance in abstraction was the use of numerals to represent numbers.,"azwar amzwaru n tanzɣt, igat ussmrs amaṭṭun i usmdya n wuṭṭun."